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+{"metadata":{"id":"00029f3d99d17a10540604b701d690ed","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3c1d4ec3-191b-4761-985d-8632575636bb/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Bergmann's Rule Holds in Birds Inhabiting Southern Guinea Forests but Not in the Northern Savanna of Nigeria","keywords":["Bergmann's hypothesis","Afrotropics","thermal gradients","endotherms","altitude"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"Bergmann's rule, an eco-evolutionary generalization predicting that endothermic animals will be larger in cold climates and smaller in warm climates, gives an explanation for the evolution of body size variation among similar groups of organisms (Bergmann, 1847;Salewski and Watt, 2017), which has been deployed to understand various aspects of ecology, such as predator-prey relationships (e.g., Mcnab, 1971). Although this hypothesis has been tested across different taxa, such as mammals (Clauss et al., 2013), birds (Ashton, 2002), and insects (Scriven et al., 2016), there is still an ongoing debate on its suitability for intra-and inter-specific studies (see Shelomi, 2012;Clauss et al., 2013). Simultaneous investigation of intra-and inter-specific variations in body size will enhance our understanding of the generalization of the Bergmann's rule. This is particularly important if such studies are conducted on little known species and regions such as Afrotropical regions."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"The contrasting results obtained from the investigation of Bergmann's hypothesis suggest influence of other confounding factors, such as microclimates along latitudinal and altitudinal gradients (e.g., Shelomi, 2012;Bhusal et al., 2019). With the global climate change affecting all life forms on earth (Crozier et al., 2008;Şekercioĝlu et al., 2012), understanding species adaptation is important from an applied perspective. Species would need to adjust their physiology and behavior in order to cope with changing climatic conditions (Tieleman and Williams, 2000). Such studies are seldom reported from tropical areas, particularly Africa, which holds huge biodiversity, but projected to be adversely affected by global warming in the nearest future (Midgley and Bond, 2015;Sintayehu, 2018)."},{"index":3,"size":152,"text":"Due to their relative ease of trapping, birds are an important model for physiological studies. Here, we tested the Bergmann's rule within and across 30 avian species along vegetation and altitudinal differences in Nigeria, West Africa. While several studies have supported the Bergmann's rule, demonstrating that average body size within a species tends to increase toward cooler and higher latitudes (Ashton, 2002), we chose to test this rule along an altitudinal gradient because the north-south temperature gradient at the same elevation in Nigeria is small (an average difference of 7 • C) and a previous study has already demonstrated a lack of relationship between latitude and body size in Nigeria (Nwaogu et al., 2018). We hypothesized a larger avian body size at high altitudes compared to lower altitudes and that the magnitude of size difference between lowland and montane populations will differ with respect to vegetation type (savanna vs. rainforest) and species."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study Sites","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"The data analyzed in this study were collected as part of the regular Bird Ringing activities of the A.P. Leventis Ornithological Research Institute (APLORI) located in northern Nigeria (Mwansat et al., 2011;Cresswell, 2018), on the Jos Plateau (9.5196 • N, 8.5897 • E; 1280 m asl) and at Yankari Game Reserve (9.7567 • N, 10.5094 • E; 330 m asl). In southern Nigeria, birds were trapped on the Obudu Plateau (6.3858 • N, 9.3745 • E; 1400 m asl) and at the lowland forests at International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA; 7.2985 • N, 3.5333 • E) and Emerald Forest Reserve (EFR: 7.1780 • N, 4.0806 • E) both at 230 m asl (Figure 1). Because of close proximity (51 km apart), similar habitats and elevation, data from IITA and EFR were merged and analyzed as a single location (IITA). Data from Jos Plateau was from the period 200 to 2018, Yankari data was from 2011 to 2017, Obudu data was from the period 2005 to 2017, and the data from both IITA and Emerald was from the period 2017 to 2020."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"The northern Nigeria sites are within the northern Guinea Savannah vegetation zone characterized by a mixture of trees and grass and receives annual rainfall of between 600 and 1,000 mm per mostly concentrated within 5-7 months (Ezealor, 2001;Omotoriogun et al., 2011;Braimoh et al., 2018). The southern sites are within the Guinea Forest vegetation zone characterized by dense evergreen forest of tall trees with thick undergrowth  and receives annual rainfall of between 1,500 and 2,000 mm per annum with about 6-8 months of rainfall (Ezealor, 2001;Adeyanju et al., 2014;Awoyemi et al., 2020)."}]},{"head":"Data Collection and Analyses","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Morphometric data of non-migratory bird species at low and high elevations at the northern and southern sites were used to test the Bergmann's rule. At all sites, birds were trapped with mist nets of various lengths at these different sites, tagged with numbered metal rings, aged, sexed, weighed (g), and wing length (mm) measured. Only adult individuals of nonmigratory or nomadic species were used for this study. Monthly precipitation and temperature data were obtained from the Bioclime website, 1 measured at 1 km 2 resolution, and extracted using the open-source program QGIS. These weather variables were used as covariates in further analyses."},{"index":2,"size":271,"text":"For species with at least 10 records at both lowland and montane areas, we used the R package (R Core Team, 2016) to perform a principal component analysis (PCA) (Cozzolino et al., 2019) based on a correlation matrix using body mass and wing length. Both wing length and body mass are an indication of body size and have been consistently recorded at all ringing data but rather than analyze them separately, by using PCA, we can combine these two response variables into a single component to produce an index of body size. This procedure produces principal component scores for each individual; negative and low vales of scores indicate individuals with shorter wings and lighter body mass (i.e., smaller body sized individuals) while positive and higher values indicate larger body sized individuals. Because principal component scores had a Gaussian distribution, we used a general linear model to investigate if body size was affected by altitude (m), average monthly temperature ( • C), total monthly rainfall (mm), using latitude as weighted variable. We used latitude as a weighting factor rather than an explanatory variable because a previous study testing the Bergmann's Rule along latitudinal gradient indicated that latitude had a slight but non-statistically significant effect on body size of birds in Nigeria (Nwaogu et al., 2018). By doing this, we also avoided over-parameterization of models while still adjusting for possible, if only slight, effect of latitude. To also avoided over-parameterization of models, the northern and southern sites were analyzed separately. Because temperature and rainfall were correlated, we analyzed their effect on body size in two separate models in order to avoid effects multicollinearity."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":235,"text":"We analyzed data of six species in the southern Nigerian sites and 24 species in the northern Nigerian sites (Supplementary Table 1). The results of the principal component showed high and A plot of PC1 against PC2 and the general linear model with site as predictor indicated that for the southern zone, montane populations were on average significantly heavier than lowland populations, but with lowland species having a comparable longer wing length (Figure 2 and Table 1). Of the six species analyzed, only the Olive Sunbird Cyanomitra olivacea had a higher body size in the lowland population (Supplementary Table 1). However, since PCA 2 is the component of wing length and since lowland species have more positive scores along PCA 2 axis (Figure 2), it means that even though they are smaller than their montane counterparts, their wing length are comparatively longer. The GLM indicated that temperature was a significant predictor of body size, with body size and temperature having a negative relationship, The three-way interaction of location, species, and temperature was significant, indicating that differences in size between species was due to temperature variations between location (Table 1, Model a). Rainfall was not a significant predictor of body size and the three-way interaction between location, species, and rainfall was not significant either (Table 1, Model b), therefore, rainfall cannot explain the differences in body size between lowland and montane sites in the southern zone."},{"index":2,"size":183,"text":"In northern sites, a plot of PC1 against PC2 showed a high degree of overlap in body sizes of lowland and montane populations (Figure 3), though montane populations were statistically heavier (Table 2). Of the 24 species considered in the study, populations of 17 species were heavier in montane areas while populations of seven species were heavier in lowland areas (Supplementary Table 1). A general linear model showed that both temperature and rainfall were significant predictors of body size (Table 2, Models a and b) with temperature showing a negative effect on body size. The three-way interaction of location, species, and temperature was significant indicating that temperature was responsible for the difference in body size of species at the different elevations. Although there was a significant effect of rainfall on the body sizes of species but the three-way interaction of location, species, and rainfall was not significant (Table 2, Model b). This is supported by weather data which shows that temperatures were lower at higher altitudes compared to lower (Figure 4A) latitudes whereas rainfall pattern did not follow and altitudinal trend (Figure 4B)."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"The findings of this study enhance our understanding of the validity of the Bergmann's rule, particularly from the understudied afrotropical region. In addition to determining the applicability of this rule among new afrotropical bird species (c.f. Nwaogu et al., 2018), our findings shed more light on the importance of microclimates while testing the Bergmann's rule along altitudinal gradients. To our understanding, this is the first study to simultaneously consider the interplay of these factors in the afrotropical context."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Although several studies have proven the effects of latitude on body size (see Olson et al., 2009;Shelomi, 2012;Clauss et al., 2013), we argue that these effects are dependent on habitat types. In the present study, montane populations were significantly heavier than lowland populations in the Guinea forest region. However, in the savanna region, there was extensive overlap in body sizes between montane and lowland populations. This pattern suggests the influence of other microclimates and macroclimate factors."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"For the species that were found in both northern and southern zones, (African Thrush Turdus pelios and Snowy-crowned Robin Chat Cossypha niveicapilla), we used a t-test to also do a between-elevations comparison of body sizes across ecozones, i.e., body sizes of montane populations were compared between the north and southern zones and the same for lowland populations. Indices of body sizes indicated that populations in the southern zone were larger than the northern zone; body size on the Obudu Plateau were significantly larger than birds on the Jos Plateau (difference = 1.29, CI = 0.06-1.91, p < 0.001, Figure 4) and birds from IITA were also significantly larger than those of Yankari (difference = 0.36, CI = 0.12-0.59, p < 0.001; Figure 5)."},{"index":4,"size":215,"text":"For instance, we found that temperature significantly influenced body size in both rainforest and savanna regions, whereas, rainfall only had a significant impact on savanna species populations in the north. This is hardly surprising. Unlike temperature, the duration and volume of rainfall in Nigeria is significantly higher in the southern rainforests in comparison with the northern savanna (Anyadike, 1993;Obot et al., 2010). Shorter rainfall duration and intensity in the north would result in shorter periods of food availability, thus resulting in a lower body size index. In highly variable environments when food availability is limited or unpredictable, a larger body size is a disadvantage because larger bodied individuals require high energy intake in order to meet their energy requirement (Yom-Tov and Geffen, 2006). This premise is supported by our results which show that in the same species, the northern populations were smaller than the southern populations for both lowland and montane regions. In addition, it is likely that the temperature difference between the montane and the lowland habitat in the savanna region was not wide enough to impact on body size difference in the studied populations (Figure 4). Although there was a wide altitudinal gradient between the Jos Plateau and the lowland Yankari, the temperature difference between these sites was less than 1 • C."},{"index":5,"size":155,"text":"Our study has not only shown the applicability of the Bergmann's rule across afrotropical bird species, but also of its potential in understanding the impacts of climate change, which is important from a conservation standpoint. Although we attempted to fill knowledge gaps, our findings have exposed many others, which should provoke further studies. Since Africa supports a host of ecoregions and microclimates along latitudinal and altitudinal gradients (Olson et al., 2001), we would benefit more if further studies are conducted in understudied regions and species, particularly those that are sexually dimorphic (Blanckenhorn et al., 2006;Scriven et al., 2016). This study has also highlighted the need to study the potential impacts of climate change on avian species due to increasing temperature and erratic rains particularly its effect on the physiological state of organisms (Brown, 1996). Body condition, for instance, is known to influence survival and breeding in many species (Kitaysky et al., 1999;Souchay et al., 2013)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 1 | FIGURE 1 | Map of Nigeria with study sites indicated as stars. "},{"text":"FIGURE 2 | FIGURE 2 | Plots of principal component 1 vs. principal component 2 of lowland and montane species of southern guinea forest of Nigeria. "},{"text":"FIGURE 5 | FIGURE 5 | Body size comparisons between northern and southern montane and lowland areas in Nigeria. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"TABLE 1 | General linear model investigating the relationship between body size (PC1) with sites (lowland vs. montane), species, temperature (model a), and rainfall (model b) in southern Nigeria.   Parameter estimate df Sum of squares F P Parameter estimatedfSum of squaresFP Model a Location  1 185.6 1664.1 <0.001 Model aLocation1185.61664.1<0.001  Jos 0.25    Jos0.25  Yankari 0.21    Yankari0.21  Species  5 559.0 1002.4 <0.001 Species5559.01002.4<0.001  Temperature -0.01 1 0.7 6.1 0.013 Temperature-0.0110.76.10.013  Location: species  5 3.8 6.8 <0.001 Location: species53.86.8<0.001  Location: temperature  1 0.0 0.3 0.609 Location: temperature10.00.30.609  Species: temperature  5 2.3 4.1 0.001 Species: temperature52.34.10.001  Location: species: temperature  5 1.6 2.8 0.017 Location: species: temperature51.62.80.017 Model b Location  1 185.6 1591.5 <0.001 Model bLocation1185.61591.5<0.001  Jos 0.22    Jos0.22  Yankari 0.20    Yankari0.20  Species  5 559.0 958.7 <0.001 Species5559.0958.7<0.001  Rainfall -0.03 1 0.4 3.1 0.079 Rainfall-0.0310.43.10.079  Location: species  5 3.9 6.7 <0.001 Location: species53.96.7<0.001  Location: rainfall  1 0.0 0.0 0.869 Location: rainfall10.00.00.869  Species: rainfall  5 1.0 1.8 0.118 Species: rainfall51.01.80.118  Location: species: rainfall  5 1.0 1.7 0.137 Location: species: rainfall51.01.70.137  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 | General Linear Model investigating the relationship between body size (PC1) with sites (lowland vs. montane), species, temperature (model a), and rainfall (model b) in northern Nigeria.   Parameter estimate df Sum of squares F P Parameter estimatedfSum of squaresFP Model a Location  1 0.2 6.9 0.043 Model aLocation10.26.90.043  IITA 0.21    IITA0.21  Obudu 0.19    Obudu0.19  Temperature -0.78 1 262.5 104.8 <0.001 Temperature-0.781262.5104.8<0.001  Species  25 9958.5 158.3 <0.001 Species259958.5158.3<0.001  Location: temperature  1 0.1 5.4 0.019 Location: temperature10.15.40.019  Location: species  23 2.3 4.1 <0.001 Location: species232.34.1<0.001  Temperature: species  23 1.9 3.4 <0.001 Temperature: species231.93.4<0.001  Location: temperature: species  23 1.0 1.7 0.021 Location: temperature: species231.01.70.021 Model b Location     Model bLocation  IITA 0.18    IITA0.18  Obudu 0.20    Obudu0.20  Rainfall -0.05 1 1.0 40.1 <0.001 Rainfall-0.0511.040.1<0.001  Species  25 10219.9 162.6 <0.001 Species2510219.9162.6<0.001  Location: rainfall  1 0.0 0.9 0.349 Location: rainfall10.00.90.349  Location: species  23 2.5 4.4 <0.001 Location: species232.54.4<0.001  Rainfall: species  23 2.2 3.8 <0.001 Rainfall: species232.23.8<0.001  Location: rainfall: species  21 0.4 0.7 0.846 Location: rainfall: species210.40.70.846  "}],"sieverID":"78ad0571-e2b3-48f8-b070-05104f6cb7e8","abstract":"The Bergmann's rule predicts that in endotherms, body sizes will differ with respect to thermal gradients. Larger bodied individuals will inhabit colder environments while in warmer environments, individuals will be smaller-bodied. This hypothesis has been proved and disproved many times due to inconsistencies in body size differences along latitudinal gradients. We tested this hypothesis in 30 Afrotropical resident bird species inhabiting two vegetation types at different latitudes (southern guinea forests and northern savanna) and at different altitudes in Nigeria, West Africa. Using principal component analyses of body mass and wing length, the first principal component, the component of size, indicated that individuals in montane areas were larger than lowland populations in southern guinea forests. However, in the northern guinea savanna, there was no significant difference in body sizes between lowland and montane populations. General linear models show that body size increases as temperature decreases. In species found in both southern guinea forests and northern savanna (i.e., African Thrush Turdus pelios and Snowy-crowned Robin Chat Cossypha niveicapilla), variations in body sizes were significantly dependent on sites. Our study indicates that other macroscale factors such as vegetation and rainfall patterns might modulate conformity to Bergmann's rule in Afrotropical environments."}

data/part_1/011caaadd79ff31470fbbef5f3419e15.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"011caaadd79ff31470fbbef5f3419e15","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4059bd1f-a2e2-4aaa-867b-ec1ba0660afa/retrieve"},"pageCount":29,"title":"Gender-differentiated end-user trait preferences for sweetpotato varieties in Iganga and Kamuli districts in eastern Uganda iii Gender-differentiated trait preference for sweetpotato varieties in eastern Uganda. Focus Group Discussion -Final Report","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"v"}]},{"head":"Foreword","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"The International Potato Center (CIP) in collaboration with Uganda's National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO) and its National Crops Resources Research Institute (NaCRRI) conducted focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews (KII) in Iganga and Kamuli districts in eastern Uganda to understand trait preferences. The FGDs were conducted between August and September 2020 and the scope of study included information on production trends, variety preferences and marketing capacities. KIIs were taken with stakeholders engaged in promoting sweetpotato production and productivity, and utilization and consumption. The study was supported under the SweetGAINS program, funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Twenty-four FGDs and 12 KIIs were conducted using pretested guides root and vine producers consumers, . The discussions were voice recorded and photos taken of each meeting. Data was transcribed and analyzed using content analysis approach. "}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Sweetpotato value chains are changing rapidly due to changing weather, consumption patterns, increasing incomes, increased awareness and demand for quality products by consumers (Okello et al., 2018). These changes have compelled producers to demand varieties that are more suitable to their unique production environments, new market demands (such as the demand for vitamin A rich sweetpotato) and processing scenarios (Low et al., 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":", breeders need to respond to th demand ."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"his qualitative study aimed at providing an understanding of the preferred preferred traits in these changing production and marketing environments. Information gaps were filled by combining focus group discussions (FGDs) with key informant interviews (KII) and household surveys to understand the trait preference in parts of Eastern Uganda. only FGD"},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":". FGDs have proven to be useful in generating information on collective views, knowledge, perspectives and attitudes of people about issues, and seek explanations for behaviors in a way that would be less easily accessible in responses to direct questions, as in one-to-one interviews. This study will inform gender responsive breeding strategies, specifically to help set breeding priorities and to expand the potential impact of improved varieties. Iganga and Kamuli are among the major sweetpotato producing areas in Uganda (Yanggen and Nagujja, 2005;MAAIF 2011;UBOS, 2020). According to UBOS (2020)  , 2020). The two districts have a total population of about 1,600,000 people (UBOS, 2014) of which 50.5% are female and 49.5% are male, and the majority live in rural areas (FAOSTAT Database, 2004;UBOS, 2020)."}]},{"head":"Profile of Study districts","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Research Methods","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study purpose, objectives and scope","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"During August to September 2020, International Potato Center (CIP) under the SweetGAINS WP 1 project supported collaborating agricultural research team from NaCRRI and public extension service in Kamuli and"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Iganga study districts to conduct the FGDs on sweetpotato production and consumption."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"The study aimed at providing an understanding of the preferred and non-preferred traits (characteristics) of key varieties in these changing production and marketing environments. The objective of this study was to diagnose gender-differentiated preferences around sweetpotato traits and varieties, while examining gender-based effect in production and consumption of the roots."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"These focus groups were undertaken in order to identify and understand desired sweetpotato varietal traits by farmers and consumers which would inform the implementation of the SweetGAINS project in the two districts. The survey scope included training of enumerators, identification of target participants, conducting 24"},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"FGDs in the two districts."},{"index":6,"size":65,"text":"The study involved identification of sweetpotato varieties produced and consumed in the study areas, as well as producer and consumer preferences/non-preference of variety traits (characteristics). Focus Group Discussion (FGD) approach was used to collect information from male and female groups which were organized separately in the study districts. Data were transcribed and analyzed using content analysis approach. The report summarizes the results from group discussions."}]},{"head":"Survey preparations","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Considering the COVID-19 pandemic effect, appropriate measures including provision of masks and sanitizers besides regular washing of hands and observation of social distances were applied at all stages of preparations, entry and discussion with communities. Study location and groups were identified through initial consultative meetings with extensionists and district agricultural officials, urban and rural market officials. International"},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"Potato Center (CIP) in collaboration with NaCRRI sweetpotato program component implementing the SweetGAINS project conducted joint virtual training of identified enumerators for the FGDs in Kamuli and Iganga districts. Pre-testing the tools took place in Mbulamuti village in Kamuli district which improved the ability of the team to conduct FGD sessions. A total of 24 FGDs each segregated between male and female respondents with 8 to 12 participants who were members of the sub-group targeted for study in each of the two districts, Kamuli or Iganga were conducted. During entry to the communities, confidence building introductions included research team as coming from NARO, the research institution for developing sweetpotato varieties who are interested in learning more about sweetpotato production and consumption in the area. Further assurance was extended for the information provided and its exclusive use for research and analysis and recording the sessions but all responses would appear anonymously."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"Adults from rural households were interviewed in focus groups that included women only groups and men only groups. Focus group discussions were held with at least two groups (1 for male and 1 for female participants) in each sampled community and included 8 -12 participants. Individual Interviews Information was collected principally through survey interviews. Individual farmer interviews were carried out by each of the enumerators who were fluent in the local language of each district. Individual interviews were used to collect information from key informants involved in sweetpotato production and marketing."}]},{"head":"How the focus group discussions were conducted","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Twenty-four FGDs, each group size between 8 and 12 people. A team of 3 researchers including facilitator, note taker for detailed notes and interpreter were engaged per FGD session. The interpreter and community guides were enrolled from the respective communities. All quotes from participants given below are verbatim. Prior to FGDs commencement, a short presentation around the data that was to be collected from the survey was undertaken. These data were broken down into modules 1 -4 that were used to focus the discussion that lasted about 2 hours in total."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Each session in local language was recorded using audio recorders for future reference and additional members of staff sat in the background and made detailed notes of what was said and of how discussions developed. We used the same approach across all the groups."}]},{"head":"Sample selection 2.4.1 Sweetpotato producers","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"In both Kamuli and Iganga districts, participants were purposely selected from 8 main producing villages, two in each of the four sub-counties. FGD meetings were conducted in Bugaya, Bulopa, Namwendwa and Nawanyago in Kamuli, and Bulamagi, Nambale and Nawanyiyngi sub-counties in Iganga district, respectively. Participants for separated male and female FGDs currently involved in sweetpotato root/vine production were identified through village leaders after prior introduction and explanation on the purpose of the study. A total of 184 farmers participated in the producer FGDs (Table 1). During enumerators' market visits, two approaches were used to identify potential consumer participants."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Firstly, contacts of regular customers; buyers and consumers of sweetpotato as targeted respondents were obtained from the retailers and food vendors in the identified markets. Secondly, through strategic selfplacement at sweetpotato boiled root-selling points and fresh-roots vendor selling stalls, potential respondents were identified and requested to participate. A master list was generated, screened to get the desired gendermainstreamed numbers to participate in the FGDs ( "}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"3.1 Characteristics of FGD Participants"}]},{"head":"Socioeconomic Characteristics of Sweetpotato and Vine Producers","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Table 3 shows that generally, both sexes were in average age range (about 40 years) in both districts. Whereas in either district men had obtained secondary level education, (beyond 7 years of primary education), majority of the women dropped out in primary school level. Overall, respondents in Iganga were more educated than Kamuli."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Average area under sweetpotato cultivated by the participants was much larger in Kamuli district (1.4 acres) than in Iganga district (0.9 acres). A potential explanation is the higher focus of food security interventions in Kamuli district where biofortification interventions by HarvestPlus, VEDCO and university of Iowa have been reported."},{"index":3,"size":142,"text":"These interventions include pushing for the adoption of orange-fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP) accompanied with deliberate commercialization and seed system development activities in the district. Particularly, women in Kamuli cultivated larger areas than men, as most women groups such as Namwendwa women farmers besides growing OFSP varieties for home consumption were involved in fresh root marketing and value addition pastry products that required roots. Women have significantly higher experience in growing sweetpotato compared to men, seemingly confirming the common saying that sweetpotato production in the region is a woman's crop. Sweetpotato is reportedly the number one preferred dietary food in the area, commonly consumed as 'Mugoyo' ( a mix of sweetpotato and beans mashed), which could explain the earlier entry of women in the crop production as it is a prerogative for women to ensure that there is enough nutritious food in the household."}]},{"head":"Characteristics of sweetpotato consumers","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"The average number of years for the consumers in the study was 29.8 and 39.1 years old in Iganga and Kamuli districts, respectively (Table 4). Men were generally younger than women respondents both in Iganga and Kamuli districts. Similarly, as root and vine producers, men consumer respondents were more educated than women in both districts. Evidently, sweetpotato is adequately consumed by all irrespective of the educational caliber (postsecondary as the case of males in Iganga) and less literate individuals. In both districts, sweetpotato consumer respondents purchased at a shorter frequency (weekly) interval."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"Possibly, fresh roots were regularly supplied on the market or consumers in the districts have low incomes thus could not afford bulk-buying. It could also imply poor means of fresh root storage, presenting a challenge for bulk-buying. In Kamuli, the respondents reported periodic supplies for varieties such as Tanzania, a commercially important cultivar widely grown in the drier northeastern districts (Mwanga et al., 2001), distant producing areas which strategically maintains the supplies on the market. Respondents in both Iganga and Kamuli reported preference for varieties such as Budunguza (Table 5 and 6) because of long shelf life (referring to extend root multiplication) or in-ground availability of roots for piece-meal harvesting. Commonly, producer harvest for home consumption and extra baskets for sale assumed to maintain consistent supplies to the market. Existence of food vendors and sweetpotato markets in town centers have been the main sources of sweetpotato roots for urban consumers."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Generally, in both districts, the consumption trends have greatly changed, responses indicating both rise and fall."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"Specifically, more than 60 percent of women respondents in both districts reported decrease in consumption."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"Reportedly, the increasing production of sugarcane has compromised allocation of productive land to sweetpotato production leading to decline. Other contributing factors include increased competition from other food crops such as maize and cassava. Major reason cited for the decrease was lack of preferred sweetpotato varieties during the off-season, hence, use of other options available to the consumers."}]},{"head":"FGD Producer Participants","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Key preferred varieties","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Sweetpotato preferred varieties in the study area are indicated in  "}]},{"head":"Preferred traits/characteristics","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Table 6 shows variety characteristics preferred by the sweetpotato producers. Both male and female participants in the study area indicated that sweetpotato producers select the varieties based on several characteristics."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Genetic attributes are important to make sure that they produce enough sweetpotato for home consumption and marketing. The attributes include early maturing of the variety, resistance to pests and diseases, drought tolerance, high roots and vine yields and long storage shelf life. Producers also consider visual attributes such as skin and flesh color; varieties with purple skin color and yellow/orange flesh color are the most preferred over white skin and flesh color. Shape and size of the roots and dry matter content are also important visual attributes  "}]},{"head":"Reasons for traits preferences","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Early maturing trait is preferred because it brings in food early and so the household is food secure and labor for weeding is reduced therefore saves costs of production. Also, households get more income by selling sweetpotato at the beginning of the marketing season. Most farmers preferred early maturing to high yielding varieties because of the higher prices at the beginning of the harvesting period."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Recurrent drought due to short rain seasons and uncertain have been a problem for a long time and it affect sweetpotato production, farmers requested drought tolerant sweetpotato varieties which are also early maturing which can also escape the drought by maturing early."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Resistant to pest and diseases was equally important criteria mentioned by the participants, resistant varieties give high yields and diseases/pest free roots which attract traders and bring in food and money to the households."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"High root yield makes the household more food and income secure"},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"Long storage shelf life at farmer level referred to continuous root formation, thus, extended piece-meal harvesting and availability of fresh roots for consumption. Notably, most of the storage roots were bought more frequently (Table 4) and most supplies were sourced from within the district."},{"index":6,"size":85,"text":"High vine yield implies availability of planting material which gives room for the expansion of the variety in the area hence increases volumes of production Root size/ shape is among the most important trait considered for commercial purposes. Farmers prefer big and long roots because they are easy to pack in the sack are highly marketable. Small sized roots are not preferred by most of traders (only bought by retailers within the district) but also one bag takes many roots which reduces income to farmers."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"Color of the skin and flesh of sweetpotato root was an important attribute in the marketing of sweetpotato."},{"index":8,"size":88,"text":"Varieties with purple skin, yellow/orange flesh are preferred by consumers in rural and urban markets. These varieties also are easily transported without being bruised, hence preferred by traders. White flesh color is good for making mashed food mixed with beans \"mugoyo\" but not OFSP. Nevertheless, white skin and flesh color leads to its low market demand for raw roots because they are easily bruised during transportation which reduces it shelf life, and hence provides household with less income. Furthermore, they lack nutritional and health benefits e.g Vitamin A."},{"index":9,"size":44,"text":"High dry matter content (starch), flesh sweetness, good taste and non-fibrous roots have high market demand because these traits are preferred by sweetpotato consumers. However, high dry matter is not preferred by some consumers because they cause heartburn problems particularly to people with ulcers."}]},{"head":"Effect of traits on the role of men and women","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The effects of preferred variety traits on the roles of men and women were stated in general terms by both men and women with no distinct differences in the stated effects between the two groups. Table 7 presents the results obtained in the discussions with both men and women."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Table 7. Effect of sweetpotato traits on the role of men and women"}]},{"head":"Preferred Traits","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Positive or negative effects on role of men/women 1. Early maturity Early maturing brings in food early and so the household is food secure and income stable and the labor for weeding is reduced therefore saves costs of production. Has positive effect to men and women."}]},{"head":"Resistance to pests and diseases","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Increases root and vine yields and also reduces costs of production. A female participant in kamuli said that: \"Pest resistance helps in reducing the cost on pesticides.\" (Female FGD Kamuli District, 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"This trait affects men and women equally."}]},{"head":"High root yield","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Increases production of sweetpotato roots hence more food and income secure households."}]},{"head":"High vine yields","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"This increases availability of planting material which gives room for the expansion of the variety in the area hence increases volumes of production. This also means high incomes for vine producers."}]},{"head":"Long storage shelf life","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Saves labor and time for women used to harvest sweetpotato roots for home consumption because they can harvest once per week, but also increases household income due to high demand of varieties with this trait in the market."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"6. Red/purple skin color and yellow/orange flesh color"},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"Varieties with these traits are preferred by traders, hence increase household income 7. Root size and shape Small sized roots are not preferred by most of traders (only bought by retailers within the district) but also one bag takes many roots which reduces income to farmers."}]},{"head":"High dry matter content","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"High dry matter (starch) in cooked roots increases palatability but also causes heart burn particularly to people with ulcers. A female participant in Iganga market said that: \"Men enjoy the food which is tasty when they are served. Thus they do not complain to their women at home.\" (Female FGD Iganga District, 2020)."}]},{"head":"Missing and recommended traits for inclusion in future breeding activities","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Farmers were asked to state the missing attributes in different varieties and give suggestions for their most pressing needs for improving sweetpotato productivity and ultimately attain improved food security and households' incomes. The findings in Table 8 revealed that across all local varieties, the missing attribute was resistance to pests and diseases while for improved varieties the missing attributes were low dry matter content, poor taste and aroma. The respondents expressed their needs for the above-mentioned traits to be improved."},{"index":2,"size":241,"text":"Table 8 presents the results obtained in the discussions with men and women in Kamuli and Iganga districts ranked from 1 onwards according to order of importance.  9 indicate that there are slight differences in types of non-preferred varieties between female and male participants hence showing clear gender variations. The differences may be due to the different roles between men and women in the society. Women are more involved in sweetpotato production than men because it is a food crop, providing food security to the families. On the other hand, men produce sweetpotato for commercial purposes so they may not prefer a variety because of low market demand, while women prefer the variety due to home consumption needs. Moreover, the results show that less preferred sweetpotato varieties are grown by only few households in small farms, this is because most of them are mainly used for home consumption as boiled fresh roots, mashed food \"mugoyo\" or processed into chips. Farmers were asked to state the not-preferred traits and give unique attributes in less dominant varieties. The findings in Table 10 revealed that across varieties, the not preferred attributes were late maturity, fibrousness, Low dry matter content and too much sap. The unique attributes were good taste, high dry matter content, high yield, nutritional and health benefits such as vitamin A content. The respondents expressed their desire for the not preferred traits to be improved and the unique traits to be maintained.  "}]},{"head":"Preferred traits/characteristics","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"Sweetpotato attributes preferred by male and female consumers in Iganga and Kamuli districts in the consumed varieties are mainly visual attributes of raw roots, organoleptic/sensory, processing and those related to the market. The only genetic attribute important to sweetpotato consumers is storage shelf life. Important attributes to consumers include long storage shelf life, good skin color, good shape, big and long roots, high dry matter content, sweet taste, not fibrous, liked by many (children and adults), easy to peel, soft when cooked and short cooking time. These results are disaggregated by gender as indicated in Table 13. without getting spoilt, therefore doesn't force consumers to buy more frequently from the market, which saves time and labor for both men and women at the household. Equally important the trait makes the variety to have high market demand which brings money at home. A male participant in Iganga said that: \"Even if it's cooked after a long period of storage, the taste and dry matter content remains good\" (Male FGD, Iganga District, 2020)."}]},{"head":"Good shape","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Good shape, easy to peel which saves time and reduces workload to women because they are responsible for peeling the roots before cooking. But also, good shape of the roots has high market demand which brings income to the household which is positive to both men and women. A male participant in Iganga said that:"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"\"Irregular shaped sweetpotatoes are not easy to handle, our women complain when we buy them (Customers complain of peeling)\" (Male FGD, Iganga District, 2020)."}]},{"head":"Root size","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Small or large and round roots requires more labor to peel when preparing for cooking which increases workload for women. Big and long roots have high market demand."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"A female participant in Kamuli said that: \"Only a few can fill a bag (Customers complain of packaging)\" (Female FGD, Kamuli District, 2020). Which brings money at home and the save time for women when peeling. On the other perspective the small root affects consumers negatively. A female participant in kamuli said that:"},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"\"Psychologically, served on a single plate at a meal un-comfortably creates the impression that one is greedy or eats a lot of food\" (Female FGD, Kamuli District, 2020)."}]},{"head":"Short time of cooking","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Saves women time and labor used to cook, but also saves money for the household."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"A female participant in Kamuli said that: \"It saves me the time and energy to cook and I spend less money on firewood\" (Female FGD, Kamuli District, 2020)."}]},{"head":"Less dominant/preferred Varieties and Non preferred Traits","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Consumers were asked to state the not-preferred traits and give unique attributes in less dominant varieties."},{"index":2,"size":217,"text":"The findings in Table 15 revealed that across varieties, the not preferred attributes were Low dry matter content, fibrousness and too much sap. The unique attributes were good taste, affordability, high dry matter content, big roots, nutritional and health benefits such as vitamin A content. The respondents suggested that the not preferred traits be improved and the unique traits to be maintained. rejection of these varieties by the consumers. These traits affect male and female consumer in the same way, however, there are a few traits which affect men and women differently particularly on labor requirement associated with the trait. These include storability of the variety (women prefer varieties that have a long storage period in the soil or after harvesting to allow piece meal harvesting and bulk purchasing while men do not mind as long as the variety is marketable), cooking habit (women prefer varieties that cook in a short time to save time for other activities at home), peeling raw roots (women prefer varieties that are easy to peel as this save them time for other things) and sugar content (women prefer varieties with high sugar content for they are more palatable while men do not mind as long as the sweetpotato is mealy). The effects of these traits are presented in table 16 below."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Table16. Effect of Sweetpotato Traits on the Role of Men and Women in the Study Area Non preferred traits Positive or negative effects on men/women 1. Short shelf life Increases the frequency of purchasing because of poor storage attribute hence taking up time from other household activities. This affects whoever is involved in purchasing of sweetpotato roots for the household."}]},{"head":"Too soft when cooked","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"This implies that women will spend less time on cooking it but when served, it will be less palatable prompting food wastage."}]},{"head":"Produces too much sap (latex) when peeled","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Makes the peeling process difficult which increases workload for women who mainly do the peeling."}]},{"head":"Less sugar content","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Positive effect to elderly men and women who are diabetic, but less palatable to children, youths and adults who are not diabetic."}]},{"head":"Summary and Conclusion","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"sweetpotato an important food security crop grown in many small plots by the majority of households increasingly being traded especially in urban markets."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"women were generally more experience in sweetpotato production Sweetpotato consumption opular in both rural and urban communities as shown by frequent purchases in the preference for varieties such as Bunduguza and Kasagaati that are available for extended piece-meal harvesting and withstand the long dry periods Pfeiffer and McClafferty 2007) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Map of Uganda showing the study area "},{"text":" , Iganga district in Eastern Uganda is the highest Sweetpotato producer in the country with 270,853 tonnes. The districts with the highest production of sweetpotato in the Central, Northern and Western regions were Nakasongola (66,419 tonnes), Gulu (61,732 tonnes) and Kyenjojo (40,148 tonnes) respectively. Overall sweetpotato production is highest in Eastern region, followed by Western, then Central region and least in the North. The area planted with sweetpotatoes in the Central, Eastern, Northern and Western regions 98,054 ha, 159,948 ha, 60,573 ha and 121,681 ha respectively Central, Eastern, Northern and Western regions 98,054 ha, 159,948 ha, 60,573 ha and 121,681 ha respectively (UBOS (UBOS  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Sweetpotato Root and Vine producers FGD participants 2.4.2 Selection of consumers 2.4.2 Selection of consumers FGDs for sweetpotato consumers were held at Mbulamuti and Kamuli central markets and Kigulu and Old Kaliro FGDs for sweetpotato consumers were held at Mbulamuti and Kamuli central markets and Kigulu and Old Kaliro road markets in Kamuli and Iganga districts respectively. The towns have majority of the households who road markets in Kamuli and Iganga districts respectively. The towns have majority of the households who purchase most of the sweetpotato they consume from the markets. purchase most of the sweetpotato they consume from the markets.  "},{"text":"Table 2  ) at already organized suitable venue within close ) at already organized suitable venue within close  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Sweetpotato consumers FGD participants   District   District Participant details Iganga Kamuli Total  Participant detailsIgangaKamuliTotal Number of FGDs conducted 4 4 8  Number of FGDs conducted448 Number of female participants per district Number of male participants per district 23 24 23 24 46 48 94 Number of female participants per district Number of male participants per district23 2423 2446 4894 Average age (years) of participants per district 30 39 34  Average age (years) of participants per district303934 Educational level of participants in each district 9 8 8.6  Educational level of participants in each district988.6 % changes in sweetpotato purchase and consumption     % changes in sweetpotato purchase and consumption Weekly purchase frequency (%) 74.5 72.3 73.4  Weekly purchase frequency (%)74.572.373.4 Consumption changes (Yes) (%) 93.6 68.1 80.9  Consumption changes (Yes) (%)93.668.180.9 Increased consumption changes (%) 44.7 38.3 41.5  Increased consumption changes (%)44.738.341.5  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Socio-economic Characteristics of the Participants  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Characteristics of Sweetpotato Consumer Participants Characteristic  Iganga district   Kamuli district  CharacteristicIganga districtKamuli district  Male Female Average Male Female Average MaleFemaleAverageMaleFemale Average Average age of participants (years) 40.5 40.6 40.6 38.4 39.8 38.9 Average age of participants (years)40.540.640.638.439.838.9 Education level (years) 8.9 7.0 8.0 8.1 6.0 7.3 Education level (years)8.97.08.08.16.07.3 Area under sweetpotato (acres) 0.9 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.7 1.4 Area under sweetpotato (acres)0.90.80.91.21.71.4 Experience SP production (years) 14.5 18.9 16.6 9.1 16.7 12.1 Experience SP production (years)14.518.916.69.116.712.1  "},{"text":"Table 5 5%, 87.5% and 85.9%, respectively) while majority of the female participants grew Umbrella, Bunduguza omukaire and Muwulu aduduma (100%, 83% and 75%, respectively).Irrespective of gender responses, Bunduguza and Kasagaati (Umbrella or Kateteeyi) were the most dominantly grown varieties. Apart from other agronomic attributes (Table6), Bunduguza was particularly associated with long shelf life which was explained as continuous root formation that favors piece-meal harvesting. Kasagaati foliage grows into umbrella-like shape and known to withstand pro-longed droughts, possibly ensuring that fresh roots besides vines are available even during dry season. Overall, both of these varieties are grown by many households in small plots that reflect the focus for household food security with limited surplus for sales. Notably, Kipapaali (local term referring to all yellow to orange-fleshed varieties including Naspot 8 and Ejumula) were only dominant in Kamuli district that represent the reported previous OFSP interventions the district. The Namugwere variety name implies that the variety was initially sourced from an area called Bugwere proximally located northeast direction of Iganga district. Samples of this variety were collected by the research team based at NaCRRI for subsequent variety tracing. Whereas Muwulu Aduduma (meaning husband complaining because the wife has not served it) only appeared as dominant variety in Iganga, Table6shows that it's among the varieties with preferred attributes in Kamuli especially it's long shelf life (as Bunduguza) and non-fibrous roots. Other varieties grown in the area but not in the top three preferred were Kakamega, NASPOT 13O, Bujina, Kinana, NASPOT 9 (VITA), Tontanulula, Nsereko and Yongera abalenzi emboli. Characteristics Iganga Male Female Kamuli Male Female CharacteristicsIganga MaleFemaleKamuli MaleFemale Age (Years) 28.5 31.0 40.5 38.3 Age (Years)28.531.040.538.3 Educational level 10.1 8.0 8.9 7.6 Educational level10.18.08.97.6  Frequency of purchase   Frequency of purchase Weekly 14 (58.3%) 21 (91.3%) 12 (50%) 22(95.7%) Weekly14 (58.3%)21 (91.3%)12 (50%)22(95.7%) Bi-weekly 4 (16.7%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) Bi-weekly4 (16.7%)0 (0%)0 (0%)0 (0%) Monthly 6 (25%) 1 (4.4%) 0 (0%) 1 (4.4%) Monthly6 (25%)1 (4.4%)0 (0%)1 (4.4%) More than a month 0 (0%) 1 (4.4%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) More than a month0 (0%)1 (4.4%)0 (0%)0 (0%)  Changed consumption   Changed consumption Yes 44 (93.6%)  32 (68.1)  Yes44 (93.6%)32 (68.1) No 3 (6.4%)  3 (6.4)  No3 (6.4%)3 (6.4) Yes 21 (87.5%) 23 (100) 12 (50%) 20 (87%) Yes21 (87.5%)23 (100)12 (50%)20 (87%) No 3 (12.5%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 3 (13%) No3 (12.5%)0 (0%)0 (0%)3 (13%)  How consumption has changed in Iganga and Kamuli districts  How consumption has changed in Iganga and Kamuli districts Increase 13 (54.2%) 8 (34.8%) 12 (50) 6 (26.1%) Increase13 (54.2%)8 (34.8%)12 (50)6 (26.1%) Decrease 8 (33.3%) 15 (65.2%) 0 (0%) 14 (60.9) Decrease8 (33.3%)15 (65.2%)0 (0%)14 (60.9) No change 3 (12.5%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 3 (13%) No change3 (12.5%)0 (0%)0 (0%)3 (13%)  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Magnitude of the dominant 3 sweetpotato varieties grown identified and ranked by male and female participants in Iganga and Kamuli *Kasagaati are Umbrella or Kateteeyi (All referring to the foliage forming the umbrella like canopy) NB: Abundance codes 1 = Many households grow it in small areas, and 2 = Few households grow it in small areas, 3 = Many households grow it in large areas  "},{"text":" Organoleptic attributes such as non-fibrous roots, flesh sweetness and good taste are usually used by farmers in variety selection. Visual and organoleptic attributes are the drivers for marketability of the varieties. Commercial sweetpotato varieties should have these attributes to attract the buyers. used by farmers.       used by farmers.  Iganga (Male)   Iganga (Female)  Iganga (Male)Iganga (Female) Ranking Variety name % growing Abundance Ranking Variety name % growing Abundance RankingVariety name% growingAbundanceRankingVariety name% growingAbundance 1 Bunduguza Omukaire 91.5 1 1 *Kasagaati 100 1 1Bunduguza Omukaire91.511*Kasagaati1001 2 Kipapali (Naspot 8) 87.5 2 2 Muwulu Aduduma 59.9 2 2Kipapali (Naspot 8)87.522Muwulu Aduduma59.92 3 Silk 17 1 3 Namugwere 67 1 3Silk1713Namugwere671  Kamuli (Male)   Kamuli (Female)  Kamuli (Male)Kamuli (Female) 1 Kipapali (Naspot 8) 71.3 3 1 *Kasagaati 100 1 1Kipapali (Naspot 8)71.331*Kasagaati1001 2 Ejumula 85.9 1 2 Bunduguza Omukaire 83 1 2Ejumula85.912Bunduguza Omukaire831 3 Kasagaati 27 2 3 Muwulu Aduduma 75 1 3Kasagaati2723Muwulu Aduduma751  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Preferred Characteristics of Dominant Varieties Grown in the Study Area  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Missing traits in dominant varieties and recommendations for improvement Variety Name Missing traits Rank Recommended traits for inclusion/ improvement Rank Variety NameMissing traitsRankRecommended traits for inclusion/ improvementRank 1. Bunduguza Resistance to pests and 1 Increase resistance to pests and diseases  1. BunduguzaResistance to pests and1Increase resistance to pests and diseases  diseases    diseases  Big roots 2 Remove fibrousness  Big roots2Remove fibrousness  Vitamin A 3   Vitamin A3  Lack of fiber 4   Lack of fiber4 2. NASPOT 8 High dry matter content 1 Incorporate good taste and aroma  2. NASPOT 8High dry matter content1Incorporate good taste and aroma  Good aroma 2 Increase dry matter content  Good aroma2Increase dry matter content  Adequate resistance to pests 3 Increase drought tolerance and shelf life in  Adequate resistance to pests3Increase drought tolerance and shelf life in  and diseases  the soil  and diseasesthe soil 3. Umbrella Resistance to pests and 1 Increase resistance to pests and diseases  3. UmbrellaResistance to pests and1Increase resistance to pests and diseases  diseases    diseases  Low sap content 2 Reduce sap  Low sap content2Reduce sap  Vitamin A 3   Vitamin A3  Stable color at maturity 4   Stable color at maturity4 4. Muwulu Resistance to pests and 1 Increase resistance to pests and diseases  4. MuwuluResistance to pests and1Increase resistance to pests and diseases aduduma diseases    adudumadiseases  High dry matter content 2 Increase dry matter content  High dry matter content2Increase dry matter content  Good aroma 3   Good aroma3 5. Ejumula High dry matter content 1 Increase dry matter content  5. EjumulaHigh dry matter content1Increase dry matter content  Sweet taste/ aroma 2 Increase resistance to pests and diseases  Sweet taste/ aroma2Increase resistance to pests and diseases  Resistance to pests and 3 Incorporate good taste and aroma  Resistance to pests and3Incorporate good taste and aroma  diseases    diseases 6. Silk Drought tolerance 1 Increase drought tolerance  6. SilkDrought tolerance1Increase drought tolerance  Resistance to rotting 2 Increase resistance to rotting  Resistance to rotting2Increase resistance to rotting 7. Namugwere Drought tolerance 1 Increase drought tolerance  7. NamugwereDrought tolerance1Increase drought tolerance  Resistance to rotting 2 Increase resistance to rotting  Resistance to rotting2Increase resistance to rotting 3.2.5. Less dominant/preferred varieties    3.2.5. Less dominant/preferred varieties Results in table     Results in table  "},{"text":"Table 9 . Less Preferred Varieties Grown in the Study Area District Gender Variety Name Participants Rank Abundance DistrictGenderVariety NameParticipantsRankAbundance    growing (%)   growing (%) Iganga  1. Kibirikyabidi 17 1 Few households grow it in small areas Iganga1. Kibirikyabidi171Few households grow it in small areas  Male (N=50) 2. Namugwere 31 2 Few households grow it in small areas Male (N=50)2. Namugwere312Few households grow it in small areas   3. Lirawo 0 3 Few households grow it in small areas 3. Lirawo03Few households grow it in small areas  Female (N=48) 1. Silk 2. Kaawa 4 17 1 2 Few households grow it in small areas Few households grow it in small areas Female (N=48)1. Silk 2. Kaawa4 171 2Few households grow it in small areas Few households grow it in small areas   3. Ejumula 25 3 Few households grow it in small areas 3. Ejumula253Few households grow it in small areas   1. Kabode 37.9 1 Few households grow it in small areas 1. Kabode37.91Few households grow it in small areas  Male (N=52) (NASPOT 10 O) 2. Tompenawena 33 2 Few households grow it in small areas Male (N=52)(NASPOT 10 O) 2. Tompenawena332Few households grow it in small areas Kamuli  3. Silk 25 3 Few households grow it in small areas Kamuli3. Silk253Few households grow it in small areas   1. Nakasoma 0 1 Few households grow it in small areas 1. Nakasoma01Few households grow it in small areas  Female (N=34) 2. Kinana 3. Kakamega 25 17 2 3 Few households grow it in small areas Few households grow it in small areas Female (N=34)2. Kinana 3. Kakamega25 172 3Few households grow it in small areas Few households grow it in small areas 3.2.6. Traits not preferred and unique traits in the less dominant sweetpotato varieties 3.2.6. Traits not preferred and unique traits in the less dominant sweetpotato varieties  "},{"text":"Table 10 . Non-preferred Sweetpotato Traits in Less dominant Varieties Variety Name Traits not Preferred Unique traits made farmers still grow it Variety NameTraits not PreferredUnique traits made farmers still grow it  "},{"text":"Table 11 . Effect of Non-preferred Sweetpotato TraitsSweetpotato varieties and their traits as preferred by male and female consumers in Iganga and Kamuli districts are indicated in Table12. The results indicate that urban consumers purchase sweetpotato varieties which are produced in the study area. Umbrella, Muwulu aduduma, Kinana and NASPOT 13 O were the most widely consumed varieties in the two districts. Traits not Preferred Positive or negative effects on men/women Traits not PreferredPositive or negative effects on men/women 1. Late maturing; Long growth cycle Late maturing varieties are less preferred because they don't provide 1. Late maturing; Long growth cycleLate maturing varieties are less preferred because they don't provide  food and income early enough to the household. A female participant food and income early enough to the household. A female participant  in kamuli said that: \"Family expenditure goes high as you look for in kamuli said that: \"Family expenditure goes high as you look for  alternative food.\" (Female FGD, Kamuli District, 2020). The varieties are alternative food.\" (Female FGD, Kamuli District, 2020). The varieties are  produced to provide food mainly during minor season for home produced to provide food mainly during minor season for home  consumption which means women are the ones working in the field consumption which means women are the ones working in the field  more often than men causing labor burden to them. Sweetpotatoes are more often than men causing labor burden to them. Sweetpotatoes are  harvested during low market demand, hence fetches low price which harvested during low market demand, hence fetches low price which  reduces household income affecting both men and women. reduces household income affecting both men and women. 2. Low root yield Reduces food security and household income. This opinion cuts across 2. Low root yieldReduces food security and household income. This opinion cuts across  both male and female participants in the FGDS. For example, A female both male and female participants in the FGDS. For example, A female  participant in Iganga District said that: \"the variety is expensive in terms participant in Iganga District said that: \"the variety is expensive in terms  of buying. You have to buy many heaps to raise enough food for home of buying. You have to buy many heaps to raise enough food for home  consumption.\" (Female FGD, Kamuli District, 2020). At household level, consumption.\" (Female FGD, Kamuli District, 2020). At household level,  it increases expenditure on food. it increases expenditure on food. 3. Susceptible to drought Leads to low yield of roots and vines which results to low household 3. Susceptible to droughtLeads to low yield of roots and vines which results to low household  food and income security. A woman participant in Kamuli said that: food and income security. A woman participant in Kamuli said that:  \"Family expenditure goes high (has to look for alternative \"Family expenditure goes high (has to look for alternative  food.\"(Female FGD Kamuli District, 2020). To increase production of food.\"(Female FGD Kamuli District, 2020). To increase production of  roots/vines farmers need to apply irrigation in low lands which roots/vines farmers need to apply irrigation in low lands which  increases costs to the households and possibly losses when market increases costs to the households and possibly losses when market  prices for the roots are low. prices for the roots are low.  "},{"text":"Table 12 . Sweetpotato Varieties Preferred by Consumers in the Study Area District Gender Variety Name Participants Consuming (%) Rank DistrictGenderVariety NameParticipants Consuming (%)Rank  Male 1. Bunduguza omukaire 58  Male1. Bunduguza omukaire58   2. Silk 50  2. Silk50 Iganga  3. Muwulu aduduma 33  Iganga3. Muwulu aduduma33  Female 1. Umbrella 100  Female1. Umbrella100   2. NASPOT 13 O (Kipapaali) 83  2. NASPOT 13 O (Kipapaali)83   3. Muwulu aduduma 58  3. Muwulu aduduma58   1. NASPOT 8 & NASPOT 13 50  1. NASPOT 8 & NASPOT 1350  Male O (Kipapaali)   MaleO (Kipapaali)   2. Bunduguza omukaire 30  2. Bunduguza omukaire30 Kamuli  3. Bujina 20  Kamuli3. Bujina20   1. Muwulu aduduma 100  1. Muwulu aduduma100  Female 2. Kinana 83  Female2. Kinana83   3. Umbrella 67  3. Umbrella67  "},{"text":"Table 13 . Sweetpotato Traits Preferred by Consumers for each variety District Gender Variety/ Preferred Traits DistrictGenderVariety/ Preferred Traits  1. Bunduguzaa omukaire 2. Silk 3. Muwulu aduduma 1. Bunduguzaa omukaire2. Silk3. Muwulu aduduma  Male  Male Iganga   Iganga  "},{"text":"Table 14 . Effect of Sweetpotato Preferred Traits on men and women Consumers Preferred Traits Positive or negative effects on men/women Preferred TraitsPositive or negative effects on men/women Long storage shelf life This attribute means that the variety can stay for about a week after harvesting Long storage shelf lifeThis attribute means that the variety can stay for about a week after harvesting  "},{"text":"Table 15 . Sweetpotato Varieties less preferred in the Study Area District Gender Variety Name Non preferred traits Unique traits DistrictGenderVariety NameNon preferred traitsUnique traits  "}],"sieverID":"87ccfa56-090f-45f8-b431-0cde4e5abb1d","abstract":"CIP publications contribute important development information to the public arena. Readers are encouraged to quote or reproduce material from them in their own publications. As copyright holder CIP requests acknowledgement and a copy of the publication where the citation or material appears. Please send a copy to the Communications Department at the address below."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01d372d7cd9872ddc8902099118de001","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3123a16a-a059-4555-a16d-41334ed49037/retrieve"},"pageCount":36,"title":"","keywords":["Animal-pasture interaction","greenhouse gases","rangelands","sustainable grazing systems","tropical pastures"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The well-drained tropical savannas of Colombia located in the Orinoco basin cover approximately 18 million hectares (de León and Rincón 2010), while 75% of them are highly dissected and non-tillable grassland plains (Beaulieu et al. 2006). Rainfall in the eco-region ranges between 2,000 and 2,400 mm, and turns the rangelands into temporal wetlands from April to October (Navas-Ríos 1999). This natural system has favored a rich biodiversity kept in national parks (Hoogesteijn and Chapman 1997;Rausch 2013), and has promoted the development of ecosystem services and primary industries such as fisheries, forestry, agriculture and beef production enterprises (Navas-Ríos 1999)."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"However, the resilience and adaptive capacity of indigenous Achaguas, Amoruas, Cuinabes, Curripacos, Guahibos, Piapocos, Piaroas, Sálivas, Sikuanis and Tunebos inhabitants, colonial and native (i.e. llanero) peoples to achieve those resource-dependent industries should not be underestimated (Navas-Ríos 1999)."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"As pointed out by Navas-Ríos (1999) and Marshall (2010Marshall ( , 2011) ) primary resourceusers are conventional drivers that foster cultural and regulatory opportunities for socio-educative, ecological, economic and productive systems."},{"index":4,"size":127,"text":"In this context, extensive cow-calf herds typically include 50% of females, made up of empty dry cows (cull cows; 8-12 years of age) and heifers 1-3 years of age (Kleinheisterkamp and Habich 1985;Missio et al. 2015). The scale is the product of replacement rates of 15-20% per year that is augmented by heifers not needed for replacement of cull breeders. Given the difficulties of mustering cattle over large paddocks 1-2 times per year, steers of 2-4 years of age are also found. Thus, although the slaughter of female cattle represents a significant portion of the beef chain (Missio et al. 2015), the variable herd composition contributes to the wellknown flexibility and adaptability of these natural resource-dependent systems to drought and flood conditions (Rivera 1988;Vera and Ramírez-Restrepo 2017)."},{"index":5,"size":99,"text":"Understanding the extent to which older animals contribute to farming income is important. According to Woerner (2010) between 15 and 25% of the annual income from cow-calf beef and dairy enterprises in the US may be derived from marketing cull cows. In parallel, recent studies (Missio et al. 2015) estimated that cull cows and excess replacement heifers contribute as much as 50% of the income in many Brazilian beef herds. This variability might be attributed at least under some conditions to thin and medium weight cows that are more profitable than cows in better conditions (Amadou et al. 2014)."},{"index":6,"size":136,"text":"Intensification of extensive cow-calf farming in the tropical savannas most frequently require the introduction of sown pastures, a relatively expensive forage resource (CONPES 2014;Ramírez-Restrepo and Charmley 2015). On farm observations made by the authors in the Colombian neotropical savannas showed that in the initial stages of pasture establishment farmers tend to favor grazing by older-cull cattle during the rainy season with the expectation of obtaining quick financial returns after a fattening period of 6-7 months. Within that environment, in at least one documented case in a single year (Vera and Seré 1989), cull cows were reported to gain in excess of 500 g/day on a low-fertilizer input Andropogon gayanusbased sward, liveweight gains (LWGs) similar to values reported from grazing steers of combined age that were sold for local markets at the end of the rainy season."},{"index":7,"size":55,"text":"Similarly, unpublished farming observations made by the authors in the Colombian Eastern Plains showed that older cattle took priority over replacement yearling, heifers and breeding cows in terms of access to introduced Brachiaria humidicola pastures. Nevertheless, it should be highlighted that mixtures of cattle regarding different sex, age and body condition were also occasionally observed."},{"index":8,"size":45,"text":"This was further influenced by graziers management decisions that involved the use of steroidal implants with expectation of increasing animal LWGs. Overall, these on-farm findings are contrary to the experimental established tradition of evaluating new pasture species using exclusively young steers (Lascano and Thomas 1990)."},{"index":9,"size":106,"text":"More recently there has been greater interest on the nutritional and fermentative traits including the methanogenic ranking of tropical grasses and legumes for beef production systems in northern Australia (Durmic et al. 2017a;Vandermeuleen 2017). However, although complementary field methane (CH4) emission measurement approaches have been explored (Ramírez-Restrepo et al. 2011), the environmental impact of beef grazing production systems in terms of enteric CH4 emissions in the varied tropical rangelands remains largely elusive (Ramírez-Restrepo and Charmley 2015). Alternatively, McCrabb and Hunter (1999) indicated that the relationship between CH4 emissions and LW factors is a practical and suitable option for comparing emission profiles in tropical beef production systems."},{"index":10,"size":116,"text":"Reflecting on these relationships, an important aspect of the discussion has been whether this connection can be elucidated by further long-term skilled animal experimentation, but the funding magnitude for such research may be substantial. Therefore, it is reasonable to say that this can be done by building up much of this required environmental information using derived approaches (i.e. indexes and/or modeling) by experienced scientists upon their earlier, unpublished, accurate and reliable long-term field research and results. To the best of our knowledge, such methodology has not been examined in the neotropical savannas, but it warrants further consideration as the approach was recently demonstrated for contrasting beef production systems research (Ramírez-Restrepo et al. 2017;Vera and Ramírez-Restrepo 2017)."},{"index":11,"size":78,"text":"The objective of this study was to compare the growth of castrated yearlings, heifers, adult steers and cull cows grazing mixed swards of Andropogon gayanus, Melinis minutiflora and Stylosanthes capitata, and pure stands of Brachiaria humidicola. Effects of growth stimulants on LWGs were also measured. The second objective explores the use of recent measured tropical greenhouse gas investigations on the unpublished productive beef records to provide ways for predicting animal production and the environmental impact of meat production."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experimental design","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"The design of the experiment followed local commercial practices in that adult steers and cull cows are normally sold at the end of the rainy season, whereas young animals remain on pasture during the following, dry, season. The study was conducted from 1983 to 1989 involving two years of continuous grazing with variable seasonal stocking density (i.e. Preliminary studies), while rotational grazing was performed during the last five years using fixed seasonal stoking rates (SRs) at Carimagua Research Station (CRS; 4°36'44.6\"N, 74°08'42.2\"W) on the eastern plains of Colombia (i.e. Llanos). Animals had always free access to fresh water and to a complete mineral commercial supplement that was monitored on a fortnightly basis. The standard mineral formulation included per kg of commercial product 175 g Na, 269 g Cl; 80 g P, 137 g Ca, 20 g S, 1.038 g Cu, 3. "}]},{"head":"Preliminary trials on Andropogon gayanus cv. Carimagua 1, Melinis minutiflora and","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Stylosanthes capitata cv. Capica mixed pasture","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Forages and grazing management","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Twenty ha of a two-years mixed sward located on a silty clay loam oxisol soil were subdivided into three equal paddocks to accommodate during the first (184 days) and second (194 days) rainy seasons, SRs of 1.38 (low), 1.85 (medium) and 2.32 (high) animal units (AU)//ha, while during the short-dry season (127 days) 0.64, 0.85 and 1.07 AU/ha were stocked. This factorial combination with different animal categories [i.e. cull cows, steers, castrated yearlings (afterwards named yearlings) and young heifers] and management system where individual animals were considered as replicates was designed to ensure that forage availability and its quality would not be a limiting factor. Experimental areas were fertilized with 20 kg/ha of phosphorus (P) every 3 years."}]},{"head":"Plant measurements","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Pre-grazing herbage mass and botanical composition were estimated every 56 days using the BOTANAL procedure (Jones and Tothill 1985). Forage intake was not measured. Hand-plucked samples were obtained simultaneously by three operators imitating forage selected by the animals (Johnson 1978). Representative subsamples (~ 120 g) were dissected into leaf, stem and dead material (Ramírez-Restrepo et al. 2004, 2005), while pooled observed ingested forage samples were stored at -20 o C for later nutritive value analysis."}]},{"head":"Animal measurements","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Adult cattle (316 ± 13 kg; initial LW, ILW ± standard deviation, SD), yearlings (154 ± 20 kg) and heifers (149 ± 16 kg) were used during the rainy seasons. Subsequently, the remaining yearlings (150 ± 19 kg) and heifers (200 ± 33 kg) were monitored during the dry season. The LW was measured off the paddocks at approximately 56day intervals. Fecal grab samples were collected from all animals during the initial rainy season and from yearlings and heifers over the dry season to discard nutrient deficiencies other than energy. Samples were frozen at -20 o C and later thawed, dried and ground to determine nutrient levels (Ramírez-Restrepo et al. 2006)."}]},{"head":"Laboratory analyses","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"All forage and fecal samples were analyzed for total N, P and Ca concentrations following the micro-Kjeldhal, colorimetry and atomic absorption methodologies respectively at CIAT."}]},{"head":"Long term trials on A. gayanus-based swards Forage, animals and grazing management","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"The same mixed grassland preliminary used allowed between 1985 and 1989 to raise mixed groups composed of 10 animals of each of the following categories: cull cows (10-13 years of age), steers (3-5 years), yearlings and heifers (1-1.5 years) under continuous grazing. Every year a new group of 40 animals (i.e. 10 per category) selected from the commercial herd entered the experiment 30-45 days after the beginning of the rainy season to rest the sward and continued there until the end of the following dry season when the paddocks were vacated. During the rainy season, a single SR of 1.33 AU/ha was used, while after removal of adult cattle a SR of 0.70 AU/ha was implemented over the dry season."}]},{"head":"Liveweight performance","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Changes in LW were initially measured at days 0 and 4 attempting to equalize rumen fill of all categories, as animals were sourced from different provenance at CRS. Overall LWGs were further recorded approximately at 23, 42, 35, 30 and 24day intervals during 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988 and 1989, respectively. During the last year, five animals of similar age in each group were implanted with commercial growth promoting implants placed in the middle third of the back side of the ear (Zobell et al. 2000). Averaged over the five years, the length of the period during the rainy season was 175 ± 21 days (range between 146 and 201 days)."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Yearlings and heifers remained on the pasture during the dry season of two consecutive years (1986 and 1987), until they began to lose body weight. This resulted in grazing seasons of 210 and 216 days, respectively. Overall, the LW database during the five grazing seasons included 1,441 data points for a total of 200 animals."}]},{"head":"Complementary studies on Brachiaria humidicola","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"In 1987, 1988 and 1989, parallel trials were conducted under continuous grazing with groups (n = 10) of cull cows and steers stocked at 1.5 AU/ha, during 179, 181 and 146 days, of the rainy season, respectively on a seven-year old pasture of B. humidicola that received a maintenance application of 20 kg of P. Following the same experimental protocol, LW measurements were taken approximately at 36, 30 and 24-day intervals. Half of each animal group, equalized for age, was implanted during the last year. The total database contained 279 data points."}]},{"head":"Data sets and its management","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Carcass characteristics","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Derived carcass proportions, primary cuts and meat composition from Bos indicus x native Bos taurus crossbred cattle at the farm gate were extracted from the database as outlined by Velásquez and Ríos (2010) and Ramirez-Restrepo et al. (2017)."}]},{"head":"Estimations of methane emissions","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Daily (g) and yield (g/kg dry matter intake, DMI) CH4 emissions were derived from the tropical structural and functional relationships (McArdle 1988) between gas emissions and LW (Eq. 1), and between feeding ad libitum on a DM basis (i.e. DMI; 2.1% of total LW; Fisher et al. 1987) per kg of LW (Eq. 2), using healthy, quiet temperament, and well trained Belmont Red Composite [Africander (African Sanga)"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"x Brahman x Hereford-Shorthorn (3/4 B. taurus; Ramírez-Restrepo et al. 2014, 2016c)] and Brahman steers (Ramírez-Restrepo et al. 2016b). Hence, the emissions estimations are reasonable reliable."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"Data was recorded on a non-additive dry diet from open-circuit respiration chambers with volumes of ~19.000 L and 360 o of visibility for each of the 16 rumencannulated and 2 non-cannulated steers. Information was taken out of 54 consecutive sampling periods of 48-hours measurements. The chamber system always operated under a negative pressure (-10.1 ± 0.14 Pa) to avoid gas losses, while outside ambient temperature was always 2 o C higher than in each of the transparent units to avoid animal discomfort, stress and reduced DMI. Live weight was recorded minutes before animals were placed in individual chambers and immediately after the last day of measurements (Ramírez-Restrepo et al. 2014, 2016ab). The resulting predictive equations are as follows:"},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Eq. 1."},{"index":5,"size":187,"text":"CH4 g/day = 16.176 (± 21.0879) + 0.324 (± 0.0577) (LW) r 2 = 0.663, P < 0.0001; CV = 16.78; r.s.d = 30.82; r = 0.81, P < 0.0001; Eq. 2. DMI = 2.216 (± 1.3156) + 0.014 (± 0.0036) (LW) r 2 = 0.491, P < 0.01; CV = 18.94; r.s.d = 1.34; r = 0.70, P < 0.01 Another derived calculation is CH4 yield that measures the mathematical representation of CH4 emissions (g/day) divided by DMI/day. The breakdown of CH4 emissions in terms of equivalent carbon dioxide (CO2eq) unit of gas is obtained by multiplying the fermented gas by its global warming potential (GWP100 34; Myhre et al. 2013). To assess the accuracy of our daily CH4 emissions (g), we have compared our derived values firstly with predicted output using the IPCC tier 3 Ruminant model (Herrero et al. 2013) as described by Ramírez-Restrepo et al. (2017). The required feed-data base was developed by the present authors considering reported quality and composition of 43 forage diets (i.e. grasses, legumes and mixed pastures), most of them grazed experimentally at CRS contemporarily with the present results."},{"index":6,"size":64,"text":"Secondly, we also compared our estimations with derived values from Kennedy and Charmley (2012) by the application of the third equation relating LWs and respiratory chamber measurements. The later research fed Brahman steers (i.e. 242 kg to 372 kg) once daily with long-chopped diets composed by hay mixed grasses plus hay legumes and fresh Leucaena leucocephala to mimic further grazing conditions and diet selection."},{"index":7,"size":2,"text":"Eq. 3."},{"index":8,"size":30,"text":"CH4 g/day = -56.650 (± 15.4778) + 0.502 (± 0.0496) (LW) r 2 = 0.695, P < 0.0001; CV = 16.08; r.s.d = 23.92; r = 0.83, P < 0.0001"}]},{"head":"Statistical analyses","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Data was analyzed using the Statistical Analysis System (SAS, University Studio 3.5, Cary, NC, USA) and results are presented as least squares means and their standard errors unless otherwise stated."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"In the preliminary studies, mean values of LW, pre-grazing herbage mass, plant composition and sward botanical composition were monitored. Measurements of mineral content in fecal DM and LWGs during the wet and dry seasons were analyzed using the MIXED procedure with a linear fitted model that included the fixed effects of animal category and SRs."},{"index":3,"size":199,"text":"Over the long-term trials, differences in initial and final LWs LWGs and derived values of carcass traits, meat composition, DMI, CH4 emissions and CH4 intensity and efficiency productive indices between cull cows and steers were assessed using the MIXED procedure. The linear model included the fixed effects of the interaction amongst year, pasture and animal category. Data for LWGs and estimated values of CH4 emissions, DMI for yearlings and heifers were performed using the MIXED procedure. The fixed linear model considered the effects of year and animal category and the year by animal category interaction. Analyses of variance for repeated measures of LW on the same animal in each year were analyzed using the linear GLM procedure with the fitted variable being animal category (i.e. cull cows, steers, yearlings and heifers). An additional analysis was made for the last year using a model that included the fixed effects of the implanting strategy. Regressions equations and correlations between CH4 emissions, LW and DMI on the Ramírez-Restrepo et al. (2014, 2016ab) and Kennedy and Charmley (2012) datasets were obtained using the CORR and REG procedures. Comparison of intercepts and slopes was obtained using the option contrast in the linear GLM procedure."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"Correlations between our derived CH4 emissions and measured LWGs, and those values predicted by the Ruminant model were performed using the CORR procedure. Significant differences were considered at P < 0.05 and tendency to significance accepted at P < 0.10."}]},{"head":"Results","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Preliminary trials","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Forages and botanical composition","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Over the rainy seasons, averaged pre-grazing herbage mass increased from 6,000 kg DM/ha in the high SR to 7,500 kg DM/ha in the low SR, while pre-grazing green leaf content in the same SR levels ranged from 1,800 to 5,000 kg DM/ha, respectively. During the dry season, green leaf averaged 700 kg DM/ha with no difference between SRs. Botanical composition throughout the experiment was A. gayanus (70-75%) followed by M. minutiflora (15-25%) and S. capitata. (10%). This was associated with neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and crude protein (CP) sward mean concentration values of 727 g and 87 g/kg DM during the rainy season and 737 g and 89 g over the dry season."}]},{"head":"Mineral supplement intake and fecal mineral profile","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Across the seasons, averaged daily intake of mineral supplement was 56, 65, and 68 g/AU for the low, medium and high SRs, respectively. Fecal concentrations of N, P and Ca during the first rainy season and dry season are presented in Table 1. During the wet season, N and P concentration were similar among all animal categories, but Ca values of yearlings were higher than those of heifers and steers (P < 0.05), and cull cows (P < 0.01). There were no SR effects on P concentrations however, while low and high SRs had similar N concentration, the opposite was true for calcium values (P < 0.05)."}]},{"head":"Liveweight change","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Averaged across animal categories, daily mean LWGs were larger (P < 0.05) for the low SR than in the medium and high SRs in both the rainy (577 g, 468 g and 496 g) and the dry seasons (269 g, 186 g and 137 g). Cull cows gained less daily weight (P < 0.01) than the average of the other three categories during the rainy season (422 g vs 544 g), while no differences between yearling and heifers were recorded during the dry season (mean 197 g)."}]},{"head":"Long term trials","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sward composition, plant measurements and pattern of seasonal grazing","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Over the last four years the contribution of S. capitata to the A. gayanus based pasture was marginal (5%). During the wet season, pre-grazing herbage mass ranged from 5,000 to 6,000 kg DM/ha, while sward height was between 0.8 and 1 meter. In the wet and dry seasons NDF and CP concentrations reached 752 g vs 754 g/kg DM and 83 g vs 91 g/kg DM, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Brachiaria humidicola on offer was consistently lower and ranged between 2,000 and 3,500 kg DM/ha. However, the quality of the pasture did not differ from other contemporary experiments in the same area (Cajas et al. 1985;Vera et al.1993) as values of NDF and CP ranged between the wet and dry seasons from 730 g and 731 g/kg DM and between 71 g and 74 g/kg DM. Consequently, the length of the rainy season grazing period varied very little over three consecutive years (166 ± 9.5 days, mean ± SD)."}]},{"head":"Live weight performance and calculated intake and methane emissions of young cattle","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"Initial LW (kg) was similar between heifers and yearlings on the A. gayanus based pasture in 1985 (158 ± 5.40 vs 161 ± 5.70), 1986 (146 ± 4.50 vs 147 ± 4.50), 1987 (160 ± 7.32 vs 159 ± 8.19) and 1988 (173 ± 7.81 vs 171 ± 7.81). However, in 1989 heifers tended (P = 0.08) to be heavier (199 ± 7.06) than yearlings (181 ± 6.56). All groups reached similar final LW (FLW) in the first (198 ± 7.97 vs 212 ± 8.41), second (241 ± 8.65 vs 248 ± 8.65), fourth (230 ± 7.62 vs 238 ± 7.62) and fifth (260 ± 10.78 vs 245 ± 10.16) years, but in the third-year heifers (207 ± 9.45) were lighter than steers (248 ± 10.57; P < 0.01). Overall, daily gains (g) were lower in heifers (330 ± 9.92) than in yearlings (397 ± 9.92; P < 0.0001), while implanting practices did not improve LWGs (P > 0.05). Heifers and yearlings had similar averaged DMI (4.95 ± 0.02 kg). However, the calculated intake was approximately 4% higher (P < 0.05) in yearlings than in heifers in 1987 and 1989, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Methane estimations throughout the experimental years are shown in Fig. 1a and   1b. Although overall daily emissions (g) were similar between heifer and yearlings (78.8 ± 0.68 vs 79.0 ± 0.68), a year x category interaction (P < 0.05) was detected for daily emissions in two (i.e. 1986 and 1987) out of the five years. As expected, compared to yearlings, heifers tended to have lower yield emissions in the third year (P = 0.07), while the opposite occurred in the last year (P < 0.05). Averaged yield emissions were similar between both animal categories (15.8 ± 0.04)."}]},{"head":"Live weight profiles and derived values of carcass productivity, intake and environmental footprint of adult cattle","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"The effects of grasslands on LW performance and associated productive and environmental adult cattle footprints are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Steers gained 24% (P = 0.07), 5%, 12%, 35% (P = 0.06) and 4% more weight than cull cows in each of the consecutive years grazing the A. gayanus mixed pasture. Compared to steers, the later increase in percentage was also true for cull cows in the first year of comparisons on B. humidicola. However, although there was not an implant effect on LWGs in any forage treatment of 1989, daily LWGs in steers grazing B. humidicola were 25% and 67% greater than their counterparts in 1988 and 1989, respectively (P < 0.001)."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Essentially with similar FLW between cull cows and steers, there was no difference among predicted carcass characteristics and meat composition on B. humidicola (1987) and the A. gayanus predominant pasture (1989, Tables 2 and 3)."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Equal effect was observed between adult animal categories in both swards on estimated DMI (Table 4 and 5). Thus, the estimates of CH4 emissions in those years did not differ from most of those obtained for other sward-year experimental interactions (Table 4 and 5)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"In the context of the beef industry of the neotropical savannas in Colombia, the first objective of this study highlights the relation between the use of introduced pastures under different SRs and the body growth of four animal categories. The second contribution of this paper presents an approach to explore the impact of such management and cattle productivity on derived carcass indicators in adult cattle and estimations of methane emissions in all animal categories. Given current and ongoing constraints regarding the financing of long-term grazing research, the authors believe that the limited long-term data set of animal performance available should be used to apply newer knowledge and models in an endeavor to assess some of the likely results in terms of carcass quality and environmental impact. This is particularly important given current controversies on the role of ruminants, particularly in frontier regions. The authors justify this aim by the fact that keeping safe the original records, we could conceive, design and apply new knowledge on the original dataset to guarantee access to the updated information in times of lack of funding and proactive management."},{"index":2,"size":390,"text":"From this perspective, this study adds to knowledge of cattle performance management by showing that overall LWGs (g/day) on A. gayanus mixed swards were significant different (P < 0.05) amongst steers (560 ± 0.01), cull cows (486 ± 0.01), yearlings (397 ± 0.01) and heifers (330 ± 0.01), while averaged LWGs from 1985 to 1989 were 453, 528, 355, 394 and 486 ± 0.02. In addition, this study argues that over three years, steers on B. humidicola swards gained 560 ± 0.02 g/day vs 464 ± 0.02 g/day (P < 0.001) in cull cows, whilst LWGs were similar between 1987 and 1989 (542, 513 and 513 ± 0.02 g/day). To the authors knowledge, there is no comparable experimental information about the performance of adult animals in the study region, but it supports, the limited number of available on ranch observations. Thus, given the fact that irrespective of the year, all studied cattle were subject to a similar commercial management considerations, differences in LW performance most likely reflects a variability and/or interaction amongst environmental conditions (Domínguez et al. 2003;Singh et al. 2012); growth traits, including compensatory gains (Hernández-Hernández et al. 2015); genetic parameters and their interacting networks (Ceacero et al. 2016;Lopes et al. 2013;Pereira et al. 2016 . In parallel, a particularly relevant aspect is that putting weight on cull cows in thin to medium condition has been found to be more profitable than cows with higher body scores (Amadou et al. 2014). Lascano and Euclides (1996) cite unplublished work by Lascano that shows over 16 consecutive years of grazing a B. decumbens cv. Basilisk pasture, a mean, yearround gain of 137 kg/steer, with extremes of approximately 50 and 175 kg/animal. An extremely heavy rainy season (i.e. 3,000 mm) compounded further by a heavy spittlebug (Aeneolamia, Deois and Zulia spp.) attack on the grass were the main factors suggested as causes of the lowest growth rate. This in turn was also supported by similar averaged LWGs per AU in the first year after sward establishment and during the last annual grazing 15 years later (384 g). In agreement with our A. gayanus based LW results, this evaluation highlighted that the careful choice of grazing intensification (i.e. seasonal SRs) and appropriate sward fertilization avoids signs of pasture degradation and influences in the longterm the potential for LWGs in beef farming system efficiency."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Alternative methods of monitoring the pastures have been also investigated."},{"index":4,"size":237,"text":"Four-year grazing experiments using A. gayanus in combination with one of four legumes demonstrated very large between-year differences in daily LWGs/AU ranging from 164 g to 420 g in the dry season, while between 462 g and 708 g were achieved in the rainy season (Lascano and Euclides 1996). However, part of these differences was likely due to the variable and generally decreasing, contribution of the legumes to the forage on offer over successive years. Moreover, two to threeyear grazing results from A gayanus-legume associations summarized by Lascano and Thomas (1988) have shown equally variable between-years LWG's differences, possibly due to a variable legume density on the sward. Nevertheless, our A. gayanus mixed sward results showed less variation in animal performance between years, but it still was large enough to justify caution in generalizing about potential impact on animal production and/or its cause. The reason for this within and between animal variability in grazing conditions is not known, but O'Neill et al. (2013) reported that diet selection of Brahman and Belmont Red Composite cattle grazing together in the tropical rangelands appears to be regulated by a dynamic interaction amongst genotype, environment and management factors. In this condition, the crossbred cattle had large CP intake and grew faster than the Brahman group. However, additional investigations and/or further dataset analysis will be required to better clarify the significant effects of physiological, breed and sire effects (Ramírez-Restrepo and Charmley 2015)."},{"index":5,"size":127,"text":"On the other hand, ignoring differences between experimental groups on B. humidicola, the annual LWGs presented here are in contrast with results summarized by Lascano and Euclides (1996) where over a five-year period B. humidicola (Syn. B. dictyoneura) cv Llanero showed under a similar SR a linear decrease in LWGs/AU from 384 g/day to 192 g/day, whereas LWGs on a contemporary B. humidicola cv. Humidicola pasture ranged between 137 g/day and 274 g/day. This implies that although none of the summarized experiments compared at the same time young and adult cattle in the same experiment, our interaction amongst adult cattle, environment and B. humidicola is more efficient when our pre-grazing herbage mass range is considered. However, further longterm pastoral studies would be needed to confirm such hypothesis."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"Another important outcome from our trials is that the observed animal performance was similar to on-farm observations reported for by Vera and Seré (1989), which provides credibility to the naturally more variable on-farm reports."},{"index":7,"size":57,"text":"Thus, long-term grazing experiments are essential in providing a firm basis for recommendations regarding the management of properties and resources (Blench 2001;O'Reagain and Scanlan 2013;Scanlan et al. 2013); and for adequately matching animal genotype and its expressed phenotype to those production resources, particularly as costs of production and competition for land resources increase (Mulliniks et al. 2015)."},{"index":8,"size":124,"text":"As there have been very few long-term grazing experiments conducted on tropical pastures in the Neotropics, estimates of carcass merits were calculated as a baseline reference point at the farm gate assuming that the values produced by our mature cattle were processed in a commercial slaughterhouse. In practice, the similarity of the grazed cattle, animal handling, transport conditions to the slaughter house and pre-slaughter operations reported by Velásquez and Ríos (2010) indicated that our results are likely to be correct. This may be an advantage because to the knowledge of the authors, no reports have been published describing carcass and meat variables from cull cows and steers grazing all together on improved pastures in the neotropical savannas, with which to compare our derived data."},{"index":9,"size":121,"text":"Overall, the basic premise in conducting this research was that cull cows, excess heifers and steers constitute important components of extensive beef breeding systems that can be grazed on pasture-based systems to provide a ready source of income if their LWs are raised without necessarily reaching a fat condition as suggested by Vera and Seré (1989). However, we consider pertinent to report from our observational records and in agreement with previous studies (Schmitt 1998;Durán 1998) that on the Colombian Llanos, beef systems located closer to central markets, slaughter plants and/or paved roads maintain lower proportions of these animals. The reason is because introduced pastures and farm management practices impact positively body growth and the turnover of cattle is dynamic and quick."},{"index":10,"size":149,"text":"In contrast, young cattle (i.e. 1-3 years of age) are low priority categories in extensive systems and are relegated to low quality pastures, whereas in more intensive grazing systems young females are generally bred before reaching 3 years of age (Vera et al. 1993;Vera et al. 2002). The most prominent additional feature of this cattle productive system is that older cows are culled following weaning and/or during the dry season, when they have lost 15 to 25% of the LW recorded at conception as described by Vera et al. (2002). The combined inefficiency is mitigated to a large extend by placing those fragile cows on quality pasture to make compensatory gains (Lawrence and Fowler 2002). Such occurrence is later associated with meat of acceptable quality (Galli et al. 2008;Stelzleni et al. 2007), which even in low input systems, represent significant economic returns (Amadou et al. 2014;Vera and Seré 1989)."},{"index":11,"size":246,"text":"Sustainable intensification associated with reduced CH4 emissions from ruminant production systems using forage-based diets is a global milestone for the scientific community (Peters et al. 2012;Ramírez-Restrepo and Barry 2005;Singh et al. 2012;Vandermeulen et al. 2017). In this connection, our emission results suggest that averaged daily emissions from all animal categories on A. gayanus mixed swards were similar in 1986 and 1989 (110.9 ± 1.18 g vs 109.6 ± 1.18 g), but different (P < 0.05) to the emissions profile in 1985, 1987 and 1988 (106.6 ± 1.22 g, 104.0 ± 1.18 g and 103.7 ± 1.20 g). Overall throughout the five-year period, cull cows emitted 10% less CH4/day (128.7 ± 1.06 g) than steers (141.5 ± 1.09, P < 0.0001), while on B. humidicola, cull cows emitted 7% less CH4 than steers (127.6 ± 2.26 g vs 136.8 ± 2.16 g, P < 0.01) across three years. Together, those apparent differential methanogenic values might be explained by the recent in vitro fermentative study of Durmic et al. (2017a) who shows that irrespective of seasonal variations, amongst 23 tropical screened grasses, A. gayanus was one with the lowest CH4 production [millilitres/g DM incubated (DMi)] plants (28.7 mL/g DMi), while B. humidicola recorded higher levels (14%) of annual methanogenic potential. However, it does not rule out that some bioactive compounds in A. gayanus and/or the associated native and introduced plants in our experimental mixed-swards could potentially influence future CH4 emission profiles as described by Durmic et al. (2017b)."},{"index":12,"size":144,"text":"Data from previous studies using Brahman steers (i.e. 311 kg to 417 kg LW) have shown that when fed ad libitum tropical pasture (30%) hay-mixed diet, DMI accounted for 2.1% of the total LW (Chaokaur et al. 2015), in agreement with our supported assumption using 15% of forage on the DM (Ramírez-Restrepo et al. 2014, 2016bc). In contrast, Chaokaur et al. (2015) reported daily and yield emissions of 163.7 ± 4.96 g and 25.1 ± 0.72 g, respectively, which does not agree with the results from adult cattle in the present study. This suggests that although cattle are physically limited in terms of the DM they can consume (Fisher et al. 1987), their CH4 emissions are variable in a response to the diet composition and its feeding value that finally is likely shaped on their body weight by phenotypical expressions of their genotype code."},{"index":13,"size":135,"text":"However, although we did not estimate emissions from bulls, our study is in better agreement with the report of Menezes et al. (2016) who found that Nellore young bulls fed a grain-concentrate diet with 120 g CP/kg DM emitted 150.2 ± 8.83 g CH4/day. Do CH4 emissions from grazing bulls differ from other cattle categories in tropical grasslands? To our knowledge, this is unknown. However, field measurements using the sulphur hexafluoride gas technique (Ramírez-Restrepo et It may be also inferred from our study that our mathematical approximation may reflect the mitigation effect of some plant secondary compounds such as condensed tannins as our intercept and slope are similar to those in the Kennedy and Charmley (2012)'s derived regression feeding tropical grasses plus secondary compoundscontaining legumes (Jackson et al. 1996;Li et al. 1996;Castrejón et al. 2003)."},{"index":14,"size":43,"text":"Moreover, our daily estimated emissions coincided with the stoichiometric and algorithmic estimations generated by the Ruminant model using LW and the constructed quality-feed data input (Herrero et al. 2013). However, the authors observed that the model underpredicted LWGs compared to our measured records."},{"index":15,"size":60,"text":"In summary, as suggested above, cow-calf systems in the Orinoco basin are complex and multidimensional (Ezzano 2005;Vera et al. 1993Vera et al. , 2002;;Vera and Ramírez Restrepo 2017). However, the present paper has only touched on a small number of their characteristics, whereas others related to additional environmental and social impacts have been addressed elsewhere (Hoogesteijn and Chapman 1997;Navas-Ríos 1999)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The acceptable body weight gains realized by adult animals on low quality pastures, particularly that of low external input B. humidicola paddocks, supports the decision by many Colombian graziers to prioritize this type of use of improved sown pastures seeking to obtain rapid returns on pasture investments in the initial stages of ranch intensification. So together there is no evidence in this study to suggest that the methodical use of improved pastures is contrary to an efficient and sustainable cattle productivity in the Colombian tropical savannas. However, the large differences in performance between animal categories and between years in contemporary swards, reinforce the need to reach a compromise between producers, the scientific community and commercial networks to use adapted plant and animal genetic resources, and support further field research."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"Part of the significance of the present results derive from the duration of the experiments conducted using low external inputs and adequate, but not necessarily optimal, management resembling current ranch management practices. Thus, in the face of the growing climate variability, the authors hope that the current study may increase awareness of the environmental impact and tradeoffs of the beef industry in the Colombian Eastern Plains. However, it is postulated that to improve the livelihoods of beef farming systems and their dependent rural communities the decided support from the Colombian Government and the continued collaboration with international agencies is essential. Additional metabolic profiles of young animal categories refer to stocking rates (SR) of 0.64, 0.85 and 1.07 AU/ha † Three and two fecal grab samples were collected from each animal over the rainy and dry seasons, respectively."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Values between animal categories and between SRs within each season and similar column followed by the same letter are significantly different (ab.: P < 0.05; cd.: P < 0.01; ef.: P ≤ 0.10)"}]},{"head":"Nitrogen","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Phosphorus Calcium","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"First rainy season    18.0 ± 0.09 d 18.5 ± 0.10 c 18.2 ± 0.09 b 18.4 ± 0.09 a 17.9 ± 0.09 b 18.2 ± 0.09 a 18.0 ± 0.10 a 17.9 ± 0.10 a Total emissions (kg/head) 21.0 ± 0.57 d 23.8 ± 0.63 c 28.5 ± 0.57 d 30.7 ± 0.57 c 25.4 ± 0.57 b 27.5 ± 0.57 a 23.5 ± 0.60 a 22.6 ± 0.60 a CH4 intensity (kg/kg CW) 0.11 ± 0.001 a 0.10 ± 0.001 b 0.14 ± 0.001 a 0.14 ± 0.001 b 0.13 ± 0.001 a 0.13 ± 0.001 a 0.12 ± 0.001 a 0.12 ± 0.001 a CH4 intensity (kg/kg edible protein, EP) 0.69 ± 0.009 a 0.66 ± 0.010 b 0.93 ± 0.008 a 0.91 ± 0.008 b 0.87 ± 0.008 a 0.86 ± 0.008 a 0.77 ± 0.009 a 0.76 ± 0.009 a CH4 efficiency (kg CO2eq/kg FLW)"},{"index":2,"size":216,"text":"1.8 ± 0.02 a 1.7 ± 0.02 b 2.4 ± 0.02 a 2.3 ± 0.02 b 2.2 ± 0.02 a 2.2 ± 0.02 a 1.9 ± 0.02 a 1.9 ± 0.02 a CH4 efficiency (kg CO2eq/kg CW) 3.7 ± 0.05 a 3.5 ± 0.05 b 5.0 ± 0.04 a 4.9 ± 0.04 b 4.7 ± 0.04 a 4.6 ± 0.04 a 4.1 ± 0.05 a 4.1 ± 0.05 a CH4 efficiency (kg CO2eq/kg EP) 23.7 ± 0.31 a 22.6 ± 0.33 b 31.9 ± 0.30 a 31.0 ± 0.30 b 29.7 ± 0.30 a 29.3 ± 0.30 a 26.0 ± 0.05 a 26.0 ± 0.05 a CH4 intensity (kg/kg CW) 0.12 ± 0.001 c 0.12 ± 0.001 d 0.12 ± 0.001 i 0.12 ± 0.001 j 0.10 ± 0.001 a 0.09 ± 0.001 a 0.10 ± 0.001 c 0.09 ± 0.001 d CH4 intensity (kg/kg edible protein, EP) 0.80 ± 0.008 c 0.76 ± 0.009 d 0.81 ± 0.010 a 0.78 ± 0.009 a 0.63 ± 0.008 a 0.62 ± 0.008 a 0.64 ± 0.009 a 0.61 ± 0.009 b CH4 efficiency (kg CO2eq/kg FLW) 2.0 ± 0.02 c 1.9 ± 0.02 d 2.0 ± 0.02 i 2.0 ± 0.02 j 1.6 ± 0.02 a 1.6 ± 0.02 a 1.6 ± 0.02 c 1.5 ± 0. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 5 g Zn, 10 mg Co and 76 mg I. Mean annual rainfall and ambient temperature of 2,202 mm/m 2 and 26.5 o C were recorded at CRS from 1979 to 1991 with the December-March period (short-dry season) historically characterized by low rainfall rates (~7% of total precipitation) and warmer climate (~28 o C; Vera and Ramírez-Restrepo 2017). In all cases, care of Brahman (Bos indicus) and crossbred [Brahman x San Martinero (native; B. taurus)] cattle and experimental procedures was monitored by registered Doctors of Veterinary Medicine at CRS to fully comply with national husbandry and animal welfare regulations (Vera and Ramírez-Restrepo 2017). "},{"text":" ); hormones secretion (Kasuya 2016; Widmann et al. 2013); maternal effects (Neidhardt et al. 1979); grazing management (Vera and Ramírez-Restrepo 2017); diet selection (O'Neill et al. 2013); nutritive and metabolic trigger factors in the forage resources (Tedeschi et al. 2014); and the adaptive capacity of Brahman and Belmont Red Composite to respond to those triggers within a climate change environment (Ramírez-Restrepo and Charmley 2015) "},{"text":" al. 2010) or concomitant indoor practices with the tracer gas and open-circuit respiratory chambers (Ramírez-Restrepo et al. 2016a) feeding green DM diets would help elucidate potential animal, breed and physiological variabilities and/or agerelated CH4 emission factors to refine estimations on the current tier 1 and tier 2 national GHG inventory (IDEAM 2016). "},{"text":"Table 1 . Mineral concentrations (g/kg) of fecal dry matter associated with grazing cull cows, steers, castrated yearlings and heifers stoked at 1.38, 1.85 and 2.32 animal units (UA)/ha at Carimagua Research Station, Colombia.   "},{"text":"Table 2 . Effect of grazing cull cows and steers on Andropogun gayanus, Mellinis minutiflora and Stylosanthes capitata (AgMmSc; 70:20:10), A. gayanus plus S. capitata (AgSc; 95:5) or Braquiaria humidicola (Bh) swards upon body growth, and calculated carcass cuts and meat composition from 1985 to 1987 at Carimagua Research Station, Colombia † Adapted fromVelásquez and Ríos (2010). ꙉ Calculated as the sum of forequarter, hindquarter and industrial meat mince values. ‡ Adapted fromRamirez-Restrepo et al. (2017)    as lean meat x 0.26 factor (raw meat protein content). Values between animal category for each parameter within the same forage column followed by the same letter are not  significantly different (ab.: P < 0.05; cd.: P <0.01; ef.: P < 0.001; gh.: P < 0.0001; ij.: P ≤ 0.10)   significantly different (ab.: P < 0.05; cd.: P <0.01; ef.: P < 0.001; gh.: P < 0.0001; ij.: P ≤ 0.10)      Pastures    Pastures  AgMmSc-85 AgSc-86 AgSc-87 Bh-87  AgMmSc-85AgSc-86AgSc-87Bh-87  Cow Steer Cow Steer Cow Steer Cow Steer CowSteerCowSteerCowSteerCowSteer Animals 10 8 10 10 10 10 9 9 Animals1081010101099 Initial live weight (LW, kg) 312 ± 9.54 f 362 ± 10.66 e 293 ± 10.05 d 336 ± 9.54 c 309 ± 9.54 b 337 ± 9.54 a 308 ± 10.05 a 297 ± 10.05 a Initial live weight (LW, kg)312 ± 9.54 f362 ± 10.66 e 293 ± 10.05 d336 ± 9.54 c309 ± 9.54 b337 ± 9.54 a308 ± 10.05 a 297 ± 10.05 a Final LW (FLW, kg) 405 ± 12.15 f 474 ± 12.89 e 404 ± 11.53 d 447 ± 11.53 c 386 ± 11.53 b 424 ± 11.53 a 407 ± 12.15 a 392 ± 12.15 a Final LW (FLW, kg)405 ± 12.15 f 474 ± 12.89 e 404 ± 11.53 d 447 ± 11.53 c 386 ± 11.53 b 424 ± 11.53 a 407 ± 12.15 a 392 ± 12.15 a LW change (g/day) 561 ± 50.03 j 698 ± 53.06 i 573 ± 50.03 a 602 ± 47.46 a 383 ± 47.46 a 430 ± 47.46 a 550 ± 50.03 a 534 ± 50.03 a LW change (g/day)561 ± 50.03 j698 ± 53.06 i 573 ± 50.03 a 602 ± 47.46 a 383 ± 47.46 a 430 ± 47.46 a 550 ± 50.03 a 534 ± 50.03 a Carcass features  †         Carcass features  † Hot carcass weight (CW, kg)         Hot carcass weight (CW, kg)  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Impact of Andropogon gayanus plus S. capitata (AgSc; 95:5) or Braquiaria humidicola (Bh) pastures on body growth, derived carcass values and edible meat protein content of Brahman (B. indicus) and crossbred [Brahman x San Martinero (native; B. taurus)] cattle during the finishing grazing periods of 1988 and 1989 on the eastern plains of Colombia † Adapted fromVelásquez and Ríos (2010). ꙉ Estimated as the sum of forequarter, hindquarter and industrial meat mince data. ‡ Derived as lean meat x 0.26 factor ([raw meat protein content;Ramirez-Restrepo et al. (2017)]. Values between animal category for each variable within the same pasture treatment followed by the same letter are not  significantly different (ab.: P < 0.05; cd.: P < 0.01; ef.: P < 0.001; gh.: P < 0.0001; ij.: P ≤ 0.10)   significantly different (ab.: P < 0.05; cd.: P < 0.01; ef.: P < 0.001; gh.: P < 0.0001; ij.: P ≤ 0.10)      Pastures    Pastures  AgSc-88 Bh-88 AgSc-89 Bh-89 AgSc-88Bh-88AgSc-89Bh-89  Cow Steer Cow Steer Cow Steer Cow Steer CowSteerCowSteerCowSteerCowSteer Animals 10 9 8 9 10 10 9 9 Animals10989101099 Initial live weight (LW, kg) 285 ± 9.54 h 340 ± 10.05 g 296 ± 11.40 b 341 ± 10.05 a 323 ± 9.54 a 343 ± 9.54 a 313 ± 10.05 a 342 ± 10.05 a Initial live weight (LW, kg)285 ± 9.54 h340 ± 10.05 g 296 ± 11.40 b 341 ± 10.05 a323 ± 9.54 a343 ± 9.54 a313 ± 10.05 a 342 ± 10.05 a Final LW (FLW) 354 ± 11.53 h 433 ± 12.15 g 379 ± 13.78 h 444 ± 12.15 g 401 ± 11.53 a 424 ± 11.53 a 370 ± 12.15 h 433 ± 12.15 g Final LW (FLW)354 ± 11.53 h 433 ± 12.15 g 379 ± 13.78 h 444 ± 12.15 g 401 ± 11.53 a 424 ± 11.53 a 370 ± 12.15 h 433 ± 12.15 g LW change (g/day) 381 ± 47.46 j 516 ± 50.03 i 457 ± 56.73 a 569 ± 50.03 a 534 ± 47.46 a 553 ± 47.46 a 384 ± 50.03 f 642 ± 50.03 e LW change (g/day)381 ± 47.46 j516 ± 50.03 i 457 ± 56.73 a 569 ± 50.03 a 534 ± 47.46 a 553 ± 47.46 a 384 ± 50.03 f 642 ± 50.03 e Carcass characteristics  †         Carcass characteristics  † Hot carcass weight (CW, kg) 177 ± 5.76 h 216 ± 6.07 g 189 ± 6.89 f 221 ± 6.07 e 200 ± 5.76 a 211 ± 5.76 a 184 ± 6.07 f 217 ± 6.07 e Hot carcass weight (CW, kg)177 ± 5.76 h216 ± 6.07 g189 ± 6.89 f221 ± 6.07 e200 ± 5.76 a211 ± 5.76 a184 ± 6.07 f217 ± 6.07 e Cold CW (kg) 169 ± 5.50 h 206 ± 5.79 g 180 ± 6.57 f 211 ± 5.79 e 191 ± 5.50 a 202 ± 5.50 a 176 ± 5.79 f 208 ± 5.79 e Cold CW (kg)169 ± 5.50 h206 ± 5.79 g180 ± 6.57 f211 ± 5.79 e191 ± 5.50 a202 ± 5.50 a176 ± 5.79 f208 ± 5.79 e Forequarter (kg) 42 ± 1.39 h 52 ± 1.47 g 45 ± 1.67 f 53 ± 1.47 e 48 ± 1.39 a 51 ± 1.39 a 44 ± 1.47 f 52 ± 1.47 e Forequarter (kg)42 ± 1.39 h52 ± 1.47 g45 ± 1.67 f53 ± 1.47 e48 ± 1.39 a51 ± 1.39 a44 ± 1.47 f52 ± 1.47 e Hindquarter (kg) 46 ± 1.52 h 57 ± 1.61 g 50 ± 1.82 f 58 ± 1.61 e 53 ± 1.52 a 56 ± 1.52 a 49 ± 1.61 f 57 ± 1.61 e Hindquarter (kg)46 ± 1.52 h57 ± 1.61 g50 ± 1.82 f58 ± 1.61 e53 ± 1.52 a56 ± 1.52 a49 ± 1.61 f57 ± 1.61 e Industrial mince (kg) 12 ± 0.41 h 15 ± 0.44 g 13 ± 0.50 f 16 ± 0.44 e 14 ± 0.41 a 15 ± 0.41 a 13 ± 0.44 f 15 ± 0.44 e Industrial mince (kg)12 ± 0.41 h15 ± 0.44 g13 ± 0.50 f16 ± 0.44 e14 ± 0.41 a15 ± 0.41 a13 ± 0.44 f15 ± 0.44 e Subproducts 51 ± 1.68 h 63 ± 1.77 g 55 ± 2.00 f 64 ± 1.77 e 58 ± 1.68 a 61 ± 1.68 a 53 ± 1.77 f 63 ± 1.77 e Subproducts51 ± 1.68 h63 ± 1.77 g55 ± 2.00 f64 ± 1.77 e58 ± 1.68 a61 ± 1.68 a53 ± 1.77 f63 ± 1.77 e Commercials (kg) 0.8 ± 0.02 h 1.0 ± 0.02 g 0.9 ± 0.03 f 1.0 ± 0.02 e 0.9 ± 0.02 a 1.0 ± 0.02 a 0.8 ± 1.77 f 1.0 ± 0.02 e Commercials (kg)0.8 ± 0.02 h1.0 ± 0.02 g0.9 ± 0.03 f1.0 ± 0.02 e0.9 ± 0.02 a1.0 ± 0.02 a0.8 ± 1.77 f1.0 ± 0.02 e Cuts with bones (kg) 13 ± 0.44 h 16 ± 0.47 g 14 ± 0.53 f 17 ± 0.47 e 15 ± 0.44 a 16 ± 0.44 a 14 ± 0.47 f 16 ± 0.47 e Cuts with bones (kg)13 ± 0.44 h16 ± 0.47 g14 ± 0.53 f17 ± 0.47 e15 ± 0.44 a16 ± 0.44 a14 ± 0.47 f16 ± 0.47 e Lean meat weight (kg) ꙉ 102 ± 3.34 h 125 ± 3.52 g 109 ± 3.99 f 128 ± 3.52 e 116 ± 3.34 a 122 ± 3.34 a 107 ± 3.52 f 126 ± 3.52 e Lean meat weight (kg) ꙉ102 ± 3.34 h125 ± 3.52 g109 ± 3.99 f128 ± 3.52 e116 ± 3.34 a122 ± 3.34 a107 ± 3.52 f126 ± 3.52 e Edible protein (kg)  ‡ 26 ± 0.86 h 32 ± 0.91 g 28 ± 1.03 f 33 ± 0.91 e 30 ± 0.86 a 31 ± 0.86 a 27 ± 0.91 f 32 ± 0.91 e Edible protein (kg)  ‡26 ± 0.86 h32 ± 0.91 g28 ± 1.03 f33 ± 0.91 e30 ± 0.86 a31 ± 0.86 a27 ± 0.91 f32 ± 0.91 e  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Predicted dry matter intake (DMI) and derived methane (CH4) emission indices for commercial Brahman (B. indicus) and Brahman crossbred cattle grazing mixed pastures of Andropogun gayanus, Mellinis minutiflora and Stylosanthes capitata (AgMmSc; 70:20:10) and A. gayanus plus S. capitata (AgSc; 95:5) or Braquiaria humidicola (Bh) monoculture † Adapted fromRamírez-Restrepo et al. (2014, 2016bc). Animal category comparison within the same variable and sward treatment followed by the same letter are not  significantly different (ab.: P < 0.05; cd.: P <0.01; ef.: P < 0.001; gh.: P < 0.0001; ij.: P ≤ 0.10)   significantly different (ab.: P < 0.05; cd.: P <0.01; ef.: P < 0.001; gh.: P < 0.0001; ij.: P ≤ 0.10)     Swards    Swards  AgMmSc-85 AgSc-86 AgSc-87 Bh-87 AgMmSc-85AgSc-86AgSc-87Bh-87  Cow Steers Cow Steers Cow Steers Cow Steers CowSteersCowSteersCowSteersCowSteers Animals 10 8 10 10 10 10 9 9 Animals1081010101099 DMI  † 7.2 ± 0.14 f 8.0 ± 0.15 e 7.4 ± 0.14 b 7.9 ± 0.14 a 7.0 ± 0.14 b 7.5 ± 0.14 a 7.2 ± 0.14 a 7.0 ± 0.14 a DMI  †7.2 ± 0.14 f8.0 ± 0.15 e7.4 ± 0.14 b7.9 ± 0.14 a7.0 ± 0.14 b7.5 ± 0.14 a7.2 ± 0.14 a7.0 ± 0.14 a CH4 emissions  †         CH4 emissions  † CH4 (g/day) 131 ± 3.21 f 148 ± 3.58 e 136 ± 3.21 b 146 ± 3.21 a 126 ± 3.21 b 137 ± 3.21 a 131 ± 3.38 a 126 ± 3.38 a CH4 (g/day)131 ± 3.21 f148 ± 3.58 e136 ± 3.21 b146 ± 3.21 a126 ± 3.21 b137 ± 3.21 a131 ± 3.38 a 126 ± 3.38 a CH4 (g/kg DMI)         CH4 (g/kg DMI)  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Comparative estimations of dry matter intake (DMI) and methane (CH4) emission factors between Brahman and/or crossbred Brahman cull cows and steers over their fattening time grazing a mixture of Andropogon gayanus and Stylosanthes capitata (AgSc; 95:5) and Braquiaria humidicola (Bh) over two consecutive wet seasons in the Meta Department of Colombia † Derived fromRamírez-Restrepo et al. (2014, 2016bc). Values between animal category within the same parameter and forage treatment followed by the same letter are not significantly different (ab.: P < 0.05; cd.: P <0.01; ef.: P < 0.001; gh.: P < 0.0001; ij.: P ≤ 0.10) Swards Swards  "},{"text":" Estimated daily (a) and yield (b) methane emissions from young cattle grazing on Andropogon gayanus associated with variable sward density of Mellinis minutiflora and Stylosanthes capitata. Legends for Figures         Legends for Figures Fig. 1.         Fig. 1.         02 d 02 d CH4 efficiency (kg CO2eq/kg CW) 4.3 ± 0.04 c 4.0 ± 0.05 d 4.3 ± 0.05 i 4.2 ± 0.05 j 3.4 ± 0.04 a 3.3 ± 0.04 a 3.4 ± 0.05 c 3.3 ± 0.05 d CH4 efficiency (kg CO2eq/kg CW)4.3 ± 0.04 c4.0 ± 0.05 d4.3 ± 0.05 i4.2 ± 0.05 j3.4 ± 0.04 a3.3 ± 0.04 a3.4 ± 0.05 c3.3 ± 0.05 d CH4 efficiency (kg CO2eq/kg EP) 27.3 ± 0.30 c 25.9 ± 0.31 d 27.5 ± 0.36 i 26.7 ± 0.31 j 21.5 ± 0.30 a 21.4 ± 0.30 a 22.7 ± 0.31 c 20.8 ± 0.31 d CH4 efficiency (kg CO2eq/kg EP)27.3 ± 0.30 c25.9 ± 0.31 d27.5 ± 0.36 i26.7 ± 0.31 j21.5 ± 0.30 a 21.4 ± 0.30 a 22.7 ± 0.31 c 20.8 ± 0.31 d  "}],"sieverID":"699951d5-932d-40bb-a79e-e65e6991188b","abstract":"Bodyweight performance, estimated carcass traits and methane emissions of beef-cattle categories grazing Andropogon gayanus, Melinis minutiflora and Stylosanthes capitata mixed swards and Brachiaria humidicola pasture.The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) believes that open access contributes to its mission of reducing hunger and poverty, and improving human nutrition in the tropics through research aimed at increasing the eco-efficiency of agriculture.CIAT is committed to creating and sharing knowledge and information openly and globally. We do this through collaborative research as well as through the open sharing of our data, tools, and publications."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01e17cb67b0753544767242dddfbbb02","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/37b49fc1-6157-44f5-abbf-2b6dd5fb6a1c/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTERVENTIONS:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"The "}]},{"head":"POLICY ACTIONS:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"1. Enhance implementation of the Capacity Building Strategy for Agriculture Sector of 2017, as well as and reviewing of curricula for tertiary-level institutions to reflect climate-resilient and low carbon solutions."}]},{"head":"2.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Promote the development of skills-upgrading training, experiential learning and short courses on climate resilient and low carbon agriculture development."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"REPUBLIC OF KENYA MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, LIVESTOCK, FISHERIES AND COOPERATIVES PRIORITY POLICY ACTIONS 1. ENHANCE implementation In addition, the National Strategy for Agricultural Education is currently being developed with the support of GIZ's for Technical and Vocational Education Training (TVET). Several public and private training centres and institutions have started pilot training on the developed curricula. However, climate change has not been adequately captured in the curricula and this provides an opportunity to integrate climate considerations. This is buttressed by Article 6 and Article 12 of the United Nations Framework Conventions on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Paris Agreement, respectively on education, training and public awareness. Also, climate change education is included in SDG 12 on \"sustainable consumption and production\" (Indicator 12:8:1). trainers. Further, strengthening linkages  trainers. Further, strengthening linkages between research, universities, extension,  between research, universities, extension, producers and other value chain actors  producers and other value chain actors is of critical importance to facilitate  is of critical importance to facilitate in diffusion of innovations. Retooling  in diffusion of innovations. Retooling of the existing policies and strategies  of the existing policies and strategies for extension services and capacity  for extension services and capacity development for the agriculture sector to  development for the agriculture sector to promote climate resilient and low carbon  promote climate resilient and low carbon farming solutions.    farming solutions. OPPORTUNITIES: The existing  OPPORTUNITIES:Theexisting policy instruments provide enabling  policy instruments provide enabling environment for capacity development.  environment for capacity development. These include the National Climate  These include the National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS  Change Response Strategy (NCCRS 2010) and the National Climate Change  2010) and the National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP 2018) emphasize of the Capacity Action Plan (NCCAP 2018) emphasizeof the Capacity the role of climate change education. More specifically, the Ministry's Capacity Building Strategy for the Agricultural Sector of 2017 in its Objective 5, proposes Building Strategy for Agriculture Sector of 2017 and update curricula for tertiary-level institutions. 2. PROMOTE the development of skills-upgrading training, experiential learning the role of climate change education. More specifically, the Ministry's Capacity Building Strategy for the Agricultural Sector of 2017 in its Objective 5, proposesBuilding Strategy for Agriculture Sector of 2017 and update curricula for tertiary-level institutions. 2. PROMOTE the development of skills-upgrading training, experiential learning strategies that could potentially attract and short courses on climate resilient and strategies that could potentially attractand short courses on climate resilient and youth participation in agriculture low carbon agriculture development. youthparticipationinagriculturelow carbon agriculture development. including facilitation of ICT applications in  including facilitation of ICT applications in agricultural value chains.   agricultural value chains.     solutions lie in solutions lie in     reviewing curricula for reviewing curricula for     agriculture extension agricultureextension     training for tertiary-level training for tertiary-level     institutions, to reflect institutions, to reflect     on climate-resilient, low on climate-resilient, low     carbon solutions and carbon solutions and     ICT related applications. ICT related applications.     This should also be This should also be     extended to incorporate extended to incorporate     climate resilience climateresilience     considerations in skill- considerations in skill-     upgrading training, upgradingtraining,     experiential learning experientiallearning     and short course meant and short course meant     for farmers, technicians, for farmers, technicians,     extension officers, policy extension officers, policy     makers and trainers of makers and trainers of  "}],"sieverID":"9901d1fe-ae1e-493f-b92e-bf842f3b54f2","abstract":"The dynamic nature of climate and its impacts on agriculture is rendering most of the existing adaptation and coping strategies unsupportive in many regions. Recent studies on economic sectors (including agriculture) across institutions and 24 counties have established the following: a widened gap between skills possessed by youth and those required by the job market; inadequate technical skills and knowledge on climate change and climate-smart technologies by the extension service providers; climate change has not been adequately integrated into Kenya's formal agricultural education, extension and training systems such as the Kenya School of Agriculture (KSA), Agricultural Technology Development Centres (ATDCs), Agricultural Training Centres (ATCs) and Agriculture Technical Vocational Education and Training (ATVET); the existing policies and strategies for capacity building for the agriculture sector have limited provisions for promoting climate resilient and low carbon development solutions. These calls for integration of climate change into the formal education, extension and training systems; equipping the training institutions to facilitate adoption of climate-smart innovations; capacity building of the extension service providers to enhance utilization and adaptation of the appropriate support agricultural technologies, innovations and climate-smart farming practices."}

data/part_1/01f01c33689e4cf9d252f52f06e0ebc3.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01f01c33689e4cf9d252f52f06e0ebc3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/45d20e88-ac00-4652-a50c-a19c7e36eee1/retrieve"},"pageCount":48,"title":"Carbon, Land and Water: A Global Analysis of the Hydrologic Dimensions of Climate Change Mitigation through Afforestation/ Reforestation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"Climate change and global warming have become familiar notions throughout the world, as the profound impact that human activities have made on global biogeochemical cycles is increasingly recognized. The global carbon cycle has received much international attention as it has become increasingly obvious that increased levels of CO 2 in the atmosphere are causing changes in our climate at an alarming rate. The Kyoto Protocol is an international effort aimed at mitigating climate change through the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. Within the Kyoto Protocol, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is an instrument which is intended to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, while assisting developing countries in achieving sustainable development, with the multiple goals of poverty reduction, environmental benefits and costeffective emission reductions. The CDM allows for a small percentage of emission reduction credits to come from reforestation and afforestation (CDM-AR) projects."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"In this report, we articulate the 'hidden' water dimensions of international efforts to mitigate climate change through multilateral treaties through a global analysis of land suitability and water use impacts of CDM-AR carbon 'sink' projects. Large amounts of land were identified globally as biophysically suitable and meeting the CDM-AR eligibility criteria. The eco-sociologic characteristics of these suitable areas were examined, with results showing that much of this land is under rain-fed and/or subsistence agriculture or savannah land. Large amounts of suitable land exhibited relatively low population densities. Generally, most of this land is below 1,000 meters (m) in elevation and of moderate productivity."},{"index":3,"size":169,"text":"If converted to forest, large areas deemed suitable for CDM-AR would exhibit increases in actual evapotranspiration and/or decreases in runoff, i.e., a decrease in water potentially available off-site for other uses. This is particularly evident in drier areas, the semi-arid tropics, and in conversion from grasslands and subsistence agriculture. However, major direct impacts of CDM-AR at the global and regional scales on water resources and food security are ascertained as unlikely, primarily due to the UNFCCC mandated cap on CDM-AR at one percent per annum of total emission obligations. However, significant changes in CDM-AR rules affecting the number of projects or amount of land that could eventually be under CDM-AR, should take into account these potential impacts on the hydrological cycle, and related food security issues. At the local and project level scale, impacts on water use was substantial. It was evident that CDM-AR projects can benefit from identifying locally optimal locations for tree plantations that maximize the positive aspects of increased 'green water' vapor flows and reduced runoff."},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"This report highlights the potentially significant impacts on the hydrologic cycle and the importance of considering secondary effects, particularly with regard to water, resulting from the widespread adoption of global climate change mitigation measures. It is recommended that the implicit hydrologic dimensions of climate change mitigation should be more formally articulated within the international environmental conventions, and recognized within future UNFCCC negotiations on the CDM-AR provisions."}]},{"head":"Summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":210,"text":"Human activities have profoundly affected global biogeochemical cycles and it is widely predicted that human induced climate change will significantly affect the biosphere of our planet. The global carbon cycle has received the most attention in recent years as it has become evident that increased levels of CO 2 in the atmosphere are causing changes in our climate at an alarming and accelerating rate (IPCC 1996;IPCC 2001). While many factors play into the complex equation of the impact of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions on the concentration of gases in the atmosphere, such as buffering by the world's oceans, there are two essential mitigation strategies available: emission reductions, or fixation of atmospheric CO 2 into socalled sinks, mainly biomass and ecosystems through photosynthesis. When this carbon fixation is semi-permanent, such as in forests, or recalcitrant soil organic matter, it is termed 'carbon sequestration'. Partial solutions to increased atmospheric CO 2 concentrations can therefore be found in sequestering carbon in terrestrial ecosystems (IPCC 2000). Forests and trees are important in this regard because they store large quantities of carbon in vegetation and soils. Forests are both sources of atmospheric CO 2 , when disturbed by natural or human causes, and sinks when vegetation and soil carbon accumulate after afforestation or natural revegetation."},{"index":2,"size":219,"text":"International efforts have mobilized to address climate change and other global environmental problems with global treaties and other legally mandated frameworks to minimize and mitigate impacts, including such agreements as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Climate Change, with the Kyoto Protocol (KP), the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Convention to Combat Desertification, and more. Each sets up institutions and mitigation measures that address global change issues and processes, and create mechanisms which are legally binding to the signatory countries. These institutions and measures have, however, complex interactions with real world multi-process, multiscale conditions, and can have both intended and unintended effects on carbon and other biogeochemical processes, but also on hydrologic cycles. In this report we articulate the implicit hydrologic dimensions of international efforts to mitigate climate change, specifically investigating potential impacts of the Clean Development Mechanism -Afforestation/ Reforestation (CDM-AR) provisions of the KP. The CDM-AR allows for carbon sequestration offsets of emission reduction obligations for the developed countries, through the purchase of 'carbon credits' from afforestation/reforestation projects in developing countries. These activities are generally referred to as 'sink' projects. This study delineates the potentially suitable areas for CDM-AR projects globally, describes the socio-ecological characteristics of these suitable lands, and estimates the impacts of CDM-AR on global, regional and local water cycles."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":372,"text":"In 1992, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was the first international convention to recognize the problem of climate change. It set out the objective of stabilizing GHG concentrations in the atmosphere to prevent dangerous interference with climate. The risks of climate change to food production and the importance of adaptation were particularly highlighted. The UNFCCC primarily encouraged developed countries to stabilize emissions. In 1997, specific legally-binding targets and timetables for cutting emissions were developed and adopted as part of the KP to the Convention (UNFCCC). The KP allows for various mechanisms to achieve these targets, including the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). CDM projects provide credit for financing emissionsreducing or emissions-avoiding projects in developing countries. It is hoped that the CDM will be an important new avenue through which governments and private corporations can promote sustainable development and transfer of clean technologies. Land use, land use change, and forestry (LULUCF) activities were included in the KP CDM instrument, recognizing the role of land use, and particularly forests, in regulating carbon cycles (Brown et al. 2002). The ability of forests (and land) to be both a source and sink for carbon allow for manipulation of these processes through forest management and other human activities, at a significant scale, i.e., meaningful in terms of climate change mitigation. However, the inclusion of these so-called 'sink projects' and the rules governing eligibility of LULUCF carbon offset credits were, and are, controversial, producing ample debate during the various rounds of negotiations (Kolshus 2001;Kolshus et al. 2001;Forner and Jotzo 2002;Jung 2003). Concerns center on whether CDM is a (too) cheap or easy way for Annex I Countries to avoid actual emission reductions, and that CDM-AR has a higher risk of leakage and unsustainable practice (Greenpeace 2003). Although the KP has only recently entered into Background force, and the first commitment period is from 2007-2012, much effort has already gone into developing CDM and CDM-AR projects. Funds have been set up to support CDM projects around the world, such as the World Bank Prototype Carbon Fund (PCF) and the BioCarbon Fund, more specifically for CDM-AR. In addition, there have been various capacity building activities for recipient countries and substantial private sector activity has developed (Huq 2002)."}]},{"head":"Clean Development Mechanism","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":201,"text":"One of the main purposes of the CDM is to assist developing countries in achieving sustainable development, with the multiple goals of poverty reduction, environmental benefits and cost-effective emissions reductions. The CDM is intended to provide a market vehicle through which developed countries with high rates of CO 2 emissions (referred to as Annex I Countries) can offset part of their emissions by purchasing carbon credits in developing countries. Bioenergy production is one CDM strategy in which biomass is grown (CO 2 is fixed) and then used for energy production (CO 2 is released again), thus they substitute CO 2 neutral energy for fossil fuel energy. CDM sink projects, unlike bioenergy or clean technology transfer projects, require that carbon be sequestered into semi-permanent 'sinks', primarily by growing trees, that is, currently through afforestation and reforestation (CDM-AR) projects. There is considerable optimism in developing countries and the development community that the potential investments represented by CDM sink projects can be a boon for rural development and environmental protection, if properly directed and monitored. Many countries are already heavily involved in planning or implementing pilot projects and numerous research programs are underway to understand and delineate how best to implement CDM-AR (see http://www.joanneum.at/encofor)."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Possible afforestation/reforestation activities fall into the following CDM-eligible categories:"},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"• New, large-scale, industrial plantation Sink projects continue to be controversial and developing the rules governing their inclusion into global climate change treaties has been long and arduous. Compared to the CDM technology transfer activities, CDM-AR projects involve a fundamental change in land use. Technology transfer makes an activity more efficient and/or less dependent on non-renewable energy sources. Reforestation and/or afforestation is fundamentally different, implying the cessation of one land use activity and its substitution with another, thus presenting several unique challenges in both carbon accounting and implementation. To make CDM-AR a positive development vehicle, rules were agreed upon and methodologies are being developed that attempt to reduce the risk of 'perverse incentives' that may result in social or environmental harm, and that adequately verify carbon sequestration, local environmental and sustainable development benefits, and secure carbon credits."}]},{"head":"Environmental and Social Issues of CDM-AR","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Reforestation and/or afforestation represents a fundamental change in the local ecological landscape and can have unintended consequences or contribute to ecosystem degradation. Loss of biodiversity, or other ecosystem services, can result from establishment of extensive fast growing plantation forests that are economically favored in terms of low costs per return in fixed carbon. Additionally, some activities may increase erosion, through disturbances caused by planting, establishment, and building of access roads."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"CDM-AR projects can also have negative impacts on rural societies and local economies where people are dependent upon project area resources. For example, indigenous land claims may be infringed when treaties and agreements are signed at the national level without taking into account local institutions or how benefits might be equitably shared. Changes in local economic activity can also affect key factors in sustainable development such as gender workloads (for example, increasing women's workload by forcing them to go further for firewood and water). Projects must engage local population in finding alternative sources of livelihood, if these are affected, or provide adequate compensation (Smith and Scherr 2002). Effective carbon sink projects must be integrated into local sustainable development, and involve far more than simply planting trees, including concern for off-site impacts on resources."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"In response to these concerns and other potential negative aspects associated with CDM-AR, several organizations have highlighted important social justice and environmental conservation aspects that are to be evaluated early in project cycles (see http://www.climatestandards.org). One such environmental and social issue that has thus far been generally overlooked is the water use dimension of carbon sequestration projects. Most terrestrial carbon fixation is the result of plant growth and photosynthesis. This process requires water from the ecosystem, which, if an increase in carbon stock is achieved, almost certainly means an increase in vapor flows, actual evapotranspiration (AET), and local in situ water use."}]},{"head":"Water Supply and Carbon Sequestration","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Water supply and scarcity has received increasing attention over the last decade, primarily driven by alarming WHO figures (2006) that 1.1 billion people lack access to safe and affordable water for their domestic use. Many of these are the rural poor who lack water not only for domestic purposes, but also to sustain agricultural livelihoods (Rijsberman et al. 2006). Numerous projections with regard to water supply and scarcity focus on the rising population and their needs for domestic and agricultural water. It is estimated, for example, that water diversions for agriculture must rise between 12 and 27 percent by 2025 to meet growing food needs (IWMI 2000;FAO 2001bFAO , 2003aFAO , 2003b;;Shiklomanov 1998). Many estimates agree that up to two-thirds of the world population will be affected by water scarcity over the next several decades (Shiklomanov 1991;Raskin et al. 1997;Seckler et al. 1998;Alcamo et al. 1997Alcamo et al. , 2000;;Vorosmarty et al. 2000;Wallace 2000;Wallace and Gregory 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Increasing demands for water to meet direct human needs will be felt most strongly where aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems alike already suffer from diversions of water for food production. The conflict between water diversions to agriculture and maintaining aquatic ecosystems has received the most attention. Environmental flow requirements (Smakhtin et al. 2004) are increasingly being taken into account to manage water allocations, to allow for the perpetuation of natural areas, wildlife and endangered species habitats, and environmentally sensitive wetlands. Links are now also being made between water for agricultural food production and water for terrestrial ecosystem services (Rockstrom et al. 1999)."},{"index":3,"size":219,"text":"Other ecosystem service demands for water, e.g., increased on-site vapor flows associated global climate change mitigation, are as yet rarely considered in these discussions. This is partly due to an under-appreciation that carbon fixation through biomass production will require consumption of water that will then not be available for other uses. A historical hydrological bias in water accounting considered only surface runoff and groundwater as available water supply and viewed terrestrial ecosystems and forests as water-provisioning rather than water consumptive (Falkenmark and Lannerstad 2004). The ongoing 'debate' on 'forests and water' has lately been the subject of much interest and research (CIFOR and FAO 2005), most notably through ecosystem evapotranspiration studies (L'vovich and White 1990;Gordon et al. 2005), the introduction of the concepts of green and blue water management in agriculture by Falkenmark (1995), Rockstrom et al. (1999), and in the forestry sector by Calder (2000). Only recently have a few studies highlighted the implications of global climate change mitigation strategies on water use (Aylward et al. 1998;Calder 2000;Berndes 2002;Heuvelmans et al. 2005). An analysis of bioenergy production concluded that large-scale expansion of energy crop production would require water consumption equal to that which is currently used for all crop production (Berndes 2002) and brought the implications of this 'green water' vapor flow demand for water into sharp focus."}]},{"head":"Forests and Water","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"It is generally accepted that tree removal by logging, forest fire, or wind damage increases runoff (Bosch and Hewlett 1982). Jackson et al. (2005) found that plantations decreased stream flow by 227 millimeters (mm) per year globally (52 percent), with 13 percent of streams drying completely for at least one year. The magnitude of this water decrease is proportional to the percentage of vegetation cover and is due to an increase in AET, an increase in the net additions to evaporation from interception losses, and an increase in the root exploring zone from which water is extracted under trees (Dingman 1993). A review of catchment experiments (Bosch and Hewlett 1982) found that pine and eucalypt plantations cause a 40 mm decrease in runoff for any 10 percent increase of forest cover with respect to grassland. The equivalent response of deciduous hardwood and shrubs is 25 and 10 mm decrease in runoff, respectively. Transpiration from trees can be higher than from shorter vegetation because tree root systems exploit deep soil water (Maidment 1992) available during prolonged dry seasons (IPCC 2000)."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"Recent references (Gedney et al. 2006;Matthews 2006) support the thesis that afforestation is not to be necessarily looked at as a burden for the global hydrological cycle. On-site hydrological effects of afforestation are mainly positive (reduced runoff and erosion, improved microclimate and increased control over nutrient fluxes); the off-site effects may be mainly negative (lower base flow), but in many cases these off-site effects of increased in situ vapor flows may be beneficial for downstream users. Gedney et al. 2006 speculate that increases over the last several decades in total discharge of the world's river systems is a consequence of increased CO 2 in the atmosphere, which makes plants more water efficient, although deforestation may have played an important part in this phenomena."}]},{"head":"Research Objectives","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"In this research report, we analyzed land and water use implications of CDM-AR at two scales, global and local. Land suitability for CDM-AR was modeled, as per the existing rules of the first commitment period, and a simple water balance approach is used to estimate impacts on hydrological cycles resulting from a change to forestry activities. In addition, socio-ecological characteristics of these suitable areas are described, including the land use types that currently exist on these lands, and their population and ecosystem characteristics. A GIS spatial modeling environment is used to delineate biophysical conditions, identify suitable areas for CDM-AR, and predict hydrologic changes with conversion of suitable lands to afforestation/ reforestation activities."}]},{"head":"Specific Objectives:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"1. To delineate areas suitable for CDM-AR, globally."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"2. To characterize suitable areas in both biophysical and socio-ecological terms."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"3. To estimate potential impacts of adoption of CDM-AR on global to regional hydrologic cycles."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"4. To estimate potential impacts of adoption of CDM-AR on local hydrologic cycles based on four in-depth case studies."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"The suitability of CDM-AR projects, as per the current proposed guidelines for their application in developing countries (i.e., Non-Annex I Countries), is constrained by the current UNFCCC guidelines for CDM-AR projects within the first commitment period (2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012), the definitions adopted for forest and forestry activities by individual countries, and a complex of biophysical and socio-economic factors necessary for a sustainable, socially equitable, and economically viable tree growing enterprise. Two main factors are reconciled in our analysis:"},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"1. The need to conform to the specific guidelines and regulations of the UNFCCC (e.g., the definition of forest, but also explicitly articulated concerns about food security, sustainability and environmental conservation)."},{"index":7,"size":24,"text":"2. Suitability of the biophysical environment to support relatively robust biomass production (i.e., fixation of GHG) to make the projects viable and economically feasible."}]},{"head":"Land Suitability Analysis","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"A spatial modeling procedure was developed and implemented in ArcGIS (ESRI Inc.) using ArcAML programming language, and used to identify areas meeting a range of suitability criteria as outlined below. All areas that are not likely to be suitable for these projects, due to the following environmental and social factors, have been excluded a priori from our analysis:"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• Arid/semi-arid areas with high Aridity Index (AI < 0.65)"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• High elevation areas, above 3,500 m and/or timberline • Areas covered by water bodies"},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"• Urban areas"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• Areas classified as various types of tundra"},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"• Areas classified as irrigated or under other intensive agricultural production, assuming that these areas are already in high value production or their conversion may impact on food security"},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"In addition, areas that are ineligible for CDM-AR due to UNFCCC rules have been excluded from the analysis:"},{"index":8,"size":38,"text":"• Currently forested areas. A threshold of 30 percent canopy cover was used as the forest definition, as per results of an earlier analysis of forest definitions on areas available at a national scale (Verchot et al. 2006)."},{"index":9,"size":47,"text":"Recently deforested areas, in this case, areas that are identified as forest in the USGS 1993 land use classification but currently exhibit a crown cover of less than 30 percent, as per guidelines that exclude recently deforested areas from being eligible for CDM-AR, were delineated and quantified."},{"index":10,"size":26,"text":"The results of the land suitability analysis are mapped and tabulated on a national, regional (sub-continental), and global basis. Results of area estimates are articulated by:"},{"index":11,"size":131,"text":"• Land Use Types • MOD17A3 -MODIS Net Annual Primary Production (Running et al. 2000) All datasets used for the analyses have been re-projected and processed in two coordinate systems, sinusoidal and geographic. The geographic coordinate system preserves landform shapes with a perspective that is generally easily recognizable to human perception and is therefore used for map presentation. The dataset in sinusoidal projection was used to calculate zonal statistics and carry out areal computations, because it represents area extent accurately for all pixels across latitudes (equal-area projection) while the geographic does not. The cell size for analyses in geographic projection is equal to 0.004497 degrees (15 arc-seconds, ~ 1 km at equator and 500 m at 60 degrees latitude), while the cell size for analyses in sinusoidal projection is 500 m."}]},{"head":"Forest Definition, Canopy Cover Percentage, and Recently Deforested Areas","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"CDM-AR projects are only eligible and allowed in currently non-forested areas. 'Forests' are individually defined by each Non-Annex I Country as areas within a range of 10-30 percent canopy cover, along with a minimum size and height criteria (Verchot et al. 2006), based upon the 'Marrakech Accords' agreed to at COP 7. Reforestation projects are allowed only in sites that were not forested on December 31, 1989 (afforestation generally refers to sites that have not had forest cover for more than 50 years). The MODIS Vegetation Continuous Fields dataset (Hansen et al. 2003), a global dataset of tree canopy cover extracted from multitemporal sequences of MODIS data (year 2001; resolution 15 arc-seconds) was used in this study to determine currently forested areas. This was compared with the Land Characteristics Database (USGS 1993) to ascertain recently deforested areas."}]},{"head":"Elevation limits for CDM projects","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Areas above and approaching timberline were not considered suitable and were estimated as areas with average temperature in the growing season below 6.5 o C, according to Korner and Paulsen (2004) and using length of the growing season calculations based on the WorldClim dataset (Hijmans et al. 2004). Although treeline can surpass 4,000 meters in certain parts of the world, CDM projects have been considered unrealistic at elevations above 3,500 meters. Thus, all land above 3,500 meters, (estimated based on the SRTM DEM) was excluded."}]},{"head":"Net Primary Productivity","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"The "},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"proposed CDM-AR scenarios, and the results are aggregated into yearly figures. A soil water balance budget is computed as height of water in mm for each month (m), as:"},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"where: ∆SWC m is the change in soil water content, EPrec m is the effective precipitation, AET m is the actual evapotranspiration, and R m is the runoff component, which includes both surface runoff and subsurface drainage. SWC can never exceed a maximum value, SWC max, which is the total SWC available for evapotranspiration (ET)."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Therefore, the SWC at the end of the month, is equal to:"},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"Where: is the soil water content at the beginning of the month. The SWC at the end of the month, is set as the SWC at the beginning of the following month, All the water exceeding SWC max is accounted as runoff:"},{"index":6,"size":1,"text":"[3]"}]},{"head":"Monthly Potential Evapotranspiration (PET)","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Potential evapotranspiration (PET) was estimated on a global scale to calculate the Aridity Index (AI) for the land suitability analysis and later used to explore hydrologic impact. PET is a measure of the ability of the atmosphere to remove water through ET processes. The FAO introduced a definition of PET as the ET of a reference crop in optimal conditions having the following characteristics: well watered grass with an assumed height of 12 centimeters (cm), a fixed surface resistance of 70 seconds per meter (s/m) and an albedo of 0.23 (Allen et al. 1998). Five different methods of calculating PET (table 1)"},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"were tested to verify which equation performed the best for the objectives of this analysis: Thornthwaite (Thornthwaite 1948), Thornthwaite modified by Holland (Holland 1978), Hargreaves (Hargreaves et al. 1985), Hargreaves modified by Droogers (Droogers and Allen 2002), and the FAO Global Penman-Monteith Dataset (Allen et al. 1998). Values of PET estimated using each of the above five methods were compared to Penman-Monteith PET values estimated at climate stations in South America and Africa (n = 2288). Based on the results of the comparative validation for South America (figure 1) and Africa (figure 2), the Hargreaves model was chosen to"},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"Five different methods of calculating PET were tested to verify which performed the best for the objectives of this analysis: Thornthwaite (Thornthwaite 1948), Thornthwaite modified by Holland (Holland 1978), Hargreaves (Hargreaves et al. 1985), Hargreaves modified by Droogers (Droogers and Allen 2002), and the FAO Global Penman-Monteith Dataset (Allen et al. 1998). Results are given as the mean difference (Diff) between observed and predicted estimates, and their standard deviations (SD).  (Hargreaves and Allen 2003). This allowed for its application at a finer resolution (at 1 km; resolution of the FAO Penman-Montieth dataset is 20 km). Hargreaves (1994) uses mean monthly temperature (Tmean), mean monthly temperature range (TD) and extraterrestrial radiation (RA, radiation on top of atmosphere) to calculate PET, as shown below:"}]},{"head":"Aridity Index","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Usually aridity is expressed as a function of Precipitation, PET, and Temperature (T). In a classification of climatic zones proposed by the UNEP (1997), Aridity Index (AI) is used to quantify precipitation deficit over atmospheric water demand:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Aridity Index (AI) = MAP / MAE [5] where:"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"MAP = mean annual precipitation MAE = mean annual evapotranspiration."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"Monthly values for precipitation, and minimum, maximum, and mean temperature were obtained from the WORLDClim dataset (Hijmans et al. 2004) for years 1960-1990, at a [4] FIGURE 1."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"Comparison of five methods of calculating PET for South America during two seasons. resolution of 30 arc-seconds, or ~1 km at equator."},{"index":6,"size":73,"text":"The global AI dataset produced in the analysis was compared to the USGS Land Characteristics Database (USGS 1993), and the MODIS Tree Cover Percentage (Hansen et al. 2003) estimates, to obtain an AI threshold. Optimal bioclimatic zones for CDM-AR were ascertained as AI > 0.65. This lower threshold for suitability represents the moisture range of the semi-arid zones (UNEP 1997), which can support rain-fed agriculture with more or less sustained levels of production."}]},{"head":"Actual Evapotranspiration and Green Water Vapor Flows","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Actual evapotranspiration (AET) is the quantity of water that is removed from the soil due to evaporation and transpiration processes (Maidment 1992). AET is dependent on vegetation characteristics, quantity of water available in the soil and soil hydrological properties (mainly soil water retention curves) (Allen et al. 1998):"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"where:"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"K soil = reduction factor dependent on volumetric soil moisture content (0-1)"},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"The vegetation coefficient (K veg ) is used to 'correct' the reference PET for different crops or vegetation types. K veg values for the various land use types were modeled by combining K veg coefficients for vegetation types taken from the literature, and their estimated occurrence within each land use type. K veg values are available from literature for agronomic crops (Allen et al. 1998) and for other vegetation types from various sources (Allen et al. 1998 The maximum amount of soil water available for ET processes within the plant rooting depth zone, here defined as SWC max , is equal to the SWC at field capacity (SWC fc ) minus the SWC at wilting point (SWC wp ) times the rooting depth."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"SWC max = RD * (SWC fc -SWC wp )"},{"index":6,"size":1,"text":"[7]"},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"where:"},{"index":8,"size":168,"text":"SWC max = maximum soil water content available for ET (mm) RD = rooting depth (mm) SWC wp = soil water content at wilting point (mm/mm) SWC fc = soil water content at field capacity (mm/mm) Soil water content at field capacity and wilting point are available from literature for the various soil texture typologies (Jensen et al. 1990). Rooting depth values for the various land use types were modeled by combining rooting depth of specific vegetation types under irrigated and non-water stress conditions, and their estimated occurrence within those land use types. Rooting depth of vegetation is likely to be deeper under water stressed conditions, as water is stored more in depth in the soil during dry seasons. Rooting depths values for vegetation types under irrigated and non-water stress conditions are available from the literature (Allen et al. 1998). A global dataset of ecosystem rooting depth (Schenk and Jackson 2002) was used to scale rooting depth of the various vegetation types to more realistic water stressed conditions."},{"index":9,"size":43,"text":"The soil stress coefficient (K soil ) represents the ET reduction factor resulting from the limit imposed by the absolute volumetric soil moisture content. The model uses a simple linear soil moisture stress function that is considered appropriate for monthly computation (Dyck 1983):"},{"index":10,"size":22,"text":"SWC m = soil water content averaged over the month Comparison of five methods of calculating PET for Africa during two seasons."},{"index":11,"size":1,"text":"13"}]},{"head":"Effective Precipitation","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":218,"text":"Rain interception is the process by which precipitation is intercepted by the vegetation canopy (canopy interception losses) and litter (litter interception losses), where it is subject to evaporation. Interception has an important role in the water budget, as it reduces the amount of precipitation available for soil moisture. Additionally, it protects the soil surface from erosion by reducing the rainfall energy (Tate 1996). The losses due to interception depend on vegetation type, vegetation cover and the intensity, duration, frequency and form of precipitation (Dingman 1993). Observations derived from several experiments demonstrate that vegetation interception is a purely mechanic function of the storage space of vegetation structure (Wilm 1957). Forests with dense crowns and large leaf areas are expected to have higher interception losses (IPCC 2000). Interception losses are on average greater for evergreen forest compared to seasonally leaf-shedding (Schulze 1982;Tate 1996) and for fast-growing trees compared to slow-growing trees (IPCC 2000). Thin or sparse vegetation shows low values of interception (Wilm 1957). Interception values for the various land use types were modeled by combining interception values from the literature for the various vegetation types (Hamilton and Rowe 1949;Young et al. 1984;Thurow et al. 1987;Farrington and Bartle 1991;Calder 1992;Le Maitre et al. 1999;Schroth et al. 1999), and the estimated occurrence of that specific vegetation within a land use type."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Effective precipitation (EPrec), that part of precipitation that adds moisture to the soil, is calculated as the gross precipitation (GPrec) minus the precipitation intercepted by canopy cover and litter (Int). The quantity of rain intercepted is proportional to the interception coefficient K int , specific for different types of land use types, calculated as a fraction of GPrec. There is a wide availability of such coefficients from literature for different vegetation types (Tate 1996)."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"For each month EPrec m is calculated as:"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"where: Int is equal to:"},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"Therefore:"},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"We combine the AET and Int components of the model to quantify 'green water' vapor flows, i.e., that portion of precipitation that evaporates into the atmosphere, and is not available as runoff (or 'blue water')."}]},{"head":"Local Water Use Impact","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"In order to investigate local and project level water use, a similar water balance approach was applied in four case study sites identified for CDM-AR (Zomer et al. 2004). These sites represent a range of biophysical conditions and project scenarios, with two sites in Ecuador and two in Bolivia (table 2): Changes in water cycles were modeled as a consequence of land use change to a specific proposed CDM-AR scenario, at a resolution of 30 m for the four case study sites, using both global and locally available data, and comparing the proposed CDM-AR project scenario for the site with the current land use. Tree canopy cover, current and historical, was estimated from Landsat TM imagery, and elevation was derived from SRTM 90 m DEM data (available from CGIAR-CSI: http:// srtm.cgiar.csi.org). Growth characteristics for specific species were obtained from literature and expert knowledge, where available (Zomer et al. 2006)."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":412,"text":"Lands suitable for CDM-AR CDM-AR projects are subject to a complex set of eligibility guidelines as defined within the UNFCCC in order to be certified to provide carbon emission reduction credits under the CDM. Our global spatial analysis identified all land surface areas that meet a minimal set of eligibility criteria, both statutory and biophysical (figure 3). Results were calculated for the entire world, and altogether, globally more than 760 million hectares (Mha) of land were found to be suitable, representing just over nine percent of total land surface area within the Non-Annex I (developing) Countries. Global totals in this paper are reported as the sum of five regions, which cover most of the developing (i.e., Non-Annex I) countries with significant CDM-AR potential, with the exception of some areas in Central America. Within these five regions, 725 Mha of land was initially identified as biophysically suitable. These results compare well with earlier studies that have asked the question how much land is available for reforestation (Winjum et al. 1998;Nilsson and Schopfhauser 1995;Trexler and Haugen 1995) and what is the potential carbon sequestration (Yamagata and Alexandrov 2001;Noble and Scholes 2001;Vrolijk and Grubb 2001; see Jung 2005 for an extensive listing by country). In these global studies, the area available for tree plantations is variably estimated at 345 Mha (Nilsson and Schopfhauser 1995), 465 Mha (Sedjo and Solomon 1989), and 510 Mha (Nordhaus 1991). Nilsson and Schopfhauser (1995) and Trexler and Haugen (1995) were designated by the IPCC Second Assessment Report (Brown et al. 1996) as suitable studies for global analysis of the mitigation potential of forests, including afforestation/reforestation. The two studies together suggest that 700 Mha of land could be available for carbon sequestration and conservation, globally, including 138 Mha for slowed tropical deforestation, 217 Mha for regeneration of tropical forests, and 345 Mha for plantations and agroforestry. However, Sathaye and Ravindranath (1998) suggest that 300 Mha may be available for mitigation in ten tropical and temperate countries in Asia, including 181 Mha of degraded land for plantation forestry, and 79 Mha of degraded forestland for regeneration. In our study, large tracts of suitable land are found in South America (46 percent of all the suitable areas globally) and Sub-Saharan Africa (27 percent), reflecting the greater landmass of these Global map of CDM-AR suitable land within Non-Annex I Countries, as delineated by the land suitability analysis. A 30% crown cover density threshold was used to define forest, and protected areas are not included."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"regions, and to a certain extent, lower population densities. Much smaller amounts of land are available in Asia, the three Asian regions together comprising about 200 Mha, compared to more that 330 Mha in South America and almost 200 Mha in Africa. Within the respective regions, the amount of available land ranged from only 8 percent of the total land surface area in Southeast Asia, to more than 19 percent of South America."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"As our suitability estimates are based exclusively on biophysical suitability combined with UNFCCC requirements, they naturally represent an over-estimation of actual areas available. Areas that might be available for CDM-AR, in reality, depend upon a more complex set of parameters set within a national, local and sitespecific socio-economic and ecological context. These conditions go beyond the CDM-AR rules, or the biophysical fact that trees grow well on any particular piece of land, to include such factors as land opportunity costs, access to markets, tenure, or national level infrastructure and support. It is estimated that a substantially smaller proportion of this identified area will meet the more specific criteria which are required to make CDM-AR a viable option for landowners, land managers, communities, and/or national planners."}]},{"head":"Current land use, population and ecosystem characteristics of CDM eligible lands","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"To understand the socio-economic and ecological nature and characteristics of the areas identified as suitable, and to better judge the likelihood of CDM-AR projects being realized there, eligible lands identified by the global analysis were characterized by existing land use class, population density, elevation zone, aridity index, and productivity classes (figure 4). These factors, beyond biophysical suitability, contribute to the likelihood of land being converted to CDM-AR  because they reflect current land use activities, the number of people who may be dependent on that piece of land, its productivity, and potential opportunity costs of CDM-AR projects."},{"index":2,"size":168,"text":"Land Use. Across the five regions, more than 50 percent of all the eligible area is classified as within an agricultural land use type, constituting more than 364 Mha (figure 4a). This is not surprising, and in line with generally accepted assumptions about availability of CDM-AR suitable land. Since the criteria specify that forested areas are not eligible, and since much deforestation has occurred to make room for agriculture, by elimination, agricultural land is left as likely to be available. While intensive production sites have been excluded from this analysis, it is likely that other agricultural areas are ideal for optimal tree growth, with deeper soils, better climate, adequate moisture, and also meet the CDM-AR criteria, i.e., are not currently forested. However, the probability for much of this area, either currently under commercial production, or in subsistence farming, to actually convert to CDM-AR is dependent on socio-economic and local food security issues. In this regard, this estimate should be considered a theoretical potential for land suitability (Cannell 2003)."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Both South Asia and Southeast Asia have a very high percentage of the land identified as suitable for CDM-AR classified as under agricultural land use types (76 percent), with much smaller areas of shrubland and savannah (table 3), reflecting the high population densities and pervasive agricultural production found in these regions. Much of the hilly land in South Asia and the Himalayan foothill areas have canopy cover percentages above the threshold for forest, although many of these areas are under various forms of intensive agricultural production."},{"index":4,"size":223,"text":"More than 52 percent (172 Mha) of the land in South America identified as suitable is classified as cropland. An additional 29 Mha is mixed shrubland/grassland, and is likely to be under some form of livestock production activity. Since the Aridity Index was set at a threshold that generally indicates a lack of water stress, these included savannah areas that can be considered as more mesic and fairly productive. Sub-Saharan Africa has a large amount of savannah (132 Mha) classified as suitable (68 percent), where it is likely that substantial pastoralist and other subsistence livelihood activities are present, even in less populated areas. Much of this savanna land, although identified as biophysically suitable for tree growth, has a very low probability of being converted to CDM-AR. These semi-arid lands do have a potential for agroforestry, and may also have other options beside tree plantations for increasing on-site carbon. Restoration of dry forest, for example, addressing losses of these types in the highlands of Ethiopia or Madagascar, although exhibiting very slow growth, can have significant potential for sequestering carbon over the long term (IPCC 2000). It is likely, however, that slow growing dry forest CDM-AR projects will require a relatively high price for sequestered carbon, and alternative strategies, for example ecotourism, or subsidies, due to their low financial returns, in order to be viable."},{"index":5,"size":131,"text":"Protected areas and national parks were excluded from this analysis. However, it is recognized that some degraded areas now designated as protected offer optimal opportunities for reforestation and CDM-AR. A relevant example is the Mt. Elgon Reforestation Project (FACE 1998), on the slope of Mt. Elgon in eastern Uganda. This National Park was deforested by massive encroachment during the regime of Idi Amin. Subsequently, the government of Uganda reclaimed this area as a national park, and worked with the FACE (Forests Absorbing Carbon Emissions) Foundation of the Netherlands to fund reforestation, based on the carbon sequestration component of the improved ecosystem services provided by the reforestation and ecosystem restoration. The legal commitment to permanency provided by the Uganda Wildlife Authority to the National Park provided an ideal opportunity for carbon sequestration."},{"index":6,"size":379,"text":"Population. Patterns of rural population densities on suitable land vary widely between regions (figure 4b). Population density is considered here as a measure of utilization and it is assumed that at high densities less land is likely to be converted to tree plantations. In addition, it is assumed that in areas of high rural population densities, competition for food production and food security issues will inhibit adoption of CDM-AR projects. Globally, more than 50 percent of all identified areas have population densities less than 25 people/square kilometer (sq km), that is, have relatively low densities, with more than 35 percent with densities less than 5 people/sq km (table 4). Areas in South America have the lowest population levels, with 95 percent of all identified areas having less than 100 people/sq km, and almost 70 percent less than 5 persons/sq km. Sub-Sahara Africa has less empty lands, but still has relatively low population densities associated with these identified areas. More than 85 percent of all areas identified in Sub-Sahara Africa have levels less than 100 persons per sq km. In contrast, East Asia has 55 percent of its identified areas with population levels above 100 people/sq km, with 11 percent above 500 people/ sq km. Likewise, South Asia has more than 65 percent of identified areas with population levels above 100 persons/sq km, and 24 percent above 500 persons/sq km. Southeast Asia has 65 percent of identified areas with population levels above 100 persons/sq km, and 33 percent with less than 25 persons/sq km. Much of the low population density classes in South America and Sub-Sahara Africa are comprised of savanna, although particularly in South America, substantial areas of very low population density are classified as agricultural land use types. In Southeast Asia, degraded forest areas account for much of the low density areas. In South Asia, cropland accounts for the majority of identified areas across all population density levels. Globally, large areas identified within the savanna land use class extend up to density classes of about 200 persons/sq km, as influenced by the large amounts of these areas found in South America and Sub-Sahara Africa. It seems that except in Asia, displacement of populations, which is often raised as a potential problem for CDM-AR, is not a major concern."},{"index":7,"size":320,"text":"Elevation. Globally, almost 60 percent of available lands are found below 500 m of elevation (table 5), with almost 80 percent below 1000 m. This trend is generally true for all regions, except Sub-Sahara Africa (figure 4c), which has about 40 percent below 500 m, and almost 50 percent between 500 and 1500 m. In general, the notion that one would find most of these projects in mountainous or sloped areas seems to be discounted at the scale of this analysis, as demonstrated by relatively little available land above 1500 m, less than 10 percent globally, with only 20 percent available above 1000 m. However, it is very likely that on hilly, sloped, or mountainous lands, at more local scales, CDM-AR projects may have comparative advantages, especially if other ecosystem services are taken into account. CDM-AR suitable land by elevation class, given by area (Mha), and as percent (%) of the total suitable land, regionally and globally. CDM-AR suitable land by population density class given by area (Mha), and as percent (%) of the total CDM-AR suitable land, regionally and globally. Aridity Index. Approximately 30 percent of the initially identified areas had values below the optimal threshold value of 0.65 for the Aridity Index, globally (figure 4d). Sites with values below 0.65 were considered as sub-optimal for tree growth, and/or in some cases may not be suitable for more than mixed shrub and small woody vegetation types. In Africa, 38 percent of initially identified areas were below the optimal Aridity Index (AI) value of 0.65, and large areas in Sub-Saharan Africa, South America (figure 5) and South Asia were identified within semi-arid zones. While natural forests can be found within these zones, these areas are considered as marginally suitable for CDM. They may, however, be utilized for specialized or focused projects, such as restoration of dry forests. We have excluded these areas in our final assessment of total suitable land."},{"index":8,"size":147,"text":"Net Primary Productivity. Results obtained from a spatial analysis of the NASA MODIS MOD-17A3 NPP product show that lands suitable for CDM-AR generally fall into moderately low to moderate productivity categories (figure 4e), indicating that higher productivity lands, mainly intensive and irrigated cropping and forested areas, were eliminated by the analysis, thus leaving proportionally large amounts of less productive land and borderline marginal areas for afforestation/reforestation. Likewise, many of the most marginal areas were also eliminated by the Aridity Index criteria, thus giving a generally Gaussian distribution of productivity classes, centered on a moderately productive mean. Globally, 88 percent of all available land had a NPP below 10 tonnes of carbon/per hectare/per year (tC/ha/yr) (table 6). About 75 percent of available land in Africa and Southeast Asia, and Aridity Index (AI) was calculated for the entire globe, with aridity maps for South America and Africa shown below."},{"index":9,"size":44,"text":"A threshold value of AI > 0.65 was used as a parameter in the land suitability analysis to delineate CDM-AR suitable areas. CDM-AR suitable land by NPP class given by area (Mha), and as percent (%) of the total suitable land, regionally and globally."},{"index":10,"size":65,"text":"NPP (tC/ha/yr) 0-2.5 2.5-5.0 5.0-7.5 7.5-10.0 10.0-12.5 12. almost all available land in South America (92 percent), South Asia (96 percent) and East Asia (98 percent), indicated a NPP less than 10 tC/ha/ yr. These results indicate productivity levels consistent with global values (Esser et al. 2000;Scurlock and Olson 2002) and reflect the abundant inclusion of marginal and subsistence cropping areas, and lower productivity grassland."}]},{"head":"National Level Land Suitability Analysis and Socio-Ecological Characteristics","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The land suitability analysis was delineated, mapped and tabulated for all Non-Annex I KP signatory countries. Results of these analyses are interactively available on-line for each country using the ENCOFOR CDM-AR Online Analysis Tool, available at http://csi.cgiar.org/encofor/."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Results are given on a country by country basis, with maps, tables, and graphs of the delineated area and its socio-ecological characteristics presented. In addition, the search tool allows the user to specify the crown cover density threshold to be used as 'forest definition' (Verchot et al. 2006), and whether or not to include protected areas (which includes national parks and other bioreserves) within the area deemed suitable for afforestation and reforestation."}]},{"head":"Land required to meet the CDM-AR cap","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Including CDM-AR activities into the KP has been one of the 'crunch issues' in the climate negotiations, and has spawned much debate (Noble and Scholes 2001). In addition to the basic controversy with regards to the effectiveness of CDM-AR to mitigate GHG emissions, controversial issues include measurement of carbon sequestration, permanence, leakage, land conflicts and environmental considerations (Schlamadinger and Marland 2000;Torvanger et al. 2001)  (Smith and Scherr 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":313,"text":"In response to widespread concerns that CDM sink projects would impact negatively on CO 2 emission reduction aims (Greenpeace 2003), a cap on CDM-AR emission reduction offsets was set at one percent of the total global emission reduction target. The limit on the use of sink projects under the CDM implies that the annual flow of Certified Emissions Reductions (CERs) from afforestation and reforestation under Article 12 has an upper limit of 32.6 megatonnes of Carbon (Mt C), representing 119.6 megatonnes of Carbon Dioxide (Mt CO 2 ) equivalents, based on UNFCCC emission figures (Kolshus 2001). In order to make a rough estimate of the amount of land that would be required to fully meet this cap, we used an averaged estimate for annual carbon sequestration (4 to 8 tC/ha/yr), based on a literature survey of tropical tree plantation growth rates and the IPCC guidelines (IPCC 2000). The calculation indicates that from 4 to 8 Mha of land planted with fast growing tree species will easily satisfy the total allowable demand for CERs. Assumptions incorporated into this estimate include accounting for baseline and the lower productivity of marginal or degraded areas. It is further assumed that many of these projects, which are likely to have goals beyond maximizing profitability, are likely to be less productive than typical intensively managed commercial tree plantations as they are found in the tropics. This is a relatively small figure, representing less that 1-2 percent of the area we have identified as suitable. CDM-AR is likely to be relatively small compared to globally suitable area estimates, and be geographically dispersed, both nationally and globally. Although small compared to the total global suitable area estimate, the total amount of land, and the potential funds made available for development, can be significant, both locally and nationally, depending upon rate of adoption, and especially dependent upon the market price for CERs."}]},{"head":"Water use impact of CDM-AR","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"Land use changes resulting from the adoption of CDM-AR involve alterations of the hydrological cycle, both on flows of water and sediment and in situ vapor flow. Both, the relative impact on water cycles and absolute change in the quantity of water moving away from the site either as vapor or runoff, were quantified and mapped in this analysis. Together they indicate that large areas deemed suitable for CDM-AR would exhibit significant increases in vapor flow (figure 6) and/ or substantial decreases in runoff (figure 7). This is particularly evident in drier areas, the semi-arid tropics, and in conversion from grasslands and subsistence agriculture. Significant variation amongst biomes and bioclimatic zones is evident. However, almost 20 percent (144 Mha) of all suitable land showed little or no impact on runoff with another 28 percent (210 Mha) showing only moderate impact (table 7).  Decreases in runoff resulting from landuse change to CDM-AR, are given both in absolute terms (mm), and as the percentage decrease (%) from existing landuse."},{"index":2,"size":183,"text":"Taken together 50 percent of all suitable land showed a decrease in runoff of less than 60 percent (figure 4f). About 27 percent (200 Mha) is in the highest impact class exhibiting an 80-100 percent decrease in runoff. Altogether, almost 60 percent showed a decrease of less than 200 mm, with only slightly more than 13 percent showing a decrease of more than 300 mm (figure 4g). Since it is reasonable to assume that only a small proportion of these lands would be converted to forestry land use types, it is unlikely that global scale or even major regional impacts would be evident in the aggregated statistics. Further, with the cap on CDM-AR at one percent, estimated by this study to be satisfied by at most conversion of a mere 2 percent of available land, direct impacts of CDM-AR at the global and regional scales are unlikely. However, significant changes in CDM rules affecting the number of carbon sink projects, or amount of land which will eventually be under CDM-AR, should take into account these potential impacts on the hydrological cycle.  (Dingman 1993)."},{"index":3,"size":330,"text":"All four sites showed a marked reduction in runoff, with both on-site and off-site implications (table 8). On the humid lowland tropical Amazon site in Chapare, Bolivia (figure 8), the impact of the reduction was minimal, since precipitation is high and not a limiting factor. By contrast, the drier high elevation Tunari site in Bolivia (figure 9) showed significant decrease (28 percent) in runoff. There was relatively little impact on soil water content since these denuded slopes already have a very low water holding capacity under the existing land use. At this site, recurrent flooding due to excessive runoff from eroded slopes during the rainy season is a major problem for the adjacent city of Cochabamba, thus decreased runoff and lowered water tables as demonstrated in this study are considered positive. Thus, tree planting for the Tunari site is shown to be an effective means to provide multiple benefits such as conservation and flood mitigation. In the Guamote case study, in the highland Sierras of Ecuador (figure 10), the water implications of afforestation with pine trees is already a controversial issue (Farley et al. 2004). In addition to a large decrease in runoff (54 percent), there also appears to be a significant impact on the soil water content (decrease of 32 percent), indicating a likelihood of decreasing water table levels over time. Increases in AET and total vapor flows are relatively small, since this system is already water limited under current land use. As predicted in this case, common consequences of afforestation projects using fastgrowing conifers are decreased levels of stream flow, both over the entire year (Swank and Douglass 1974) and during the dry season (Vincent 1995). Likewise, the reduction in runoff associated with conversion of pasture to mixed tropical indigenous agroforestry in coastal Ecuador (figure 11) was relatively large (47 percent). However, again in this case, the generally higher level of precipitation and the site's downstream location within the catchment, minimized the importance of the decrease in runoff."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"TABLE 8."},{"index":5,"size":268,"text":"Results of water balance model applied at local scale for four case studies. Project area represent the total area allocated to the project, and CDM-AR area is the total area within the project area suitable for CDM-AR. Vapor flow is given as the sum of AET and Int, in order to represent total ET, and is presented as the percent increase resulting from landuse change to CDM-AR. Runoff and SWC are given as the percent decrease resulting from landuse change to CDM-AR.     This report highlights that there is an abundance of land for, and potentially significant impacts resulting from, climate change mitigation measures, particularly on the hydrologic cycle. The global impact of redistribution of water use driven by agriculture and land use change, of which CDM-AR can be a contributing factor, is a major component of ongoing global change, with high significance in terms of impact on climate change processes. The CDM-AR hydrological impact analysis shows significant impacts on local and regional hydrologic cycles, although they are not evident at regional or global scale under current rules which limit the amount of sink projects to a one percent cap. If the cap on CDM-AR were raised to compensate for a substantially greater offset of carbon emission through sink projects, it is suggested that it will be increasingly important to consider implications on local to regional water resources. Although not currently of this same magnitude (i.e., under the one percent cap), this important dimension of CDM-AR should be formally articulated and taken into account within the CDM-AR guidelines, especially when addressing issues of sustainability, local communities, and food security."},{"index":6,"size":265,"text":"The potential for small farmers and communities to participate in CDM-AR has been highlighted and promoted by developing countries and NGOs. In particular, the adoption of agroforestry type practices has been put forward as a way for smaller farmers and communities to participate in CDM-AR projects. This may constitute an option for significantly increasing the carbon sequestration within rural and agricultural landscapes, while contributing positively to increased food and household security. CDM-AR rules do not currently encourage, or make it easy to promote these types of small scale, small holder, less intensive approaches, and it is more likely that much of CDM-AR projects will be in the form of fastgrowing timber plantations. As such, there are indeed both national and local food security considerations that must be taken into account in proposing CDM-AR development activities. In many areas, food security may not be an issue, certainly not regionally or nationally. However, in areas with insecure or highly unequal tenure rights, in systems where large numbers of tenant farmers may be displaced due to the lower labor requirements of forestry activities, or access to land by indigenous communities may be lost, the displacement of subsistence farming activities may be of high concern (Smith and Scherr 2002). In contrast, examples of poplar-based agroforestry from northern India (Gupta et al. 2005) demonstrate that small-scale wood plantations and agroforestry can substantially increase carbon stocks with significant positive benefits for rural communities. In this case, where intensively cultivated irrigated areas are being converted to agroforestry, afforestation provides added security to small farmer livelihoods by offering alternate production opportunities and diversification."},{"index":7,"size":71,"text":"In general, the results indicate that, although impacts may not be discernable at the global or regional level, CDM-AR projects have large and significant local impacts on water use, with both on-site and downstream implications. Investigation of these four case studies illustrates that both local effects, and desired outcomes, are highly site specific and highlights the importance of considering hydrologic implications of land use change, when evaluating, planning and implementing CDM-AR."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":218,"text":"The afforestation of upland catchments with fast growing plantations can have significant impact on in situ water use, with consequent impacts on water availability downstream. Generally, CDM-AR results in an increase of AET, or 'green water' vapor flows, increased on-site water use, and decreased movement of water and sediments off-site. However, whether this is a positive or negative impact on water resources, water management, soil and land conservation, biodiversity, and/or downstream food security, is highly site specific, and dependent upon climate, soil types, topography, land uses, population densities, existing infrastructures, and tradeoffs with coexisting demands for water. Whereas trees do use more water than many other vegetation forms and most crops, this analysis has shown that the variability in response is highly dependent on the specific ecological characteristics of the site, and that globally, there are large areas of land where impacts of CDM-AR on water resources and food security will be minimal. On a national and local basis, the selection of CDM-AR sites can take into consideration these specific hydrologic and socioecological aspects, to evaluate increased green water vapor flows and associated decreases in runoff, and to identify optimal conditions and locations which minimize negative aspects. Projects can even capitalize on the positive aspects of these potential impacts, for instance, in reducing recurrent flooding, or sediment transfer."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"It is evident that the supply of potentially available land, and consequently the potential supply of carbon which can be sequestered, is far greater than the current cap on CDM-AR credits. It is likely that CDM-AR, and possibly other carbon sink approaches, will play a larger, increasingly more important role in the future, most probably starting in the second KP commitment period. This analysis shows that the potential for carbon sequestration by sink projects is great. Current negotiations also bring up the prospect of innovative approaches, which could include avoided deforestation, and restoration of degraded forests, so that credits available from sink projects will increase. In addition, we highlighted here the 'hidden' water dimension associated with climate change mitigation efforts that can be found in many of the other global treaties and conventions addressing the various contemporary environmental and global issues. Articulating these 'secondary effects' on the hydrologic cycle is essential if we are to address these global concerns in a holistic fashion."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Net Primary Productivity Class (NPP) Environmental and other global geospatial datasets used within the global analysis include: (Spatial resolution: 500 m -1 kilometer (km) / 15 -30 arc-seconds) • VMAP 1 -Country Boundaries (National Imagery and Mapping Agency) (NIMA 1997) • Global Ecosystem Land Cover Characterization Database v. 2.0 (USGS 1993) Methods • MODIS Vegetation Continuous Field -Tree Cover (Hansen et al. 2003) • Topography -SRTM DEM (USGS 2004) • World Database on Protected Areas (IUCN/UNEP -WDPA Consortium 2004) • WorldClim (Hijmans et al. 2004) • Maximum Available Soil Water (Digital Soil Map of the World -FAO 1995) • Climate Station Dataset (FAOCLIM -FAO 2001a) • Gridded Population of the World (2000) (GPWv3 -CIESIN and CIAT 2005) • Global Map of Ecosystem Rooting Depth (ISLSCP -Schenk and Jackson 2002) "},{"text":" ; Costello and Jones 2000; U. S. Bureau of Reclamation 2005). "},{"text":" FIGURE 2. "},{"text":" FIGURE 3. "},{"text":" FIGURE 4. Socio-ecological characteristics of CDM-AR suitable areas: (a) Existing landuse; (b) Population density (persons/sq km); (c) Elevation (meters asl); d) Aridity Index (AI); (e) Net Primary Productivity (NPP) (tC/ha/yr); (f) Percentage decrease in runoff (%) with land use change to CDM-AR; and (g) Decrease in runoff (mm) with land use change to CDM-AR. "},{"text":" FIGURE 5. "},{"text":"FIGURE 6 . FIGURE 6.Increases in vapor flow resulting from landuse change to CDM-AR, are given both in absolute terms (mm), and as the percentage increase (%) from existing landuse. Vapor flow includes both the AET and Int components of the water balance model. "},{"text":" FIGURE 7. "},{"text":"FIGURE 8 . FIGURE 8. Chapare Case Study: (a) CDM-AR suitable land; (b) increase in vapor flow (AET and Int) with landuse change to CDM-AR; (c) decrease in SWC with landuse change to CDM-AR; (d) decrease in Runoff with landuse change to CDM-AR; and (e) representative view of the project area, showing a mixed farming landscape typical of this area in the Bolivian Amazon. "},{"text":"FIGURE 9 . FIGURE 9. Tunari Case Study: (a) CDM-AR suitable land; (b) increase in vapor flow (AET and Int) with landuse change to CDM-AR; (c) decrease in SWC with landuse change to CDM-AR; (d) decrease in Runoff with landuse change to CDM-AR; and (e) view of reforestation with pine in the Tunari National Park, with the city of Cochabamba below. "},{"text":"FIGURE 10 . FIGURE 10. Guamote Case Study: (a) CDM-AR suitable land; (b) increase in vapor flow (AET and Int) with landuse change to CDM-AR; (c) decrease in SWC with landuse change to CDM-AR; (d) decrease in Runoff with landuse change to CDM-AR; and (e) community-owned afforestation projects in one of the poorest regions in the highlands of Ecuador. "},{"text":"FIGURE 11 . FIGURE 11. Coastal Ecuador Case Study: (a) CDM-AR suitable land; (b) increase in vapor flow (AET and Int) with landuse change to CDM-AR; (c) decrease in SWC with landuse change to CDM-AR; (d) decrease in Runoff with landuse change to CDM-AR; and (e) pastures throughout the humid tropics offer opportunities for increasing carbon baselines. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 . Socio-ecological characteristics and project scenarios for the four case study sites. Project Site Ecological Zone Elev Precip Temp Pop Project Type Project SiteEcological ZoneElevPrecipTempPopProject Type   (m) (mm/yr) ( o C)   (m)(mm/yr)( o C) Tunari NP, Bolivia Sierra 2,800-5,100 900 7-18 22,000 Ecological Restoration Tunari NP, BoliviaSierra2,800-5,1009007-1822,000Ecological Restoration Chapare, Bolivia Amazon 200-1,000 3,000 23-26 9,000 Small Farm Agroforestry Chapare, BoliviaAmazon200-1,0003,00023-269,000Small Farm Agroforestry Guamote, Ecuador Sierra 2,900-3,700 700 7-12 5,300 Community Plantations Guamote, EcuadorSierra2,900-3,7007007-125,300Community Plantations Coastal Ecuador Tropical Coastal 0-500 1,300 23-25 8,900 Mixed Species Agroforestry Coastal EcuadorTropical Coastal0-5001,30023-258,900Mixed Species Agroforestry  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 . CDM-AR suitable land by existing landuse type, by total area (Mha), and percent (%) of the total suitable land, regionally and globally.  Existing Landuse Type        Existing Landuse Type    Mixed    Barren/  MixedBarren/    Shrubland/   Sparsely  Shrubland/Sparsely  Cropland Grassland Savanna Vegetated Total CroplandGrasslandSavannaVegetatedTotal Region Mha % Mha % Mha % Mha %  RegionMha%Mha%Mha%Mha% East Asia 59 63 20 21 14 15 0 0.1 93 East Asia59632021141500.193 Sub-Sahara Africa 54 28 8 4 132 68 1 0.4 195 Sub-Sahara Africa5428841326810.4195 South America 172 52 29 9 132 40 1 0.2 333 South America172522991324010.2333 South Asia 48 76 3 5 12 18 0 0.1 63 South Asia487635121800.163 Southeast Asia 31 76 3 8 6 16 0 0.2 41 Southeast Asia31763861600.241 Global 364 50 63 9 296 41 2 0.2 725 Global364506392964120.2725  "},{"text":"TABLE 5 .   "},{"text":"TABLE 4 .   Elevation Class (m)          Elevation Class (m)  0-500 500-1000 1000-1500 1500-2000 > 2000 Total 0-500500-10001000-15001500-2000> 2000Total Region (Mha) (%) (Mha) (%) (Mha) (%) (Mha) (%) (Mha) (%)  Region(Mha)(%)(Mha)(%)(Mha)(%)(Mha)(%)(Mha)(%) South America 234 70 85 25 9 3 2 0 4 1 333 South America234708525932041333 Sub-Sahara Africa 74 38 50 26 40 20 18 9 12 6 195 Sub-Sahara Africa743850264020189126195 South Asia 49 77 11 18 1 2 1 2 1 2 63 South Asia4977111812121263 Southeast Asia 35 87 3 8 1 3 0 1 0 1 41 Southeast Asia35873813010141 East Asia 59 63 14 15 7 8 6 6 8 8 93 East Asia5963141578668893 Global 451 62 163 23 58 8 27 4 26 2 725 Global4516216323588274262725  "},{"text":"TABLE 6 .   "},{"text":"TABLE 7 . Decrease in total runoff (mm) and percent decrease (%) in total runoff with landuse change to CDM-AR on suitable land, regionally and globally.  Decrease in Runoff (mm)      Decrease in Runoff (mm)  0-50 50-100 100-150 150-200 200-250 250-300 300-400 > 400 0-5050-100100-150150-200200-250250-300300-400> 400 Region (Mha)        Region(Mha) East Asia 16 14 10 16 18 7 2 1 East Asia1614101618721 Sub-Sahara Africa 15 19 45 67 30 12 9 2 Sub-Sahara Africa15194567301292 South America 38 42 57 81 72 38 27 5 South America384257817238275 South Asia 0 1 2 8 9 1 2 2 7 6 South Asia012891 22 76 Southeast Asia 0 1 2 3 3 3 8 1 1 Southeast Asia01233381 1  (Mha)        (Mha) Global 69 76 116 175 132 73 72 25 Global6976116175132737225  Decrease in Runoff as a Percent of Total (%)     Decrease in Runoff as a Percent of Total (%)  0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100    0-2020-4040-6060-8080-100 Region (Mha)        Region(Mha) East Asia 6 10 25 21 22    East Asia610252122 Sub-Sahara Africa 0 13 11 3 2    Sub-Sahara Africa0131132 South America 3 12 22 19 9    South America31222199 South Asia 7 33 58 53 48    South Asia733585348 Southeast Asia 11 48 94 87 119    Southeast Asia11489487119  (Mha)        (Mha) Global 28 116 210 183 200    Global28116210183200  "}],"sieverID":"c35fbc49-b32b-448c-9fe1-2a3ffd8ad046","abstract":"In serving this mission, IWMI concentrates on the integration of policies, technologies and management systems to achieve workable solutions to real problems-practical, relevant results in the field of irrigation and water and land resources.The publications in this series cover a wide range of subjects-from computer modeling to experience with water user associations-and vary in content from directly applicable research to more basic studies, on which applied work ultimately depends. Some research reports are narrowly focused, analytical and detailed empirical studies; others are wide-ranging and synthetic overviews of generic problems.Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI's own staff and Fellows, and by external reviewers. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (www.iwmi.org) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"021036e8ca7f3e174a1fed3faf23cbae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9bf4ea8e-305c-4bdb-b5a0-eb7c28c59936/retrieve"},"pageCount":28,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"The 'Urban food markets in Africa-Incentivizing food safety using a pull-push approach (Pull-Push) Project' is a project implemented by the International Livestock Research Institute since 2019 in partnership with the Institute for Research in Applied Sciences and Technologies (IRSAT), the Institute of Environment and Agricultural Research (INERA), Joseph Kizerbo University (UJKO), the Centre for the Analysis of Economic and Social Policies (CAPES) as well as the state technical services in charge of livestock, agriculture, health, trade as well as the municipality of Ouagadougou. Funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the UK's Department for International Development (DFID) and the CGIAR Agriculture's for Nutrition and Health (A4NH) research program, this research project aimed to improve food safety in urban informal markets in Burkina Faso (and Ethiopia) and more particularly those of poultry and vegetables. After 5 years of implementation, this project is coming to its end. It is in this context that from 02-03 October 2023, the closing workshop of the Pull-Push project was held at Bravia Hotel in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso."}]},{"head":"Objectives of the workshop","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The main objective of this workshop was to share the results of research conducted as part of implementing the Pull-Push project with all stakeholders involved in food safety. Specifically, these were to:"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• present and discuss the research results generated by the project with the stakeholders;"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"• discuss issues relating to food safety in Burkina Faso;"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• identify prospects for possible future initiatives."}]},{"head":"Opening ceremony","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The opening ceremony of the workshop was chaired by Henri Kabore, representative of the Minister Delegate to the Minister of Agriculture, Animal Resources and Fisheries, in charge of Animal Resources. This opening ceremony was marked by:"},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"• the speech of Theodore Knight-Jones, project coordinator, who thanked the project's research team as well as the various implementing partners. He recalled the importance of this project for the sustainable improvement of food safety in Ouagadougou before thanking all the participants in the workshop."},{"index":3,"size":197,"text":"• The opening speech was given by Henri Kabore who thanked all the participants for their attendance. His thanks were also extended to the project coordination team. He did not fail to emphasize the importance of the theme dealt with in the project, which is a topical issue, the issue of hygiene that prevails in the diet of urban populations. He highlighted the large quantities of poultry that are consumed in Burkina Faso. However, the harmful practices often observed in poultry outlets in the city of Ouagadougou pose a risk of contaminating these foods. He also hoped that the results of the work carried out would be disseminated through the various communication channels. As a member of the board of the Ministry's office, he affirmed his availability to support the project in popularizing the results generated. He concluded his remarks by also thanking the participants who are online before declaring on behalf of the Minister Delegate in charge of Animal Resources as well as on behalf of the entire Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Resources and Fisheries declared open the closing workshop of the project 'Urban food markets in Africa-Incentivizing food safety using a pull-push approach (Pull-Push Project)'."}]},{"head":"First round of presentations","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"This series consisted of 6 presentations followed by a discussion session."}]},{"head":"Reminder about the Pull-Push project","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The reminder on the project was given by Michel Dione, researcher at ILRI, national coordinator of the project. He started by recalling the context and justification for the initiative of this project. Indeed, with an estimated daily consumption of about 80 thousand chickens in the city of Ouagadougou, in a market dominated by informal actors, the health risks associated with consuming this food are potentially high."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"He then returned to the methodological approach used in the project. This is the 'Pull-Push' approach focused on the consumer with the aim of providing the consumer with the necessary information to change their purchasing behaviour for chicken and vegetables. Consumers will then demand healthy food when buying meat, chicken or vegetables. The approach also considered the capacity building of the value chain actors to meet the consumer demand by providing quality food products. Finally, the project considered strengthening the capacities of the actors in charge of food control for a harmonized understandings of food safety priorities and for an improved control of foods."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"The project was implemented through their 7 components:"},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"• Component 1: Estimating the burden and economic cost of foodborne illnesses in Burkina Faso;"},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"• Component 2: Understanding poultry and vegetable (tomato) value chains;"},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"• Component 3: Quantitative risk analysis and cost-effectiveness analysis of proposed interventions;"},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"• Component 4: Capacity building and motivating regulators;"},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"• Component 5: Capacity building of value chain actors;"},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"• Component 6: Designing and implementing a consumer campaign;"},{"index":10,"size":9,"text":"• Component 7: Analysis of the impact of interventions."}]},{"head":"Estimating the burden and economic costs of foodborne diseases in Burkina Faso","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"This presentation was given by Arie Havelaar, Professor of Global Food Safety and Zoonoses in the Animal Sciences department, the Global Food Systems Institute and the Emerging Pathogens Institute of the University of Florida."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"The presentation consisted of first the presentation of the working methodology used. Indeed, the study focused on three main pathogens generally found in food, including poultry and tomatoes such as Campylobacter spp, Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica. After presenting the data collection and analysis methods, the results of the study were presented. As such, some disease burden indicators such as incidence, mortality and disability adjusted life years (DALYs) were calculated. Cost indicators were calculated in international dollars."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"In 2017, it was estimated that there were about 1 million cases of illness caused by the three pathogens, resulting in about 2,000 deaths. Approximately 140 thousand years of healthy life were lost, representing 1% of total healthy life expectancy. The total burden of foodborne illness was at least twice as high in 2017 as in 2010."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"Children under 5 years old, although they make up 18% of the population, bear a disproportionate share of the burden of illnesses related to S. enterica (30%) as well as Campylobacter spp and enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) (73%)."},{"index":5,"size":102,"text":"The key results of the study showed that, statistically, in 2017, the value of a life was equivalent to USD 56,456. Thus, one year of statistical life was equivalent to USD 1,857. In addition, the estimated economic burden of the 3 pathogens on all food was USD 391 million in 2017, equivalent to 3% of Burkina Faso's gross domestic product (GDP). This economic burden was divided between productivity losses of approximately USD 275 million, willingness to pay in case of mortality, which amounted to approximately USD 112 million and willingness to pay in case of suffering, which amounted to USD 4 million."},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"The study also found that among the three pathogens studied, nontyphoid S. enterica was responsible for the highest disease burden, particularly with respect to invasive salmonellosis. Considering these findings, it was suggested that further efforts could be made to reduce the prevalence of foodborne diseases with the aim of improving Burkina Faso's public health and economy."}]},{"head":"Knowledge, attitudes and practices of grillers, vegetable sellers and detecting pesticide residues in Ouagadougou","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"This presentation was made by Guy Ilboudo, researcher at ILRI. The first part of the presentation was focused on assessing the knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of poultry grillers in Ouagadougou. This is a descriptive cross sectional study conducted in June 2021 among 100 poultry outlets."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"The results of the study showed that among grillers, relatively poor hygiene practices in poultry outlets in the process of slaughtering, scalding, eviscerating, cooking and serving chicken. Poor transport and storage conditions of carcasses were also found in the study. For example, poultry is slaughtered on the ground in 80% of the cases. More than 60% of vendors transport carcasses in plastic bags at room temperature from the point of slaughter to the point of sale."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"Poor practices are mainly the result of the lack of training of the grillers and the misperception of the importance of hygiene in improving the activity by the grillers. In fact, almost 90% of those interviewed had not previously received hygiene training and only 4% of grillers believe that consumers are concerned about hygiene at the outlets."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"The study also found that the authorities do not regularly inspect their workplaces. Half of those surveyed had not yet received an inspection from the authorities in charge of hygiene issues. When asked about the possibility that consumers would pay more if safety practices in their restaurants are improved, most respondents said they did not think this was applicable. In the tomato samples, pesticide residues were largely found."},{"index":5,"size":78,"text":"The second part of the presentation focused on pesticide residues in tomatoes. The study surveyed 328 tomato vendors in 23 markets in Ouagadougou. The pesticides sought were Lambda cyhalothrin, deltamethrin, permethrin, Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), chlorpyrifos and acetamiprid. Out of a total of 656 samples collected, 62% contained at least 1 detectable pesticide, of which 61% had residue levels above the European Union (EU) maximum residue limit (MRL) and 21% had residue levels above the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) MRL."}]},{"head":"Pathogen prevalence studies in tomatoes in the city of Ouagadougou","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"This presentation was made by Bertrand Tiendrebeogo, a PhD candidate at the UJKO working in implementing the project. In his speech, he presented the importance of the study as well as the reasons that led to its implementation."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"The aim was to determine the presence and concentration of E. coli and Salmonella spp, two types of pathogenic bacteria commonly associated with foodborne infections, in the tomato samples collected. Following their physical presentation, tomatoes were grouped into 3 categorized tomatoes namely, intact tomatoes, damaged tomatoes level 2 (D2) and damaged tomatoes level 4 (D4). Out of a total of 198 samples collected, 68% had the presence of flies and 77% were visibly dirty. The results showed that the D4 tomato category had safety issues (dirt and the presence of flies). Evaluating the total mesophilic Aero Flora shows that category D4 has the highest amount of flora."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"The prevalence of E. coli and Salmonella were 75% and 23%, respectively, across all categories. Category D2 had a prevalence of E. coli compared to the other two categories."}]},{"head":"Studies of the microbiological quality of grilled chicken carcasses sold on the streets of Ouagadougou","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"This presentation was made by Kagambega Assèta from UJKO and consisted of verifying the prevalence of Salmonella as well as E. coli in the carcasses of grilled chickens in the street restaurants of Ouagadougou. It was conducted by sampling grilled chicken carcasses at sites selected as part of the Pull-Push project. At the same time, a survey was carried out on the conditions under which chicken was sold."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"The results indicated that handwashing with water was observed in 57% of cases. After laboratory analysis, it was found that 82% of chickens and 80% of chili peppers contained E. coli. In addition, a prevalence of 1.47% Salmonella was detected. The S. typhi strain was found on one carcass, but subsequent testing revealed that it did not originate from the animal's digestive tract."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"This study revealed that grilled poultry carcasses can still be a source of contamination for humans. She reported that good hygiene practices are not followed when handling these carcasses. Therefore, it is important to have education, training and awareness programs in place for those who prepare grilled chicken as well as consumers."}]},{"head":"Quantitative analysis of microbiological risks of chicken dishes from vendors","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"James Ssemanda from the Wageningen University made this presentation during which he presented the sources of the data and the methods for identifying the risks. Microbiological risks were assessed along the chain (transport of poultry or carcasses, market, consumption). Next, the cost effectiveness of food safety interventions was assessed along the poultry value chain. The main interventions evaluated are: (i) improved biosecurity by switching to an intensive poultry farming system, (ii) hygiene and good slaughter practices, (iii) combined efforts at the poultry outlet, (iv) use of dedicated utensils at the restaurant and (v) improved handwashing at the poultry outlet."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"The results showed that the incidence rates of Campylobacter are 6,512 cases per 100 thousand population, while those of Salmonella are 2,723 cases per 100 thousand population. Disability adjusted life years (DALYs) are 165 per 100 thousand population for Campylobacter and 1,216 per 100 thousand population for Salmonella."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"The study also found that improving biosecurity through the transition to an intensive farming system can lead to a reduction in disease risk of more than 50%. In addition, combined interventions in the market and at the outlet of prepared poultry can lead to a significant reduction in diseases (more than 90%). In the short-term, the focus should be on relatively effective and easy to implement interventions, such as proper handwashing and using dedicated utensils. Finally, One Health interventions can consider several pathogens that cause foodborne illness."}]},{"head":"Discussion session","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"At the end of the presentations, a series of interventions took place and offered the opportunity to the participants of the workshop to present their points of view and their questions on the various papers made. For example, the following questions were raised as showed in the discussion sessions in section 6.5:"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"In addition to the questions, comments, suggestions and recommendations were summarized by some stakeholders, summarized in the following sections:"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"• the concept of 'One Health' was not sufficiently mentioned in the first round of presentations"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• take greater account of the issue of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in future studies"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"• promote the use of water from scalding and carcass washing for composting"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"• strengthen collaboration between the different sectors of One Health"},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"• disseminate the results of the research so that the department's technical services can put them to good use"},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"• expand hygiene and food safety training to consumers"},{"index":9,"size":18,"text":"• leverage the national One Health platform in disseminating results and raising awareness 5 Second round of presentations"},{"index":10,"size":11,"text":"This series consisted of seven presentations followed by a discussion session."}]},{"head":"Quantitative analysis of microbiological risks of tomatoes sold in Ouagadougou markets","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"The presentation was given by Claudia Ganser of the University of Florida. She presented the risk analysis, management and communication approach and then indicated that in the working method, three categories of tomatoes were considered, namely intact, moderately damaged and damaged. The risks of contaminating these tomatoes by E. coli and S. typhi bacteria were evaluated. Household incomes have been identified as a factor influencing risks. This is because high income households are less likely to be infected with E. coli. This disparity could be explained by the fact that higher income households have more resources to implement practices to reduce risk, such as handwashing and washing food."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"The results of the study also revealed that the risk was higher for intact tomatoes, as they are usually eaten raw. In contrast, moderately damaged and damaged tomatoes are usually cooked thoroughly before being eaten. The study also showed that washing tomatoes significantly reduced the concentration of E. coli."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"In the case of Salmonella, the main risks were related to the way the tomatoes were cooked, the lack of tomato and handwashing, as well as the quantity of pathogens already present in the food at the market level. The higher the quantity of pathogens on tomatoes in the market, the higher the risk of contamination at the household level."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"The study recommended that interventions should target all links in the value chain to significantly reduce risks."}]},{"head":"Impact of washing on pathogen prevalence in chicken carcasses","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"This presentation was made by Michel Dione. This is a study that involved 53 samples of raw chicken carcasses collected from markets in the city of Ouagadougou. For these chickens, a quantification of Salmonella and Campylobacter was made. This quantification was done just after slaughter and after washing. The results of the study showed that a reduction was seen after washing for Salmonella and Campylobacter."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"A significant reduction in Salmonella was observed in poultry neck parts due to washing. On the other hand, for Campylobacter, reduced the quantity was not observed after washing."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Other significant results were obtained for Salmonella. For example, chickens slaughtered on the ground had a high Salmonella compared to chickens slaughtered on covered racks. In addition, chickens plucked on tables had fewer burdens than those plucked on the ground. Chickens eviscerated on the floor had a high bacterial burden compared to chickens eviscerated on tables."}]},{"head":"Why a pull-push approach?","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"The key elements of the communication plan and how we decided on them"},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"This presentation was made by Hariette Snoek, a researcher at the Wageningen University. In her presentation, she first explained the context that prevailed in the conduct of her study as well as the objectives of the study, then she presented the model developed for consumer behaviours and finally the key elements of the campaign. Thus, the objective of the study was to help consumers make better choices when buying chicken away from their homes, in the city of Ouagadougou."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"The study is based on the previous work carried out by ILRI, but also on the workshops held with the project's stakeholders as well as on the results generated during the meetings. This includes the analysis of consumer behaviour (including gender issues), the food preparation environment, supply chain practices as well as income differences."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"In terms of methodological approach, a complex model considering consumer behaviours were used. This model considers the individual, society, the environment and regulations. Similarly, motivation, timeliness and ability have been the factors that can better explain consumer behaviour."},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"Awareness raising campaigns have been undertaken, highlighting key messages aimed at insidiously raising awareness of the need to be aware of the vulnerability of consumers and the seriousness of the consequences. These campaigns focused on individual responsibility, behaviour control and building self-confidence."}]},{"head":"Consumers communication campaign","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"This presentation was made by Romaric Sawadogo, from the communication agency Mediacom, partner of the project for this component. He first presented a 5 minute video that summarized the context, the method including the key messages and the tools used. The messages were designed over several months by a multidisciplinary team."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"The main message around which the communication elements were articulated is 'Bien choisir son Koassa (grilleur) pour bien manger' meaning 'Choosing the right Koassa (griller) to eat well'."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"The communication tools and channels used were:"},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• posters for the public on several 12 m² panels and other posters;"},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"• TV commercials in two versions;"},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"• humorous video clips;"},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"• radio spots in French and local languages (Moore and Dioula);"},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"• social networks, including an animated Facebook page;"},{"index":9,"size":3,"text":"• a website."},{"index":10,"size":20,"text":"The tools were disseminated for 9 months on communication panels, but also through broadcasts on television, radio and social networks."},{"index":11,"size":87,"text":"Following the video, he made an oral presentation in which he recalled the approach of the communication campaign, which is an innovative consumer centric approach consisting of conveying positive messages. Burkinabe influencers were called upon namely 'Moussa petit sergent', 'Hamidou le doux' and 'Ebony Amaze'. In his intervention, it was also noted that the messages were disseminated in a 360 degree manner with a consumer centred approach. Thus, over the period from May 2022 to January 2023, more than 2,240,000 unique views on radio and television platforms."},{"index":12,"size":22,"text":"A website hosted over two years and social networks also served as online platforms for distributing the designed audio and video spots."}]},{"head":"Capacity building for regulators and chicken sellers","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"This presentation was given by Michel Dione. In his presentation, he outlined the training modules designed for the different training courses of regulators. There were 8 modules and they included:"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Module 1: General information on microbiology"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"• Module 2: Foodborne diseases"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"• Module 3: Food contamination pathways"},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• Module 4: Hygiene and quality of raw materials and ingredients"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"• Module 5: Hygiene of premises, preparing equipment and sales"},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"• Module 6: Personal hygiene, methods and practice in the food sector"},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"• Module 7: Water management in the food preparation and sales process"},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"• Module 8: Regulation and control of food sales."},{"index":10,"size":40,"text":"At the end of the training, a visit was made to some field sales outlets and the laboratory at UJKO. The visit to the poultry outlet led to developing a guide for evaluating the food hygiene practices of poultry outlets."},{"index":11,"size":24,"text":"Another training was carried out and concerned the sellers themselves. This training was provided by a multidisciplinary team of experts called 'Food safety Champions'."},{"index":12,"size":18,"text":"The training approach was participatory for each outlet, with the owner and an employee trained in separate groups."},{"index":13,"size":33,"text":"At the end of the training, a package of equipment and a training certificate were offered. A total of 200 chicken grillers, including 123 owners and 70 employees, took part in the training."},{"index":14,"size":10,"text":"A total of 11 training modules were delivered. These are:"},{"index":15,"size":15,"text":"• Module 1: general: importance of good hygiene practices-impact of poor hygiene in food handling"},{"index":16,"size":9,"text":"• Module 2: knowing micro-organisms of the outer surface"},{"index":17,"size":12,"text":"• Module 3: managing live chickens at the chicken outlet (onsite slaughter)"},{"index":18,"size":5,"text":"• Module 4: slaughtering (bleeding-scalding-plumage-evisceration)"},{"index":19,"size":6,"text":"• Module 5: offsite carcass management"},{"index":20,"size":6,"text":"• Module 6: preparing and cutting"},{"index":21,"size":6,"text":"• Module 7: seasoning and serving"},{"index":22,"size":8,"text":"• Module 8: personal and clothing hygiene/health status"},{"index":23,"size":7,"text":"• Module 9: environmental health and sanitation"},{"index":24,"size":12,"text":"• Module 10: general plenary discussions on food safety regulation (sanitation services)"},{"index":25,"size":86,"text":"• Module 11: managing businesses Part of Dione's presentation was made by Ouedraogo Agnès from the General Directorate for the Promotion of the Rural Economy, one of the trainers (champions). The aim was to explain how the modules were presented in a practical way to the different participants. The modules presented in the form of slides mostly contained images and videos that were discussed by the participants. At the end, the good practices to be adopted were presented to them as key messages to be remembered."}]},{"head":"Evaluating the impact of the consumers communication campaign","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"This presentation was made by Donya Madjdian, researcher from the Wageningen University. The purpose of the study was to assess the impact of the 9 months awareness campaign and the key elements of the population's behaviour in relation to the purchase and willingness to consume chicken in Ouagadougou's informal markets. The specific objectives were to assess the level of coverage of awareness campaigns and the behaviour of stakeholders in relation to health as well as the key behaviours and then to assess the importance of the different media channels in changing behaviours."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Surveys were therefore conducted among 1,062 consumers before and after the campaign in March-April 2022 and March-April 2023, respectively."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"The results of the study showed that the campaign reached a large audience with a reach rate of around 60%."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"Consumers have responded positively to the campaign. The awareness generated by the campaign was linked to an increased perception of access to food safety information, increased knowledge and perceived health benefits."},{"index":5,"size":109,"text":"Participants had strong intentions to practice food safety behaviours. Although overall improvements were observed in food safety behaviour over time, these improvements were not directly related to awareness of the campaign, which could be due to recall bias or underreporting. A narrowing of the gap between the intent and implementing the advice received was noted, indicating the importance of outreach during the campaign. In addition, online outreach, especially those aimed at emotional attractiveness, appeared to be more effective than traditional media based on a rational approach. Finally, the study highlighted the importance of the socio-economic and nonbehavioral factors in understanding the impact of the campaign on food safety behaviour."}]},{"head":"Evaluating the impact of chicken vendor training","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"This presentation was also made by Donya Madjdian. The objective of the study was to assess the impact of training for vendors (Koassa) of ready to eat chickens on the outlets on their food safety behaviour and on the main determinants of this behaviour."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"A random sampling of 162 grillers was carried out and divided into two groups of sellers. The treatment group consisted of 72 grillers who received the training and the control group consisted of 90 grillers who did not receive treatment. The survey was conducted before and after the training in September 2022 and February-March 2023, respectively."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"The results showed that the training and toolkit were highly appreciated and the participants had a high level of trust in the trainers and materials. They also had strong intentions to put into practice what they had learned. The training was successful in increasing knowledge, motivation, as well as several behaviours related to food safety. Participants also perceived business benefits, including increased profitability and an increase in the number of customers."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Opportunities have been identified, such as the use of social media to transfer skills to other vendors. However, obstacles remain, particularly related to infrastructure and financial resources, which are insufficient to implement good food hygiene practices."}]},{"head":"Discussion session","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"At the end of the presentations, a series of interventions took place and offered the opportunity to the participants to present their points of view and their questions on the various communication delivered. These discussions can be summarized in the following points:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"• Suggestions to improve communication tools for future initiatives"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• Finding mechanisms to better value the training certificates of grillers"}]},{"head":"• Challenges of engaging grillers during training","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• Conducting studies to assess the health risk linked to the handling of coins and silver notes by roasters."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"6 Panel of national food safety experts"},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"In the afternoon of the 2 nd day of the training, a panel was held under the title 'What new strategies for sustainable food safety management through a One Health approach in a world facing socio-economic and climate change challenges?'"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"The specific objectives of this panel were to:"},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"• Gain a better understanding of the food safety context."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"• Have shared opinions for sustainable improvement of the food safety."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"• Make recommendations to inform policymakers and better guide research and development."},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"• Explore key challenges in implementing food safety activities."},{"index":9,"size":33,"text":"• Propose innovative and sustainable solutions to improve food safety. Fulbert Nikiema, Microbiologist, Director of Food Control and Applied Nutrition at the National Agency for Environmental, Food, Occupational and Health Product Safety (ANSSEAT)."},{"index":10,"size":43,"text":"Prof Zekiba Tarnagda, Director of Research, first teacher of One Health in Burkina Faso, President of the One Health association in Burkina Faso, veterinary researcher at the Institute for Research in Health Sciences (IRSS) at the National Influenza Reference Laboratory in Burkina Faso."},{"index":11,"size":24,"text":"Henri Kabore, researcher at INERA, project manager of the Minister Delegate in charge of animal resources at MARAH and main moderator of the panel."}]},{"head":"Speech by Abdoulaye Gueye","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"He recalled in his speech that humans are always subject to exposure to multifaceted risks related to food safety. He called for compliance with the basic rules of food safety. In addition to the production method, which is a risk factor, there are the traders who transport contaminated foods."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Modes of contamination can lead to some forms of cancer. The initiatives undertaken by the population to raise livestock force us into certain situations such as the use of antibiotics without respecting the persistence periods. This promotes antibiotic resistance. Transmission takes place on several levels. Today, we have gone from resistant to multi-resistant micro-organisms."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"He noted that four alerts have been received recently by their services, mainly related to the cases of diarrhoea."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"Shortcomings were identified in their activities. These are:"},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"• leadership in coordination;"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"• insufficient coordination of actors;"},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"• the low level of functioning of the entities due to lack of funding."},{"index":8,"size":3,"text":"The panellist suggested:"},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"• identifying focal points in all ministries in charge of food safety."},{"index":10,"size":14,"text":"• establishing a roadmap through the International Health Regulations (IHR) to address the challenges."},{"index":11,"size":21,"text":"• raising awareness among the population and work to discredit those who do not respect or resist awareness against antibiotic resistance."}]},{"head":"Speech by Gisèle Pare","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"In her speech, she recalled the importance of animal products and products of animal origin in Burkina Faso. She then recalled the responsibilities of her direction in the control of foodstuffs throughout the production and processing process. She noted that Burkina Faso does not currently have enough processing industries."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"She presented the challenges they face in their monitoring activities. The major challenge is to be able to federate human, material and financial resources to achieve the struggle. At the end of the day, the consumer is the one who pays the heavy price. She made suggestions summarized below:"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• individual responsibility for preserving the health."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• raising awareness among young people to recognize what is right when it comes to food hygiene."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"• conducting a risk analysis prior to any intervention so that control must be strengthened in the areas where the risk is highest, given the context."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"• establishing a single food safety entity. The entity must have within it all the competences that will enable it to carry out these awareness raising and combating actions. For example, animal health profiles must be considered within ANSSEAT."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"Strengthen the legal framework to enable inspectors to carry out their control work without the risk of prosecution."}]},{"head":"Speech by Fulbert Nikiema","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"In his intervention, he mentioned the glaring phenomenon of street food for which there are difficulties in controlling the possible problems that may affect the food safety. There is also the problem of uncontrolled use of chemical fertilizers and antibiotics."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"The challenges presented are the low level of supervision and monitoring and the processing units that do not ensure the quality of the foodstuffs. He also noted the lack of mastery of good hygiene practices, the lack of coordination for effective actions and the insufficient sharing of data between institutions. He did not fail to praise the importance of working in synergy."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"On this basis, he suggested:"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"• increase the control measures"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• raise awareness among stakeholders along the value chain"},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"• share information to facilitate research and monitoring in the field"},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"• provide substantial support to strengthen the capacity of oversight structures"},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"• strengthen the food safety governance system"}]},{"head":"Speech by Prof Zekiba Tarnagda","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"In his speech, he recalled the One Health, the 4 thematic commissions on zoonoses, antimicrobial resistance, endocrine disruptors and food safety. Regarding animal resources, he noted the shortage of veterinarians in Burkina Faso. This allowed him to recall the absence of a faculty of veterinary medicine in Burkina Faso."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"In his intervention, he suggested that:"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• focus on plant and animal source food"},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"• make a comprehensive diagnosis at all levels of the fundamental reasons for the lack of food safety"},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"• strengthening food inspection"},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"• setting in motion the One Health collaboration, which in Burkina Faso has a sufficient mechanism to function"},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"• federating efforts to work in improving the food safety"},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"• involving municipalities, hygiene services and security services in the fight against fraud and foodstuffs unfit for consumption"},{"index":9,"size":18,"text":"• involving civil society such as the One Health (OH) association, especially in raising awareness among rural populations"}]},{"head":"Discussion session","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Discussions covered a variety of topics, including questions and suggestions. The main questions and answers are presented in the following table : No. Questions Answers 1 What role does the Ministry of Agriculture play in implementing the One Health (OH)?"},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"The Ministry of Agriculture is an integral part of One Health in Burkina Faso. Among the thematic commissions of the OH is the one on food safety, which is headed by the Ministry of Agriculture, whose current president is Aissata Wereme Diagne 2 How is the communication done in the event of a food poisoning alert?"},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"In the event of an alert, field investigation is conducted to locate and seize the offending stocks, which are then destroyed. However, in some cases, the offending foodstuffs have already been consumed at the time of the investigation. The results of investigating and managing the stocks are made public by the communication services 3 What mechanisms are in place to ensure food control, given the lack of legal coverage for inspectors?"},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Despite the reluctance of some actors to be controlled, inspections continue. It was pointed out that animal and fisheries inspectors are sworn in, but there are gaps in the regulatory framework, particularly regarding the law enforcement decrees"},{"index":5,"size":214,"text":"Regarding the control of the chemical quality of foodstuffs, it was pointed out that ANSSEAT works closely with Customs, receiving 65% of the products it checks. In addition, food inspection can be carried out on request. The analyses carried out by ANSSEAT are based on approved international standards, covering the microbiological, toxicological and physicochemical domains. These analyses are systematic in institutional procurement and large quantities of samples have already been analysed, revealing cases of noncompliance. The main issue lies in managing these nonconformities, because although the existing texts do not contradict each other, difficulties arise on the ground Urban food markets in Africa-Incentivizing food safety using a pull-push approach What about the chemical quality of food, especially heavy metal contamination? For example, an analysis of a canteen meal revealed the presence of 128 chemical residues from 36 different pesticides, including 47 substances suspected of being carcinogenic Regarding the analyses carried out by the National Livestock Laboratories, with regard to the analyses of the chemical quality of the products, sporadic studies carried out by students during their internships at the National Livestock Laboratory have revealed interesting results. However, these results are not published, as the laboratory is not intended for research Is there a risk of developing cancer by eating foods containing heavy metal residues?"},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"Heavy metals such as cadmium, mercury and lead are implicated, as excessive consumption of these substances can cause overloading in some organs, especially the liver and potentially lead to cancer. Checks on foodstuffs sometimes reveal alarming results What are the procedures for obtaining health approval?"},{"index":7,"size":46,"text":"Obtaining health approval is crucial for various structures, from farms to slaughterhouses, butchers' shops and delicatessens. However, problems remain in the application process due to shortcomings in the current regulatory framework, which hinder effective action Are there animal health profiles (especially veterinary health profiles) within ANSSEAT?"},{"index":8,"size":53,"text":"For the time being, there is no veterinary profile within ANSSEAT. This gives the impression that this structure is not sufficiently multidisciplinary There are often difficulties in collaboration between this structure and the veterinary services Recruiting veterinary profiles is an objective that must be extinguished 7 Plenary session-Gaps for further research, policy implications"},{"index":9,"size":58,"text":"The plenary session on identifying research gaps was moderated by Daniel Kabore, researcher at the Centre for Economic and Social Policy Analysis (CAPES), a partner in the project. In his speech, he stressed that existing research should continue. He then opened the floor to the participants to collect their suggestions on possible new directions for future research activities."},{"index":10,"size":19,"text":"Thus, at the end of the interventions, he summarized the different research gaps that are summarized in these points:"},{"index":11,"size":22,"text":"• Poor control of the value chain related to food safety. It is necessary to integrate all the actors in this chain."},{"index":12,"size":7,"text":"• Waste management from the catering industry."},{"index":13,"size":8,"text":"• Lack of coordination in food safety responses."},{"index":14,"size":9,"text":"• Disseminating knowledge about pesticide residues to rural populations."},{"index":15,"size":4,"text":"• Pre-intervention risk analysis."},{"index":16,"size":7,"text":"• Designate ANSSEAT food safety focal points."}]},{"head":"Key recommendations","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"At the end of the discussions during the two days, the recommendations that emerged were as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• Ensure better coordination between institution working in food safety in Burkina Faso."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• Strengthen resource mobilization for food safety, including through the National Action Plan for Health Security (NAAP), which was developed under the International Health Regulations (IHR)."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• Provide ANSSEAT with veterinary staff to solve the problem of multidisciplinary."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• Operationalize OH collaboration to better manage the food safety issue."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"• Involve municipalities, hygiene services and security services in the fight against fraud and unfit foodstuffs."},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"• Involve civil society such as the OH association, in raising awareness among rural populations."},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"• Raising awareness of food safety among value chain actors."},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"Strengthen the food safety governance system, including the legal framework and coordination. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" The panel was presented by: Abdoulaye Gueye, nutritionist in charge of food safety fortification, InfoSan Emergency Focal Point (food safety authority). He is an officer of the Nutrition Directorate of the Ministry of Health and Public Hygiene and a member of the national board of the Codex Alimentarius. Gisele Pare, Veterinarian Specialist in Public Health, Veterinary Inspector, Director of Veterinary Public Health and Legislation at the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Resources and Fisheries, food safety Focal Point of the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"87f957b5-f103-4d85-a4ea-b2e87ab8807a","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0260c82ff1009d58eed8b160d569b26b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f25ff67d-943d-4540-9811-b81ae2533bc7/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"The Role of Multi-Stakeholder Platforms for Creating an Enabling Climate Change Policy Environment in East Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"With climate change posing a rising threat to rural livelihoods in East Africa (Niang et al. 2014;Kahsay and Hansen 2016), the need for adaptation and mitigation strategies has gained increasing attention among policymakers (Liwenga et al. 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Although the region has made advances in building the relevant governance and policymaking systems, major challenges remain, including insufficient coordination between institutions and government levels; limited access of policymakers and technical staff to empirical evidence; and insufficient funding (Minde et al. 2013;Asekenye et al. 2016;Ampaire et al. 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"Multi-stakeholder platforms (MSPs) bring together representatives from different interest groups to discuss shared challenges, opportunities, policy actions and advocacy strategies (Warner 2005). They have the potential to tackle complex development challenges and to assist in the scaling up of necessary innovations (Hermans et al. 2017). In the realm of agricultural development, MSPs have played a pivotal role in addressing many complex problems around the world (for a good overview and a selection of case studies see Dror et al. 2016). Recent studies also demonstrate MSPs' potential in addressing climate change (Pinkse and Kolk 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"With its three-part approach to climate change-mitigation, adaptation and food security-climate-smart agriculture (CSA) has been gaining increasing attention. While there has been considerable research on scaling up CSA practices, less attention has been given to assessing the policy environments most conducive to addressing climate change (Jordan and Huitema 2014). Such research is crucial, as the sustainable scaling up of CSA technologies can seldom be achieved without an enabling policy environment (Ampaire et al. 2015;Barnard et al. 2015)."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"The objective of this chapter is to examine the role of MSPs in facilitating climate change policymaking in East Africa through a case study of eight national and subnational MSPs in Uganda and Tanzania."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The Policy Action for Climate Change Adaptation (PACCA) project 1 (2014-2017) focused on building climate-resilient food systems in Uganda and Tanzania by coordinating policies and institutions at the local, regional and national levels. The empirical data for this chapter was collected through:"},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"• Participant observation and meeting minutes: Between July 2014 and December 2017, principal members of the research team attended a total of 80 MSP meetings and events. Researchers took notes, made observations and reviewed meeting minutes. • Questionnaires: Researchers administered a baseline questionnaire at the inception meetings of the national platforms to assess participants' knowledge, attitudes and skills regarding three main topics: (i) impacts of climate-change adaptation, (ii) available, locally appropriate adaptation options and (iii) policy formulation and implementation processes. Information was collected from 29 stakeholders in Tanzania (31% women, 69% men) and 39 in Uganda (38% women, 62% men)."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"• Social network analysis (SNA) was conducted to collect information on the key organizations for knowledge exchange. Data were collected from participants using a multistep process during the launch of district platforms in Nwoya (n = 24) and Mbale (n = 21) in December 2015 and June 2016, respectively. Participants were first asked to list all the institutions they represented, then all the organizations with which they collaborated. Finally, from these lists of organizations, participants identified which they considered the most important for knowledge exchange. Analysis of the data was undertaken using Gephi 0.9.1 software."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Establishment and Operation of the MSPs","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":248,"text":"The climate change MSPs were established between 2014 and 2015. In Tanzania three were formed, one national and two subnational (in Lushoto and Kilolo districts). In Uganda five were established, one national and four subnational (in Nwoya, Rakai, Luwero and Mbale districts). The subnational platforms influenced district-level policymaking and informed the national platforms, which in turn influenced national policymaking through information-sharing with parliamentarians and national ministries. Having both subnational and national organizations facilitated a bidirectional flow of information. This integrated approach is important because, although the effects of climate change are felt locally and technologies must be context-specific, change happens most effectively within an enabling national policy environment. While PACCA acted as the initiator of the platforms, funded some of their activities and remained a stakeholder member, the MSPs functioned largely as independent entities. The national platform in Uganda was hosted by the Climate Change Department of the Ministry of Water and Environment, and the one in Tanzania by the Environmental Management Unit of the Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and Fisheries (MALF-EMU). In the districts, the platforms were hosted by the national offices of environment and natural resources. Embedding the platforms within government structures provided those official bodies with convening power, a greater sense of ownership over the process and, ultimately, offered the platforms a pathway to sustainability. Facilitation of meetings was entrusted to members of the platform-hosting institutions who were recognized for their authority, their central role in local knowledge exchange and their credibility among other stakeholders."},{"index":2,"size":172,"text":"Participant observation and an examination of minute meetings revealed that the platforms enabled their participants to share experiences and research findings on climate change. The PACCA project, as a member of the MSPs, contributed to the generation and dissemination of research findings on CSA and climate change adaptation (specifically on-farm trade-off and synergies for CSA, drivers for adoption of CSA, prioritization among CSA options for greater impact, scenarioguided policy development, policy-actor networks and gender-responsive policymaking), thereby contributing to an enhanced science-policy interface. This sharing of research evidence and experience became the basis for discussions and helped define the efforts by the MSPs to influence policy. Platform meetings, which generally took place quarterly, had two main sessions: the first featured sharing of research knowledge and experience, while in the second decisions were made in plenary through inclusive participatory processes, which normally involved working in groups followed by a plenary discussion. These processes of knowledge sharing contributed towards building trust between stakeholders and facilitated finding common goals and interests, which helped foster unified action."}]},{"head":"The Role of MSPs in Promoting CSA","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Knowledge Creation and Capacity Building","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":242,"text":"Initial knowledge levels about climate change and CSA varied widely among participants. The questionnaire revealed that stakeholders were generally familiar with the impacts of climate change, with 83% in Tanzania (n = 29) and 71% in Uganda (n = 39) reporting a high level of understanding. Knowledge of locally appropriate adaptation options was considerably lower, with 58% in Tanzania and 77% in Uganda reporting low or medium knowledge levels. Knowledge of policy processes was higher in Tanzania, where 41% and 45% rated their level of familiarity as high in policy formulation and implementation processes, respectively, as compared to 21% and 29% in Uganda. These differences can be explained by the actor composition of MSPs: Uganda had a higher proportion of representatives from non-state actors in their MSPs, whereas MSPs in Tanzania were disproportionately composed of government representatives who were familiar with policy formulation and implementation processes (Table 23.1). Once the results of the questionnaires were presented to the MSPs, they made changes to their meeting structures in order to address the knowledge gap: all actors were invited to share their experiences with climate change adaptation projects, and experts regularly presented research-based evidence on the CSA technologies favorable for each region. This transfer of knowledge was expected to enhance the technical capacity of the platforms' members, which in turn was expected to translate into attitudinal and behavioral change both within each member's organization and in the actions of the platforms as a whole."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"While an end-line study was not available at the time this chapter was written, limiting our ability to quantify the extent of participants' learning over time, there is evidence of the platforms' impact. In event evaluation forms, participants indicated that they shared their newly acquired knowledge with colleagues, politicians and community members. The role of the MSPs in the dissemination of knowledge was also publicly acknowledged by a representative of the Climate Change Department in Uganda, who stated that the MSPs \"have improved the understanding of climate change and its impacts, thus enabling public institutions, individuals and non-state actors to tap into the opportunities and co-benefits arising from mitigation and adaptation actions\" (Semambo 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":169,"text":"Results of the SNA showed that institutions in both districts were linked through information-sharing processes, but the relationships were not necessarily reciprocal. For example, in Nwoya the most important participants for knowledge exchange were the District Local Government and ZOA, a Dutch NGO, but there was no exchange between the two. We found a similar situation in Mbale (Fig. 23.1), where the organizations considered important for knowledge exchange were Mbale District Local Government (MDLG), National Forestry Authority (NFA) and Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA), but the knowledge exchange relationship existed only between NFA and MDLG, not with UWA. The SNA also identified institutions that acted as bridges for other institutions that would otherwise not be connected to the knowledge network (e.g., Bungokho Rural DC). In both MSPs, the district local governments were among the institutions better connected in terms of knowledge sharing. This further justifies the strategy of hosting the district MSPs within the local governments as a way to promote sustainability, knowledge exchange and coordination of local climate-change actors."}]},{"head":"Influencing Subnational and National Policies","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The platforms' meetings played a role in promoting collective action to influence national and subnational policies. In both Uganda and Tanzania, the platforms' actions were decided in plenary on the basis of the research-based evidence on CSA, responsive and equitable policymaking and climate change adaptation. MSPs were able to contribute and influence key national policies. In Uganda the Climate Change MSP was recognized as having influenced and complemented a number of policy reviews and strategic development plans (Semambo 2017). In both Uganda and Tanzania the national platforms were also active in influencing national climate change policy (Table 23.2)."},{"index":2,"size":211,"text":"Like the national platforms, the district platforms had regular meetings that involved the sharing of experiences with context-specific adaptation strategies and locally appropriate CSA options. Key representatives of the district platforms were also members of the national platforms, ensuring coordinated action. District platforms engaged in participatory zonal planning of their territories for the prioritization of adaptation investments-an example of the type of initiatives aimed at fostering a conducive policy environment for the scaling up of CSA practices which MSPs are especially well suited to address precisely because they require the collaboration of stakeholders from different sectors and across different scales. Stakeholders began by defining the zoning criteria and dividing the area into different zones based on what they perceived as locally important factors: the main source of livelihood and farming system (Rakai), altitude (Kilolo), rainfall gradient (Luwero) or a combination of these (Lushoto). The fact that districts differed in the zoning criteria they employed and the number of zones they identified highlights the fact that adaptation needs and local priorities are unique to each territory. The zoning was usually followed by stakeholder discussions on each of the zone's main enterprises, the effects of climate change on these enterprises, and the pertinent policy issues and adaptation measures needed to overcome these constraints."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"In subsequent meetings, district officers and representatives of the platforms would prioritize the issues to be integrated in the district development plans. Since the formation of the platforms, there has been progress in incorporating CSA components in the District Development Plans in Uganda and in the District Agriculture Development Plans in Tanzania. For example, in Lushoto, Tanzania, the district council allocated the equivalent of US$3800 to execute various CSA interventions for the financial year 2016-2017. In Luwero, Uganda, district officials prioritized working on the institutional framework for addressing climate change in the district, and in Rakai, Uganda, a District Climate Change Action Plan was created."},{"index":4,"size":293,"text":"Conscious of the importance of using scientific evidence on gender, CSA and climate change to influence legislative decisions, the MSPs in Uganda undertook a National Reflection Workshop with members from civil society organizations, research institutions, local governments, ministries and the media. The evidence and messages that emerged from the event, together with information from the continued policy engagement that followed, were presented at a high-level event attended by members of the Uganda Parliamentary Forum on Climate Change and the Parliamentary Forum on Food Security, Population and Development. The event helped raise awareness and advocate for gender responsiveness in climate change adaptation among members of Parliament amidst discussions on the Uganda Climate Change Bill, the Biotechnology Bill and the pre-negotiations for the COP22 in Morocco. Inspired by the event in Uganda, the LA in Tanzania organized  With growing evidence of their efficacy and acceptance by stakeholders, the MSPs have become increasingly institutionalized. In Uganda the national Climate Change Department is establishing a climate change MSP at the ministry, department and agency levels-independently of the PACCA project-to operationalize article 6 of the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) on capacity building. In Tanzania, the district government of Lushoto has formalized the incorporation of the MSPs into their district frame and has replicated the MSP model in villages, appointing \"ambassadors\" who monitor and report on their respective activities. Furthermore, officials from MALF-EMU have expressed interest in using the MSP model and acknowledged MSPs as central to national climate-change policy planning and to the scaling up of CSA in the country (Okiror and Cramer 2017). Further research will be needed to assess the levels of funding provided to these MSPs and what affects the availability of funds has on their operation, efficacy and perceived legitimacy."}]},{"head":"Implications for Development","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"Through a case study in Uganda and Tanzania, this chapter has examined the role of MSPs in influencing climate change policy processes. MSPS foster the sharing of information among diverse stakeholders and allow participatory approaches for influencing policy recommendations across multiple governance levels. We argue that these MSP interventions can help build an enabling policy environment for climate -change adaptation and mitigation policy, as evidenced by the scenarioguided policy planning processes, CSA participatory zonal planning exercises and multiple policy reviews and consultations. With specific reference to the role of MSPs in fostering CSA science-policy dialogue, the results of the questionnaire highlighted the need for greater knowledge-sharing among stakeholders. Findings from the social network analysis suggest the importance of platform composition in the knowledge-exchange process. Furthermore, concrete policy action such as budgeting for tangible CSA projects at the local level (e.g., Lushoto, district MSPs), recommending specific packages of CSA water-efficient technologies for enhanced adoption (Tanzania, national MSPs) and mainstreaming CSA and climate change in district development plans (Uganda, Tanzania district MSPs) exemplifies the role that continuous science-policy interaction through MSPs can have in influencing policymaking."},{"index":2,"size":183,"text":"While these MSP processes have succeeded in enhancing CSA science-policy dialogues and promoting evidence-based policy outcomes in East Africa, addi-tional research is needed if the MSP model is to be successfully replicated elsewhere. Specifically, further context-specific studies are needed on the optimal balance between non-state actors (including the private sector) and government representatives in the platforms, as these case studies appear to suggest that an overrepresentation of either could hinder the ability to achieve policy change. End-line evaluation and follow-up studies will also be required to determine whether the degree and manner of the East African MSPs' embeddedness in local government structures was sufficient to maintain their financial sustainability over time while preserving their independence and participatory approach. The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 23 . 1 Fig. 23.1 Knowledge exchange sociogram for Mbale District "},{"text":" given on the need to promote efficient water-use technologies and other CSA practices as a package, rather than individual technologies, for enhanced adoption of these technologies at large scale Preparatory meetings to organize and ensure a coordinated approach of the Uganda position in the COP21 Scenario-guided policy review of the National Environmental Policy Participation in the Joint Sector Reviews of the Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) Informing the development of the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) Informing the draft irrigation policy Participation in the development of the CSA Country Plan for Tanzania Participation in a live national dialogue on climate change and women Participation in several climate-change workshops organized by other actorsa sister event in 2017 with members of the Tanzanian Parliament, where evidence was presented to encourage legislators to ensure gender-responsive climate change policymaking. In addition to these parliamentarian engagements, representatives of the MSPs have also participated in other high-level policy engagements organized by partner organizations. "},{"text":"Table 23 .  1 Composition of  Sample size  1 Composition ofSample size national MSPs at inception meetings (October-November 2014) Institution category Association Uganda 5 Tanzania - national MSPs at inception meetings (October-November 2014)Institution category AssociationUganda 5Tanzania -  Academia - 3 Academia-3  Consultant - 1 Consultant-1  Media 2 - Media2-  NGOs/CSOs 22 3 NGOs/CSOs223  Government ministries 2 8 Government ministries28  Government departments 1 6 Government departments 16  Government agencies 2 5 Government agencies25  Local government 4 2 Local government42  Research 1 1 Research11  Total 39 29 Total3929  "},{"text":"Table 23 .2 Policy engagement activities of the national climate-change MSPs Water-use technology study used in a policy engagement meeting with the National Irrigation Commission, Basin Water Boards and the Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives. Recommendations Uganda national MSP  Uganda national MSP activities Tanzania national MSP activities activitiesTanzania national MSP activities Scenario-guided policy review  Scenario-guided policy review of the Uganda National  of the Uganda National Agricultural Sector Strategic  Agricultural Sector Strategic Plan (ASSP)  Plan (ASSP)  "},{"text":" Pinkse J, Kolk A (2012) Addressing the climate change-sustainable development nexus: the role of multistakeholder partnerships. Bus Soc 51:176-210 Semambo M (2017) PACCA project experience sharing. Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE). Climate Change Department. Kampala (Uganda) Warner J (2005) Multi-stakeholder platforms: integrating society in water resource management? Ambient Soc 8:4-28 Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.  "}],"sieverID":"15474be8-8e2b-4e65-9968-93d4bb6eacca","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02a92001cf5d4ba237a24af6fd5a10b0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/27f010e0-a630-41dd-a174-dc5fc868cfe1/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"Smallholder-based fruit seedling supply system for sustainable fruit production in Ethiopia: Lessons from the IPMS experience","keywords":["DIVA-GIS","Fruit nursery","IPMS","PRA","Smallholder farmer","Sustainable"],"chapters":[{"head":"BACKGROUND","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Ethiopia is agro-ecologically diverse and has a total area of 1.13 million km 2 . Many parts of the country are suitable for growing temperate, sub-tropical or tropical fruits. For example, substantial areas in the southern and south-western parts of the country receive sufficient rainfall to support fruits adapted to the respective climatic conditions. In addition, there are also many rivers and streams which could be used to grow various fruits. Ethiopia has a potential irrigable area of 3.5 million ha with net irrigation area of about 1.61 million ha, of which currently only 4.6 % is utilized (Amer, 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"Despite this potential however, the area under fruits is very small and mainly smallholder based. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural development (MoARD, 2005), there are about 3 million farmers involved in fruit production with a total area of about 43,500 ha and producing about 261,000 t annually. However, less than 2 % of all the produce is exported (Joosten, 2007). Although the number of farmers seems high, each farmer grows very few trees of unimproved varieties/cultivars which are also poorly managed and are mainly for home consumption, except banana production in the south. These fruits are typically cultivated to supplement household income from their main crops. The few state farms with about 3,000 ha mainly grow tropical fruits (banana, avocado, mango, orange, and papaya) and are mainly located in the eastern Rift Valley (Siefu, 2003). Apples are mainly grown in the highlands of Chencha, in the south, and are expected to expand to other highland areas in the country (Joosten, 2007)."},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"The policy of the government until recently was also focussed mostly on increased grain production while fruit development was marginalised. Although the number of trained manpower in the area of horticulture was also very small, efforts are underway to increase the number of graduates. The government realised this gap and has created a more enabling environment for the private sector by developing the PASDEP (Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty). This policy encourages privatization of state enterprises, promotion of commercial production and exports, in which the horticulture sector is a major component. Recently again the horticulture sub-sector has been receiving more attention within the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and is now elevated from a small unit/section to a level of agency."},{"index":4,"size":234,"text":"The major limiting factors for the poor performance of the fruit sub-sector technically are many, including an inefficiently organised system for the production and supply of improved fruit varieties/cultivars. Seedlings are mainly supplied from a few centralised government or NGO supported nurseries, which supply mostly subsidised seedlings to government/donor funded development programs. For example, Upper Awash Agro-industry state farms (UAAI), which are the major sources of mango and avocado seedlings, supply slightly over 600,000 annually. To close the gap in supply the government and NGOs are also importing seedlings from Spain (Joosten, 2007). This therefore calls for a complementary approach including the development of village level smallholder farmer-based fruit nurseries. This follows the experiences gained with coffee seedling production by small holders, which has seen 80% of the seedlings in a District being supplied by small scale nursery operators (IPMS, 2007). Not only will this complementary system contribute to the supply of seedlings but also a) reduce transport distance between seedling suppliers and users, b) reduce mortality of the scion 2 or seedling during transportation, c) reduce the high transport cost and d) create employment and income for farmer operated nursery operators. The objective of this paper is therefore, to share IPMS experiences in establishing farmer-based improved fruit seedling supply system, which is also expected to contribute to the creation of sustainable fruit production in Ethiopia and hence to improved livelihoods of farm households."}]},{"head":"METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"The study sites This paper is based on data and experience from seven IPMS project districts in Ethiopia (Fig. 1) which have variable environmental conditions (Table 1) and farming systems. All the districts have bi-modal rainfall which usually extends from June to September (main rains) and March to April (small rains) except Metema district which has a uni-modal rainfall only during the main rains. As shown on Table 1, the three high rainfall receiving districts (Bure, Dale and Goma) have lower soil pH values of about 5.5 compared to the others."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Please insert Figure 1 here Please insert Table 1 here"}]},{"head":"Participatory diagnosis of the problem and selection of nursery operators","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"A participatory rural appraisal (PRA) was conducted in a value chain framework to identify, marketable priority commodities, the resource base and also technical, organisational and institutional constraints in the 10 IPMS project districts (Fig. 1). During the PRA, relevant tools like group discussion, key informant and observant interviews, personal observations, transect walks and community resource mapping were applied. During this process, fruits were identified as marketable commodities in seven districts. After this exercise, in a subsequent stakeholder meeting, constraints in the fruit value chain (input, production and marketing) were listed out for possible solutions and the potential stakeholder organisations who will contribute towards solving these constraints were also identified. The stakeholders in these meetings included farmers, Office of Agriculture and Rural Development (OoARD) staff, researchers, traders, farmers' association (FA) and administrators. In addition to the PRA, the project also conducted rapid fruit market assessment in some of the districts (Aithal and Wangila, 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"During the PRA, suitability of particular fruit specie was determined with the stakeholders (farmers, researchers, OoARD, IPMS, traders) and GIS analysis was also used to determine the extent of suitability of each fruit specie in each district. Supply of seedlings of improved and suitable species at village or even district level was identified as a major bottleneck for fruit development, among others. To tackle the shortage of improved fruit seedling supply, 46 business-oriented farmers from the seven districts were selected."}]},{"head":"Selection criteria, distribution of nursery operators and gender diversity","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Agro-ecological suitability of peasant associations (PAs) within each district was considered during farmer selection. After identifying suitable PAs, the project personnel along with the Development Agents (DAs) from each district, approached some men and women farmers and youth to enter into this business and serve as fruit seedling suppliers for a cluster of PAs. Many of them showed interest, however, prior to selection, the project and the OoARD prepared a set of criteria among which interest and entrepreneurship, capability, easy access to road and a water resource, experience in nursery operation (whenever possible), gender and suitability of the PA where the operators are located were among the major criteria that led to the selection of a farmer to be involved or not."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Even though gender was considered as criteria for selecting nursery operators, most of them were men. However, the number of women operators was equal to the number of men in some districts like Goma. In some districts, women were not involved as operators."},{"index":3,"size":306,"text":"Training, study tour and establishment of mother trees 3 Following the selection, farmers along with their respective DAs were trained on fruit production practices in general and nursery management in particular by experienced staff from the project, research centres (Melkasa Agricultural Research Centre, (MARC), Adet Agricultural Research Centre) and OoARD. In some districts, couples were trained together in order to enhance gender balanced development which may also contribute to minimising exposure to HIV/AIDS. Trainings focused on fruits that they will be raising. Farmers were also taken on study tours to major fruit growing areas. For instance, farmers who were to be engaged in avocado and mango seedling production were taken to MARC and the UAAI, while those to be engaged in apples were taken to Chencha and Injibara. Similarly, those farmers to be involved in banana sucker supply were taken to Arba Minch, which is the major banana producing area but also to MARC and UAAI. During the initial intervention period, each selected farmer then planted improved and agro-ecologically suitable fruit species as mother trees. Varieties/cultivar introduced include Hass, Ettinger, Fuerte, Pinkerton, Bacon (avocado); Tommy Atkins, Apple mango, Kent, Keitt (Mango), dwarf Cavendish, giant Cavendish, Poyo, William 1 (Banana); and Crispin, Bond Red, Anna, Jonagored (Apple). These were among the best released varieties/cultivars by the national agricultural research system but are also internationally well known. This is because in the event of the industry's development, fruits harvested will fetch good prices both in the local and international markets. These mother trees will be the future source of scions and were obtained from MARC and UAAI (avocado and mango); farms around Zwai and Arba Minch towns (banana); and Chencha and Enjibara (apples). As these mother trees were to be mainly used for scion production, farmers were also trained on the appropriate management to maximise number of scions."}]},{"head":"Technical considerations during establishment of mother trees","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":233,"text":"Management of mother trees for scion production requires increasing the number of branches which could bear sufficient number of grafting sticks. In this regard, spacing of these plants was important. On the other hand, some of the fruit species required special planting arrangements to encourage effective cross pollination. This is especially so with apples and avocados. For example, there are known pollinator apple varieties which were placed in a special arrangement. Similarly, avocado flowering has special features because flowers of varieties open on a specific time of the day. Therefore, for effective pollination, characteristics of each variety were also studied before deciding the variety to be planted and planting arrangement to be followed. Avocado, mango and apple require about 3-4 years for production of sufficient scions. Therefore, the project continued to facilitate supply of scions during this time. This will also help farmer seedling producers practice and refine their grafting skills. A well managed mother tree trained for scion production could give a minimum of about 300-400 (apple) and 200 (mango and avocado) scions/year under farmer management. Therefore, farmers can adequately supply grafted seedlings to farmers in their districts and beyond using their own planting materials. In some of the districts, the mother trees have already attained the level of maturity for supplying scions. In addition to the money earned, this system is already creating sustainability in fruit seedling supply at village level."}]},{"head":"Nursery establishment and ownership","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":218,"text":"Immediately after training and establishment of the mother trees, farmers were advised to grow rootstocks 4 of avocado, mango, apples and banana suckers. Most farmers established the nurseries themselves with technical advice from the project and OoARD. In few cases, mother trees and rootstock in apple and some cases with avocado and mango scions were supplied by the project and OoARD. Seeds for avocado and mango were obtained from locally grown fruits and were farmer managed. However, an internationally recognised rootstock variety (MM106) was used for apple, which was bought and transported to 2 sites (Bure and Atsbi districts) by the project. There were 365 mother plants and 275 rootstocks distributed to seven nursery operators in these districts. Since the seedlings were introduced recently, this paper does not report on this fruit, except testing their wider likely adaptability in these districts. Dwarf Cavendish banana was the major cultivar widely distributed. Farmers engaged were de-suckering to reduce competition but these removed plantlets were sold as planting materials to others. In this case, farmers benefited from sale of both suckers and fruits. Number of seedlings/suckers raised by each nursery operator was dependent on viability of the seed used (avocado, mango), anticipated demand for the grafted seedlings and availability of scions from MARC (avocado, mango) and management of the banana plantations."}]},{"head":"Analyse of adaptation likelihoods of 4 fruits in 7 districts","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"This paper uses, DIVA_GIS software (Hijmans et al., 2001) and other spatial analysis tools, to analyse likelihood of adaptability of these fruit species to wider areas within the study districts. Environmental requirements of these species were collected from literature and from practical experience within Ethiopia (Table 2). Data in this software were modified to suit the environmental requirement as shown on Table 2."}]},{"head":"Please insert Table 2 here","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":398,"text":"Nurseries are mostly operated on individual basis but with support from family labour while only one was operated by a group. Number of seedlings sold is still small (Table 3), mainly because of shortage of scions, but with the scions now becoming available from the earlier planted mother trees, production/sale of fruit seedlings is expected to grow exponentially. Prices of mango and avocado seedlings ranged from 13-25 Birr 5 while that of banana from 2-10 Birr, depending on the farmer and the district. Most seedlings were sold to individual commercially oriented farmers, however in two districts, part of the seedlings were sold to government/donor sponsored programs which in turn sold/supplied them at subsidised prices to less well endowed farmers. Results also show that farmers involved in this business earned from 200 to 34,375 Birr/year on individual basis. As a result of the benefits from the business, many of the farmers involved expanded their business and used the money as a start up for other farming activities and businesses, and a few also bought houses. The benefit will not only be limited to these nursery operators but also to the many farmers who bought these seedlings. Most of these seedlings from the improved fruits will bear fruits in short period of time. For example, banana would need less than one year while avocado and mango need 3-4 years. During the short project life, farmers producing bananas already benefited from selling fruits. For example, a farmer in Metema district sold 500, 7,500 and 27,500 kg of banana fruits from 2007-09 and earned 2,500, 37,500 and 137,500 Birr during these years, respectively. There are other farmers with more acreage who also sold banana fruits worth more than 150,000 Birr. Prior to 2005, there was no single tree of dwarf Cavendish banana in Metema district (Kahsay et al, 2008). Currently, there are more than 1000 farmers growing banana and it is being scaled out to similar neighbouring districts. The establishment of private fruit seedling supply system will also benefit the country through increased export or import substitution of fruits. For example, Ethiopia imported around USD 2.5 million worth of fruit products (fruits, nuts and juices) in 2003 (http://www.intracen.org/tradstat/sitc3-3d/ir231.htm Please insert Table 3 here The following cases of 2 nursery operators will demonstrate the impact of this activity in the livelihoods of the farmers involved, even though these are among the least benefited."}]},{"head":"Case 1.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":431,"text":"Kedija is a 36 years old housewife and a mother of 4 children who lives in a small village in Goma district, Oromiya region of Ethiopia. Kedija and her family are landless and live in a small hut with of 500 m 2 plot rented from the village administration. She has a few coffee, avocado and enset plants in her backyard. In a good year, she earns about 300 Birr from sale of enset products, while coffee beans are only sufficient for home consumption. The family's other source of income was limited to the income they get from the sale of injera (traditional Ethiopian bread) and small amount of cash from sale of an assortment of small items in their petty trade. Two years ago, Kedija was selected to take part in an intervention supported by the IPMS project in which a participatory commodity development scheme including the development of \"farmer-based fruit seedling supply system\" was being tried. Kedija was trained on fruit grafting techniques and nursery management and participated in an experiencesharing tour to a state-owned fruit farm, which also happened to be the major supplier of grafted mango and avocado in the country. IPMS brought Kedija 15 improved avocado seedlings. The seedlings consisted of three popular varieties (Fuerette, Hass and Ettinger) and were targeted to serve as future mother plants. In 2008, Kedija grafted 300 avocado seedlings in a 10 m 2 area and sold 70 grafted avocado seedlings for Birr 1750. Using this money, she bought a local breed heifer for 600 Birr and purchased nursery materials (polythene bags and plastic sheet) for raising grafted avocado seedlings and a hybrid coffee variety. The rest of her \"new found wealth\" was spent to cover her household expenses. Currently, she has about 45 grafted seedlings which can generate an additional 1125 Birr. Apart from selling grafted seedling, she is also hoping to earn an income from selling scions to other farmers. She has prepared 500 avocado rootstocks and 200 hybrid coffee seedlings. From these activities she is expecting to earn 14500 Birr. Her family members play integral roles in executing these activities. Money from the sale of seedlings is now their main source of income. Kedija had never been engaged in agriculture herself and has never earned so much cash from her very small plot of land or from any other business throughout her life. She now has a strong and positive vision about the potential rewards of even small-scale agriculture and wants to expand this business. She has applied to her PA administration for additional land along the roadside."}]},{"head":"Case 2:","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":453,"text":"Ashebir Alemu is a 20 year old young man who lives in Bure district of Amhara Regional State in Ethiopia. He has 8 th grade education and lives with his mother. Ashebir's father died when he was 10 years old and he has since shouldered the responsibility to generate money for food and other essential needs of his mother, nephew, niece and himself by working after his school hours. The family farm is just a quarter of a hectare of land and this makes it very difficult to produce adequate food even for subsistence. As a result, he was forced to look for other income generating activities. Since their home is in front of the highway between Bahir Dar and Addis Ababa, Ashebir started generating money by selling charcoal. He also farms rented land in order to produce supplementary grain for their consumption. A government fruit nursery for the district is situated in front of his house and Ashebir has watched the annual fruit multiplication activities since his childhood. However, he had never thought of its potential importance for generating good income from a small plot of land. He also did not know anything about grafting. In July 2007, the IPMS project was introducing grafted avocado seedlings to some farmers around Ashebir's village and he and his friends happened to be assisting the project staff unloading of these seedlings. Ashebir asked the project's Research & Development Officer (RDO) how grafting is done. The RDO explained to him some grafting techniques and the importance of grafting to farmers with small holdings. After two months, Ashebir invited the RDO to his house and showed him the success of his first grafting attempt. The RDO encouraged him to get a one-week training on theoretical and practical orchard management and grafting techniques. Following this, he started raising rootstocks and grafting at the end of 2007. Considering his commitment, the project provided him with a few scions of avocado from Melkassa Agricultural Research Center to expand his activity. In 2008 he sold 10 grafted avocado seedlings for 200 Birr. The following year he sold 258 grafted avocados and earned 5,160 Birr and invested this money to expand his fruit nursery business and to start grain trading. Currently, he has over 1500 grafted avocados for sale in the 2010 planting season and is expecting to earn more than 30,000 Birr. Moreover, he is currently diversifying his nursery activity by including apple mother trees and 30 rootstocks and is soon expected to graft and sell apple to the neighbourhoods which is the first of its kind in the district. His full engagement in fruits business makes him work for environment-friendly activity taking him away from selling charcoal which enhances deforestation."}]},{"head":"Likely suitable areas","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"In order to assess long term potential impact of this intervention, these fruits were analysed for their likely adaptability to the study districts, using DIVA-GIS. This analysis showed that there is a high potential for wide adaptability implying that livelihoods of many farmers could be improved. Figures 2 to 5 show the likely suitable areas, while Table 4 shows the potential area (ha), production and expected value (Birr) for the four fruits in the study districts. Assuming that only 5% of the area considered suitable becomes under production, the income that could be generated by both selling seedlings and fruits (in the long run) is going to be enormous. The PAs identified as suitable for growing these fruits inhabit many farm households and these are expected to be the initial clients for seedlings raised by the operators. This indicates that, more nursery operators will be required to supply sufficient fruit seedlings in the future, but with experience and availability of own mother plants, number of seedling raised and sold is expected to increase."}]},{"head":"Please insert Figures 2-5 here","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Please insert Table 4 here","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Factors influencing adoption of the intervention","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Encouraging policy: The economic development policy and strategy document of the government has stressed the need to accelerate the transformation of the agricultural sector from subsistence to a more business/market-oriented agriculture (MoFED, 2005). This contributed to a changing mentality of the OoARD staff and farmers towards market orientation. It also resulted in the government promoting horticultural development and rewarding of successful farmers."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"Use of value chain approach/innovation system concepts with the participation of relevant stakeholders: This led to the identification of fruits as a marketable commodity, the use of demonstrations and study tours to create interest in the commodity, the current supply system of seedlings as a bottleneck to expansion of fruit production, and the identification of an alternative (farmer based) seedling supply system including selection of farmers, suitable varieties/cultivars and knowledge/skills needs. The study on fruit marketing (Aithal and Wangila, 2006) showed that there is high demand for fruits in the study areas, including some of the districts in this paper. This study also revealed that demand for exotic species is higher than the demand for local species. The fruit varieties which are being promoted are also internationally recognised."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Partnership/linkage roles: IPMS forged linkages with various actors to bring knowledge skills and supply of inputs including the research system, NGOs, state farms and the OoARD and nursery operators. The project staff played a leading role at the beginning and continued until the OoARD and farmers were able to takeover. For sustaining the innovation processes, the project tried to develop capacities of the public and private sector to take over this role to ensure sustainability after the project terminates and ownership by local organizations."}]},{"head":"What is working well and why?","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"These nursery operators now are selling improved fruit seedlings to fellow farmers in their neighbourhood and beyond with scions brought from the MARC, but some have already started using their own mother trees as the source of scions. As a result, supply of improved fruit is becoming an important source of livelihoods to the farmers operating the nurseries."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"The main reason for the success is economic viability of the nursery operation, based on the demand for seedlings in the study areas. For example, in 2008, farmers in Bure district requested their respective DAs for buying 14,280 mango, 8,964 avocado and 2,995 banana suckers. However, the operators could not avail the quantity needed because of limited capacity. As can be seen from Table 3, number of seedlings sold was very low compared to the demand in 2008. However, many farmers will establish their own mother trees and demand will be reduced, in the near future. Field days, focusing on the project activities, including fruit nurseries, have been conducted for zonal and regional levels which are expected to contribute to the sale of seedling beyond the district boundaries. In the future, more benefits are expected come from the sale of fruits than from seedlings."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"The role of the OoARD is changing from input supplier to knowledge provider on fruit (seedling) production, which should result in improved livelihoods of the rural poor. If fruit seedling supply, as is common with other input supply services, is handled by the private sector, it is expected to be more efficient than the public sector and this efficiency is expected to lead to increased sale of fruit seedlings and hence many farmers will be able to grow and sell fruits which will contribute to improved livelihoods."}]},{"head":"What is not working well and why?","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Shortage of scions: At present scion is brought from MARC and is in short supply because all our sites get scions from this research centre. As a result, some farmers who started raising seedlings for rootstock have stopped because they were frustrated by the shortage of scions. In some of or districts nursery operators have already started using scions from own mother trees. Other districts will follow next year."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Low success rate of grafted seedlings: Some nursery operators reported lower survival rates of grafted seedlings, especially with mangos. This is attributed to lack of experience and the fact that the scions currently used are also transported from long distances. However, with increased practicing in grafting by the operators and use of own scions, it is believed that this problem will be reduced substantially in the future."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Lack of nursery tools: Hand tools, polythene bags, grafting knife, rapping plastics and other, necessary for nursery activities are unavailable in the districts. Use of this may also contribute to low lower success rate of grafted seedling in the nurseries. Existing credit schemes could be used to encourage and establish village level farm tool shops, including nursery tools, by farmers. The project has implemented similar activities in developing input supply services for other commodities like coffee, forage seed, supplementary feed and honey producers in some districts."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"Lack of seeds for rootstock: Seeds from locally grown mango and avocado are raised as rootstock, but the fruits are not widely grown in most of the districts. Therefore, nursery operators have to collect these seeds from juice selling houses and market places. However, seeds collected are not sufficient and have poor viability. Government and other farmer nurseries also collect these seeds for raising seedlings. Fruit development is at its infant stage in the study districts, but is expanding which is expected to solve problems related to seed shortage in the future."}]},{"head":"Limitations of the spatial analysis","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The overall accuracy of the digital outputs depends on the spatial resolution of the digital layers used. Detailed socio-economic characteristics of the areas considered suitable will also be important before finally recommending these fruits, based on their environmental requirements, so that factors that negatively influence adoption will be avoided."}]},{"head":"Lessons learned and Recommendations","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"The IPMS approach focussed on a system that requires a market-oriented approach to agricultural development with the involvement of many but relevant stakeholders. This intervention proved that multi-stakeholder-participatory identification of commodities, their constraints and solutions and relevant stakeholders in a value chain approach is key to creating a sustainable system. The various stakeholders contributed at the different stages of the value chain. The involvement of the various stakeholders from the initial stage also helped to target the right intervention areas, farmers, sites and others. This further facilitated the buy-in by and ownership by the key stakeholders because projects such as this only last for few years and there is a need for sustained ownership. On the other hand, the proper targeting and identification of bottlenecks in the area of capacity building of the participating farmers and starting to build the capacity of the participant farmers at the initial stage was also key to the success. This is because activities which seemed difficult and requiring special skills (grafting) were easily managed by farmers."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"There was no thorough study on cost of seedling production but rough calculations show that each avocado and mango seedling would cost about 5 Birr. The operators sold these seedlings between 11 and 25 Birr each (Table 3), while between 2 and 10 for banana suckers. However, in the existing supply system, sales price of 1 avocado or mango seedling is 15 Birr. However, by the time the seedling reaches Metema, for example, it will be about 45 Birr, where cost of transport is a major expense."},{"index":3,"size":249,"text":"Looking at the size of the areas suitable for growing the fruits (Fig. 2-5), many more nursery operators will be required to supply sufficient fruit seedlings in the future. On the other hand, with experience, benefits earned and availability of own mother trees, the current operators are also expected to increase number of seedlings sold, while the number of nursery operators will remain small, relative to the number of farm households, in the future. However, nursery operation is not an end by itself, rather it is a way to support the fruit industry in the districts and ultimately in the country, so that benefits will not only be limited to the nursery operators but also to the broader fruit growers as well. The experience gained by both farmers and DAs and the link created among these stakeholders and the researchers is expected to create a sustainable fruit seedling supply system for newly emerging varieties/suckers in the long run, in support of the likely fruit expansion in the districts. The fruit supply system has already started to scale up and out beyond the study sites, calling for strong support of the intervention. It is therefore believed that, in addition to district, zonal and regional level offices, the newly established Horticulture Development Agency (HDA) will be strongly involved in regulating these efforts so that quality is not compromised. With further development of the sub-sector, HDA will also be a key player in market information delivery and advisory services to the sub-sector.     "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Map of Ethiopia depicting the study sites "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Likely adaptability of avocado to five of the study districts "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Likely adaptability of mango to Alaba, Dale and Ada districts "},{"text":"Figure 4 .Figure 5 . Figure 4. Likely adaptability of banana in Bure and Metema districts "},{"text":"Table 1 . Some social and environmental conditions of the study sites District Agricultural Altitude range Annual temperature Annual rainfall Major soils District AgriculturalAltitude rangeAnnual temperatureAnnual rainfallMajor soils  population 1 (m asl) range (ºC) range (mm)  population 1(m asl)range (ºC)range (mm) Ada 194,664 1800-3100 8-28 871-1070 Vertisols Ada194,6641800-31008-28871-1070Vertisols Alaba 214,309 1555-2261 17-20 857-1085 Andosol (Orthic) Alaba214,3091555-226117-20857-1085Andosol (Orthic) Atsbi 100,635 918-3069 13-25 365-678 Lithic Leptosols Atsbi100,635918-306913-25365-678Lithic Leptosols Bure 143,854 713-2604 14-24 1386-1757 Humic Nitosols Bure143,854713-260414-241386-1757Humic Nitosols Dale 196,758 1170-3200 15-19 1162-1353 Nitosols Dale196,7581170-320015-191162-1353Nitosols Goma 247,326* 1387-2870 13-29 1779-2005 Nitosols Goma247,326*1387-287013-291779-2005Nitosols Metema 48,012 550-1680 22-28 850-1100 Haplic Luvisols Metema 48,012550-168022-28850-1100Haplic Luvisols      and Vertisols and Vertisols 1 Source: CSA (2003)     1 Source: CSA (2003) *Includes urban population    *Includes urban population  "}],"sieverID":"f9375f1f-956e-48db-a6b8-b4671c1ef359","abstract":"Ethiopia has a diverse agroecology and many areas are suitable for growing temperate, subtropical or tropical fruits. Substantial areas receive sufficient rainfall and many lakes, rivers and streams could also be used to support fruit production. Despite this potential, the total land area under fruits is very small and mainly smallholder-based. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD), the area under fruits is about 43,500 ha with a total annual production of about 261,000 metric tonnes of which less than 2% is exported. Many supply and demand reasons are associated with the poor performance of the sub-sector including technical, organisational and institutional factors. The lack of sufficient supply of planting materials of improved fruit varieties/cultivars and accompanying knowledge were identified as key constraints during a participatory rural appraisal (PRA) study conducted by the IPMS project in 2005. This is because the source of planting materials for tropical, sub-tropical improved and temperate fruits are limited to a few mostly government operated sites, which are located far away from potential planting places. To alleviate this problem, IPMS in collaboration with district Offices of Agriculture and Rural Development (OoARD) initiated smallholder farmer-based improved fruit seedling supply system in many of its project districts. This initially required the establishment of improved mother trees and farmer capacity building on nursery and fruit tree management, among others. The objective of this paper is, to share the IPMS experiences in the establishment of sustainable farmer-based improved fruit seedling supply system which contributed to the improvement of livelihoods of many farmers. Nursery operators earned between 100 and 11,000 USD equivalent from sale of seedlings/suckers or fruits in a season. The lessons learnt indicate that farmer-based fruit nurseries a) can be established by linking the right public and private sector actors for knowledge, skills development and input supply b) are cost effective compared to the current suppliers, in most cases c) convinced all actors that farmers can handle the seemingly difficult grafting/budding techniques d) created employment opportunities for the landless youth, individual male and female farmers, e) generates a significant income for nursery operators, f) reduce transport cost of the seedlings significantly. This paper also uses a spatial analysis tool, DIVA-GIS software, to analyse likelihood of adaptability of four fruit species to a wider area within the study districts and the likely production potential and value."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02bd4178a8437baa1ddec2b161aa9467","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9ff74ec3-44d6-46c9-8747-d1340f0494cc/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"A Benchmarking Framework for Water Use, Soil Health, Land Use, Productivity, Biodiversity, and Climate Change Impacts of Livestock Modelled with CLEANED","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction: CLEANED framework and tool","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The CLEANED framework and tool intended to support decision making and is intended to help inform governments, donors, non-governmental organisations, and farmer organisations in datascarce environments. The tool was developed to analyse the environmental impacts of certain production practices in livestock value chains. It evaluates the land requirements, productivity, water use, effects on soil health, and greenhouse gas emissions of a given livestock enterprise."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"The first step of any CLEANED assessment is defining the goal and scope of the assessment, which typically starts by delineating an area of study. Descriptors for the study area include agroecology, market linkages, production objectives, and farming practices, for example. In the CLEANED model, these units are described as enterprises or systems (Notenbaert et al. 2014). This process allows CLEANED to analyse environmental impacts in the context of each different system/enterprise. These analyses can then be combined to describe the environmental impact of a given livestock production strategy in comparable, standardized units, which is helpful in measuring environmental impact across the system or enterprise and for studying internal change. This process of homogenization into systems or enterprises assumes that the indicators that CLEANED analyses are unlikely to change across systems or enterprises."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"CLEANED uses simple minimum-data calculations to analyse environmental footprint indicators. As a static model that calculates these indicators annually, CLEANED estimates biomass, water, and nutrient flows and considers different environmental impact domains (Table 1). Some indicators may be applicable to more than one domain. For instance, the indicators of land requirements, nitrogen balance, and soil erosion are all linked to the land and soil domain. The indicators of land requirements and nitrogen balance are also related to the biodiversity domain. Nitrogen balance also contributes to a third domain: climate change."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"Since most of the environmental impacts of livestock value chains can be observed pre-farm gate (Fraval 2014), the main activities that the CLEANED model takes into account are feed and livestock production. The CLEANED model also estimates product losses that occur along the processing, marketing, and consumption stages of the value chain. A CLEANED assessment roughly follows the steps of an environmental impact assessment as outlined by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2020). These steps are as follows (Figure 1):"},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"Define the goal and scope of an assessment and set system boundaries."},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"Analyse the inventory. Collect and calculate data, inputs, and outputs."},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"Assess impact and convert results into impacts."},{"index":8,"size":2,"text":"Interpret findings.  "}]},{"head":"Benchmarking framework","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":259,"text":"Benchmarking is essential for steps three and four of the CLEANED process, which involve an environmental impact assessment and the interpretation of results (FAO 2020). Benchmarking involves comparing oneself to an industry standard or an organisation with similar production practices or goals. The benchmarking process is usually geared towards improving performance through comparison, learning from others, and identifying actions that will ensure improved outcomes (Franks andCollis 2003, Keszthelyi 2017). A benchmarking system for Comprehensive Livestock Environmental Assessment for improved Nutrition, a secured Environment, and sustainable Development (CLEANED) model would allow users to compare their production practices to sustainability standards within the context of a defined livestock enterprise. Ultimately, the benchmarking tool aims to translate the CLEANED analysis results into a simple 'traffic light' system where red means that the livestock enterprise is unsustainable, amber means that the enterprise is average, and green means that the enterprise is sustainable. An ideal benchmarking system would include annual reference data for every domain and indicator that the user decided to include in their CLEANED assessment. Integrating benchmarking into the CLEANED process provides the user with metrics they can use to interpret how particular farming practices affect sustainability within their enterprise or system (Figure 1). Through this process, the user can better understand the environmental impacts of products like meat and milk. The user can also use this data to determine what changes need to be made in order to close the gap between their ideal environmental impacts, which are represented by the benchmark, and their actual environmental impact (Mekonnen et al. 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":218,"text":"For benchmarking, CLEANED indicators are compared against either stocks or flows and limiting resources (Schyns et al. 2019), or the highest productivity levels at different spatial scales. For instance, the water use indicator can be compared to the limited resource of total available water, and therefore it is important to compare the water use indicator against natural stocks. On the other hand, GHG emissions cannot be compared to a natural stock; they contribute to global emissions for a certain footprint, and therefore can only be evaluated against productivity levels. Various methods can be used to set benchmarks for different indicators. These methods vary based on data availability, the scale of the analysis, and the reasons for setting the benchmark, and they include setting a benchmark based on best agricultural practices, based on the highest efficiency of a given indicator, or based on the twentieth or twenty-fifth percentile of the overall range of observed indicator values (Schyns and Hoekstra 2014, Karandish et al. 2018, Mekonnen et al. 2020). All of these methods compare indicators for the study area to other areas that share similar environmental characteristics. It is however difficult to set benchmarks based on comparisons to natural stocks, due to a limited number of studies and analyses that quantify the stocks in question (van Noordwijk and Ellison 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":196,"text":"A challenge in benchmarking is the comparability of methods, indicators and units. As a CLEANED analysis is conducted at the system or enterprise level, the tool's data needs to focus on livestock enterprises in order to fit this scale. However, certain studies are not directly linked to providing benchmarks for CLEANED analysis. Therefore, data from the current literature must undergo conversion before being used as a benchmark value. Field studies provide values that could be used as benchmarks (Oweis et al. 2000, Zhang et al. 1998, and Sharma et al. 2016). It is difficult, however, to expand these values to fit national, regional, or global scales. It is helpful to specify the county or system that a certain indicator represents, and identify whether the indicator will be used to assess best practices or to calculate the twentieth or twenty-fifth percentile. Furthermore, expanding the values from these studies to create benchmarks for larger areas like whole countries or regions can also be difficult, because the values do not have enough data for broader comparisons. Modelling and remote sensing in combination with fieldscale analysis may help combat this problem and calculate values that are appropriate for wider use."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"In the following, we outline a benchmarking framework for CLEANED and illustrate its operationalisation. The benchmarking steps could be as follows:"},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"i. Benchmark values such as best practice indicators, average values, and percentiles are found in literature for each indicator across impact domains."},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"ii. In instances where these benchmark values and the values from the CLEANED assessment use different units of measurement, the values are converted to allow direct comparison. For example, if CLEANED measures data in Fat and Protein Corrected Milk (FPCM)/ha and the literature measures data in kg/ha, the literature's data would be converted to FPCM/ha."},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"iii. The system uses these benchmark values to assign low (-1), medium (0), or high (+1) efficiency and sustainability scores to each indicator."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"iv. The indicators are assigned weights ranging from -1 to +1. v. The system combines and aggregates each domain's values and weights for an overall analysis."},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"Photo: ©2020 Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT/ Georgina Smith"},{"index":10,"size":11,"text":"Environmental impact domains, benchmarking data and conversion (steps i and ii)"},{"index":11,"size":38,"text":"It is important to define the environmental impact domains in order to help the user understand how an indicator can help determine environmental impact across the domains. CLEANED assesses a total of five domains and thirty-four indicators ( "}]},{"head":"Water","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"Freshwater is essential for human wellbeing and livelihoods, especially in agriculture, which uses about sixty percent of all freshwater. Agriculture is also the backbone of other industries, as it creates many raw materials. Therefore, water security is key to minimising hardship and ensuring sustained socioeconomic activity. Water use in livestock production can be improved through various means. For example, producers can decrease water use per unit of product weight (m 3 /tonne), water use per hectare (m 3 /ha), water use per unit of protein content in an animal product (m 3 /kg protein), water use per kg of FPCM (m 3 /kg FPCM), and total water use (m 3 ) (Chapagain and Hoekstra 2003, Liu et al. 2010, Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2011, Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2012, Liu et al. 2018, Bosire et al. 2019, Heinke et al. 2020). However, in order to draw comprehensive conclusions about the environmental and production impacts of certain practices, researchers need to standardize their findings (Boulay et al. 2021). Just as with productivity values, the values that measure water use often need to be converted to kg of protein content and FPCM to make them comparable."}]},{"head":"Soil and land","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"This domain includes indicators for land required for feed production, soil erosion, and nutrient balances. Assessing soil and land impacts are key as about thirty percent of the Earth's surface is dedicated to livestock production (Ramankutty et al. 2008). In this domain, improved efficiency means minimizing competition for land through partitioning or sharing land (DeFries and Rosenzweig 2010). There are numerous sources of useful benchmarking data, which for the most part present values that are compatible with the CLEANED model and do not require conversion (Stoorvogel et al. 1993, Rufino et al. 2006, Davidson 2009, Liu et al. 2010, Bodirsky et al. 2012, Bosire et al. 2016, Aklilu 2018, Jacobs et al. 2018)."}]},{"head":"Climate change","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"When measuring greenhouse gas emissions in relation to livestock production, results depend on whether one is measuring on-farm emissions or emissions throughout the life cycle, whether one is measuring all livestock species or specific species, and whether one is accounting for changes in land use the year the measurements are made (Herrero et al. 2008, Gerber et al. 2013, Herrero et al. 2013, Havlik et al. 2014, Herrero et al. 2016, MacLeod et al. 2017). Most of the climate changerelated references use values that do not require conversion. However, most of these references necessitate further research, GIS layer matching, and an in-depth selection process to find exactly which values are compatible with the CLEANED model."}]},{"head":"Biodiversity","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Agricultural production is linked to losses in both terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity (Dudley and Alexander 2017). Because agriculture's effects on biodiversity are measured for many different reasons, researchers in this domain will clearly state their objectives and, if possible, outline the key biodiversity issues they are studying. The CLEANED indicators that are linked to biodiversity focus on 'wild' biodiversity rather than agro-biodiversity, and they include the following examples:"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"-Changes in land requirements and changes in the allocation between semi-natural grazing and planted crops. Both of these indicators are directly linked to potential habitat change."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"-Nutrient concentrations such as nitrogen balances, land area with nitrogen leaching, and nitrogen emissions. These indicators can be linked to both detrimental and beneficial farming practices, such as pollution or activities that increase soil fertility."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"-GHG emissions and carbon storage. These indicators are part of the biodiversity domain because climate change plays a role in biodiversity.  "}]},{"head":"Indicators","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"of domains and indicators","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Note: GHGe = greenhouse gas equivalent; CH 4 = methane; N 2 O = nitrous oxide; CO 2 e = carbon dioxide equivalent."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"To generate a wide range of benchmark values, results can be obtained from global, spatially explicit modelling exercises using Global Information System (GIS) for the unit of interest, for example the study country, study sites, specific enterprises, or other global units (Robinson et al. 2011, Alexandratos andBruinsma 2012). Various data are of interest: Firstly, minimum and maximum values that serve as a proxy for best practices; secondly, average values; and thirdly, percentiles. These data facilitate the application of the outputs from environmental impact assessments carried out by the user to infer efficiency at a broader scale, such as on the level of countries, agroclimatic zones, or production systems."}]},{"head":"Assigning sustainability values to outputs (step iii)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"As a next step, benchmarking needs to assign sustainability scores to the output of the model. The aim of this step of the process is to assign a value of -1, 0, or +1 to each indicator: -1 represents low sustainability and +1 represents high sustainability."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Depending on the domain, the user may seek to assess efficiency by comparing against a mean, a percentile, or a minimum or maximum value."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"When comparing against a mean value, the user's enterprise will be designated low efficiency (-) if the CLEANED result falls below the benchmark's mean value and high efficiency (+) if the result falls above the mean value. When comparing against a percentile, the enterprise is considered inefficient when the CLEANED result falls below the set percentile that the benchmark considers efficient. Within the benchmarking framework, this value is set at the tercile level in order to ensure consistency (Karandish et al. 2018). For instance, if the user's CLEANED value falls below the lower tercile, then the enterprise will be considered efficient. If the CLEANED value falls above the higher tercile, then the enterprise will be considered inefficient."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"When comparing against minimum and maximum values, the enterprise will be considered inefficient if the CLEANED value falls above the benchmark's maximum value, and efficient if the CLEANED value falls below the benchmark's minimum value. The range between the minimum and maximum values can be considered an acceptable efficiency range."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"Comparing values against natural resource stocks is slightly different, because the enterprise is defined as efficient if its CLEANED value falls below the total or a defined percentage of stocks available. This comparison method requires an additional comparison with the productivity domain's indicators."}]},{"head":"Assigning weights and aggregating overall score (steps iv and v)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Once the indicators have been assessed, they can help estimate an enterprise's environmental impact across more than one domain. For instance, the indicators of soil health, land used for feed, total water allocated to feed production, and GHG emissions can be used to assess the domains of water, soil and land, climate change, and biodiversity."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"A weighted average of the indicators can help a user assess a domain. For instance, if an enterprise's soil erosion, nitrogen balance, and land requirement indicators are all valued as highly efficient, then the enterprise's soil and land domain could also be described as highly efficient. An assessment of the biodiversity domain would follow a similar process."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"The various indicators are first estimated separately, then the domain's overall efficiency is determined by the weights assigned to each indicator. The weights can be assigned by coefficients that are designated to each domain or indicator (Alkemade et al. 2009, Alkemade et al. 2013, Teillard et al. 2016). An alternative approach could be to express the domain's overall environmental footprint as the ratio of indicators that are considered inefficient to the total number of indicators in the domain."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Photo: ©2014CIAT/GeorginaSmith"}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"The benchmarking framework is a first steps towards allowing CLEANED users to assess the sustainability of livestock enterprises by providing a basis for users to arrive at informed conclusions on how to meet standards. This framework has also necessitated a vigorous assessment of the CLEANED model's data needs and user interface, which justifies an assessment of and potential improvements to the tool that will help CLEANED reach a broader audience."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"The main gap in this process is the lack of a consistent approach to assess an enterprise's efficiency. More specifically, the following issues arise when developing benchmarks for various indicators:"},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"1. Scarcity of available research on important indicators hinders the development of a database and makes it difficult to set benchmarks."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"2. Most benchmarks are very well established in business or corporate environments. However, very few benchmarks exist in agriculture. Benchmarks are especially lacking in the livestock sector (Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2012). Data often requires processing in order to be useful in setting benchmarks. While data from crop analyses can often be directly used as general benchmarks, this is not the case for livestock (Chukalla et al. 2018, Zhuo et al. 2019, Mekonnen et al. 2020)."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"3. The scale of the CLEANED model's analyses may be difficult to merge with global or regional analyses that provide values that can be used as benchmarks."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"4. Within existing, relevant literature, it is often difficult to obtain the datasets used for the publications without further efforts. Researchers can seek direct contact with authors to track data that has been recorded in formats that are compatible with the minimum-data calculations of CLEANED, but this is time-consuming."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"5. CLEANED uses units to measure and assess indicators that may differ from the units found in literature."},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"Next steps to improve and operationalize the CLEANED benchmarking framework include the following:"},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"1. Identifying literature with data that can help set benchmarks."},{"index":10,"size":16,"text":"2. Populating the database with this data. This process includes converting the values to appropriate units."},{"index":11,"size":8,"text":"3. Integrating this database with the CLEANED tool."},{"index":12,"size":13,"text":"4. Assessing the success of this integration and its iterations to avoid bottlenecks."},{"index":13,"size":14,"text":"5. Implementing the CLEANED benchmarking assessment as the final output of the CLEANED analysis."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. A schematic overview of how the benchmarking system fits into a CLEANED environmental assessment "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Minimum-data Calculations Country and System/Enterprise Species and Herd Charecteristics Indicator Parameters INDICATORS Water Use Water Productivity Soil and Land Biodiversity Climate Change Soil Erosion GHGe Nitrogen n Balance Land Requirement Environmental footprint assessment and bench marking Production Limited Resource Use/ Availability Optimum Resource Use/ Highest   "},{"text":" Table1). The domain analyses below expand on the link between the user's values and the benchmark values. These examples are merely illustrative, as more in-depth research and data filtering are required to determine the best benchmark value for each indicator. Productivity Productivity Production estimates at the enterprise level Production estimates at the enterprise level are measured in kg of FPCM/ha, kg of meat/ha, are measured in kg of FPCM/ha, kg of meat/ha, and kg of protein/ha. Just like the absolute land and kg of protein/ha. Just like the absolute land requirement indicator, the absolute production requirement indicator, the absolute production indicator is critical in measuring other indicators indicator is critical in measuring other indicators because it helps estimate the other indicators' because it helps estimate the other indicators' relative values, and it can be used for benchmarking relative values, and it can be used for benchmarking (Bouwman et al. 2005, Alexandratos and Bruinsma (Bouwman et al. 2005, Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012). 2012).  "},{"text":"Table 1 .  Domains Comparison for DomainsComparison for  Assessment Assessment  "},{"text":"Table   "}],"sieverID":"877b7162-dec5-46ee-98d8-6255e2bd6643","abstract":"Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) delivers research-based solutions that address the global crises of malnutrition, climate change, biodiversity loss, and environmental degradation.The Alliance focuses on the nexus of agriculture, the environment, and nutrition. We work with local, national, and multinational partners across Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean, and with the public and private sectors and civil society. Through novel partnerships, the Alliance generates evidence and mainstreams innovations to transform food systems and landscapes so that they sustain the planet, drive prosperity, and nourish people in a climate crisis.The Alliance is part of the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), the world's largest agricultural research and innovation partnership for a food-secure future, dedicated to reducing poverty, enhancing food and nutrition security, and improving natural resources. https://alliancebioversityciat.org www.cgiar.org CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. CGIAR science is dedicated to reducing poverty, enhancing food and nutrition security, and improving natural resources and ecosystem services. Its research is carried out by 15 CGIAR Centers in close collaboration with hundreds of partners, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, development organizations, and the private sector."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0301094a45eb097d301092e1b205168a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/infobrief/8377-Infobrief.pdf"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Achieving transformational change in land use and climate change 1 More inclusive and collaborative science is needed","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Swift, deep and global action is required to face today's environmental and climate challenges. Climate change must be kept far below the current global warming trajectory of 2.7 degrees projected by a UNFCCC (2021) analysis of 191 countries' NDC re-submissions in 2021. Truly 'transformational' change and 'paradigm shifts' are needed to bring these sweeping changes by 2030, just nine years from now. Evidence is rapidly mounting that this herculean task is essential for humanity's survival. There is additional moral and ethical pressure to address large and widening inequalities in income, livelihoods, human health, and access to food."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"There is confusion of the meaning of transformational change in the context of climate change. Practitioners (e.g., policy makers, project proponents, donors, development agencies) want to know if and how their actions are or can be transformational. Scientists have been providing insights for specific contexts and have collectively chipped away at the TC concept from various angles. In climate change, it is unclear if scientific knowledge has sufficiently answered the practical question of HOW to make transformational changes happen. transformational change? (ii) What does 'transformational change' mean? (iii) What could drive transformational changes? We focus mainly on transformations needed in the land use sectors (e.g., agriculture, forestry) because of their importance in both adapting to and mitigating the effects of climate change."},{"index":3,"size":164,"text":"This study is part of a collaboration between FAO and CIFOR that started in 2017 to bridge the gap between science and practitioners (Atmadja et al., 2021). By answering these questions, we hope to identify gaps and extract patterns, and use science to inform future research, funding priorities, program design, and public discourse. To capture the state-of-the-art in theoretical and analytical thinking on TC, we used -in the Web of Science scientific literature database -a keyword search on \"transformational change\" in the titles of articles published between January 2000 and September 2018. The resulting 111 articles were characterized according to authorship and field of research. A subset of 20 articles was selected based on their subject matter (forestry, agriculture, ecology or climate change) and analyzed for definitions of TC and drivers of TC1. We also summarize definitions from a few selected institutions such as World Bank, Climate Investment Fund (CIF), Green Climate Fund (GCF), Food and Agriculture Organization (UNFAO), and UN Development Programme (UNDP)."}]},{"head":"Findings","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"State of science in transformational change","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Literature on transformational change in land use and climate change is still scarce. Lessons must draw from other sectors. Of the 111 papers identified, 20 were related to land use and climate change (LUCC). In forestry, the literature is mostly related to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+). Transformational change is reasonably well articulated and analysed in the health, education and business management literature."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"The distribution of co-authorship in the TC literature is dominated by authors in high-income countries. Most (129 of 166) contributing authors were from 19 high-income countries (See Figure 1). Four countries (United States of America, United Kingdom, Australia and Canada) account for 61% of the authorship in the studied publications. In contrast, 16 low and low-middle income countries account for 9% of the authorship. We conclude the science of TC has not adequately reflected the voice of authors in developing countries."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"While speaking of collaboration, most TC research has not been done collaboratively. Very few publications come from collaborative efforts and are mostly (58%) produced by 1 or 2 authors. Two papers stand out, as they are in fields related to LUCC, written by numerous authors based in institutions in developing countries (Brockhaus et al., 2017;Mapfumo et al., 2017). Authors of these two articles represent nearly all the developing country authors involved in studying TC in LUCC."},{"index":4,"size":211,"text":"In LUCC, two theoretical frameworks are prominently used in the transformational change literature: Transitions Management (TM) and the institutions, interests, information and ideas (4I) Framework. They are complementary as the TM offers concrete 'how-to' guidelines (e.g., Loorbach, 2010), while the 4I framework focuses on the political economy of change (see Brockhaus & Angelsen, 2012). TM was developed for a wide range of sustainability issues, rooted in the transition sustainability literature and builds on the science of complexity. The 4I framework was developed based on experiences in the forestry sector for a more effective, efficient and equitable implementation of REDD+. The 4I framework led to several research tools that can be used to conduct and compare case studies from different countries, and a range of analysis on the political economy of TC in REDD+ in many developing countries (see https:// www2.cifor.org/gcs/modules/redd-policies/methods/). TC success in the context of climate change is indicated by deep, fast and large-scale changes, but achieving transformations in these three dimensions simultaneously is difficult. The inherent trade-offs between them make it difficult to achieve the simultaneously (Termeer et al., 2017). For example, deep changes cannot happen quickly and across a large scale. Given these trade-offs, aspiring for two out of the three indicators of success would be more realistic."}]},{"head":"Definitions of Transformational Change","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Some definitions diverge from each other. That is OK. Divergence may be due to the diverse goals and contexts that require diverse definitions. Or, there is an underlying disagreement of what is transformational and how it is achieved for any goal or context. Given the diversity of the literature examined, it is difficult to ascertain the reason for divergence. Definitions can diverge on how transformational change can be achieved (e.g., continuous/incremental vs. discontinuous or disruptive changes), focus on driver of change (e.g., actions or investments vs. process), or the scale being emphasized (national or large-scale change vs. changes across scales)."}]},{"head":"Possible drivers of transformational change","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"Four groups of drivers of TC emerged from the literature review, which can guide decisions on investments, approaches. 1. Resources: Factors that provide the needed inputs to push for a desired change. Example: information/ data, knowledgeable people, funds, dedicated people, time, legal frameworks, market structures, institutions, political will. 2. Legitimacy: factors that help the desired change to be accepted by society at large as an objective that merits allocation of resources. For example: formation of higher-level agenda, shared concern, economic and political interests, shared narratives, shared vision, heightened awareness. 3. Processes: actions that harmonize efforts and values across different levels and actors, and define a desired change. For example: forming a shared vision, collective learning, updating strategies and objectives based on evidence, harmonizing processes and incentives with vision, forming a transitions arena, linking and developing actors' alliances in different scales and interests, knowledge management, monitoring and evaluation, scaling up. 4. Norms: values that guide processes to result in sustainable and transformational collaborations. For example, openness to new ideas and actors, equal voice, risk-taking, willingness to empower marginal actors, willingness to learn and share lessons from trial and error, low/no-regrets approach (actions that would be desirable regardless of climate outcomes), and a focus on process."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"The relative importance of drivers of TC is very contextual and depends on how TC objectives are defined. This means a driver of TC in one case may not drive TC in another. The objectives can be expressed in terms of barriers that need to be overcome, ideologies or norms that need to be propagated, paradigms that needs to be shifted, or behaviours that need to be changed or incentivized."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Drivers and outcomes of TC are not easy to quantify and monitor. Scientific articles use a wide range of indicators for assessing and monitoring transformational change. We identified indicators related to a wide range of drivers (resources, legitimacy, processes, and norms). Some indicators are level-dependent (i.e., they only apply to outcomes at one level), level-independent (i.e., apply to outcomes at multiple levels) and multi-level (i.e., apply to interactions across levels). Indicators can be difficult or costly to apply across time or geographies and hard to quantify."},{"index":4,"size":116,"text":"The area of business management offers practical insights into institutional transformation, although not all lessons are applicable due the more complex types of stakeholders, objectives, visions, time frames, and constraints in LUCC. The business management literature offers the needed 'how to' that is lacking in TC literature in LUCC, such as how to cultivate leaders and an organizational culture that enables transformational change. The business management literature focuses on TC at the enterprise and smaller units, making its findings useful for ministries, programmes, projects, departments, communities or individuals. Increasingly, articles go beyond profit-maximization into social and environmental sustainability. Nonetheless, the business literature lacks guidance for very long-term and global level transformations relevant to addressing climate change."},{"index":5,"size":117,"text":"Transformational change is driven by norms and processes that can either be aligned to or have tradeoffs with human rights. Issues of rights are associated with the depth of change and could be jeopardized when seeking quick change at scale. The literature on transformational change generally supports local ownership in the change process but has differing definitions for, or does not define, 'local ownership'. There could also be trade-offs. For example, transformational changes may need processes and norms that are aligned with human rights, such as participation and inclusiveness. At the same time, taking risks and making deep changes may threaten human rights depending on the local context. The scientific literature has not explored these trade-offs adequately."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Relying on insights from other areas of social activity (business, education, etc.) will not be enough to address transformational change in LUCC. More specific research is needed. Several characteristics of TC are unique to LUCC and hinder a direct application of findings from other areas:"},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"• There are no debates on the importance of health, education, public administration or business in society, but the case for forests and climate action still needs to be made for many parts of society. • In particular, land tenure is of utmost importance in LUCC, but not in other sciences. • The belief in human agency (that humans can be agents of change that can influence outcomes) over natural systems such as forests and landscapes is weaker than related to human systems such as health, education, public administration and business systems. • Time scales to change are much longer in forestry and climate change. Typical project cycles of 2-5 years are too short to bring lasting impact."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Power relations and actors that need to be involved in LUCC are different."},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"The political economy and human rights issues related to transformational changes need to be analysed more deeply and widely. Political economy questions such as who is defining TC objectives, who is included and excluded from discussions about TC, and for whom the change is, have not been adequately analysed. Such studies have been conducted, for example, in the context of REDD+ at national levels but need to be expanded to include more levels (global to local, multi-level interactions), geographies, contexts and perspectives, and they are similarly important for initiatives such as restoration, nature-based solutions and so forth."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"TC research should be done more collaboratively."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"Fruitful scientific collaborations could be forged across disciplines, actor types (e.g., science, policymakers, community representatives, project proponents) and geographies."},{"index":7,"size":52,"text":"Knowledge generated from scientific exploration of TC needs to speak to the needs and realities of developing countries. Engaging more scientists and non-scientific actors from developing countries could be one way to ensure that scientific knowledge incorporates a vision of change that is aligned with the needs and conditions of developing countries."},{"index":8,"size":49,"text":"Scientists and practitioners need to work together to improve monitoring, evaluation and learning systems. Current systems, often narrowly defined to address carbon monitoring, need to address the complexity of monitoring multi-level, multi-actor changes across TC drivers and outcomes (such as resilience) that are not easy to measure and quantify."},{"index":9,"size":75,"text":"Monitoring needs go beyond outcomes and include 'fuzzy' aspects along the transformation pathways, related to processes, norms, legitimacy, resources. Indicators of transformational change are often either not quantifiable, or difficult to measure, or not easy to be measured consistently across levels, space and time. This makes it difficult to integrate transformational change aspects into current monitoring and evaluation practices still focused on measurability. However, monitoring will be essential to assess progress and learn from mistakes.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Definitions of transformational change in the scientific and grey literature have the following in common: • Transformational change represents a movement away from the current status, business-asusual regime or behaviour, and an opening of new pathways; • The transformations should be sustained, either through institutionalization within systems, or changes in behaviour, cultures, beliefs, and power relations; • Transformational action should focus on root causes and on relationships between dimensions of change (e.g. organizations, markets, technologies, power and social relations, and ideas); • Knowledge and learning are drivers and indicators of change. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Number of co-authors per publicationNote: As of 31 December 2018; observations=111. Two publications had no data because the authors were listed as 'Anonymous' . "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Number of authors by country income classificationNote: Total number of authors: 166; Total number of countries: 44. Country income classification taken from https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/ knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups, accessed 15 Sept 2020. Countries represent the author's affiliation, not their citizenship. "}],"sieverID":"f4fad3a0-5757-41fa-a47c-c60b5e163d88","abstract":"2 CIFOR 3 Basque Centre for Climate Change (BC3), Spain This infobrief summarizes results from analyzing scientific articles across all fields of studies to answer three main questions: (i) What is the state of science in Key messages • \"Transformational change\" is needed for meeting ambitious 2030 climate mitigation, sustainability and development goals. Definitions of transformational change in scientific and grey literature have the following in common: (i) movement away from the current status, opening new pathways; (ii) sustained change, through institutionalization or deep changes; (iii) focus on root causes; and (iv) harnessing knowledge and learning. • Depth, speed and scale are three dimensions of transformational change. Four types of drivers of transformational change: Processes, Resources, Norms, and Legitimacy. Empirical examination on these drivers' efficacy is urgently needed. • The scientific literature is dominated by authors in high-income countries and rarely results from large collaborative efforts. This is in contrast with the drivers of transformational change that the literature itself has identified: inclusiveness, collaboration and cross-learning. • Specific research is needed on transformational change in land use and climate change, drawing on rich insightsfrom health, education and business sectors. • Scientific knowledge and practical needs must be reconciled, e.g., by providing guidelines and tools for monitoring and evaluation, programme and project management, and financing mechanisms adapted to complex, multilevel and long-term, 'transformational' endeavours.CIFOR infobriefs provide concise, accurate, peer-reviewed information on current topics in forest research"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"032107b9f3de3649e6ecb4cd261a61bd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub085/RR85.pdf"},"pageCount":34,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"v","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"Droughts are recurring climatic events, which often hit South Asia, bringing significant water shortages, economic losses and adverse social consequences. Preparedness for drought should form an important part of national environmental policies. At present, countries of the region have limited institutional and technical capacity to prepare for a drought and to mitigate its impacts. Information on drought onset and development is not readily available to responsible agencies and to the general public. This report describes the first results of the development of the near-realtime drought-monitoring and reporting system for the region, which includes Afghanistan, Pakistan and western parts of India. The system is being developed using drought-related characteristics (indices), which are derived from remote-sensing data. The indices include a deviation from the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) from its long-term mean and a vegetation condition index (VCI)."},{"index":2,"size":224,"text":"The study first investigated the historical pattern of droughts in the region using monthly time-step AVHRR satellite data for 1982-1999. Droughts in recent years were studied using 8day time-interval MODIS satellite images available from year 2000 onwards. The unique feature of the study is the development of regression relationships between drought-related indices obtained from MODIS and AVHRR data, which have different pixel-resolution and optical characteristics. These relationships were established for each month of the year separately, as well as for the pooled data of all months, and explained up to 95 percent of variability. The relationships were validated in randomly chosen districts outside the study area. The results ensure the continuity of the two data sets and will allow the reports on drought development in the region to be made in near-real time with a spatial resolution of 500 meters and at 8-day intervals. A continuous stream of MODIS data is available free of charge, on the Internet, from the USGS EROS data centre. The operational mode for the MODIS-AVHRR-based droughtreporting system is currently being developed. The goal is to make the system available, via Internet, to all stakeholders in the region, including government agencies, research institutions, NGOs and the global research community. It may be used as a drought-monitoring tool and as a tool for decision support in regional drought assessment and management."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Droughts are recurring climatic events, which often hit South Asia, bringing significant water shortages, economic losses and adverse social consequences. In the last 20 years, increasing population has added to the growing demand for water and other natural resources in the region. The latest drought in South Asia (2000)(2001)(2002)(2003) affected more than 100 million people, with severe impacts felt in Gujarat and Rajasthan States in western India, in Pakistan's Sind and Baluchistan provinces, as well as in parts of Iran and Afghanistan. Political instability, war and economic isolation have further exacerbated the effects of drought."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"The need for proper quantification of drought impacts and monitoring and reporting of drought development is of critical importance in politically, economically and environmentally sensitive countries of South Asia. The ability of governments in the region and international relief agencies to deal with droughts is constrained by the absence of reliable data, weak information networks as well as the lack of technical and institutional capacities. Some countries, like Afghanistan, are just beginning to establish relevant drought monitoring and management procedures and institutions. Existing drought monitoring and declaration procedures (e.g., in India) lag behind the development of drought events."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"Traditional methods of drought assessment and monitoring rely on rainfall data, which are limited in the region, often inaccurate and, most importantly, difficult to obtain in near-real time. In contrast, the satellite-sensor data are consistently available and can be used to detect the onset of drought, its duration and magnitude (Thiruvengadachari and Gopalkrishna 1993). Even crop yields can be predicted 5 to 13 weeks prior to harvests using remote-sensing techniques (Ungani and Kogan 1998). Vegetative conditions over the world are reported occasionally by NOAA National Environmental Satellite Data and Information System (NESDIS) using the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) data (Kogan 2000)."},{"index":4,"size":143,"text":"Drought indicators can be derived for any world region using these data, but the characteristic spatial resolution of 10 km (at which well-calibrated long-term historical data are freely available), is likely to be coarse for effective drought monitoring at small scales (a district or a village). A recent successor to AVHRR is the Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS), an advanced narrowband-width sensor, from which composited reflectance data are made available at no cost every 8 days by NASA and USGS, through the Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) data center (Justice and Townshend 2002a). Raw images are available on a daily basis, but their use involves considerable extra processing. Time series of MODIS imagery provide nearreal-time, continuous and relatively high-resolution data, on which the assessment of drought development and severity in regions with scarce and inaccurate on-the-ground meteorological observations (like southwest Asia) could be based."},{"index":5,"size":154,"text":"At present, there is no efficient system in the region to analyze and deliver drought-related information to the stakeholders on the ground. Only the Indian National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) has undertaken drought assessment and reporting since 1986, using Indian satellite sensors and AVHRR (Thiruvengadachari et al. 1987;Kumar and Panu 1997;Johnson et al. 1993). The Indian IRS-1C/D wide field sensor (WiFS) could be a strong tool for regional drought assessment with its spatial resolution of 188 m and weekly repeat coverage. However, at present these data and results are available only within the Indian space and remote sensing community (Barbosa et al. 2002). It is, of course, possible that regional cooperation to combat droughts will result in relevant data sharing between countries, at which point, WiFS data may be put to good use. Other new sensors The topographic map of the study area, showing the country boundaries and the boundaries of smaller administrative subdivisions."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"which could contribute towards drought monitoring are the Vegetation wide-field sensor on SPOT satellites, and the MERIS sensor on Envisat, although neither is available as simply in near-real time as MODIS."},{"index":7,"size":126,"text":"The primary goal of this study is to develop methods that allow two generations of sensors (AVHRR and MODIS) to be combined beneficially for a drought assessment and monitoring on a regional and a near-real-time basis. A challenge, therefore, is to develop reliable inter-sensor relationships in order to monitor drought continuously, over as long a time period as possible. This would help compare the characteristics of the future droughts to past events and allow the future drought severity to be interpreted. A reporting system should also allow drought development in the region to be monitored at different scales over the entire study area (southwest Asia, figure 1), through to country level and further to the level of individual states, provinces, and smaller administrative subdivisions within countries."},{"index":8,"size":92,"text":"Geographically, this study covers Afghanistan, Pakistan and western parts of India. These regions/countries are known to be drought-prone, and socioeconomic studies were, and are still being, conducted here by different government agencies and NGOs to assess the impacts of the latest drought and to analyze drought-coping strategies of local communities. It was envisaged that the results of such studies may be utilized in the future to assess the performance of the drought-monitoring system under development. However, as will be demonstrated in this report, the principles of the system may be expanded to"}]},{"head":"Data and Methods","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"a larger geographical area covering the entire South Asia from Iran to Bangladesh and from Nepal to Sri Lanka."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"The report first describes the historical and modern-day datasets and their characteristics used for drought assessment and reporting. This is followed by a description of satellite sensorderived vegetation indices, their derivative drought indices and thresholds for drought assessment. The developed inter-sensor relationships between AVHRR and MODIS data are then described and their use for drought monitoring in the region is demonstrated."}]},{"head":"AVHRR Data Acquisition and Preprocessing","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"The MODIS and its predecessor AVHRR, carried on board Terra-Aqua and NOAA-series satellites, respectively, are cost-effective sensors, which cover the globe at least once a day. The AVHRR sensor (Kidwell 1991) collects radiance data in five spectral bands including red visible (0.58-0.6 µm), near-infrared (0.725-1.1 µm), mid-infrared (3.55-3.93 µm) and two thermal infrared bands (10.3-11.3 µm and 11.5-12.5 µm). Only four bands, together with the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI, described in the next subsection), are useful for this study (table 1) due to unresolved calibration issues with the midinfrared band (Smith et al. 1997)  (Goward et al. 1994;Eidenshink and Faundeen 1994). Data are further corrected for atmospheric attenuation (e.g., dust or haze, Cihlar et al. 1994), and distortions due to sun angle and satellite sensor-view angle (Kogan and Zhu 2001;Flieg et al. 1983;Cracknell 1997;NGDC 1993). The preprocessed monthly MVC data were downloaded from the NOAA GSFS web site and then converted to four secondary variables (e.g., NDVI), using the procedures described in Smith et al. (1997) and Rao (1993a, b). These variables are a) at ground reflectance (percentage), b) top of the atmosphere brightness temperature (degrees Kelvin), c) surface temperature (degrees Kelvin), and d) NDVI (nondimensional):"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Reflectance = (BR i -10) * 0.002"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"(1) NDVI = (SNDVI -128) * 0.008"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"(2) BT = (BR j + 31990)*0.005"},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"(3)"},{"index":6,"size":104,"text":"where, BR i is band radiance for bands 1 or 2 (i = 1 or 2), SNDVI is scaled NDVI (since 1 to +1 range is scaled to 0 to 255), BT is brightness temperature, BR j is band radiance for bands 4 or 5 (j = 4 or 5), T S is surface temperature calculated using split window technique, and T4 and T5 are the temperatures in AVHRR band T4 and T5, respectively. These conversions are necessary to enable comparisons of measurements made using different sensors. By converting AVHRR data into percent reflectance, comparisons can be made with percent reflectance measured from MODIS."},{"index":7,"size":98,"text":"The converted AVHRR monthly time series for 1982-1999 were used for historical drought analysis, while 2000-2001 data were used for regression analysis between AVHRR and MODIS, when data from both sensors were available. There were 212 images for each band and for NDVI during 1982-1999 (one MVC for each month, except for 4 months of missing data in 1994, when the satellite failed). For the purpose of further analyses, the 1982-1999 data were composed into two mega files. The first file contained 848 layers (4 bands, each of 212 months) and the second, NDVI data for 212 months."},{"index":8,"size":74,"text":"MODIS, a successor of AVHRR, is the primary sensor for monitoring the terrestrial ecosystem in the NASA Earth Observing System (EOS) program (Justice et al. 2002) and has several advances on AVHRR (table 1). MODIS is more sensitive to changes in vegetation dynamics (Huete et al. 2002) and was found to be a more accurate and versatile instrument to monitor the global vegetation conditions than the AVHRR (Gitelson et al 1998;Justice et al. 2002)."},{"index":9,"size":149,"text":"The MODIS sensor acquires data in 36 spectral bands, with variable spatial resolution of 250-1,000 meters (depending on band), in narrow bandwidths and are recorded in 12-bit format. The 36 MODIS bands are a compromise for atmospheric, land and ocean studies, and seven bands are considered optimal for land applications (Justice et al. 2002). Composite MODIS data have a temporal resolution of 8 days and are available from 2000 onwards. The 8-day, 7-band data are made available by USGS EROS DAAC (similar to the preprocessed AVHRR reflectance data by NOAA GSFC), after corrections for molecular scattering, ozone absorption and aerosols. The data are also adjusted to nadir (sensor looking straight down) and standard sun angles, using bidirectional reflectance (BRDF) models (Vermote et al. 2002;Justice et al. 2002). The 7 bands have waveband centers at 648 nm, 858 nm, 470 nm, 555 nm, 1240 nm, 1,640 nm, and 2,130 nm."},{"index":10,"size":257,"text":"All MODIS data are directly downloadable free of charge from the USGS EROS data center (http://edcdaac.usgs.gov). The downloaded data are available as radiance, which needs to be divided by 100 to obtain reflectance in percent. For the entire study area (figure 1 While MODIS data are coarser than Indian IRS-1C/D WiFS data, the latter are not easily available at present, which makes MODIS data the only feasible candidate for regional drought monitoring. There are also a few other issues that make the use of MODIS data more attractive. First, the IRS WiFS data come at a cost, while MODIS data are free. Second, unlike the IRS WiFS, the most recent MODIS data are available within 8 days (in near-real time). Third, MODIS Internet data sources have excellent search and browse facilities that are currently not implemented for IRS WiFS. Fourth, MODIS products undergo numerous calibrations, preprocessing and normalizations (e.g., atmospheric correction) and the data are available as processed products (e.g., reflectance) in contrast to raw digital numbers supplied for WiFS. These capabilities facilitate multi-date comparisons. MODIS data continuity from Terra and Aqua satellites is guaranteed over time with successor satellite and sensor systems already planned and assured, at least, until 2018, with National Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) series of satellites (Justice and Townshend 2002b). Unlike the MODIS, data continuity plans are not yet announced by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). Finally, WiFS has only 2 spectral bands, while MODIS has 36, of which 7 are considered optimal for land studies (Vermote et al. 2002)."}]},{"head":"Drought-Monitoring Indices","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Drought-monitoring indices are derived from AVHRR and MODIS data (table 1). They are normally radiometric measures of vegetation condition and dynamics, exploiting the unique spectral signatures of canopy elements, particularly in the red and near-infrared (NIR) portions of the spectrum (e.g., Huete et al. 1997Huete et al. , 2002) ) and are sensitive to vegetation type, growth stage, canopy cover and structure (Clevers and Verhoef 1993;Thenkabail 2003). They utilize reflectance data in two or more spectral bands, thus enhancing the vegetation signal and canceling out the effects of topography, sun angle and atmosphere."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). NDVI was first suggested by Tucker (1979) as an index of vegetation health and density."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"where, λ NIR and λ red are the reflectance in the NIR and red bands, respectively (table 1). NDVI reflects vegetation vigor (Teillet et al. 1997), percent green cover, Leaf Area Index (LAI (Baret and Guyot 1991) and biomass (Thenkabail et al. 2002;Thenkabail et al. 2004)."},{"index":4,"size":137,"text":"The NDVI is the most commonly used vegetation index (Jensen 1996). It varies in a range of -1 to + 1. However, NDVI a) uses only two bands and is not very sensitive to influences of soil background reflectance at low vegetation cover, and b) has a lagged response to drought (Reed 1993;Rundquist and Harrington 2000;Wang et al. 2001) because of a lagged vegetation response to developing rainfall deficits due to residual moisture stored in the soil. Previous studies have shown that NDVI lags behind antecedent precipitation by up to 3 months (Justice et al. 1986;Farrar et al. 1994;Wang 2000; Wang et al. 2001). The lag time is dependent on whether the region is purely rainfed, fully irrigated, or partially irrigated (Farrar et al. 1994;Wang 2000). The greater the dependence on rainfall the shorter the lag time."},{"index":5,"size":82,"text":"NDVI itself does not reflect drought or nondrought conditions. But the severity of a drought (or the extent of wetness, on the other end of the spectrum) may be defined as NDVI deviation from its long-term mean (DEV NDVI ). This deviation is calculated as the difference between the NDVI for the current time step (e.g., January 1995) and a long-term mean NDVI for that month (e.g., an 18-year long mean NDVI of all Januaries from 1982 to 1999) for each pixel:"},{"index":6,"size":203,"text":"where, NDVI i is the NDVI value for month i and NDVI mean,m is the long-term mean NDVI for the same month m (e.g., in a data record from 1982 to 1999, there are 18 monthly NDVI values for the same month, e.g., 18 Aprils), and 12 longterm NDVI means (one for each calendar month). When DEV NDVI is negative, it indicates the below-normal vegetation condition/health and, therefore, suggests a prevailing drought situation. The greater the negative departure the greater the magnitude of a drought. In general, the departure from the long-term mean NDVI is effectively more than just a drought indicator, as it would reflect the conditions of healthy vegetation in normal and wet months/years. This indicator is widely used in drought studies (e.g., Johnson et al. 1993). Its limitations are that the deviation from the mean does not take into account the standard deviation, and hence can be misinterpreted when the variability in vegetation conditions in a region is very high in any one given year. Vegetation condition index (VCI). VCI was first suggested by Kogan (1995Kogan ( , 1997)). It shows how close the NDVI of the current month is to the minimum NDVI calculated from the long-term record. ---------------------------*"}]},{"head":"(NDVI J -NDVI min ) VCI J = -","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"where, NDVI max and NDVI min are calculated from the long-term record (e.g., 18 years) for that month (or week) and j is the index of the current month (week). NDVI values are calculated using equation ( 5) above. The condition/health of the ground vegetation presented by VCI is measured in percent. The VCI values around 50% reflect fair vegetation conditions. The VCI values between 50 and 100% indicate optimal or abovenormal conditions. At the VCI value of 100%, the NDVI value for this month (or week) is equal to NDVI max . Different degrees of a drought severity are indicated by VCI values below 50%. Kogan (1995) illustrated that the VCI threshold of 35% may be used to identify extreme drought conditions and suggested that further research is necessary to categorize the VCI by its severity in the range between 0 and 35%. The VCI value close to zero percent reflects an extremely dry month, when the NDVI value is close to its longterm minimum. Low VCI values over several consecutive time intervals point to drought development."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Temperature condition index (TCI). TCI was also suggested by Kogan (1995Kogan ( , 1997) ) and its algorithm is calculated similar to VCI but its formulation was modified to reflect vegetation's response to temperature (the higher the temperature the more extreme the drought). TCI is based on brightness temperature and represents the deviation of the current month's (week's) value from the recorded maximum."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"(BT max -BT j ) TCI J = - ------------------------*"},{"index":4,"size":128,"text":"where, BT is the brightness temperature (e.g., AVHRR band 4). The maximum and minimum values of BT are calculated from the long-term (e.g., 18 years) record of remote-sensing images for each calendar month or week j. At the TCI of around 50%, the fair or normal temperature conditions exist. When TCI values are close to 100%, the brightness temperature for this month, BT j, is equal to the long-term minimum brightness temperature for the pixel. Low TCI values (close to 0%) indicate very hot weather in that month or week. When TCI is equal to zero percent, brightness temperature for this month, BT j, is equal to maximum long-term brightness temperature for the pixel. Consistently low TCI values over several consecutive time intervals may point to drought development/presence."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"In combination with meteorological observations, the relationship between surface temperature and the moisture regime on the ground will detect drought-affected areas before biomass degradation occurs and hence TCI can play an important role in drought monitoring. With high radiometric and temporal resolution, thermal infrared data from MODIS allow changes in surface thermal regime to be more accurately inferred and drought conditions to be more accurately identified."}]},{"head":"Linking AVHRR and MODIS Data for Continuous Drought Assessment","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"Even though MODIS is a successor to AVHRR, both sensors and their related data types have distinctly different features, as was described in relevant sections above (table 1). Apart from this, the two data sets have other differences including, but not limited to, preprocessing methods (e.g., atmospheric correction) and spatial resolution (10 km for AVHRR versus 0.5 km for MODIS). To ensure continuous flow of data for drought assessment, inter-sensor relationships are needed. The two data sets overlap for the 2-year period from 2000 to 2001. This offers the opportunity to explore the relationships between the two data sets (e.g., linking NDVI AVHRR with NDVI MODIS ). To establish these links, the NDVI values from both sensors were derived for a wide range of land-use and land-cover (LULC) classes that included mountains, irrigated areas, rain-fed agricultural lands, rangelands, water bodies, wetlands, deserts and mixed LULC types."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"During years 2000 and 2001, there were 19 months (from February 2000 to August 2001) of"}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Historical Drought Interpretation","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":414,"text":"The extent of negative deviation of NDVI from its long-term mean for a pixel, district or region, and the duration of continuous negative deviations are powerful indicators of drought magnitude and persistence. Figure 2 shows the long-term normal NDVI conditions (NDVI means for each month) concurrent data for both AVHRR and MODIS sensors. The AVHRR data are monthly, while MODIS data have the temporal resolution of 8 days. To make both data sets comparable, the four 8-day MODIS NDVI images were composed into 32-day NDVI images through a maximum-value compositing (MVC) procedure. Then the NDVI AVHRR and NDVI MODIS were calculated for the randomly selected large number of administrative units during the 19month long concurrent period. Even for the concurrent period, the NDVI MODIS will not be exactly the same as NDVI AVHRR due to different sensor characteristics. For example, the narrower MODIS spectral bands eliminate the water absorption region in the NIR and also render the red band more sensitive to chlorophyll absorption (e.g., Huete et al. 2002). Atmospherically corrected NDVI MODIS generally exhibits a higher dynamic range than atmospherically corrected NDVI AVHRR. This is attributed to the narrow band width of MODIS (Huete et al. 2002). The narrow bands result in a greater dynamic range of NDVI for the same given biomass. The NDVI AVHRR is therefore likely to \"saturate\" faster in the study of vegetation biomass than NDVI MODIS , saturation being the loss of sensitivity of a sensor after full canopy cover is achieved. The study established regression models for two NDVI types for each month (as well as for the pooled data of all 19 months) for all terrestrial biomes in the study area. The established relationships between NDVI from two sources allow drought occurrences to be examined across sensors and time periods from 1982 to the present day, and well into the future. The results of regression analyses are discussed in the next section. and relative to it, the driest (1987) and the wettest (1993) years' NDVI values for each month for the entire study area (shown in figure 1). Averaging NDVI values over the entire study area was done primarily to illustrate that, overall, the whole region was dry in 1987 or wet in 1993 (figure 2) despite the spatial variability of wetness or dryness throughout the region in both years. A monthly NDVI time series for a drought year (1987) and a wet year (1993) compared to the NDVI long-term mean (averaged for the study area)."},{"index":2,"size":403,"text":"The differences between the long-term NDVI mean values and the NDVI values in specific months are the deviations (DEV NDVI ) described in equation ( 6) above. A month-by-month spatial distribution of DEV NDVI in the study area during the dry year of 1987 is illustrated in figure 3, where areas in different shades of yellow are \"drought-affected\" and areas in different shades of blue are those with a denser, and healthy vegetation. Most of the pixels in the study area have persistent shades of yellow, indicative of the negative deviation from the NDVI mean. It can be seen how a major drought-affected area is developing in August-November primarily over the States of Gujarat and Rajasthan of India and eastern Pakistan, with a drought in Gujarat persisting until December. These results match well with the regional drought pattern studied using rainfall (Sivasami 2000). The Himalayas, central India and the Indus floodplain/irrigation network areas remain relatively \"drought-free\" throughout the year. Similar to the monitoring of the entire region, the drought onset, magnitude and duration/persistence can be monitored at the scale of a country, any administrative unit level (e.g., vector boundaries shown in figure 1), or a single pixel level (10 by 10 km with AVHRR data and 0.5 by 0.5 km with MODIS) using the series of consecutive images. The biomass levels (measured in terms of NDVI) are normally higher in Pakistan as a whole through most of the months when compared with Afghanistan (figure 4). There is also a clear seasonality in biomass fluctuations within and across seasons and years for Afghanistan and Pakistan. The pattern of fluctuation is however very different between the two countries. In Pakistan, with its significant irrigation development, NDVI reflects the impacts of irrigation on crops and, therefore, on the vegetation condition in general. The major part of Afghanistan's vegetation is rain-fed and NDVI follows a predominantly unimodal vegetation condition cycle, determined by precipitation. Similar patterns of total biomass and its temporal variability may be traced at smaller scales, such as the provinces within Pakistan (figure 5). In arid Baluchistan, the biomass magnitude is a clear function of rainfall. In the arid, but partially irrigated, Sindh province, it is dependent on a combination of water available for irrigation (from the Indus river) and precipitation. In the Punjab province, a large proportion of the area is irrigated, which is reflected in higher NDVI values relative to Sindh and Baluchistan."},{"index":3,"size":411,"text":"The variability of three drought-related indices (DEV NDVI , VCI, and TCI) for the period 1986-1994 (containing a few successive droughts) is illustrated in figure 6 using Afghanistan as an example. The thick black line indicates the normal condition of the vegetation. When an index deviates below the line for a few successive months, it points to a drought condition. Deviations above the normal for a few successive months in a year point to better-than-normal vegetation conditions. The magnitude of a drought is directly proportional to the magnitude of the deviation below normal. The duration of the successive months below normal conditions and the magnitude of the deviation are two powerful indicators of drought severity. In this context, the period from January 1986 to June 1990 was predominantly a continuous drought in Afghanistan, interrupted only by a few wet months (figure 6). Throughout these years, continuously dry conditions prevailed over the country, adversely affecting biomass, livestock and agriculture. Similar arguments apply to smaller spatial scales, like Punjab province in Pakistan (figure 7). The fluctuation in both VCI and DEV NDVI in irrigation-dominated Punjab is similar to that in the predominantly rain-fed Afghanistan (figure 6). However, in certain periods, as from mid-1989 to mid-1990 when drought was severe in rain-fed Afghanistan, the conditions were above-normal in irrigated Punjab. This suggests that during severe drought periods, even irrigated areas are affected, but during years of moderate drought, the impacts are limited to rain-fed areas. In most cases, the VCI and DEV NDVI complement each other and, therefore, strong correlations should exist between the two (figures 6 and 7). This does not always apply to TCI (figures 6 and 7), which often fluctuates differently from both VCI and DEV NDVI (e.g., during 1991-1992). This can be partially explained by the fact that TCI reflects surface (\"skin\") temperature. Wherever stress or stunted growth of vegetation and crops due to moisture excess occur, the VCI values are low, the DEV NDVI is below normal, but TCI remains high. For example, this may apply to wetland and/ or flooded agriculture. When NDVI is close to its long-term minimum and BT close to its long-term maximum (e.g., for example, many months during 1988-1991), the continuously low consecutive values of VCI, and DEV NDVI indicate severe drought (or vegetation stress) conditions. The TCI variability, however, remains inconsistent with that of the other two indices, which puts a question mark on the utility of a TCI as a drought indicator."}]},{"head":"Validation of Inter-Sensor Relationships","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"The established regression relationship between concurrent NDVI values of MODIS and AVHRR at regional scale is given below"},{"index":2,"size":203,"text":"This relationship is illustrated in figure 8. The relationships were also developed based on data from specific months (table 2). The monthly models explain up to 95 percent of variability in the data of two sensors. The models presented in equation ( 9), table 2 and figure 8 are critical in linking the data from two sensors and facilitating continuous monitoring of vegetation conditions, in a drought context, over time and well into the future. The limited period of concurrent MODIS and AVHRR observations (19 months) does not offer full possibilities for validating these regression relationships. However, the validity of the equations in table 2 and figure 8 could be illustrated using independent datasets, from outside of the study area. NDVI MODIS values simulated using the established models are referred to as \"simulated NDVI MODIS, \" since they were derived from AVHRR. Two arbitrarily selected districts outside the study area (Mathura in Uttar Pradesh State, and Ambala in Haryana State, India) are used here for illustration. Figures 9a and b illustrate that there is a clear similarity between the observed and simulated NDVI values in the two districts. The marginal differences result from the uncertainties inherent in the models (equation 9, table 2)."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"A more general accuracy assessment has been done through comparison of \"observed\" and simulated values over 4 districts outside the study area (76 data points from 19 months of test data in 4 districts). For these districts, NDVI MODIS values were simulated from AVHRR data using equations from table 2 and then compared with actual NDVI MODIS values. The results show (figure 10) that the simulated NDVI MODIS explained 88 percent variability relative to actual NDVI MODIS ."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Figure 11     "}]},{"head":"Implications for Future Drought Monitoring","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"An important implication for a future droughtmonitoring program is the possibility of combining the estimates of maximum, minimum and longterm mean NDVI values derived from the AVHRR data with the actual MODIS data. MODIS data have so far only a \"short life\" (2000 to the present) and the long-term estimates of three mentioned NDVI drought characteristics (DEV NDVI , VCI, TCI) at the MODIS level of spatial resolution are missing. The equations in table 2 may be used to estimate 500-m MODIS characteristics from the available AVHRR data. Therefore, the required minimum, maximum and long-term NDVI mean values may be estimated at the finer scale and, consequently, DEV NDVI and VCI estimates may be made available at this scale (500-m resolution). As the MODIS NDVI data \"build up\" with time, long-term NDVI characteristics can be determined directly from the MODIS data."},{"index":2,"size":151,"text":"Therefore, the advantage may be made of complementary features of both types of data, where MODIS data form the basis on which to develop a prototype for a near-real-time drought monitoring system at the scale of a country, state, district or pixel with an 8-or 16-day time interval. The results described feed directly into the development of the regional droughtmonitoring system. The prototype monitoring system is currently being set up on the Internet and will include the facilities to explore droughtrelated characteristics (DEV NDVI and VCI), averaged at the level of districts and other small administrative subdivisions in three countries. The fully functional system will eventually allow these characteristics to be examined at the pixel level (0.5 by 0.5 km) and for different types of land uses, including rain-fed and irrigated areas, mountainous areas, rangelands and deserts. The common steps involved in the maintenance of the system will include the following:"}]},{"head":"•","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Routine downloads of MODIS 500-m land-surface reflectance data from USGS data gateway every 8 or 16 days. The data are downloaded in \"tiles,\" six tiles covering the entire study area. Downloading the data from six tiles takes about 5 hours at a speed of 45 kilobytes per second. The downloaded data for one date for the entire study area occupy approximately a gigabyte of disk space. If a similar system is to be reproduced for a specific country in the region, the time and space requirements could be less."}]},{"head":"•","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The downloaded data need to be processed using the commercially available ERDAS software package."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Other packages are also available, but ERDAS was found to be the most efficient processing tool. All raw downloaded data are imported into ERDAS and re-projected into geographic latitude and longitude coordinates, using facilities provided by ERDAS."}]},{"head":"•","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"The re-projected data of all six tiles are combined into one file covering the entire study area (the procedure known as \"mosaicking\"). This is followed by the calculation of NDVI values for each pixel in the study area, using equation ( 5). The \"NDVI file\" is stored as part of the array of similarly processed images for previous dates. Thus preprocessed data form the time series of images, which are then used for continuous drought monitoring."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"• Formulae ( 6) and ( 7) are used to calculate current VCI and DEV NDVI for each pixel from NDVI data. Long-term means, maxima and minima, required to calculate these indices for each pixel, are obtained using relationships listed in table 2. Current drought-related vegetation indices can be averaged for all pixels over a district, state or country. However, the information is obviously most valuable at the fine resolution, pixels or districts, in the current setup. Subdistrict administrative divisions (e.g., talukas, tensils) can be incorporated into the system as well."}]},{"head":"•","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The user of the system will be able to interactively select the required district and display the land-use coverage, the VCI and DEV NDVI coverages and the time series graph, showing the long-term mean NDVI for each month of the year, and the current NDVI time series. The start of the plotting period can be interactively selected."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"• Categorization of the drought severity based on the available data is being developed. It is also planned to include short reports, which interpret current drought conditions in a lucid format."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"An operational drought-monitoring system could positively impact the efficiency of existing drought policies and declaration procedures. This can be illustrated using the example of the most recent drought of 2002, which severely hit Rajasthan and Gujarat States of India. The recent publication of the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (2004) reviews, amongst the others, the events that occurred in each state during the drought of 2002. At the end of July 2002, on the basis of ground observations on rainfall and the conditions of crops, the Government of Rajasthan declared that droughts hit all 27 districts of the state. Similarly, in the middle of October 2002, the Government of Gujarat declared that droughts hit 14 out of the 20 districts of the state."},{"index":4,"size":166,"text":"MODIS images for several successive months from the beginning of 2002 were analyzed to establish how many districts could have been identified as drought-hit using remote-sensing information exclusively. For this, the DEV NDVI and VCI values of all 0.5 X 0.5 km pixels in each district of Rajasthan and Gujarat were averaged for the latest MODIS image in each month. Thus one monthly value of DEV NDVI and one monthly value of VCI per district were calculated. The next step was to calculate the number of districts in each state per each month, where monthly indices were below the drought thresholds. For the DEV NDVI the threshold was 0.0 and for VCI, where two thresholds were used, it was 50% and 35%. The first VCI threshold is normally perceived as the one below which the vegetation starts to lose its vigor, which is the first indication of an emerging drought. The second VCI threshold may be perceived as the beginning of a severe drought (Kogan 1995)."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"In Gujarat, in the month of drought declaration (October 2002), the number of districts, which had their averaged indices values below the selected thresholds (VCI 50 , VCI 35 and DEV NDVI ) were 14, 10 and 17, respectively. In the previous month of September 2002, the corresponding numbers were 6, 1 and 9, indicating that the state was already moving into a drought (although only one district was found to be under severe drought conditions)."},{"index":6,"size":271,"text":"In Rajasthan, in the month of drought declaration (July 2002), the number of districts, which had their averaged indices' values below the selected thresholds (VCI 50 , VCI 35 and DEV NDVI ), were 21, 18 and 18, respectively. But in the previous months of May and June, the number of districts with index values below any of the three thresholds was always, at least, 16 with May showing all 27 districts as drought-hit in terms of all thresholds. As an example, figure 12 illustrates the distribution of the VCI values over Rajasthan (the district boundaries are shown in black) from May to October. The low VCI values dominated over the state since May 2002 and became extremely low by October. While such assessment is very crude due to averaging of pixel values by district, no distinction was made between rain-fed and irrigated areas, and this remote-sensing information would effectively allow drought onset to be predicted 2 months in advance of the actual declaration dates in both states. A more detailed evaluation of the remote-sensing data (e.g., against rainfall and/or ground observations on crop density) in different parts of the region is certainly necessary before predictions based on such data can be used reliably in drought mitigation. The categorization of the VCI severity values below 50% should also be carried out (currently, these validations and categorizations are being conducted). Enhancement of the drought-monitoring system with these features will allow droughts to be predicted earlier, their impact areas to be delineated more accurately and their impacts on crops diagnosed before harvest. This should eventually contribute to the food security in the region."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"reliable relationships between NDVI values derived from both sensors and created the options for the enhancement of existing free remote-sensing data. The best option incorporates the long-term NDVI characteristics calculated from AVHRR into MODIS at 500-m spatial resolution. This option is particularly attractive for the future drought monitoring, as it will have all the advantages of the better MODIS technology. The availability of MODIS data is guaranteed at least till 2018, with continuity missions planned with its successors NPP and NPOESS. Therefore, the AVHRR-MODIS-NPP-NPOESS data sets may effectively form one continuous data stream from 1982 to 2018, and possibly beyond. This would make it the single largest source of spatial data available for the South Asia region (and for the entire globe)."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"The results of this study are being used for the development of a regional droughtmonitoring system. Considering the spread and frequency of droughts in the region on the one hand, and the lack of ground climate observations and technical capacity in the countries of the region to deal with droughts on the other, such a system could play an invaluable role for drought preparedness."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"The report suggested methods and techniques for continuous drought monitoring by linking historical AVHRR sensor data with modern day MODIS sensor data. The methodology was tested for a study area in southwest Asia, which includes Afghanistan, Pakistan and two states in western India."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"The results indicate that out of the three remote-sensing indices used, DEV NDVI , and VCI are complementary and were found to be sensitive indicators of drought conditions. However, TCI was found to be an unreliable indicator for drought assessment and is not recommended for future drought monitoring."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"The development of new indices, which could be used for drought monitoring, was not part of this particular study, and earlier suggested indices (NDVI and VCI) are used. Both are based on the same two thermal channels out of the available seven (in MODIS). The alternative channels however suggest a possibility to explore and possibly develop more effective indices, which could be better indicators of drought conditions. This could be an interesting direction for future research."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"The study established and validated methods and techniques of drought assessment across two different sensors. It established"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" FIGURE 1. "},{"text":" ), MODIS data were composed into 2 mega files for the 2000-2003 period: a) a file of 1,250 wave bands (45 images per year * 7 bands per image * 4 years), and b) a file of 180 NDVI layers (45 NDVI layers per year * 4 years). "},{"text":" FIGURE 2. "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 . FIGURE 3.Regional monthly images of DEV NDVI for the drought year of 1987 in the study area. "},{"text":"FIGURE 4 . FIGURE 4. The NDVI variability for Afghanistan and Pakistan over 18 years. "},{"text":"FIGURE 5 . FIGURE 5.The NDVI variability for three provinces in Pakistan (Punjab, Sindh and Baluchistan). "},{"text":"FIGURE 6 . FIGURE 6.The illustration of the variability of three AVHRR derived drought-related indices for Afghanistan. "},{"text":"FIGURE 7 . FIGURE 7.The illustration of the variability of three AVHRR derived drought-related indices for the Punjab province of Pakistan. "},{"text":"FIGURE 8 . FIGURE 8.Regression relationship between NDVI MODIS and NDVI AVHRR . The regression model is built on the data for 19 months (February 2000 to September 2001) from all administrative units in the study area. "},{"text":" compares the spatial distribution of actual versus simulated DEV NDVI MODIS for Afghanistan at the resolution of 500 m X 500 m for 3 (arbitrarily selected) months of the year 2000. The left figure in each row shows the actual DEV NDVI MODIS coverage, while the right one shows simulated DEV NDVI MODIS values. Overall, the comparison of each pair of images per month (figure 11) reveals clear similarities in the NDVI magnitude and spatial distribution. The level of similarity repeats itself for other months. "},{"text":"FIGURE 9a . FIGURE 9a.Actual and simulated NDVI MODIS for Mathura district in Uttar Pradesh State, India. "},{"text":"FIGURE 10 . FIGURE 10.Correlation between actual and simulated NDVI MODIS values for 4 districts outside the study area. "},{"text":"FIGURE 9b . FIGURE 9b.Actual and simulated NDVI MODIS for Ambala district in Haryana State, India. "},{"text":"FIGURE 12 . FIGURE 12. Spatial distribution of the VCI values over the State of Rajasthan, India, during the drought of 2002. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"TABLE 1 . Remote sensing data, indices and thresholds relevant to drought assessment used in the study. Drought index Band or index used to Range Normal Severe Healthy Drought indexBand or index used toRangeNormalSevereHealthy  compute the index  condition drought vegetation compute the indexconditiondroughtvegetation  AVHRR MODIS     AVHRRMODIS 1. Normalized Band 1 Band 1 -1 to +1 Depends on   1. NormalizedBand 1Band 1-1 to +1Depends on difference (0.58-0.68µm) (0.62-0.67µm)  the location -1 +1 difference(0.58-0.68µm)(0.62-0.67µm)the location-1+1 vegetation index       vegetation index (NDVI) Band 2 Band 2     (NDVI)Band 2Band 2  (0.73-1.10µm) (0.84-0.87µm)     (0.73-1.10µm)(0.84-0.87µm) 2. Drought severity NDVI NDVI -1 to +1 0 -1 +1 2. Drought severity NDVINDVI-1 to +10-1+1 index ( DEV NDVI ) NDVI long-term NDVI long-term     index ( DEV NDVI ) NDVI long-termNDVI long-term  mean mean     meanmean 3. Vegetation NDVI NDVI 0 to 100 % 50 % 0% 100% 3. VegetationNDVINDVI0 to 100 %50 %0%100% condition NDVI long-term NDVI long-term     conditionNDVI long-termNDVI long-term index (VCI) minimum minimum     index (VCI)minimumminimum  NDVI long-term NDVI long-term     NDVI long-termNDVI long-term  maximum maximum     maximummaximum 4. Temperature Band 4 no thermal 0 to 100 % 50 % 0% 100% 4. TemperatureBand 4no thermal0 to 100 %50 %0%100% condition (10.3-11.30µm) band in 7     condition(10.3-11.30µm)band in 7 index (TCI)  band data     index (TCI)band data  Band 4 temp      Band 4 temp  long-term      long-term  minimum      minimum  Band 4 temp      Band 4 temp  long-term      long-term  maximum      maximum  "}],"sieverID":"b45c96b1-5479-4ae3-aaa5-e20092f51d0d","abstract":"In serving this mission, IWMI concentrates on the integration of policies, technologies and management systems to achieve workable solutions to real problems practical, relevant results in the field of irrigation and water and land resources.The publications in this series cover a wide range of subjectsfrom computer modeling to experience with water user associationsand vary in content from directly applicable research to more basic studies, on which applied work ultimately depends. Some research reports are narrowly focused, analytical and detailed empirical studies; others are wide-ranging and synthetic overviews of generic problems.Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI's own staff and Fellows, and by external reviewers. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (www.iwmi.org) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03891fa9bb987033d371877dfd305c2d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/df29829c-d1d4-4c59-be28-1b36b8968dcd/retrieve"},"pageCount":83,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The people, companies, organisations, institutions and networks whose practices affect the entrepreneurs' opportunities and abilities to create commercial value, start-up, scale and grow businesses."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"To create products and/or services that add value to a group of (potential) customers, making the best use of relevant assets and resources the agribusiness ecosystem offers; and overcoming its disabling effects in a commercially and environmentally sustainable and inclusive manner."}]},{"head":"The agrientrepreneurship challenge","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"The UU Agribusiness ecosystem    "}]},{"head":"798,000 ha","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"under improved management 2"}]},{"head":"Foundation:","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Assess","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Apply Scale"}]},{"head":"ISDC Review feedback","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"• Extremely useful feedback"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• Refinement needed in the following key areas:"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• What is the role of the RIIs?"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• The need for involvement of NARES"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• More focus on capacity building, dis/enabling contexts"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"• Pathways to inclusive food security (in addition to agrienterprise)"},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"• Ensuring scientific research is prominent"},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"• Integration and disciplinary silos of WPs "}]},{"head":"Pan-African Bean Research Alliance","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Next steps:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• RII designed to fulfill a critical integrative function linking GI, RAFS, and ST in the One CGIAR portfolio"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"• Integration through joint planning in the inception phase:"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• Science group regional and country teams improve alignment through co-investment in research topics, co-location, and other synergies"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• Enhancement of RII and Global Initiative linkages"},{"index":5,"size":86,"text":"• Deeper engagement of all Initiatives with regional stakeholders WP1 focuses on doing research and collaborating with targeted farmers, partners/service providers in order to create a number of compelling conditions for enabling farmers to include proven options for diversifying their maize-based systems successfully into more diverse, more nutritious and more resilient/sustainable mixed farming systems, and scaling these options by collaborating with relevant NGO, private sector and government actors who are responsible for aligning policies, investments, mechanisation, seed, advisory and irrigation delivery systems with this diversification drive. "}]},{"head":"WP 1: Diversify and Sustainably Intensify","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Systems Transformation Science Group","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"End of initiative outcome (2024) 50,000 farmers/value chain actors/consumers have begun to transition from maize-mixed systems to more diversified, integrated and resilient climate-smart farming systems, on a path towards resilience, soil fertility, sustainable land and water management practices, ultimately resulting in higher productivity, profitability, and nutrition. Regional scaling hub catalyses this transformation by leveraging partnerships and providing fit-for-purpose innovation-bundle delivery models. FOCUS SCALING:"}]},{"head":"WP 1: Diversify and Sustainably Intensify","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"• Categorizing Innovations to be scaled • Scaling scan to identify relevant and essential value chain actors • Assess scaling options (pathways, approaches, mechanisms and delivery models) for SI practices (ranking by feasibility, costs, political impact) • Support regional Scaling Hubs Systems Transformation Science Group WP 1: Missing/omitted/postponed components Assess (delayed to year 2 and 3)"},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"Identify underutilized and emerging crops for farm and dietary diversifications, and nutrition and food security priority and lobby for inclusion into national dietary guidelines Assessment of healthy diets and dietary diversity in target counties Identify consumers preferred products and develop robust aggregation infrastructure for biofortified crops and link to processors Summarize findings from Dietary assessment into a manual for guiding extension and policy Conduct an inventory of existing extension strategies and assess their suitability, viability and performance Market analyses for targeted value chains and assessing their extension systems Evaluate private vs public extension methodologies and their success in reaching farmers and getting technologies adopted"}]},{"head":"Apply (delayed to year 2 and 3)","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Monitor longer term benefits and trade-offs of different SI practices through trade-off analysis Foster R&D: in the development of new prototypes and adapted machines, converting needs into equipment solutions Development of an investment plan with PP partners (Round table meetings, network creation, innovation systems) Explore alternative (renewable) energy sources for irrigation e.g. solar pumping feasibility, business models and appropriate finance mechanisms Establish a cluster approach for smallholder farmers in target communities for community-based irrigation Establish value chains and market linkages for irrigated crops and vegetables Promote technologies packages that increase productivity while introducing nutrient dense crops in the crop mix (consider baseline differences across countries to objectively scale up) Improve access to affordable animal sourced foods through nutritional campaigns Promote income diversification via cash crops and off-farm activities Establish direct procurement models linking producers with hospitals and schools for increased cash income"}]},{"head":"Scale(delayed to year 2 and 3)","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Identify pathways to increase seed demand for new varieties and alternative species and develop pathways for seed delivery mechanisms building on other IDPs Establish and improve seed distribution channels using commercial and non commercial models based on insights from other IDPs Develop behaviour change communication materials and strategies for dietary diversity and biofortified crops Identify policy constraints for a productive and profitable farming system Conduct policy analyses and advocate for inclusion of biofortification in policies and biofortified seed and food in programs Support the development/enhance of policies and guidelines that enable private sector engagement and retention in the system "}]},{"head":"Multi-media","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"WP 2: Adjustments Made with Budget Cut","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"• Focus is only on Kenya and Zambia, and have excluded Ethiopia, Malawi, Uganda, and Zimbabwe"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• Fewer partnerships developed that are deploying agro-advisory and ARM services (2 rather than 5)"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Fewer bundles of technologies prioritized, tested and scaled out (2 rather than 8)"},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"• Bundles focused on climate information, agroadvisory, inputs, and financial services (e.g. credit & insurance), but other services could be included on a case-by-case basis "}]},{"head":"STORAGE AND HANDLING","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"• Cold storage "}]},{"head":"MARKET AND DISTRIBUTION","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"•","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Support climate resilience","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Improve farmer livelihoods, support social inclusion and good nutrition","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Channel to SCALE sustainably -can deploy science -based innovations faster to large numbers of farmers","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Can enable diversification, intensification and de-risking of maize mixed systems","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Objective: WP 3 focuses on demand-driven incubation and acceleration (capacity strengthening) of agribusinesses through local entrepreneurship innovation hubs (ESOs), building a pipeline of investable agribusinesses contributing to ESG targets; using multi-partner platforms and multistakeholder dialogue spaces that strengthen the enabling environment; linking agribusinesses to a sustainable finance; scaling environmentally sustainable, socially-equitable and responsible financial (e.g., microlending, savings, insurance) products."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"End of Initiative Outcome: By 2024, up to 50 agribusinesses (40% run by women and 40% by youth) will have been incubated or accelerated and are in the process or have received financing for a total of at least USD 5 million of new finance, that has been unlocked and invested (through debt, equity or grants)."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"Agribusinesses will be better equipped to improve agriculture value chain efficiencies and support smallholder farmers improve productivity, incomes and climate resilience. UU will have played a pivotal role in mobilising partnerships to enable these outcomes.    "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"WP 5 . Empower & Engage(youth, women, capacity) Gender Empowerment Index and an actionable GESI framework in collab with Gender Platform, HER+ WP 3. Support & Accelerate (SMEs, markets, inclusive finance, MSDs) Accelerator and technical assistance with Sustainable Finance Unit and Markets and Value Chains Initiative WP 4. Govern and Enable (shared vision, cascaded targets, coordination & co-implementation) ESA Policy hub and ESA Learning Platform in collab with FANRPAN, CCARDESA, ASARECA WP 1. Diversify & Intensify (from maize-mixed to diversified systems for nutritious diets) Integrated maize-legume intensification practices using promising innovations coupled with conservation agriculture and mechanization in collab with SI-MFS and EiA UU work packages and R4D outputs WP 2. De-risk and Digitize (agricultural risk management, agroadvisories, digital agriculture) Risk-contingent credit product bundled with climate information and agro-advisory services in collab with ClimBeR, LCSR, and Digital WP 6. Scale and Coordinate (U2 Scaling Hub, spillover effects, regional coordination of initiatives, embedding One CGIAR) One CGIAR ESA Scaling Hub in collab with the GIZ Scaling Taskforce and One CGIAR scaling teams Addressing the region's poverty & climate hot-spots Innovations and impact • 40+ year history of significant cross-CGIAR bilateral investments • Co-designed with >660 people • 15+ letters of support from public and private partners CGIAR research implemented through 79 innovation packages using the UU Scaling Hub 50 000 farmers, value chain actors, and consumers (40% women; 40% youth) in maize-mixed systems using climatesmart intensification and diversification practices with improved water and land management practices by 2024. 1 million farmers and other value chain actors (40% women, 40% youth) access bundled digital agro-advisory and ARM services supporting response to climate risks and managing land and water systems more sustainable. At least 50 start-ups and SMEs-40% run by women and 40% by youths-will have scaled climate-smart solutions supporting diversification & intensification of mixed maize systems through at least USD 5 million of new finance. 20,000 hectares under improved sustainable, improved management. US$100 million of investments enabled by 4 strategies/policies and ex-ante supporting collaborative governance and management of multifunctional landscapes. "},{"text":"Packaging • Retail CONSUMERS 1 .Work Package 3 - Smallholder farmers face a lack of predictability and have weak bargaining power (lack of transparency and traceability) 2. Smallholder farmers experience significant post-harvest loss / food wastage CHALLENGE: Low efficiency of agriculture value chains and lack of resilience against climate shocks leading to smallholder farmer vulnerability and food supply problems Why Focus on Agribusinesses? SOLUTION: A strong partner to improve value chain efficiency, support climate resilience, productivity, incomes and social inclusion of smallholder farmers. "},{"text":"Day 2 ( 3 CIAT, IITA, IWMI, WorldFish External: ESO partner Linkages to other UU WPs: WP 5, WP 6 Linkages to other initiatives: LCSR Linkages (other): AICCRA, PABRA, A4IP Design a roadmap for implementation Implementation and coordination plan 30k Q3 -Q4 3 focus countries selected from the following: Kenya, Zambia, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Malawi, Zimbabwe External: ESO partner CG: CIAT, IITA, WorldFish, WP 6 , LCSR, AICCRA, PABRA March 2022) "},{"text":"Fishbowls Instructions (45 minutes)•WP A lead provides a brief overview on the respective work package including the sites/countries (5 minutes) •WP B members ask the WP A lead clarification questions. WP lead responds to those questions. (5minutes) SWOP •WP B lead provides a brief overview on the respective work package including the sites/countries (5 minutes) •WP A members ask the WP B lead clarification questions. WP lead responds to those questions. (5 minutes) • Group then provides inputs on both WPs with statements such as: I see synergies in……………………. I see overlaps in……………………… I see 123 joint activities in xyz location (country/district -try to be as specific as possible) I see our work packages having XYZ (same) partners "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Community/ Farmers Policy makers, legislators, regulators Financiers Education and training institutions Research and development organizations Service providers Customers Entrepreneurs Resilient AgriFood Systems (RAFS)   "},{"text":"Regional research responsive to unique agri-food systems development challenges in East and Southern Africa One CGIAR Impact Areas       Nutrition, health and food security Nutrition, health and food security      Climate adaptation and mitigation Climate adaptation and mitigation      Poverty Reduction, Livelihoods and Jobs Poverty Reduction, Livelihoods and Jobs Diversification of maize-mixed systems for nutrition & resilience (building on SIMLESA, PABRA, AfricaRISING) Mechanization, irrigation and improved varieties for sustainable intensification (building on SIMLESA, PABRA, AfricaRISING; Link with SI-MFS) Bundled agricultural risk management and agro-advisory services (building on CCAFS; complementary to ClimBeR, LCSR and EiA; partnering with Mercy Corps AgriFin Sprout Platform) Value chain support & inclusive agribusiness acceleration (building on CCAFS; complementary to LCSR, PABRA; ) established that facilitates SI FANRPAN) (with WCA and and information data sharing and diversification CGIAR policy hub Pan-African The Scaling Hub advancing \"science of scaling\" and \"practice of scaling.\" (with GIZ Scaling Task Force; PABRA, AgriFin; TAAT) SIMLESA; MC Social Inclusion Equality, Youth and Gender Environmental health, water security, and biodiversity Diversification of maize-mixed systems for nutrition & resilience (building on SIMLESA, PABRA, AfricaRISING)Mechanization, irrigation and improved varieties for sustainable intensification (building on SIMLESA, PABRA, AfricaRISING; Link with SI-MFS)Bundled agricultural risk management and agro-advisory services (building on CCAFS; complementary to ClimBeR, LCSR and EiA; partnering with Mercy Corps AgriFin Sprout Platform)Value chain support & inclusive agribusiness acceleration (building on CCAFS; complementary to LCSR, PABRA; )established that facilitates SI FANRPAN) (with WCA and and information data sharing and diversification CGIAR policy hub Pan-AfricanThe Scaling Hub advancing \"science of scaling\" and \"practice of scaling.\" (with GIZ Scaling Task Force; PABRA, AgriFin; TAAT) SIMLESA; MC Social Inclusion Equality, Youth and Gender Environmental health, water security, and biodiversity  "},{"text":"Ukama Ustawi Regional Initiative PABRA Network Locally-appropriate legume varieties and other crops scaled out to diversify and intensify production, and to through PABRA network of national partners Supporting bean seed systems to diversify maize mixed systems, intensifying with improved management, providing farmer financing services, supporting market linkages, gender empowerment Innovation Package 1   LCSR Agroecology ClimBer Mitigate+ NEXUS Shift LCSRAgroecologyClimBerMitigate+NEXUSShift • A 25-year-old coordinated system perspective Africa working with a food bean R&D / investments in institutional framework of ABI Market SeEdQual Intelligence EiA 540+ Partners incl. farmer associations, NGOs, private sector, Universities Alliance of 31 National Agricultural Research Systems & aligned to SROs Markets SAPLING Plant Health HER+ Digital SI-MFS • A 25-year-old coordinated system perspective Africa working with a food bean R&D / investments in institutional framework of ABI Market SeEdQual IntelligenceEiA540+ Partners incl. farmer associations, NGOs, private sector, Universities Alliance of 31 National Agricultural Research Systems & aligned to SROs Markets SAPLING Plant Health HER+ Digital SI-MFS • Engagement with partners (particularly NARS) is a key aspect of the PABRA platform WP1: WP2:  WP3: Support  WP4: WP5: WP6: • Engagement with partners (particularly NARS) is a key aspect of the PABRA platform WP1:WP2:WP3: SupportWP4:WP5:WP6: Diversify & • Coordinated donor support from 6+ donors De-risk & Intensify Digitalize & Accelerate Value Chains Conserve & Enable Empower & Engage Scale & Coordinate Diversify & • Coordinated donor support from 6+ donors De-risk & Intensify Digitalize& Accelerate Value ChainsConserve & EnableEmpower & EngageScale & Coordinate • CGIAR is facilitator (catalyzer) of the partnership.      • CGIAR is facilitator (catalyzer) of the partnership. • Opportunity to expand network to other crops      • Opportunity to expand network to other crops  "},{"text":"• Recruitment Prioritization within WPs Crop Production Challenges in sub- Saharan Africa Constrains to livestock production in semi-arid Zambia and Zimbabwe Dry season feed shortages Poor feed quality Poor breeds Diseases Poor water accessibility, theft and predators Mixed crop-livestock challenges ➢ Competition for limited resources: crop residues, land, labour and capital ➢ Lack of dry season high quality feed all year round ➢ Limited access to information, inputs, technologies and markets ➢ Externally: climate variability, population pressure and environmental degradation (overgrazing). ➢ Blanket recommendations on production and marketing strategies Systems Transformation Science Group   "},{"text":"Each black dot represents a Long-term Mother and Baby trial cluster -usually 6-10 mothers at each location (>300 mothers and over all > 4000 babies). The aim is to use synergies with complimentary projects SIAF framework  FOCUS TARGETING: FOCUS Mechanization/    FOCUS TARGETING: FOCUS Mechanization/ Match cropping/livestock/ Irrigation: How to    Match cropping/livestock/ Irrigation: How to Activity Description mechanization/irrigation 2022 Output/ Outcome reduce the drudgery of systems to context farming and create 2022 Budget Countries Partners (CG and external) Activity Description mechanization/irrigation 2022 Output/ Outcome reduce the drudgery of systems to context farming and create2022 BudgetCountriesPartners (CG and external) sustainable and  (US$)   sustainable and(US$) Develop strategies to improve and foster dietary diversification and assess the contribution of SI's contribution to profitable systems? Strategy for more nutritious diets in ESA 200k ZIM, ZAM, MAL, KEN Non-CG: NARES CG: ABC, CIMMYT Develop strategies to improve and foster dietary diversification and assess the contribution of SI's contribution to profitable systems?Strategy for more nutritious diets in ESA200kZIM, ZAM, MAL, KENNon-CG: NARES CG: ABC, CIMMYT healthy diets     healthy diets Identify capacity needs and establish Increased knowledge and capacity 125k ZIM, ZAM, MAL, KEN CG: CIMMYT, ABC, IWMI, ILRI Identify capacity needs and establishIncreased knowledge and capacity125kZIM, ZAM, MAL, KENCG: CIMMYT, ABC, IWMI, ILRI capacity building activities on SI/CA/CSA practices, Mechanization/irrigation, of relevant stakeholders in the agribusiness ecosystem on UU   Non-CG: NARES capacity building activities on SI/CA/CSA practices, Mechanization/irrigation,of relevant stakeholders in the agribusiness ecosystem on UUNon-CG: NARES water management and integrated technologies    water management and integratedtechnologies approaches     approaches Apply a scaling scan to identify relevant Understanding of delivery and 122k ZIM, ZAM, MAL, KEN CG: CIMMYT, ABC, IWMI, ILRI Apply a scaling scan to identify relevantUnderstanding of delivery and122kZIM, ZAM, MAL, KENCG: CIMMYT, ABC, IWMI, ILRI scaling actors and assess scaling mechanisms and delivery models for SI advisory systems including governments, policies and other   Non-CG: PABRA, TLC scaling actors and assess scaling mechanisms and delivery models for SIadvisory systems including governments, policies and otherNon-CG: PABRA, TLC practices regulatory    practicesregulatory  "},{"text":"Dry winter production of beans in smallholder irrigated systems FOCUS CROP/LIVESTOCK:  Improving nutrition through Improving nutrition through diversification, education and diversification, education and use of CGIAR products use of CGIAR products (legumes, meat products, (legumes, meat products, biofortification) biofortification)  "},{"text":"Digital Delivery Ecosystem Input Access Agro- advisory Services Climate Information End-user Finance (Insurance, Credit) Market Linkages Work Package 2: De-risk and Digitalize Bundled services provided to farmers through a digital delivery ecosystem   WP1: On farm WP1: On farm  technology packages technology packages  promoted and inputs promoted and inputs  provided through provided through  digital service delivery digital service delivery iShamba: Market Information ecosystem iShamba: Market Informationecosystem Services  Services PABRA: Bean markets EiA: Climate PABRA: Bean marketsEiA: Climate  Information Information WP3: Agribusiness Acceleration Services User WP3: Agribusiness AccelerationServices User WP5: Gender and Social Inclusion Studies WP5: Gender and Social InclusionStudies Mercy Corps AgriFin Network: Digital: Mercy Corps AgriFin Network:Digital: Sprout Platform Enhancing Sprout PlatformEnhancing Mediae: Shamba Shape Up & extension & Mediae: Shamba Shape Up &extension & iShamba digital iShambadigital Hello Tractor: routing tractors advisories Hello Tractor: routing tractorsadvisories ClimBeR: Design of Risk Contingent Credit product LCSR: Livestock Insurance EiA: Insurance Use Case ClimBeR: Climate Information Services User Studies Digital: Monitoring of food-land-water risks ClimBeR: Design of Risk Contingent Credit product LCSR: Livestock Insurance EiA: Insurance Use CaseClimBeR: Climate Information Services User Studies Digital: Monitoring of food-land-water risks  "},{"text":"FOCUS: aMaizing Soil Moisture Index Insurance using Remote Sensing Very dry Very wet Joseph's farm FOCUS: Bundling Multiple Services Together  • Cost-effectiveness for farmers & partners • Cost-effectiveness for farmers & partners • Risk mitigation for farmers & partners • Risk mitigation for farmers & partners  "},{"text":"civil society, research and donor organisations use it to educate, scale out and support and link to etc WP2 focuses on de-risking production and market systems by enhancing access to and use of de-risking technologies, digital agro-advisory & climate services, and agricultural risk management services through open access platforms and applications, co-designed with farmers, SMEs, governments and investors, focusing on targeted communication activities, multi-media dissemination, and data sharing. Systems Transformation Science Group Systems Transformation Science Group  "},{"text":"De-risk and Digitalize Prioritized Activities  Activity Description 2022 Output/ Outcome 2022 Budget Countries Partners (CG and Activity Description2022 Output/ Outcome2022 BudgetCountries Partners (CG and   (US$)  external) (US$)external) Agricultural Risk Profiling system that identifies key 1 Agriculture Risk Profiling System 150k Kenya, CIAT, IFPRI, IWMI, Agricultural Risk Profiling system that identifies key1 Agriculture Risk Profiling System150kKenya,CIAT, IFPRI, IWMI, agricultural and value chain risks, and identifies built in partnership with other One  Zambia ClimBer, LCSR agricultural and value chain risks, and identifiesbuilt in partnership with other OneZambiaClimBer, LCSR technologies, practices and risk management CG Initiatives and Adaptation Atlas    technologies, practices and risk managementCG Initiatives and Adaptation Atlas solutions linked to farmer specific profiles for     solutions linked to farmer specific profiles for agroecological and socioeconomic contexts.     agroecological and socioeconomic contexts. Partnerships to develop and deploy agro-advisory 2 partnerships that are deploying 50k Kenya, Shamba Shape Up, iShamba Partnerships to develop and deploy agro-advisory2 partnerships that are deploying50kKenya,Shamba Shape Up, iShamba information and ARM services developed with agro-advisory information and ARM  Zambia ACRE-Africa, Mercy Corps, information and ARM services developed withagro-advisory information and ARMZambiaACRE-Africa, Mercy Corps, businesses, MFIs, cooperatives, start-ups, SMEs for service-Shamba Shape Up/iShamba   Financial Access, CIAT, IFPRI, businesses, MFIs, cooperatives, start-ups, SMEs forservice-Shamba Shape Up/iShambaFinancial Access, CIAT, IFPRI, co-design, experimentation and up take. and ACRE-Africa   IWMI, PABRA, ClimBer, LCSR, co-design, experimentation and up take.and ACRE-AfricaIWMI, PABRA, ClimBer, LCSR,     EiA EiA Prioritized scaling-ready digital agro-advisories and 2 prioritized scaling-ready digital 80k Kenya, WP1, WP3, WP5, WP6, Mercy Prioritized scaling-ready digital agro-advisories and2 prioritized scaling-ready digital80kKenya,WP1, WP3, WP5, WP6, Mercy ARM bundled products and services assessed for agro-advisories and ARM bundles  Zambia Corps, CIAT, IFPRI, IWMI, ARM bundled products and services assessed foragro-advisories and ARM bundlesZambiaCorps, CIAT, IFPRI, IWMI, scaling readiness and for productivity, resilience, using Mercy Corps Digital CSA   AICCRA, ClimBer, LCSR scaling readiness and for productivity, resilience,using Mercy Corps Digital CSAAICCRA, ClimBer, LCSR and/or profitability, to be contextualized and Sandbox for co-design and Scaling    and/or profitability, to be contextualized andSandbox for co-design and Scaling codesigned with farmers and scaling partners. Readiness Framework for assessment.    codesigned with farmers and scaling partners.Readiness Framework for assessment.  "},{"text":"Systems Transformation Science Group End of initiative outcome (2024) By 2024, 1 million farmers and value chain actors using bundled digital agroadvisories and risk management products and services scaled out with partners through the U2 Regional Scaling Hub. WP 2: De-risk and Digitalize Prioritized Activities  Activity Description 2022 Output/ Outcome 2022 Countries Partners (CG and Activity Description2022 Output/ Outcome2022CountriesPartners (CG and   Budget  external) Budgetexternal)   (US$)   (US$) Bundled digital agroadvisories and ARM 2 bundles of digital agro-advisories 100k Kenya, Zambia WP3, WP5, CIAT, IFPRI, IWMI, Bundled digital agroadvisories and ARM2 bundles of digital agro-advisories100kKenya, ZambiaWP3, WP5, CIAT, IFPRI, IWMI, products and services codesign to and ARM products and services are   PABRA, Mercy Corps, Financial products and services codesign toand ARM products and services arePABRA, Mercy Corps, Financial contextualize and tested with farmers designed and testing initiated.   Access, Shamba Shape Up, contextualize and tested with farmersdesigned and testing initiated.Access, Shamba Shape Up, and other value chain actors (with    iShamba ACRE-Africa, and other value chain actors (withiShamba ACRE-Africa, ClimBeR; LCSR; Rethinking Markets)    ClimBer, LCSR, EiA ClimBeR; LCSR; Rethinking Markets)ClimBer, LCSR, EiA Mobile delivery mechanisms, TV, and     Mobile delivery mechanisms, TV, and other communication channels for     other communication channels for deploying     deploying  "},{"text":"to farmers bundled digital agro-advisories and risk management products and services   2 bundled digital agro-advisories 250k Kenya, Zambia Shamba Shape Up, iShamba 2 bundled digital agro-advisories250kKenya, ZambiaShamba Shape Up, iShamba  and ARM products being deployed,   ACRE-Africa, Financial Access, and ARM products being deployed,ACRE-Africa, Financial Access,  disaggregated by type and   WP3, ClimBer, LCSR disaggregated by type andWP3, ClimBer, LCSR  geography. Shamba Shape Up set    geography. Shamba Shape Up set  up in Zambia.    up in Zambia. Impact evaluation of Shamba Shape-up Design of impact evaluation of 55k Zambia Shamba Shape Up Impact evaluation of Shamba Shape-upDesign of impact evaluation of55kZambiaShamba Shape Up based on expected roll-out of show in Shamba Shape-up, based on    based on expected roll-out of show inShamba Shape-up, based on Zambia expected roll-out of the show in    Zambiaexpected roll-out of the show in  Zambia.    Zambia.  "},{"text":"RAFS) Work Package 3 -Why Focus on Agribusinesses? 1. Smallholder farmers have poor access to quality inputs, finance and training/technical support (Scarcity of resources; scope to improve yield) INPUTS   PRODUCTION LOGISTICS PRODUCTIONLOGISTICS • Seed • Irrigation/ pumping • Animal feed • Agrochemicals • Mechanization • Operational efficiency • Farm to collection center • Collection center to • Seed • Irrigation/ pumping • Animal feed • Agrochemicals• Mechanization • Operational efficiency• Farm to collection center • Collection center to   processing processing   facility/market facility/market • Strategic low-effort high reward activities (i.e. low hanging fruit) may occur in excluded countries • Strategic low-effort high reward activities (i.e. low hanging fruit) may occur in excluded countries  "},{"text":"Work Package 3 -UU Support and Accelerate Value Chain Agribusinesses that Diversify, Intensify and De-risk Maize- Mixed systems  1. Taking a value-chain approach to target agribusinesses in East and Southern 1. Taking a value-chain approach to target agribusinesses in East and Southern Africa to accelerate (capacity strengthen) and link to financing. Africa to accelerate (capacity strengthen) and link to financing.  "},{"text":"vertically integrated business models or partnership models. Work Package 3 -Strategy Resilient AgriFood Systems (RAFS) Work Package 3 -Strategy Technical Assistance (Acceleration/Capacity Strengthening) Program  Design To be refined further with partner ESO and WP 3 Technical Assistance Advisory Committee Design To be refined further with partner ESO and WP 3 Technical Assistance Advisory Committee Partner Partner By 2024, By 2024,  "},{"text":"up to 50 agribusinesses (40% run by women and 40% by youth) will have been incubated or accelerated CGIAR  1. Provides CSA science-based TA CSA Accelerator Program Connect to Financing 1. Provides CSA science-based TACSA Accelerator ProgramConnect to Financing 2. Provides science-based IMM TA (agribusinesses, potentially wider ecosystem e.g., investors, Agri-corporates) ESO 3. Provides business, commercial and investment readiness TA • Technical Assistance (TA) program for early-stage climate smart agribusinesses • Focus agribusinesses are those that are operating and have proven product/market fit, post-revenue but not necessarily profitable • TA support will be based on After successful completion of program, agribusinesses are presented to funders (donors, angel investors, venture capital impact investors, banks, microfinance institutions and agriculture corporations) through match-making activities, including a Demo Day. 2. Provides science-based IMM TA (agribusinesses, potentially wider ecosystem e.g., investors, Agri-corporates) ESO 3. Provides business, commercial and investment readiness TA• Technical Assistance (TA) program for early-stage climate smart agribusinesses • Focus agribusinesses are those that are operating and have proven product/market fit, post-revenue but not necessarily profitable • TA support will be based onAfter successful completion of program, agribusinesses are presented to funders (donors, angel investors, venture capital impact investors, banks, microfinance institutions and agriculture corporations) through match-making activities, including a Demo Day.  agribusinesses' needs  agribusinesses' needs Financial planning Commercial strategy Legal assessment (demand-driven) at inception  Financial planning Commercial strategy Legalassessment (demand-driven) at inception Governance   Governance Fundraising, etc.   Fundraising, etc.  "},{"text":"the process or have received financing for a total of at least USD 5 million of new finance, that has been unlocked and invested (through debt, equity or grants). Outcome Outcome Resilient AgriFood Systems (RAFS) Work Package 3 -Strategy Technical Assistance (Acceleration/Capacity Strengthening) Program Design To be refined further with partner ESO, Technical Assistance Advisory, and CG science implementing centers  "},{"text":"RAFS) WP 3: 2022 Prioritized Activities Activity Description Output/ Outcome Budget (US$)/Timeline Countries Partners (CG and external)  An ecosystem, value chain mapping Strategic report that provide 50k Regional with a CG: CIAT, IITA, IWMI An ecosystem, value chain mappingStrategic report that provide50kRegional with aCG: CIAT, IITA, IWMI and needs assessment exercise through interviews with key ecosystem players: (i) ESOs and Knowledge and Network Partners/Platforms (ii) Agribusinesses (iii) Funding partners active in the region (Investors, Donors, information on: (i) value chain mapping to identify market gaps/failures; (ii) landscaping the agribusiness ecosystem (focus on SMEs and start-ups) for enabling value chain efficiency, value addition and addressing gaps/failures; Q2 -Q4 focus on: Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania, Ethiopia External: Briter Bridges (research firm and knowledge and network partner with clients: World Bank, GIZ, FCDO, World Food Program, various corporations, investors and governments) and needs assessment exercise through interviews with key ecosystem players: (i) ESOs and Knowledge and Network Partners/Platforms (ii) Agribusinesses (iii) Funding partners active in the region (Investors, Donors,information on: (i) value chain mapping to identify market gaps/failures; (ii) landscaping the agribusiness ecosystem (focus on SMEs and start-ups) for enabling value chain efficiency, value addition and addressing gaps/failures;Q2 -Q4focus on: Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania, EthiopiaExternal: Briter Bridges (research firm and knowledge and network partner with clients: World Bank, GIZ, FCDO, World Food Program, various corporations, investors and governments) Financial Institutions) (iv) Agriculture and (iii) identifying business models and   Linkages to other UU WPs: WP 1, WP 2 Financial Institutions) (iv) Agricultureand (iii) identifying business models andLinkages to other UU WPs: WP 1, WP 2 Corporates (v) CGIAR implementing science centres (those supporting TA partners that are best aligned to meet identified needs in the ecosystem; (iv)   Linkages to other initiatives: LCSR Corporates (v) CGIAR implementing science centres (those supporting TApartners that are best aligned to meet identified needs in the ecosystem; (iv)Linkages to other initiatives: LCSR provision). mapping of CGIAR WP specific science innovations that can be scaled with   Linkages (other): AICCRA, PABRA provision).mapping of CGIAR WP specific science innovations that can be scaled withLinkages (other): AICCRA, PABRA  agribusinesses    agribusinesses Mobilize and close private sector x1 ESO partner; 100k Partners with CG: CIAT, IWMI Mobilize and close private sectorx1 ESO partner;100kPartners withCG: CIAT, IWMI partnerships -ESOs, investors, financial institutions, MFIs, corporates x5 impact investors;  activities and/or mandate to invest in With support from IITA partnerships -ESOs, investors, financial institutions, MFIs, corporatesx5 impact investors;activities and/or mandate to invest inWith support from IITA (on-going engagement process) x3 financial institutions/MFIs; Q2 -ongoing the ESA region External: Briter Bridges, ESO partner (on-going engagement process)x3 financial institutions/MFIs;Q2 -ongoingthe ESA regionExternal: Briter Bridges, ESO partner  x3 donors;    x3 donors;  x1 Agri-corporate    x1 Agri-corporate  "},{"text":"Linkages to other UU WPs: WP 6 Linkages to other initiatives: LCSR   Linkages (other): AICCRA, PABRA, A4IP Linkages (other): AICCRA, PABRA, A4IP Establish Technical Assistance Advisory 8 -10 TA advisory committee members; Establish Technical Assistance Advisory8 -10 TA advisory committee members; Committee; Technical Assistance Framework; Committee;Technical Assistance Framework;  "}],"sieverID":"30a5f2e1-57e1-4e2b-a9d8-e6deb84bfd81","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"039abcbb1ac07b8f675dcc1f70eafd47","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H034472.pdf"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Water for Agriculture vis-à-vis Environment *","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"• Nearly one-third of the world's population, some 2.7 billion people will live in regions that will experience severe water scarcity. One third of the population of India (464 million people) will live in regions that will face absolute water scarcity."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• The world's primary water supply will need to increase by 22 per cent to meet the needs of all sectors."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• Seventeen per cent more irrigation water will be needed for the world to feed itself in 2025."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• Groundwater reserves will be increasingly depleted in large areas of the world, more severely in India and China."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"• Salinisation of soils, compounded in many cases by increasingly saline or polluted groundwater, will continue to seriously affect land that has been highly productive in recent decades."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"• The people most affected by growing water scarcity will continue to be the poor, especially rural poor, and among poor people, women and children will suffer most."},{"index":7,"size":325,"text":"Reliable irrigation is the prominent input essential for green revolution technologies to realize high productivity and serves as the synergy for high yielding varieties, fertilizers, other production inputs and mechanization. Earlier analysis has indicated that water control alone can bridge the gap between potential and actual yields by about 20%. A remarkable achievement of humankind has been the ability to expand food production fast enough to keep pace with population growth. But the cost of this achievement has been a water crisis -a situation marked by water scarcity and competition, pollution and loss of species. Each person is responsible for converting between 2000 to 500 liters of liquid of water to vapour each day just because we have to eat (Molden, 2002). This is because of the biophysical process of evapo-transpiration necessary for the growth of food and feed-producing plants on rain fed and irrigated lands (Rao and Sinha, 1991). The Global Water Partnership concluded: \"on the one hand, the fundamental fear of food shortages encourages ever-greater use of water resources for agriculture; on the other hand there is a need to divert water from irrigated food production to other users and to protect the resource and the ecosystem. Many believe this conflict is one of the most critical problems to be tackled in the early 21 st century\" (Global Water Partnership, Framework for Action, 2000). The challenge, then, is to grow more food with less water and other agro-inputs. This means reducing water use in agriculture to meet other needs and environmental goals, yet growing enough food, and improving livelihoods of the poor. This challenge requires substantial increase in productivity of water in agriculture. Mr. Kofi Annan, UN Secretary General concluded in the Millennium Conference (2000), \"We need a Blue Revolution in agriculture that focuses on increasing productivity per unit of water -more crop per drop\". How much more water is necessary for agriculture will depend on, amongst other factors, the productivity of water."},{"index":8,"size":22,"text":"There are three basic approaches for improving water productivity in which water can be used to produce more food (Jinendradasa, 2002;Sharma, 2003)."},{"index":9,"size":18,"text":"1. Supply Side: Develop more infrastructure and more irrigated and rainfed land to supply more water for agriculture."},{"index":10,"size":13,"text":"2. Conservation: Reduce wastage and loss of water by agriculture and other sectors."},{"index":11,"size":16,"text":"3. Unit Productivity of Water: Increase the productivity of water for each drop consumed by agriculture."},{"index":12,"size":231,"text":"The supply side approach is aimed at improving overall food production by supplying more water for more land. This can be done by large projects such as dams, diversions, and canals, but also by small-scale works like pumps and water harvesting structures. India has already completed more than 200 major irrigation projects and another 150 projects are under different stages of construction. More than 800 medium projects have also been completed. Groundwater now constitutes 54 per cent of the total irrigated area in the country. India has also embarked upon the \"National River-Linking Project\"which will be the largest irrigation infrastructure project ever undertaken in the world. It will build 30 links and some 3000 storages to connect 37 Himalayan and Peninsular rivers to form a gigantic South Asian water grid. Initial estimates suggest a staggering cost of US$ 120 billion in order to handle 178 km 3 of inter-basin transfer/ year, build 12,500 km of canals, create 35 Giga watts of hydro-power capacity, add 35 m ha of additional irrigated area and generate substantial navigation and fishery benefits. Even before the Task Force has put its act together, doubts and apprehension, especially on the environmental impacts, are being raised from several quarters. When benefits outweigh costs (which generally may not be true in several of the mega projects), this represents a supply side approach to increase food production using water resources."},{"index":13,"size":195,"text":"The conservation approach focuses on eliminating water losses. Every effort should be placed on conserving the available water resources and eliminating waste and pollution of water supplies by agriculture and other users. Converting wastewater or poor quality waters to productive uses is a means of creating additional water resources and improving the productivity of water supplies to agriculture. In partially-closed and closed basins like Indus, Nile, Amu Darya, Yellow River and Northeast Colorado farmers within the area are responsible for converting more than 80 per cent of supplies to productive evapotranspiration -a practice that could be considered highly \"efficient\". The real problem in these areas are threats to agricultural sustainability and ecosystem degradation caused by burning too much water for crop production driven purely by economic necessity (e.g. rice in Punjab and Haryana). Table 1 shows that Punjab, with canals irrigating 14% of the area and tube wells 86%, has 71% of the irrigated area under rice during kharif. The area critical water table depth greater than 10m has increased from 3 to 56% of the central zone of the state during two decades of cropping  and the trend continues unabated (Hira, 1996).  (Molden, 2002)."},{"index":14,"size":21,"text":"Under such a scenario of supply side augmentation and resource conservation, the following water management issues become highly relevant for consideration."}]},{"head":"I. Improving the Water Productivity:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":202,"text":"Producing more food with the same amount of water (more crop per drop) is an alternative to the supply side approach. In highly stressed areas, producing more food with less water may be the only option to ensure food security, and to restore systems so that they can sustain long-term agricultural practices. For farmers with a limited supply of water, improving water productivity is a chance to improve incomes and livelihoods. Considering the productivity of water in more than 40 irrigation systems worldwide, a 10-fold difference in the gross value of output per unit of water consumed by evapo-transpiration was demonstrated. Even under relatively similar environments, the level of management can cause significant changes in water productivity. India's Bhakra irrigation system constitutes a major part of India's breadbasket, and is situated across the border form the Pakistan Punjab. The Imperial Valley, USA is also situated in a desert environment. The wheat yields in these areas vary from 2 to 6 tons per hectare, with a corresponding spread in water productivity form 0.5 to 1.3 kg/m 3 ET. In spite of the variation in environmental, market, soil and other conditions, there appears to be a scope to manage resources to achieve greater productivity."},{"index":2,"size":186,"text":"To illustrate the food, water and productivity links, consider water needs for India in 2025. In 1995, average irrigated grain yields were 2.7 t/ha and about 600 cubic kilometers of water were diverted for irrigation. Considering the growth in population and environment in diet, the diversion requirement in 2025 was calculated for different settings (Fig. 1). If there is no increase in grain yield, India will have to double diversions to irrigation with the risk of environmental damage, on the other hand, if grain yields increased by 70 per cent, no more increases in water diverted to irrigation will be required (Anonymous, 2000). We have to strike a balance between the two approaches. There are a variety of inter-connected paths that can improve the productivity of water including: i) Crop breeding for improved water productivity and abiotic stress tolerance, ii) Improved agronomic and field practices including resource conservation technologies, iii) Low cost supplemental irrigation technologies for rainfed water scarce areas, iv) Improved irrigation management practices and precision/micro irrigation, v) Integrating recycling and reuse into basin and irrigation management, and, vi) Integrated natural resource management within basins."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Increases in water productivity are necessary to solve many of the problems of water crises and environmental requirements but they are not sufficient. It is imperative that these be accompanied with a poverty focus to help the poor reap the grains of increases in water productivity and help in ecosystem restoration."}]},{"head":"II. Groundwater Management","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":338,"text":"Groundwater is accessible to a large number of users. It can provide cheap, convenient, individual supplies, it is generally less capital intensive to develop, and does not depend upon mega water projects. Between 1970 and 1995, the rapid growth of groundwater irrigation in South Asia (India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, Fig. 3) and North Fig. 2.District-wise groundwater development in India during  China plains were at the heart of an agrarian boom. This placed Asia's groundwater socio-ecology under siege (Debroy and Shah, 2002). Groundwater depletion, pollution and water quality deterioration now cause concerns that are fueled by worries about their environmental consequences; the most common symptom is a secular decline in water tables. In western, north-western and peninsular India, over a million wells are added every year and groundwater withdrawal exceeds annual recharge in vast areas that are growing every year. In Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan, the main consequence was salinity; in hard-rock southern India, it is declining well yields and increasing pumping costs arising from competitive deepening of wells. In West Bengal and Bangladesh, the consequence is arsenic contamination. In coastal areas, the most serious consequence of intensified pumping of groundwater for irrigation is saline ingress into coastal aquifers. All these problems will impair the region's capacity to feed its growing population. Concerns were raised to a level that a quarter of India's harvest may well be at risk from groundwater depletion (Sharma, 2002). It is also true that crop yield/m 3 on groundwaterirrigated farms tends to be 1.2 -3 times higher than on surface irrigated farms. By far the most serious groundwater challenge facing the world, then, is not in developing the resource but in its sustainable management. Several innovative measures have been suggested for enhancing groundwater recharge in critical areas; these include, i) check dams on natural streams, ii) percolation tanks in hard rock plateau regions, iii) recharge tube wells/shafts, iv) rainwater conservation in paddy fields, v) integrated watershed development, vi) rainwater harvesting from urban areas and, vii) efficient and sustainable use of poor quality groundwater resources."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Lessons learned from a 10-year pilot project in Uttar Pardesh (Upper Ganga Canal System -Lakhoati Branch Canal) indicate a practical and low-cost way to conserve and rejuvenate falling groundwater reserves (IWMI, 2002). Here, monsoon river flows are being channeled through earthen canals to irrigate wet-season crops. Seepage water from canals and fields simultaneously recharges the underlying aquifers. Sakthivadivel (2002) has estimated the following benefits through this innovative groundwater recharge system: i."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"26% increase in average net income per hectare for farmers. ii."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"Average depth to groundwater decreased from an average of 12 m below ground level (1988) to an average of 6.5 m (1996). iii."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"Annual pumping cost saving of Rs. 180 million (900,000,000 m 3 of water pumped each year). iv."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"Annual energy savings of 75.6 million Kwh. v. Canal irrigated area increased from 1,251 ha (1988) to 37, 108 ha (1996). vi."},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"Increase in cropped area for rice -83 ha (1988) to 14, 419 ha (1999) with potential for further 30,000 ha."},{"index":8,"size":44,"text":"Similarly, studies have shown that unused drainage canals can be very conveniently used to help maximize the recharge benefits (Khepar et al., 2000). Excess water not needed for irrigation can be diverted into these unused channels, where check structures slow it for recharge ."},{"index":9,"size":35,"text":"Gearing up for groundwater resource management entails at least four important steps: i) information systems and resource planning, ii) demand side management, iii) supply side management, and iv) groundwater management in the river basin context."},{"index":10,"size":57,"text":"Groundwater offers us several precious opportunities for alleviating the misery of the poor, but is poses many daunting challenges of preserving the resource itself. A big part of the answer is massive initiatives to augment groundwater recharge in regions suffering depletion, but, in the ultimate analysis, these cannot work without demand side management and appropriate policy decisions."}]},{"head":"III. Rainwater Management","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Presently, only about 20% of the world's arable land (260 m ha) is covered under irrigation and the rest 80% depend only on rainfall and are thus prone to seasonal or prolonged water deficits and droughts."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"The endemic poverty in these regions is probably caused by inadequate availability of water for crop, livestock and other enterprises. However, the shortage of water is not caused by low rainfall as normally perceived but rather by a lack of capacity for sustainable management and use of available rainwater (Sharma, 2001). The most critical challenge is how to deal with the poor distribution of rainwater leading to short periods of too much water and flooding, and long periods of too little water. It is estimated that in much of the semi-arid tropics, the time when it is actually raining is in total about 100 hours per year, out of the 8,760 hours of the year. And even in the \"dry\" regions, rainwater is often available in abundance during the raining season. The main reason is the practical difficulty posed by the nature of rainfall."},{"index":3,"size":143,"text":"Climate change phenomenon is further accentuating the climate variability. Under climate change scenario, the onset of summer monsoon over India is projected to be delayed and often uncertain. This will have a direct effect on rain fed crops (Watson et al., 1998). The rabi rainfall will, however, have larger uncertainty (Table 2). The current approach to food security focuses on self-sufficiency at the household level due to dependence of a large population on agriculture. This is a strategic survival mechanism but prevents the people in the rain fed areas from investing in capital resources for rainwater management. As a consequence, there is critically low access to water for agriculture and even lower for drinking and sanitation, and the environment. Poor access to water is therefore among the leading factors hindering sustainable development and accentuating environmental degradation in semi-arid and other rain fed regions."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"Approaches to overcome this problem include technologies for enhancing the productivity of water in rain fed production, rainwater harvesting and precision irrigation. Adoption of such practices at the community and watershed levels has produced more significant results than efforts at the individual level."}]},{"head":"IV. Water Resources and Environmental Security","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"While the relationship between agriculture and environment is longstanding, concern continues to heighten over the pressure on the environment exerted by agricultural growth. Water mediated degradation may be manifested through soil erosion and nutrient depletion, water pollution and sedimentation, salt water intrusion, salinization and water logging, river desiccation and affected coastal areas and wetlands."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Development of large water resources and the use of water raise the important issues connected with ecological security. The ecosystems are affected in three ways: the adverse environmental implications of water resource development projects, the drying up of rivers, and the adverse effects of water pollution."}]},{"head":"i.","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Water Resources Development","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Several water resources development projects have been stalled by concern over adverse effects on environment and issues such as human rights. In India, Narmada (Sardar Sarovar Project) and Tehri dams and more recently the National River Linking Project have been heading the list. Fierce propaganda has been getting the attention of the media and the intellectuals alike. However, an analysis of 54 projects in India indicates that whereas only 0.217 million hectares of forestland was submerged by the Narmada project, 13.3 m ha of cultivated area was provided with irrigation that provided more bio-mass than that lost through forest submergence."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Still, adequate and effective legal and administrative provisions need to be provided in India and other countries to minimize or prevent adverse impacts of development of water resources."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"One serious environmental problem caused by irrigation projects is water logging and salinity. Estimates show that 15-25% of the command areas have been affected by these twin problems and considerable areas produce less than potential yields. Necessary steps need to be provided for adequate artificial drainage, restore natural drainage and ensure efficient use of the irrigation water."}]},{"head":"ii. Minimum Flows in Rivers","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Dams create reservoirs to store monsoon flows to be used during the lean season. Uncontrolled extraction of groundwater and direct pumping from the watercourses have reduced non-monsoon flows in rivers, and dried them up, thereby adversely affecting the river eco-system. Sabarmati in Gujarat, Cauvery in Tamilnadu (India), Amu Darya in Central Asia (Aral Sea Basin), Yellow river in China and scores of other rivers present scenarios when practically no water reaches the sea. Paradoxically, large reservoirs are needed to ensure minimum flows in rivers during the lean season. Integrated river basin management concepts need to be put in place for ensuring efficient use of the river systems in a sustainable and eco-friendly manner."}]},{"head":"iii. Water Pollution","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Water pollution is a major environmental concern in India and several of other developing countries. The main sources of water pollution are discharge of domestic sewage and industrial effluents, which contain organic pollutants, chemicals and heavy metals and run-off from land-based activities such as agriculture and mining. Intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides in certain crops and regions and run-off form other cultivated areas has been adding to the water bodies a variety of organic and inorganic pollutants causing pollution of rivers, lakes and coastal areas and thus affected the ecosystems."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"The data on water quality generated by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) indicated that the mean BO D values have gone up marginally in the 28 major river in India between 1979 and 1997. The quality of water in rivers is generally poor and critical in several cases. The most important source of water pollution is the wastewater generated in the cities and towns. A recent survey revealed that 212 Class I towns generated 12.1 billion liters of waste water per day, which was nearly 10 times the wastewater generated in all the Class II cities put together. In both class I and class II cities, wastewater was mostly disposed of in rivers and agricultural lands."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"It may be mentioned that several developing countries including India have enacted strict environmental laws, which prohibit the discharge of pollutants beyond specified standards in the water bodies and lay down penalties for non-compliance. But for various reasons, it has not been possible to enforce these laws on the industries and municipalities with the consequence that these effluents have become a prime source of water pollution."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"On the flip side these effluents act as a reliable source of irrigation water for millions of farmers practicing peri-urban agriculture in the vicinity of towns and cities. They are major producers of vegetables, forage crops and other value added agricultural produces. There is an urgent need to devise technologies and practices for the safe use of these poor quality waters, reduce the pollution of river bodies and ensure livelihoods of a large number of peri-urban farmers."}]},{"head":"V. Potential Use of Virtual Water","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":367,"text":"Each person is responsible for converting between 2,000 to 5,000 litres of liquid water to vapor each day just because we have to eat. This is because of the biophysical process of evapo-transpiration, necessary for the growth of food and feed producing plants on rain-fed and irrigated lands. Each tonne of wheat has about 1000 m 3 of virtual water embedded in it. So with the import and export of 1 tonne of wheat about 1000 tonnes of water is also exchanged from one region to another. Similar, is the case with other food items (Table 3). The concept of virtual water compares the amount of water embodied in a crop that can be purchased from another region/ international market with the amount of water which would be required to produce domestically. It is, therefore, easier and less ecologically destructive to import grain rather than to divert or pipe 1000 times' greater amount of water to produce the same commodity. The states, regions and nations with scarce water resources gain by importing water -intensive commodities, while exporting goods that require less water in production and also save precious water for the preservation of the environment. The role of virtual water to save the environment is important in certain regions such as the Middle East and parts of North Africa. The Middle East is the first region in the world that ran out of water. Israel and Palestine also ran out of water by the same time, Jordan in the 1960s, and Egypt in 1970s. In the past some of these countries have attempted to become self-sufficient in food while using their own water resources. Saudi Arabia began to produce sufficient wheat for most of its needs in the mid 1980's and even exported a large amount of water by utilizing its extremely pure but non-renewable fossil water resources. It had very serious repercussions for the hydrological environment and long-term water balances. However, the country had to reduce crop production because it was an un-economic way to use its fossil water. There are certain instances where water starved countries extracted their limited water resources to take a pride of self-sufficiency, which was not hydrologically sustainable and environmentally dangerous."},{"index":2,"size":179,"text":"The hydrological system of water-starved countries/ regions is definitely less and less able to meet the rising demands being placed on it. Do the water starved countries and regions want large scale extraction of groundwater resources for maximum benefit of the present generation, to take a short-term pride of self-sufficiency and a surplus, or a restricted extraction that ensures sustainable development and conservation of the resource base and ensure a healthy environment? Allan (1999) states that since the end of the 1980s, the Middle East and North Africa region has been importing 40x10 6  tonnes of cereal and flour annually. He reveals that more virtual water flows into the region each year than flows down the Nile into Egypt for agriculture. Paradoxically, in India food surpluses are being produced by utilizing the ever-diminishing groundwater in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh to meet the food requirements of some of the water abundant states. Efforts should be made in water-stressed states/regions /countries that they use good quality water on good soils to produce high-value crops that have low water requirements."},{"index":3,"size":161,"text":"The economics of virtual water involve the opportunity cost of water, which is its value in other uses that may include production of alternative crops or use in municipal, industrial, or recreation activities and preservation of the environment. In particular, the opportunity cost of water use must be considered when seeking an efficient allocation of scarce water resources. Israel-a severely water deficient country that ran out of water nearly half a century ago-has been able to implement a more sustainable water policy. Despite needing up to four times more water than is available, Israel has been able to adopt the virtual water development strategy to balance its water budget through easy access to water that is embedded in cereals imported from water-rich countries. Moreover, trading of virtual water embedded in food and other commodities seems to be a very good political step to achieve peaceful solutions to water conflicts within water deficient countries, and between water-deficient and water-sufficient regions and countries."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"Under such a scenario of the water-food-environment nexus, the following pathways to food and environmental security have been suggested by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI, 2003):"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"! Apply lessons from places where people have halted or reversed environmental degradation."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"! Set well-informed priorities through an integrated analysis of problems and solutions."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"! Produce a comprehensive assessment of the costs and benefits of irrigation in order to clarify future directions for irrigated agriculture."},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"! Target appropriate technology development for the food-insecure."},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"! Develop a policy and institutional environment that enables appropriate use of land and water."},{"index":10,"size":5,"text":"! Encourage more holistic approaches."},{"index":11,"size":83,"text":"Water-food-environment nexus is being increasingly recognized as inseparable from key development targets in the areas of poverty eradication, food security and human health. IWMI is actively contributing to this agenda through its research programs and leadership in the partnership-based CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food, the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture, and the Dialogue on Water, Food and Environment. To follow the progress of these initiatives and track the publications and recommendations as they emerge, point your browsers to: www.waterfoodenvironment.org"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 2 . The expected magnitude of change in climatic factors in South Asia by 2010 and 2070 AD due to global warming Climatic factors  Rabi  Kharif Climatic factorsRabiKharif  2010 2070 2010 2070 2010207020102070 Temperature 0.3 to 0.7 1.1 to 4.5 0.1 to 0.3 0.4 to 2.0 Temperature0.3 to 0.71.1 to 4.50.1 to 0.30.4 to 2.0 increase, C     increase, C Rainfall change in 0 -10 to + 10 0 0 to +10 Rainfall change in0-10 to + 1000 to +10 southwest monsoon     southwest monsoon region, %     region, %  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Estimates of water needed to produce different food items in water scarce regions Food item Amount of water needed (m 3 tonne -1 Food itemAmount of water needed (m 3 tonne -1  ) ) Pulses 1,000 Pulses1,000 Cereals 1,500 Cereals1,500 Rice 7,000 Rice7,000 Citrus fruit 1,000 Citrus fruit1,000 Palm oil 2,000 Palm oil2,000 Meat poultry fresh 6,000 Meat poultry fresh6,000 Meat sheep fresh 10,000 Meat sheep fresh10,000 Meat bovine fresh 20,000 Meat bovine fresh20,000  "}],"sieverID":"cdf5e956-d24a-484e-940e-80142e9bf77c","abstract":"Water is an integral part of man's environment and the extent to which it is abundant or scarce, clean or polluted, beneficial or destructive determines to a very large degree, the extent and quality of life. Although man has been able to modify, to a certain extent, the pattern of availability of fresh water supplies with respect to space and time, the total supply of water neither grows nor diminishes and is believed to be the same now as it was three billion years ago. Thus unlike other natural resources, water is not depleted through consumption, but the per capita availability reduces due to population growth, utilization for various purposes and water pollution. Between 1960 and 1997, per capita availability of freshwater worldwide declined by about 60% and another 50% decrease in per capita availability is projected by the year 2025 (Hinrichsen, 1998). Almost 85 per cent of all the water taken from rivers, lakes, streams and aquifers in India and most of the developing world is used for agriculture (Mohile and Goel, 1996). Water for agriculture (mainly irrigation) extended the agricultural frontier into arid regions, intensified production in low rainfall areas and increased dry season cropping in countries with monsoonal climate. Irrigated land, about 20 per cent of the crop land worldwide, provides 45 per cent of the world's food. Average yield per irrigated hectare is 2.2 times the yield of rain fed agriculture. In the next 25 years, the world will be challenged to produce sufficient food to feed an additional 90 million people each year, as well as to meet increasing and changing food needs resulting from rising incomes (Roelof, 1998). In the past the global irrigated area and annual water use have kept pace. However, the relentless increase in the demand of water for various purposes brought about the population growth, while economic development combined with increasing pollution of water supplies have raised serious problems for the environment.Because of the uneven distribution of population densities worldwide, water demands already exceed supplies in nearly 80 countries with more than 40% of the world's population (Bennett, 2000). IWMI water scarcity studies (Seckler et. al, 1998) reveal that, by 2025: * Invited paper for presentation during 91 st session of the Indian Science Congress, January 3-7, Chandigarh, India."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03cc0289595499789441f0974b681e62","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2d44917e-4a5f-456b-a7c8-ef6585f64727/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"Livestock genetics flagship report Consultancy report on the out-scaling of communitybased breeding programs in Ethiopia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"The International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in partnership with various institutes has been implementing pilot Community-based breeding programmes (CBBPs) in Ethiopia. From both technical and socio-economic evaluations, it became clear that the pilot CBBPs are technically feasible and financially rewarding. The intention is now to propose a model for up/out-scaling of CBBPs in relevant sheep production regions."}]},{"head":"Objective","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Develop a model to use CBBPs to serve core populations with breeding sires based on pilots established in Menz, Bonga and Horro."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Several pilot CBBPs were established since 2010 in the Menz, Horro, Bonga and Afar regions."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Only in Afar the establishment of CBBPs was not successful. This has been related to the harsh environmental and pastoral conditions of Afar. In the other regions, most initiated pilot CBBPs have been active and successful. The pilot CBBPs are based on local sheep named after their respective regions of origin. Sheep of these breeds may be present elsewhere in the country but in what follows core populations are defined in order to focus a new breeding project intervention area. Core or target sheep populations are those in the main production tract of each the three breeds."}]},{"head":"Core population parameter","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":230,"text":"In the Menz region there are areas delineated for crossbreeding which are not considered here and rather areas identified for pure breeding of the local breed are considered as core Menz production region. The core population of Menz sheep is estimated at 700,000 head. Since average household flock size is 22.0 head, some 32,000 households are targeted in the region. About 55% of sheep are breeding females, so that the total number of breeding ewes in the core population is estimated at 385,000 served by 7,700 breeding rams given an average mating ratio (ewes per ram) of 50. According to the prevailing production system, where rams are used a maximum of three years with an annual survival of 95%, each year some 2800 young rams are needed for replacement of old ones. A breeding program aimed at improving the output of the core Menz sheep population ultimately needs to generate the conditions for the production and distribution of this number of genetically improved young breeding rams each year. Similar procedures can be used for Bonga and Horro sheep. The core population of Bonga sheep is located in the Kaffa zone of the South Nations Nationalities and Peoples State whereas the Horro sheep are widespread in the country. The target population of Horro sheep improvement is the Horro Gudero zone. Core population parameters for the three breeds are in Table 1. "}]},{"head":"Current CBBPs","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"At present (December 2017), there are five CBBPs in the Menz region, three well established ones and two new ones, located two in Molale, two in Mehal-meda and one in Dargegn."},{"index":2,"size":205,"text":"Each CBBP involves on average 85 households running a total of about 1877 from which 55% are breeding females. These ewes produce a number of male lambs which undergo performance recording and genetic evaluation. Each year two ram selection rounds are organized in which about 75 selection candidates are presented with their 6-month adjusted body weight breeding values. Out of the 30-top ranked about 20 are selected visually by an inspection committee and distributed in the community for breeding or sale. In Bonga there are 16 CBBPs in the zone, two old ones comprising 3000 sheep each and 14 new ones comprising 1750 sheep each. The selection procedure in Bonga CBBPs is based on 3 months adjusted body weights and visual inspection. Here surplus rams are selected for sale to CBBPs in under development or to other communities. In Horro there are two CBBPs with about 1100 sheep each which produce their own male replacement. A summary of the statistics and population parameter for average CBBPs in the three sites is in Table 2. To increase the availability of improved rams there are three strategies: increase the number of CBBPs, increase the supply of improved rams per CBBP and increase the use of improved rams."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• Increasing the number of CBBPs requires additional project staff for recording and extension work, additional identification and weighing supplies, larger coordination and supervision efforts, etc."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"• Increasing the number of rams supplied per CBBP requires participating farmers to enhance reproduction, recording and maintaining a higher proportion of male progeny till final selection. The supply can also be increased reducing the requirements for a ram to qualify for breeding. In the latter case this is achieved at the cost of a reduced selection differential."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"• Increasing the use of improved rams through higher dissemination or through extending their use in time. Higher dissemination is possible through artificial insemination (AI)."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"Increasing the age of ram disposal also leads to higher dissemination, although at the cost of an increased generation interval."},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"These avenues to reach a larger sheep population with improved rams are not exclusive and shall be considered jointly when planning different programs."},{"index":8,"size":53,"text":"In order to test different out-scaling options for different sheep and goat populations of Ethiopia a parameterized model has been programmed on an Excel file (See ANNEX I). Such a model allows a quick overview on results and allows testing sensibility of parameters used; this being particularly helpful when field data are uncertain."}]},{"head":"Out-scaling with more CBBPs","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"As seen before in the three sheep sites the supply of improved rams from present CBBPs is completely insufficient to attend the core sheep populations. For example, only 7% of the Menz core sheep population can be supplied with young improved breeding rams from the present five CBBPs in that region. Thus, a total number of 71 (5/7%) CBBPs of the same size, structure and operation of the current ones would be needed to attend the whole Menz target population. For Bonga and Horro it would be necessary to have a total of 54 and 47 CBBPs, of the same average size, structure and operation already established in these regions, respectively. Additional 66, 38 and 45 new CBBPs would be needed for Menz, Bonga and Horro, respectively. Clearly, the establishment of such a large number of new CBBPs is not a realistic proposal and it is also not necessary."}]},{"head":"Up-scaling with more males produced per CBBP","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The number of additional CBBPs needed can be substantially reduced from the above figures if more candidate males are included in the evaluation process of each CBBP. For example, in a current average Menz CBBP with 1032 breeding ewes only 400 male lambs are recorded, 150 considered for selection and only 40 young rams are finally selected for breeding."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Accepting the potential reproduction parameter shown in Table 3 the number of recorded male lambs could reach 658 (1032x0.64) and the number considered for selection could be 626 (1032x0.61). Even assuming current average number of males recorded (n1 in Table 2) the potential number of male lambs considered for selection could be 380 (400x0.95), more than double the current 150. Similar results can be derived for current Bonga and Horro CBBPs."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"Table 3: Modelled male progeny production per breeding ewe in average CBBP."}]},{"head":"Parameter Menz Bonga Horro","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Conception rate 0.9 0.95 0.9"},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Litter The potential number of young rams finally selected would depend on the selection pressure applied. There are basically two selection instances, first a proportion of candidates is selected on breeding values or measurements (psm) and finally a proportion is selected on visual traits (psv). Current psm for Menz, Bonga and Horro is 0.40, 0.53 and 0.40 and current psv is 0.67, 0.63 and 0.67, respectively (Table 2). These selection pressures are arbitrary and currently related to the expected number of young rams needed."},{"index":3,"size":156,"text":"If candidates with above average breeding values are considered (psm=0.5) and from these 90% are visually acceptable (pmv=0.9) then 282, 416 and 180 young rams would be available for breeding in Menz, Bonga and Horro, respectively. In this case 10, 13 and 6 CBBPs in full reproductive potential would be sufficient to provide young rams to the core populations of Menz, Bonga and Horro (Table 4). For example, for Menz 10x282=2820 young rams. Keeping all male lambs available till measurement and keeping all selected young rams till breeding age for their eventual sale is costly and risky if there is no market for culled males and for the breeding rams produced. Although many animal production systems follow a pyramidal genetic structure in which farmers of the top layer (stud farmers) follow such a system. That is performance recording most of the male progeny for selection and eventual breeding and sale to lower levels of the pyramid."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"Combinations of psm and psv can be modelled to get desired number of young rams (n4) and resulting number of CBBPs following the logic of Table 4. Examples of such combinations and number of CBBPs required supplying the core populations are in Table 5. Increasing selection pressures (by decreasing the proportion selected) implies that more CBBPs are required to produce sufficient young rams to supply core populations. These rams will be of higher breeding value and visual quality, the opposite would be true if selection pressures are relaxed. Relaxation might be more acceptable for advanced CBBPs offering already prestigious breeding stock. Bonga rams may have already this prestige."}]},{"head":"Up-scaling with more intense use of males","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":255,"text":"Artificial insemination (AI) allows using fewer males and/or increase the number of females served with improved males. At CBBP level using fewer rams allows increasing selection differential and consequently increases the genetic progress. At the general flock level AI allows extensive dissemination of genetic superiority. Considering the costs involved in AI programs only outstanding rams should be considered for AI, particularly if used at the CBBP level. The genetic merit of AI males should be high and accurately measured. Such conditions are probably difficult to meet in most CBBPs because breeding values are normally based only on own phenotype and are therefore of low accuracy. Rams with high accurate breeding value may be found in full pedigreed CBBPs where comprehensive data are available for BLUP analyses. This might be the case in Bonga CBBPs where pedigree recording is more common. Potential AI rams could also be detected in well-designed progeny test trials. For example, if a community flock is split into single sire mating groups the comparison of average 6 months body weights would lead to the detection of superior sires, which then could be used in AI. Single sire mating groups may already exist where for example a clan of say five households run their sheep together with one ram. If this kind of information to accurately detect outstanding rams is not available, massive AI should be avoided at CBBPs level. AI with phenotypically outstanding males may still be implemented in flocks starting a CBBP provided several donor rams are used from advanced CBBPs."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"Including AI in the modelling of the number of CBBPs needed to attend specific populations requires adjustment of the mating ratio parameter. For example, in Menz two mobile AI teams could inseminate about 1000 ewes per week during four weeks making a total of about 8000 ewes inseminated, that is about 2% of the 385,000 Menz core population ewes. Suppose AI mating ratio is 300 ewes/ram and natural mating ratio is 50 ewes/ram, then the overall average mating ratio is 300x2%+50x98% = 55, replacing this mating ratio in the model of Table 1 reduces the number of young rams needed to 2583 and less CBBPs may be needed. For example, given the parameters of Table 4, instead of 10 CBBPs only 9 would be needed in Menz."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"The second way of intensifying the use of males is by keeping adult males for additional matings in the flock. For example, using males in the base flocks 4 years instead of 2 years almost doubles the number of young males available for distribution, or conversely allows to halve the number of CBBPs required for a given core population. Using males, additional years would not change the rate of genetic gain but would increase the genetic lag between CBBP and base flocks. Other considerations may also limit this option in low input systems."}]},{"head":"a. Overall strategy for existing and new CBBPs","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"In order to involve a high proportion of core sheep populations in genetic improvement programs more improved rams have to be produced and disseminated. As seen before this can be done by replicating (out-scaling) CBBPs, increasing the number of rams produced (upscaling) in CBBPs, intensifying the use of rams through AI or extended use. The three strategies should be discussed with the regional leaders and, if possible, with other relevant stakeholders (extension officers, community elders, etc.). Each strategy has advantages and disadvantages which might apply more or less in different communities or institutional setups. Most probably the three strategies can be used with different emphasis in different regions."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"From previous modelling results it is clear that simple replication of present CBBPs is not a realistic option if the whole target populations are to be involved in the improvement program. Additional 66, 38 and 45 new CBBPs would be needed for the three sheep breeds (Menz, Bonga and Horro, respectively). Present CBBPs could produce about 4, 3 and 5 times more candidates and, applying reasonable selection pressures, could offer 7, 4 and 8 times more selected rams than at present, respectively. By doing so, the additional number of CBBPs required to provide the whole target populations will be much less. In Menz, for example, only five new CBBPs would be needed."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"Ram production does not automatically imply ram distribution. Therefore, a key challenge is to develop a market or distribution system of CBBPs produced rams. At present a demand for males from CBBPs by base population farmers seems to be lacking in Menz and Horro and is only limited in Bonga. Some activities which could be emphasised or implemented to motivate and facilitate such a demand are:"},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"• Explaining extension officers and rural NGO officers the general strategy for genetic improvement: participating in a CBBP or taking advantage of their rams."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"• Participating in rural events explaining to general flock farmers the importance of using \"good\" rams."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"• Organize financial incentive (credit or subsidy) for general flock farmers when buying CBBP (certified) produced rams."},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"• Extending the bi-annual ram distribution events inviting general flock farmers."},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"• Promoting and advertising certified CBBP rams across the core breeding regions."},{"index":9,"size":16,"text":"• Offering outstanding rams in AI programs to jump start new CBBPs or base flock communities."},{"index":10,"size":46,"text":"This is also relevant when choosing the location of new CBBPs. Apart from considerations of genuine community interest, feasibility, etc.; the location of new CBBPs should also consider the potential market for surplus males. Thus, regional sheep density, accessibility and regional ram demands should be considered."},{"index":11,"size":170,"text":"As the demand for improved rams increase, selection policies at established CBBPs need to be adjusted. We do not know the present genetic difference between old CBBPs, new CBBPs and general flocks, so we cannot set exact threshold selection and culling levels of rams in the CBBPs. Currently the number of candidates at selection stage and the number selected for breeding are related to the replacement necessities and expected ram sale opportunities. The proportions selected on breeding values are in the range 0.4-0.53 and the proportions finally selected visually are in the range 0.63-0.67. These selection pressures are reasonable and close to suggested proportions of 0.5 and 0.9, respectively. Those rams with breeding value above average (standardized selection intensity = 0.8) and visually acceptable would be genetically acceptable. Approximate genetic gain expected from the use of these males can be calculated, which multiplied by lifetime expressions and economic value gives an indication of the relative economic benefit per animal of the program (a full economic evaluation requires more sophisticated methodology)."},{"index":12,"size":216,"text":"As mentioned above AI is a powerful tool for genetic improvement and may be useful in many ways in the proposed out/up scaling of CBBPs. If genetically outstanding rams can be detected with high accuracy AI can increase the rate of genetic gain at CBBP level. In average Menz CBBPs there are 1032 breeding ewes, 21 breeding rams and 8 young replacement rams (Table 2). Suppose the best two breeding rams are used for inseminating 150 ewes each (300/1032=29% of total CBBP ewes inseminated), then the average mating ratio would be mr=29%x150+71%x50=79 and only 13 breeding rams and 5 young replacement rams are needed in a typical Menz CBBP. If such a program is applied routinely over years then on average the proportion of young replacement rams selected is reduced from 8/n4 to 5/n4 with the corresponding increase in selection differential and genetic gain. According to previous experiences of trained AI teams, such a program could be applied to all five Menz CBBPs during the peak reproductive season of the breed. However, it is recommended to discuss such a program in each case with all stakeholders. Reservations to AI may arise with the required logistics at community level, with the application of hormones, with the resulting concentrated lambing dates, with alternative use of project resources, etc."},{"index":13,"size":16,"text":"Whether justified or not, such reservations need to be addressed to ensure community participation and approval."},{"index":14,"size":132,"text":"AI can also be very useful in disseminating genetic superiority of outstanding rams to general flocks and therefore reducing the number of breeding rams needed to be produced at CBBP level. This would either allow keeping fewer candidates in the CBBPs and/or reduce the number of CBBPs required to attend the target population. The selection of target flocks and organization of AI in general flocks is however not so obvious. Farmers of a community interested in participating in such a program would most probably be interested in establishing a new CBBP for its own. Thus, AI is probably useful for establishing new CBBPs. One drawback in this case is that AI would compete with established CBBPs interested in selling more rams. Again this option needs participative discussion of options, advantages and disadvantages."},{"index":15,"size":33,"text":"The out/up-scaling planning process may consider progressive intermediate options. For example, progressively establishing new CBBPs and, at the same time, progressively increasing the demand of rams from existing CBBPs and progressively using AI."},{"index":16,"size":4,"text":"Enabling environment (brief comments)"}]},{"head":"Lessons from pilot CBBPs","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"A crucial antecedent for being optimistic regarding out-scaling of CBBPs in Ethiopia is the successful operation of several pilot CBBPs in both, sheep and goat breeds for more than 5 years in different regions. The breeding programme and methodology has been tested and adjusted, the communication channels between stakeholders are working and positive results are already documented. Thus, a positive working environment is already in place."}]},{"head":"Stakeholders involvement","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"The Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries and its decentralized regional research centres with extension officers, enumerators, veterinarians and researchers are directly involved in all CBBPs and interested in continuing to do so. A clear communication net is already operative. Roles and responsibilities have been defined and adhered to in the pilot phases. However, detailed consultations and agreements are needed as the pilot phase moves to populationwide programs. There may be additional stakeholders involved and the roles, duties and obligations of present ones may change. This is particularly important since farmer organization and communication which develops from the implementation of CBBPs is often the starting point of other activities of common interest, for example collective purchase of supplies or collective sale of products, where other stakeholders become important."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"agreement on the importance of these other traits; otherwise there is no point in a high visual selection pressure."}]},{"head":"Identification and recording","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Identification is based on ear-tags, although other methods are being investigated (NZ chips). Web-based data Recording and Management System (DREMS) is already developed in partnership with EMBRAPA and is being used. The major challenge is the internet connection which is unreliable in most rural Ethiopia. Therefore, we are in the process of developing an offline version of DREMS. Mobile data recording is also being tested. Role of stakeholders should be clear: farmers inform enumerators when there is new birth and when they face problems, enumerator takes body weights and collects all field information; researchers calculate breeding value, farmer teams make visual assessment, etc."}]},{"head":"Genetic evaluation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"For Menz and Horro sheep, lamb weights are taken at 5-7 month of age and linearly adjusted to 6-month weights, usually correcting for birth weight. Deviations from community mean are multiplied by the heritability of this trait to get breeding values. These deviations or breeding values are comparable within CBBP not across CBBPs, unless rams are shared between CBBPs with full pedigree recording. Adjustments are made for known sources of variation like birth type and age of dam. An additional trait of interest might be the dam lifetime-reproductive performance, indirectly selecting for reduced lambing interval. In Bonga and Horro birth type information is also considered. In Bonga breeding values for weight at 3 months of age and dam performance are considered. Ideally this should be done in form of a selection index. BLUP evaluation is not necessary, unless comprehensive pedigree is available, this being the case in Bonga. Measurement of weights in females is not worthwhile as most females will be used for breeding anyway."}]},{"head":"Selection procedure","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Twice a year farmers gather for selection and distribution of males. In Menz about 40% of top ranking 6 months weight breeding values are presented to famers who select on visual traits young breeding males for replacement. For example the top 30 ranked males out of 75 are presented to farmers for selection. In Bonga about 200 male lambs are recorded, about 150 lambs are present at selection time, from these 80 are selected on breeding values, 75 are left at around 3 months of age. After this pre-selection a final visual selection is performed at 6 month of age selecting 50 for replacement and sale."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"The visual selection criteria should exclude traits already measured and include all other traits of interest to farmers. Setting the culling level to the mean, so that above average performing males can be candidates for visual selection would allow increasing somewhat the offer of males for visual selection. Although being arbitrary, this criterion is simple to understand and justify, all these males are \"improvers\" compared to their contemporaries. The criterion should be independent of flock size but may be adapted to age of the CBBP."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Recent programmes may have comparatively lower quality male lambs."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"Performance of dams shall be considered when selecting males. However, selection for more than one trait requires discussion of their relative importance and construction of selection indices or definition of independent culling levels. Traits like, colour, horn type, tail type are also considered and lambs that do not fulfil the criterion are independently culled."}]},{"head":"Inbreeding issues","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"In pedigreed CBBPs inbreeding can be avoided easily tracking common ancestor when selecting nucleus replacements. Without pedigree it is advisable not to use rams more than 2 matings in the same flock or group (within CBBP), in order to avoid sire-daughter matings. Circular mating or sire exchange between groups and even between CBBPs is also advised. However it should be noted that all CBBPs are of a reasonable size and with more than 3 new males every year which is normally sufficient for maintaining a low inbreeding rate."}]},{"head":"Certification of improver sires","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Executive persons from credible institutions should extend the certification documents in due time. Apart from paper documentation, a visible physical identification (adding a special tag or tattoo) of the certified animal is useful for identification in the field and marketing. Certification should include health status and reproductive ability, so that certified rams are guaranteed healthy, apt for reproduction and genetically above average."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"A guideline is being prepared."}]},{"head":"Dissemination","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"In Menz young breeding rams are used basically by members of the respective CBBP. If general flocks are to benefit from established CBBPs more males need to be offered and distributed to these flocks. In the Bonga region there is already an incipient market for CBBP produced males since these males are well known and appreciated in the region. In Bonga several new CBBPs were established recently and were supplied with rams from the established CBBPs. In Menz and Horro this is not the case and actions promoting and facilitating the demand need to be considered as mentioned elsewhere. A key marketing tool is for CBBPs to offer officially certified rams. In the future farmers may be prepared to pay for guaranteed rams. In CBBPs of other countries the open nucleus concept is used and base farmers acquire rams from the nucleus (CBBP) in exchange of selected replacement females."}]},{"head":"Genetic progress and economic benefit","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Genetic progress and economic benefit has been calculated (in preparation). Using the results of these studies, in the future we can make an exercise following the gene flow logic of Amer et al. (2007)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Core population statistics and parameter Parameter  Menz Bonga Horro ParameterMenzBongaHorro Total number of sheep  700,000 550,000 218,000 Total number of sheep700,000550,000218,000 Average flock size  22.0 8.5 17.4 Average flock size22.08.517.4 Total number of households  31,849 64,706 12,529 Total number of households31,84964,70612,529 Proportion of breeding females in population  0.55 0.55 0.55 Proportion of breeding females in population0.550.550.55 Total breeding females F 385,000 302,500 119,900 Total breeding femalesF385,000302,500119,900 Mating ratio (ewes/ram) mr 50 30 40 Mating ratio (ewes/ram)mr503040 Total breeding males M 7,700 10,083 2,998 Total breeding malesM7,70010,0832,998 Number of years rams are in service y 3 2 3 Number of years rams are in servicey323 Survival of rams s2 0.95 0.95 0.95 Survival of ramss20.950.950.95 Number of new rams needed yearly  2,841 5,443 1,106 Number of new rams needed yearly2,8415,4431,106  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Current statistics and parameter for average CBBPs. Parameter Menz Bonga Horro ParameterMenzBonga Horro Present number of CBBPs  5 16 2 Present number of CBBPs5162 Average number of sheep  1,877 1,906 1,100 Average number of sheep1,8771,9061,100 Average flock size  22.0 8.5 17.4 Average flock size22.08.517.4 Average number of households  85 224 63 Average number of households8522463 Proportion of breeding females in population  0.55 0.55 0.55 Proportion of breeding females in population0.550.550.55 Average number of breeding females  1,032 1,048 605 Average number of breeding females1,0321,048605 Mating ratio (females/male)  50 30 40 Mating ratio (females/male)503040 Average number of breeding males required  21 35 15 Average number of breeding males required213515 Number of years rams are in service y 3 2 3 Number of years rams are in servicey323 Survival of rams s2 0.95 0.95 0.95 Survival of ramss20.950.950.95 Average number of replacement males needed per year  8 19 6 Average number of replacement males needed per year8196 Number of male lambs at measurement per year n1 400 400 88 Number of male lambs at measurement per yearn140040088 Number of male lambs at selection per year n2 150 300 88 Number of male lambs at selection per yearn215030088 Number of male lambs selected on measurement per year n3 60 160 35 Number of male lambs selected on measurement per yearn36016035 Proportion selected on measurement psm 0.40 0.53 0.40 Proportion selected on measurementpsm0.400.530.40 Number of young rams for breeding per year n4 40 100 23 Number of young rams for breeding per yearn44010023 Proportion selected on visual traits psv 0.67 0.63 0.67 Proportion selected on visual traitspsv0.670.630.67 Strategies for up/out-scaling CBBPs    Strategies for up/out-scaling CBBPs Current CBBPs are primarily designed for improved rams to serve in own community.  Current CBBPs are primarily designed for improved rams to serve in own community. However, some additional young rams are produced and sold externally. Its number is  However, some additional young rams are produced and sold externally. Its number is however substantially less than the number required for serving the whole target sheep however substantially less than the number required for serving the whole target sheep populations of each breed. For example, in Menz 40 young rams (5CBBPsx8 replacements populations of each breed. For example, in Menz 40 young rams (5CBBPsx8 replacements per CBBP needed) are needed yearly to replace old ones in the 5 CBBPs and there are  per CBBP needed) are needed yearly to replace old ones in the 5 CBBPs and there are 5x40=200 young rams available. Yet, a total of 2841 young rams are needed for replacement 5x40=200 young rams available. Yet, a total of 2841 young rams are needed for replacement in the whole Menz target population. Only 7% of currently needed young rams are produced in the whole Menz target population. Only 7% of currently needed young rams are produced by the five Menz CBBPs (200/2841). In Bonga the gap between selected rams in the CBBPs by the five Menz CBBPs (200/2841). In Bonga the gap between selected rams in the CBBPs and population-wide required rams is proportionally much smaller (16x100=1600 young and population-wide required rams is proportionally much smaller (16x100=1600 young rams produced in CBBPs vs. 5443 young rams required for target population). On the whole rams produced in CBBPs vs. 5443 young rams required for target population). On the whole the present supply of young rams to the Menz, Bonga and Horro core populations is 7%, 29% the present supply of young rams to the Menz, Bonga and Horro core populations is 7%, 29% and 4%, respectively of the total needed. The challenge of any population wide breeding and 4%, respectively of the total needed. The challenge of any population wide breeding  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Number of CBBPs required for core populations when all potential male candidates are included in the selection program. Modelled number of males in selection process per CBBP For Bonga less than the presently operating CBBPs are needed (13 instead of 16). This is because present selection pressures are already very low (psm=0.53 and psv=0.63) and reproduction is very high. Parameter  Menz Bonga Horro ParameterMenz Bonga Horro Average nr of breeding females per CBBP  1,032 1,048 605 Average nr of breeding females per CBBP1,0321,048605 Nr of male lambs born per year n0 732 1,143 555 Nr of male lambs born per yearn07321,143555 Nr of male lambs at measurement per year n1 658 1,006 444 Nr of male lambs at measurement per yearn16581,006444 Nr of male lambs at selection per year n2 658 1,006 444 Nr of male lambs at selection per yearn26581,006444 Proportion selected on measurement psm 0.5 0.5 0.5 Proportion selected on measurementpsm0.50.50.5 Nr of male lambs selected on measurement per year n3 329 503 222 Nr of male lambs selected on measurement per yearn3329503222 Proportion selected on visual traits psv 0.9 0.9 0.9 Proportion selected on visual traitspsv0.90.90.9 Survival from measurement to breeding age (n4/n3) s1 0.95 0.92 0.9 Survival from measurement to breeding age (n4/n3)s10.950.920.9 Nr of young rams for breeding per year n4 282 416 180 Nr of young rams for breeding per yearn4282416180 Nr of CBBPs necessary to provide rams to target population 10 13 6 Nr of CBBPs necessary to provide rams to target population10136  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Number of CBBPs needed to supply core populations with required young rams, given reproduction parameters from Table3and combinations of proportions of total male lamb crop selected on measurements (psm) and proportion selected on visual traits (psv). Proportion selected on measurements (psm) Proportion selected on visual traits (psv) Menz Bonga Horro Proportion selected on measurements (psm)Proportion selected on visual traits (psv)MenzBongaHorro 0.3 0.7 22 28 13 0.30.7222813 0.3 0.8 19 25 12 0.30.8192512 0.3 0.9 17 22 10 0.30.9172210 0.5 0.7 13 17 8 0.50.713178 0.5 0.8 11 15 7 0.50.811157 0.5 0.9 10 13 6 0.50.910136 0.7 0.7 9 12 6 0.70.79126 0.7 0.8 8 11 5 0.70.88115 0.7 0.9 7 9 4 0.70.9794  "}],"sieverID":"1ee76d4a-3dd8-4702-86be-4b799bebb5d6","abstract":"CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food-secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock provides research-based solutions to help smallholder farmers, pastoralists and agropastoralists transition to sustainable, resilient livelihoods and to productive enterprises that will help feed future generations. It aims to increase the productivity of livestock agri-food systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and eggs more available and affordable across the developing world. The Program brings together five core partners: the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) with a mandate on livestock; the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), which works on forages; the International Center for Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), which works on small ruminants and dryland systems; the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) with expertise particularly in animal health and genetics and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) which connects research into development and innovation and scaling processes.The Program thanks all donors and organizations who globally supported its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04177f388cac4cb5ddc4c1b7732fd29c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/70c23593-f888-4d1e-9348-03d80932947c/retrieve"},"pageCount":50,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":".. ."}]},{"head":"•","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTRODUCCION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":255,"text":"Para las pruebas de rendimiento en la planta de fríjol (Phaseoc.w, vlLtgaJU.6 L.) se tiene en cuenta únicamente la medición de su parte reproductiva, es dccir, la semilla. los ensayos preliminares de rendimiento son como todos los otros experimentos preliminares. Mediante ellos se tiene la oportunidad de detectar las diferencias existentes entre los materiales a probar. lucgo de pasar los materiales por las pruebas preliminares, una vez seleccionados los materiales más sobresalientes, éstos son sometidos a diseños experimentales más sofisticados para obtener una mayor selectividad. los ensayos preliminares son escogidos debido a su simplicidad, por esta razón se puede manejar gran número de materiales con poca semilla y a su vez las parcelas Son relativamente pequeñas (7.2m 2 ) con tres repeticiones para obtener una mayor representatividad. Estas parcelas, por su tamaño y uniformidad, permiten un manejo más cuidadoso, un mejor mantenimiento y economía con el fin de obtener datos con una relativa y alta precisión. No obstante, Davis 1978, sostiene que el tamaño de las parcelas en pruebas de rendimiento deben tener un área de 6m 2 descartando 1 metro de cabecera y un surco al momento de la cosecha. El resultado de estos experimentos con parcelas de 7.2m 2 se expresan en. gramos/m 2 • Así pues, el objetivo en los ensayos de rendimiento no consiste en determinar el rendimiento absoluto, el cual se expresa en kg/ha, sino detectar las grandes diferencias entre ellos mismos y compararlos con los ya establecidos dentro del mismo color, hábito de crecimiento y tamaño de los granos."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"América Latina lLos totales no corresponden a la suma de las columnas, porque se excl~ yó del cuadro 1 a los países de América Latina que presentaban cifras inconsistentes."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"periores a 1.3 ton/ha. En la zona templada de América Latina (Chile y Argentina), donde el fríjol se produce principalmente en monocultivo, se consiguen rendimientos de más de 1 ton/ha. A excepción de China los rendimientos del fríjol en los principales países productores del mundo como México, Brasil e India, son sumamente bajos, porque, entre otras razones, en ellos el fríjol se siembra, casi siempre, en asociación con otros cultivos, general mente con bajos niveles de insumos (HOJAS DE FRIJOL, 1979)."}]},{"head":"BUSQUEDA DEL SITIO EXPERIMENTAL","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Como en todos los experimentos en agricultura existe la necesidad de des cartar en cuanto sea posible todos los factores predecibles e imponderables Que puedan afectar los resultados del experimento. Las pruebas preliminares de rendimiento deben llevarse a cabo muy cuidadosamente puesto que el tamaño de las parcelas es muy pequeño y debido a ésto es muy sensible a la heterogeneidad del suelo y a otros factores de las prácticas culturales. El campo ex perimental podría tener una estructura uniforme, ser fértil y plano, buen dre naje; el buen drenaje es importante; el agua de irrigación puede dar un buen desarrollo a la planta."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"La dosificación debe proporcionarse adecuadamente ya que si se aplican cantidades mayores que la requerida, puede ser desastroso. Una alta precipitación en un período corto de tiempo inundará también el campo si no hay una buena disponibilidad de canales de drenajes."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"4.1 Historia del Lote."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"Es importante conocer la historia del lote a escoger para prevenir algunas irregularidades durante el establecimiento del cultivo de frijol, El fríjol se adapta a las más variadas condiciones de suelo y clima. En Colombia, las zonas de producción de fríjol están localizadas en altitudes que van desde los 800 hasta casi los 3,000 metros. las variedades nativas que se encuentran en las menores altitudes son las de tipo arbustivo de bastante precocidad y en las tierras altas, variedades de tipo de enrame o voluble de prolongado período vegetativo."},{"index":5,"size":113,"text":"las condiciones de suelo son igualmente variadas. Pero los mejores rendimientos se han logrado en suelos de textura liviana, de buena fertilidad y subsuelos permeables. Suelos ácidos con bajo contenido de fósforo, alto contenido de aluminio y manganeso, no son convenientes para la producción de fríjol si el suelo no es enmendado antes de la siembra (Foy, 1974). Debido a los factores antes mencionados, es necesario tomar muestras de suelos y analizarlas para conocer su pH, la capacidad de intercambio catiónico (CIC), +++ ++ ++ + + ++ los cationes intercambiables tales como Al ,Ca, Mg ,K, Ua ,Mn ,y ! algunos otros elementos que son necesarios como N, P, K, B, Zn."},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"El nitrógeno puede ser estimado a partir del contenido de la materia orgánica del suelo si no se dispone de la facilidad para el análisis de estos elementos en el laboratorio. El pH puede determinarse util izando papel indicador el cual cambia de color de acuerdo con el grado de acidez o de alcalinidad de la solución del su~lo. Una información más ampl ia puede ser obtenida en 105 seminarios concernientes a suelos básicos."}]},{"head":"PREPARACION MECANICA DEL SUELO","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"En tierras mecanizables la preparación debe efectuarse acorde con las necesidades de cada suelo y su grado de infestación de malezas, pero sin provocar exceSOS por demasiado uso de maquinaria, demasiado peso de ellas, o inoportunidad de labores por condiciones de humedad altas. Cuando el terreo está muy seco o muy húmedo, puede originar formación de terrones y se ace necesario sobrecargar la labor de rastrillo. El número de rastrillaas está condicionado al tipo de suelo, malezas, etc., pero es bastante rovechoso, especialmente para el efectivo control de malas hierbas, dejar la última pasada de rastrillo para la fecha de la siembra. La labor de ivelación en lotes donde la siembra se hace con máquinas es Indispensable. as acumulaciones de humedad en el suelo afectan las plantas directamente, demás de favorecer el desarrollo de organismos responsables de pudriciones e la raíz, por esta razón es muy conveniente considerar la elaboración de anjas de drenaje que contribuyen a mantener el lote libre de encharcamientos."},{"index":2,"size":221,"text":"Por 10 general en la estación experimental hay facilidades para la reparación mecánica del suelo. Después de marcado el lote, el tractor puee ir a subsolar (si es necesario), rastrar, arar o preparar las camas para a semilla y otras labores de la labranza. Los objetivos de la preparación e 1 terreno son: 5.1. Preparar unas camas adecuadas para la semilla. 5.2. Destruir los residuos de cultivos anteriores y las malezas. 5.3. Mejorar las condiciones físicas y químicas del suelo. Subsolada: El objetivo de la subsolada es mejorar las condiciones físicas de los estratos del subsuelo para que las raTees puedan penetrar y extraer fácilmente el agua. No todos los lotes necesitan esta operación, sólamente en los lotes donde el subsuelo es compacto debido a la estructura pobre y a la formación del pie de arado. Estas condiciones se pueden observar durante los cultivos anteriores, donde se han presentado problemas de inundación y de drenaje. La subsolada mejora el desarrollo de las raíces. A mayor capacidad de penetración de las raíces mejor será el desarrollo del •cultivo y menor será el volcamiento en época de floración, la cual es crítica para la producción. Rastrada: El objetivo de la rastrada es destruir las malezas, residuos de cosechas que quedan del cultivo anterior: Sin rastrada el lote se verá sucio aunque .se are."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"Arada: El objetivo de la arada es romper y voltear el suelo a una profundidad de 15 a 60 o 75 cms. El tiempo y la velocidad de la arada es importante. Si el suelo es muy húmedo, la superficie se compacta y no se rompe el suelo. Si se labora en estas condiciones, el campo puede quedar con terrones y sería necesario hacer una aplicación de riego por aspersión preferiblemente para así ayudar a la destrucción de terrones mejorando de esta forma las condiciones del campo y la eficiencia del implemento."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"Velocidad del tractor: al arar el campo es importante tener en cuenta la velocidad del tractor. Si la velocidad es baja, el tractor sólo corta y levanta un poco la tierra, no la voltea, y la deja en la misma posición."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"•Si se hace a una velocidad más rápida, el suelo se rompe y se disgrega según el tamano de las partículas."},{"index":6,"size":130,"text":"Preparación de las camas: El objetivo de esta labor es mejorar el semillero a través de la máxima pulverización del suelo, para que la semi Ila tenga mejor contacto, En camas cuando se riega por surcos, hay mayor aprovechamiento del agua por parte de la planta. El uso del azadón rotativo es común en la granja experimental de CIAT-Palmira. El uso de este implemento no es recomendado en campo que tiene bajo contenido de materia orgánica porque éste va a destruir la estructura del suelo y como consecuencia el terreno se compacta y disminuye la capacidad de retención de agua, De acuerdo a experiencias tenidas en Quilichao y Popayán no se recomienda hacer camas en sucios con alto contenido de materia orgánica, ya que los agregados del suelo son inestables."},{"index":7,"size":38,"text":"Cultivada con herramientas superficiales: Esta labor es llevada a cabo cuando las plantas de fríjol pasan su primer estado trifoliar. Los objetivos de la cultivada son: a) Conservar el agua por medio de la ruptura capilar del suelo."},{"index":8,"size":20,"text":"b) Aumentar la capacidad de absorción del suelo. c) Reducir la pérdida de agua por escorrentía. d) Control de malezas."}]},{"head":"MATERIALES REQUERIDOS PARA EXPERIMENTOS DE CAMPO","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"los materiales podrían ser preparados con anticipación a la conducción del experimento tales como fertilizantes, preparción de semillas, herbicidas, insecticidas, fungicidas, etc."}]},{"head":"Hi lo.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"En ensayos pequeños se acostumbra demarcar la parcela con hilo, él cual puede ser cabuya o piola. Si no se posee hilo, puede utilizarse cal para marcar 1 as paree 1 as, espec i al men te en ensayos grandes, 1 uego se procede a trazarlas. Las líneas marcadas con cal permiten el paso libre del tractor."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"El hilo debe tener un grosor determinado y no ser muy elástico. Si el hilo es muy delgado, el viento 10 desvía y no permite una línea Tecta, si es muy grueso, es difícil manejarlo. Cuando se necesita trazar más de 50 metros debe util izarse un hilo más grueso, y en los extremos del hilo se colocará una es taca."}]},{"head":"Estacas.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Generalmente se utilizan estacas de guadua o de madera para demarcar las parcelas principales. Para evitar el rápido deterioro o pudrición de las estacas, se sumerjen en un recipiente que contenga aceite quemado. El extremo de la estaca de madera se puede amarrar con alambre para evitar que se rajen. Después de la cultivada y con previo mapa de siembra se identifican las subparcelas con estaquillas plásticas colocadas sobre alambre dulce cal ibre 12. Esta estaca llevará el número de la subparcela y la identificación de cada material."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Procedimiento para marcar las parcelas: Si el campo es plano y los surcos son uniformes, no hay problema en la demarcación del lote. La demarcación de 105 lotes será difícil si el terreno es irregular. En este caso se procede a medir el lado más largo del lote y a estacarlo. Esta línea servirá como base para toda la medición."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Medir un ángulo recto."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Hay dos formas para obtener un ángulo recto en el campo:"},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"1. Por el método de raíz cuadrada (Teorema de Pitágoras)."}]},{"head":"Utilizando el método de prisma angular.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Este invento manual es muy útil porque agiliza la medición en el campo."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Estos conceptos se ampliarán durante las horas prácticas del curso."}]},{"head":"FERTILIZACION","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"El fríjol como cualquier otro cultivo leguminoso requiere un suelo relativamente fértil para el buen desarrollo de la planta. Suelos muy ácidos o muy alcalinos no son adecuados para la producción de fríjol. 10 El fríjol necesita más calcio que otros cultivos, y también es muy sensible a AI+++ y Mn++ iones en la solución del suelo. El fósforo es otro factor limitante en muchas zonas productoras de fríjol en Latinoamérica."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Los suelos de la parte central del Valle SOn generalmente muy fértiles y por eso no se debe esperar mayor respuesta a los fertilizantes, aunque la val idez de esta afirmación está sujeta a la condición de la buena programación de las rotaciones. En los suelos de condiciones de fertilidad inferior, debe esperarse respuesta a ferti 1 ización con 100 a 300 kg/ha de formulaciones tales como 10-30-10,0-20-10, 5-20-20 aplicados en banda lateral al surco en el momento de la siembra, sin exponer la semilla al contacto directo, ya que es muy sensible a daños por este concepto. (Orozco, 1974)."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"En la mayoría de los suelos de las cordilleras colombianas, de climas cafetero y frío, cuando se hace siembra de fríjol, se debe esperar respuesta a Nitrógeno y Fósforo, especialmente este último. Estos suelos son en su mayoría ácidos y por esta condición debe considerarse la enmienda a base de cal al establecer los cultivos que suelen usar en la rotación del fríjol."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"Las aplicaciones de fertilizantes que se hacen a los cultivos de uso normal en las rotaciones con fríjol, tienden a manifestar incrementos en los rendimientos de éste."},{"index":5,"size":224,"text":"Se pueden presentar deficiencias de algunos el ementos en las condiciones extremas de acidez o alcalinidad, tales como Magnesl~, Zinc, Boro, Manganeso, Cobre y Hierro. Cuando se presentan deficiencias reconocibles en suelos alcalinos, de los dos primeros especialmente, ellos pueden supl irse en aspersiones durante el crecimiento del fríjol en nivel de 5 kg/ha ,para el primero y 3 kg/ha para el segundo en 100 galones de agua, previa neutralización. Para aplicaciones sin neutralizar se preparan soluciones en 00 galones de agua, con tres 1 ibras de sulfato de magnes io y N, P Y K aboco l tri pIe 14: N, P y K Para la producción del fríjol en suelos relativamente ácidos y con bajo contenido de azufre es recomendable el superfosfato simple porque se suminis-trará en pequeñas cantidades los elementos Ca y S. En los suelos con alta capacidad de fijación reduce la disponibilidad de P más que los fertilizantes fosfatados no solubles en agua. Mientras que las plantas de fríjol necesitan un continuo suministro de P a lo largo de todos su período vegetativo (Haag, 1967), una combinación de fertilizantes solubles y no solubles podría ser la mejor fuente de P. Altas apl icaciones de fertilizantes fosfatados inducen deficiencia de ln (Lessman, 1972)  Abono verde, orgánico y molch: Los beneficios que se derivan de usar este tipo de abono son:"},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"Mejorar la estructura del suelo promover los procesos microbiales en el suelo dar aireación y mayor capacidad de retención de agua al suelo."},{"index":7,"size":166,"text":"Por otra parte, los abonos verdes suministran a la planta pequeñas cantidades de K y trazas de otros elementos menores. Las sustancias orgánicas de estos abonos tienen muy bajo contenido de nitrógeno y altos contenidos de C, de esta forma, la relación e/N es importante para juzgar estas cualidades. Una alta relación e/N por ejemplo el tamo de arroz puede aumentar temporalmente una deficiencia de N en las plantas y como consecuencia una reducción en el rendimiento. Los microorganismos requieren ciertas cantidades de N para descomponer la materia orgánica en el suelo y si este elemento no está presente en cantidades adecuadas en la materia orgánica ellos sacan nitrógeno del suelo. Los microorganismos requieren nitrógeno para la formación de las sustancias de su cuerpo (aminoácidos). Es solamente después de la descomposición de los microorganismos que el N libre es fijado temporalmente. Si se utiliza materia orgánica con bajo contenido en N orgánico, se deben emplear dosis altas para evitar las deficiencias de N en las plantas."},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"2.:..3. "}]},{"head":"B.3. El Molch (Cultivo de Cobertura).","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Por molch debe entenderse la cobertura al suelo con residuos de cosechas tales como paja, hierba, etc. para protejer el suelo de la acción directa de los rayos del sol, de las precipitaciones fuertes, y de esta forma prevenir la pérdida de la estructura del suelo y la evaporación. Sin dejar de desconocer algunas desventajas de los cultivos de cobertura tales como la competencia con el cultivo principal por agua y nutrientes. Experimentos realizados en el CIAT demuestran que los cultivos de cobertura mejoran al suelo la capacidad de retención de agua, menos malezas y evita el endurecimiento de la superficie del suelo. (Voysest, comunicación personal)."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":".4. Sistemas y Epocas de Ap.l icación de Fertil izantes en Fríjol."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Existen 4 métodos estandard para la apl icación de .105 ferti 1 izantes sól idos."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"Al voleo: Este sistema es utilizado cuando el cultivo a plantar es de mucha dens i dad. No es ef i caz s i el cu 1 t ivo es semb rada en surcos con amp 1i as calles debido a la competencia de las malezas y la volatilización del fertilizante. En el caso de los fertilizantes fosforados y suelos con alta capacidad de fijación se reducirá la disponibilidad del P. El tamaño de los granos se mide a partir del peso de 100 gramos."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"Pequeño si 100 semillas pesan menos de 25 gms."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"Mediano si el peso de 100 granos está entre 25 y 40 gms."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"Grande si el peso de 100 semillas es mayor de 40 gms."},{"index":8,"size":31,"text":"Con esta separación en subgrupos se podría evitar el excesivo tamaño porque se comparan subg'rupos de mater i al es de mejorami ento con subgrupos standard respectivamente. Estos son analizados estadfsticamente."}]},{"head":"Calidad de Semilla.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Aunque el fríjol no tiene latencia (Dormancy) de semilla se necesita una buena cal idad para obtener viabilidad, germinación y vigor uniformes de la planta. La semilla arrugada, de color mareado y de menor tamaño que el normal no se desarrolla bien por 10 tanto hay que descartarla. La tasa de germinación normalmente es muy alta en Pha~eoLu~ vu1g~ L. pero si la semilla tiene mucho tiempo de almacenada y condiciones climáticas desfavorables hay que efectuar prueba de germinación. Para esta prueba es suficiente 4 replicaciones con 25 semillas cada una. Para mayor seguridad en este tipo de ensayos se recomienda sembrar la densidad recomendada más el 50%."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"8.4. Tratamiento de la Semilla."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"Una labor fundamental antes de la siembra consiste en el tratamiento de la semilla con insecticidas y fungicidas para el control de plagas y enfermedades, según los productos y recomendaciones que se encuentran en el mercado."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Es de gran importancia esta recomendación ya que el futuro de el ensayo depende de la germinación."}]},{"head":"SIEMBRA","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Los sistemas de siembra del fríjol son diferentes de acuerdo a las faci-l¡dades con que se cuente."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"En el CIAT es frecuente la práctica de sembrar en camas (de 60 cms) que han sido preparadas mecánicamente.* En ciertas zonas marginales donde la tierra no es mecanizable a chuzo o con la ayuda de azadones rayadores."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"9.1. Epoca de Siembra."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"Ha5ta donde 5ea p05ible la mejor época de siembra es el primer semestre del año por ser el semestre con condiciones agrocl imáticas más favorables. Si la siembra se efectúa fuera de la época principal se tendrán problemas de ataque de plagas, disponibilidad de riegos y dificultad para la ejecución de prácticas culturales. 9.2. Sistemas de Siembra."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"Hasta el momento la siembra de Materiales en la granja experin~ntal CIAT en alto porcentaje se realiza mecánicamente, ya que se cuenta con una máquina especial que trabaja con poca cantidad de semilla, que no la tritura y que además deposita la semilla con la precisión de las distancias de siembra que los experimentos requieren. En ensayos pequeños y con materiales volubles la siembra se realiza roturando el suelo con azadones rayadores a una produndidad dada, y con la ayuda de reglas graduadas se deposita la semilla en el surco o en el sitio."},{"index":6,"size":88,"text":"Viera et al (1972) sugiere que un~ profundidad de siembra adecuada oscila entre 5 -10 cms. dependiendo de ciertos criterios agroclimáticos. A profundidades menores de 5 cms la semilla se deshidrata y no germina. A profundidades mayores de 10 cms la energía de la semilla no es suficiente para romper el suelo y emerger. Estas contradicciones se deben a que se utilizan materiales de fríjol con distintos hábitos de crecimiento y diferentes fertilidades del suelo. CIAl (1976) comprobó que en suelos fértiles cada. hábito tiene su población óptima."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"Hábitos 1 y 11, 240,000 plantas/ha; hábitos 111 Y IV, 120,000 plantas/ha."},{"index":8,"size":21,"text":"En ensayos preliminares de rendimiento se siembra con una densidad mayor para posteriormente ralear y así obtener la población final requerida."}]},{"head":"RIEGO","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"La facilidad de riego es necesaria para poder lograr un buen éxito en los ensayos. El agua de riego se mide en términos de mm; esto significa que un litro de agua riega una superficie de 1 m 2 • La falta de agua reduce los rendimietnos del fríjol; el número de vainas por planta, el numero de granos por vaina y el peso del grano sufren mermas notorias al presentarse sequías en períodos críticos tales como floración, formación de granos y maduración de los mismos. Es importante desde luego una adecuada humedad para la germinación, lluvias suficientes y bien distribuidas en la etapa de crecimiento para que al ciclo reproductivo llegue la planta con un suficiente desarrollo para soportar una carga adecuada."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"los rendimientos se afectan por reducción de vainas si la sequía ha ocurrido en la floración, reducción de vainas y granos si en la formación de granos y reducción del peso de granos, si el período de sequía se ha presentado•antes de que la planta alcance completa madurez fisiológica. Debe anotarse, sin embargo, que por exceso de agua durante la floración, también se afectan los rendimientos."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"'Cuando no se dispone de riego, se ha observado que los mejores rendiientos se obtienen cuando la precipitación ha estado cercana a los 400 mm bien distribuídos. la distribución que podría acercarse a las demandas de agua de los fríjoles arbustivos de período vegetativo de 90 días aproximada- En casi todas las zonas de producción de fríjol en cultivo mecanizado, los semestres secos son muy frecuentes y en general afectan los rendimientos en forma considerable cuando las lluvias no son suficientes."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"Cuando se hacen riegos con equipos de rociadores, no es difícil determinar la cantidad de agua que se está aplicando por hora, colocando recipientes de diámetro de entrada reconocido, en caso de que los manuales de fabricante no lo indiquen. Si el riego es corrido en un suelo de permeabilidad aceptable (franco, franco-arcillosos) y pendiente suave (O,5Z o menores) se puede estimar en 60 mm aproximadamente la cantidad aplicada."},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"10.1. Sistemas de Riego."},{"index":6,"size":71,"text":"-Riego por aspersión: Normalmente este tipo de riego es recomendado para la germinación, porque en el riego por gravedad normalmente es muy difícil niantener el agua sin hacer compactación. las fallas de este tipo de riego son: altas pérdidas por evaporación y su distribución muy inconsistente ya que depende del viento. Este riego en CIAT-Palmira sólo se emplea en casos especiales. Su uso es permantente en la subestación de Quil ichao."},{"index":7,"size":79,"text":"-Riego por gravedad: El riego por gravedad a través de los surcos es común en la granja experimental del CIAT. Para este riego se recomienda preferir varios riegos con pequeñas cantidades de agua que un reigo con mucha cantidad de agua debido a que el daño por este tipo de riego es desastroso. Una inundación de más de tres horas dañará un cultivo de fríjol y bajaría el rendimiento más del 30%. Si hay inundación hay que desaguar inmediatamente."},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"Exceso de agua induce volcamiento de la planta."},{"index":9,"size":5,"text":"10.2. Epoca Critica para Riego."},{"index":10,"size":30,"text":"La planta de fríjol necesita agua en la época de 10 días antes de floración y durante el llenado de vainas, o sea 10 días después de floración, (Kriegboum 1955)."},{"index":11,"size":25,"text":"Frohl ich et al (1971) obtuvo un aumento de rendimietno de 50 kg/ha por cada mm de agua que se aplicó antes de la floración."}]},{"head":"ROTACIONES","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Las siembras continuas de fríjol en el mismo lote son perjudiciales porque además de originar desequilibrios en los nutrientes del suelo, favorecen la multiplicación de organismos nocivos al cultivo por 10 cual pueden presentarse ataques severos de plagas y enfermedades. Malezas de la familia de las Malvaceae: Sida aceda Burm. f. y S-wa h-homb¿óo.t{¡¡ 1. tamb i én sirven como huespedes de vi rus."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Como las condiciones y grados de infectación de malezas varían de una zona a otra y aún de un lote a otro dentro de una misma finca, conviene establecer en dónde es indispensable y económico el uso de herbicidas para la siembra de fríjol."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"1."}]},{"head":"25","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"En algunas regiones productoras de fríjol la temporada de lluvias se prolonga en las primeras semanas después de la siembra, no permitiendo ninguna labor mecánica ni manual dentro del lote; en estas condiciones el uso de matamalezas eS indispensable."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"2. Donde la mano de obra es escasa o puede representar costos elevados; por lo cual no es posible efectuar desyerbas en los surcos."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"3. lotes altamente infestados con malezas tales como coquito, bledo, batatilla, paja mona o de características parecidas y que por su gran capacidad de crecimiento puede invadir rápidamente antes de que el fríjol complete siquiera la germinación."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"4. Zonas en donde la maquinaria agrícola es escasa y las labores que ellas efectúan son muy caras."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"12.1.1 Control de malezas: Hay tres métodos para controlar malezas en el campo."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"12.1.2. Prácticas culturales: Uno de los métodos para controlar la competencia de malezas es lograr una alta población de plantas de crecimiento vigoroso. En suelos marginales en donde el crecimiento de las plantas no es tan vigoroso, es recomendable una alta densidad la cual se logra reduciendo las distancias entre surcos."},{"index":7,"size":39,"text":"Otra buena práctica cultural en el control de malezas es la rotaci6n de cultivos porque si no se rota, es decir que se siembran dos cosechas seguidas de fríjol, la competencia de malezas agresivas va a ser más fuerte."},{"index":8,"size":48,"text":"12.1.3. Deshierba mecánica: Esta labor se realiza con implementos especialmente adaptados al tractor o con herramientas de mano. Este trabajo tiene como efecto cortar y sacar las malezas del cultivo. El control de malezas es lo mejor si el costo de mano de obra no supera los límites."},{"index":9,"size":27,"text":"la deshierba mecánica también rompe los capilares del suelo dando como resultado reducir la evaporaci6n; las malezas una vez cortadas se pueden incorporar y servir de compost."},{"index":10,"size":36,"text":"12.1.4. Control químico de malezas: El método químico es un método muy común en los cultivos cerrados; por ejemplo en trigo o arroz en donde se hace imposible por falta de espacio otro tipo de control."},{"index":11,"size":20,"text":"La tecnología moderna en los últimos años ha• desarrollado otros productos químicos (herbicidas) muy efecti'vos para el control de malezas."},{"index":12,"size":21,"text":"Estos herbicidas son efectivos en su control. Esto quiere decir que unos controlan malezas de hoja ancha y otros controlan gramíneas."},{"index":13,"size":12,"text":"La mezcla de estos productos resulta muy efectiva por las siguientes ventajas:"},{"index":14,"size":5,"text":"Se logra un buen efecto."},{"index":15,"size":23,"text":"La dosis de cada uno de los herbicidas que forman la mezcla se puede reducir hasta la mitad por su efecto de sinergismo."},{"index":16,"size":9,"text":"El uso de mezcla de herbicida reduce los costos."},{"index":17,"size":26,"text":"La eficiencia de los herbicidas depende de varios factores, tales como condiciones del suelo, efectos de temperatura, disponibil idad de agua y dosis de apl icaci6n."},{"index":18,"size":79,"text":"En el cultivo de fríjol se puede notar efectos de residualidad de her- En Colombia se han registrado la mayoría de los organismos que caUSan enfermedades al fríjol, pero no todas ellas tienen importancia económica actual y. la diversidad de ambientes en que el fríjol se siembra, hace que ellas Sean distintas de una región a otra, pudiéndose asimilar a grupos c1 imáticos, aunque también pueden presentarse diferencias aún de un semestre a otro dentro de una misma región."},{"index":19,"size":48,"text":"La investigación en el control de las enfermedades por medios genéticos, ha alcanzado grandes resultados en nuestra medio con la obtención de variedades mejoradas que poseen grados de resistencia a la mayoría de las enfermedades comunes, dentro del medio para la cual se recomienda cada una de ellas."},{"index":20,"size":62,"text":"Sin embargo, debe anotarse que para algunas de ellas no se conocen grados de resistencia confiables y que los patógenos tienen gran habilidad para lograr . formas capaces de producir parasitismos (razas e n y la corteza se ve invadida de micelio de color blanco que err~rge del n vel del suelo en forma de abanico que pronto es intercalado eon esclerosis."},{"index":21,"size":38,"text":"E tre las pudriciones radiculares ésta es la que con mayor frecuencia causa r ducciones en las poblaciones de los cultivos comerciales del Valle del Cauca y se ve favorecida por épocas de mala distribución de aguas lluvias."},{"index":22,"size":82,"text":"Fw.atúaó,ú: Causada por Fw.a/!..Í.Wn -6o.l'.ani.; sus pr imeros s íntomas son: coloraciones ligeramente rojizas de la raíz principal avanzando gradualmente hasta llegar casi a la superficie del suelo. Las raíces secundarias se desprenden y es muy frecuente que la formación de los granos sea imperfecta y en muchos casos se presentan vaneamientos casi totales. El hongo es capaz de sobrevivir en los desechos de cosechas anteriores por ser saprófito y sus conidios pueden ser fácilmente transportados en la cutícula de la semilla."},{"index":23,"size":51,"text":"Mancha Angu1aJt: Es causada por I~atúOI),6,ú gJÚ6 e.o.l'.a Sacc. or i g i na 1 es iones en el follaje principalmente, aunque también infecta tallos, vainas y aún granos. Las lesiones en la hoja son de color pardo y la del imitación por parte de la nervadura le da forma angular."},{"index":24,"size":23,"text":"La distribución del patógeno la hace el viento, las lluevias, las máquinas y hombres; se ha comprobado parcialmente, la transmisión por la semilla."},{"index":25,"size":42,"text":"Es posible que el control químico con productos tales como caldo Bordelés (4-4-50) y otros fungistáticos, sea efectivo, pero dada la frecuencia con que éstos deben ser aplicados, su uso es antieconómico, por 10 cual es necesario el uso de variedades resistentes."},{"index":26,"size":27,"text":"bacteristáticos de uso general. Otras experiencias indican que apl icaciones de algunos productos a base de cobre, antes de que se presenten síntomas, evitan los ataques severos."},{"index":27,"size":77,"text":"Roya: Producida por UnomycC6 pluLóeoU varo ty¡:Úea Arth. Es una enfermedad que ataca hojas, vainas y algunas veces tallos tiernos. Aunque la infección inical se presenta en ambas caras de la hoja, los síntomas aparecen primero en el envés. La primera evidencia son manchas diminutas, casi blancas y 1 igeramcnte levantadas. Estas manchas después de 8 días de crecimiento rompen la epidermis y exponen los uredos o cuerp.os fructíferos para expulsar las esporas que originaron nuevas lesiones."},{"index":28,"size":60,"text":"Algunas malezas comunes parecen ser las responsables de la supervivencia del patógeno entre un semestre y otro, en nuestro medio, haciendo el papel de nodrizas y originando el inóculo primario. El aumento de inóculo ocurre dentro del mismo cultivo por la acción de insectos, máquinas, obreros, vientos, etc. y de un cultivo a otro; éste último es el principal responsable."},{"index":29,"size":12,"text":"El uso de azufre mojable en control químico, alcanza a hacer buen."},{"index":30,"size":34,"text":"efecto, especialmente cuando se le utiliza en tratamiento preventivo y en algunos casos se ha observado que alcanza a destruir las pústulas presentes. También ha dado resultados efectivos de control el Dithane M45, el"},{"index":31,"size":5,"text":"Manzate O y el Plant-Vax."},{"index":32,"size":86,"text":"O~d¿o O Ceniza: Enfermedad causada por el hongo Eny~~phe pcUgoluC O.C., cuya forma imperfecta es el O~cüwn bwamü Mart. y que origina síntomas semejantes en otras especies de cultivos tales como arveja, caupí, soya, tomate, y otros. La enfermedad ataca todos los órganos aéreos de la planta, pero es particularmente notable en la cara superior de las hojas en donde el hongo muestra un crecimiento blanquecino y polvoroso que se inicia por manchas aisladas, más o menos circulares, las que después se extienden y unen cubrien-"},{"index":33,"size":27,"text":"do toda la superficie fol ial'; en ataques avanzados se prese.nta defol iación y muerte de la planta. Las vainas afectadas se quedan pequeñas y retorcidas ."},{"index":34,"size":37,"text":"Para el control es efectivo el azufre en las formas mojables yen dosis de 2 a l¡ kilos por hectárea de acuerdo a la recomendación específica de la forma comercial y dependiendo de la edad del cultivo."},{"index":35,"size":1,"text":"Moó~~o:"},{"index":36,"size":64,"text":"Causado por un virus, los síntomas van desde moteados típicos hasta enanificación y deformación de las hojas variando con la edad, la reacción a la enfermedad y las condiciones de crecimiento del cultivo. Las altas temperaturas favorecen la expresión de los síntomas y una baja temperatura tiende a enmascararlos. Las vainas generalmente son de menor tamaño y los granos mal formados, arrugados y pequeños."},{"index":37,"size":20,"text":"Se transmite por semilla; también son responsables de la distribución de la enfermedad los insectos chupadores (EmpoCl.6~a., Apw, Póeudococ.ct.L6, etc.)."},{"index":38,"size":27,"text":"Como medidas de control pueden considerarse: uso de variedades resistentes, uso de semilla libre del patógeno eliminación de todas las plantas que exhiben síntomas dentro del cultivo."},{"index":39,"size":74,"text":"Mancha de! CeJl~oópoJ¡a.: Causado por CeJl~MpOJta. ~a.nUceM E 11. Y Ma rt., se ha cOl1siderado una enfermedad endémica en el Valle del Cauca y la importancia de su ataque varía de acuerdo con las condiciones ambientales reinantes en 1 semestre. Períodos húmedos más o menos prolongados seguidos de otros secos y cal ientes, favorecen el desarrollo de la enfermedad. Las lesiones tienen forma y tamaño variables, color café con centro gris y bordes rojizos."},{"index":40,"size":9,"text":"EócleJlo.túu.o¿.-U: Es produci da por ScleJtot.w;,a óc.f.eJlo'¿¿o/tiffit (Lib.) Dby."},{"index":41,"size":45,"text":"Estu enfermedad parece endémica en la Sabana de Bogotá y frecuentemente origina pudriciones de plantas en el estado de plántulas principalmente. Es especialmente favorecida por elevada humedad, por 10 cual es conveniente cualquier método que reduzca la cantidad de agua en la supedicie del suelo."},{"index":42,"size":15,"text":"La limpieza del cultivo también tiende a reducir las posibilidades de progreso de esta enfermedad."},{"index":43,"size":83,"text":"An:Uta.enO!.>.v..: Esta enfermedad es transmisible por semillas y ocas iona severos daños en los cultivos de fríjol de los climas medio y frío. La infección puede ocurrir en cualquier parte aérea de la planta y en cualquier etapa de desarrollo, pero alcanza los mayores daños en las vainas, en la etapa de formación de granos. Las lesiones localizadas hacia el centro de ellas de colores salmón o rosado. En los tallos las lesiones pueden ser severas ocasionando roturas y caída de las plantas."},{"index":44,"size":43,"text":"Debido a la severidad de la enfermedad, debe tenerse en consideración todos los medios de prevención posibles tales como variedades resistentes, uso de semillas libres de la enfermedad, rotación de cultivos y evitar labores cuando las plantas están húmedas. ) Chupadores del Follaje:"},{"index":45,"size":3,"text":"Svueotlvrip!.l s p."},{"index":46,"size":3,"text":"NezcV!a vV!-i.dula L."},{"index":47,"size":5,"text":") Perforadores de las Vainas:"},{"index":48,"size":2,"text":"HeUotlt~ zeaBod"}]},{"head":"H eUoth{-6 v~eó eeM","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"EplteóUa eaute.e.ea Walk ) Minadores de la Hoja:"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"AgMmljza sp."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"L{JUOInljza l1lunda F r i ck f) Granos Almacenados:"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Z ab!toteó !.lubáMUa:tUJ Bob Aean.tltouefJdeó spp."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"CaUoóob~uell1JÁ maeutatlL6 F."}]},{"head":"33","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"En los cultivos de tierra fría, los problemas de plagas son menores, pero en algunos casos pueden presentarse daños por el Toót6n y esporádica-mente alguna de las plagas mencionadas anteriormente."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Entre los factores de mayor importancia en la prevención de infestaciones de plagas, debe considerarse como principal la limpieza de malezas tanto del cultivo como de sus alrededores."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Para lograr oportunidad en las aplicaciones .de insecticidas y estar seguros de su justificación en términos económicos eS necesaria la revisión periódica del cultivo y establecer qué especies y en qué estados se hallan presentes y con esa base seleccionar las formulaciones adecuadas. En fríjol generalmente se hacen apl icaciones para controlar más de una plaga presente y por ello se debe tratar de seleccionar formulaciones con amplio rango de control, buscando con ello resultados positivos y economía."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Las fórmulas que se dan a continuación, dan buenos resultados en el combate de plagas del fríjol y acompañando a cada una de ellas se mencionan las plagas en las cuáles alcanza su mayor efecto. El cálculo de volumen se hizo para equipos de aspersión terrestres.  '."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"6."}]},{"head":"35","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"EPN (1 1/2 1 itros/ha.), Metafen más Metyl Parathión; un galón de uno, culaquiera de los dos primeros, y 800 cc del seguno en '100 galones de agua para una hectárea. Esta fórmula se recomienda para control de HeJ.Io.thú v-Í/te.lc.en6. En algunos casos, depend i endo de 1 es tado de 1 daño y de la larva, conviene reemplazar el Metyl Parathión por Diclorovinol-fosfato (DDVP) en proporción.de 0.2% en la solución que se asperja."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"7. Para mantenimiento de granos almacenados:"},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"a} 120 gramos de una mezcla de -.85% de butóxido Piperonilo con 0.05% de Piretrinas, por cada bulto de 62.5 kilos de fríjol. Nombre comereial \"Pirenone ll , b) 60 gramos de Malathión de 0.8% por bulto de 62.5 kilogramos."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"c} Asperción de Malathión en solución del 1%, con una boquilla rociadora fina, en el momento de hacer la empacada del grano."}]},{"head":"DEFICIENCIA Y TOXICIDAD","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"La deficiencia y la toxicidad se pueden detectar observando la parte área especialmente las hojas, aunque a veces es necesario arrancar la planta por las raíces y poder así identificar las causas de la anormalidad. Es necesario tener un buen conocimiento de la planta de fríjol antes de identificar la deficiencia o la toxicidad."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Es necesario tener muy en cuenta la movilidad de los elementos nutrientes en la planta y la posición de las hojas afectadas, porque esto puede servir para ayudar a identificar la deficiencia."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"En general hay tres grupos de elementos nutrientes. Según su movilidad en la planta: Los síntomas de deficiencias se manifiestan en las hojas de la parte superior."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"Las deficiencias de Boro ocurren generalmente en fríjol siendo más o menos tolerantes los de semillas de color negro y los rojos. Por ejemplo N.P.S. Estos elementos están muy relacionados con el proceso metaból ico y se usan como materia básica tal como N para proteína, P para ácido nucleíco y S para sisteina. Si el proceso se conserva como materia almacenada. Estos elementos que aún se fijan como constituyentes de la célula todavía se pueden tras locar a la parte superior."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Los síntomas aparecen casi igual en las hojas viejas y en las nuevas."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"De vez en cuando hay diferencia de severidad en las hojas nu~vas y en las viejas pero esta diferencia no es tan marcada como en los elementos inmóvil es."},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"Síntomas de las deficiencias de los elementos mayores y menores que se presentan regularmente en el cultivo del fríjol."},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"Deficiencia de N: Ocurre comúnmente en suelos arenosos y en suelos muy ácidos."},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"Síntomas: Color de hojas: verde pál ido, en ocasiones amarillo unifrme."},{"index":10,"size":44,"text":"Plantas en general: Poco desarrollo y bajo rendimiento. Deficiencia en contenido de N en hojas en época inicial de floración <3-5%. -Deficien de fósforo: Ocurre en casi toda la zona de producción de fríjol Latina en suelos con pH bajo por ejemplo:oxisol, ultisol yandosol."},{"index":11,"size":24,"text":"Color de las hojas: las hojas bajas pueden ser amarillas con borcoso Plantas en general: Pequeñas, poca ramificación. Deficienenido de P en hojas: <0.2-0.4%"},{"index":12,"size":20,"text":"Es componente de las nucleoproteínas, ácidos nucleícos (DNA, lipidOS, azúcares fosfatados y todas las enzimas involucradas en te de energía."},{"index":13,"size":54,"text":"ipa en todos los procesos de fosforilación, fotosíntesis, respiesis y descomposición de carbohidratos, proteínas y grasas y afec• miento radicular, el proceso de floración y la maduración de las de K: Ocurre en suelos ácidos y en suelos muy infértiles. No as cordilleras andinas y en suelos volcánicos que en general tientenido de K."},{"index":14,"size":27,"text":"Color de las hojas: Amarillento y necrosis de la punta y de los as hojas, comenzando en la parte inferior de la planta y subiendo rte superior."},{"index":15,"size":16,"text":"a en general: No es tan pequeña como la planta con deficiencia Tiene color verde oscuro."},{"index":16,"size":10,"text":"cia en el contenido de K en las hojas <2%."}]},{"head":"Importancia pero sí est otros proce","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"No es componente básico en las proteínas ni en los carbohidratos, á involucrado en su metabolismo, en la economía hidríca y en algunos 505 fisiológicos de la planta."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"'Deficiencia de Calcio: Ocurre no comúnmente pero en suelos ácidos con alta toxicidad al Al y Mn. Sus síntomas se pueden confundir fácilmente con to-' ."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• xicidad al Al y Mn. El fríjol necesita alto Ca para su buen desarrollo."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"S��ntomas: Color de las hojas: un poco amarillo uniforme en el ápice y bor--."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"de. Las hojas presentan enroscamiento y su sistema radical es muy pobre."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"Planta en general: Pequeña. Deficiencia del contenido de Ca en las hojas < 2%."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"Importancia: Material para formación de hojas, vainas y tallos."},{"index":8,"size":27,"text":"Deficiencia de Magnesio: Ocurre en suelos ácidos de baja saturación de bases (oxisoles y ultisoles) y en suelos volcánicos con alto K y Ca pero bajo Mg."},{"index":9,"size":44,"text":"Síntomas: Color de las hojas: Las hojas inferiores de las plantas tienen una clororsis intervenal. En estado avanzado toda la hoja toma el color amarillo uniforme con manchas necróticas. Planta en general: casi normal. Deficiencia de contenido de Mg en las Hojas: < 0.22-0.30%."},{"index":10,"size":15,"text":", Importancia: Componente esencial de la clorofila. Involucrado en los procesos hídricos de la planta."},{"index":11,"size":31,"text":"Toxicidad de Al. Ocurre en suelos ácidos con baja saturación de bases y está muy relacionado con la deficiencia de Ca y Mg. También en suelos volcánicos como en Popayán, Colombia."},{"index":12,"size":34,"text":"Síntomas: El fríjol es muy susceptible a la toxicidad al Al y Mn, color de hojas: Amarillo con necrosis que empieza en el borde de la hoja pero que pronto afecta toda la hoja."},{"index":13,"size":9,"text":"Las plantas en General: Tienen poco crecimiento. Sistema Radicular:"},{"index":14,"size":7,"text":"La raíz principal no presenta buen desarrollo."},{"index":15,"size":32,"text":"Toxicidad: La toxicidad de ciertos elementos ocurre en suelos marginales de producción. En fríjol por ejemplo, en suelos ácidos con pH menos de 5, se econtrará mucha toxicidad por Al y/o Mn."},{"index":16,"size":3,"text":"\"\" , ,"},{"index":17,"size":1,"text":".\""},{"index":18,"size":41,"text":"39 En suelos con pH mayor de 7.8 se presenta toxicidad por Na. Cuando se trata de corregir una deficiencia de B mediante la aplicación de Borax, y no se hace una buena distribución de éste, se obtiene toxicidad por Boto."},{"index":19,"size":37,"text":"Los síntomas de esta toxicidad se manifiestan con quemazón en la parte meristemática de las hojas. En la toxicidad por Al la planta presenta mal desarrollo especialmente la raíz princiapl y el sistema radicular en general (FoyetaI1978)."},{"index":20,"size":24,"text":"La toxicidad de Mn se manifiesta en la parte aérea de la planta y los síntomas son tan marcados como la toxicidad por Al."},{"index":21,"size":6,"text":"Toxicidad de Mn: Ocurre como Al."},{"index":22,"size":25,"text":"Síntomas: Color de las hojas: Clorosis intervenal en las hojas nuevas. Si es muy grave hay una deformación y encrespamiento de las hojas del cogollo."},{"index":23,"size":8,"text":"Contenido de Mn en hojas: > 1000 ppm."},{"index":24,"size":22,"text":"Deficiencia de Azufre: Ocurre no muy comúnmente pero sí en suelo muy pobre como los Llanos Orientales y Campo Central del Brasil."},{"index":25,"size":12,"text":"Síntomas: El color de las hojas es amarillo uniforme en hojas cogolleras."},{"index":26,"size":21,"text":"Importanc i a: Azufre es componente esencial de varios aminoácidos y por esto es importante para la síntesis de las proteínas."}]},{"head":"COSECHA","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"El fríjol antes de iniciar su secado o en estado de sazón, tiene gran demanda para consumo humano en el mercado colombiano. Los mayoristas 10 mercadean en varna y por bultos y los minoristas lo detallan desgranado y en una medida volumétrica que aproximadamente corresponde a una libra de peso."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Algunas variedades se mercadean como vainita verde (habichuela) si ellas tienen la característica de ausencia de fribra o muy poca, condición que la hace tierna, quebradiza y de fácil cocción. Desde luego estas dos formas 1. Limpiar cuidndosamente la bodega y el equipo antes de la cosecha."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"2. Quemar todas las basuras o retirarlas a la mayor distancia posible."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":".."}]},{"head":"•","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Rociar toda la bodega y el equipo para cosecha y desgrane con una solución de cualquiera de las siguientes fórmulas: al 10 cms cúbicos de Malatión Grado Premio, del 50% emulsionable, disuelto en un litro de agua."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"bl 10 cms cúbicos de mezcla de 50% de butóxido de piperoni lo con 5% de piretrinas, disueltos en un litro de agua."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"Otras concentraciones se encuentran en el comercio y se deben usar de acuerdo con las instrucciones de la fábrica. Estas mezclas se conocen en el comercio con el nombre de \"Pyrenone\". Para apl icar el insecticida se usa un asperjador de mano o una máquina asperjadora pequeña de motor. El insecticida debe cubrir todas las paredes de la bodega y penetrar en todos los huecos, donde los gorgojos pueden esconderse. al 120 gms de una mezcla de 0.85% de butóxido de piperonilo con 0.05% de piretrinas, por cada bulto de 62.5 kilos de fríjol."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"bl 60 gms de una mezcla de 1.7% de butóxido de píperonilo con 0.1% depiretrina~ por cada bulto."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"Las dos mezclas anteriores se encuentran en el comercio con los nombres de \"P i renone\" y \"P i renona\"."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"el 60 gms de Malatión de 0.8%, grado premio, por bulto."},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"El polvo se puede aplicar así: "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"4 . 2 . 19unas consideraciones podrían ser: ~. 1. l. Cultivos anteriores: Tener cuidado si no se han efectuado rotaciones. 4.1.2. Herbicidas: Epoca de aplicaciones, dosis y tipo de herbicida aplicado. El tipo de las atraZinas, por tener efecto residual, afectarln el cultivo de frijol. 4.1.3. Patógenos del suelo: Hay algunos patógenos del suelo como nen~todos (en suelos arenosos) o problemas de pudriciones de raiz debido a cultivos anteriores. 4.1.4. Fertilizantes aplicados: Epoca de aplicación, dosis en la cual se apl icó el fertil izante, si el suelo ha sido encalado anteriormente. 4.1.5. Descripción de malezas encontradas antes de la preparación del terreno: Esto es necesarIo para la elección del herbicida adecuado. Características de Clima y Suelo. "},{"text":" y también deficiencia de Fe (I-Iallace, et al 1971). 7.1.3. Fertilizantes Potásicos: Todos los fertilizantes potásicos contienen K como nutriente para la planta en forma soluble en agua. De tal manera que sean fácilmente disponibles para ésta. Los fertil izantes potásicos más comunes son: Cloruro de K (KC1) con 50-60% K 2 0 Sulfato de K (K2S04) con 48-52% K 2 0 Sulfato Magnésico de K (Patenkali) con 26-30% de K20 y 9-12% de MgO). El cloruro y el sulfato de K son considerados de igual valor para el fríjol. (El cloruro de K es perjudicial para el cultivo del tabaco porque reduce su calidad y baja la combustibilidad del tabaco). En general en Latinoamérica hay poca respuesta o ninguna a la fertilización con K. (Bain, 1967; Herrera 1964). Altas apl icaciones de fertilizantes potásicos pueden inducir la deficiencia de Ca o Mg. Fleming; 1956, demostró que un incremento en la concentración de K trae como consecuencia una disminución en la absorción del Ca en habichuela. 7. ~ .. Fertilizantes completos o compuestos y fertil izantes mixtos: Los fertilizantes completos son aceptados debido a sus ventajas; son menos voluminosos y por consiguicn.te reducen el costo del transporte y su aplicación.7•3 Los fertilizantes mixtos son obtenidos mediante mezclas mecánicas de fertilizantes simples. Esto tiene una desventaja puesto que poseen más bajo contenido de nutriente puro. Cada fertil izante simple lleva un cierto grado de relleno (materiales inertes). No obstante no todos los fertil izantes simples son mezclables. Braga (1969) en el Brasil encontró que el fosfato de amonio es superior a los fertilizantes de fosfato simple en fríjol. "},{"text":"9. 3 . Población y Distancia entre Surcos y entre Plantas. Daniel (1975) mostró que mediante un sistema de siembra con adecuada densidad y propio espacimiento de las plantas, el rendimiento se aumenta hasta el 200% en suelo franco. Enyi (1975) logró obtener un incremento en los rendimientos al aumentar la población hasta 444.000 plantas/ha. Correa et al (1960) mostró que obtuvo mejores rendimientos con distancias de siembra de 95 cms entre surcos y 30 cms entre plantas. Agnew (1959) indicó la importan-cia de la distancia entre plantas y surcos y recomendó una distancia entre 5 y 14 cms para obtener alto rendimiento. Por el contrario Chagal et al 1975 mostró que no hay ningún efecto sobre los rendimientos cuando se siembra con distancias entre surcos de 30, 50 y 70 cms y población constante. "},{"text":" mente puede ser: De siembra a floración (3D días) Durante la floración (15 días) Duante la formación de frutos (20 días) De llenado a maduración (10 días) Para lotes en que puede suplementarse con conviene tener un registo de las aguas lluvias (pluviógrafo o pluviómetro) y tener en cuenta las cifras de exigencias de agua del cultivo, para programar los riegos. "},{"text":" bicidas. Por ejemplo el efecto residual de las atrazinas causa anormalidades en el fríjol. Experiencias vividas en 1982A y 19826 en CIAT-Palmira mostraron que la mezcla AFALON (LINURON) + DUAL (METOLACLOR) puede causar toxicidad si el suelo tiene problemas de sales ylo humedad alta por encima de su capacidad de campo.13. ESTADO F I TOSAI~ I TAR I OEn el fríjol son frecuentes 105 perjuicios que causan hongos, bacterias y virus. Estos organismos originan enfermedades que se manifiestan por manchas, decoloraciones, pústulas, deformaciones y pudriciones en hojas tallos, vainas, granos y raíces. los grados en que ellos se presentan pueden ser variables en cuanto a intensidad dependiendo de las condiciones ambientales predominantes y la reacción que al patógeno o patógenos exhiba la variedad usada, principalmente; desde luego, pueden inf1uír también, condicones tales como fertilidad inadecuada del suelo, condiciones adversas al desarrollo normal de las plantas y el mal manejo del cultivo (ausencia de drenajes, monocultivo, exceso de malezas, rotaciones mal previstas, etc.). "},{"text":"5 . Ekatin, Metasitox, Parathión, Roxión o Dimecrón, para control de pulgones y Empoasca en la dosis Que indique la casa fabricante. "},{"text":"15. 1 . Elementos Nutrientes Inmóvi les. Son por ejemplo Calcio y Boro. Estos elementos salen de la cadena de los procesos metabólicos en forma irreversible y se incorporan como un Lompues-to o como pectinas del material 1 ignificado. "},{"text":" es la Gltima labor la cual corresponde a la cosecha. Esta se debe planificar con anticipación y comprende la preparación y organización de tiquetes, bolsas de papel, empaques, etc • Posteriormente se distribuyen los empaques y las bolsas en el campo, teniendo el cuidado de que a cada parcela le corresponda su respectiva bolsa numerada.Una vez cosechado se puede trillar en el campo si las condicones 10 permiten, si no se puede cosechar y posteriormente someterlo a secado al horno con aire cal iente.Para efectos de datos sobre peso y humedad se util izan instrumentos tales como balanzas e higrómetros, los cuales deben ser cal ibrados previamente y no cambiarse de instrumentos durante el proceso de toma de datos, pues esto traería como cnsecuencia enror por instrumentos. Los datos finales se estandarizan al 14% de humedad.17. ALMACENAMIENTO DE FRIJOLES EN LA FINCAEl agricultor puede preservar sus cosechas del ataque de los gorgojos y almacenar el fríjol en una bodega por un tiempo prudencial que le permita esperar mejores precios. El Programa Nacional de Entomología del ICA ha elaborado una serie de recomendaciones que hacen posible el almacenamiento de fríjol para consumo, sin pel igro para la salud humana y sin que el fríjol sufra modificaciones de sabor u olor que limiten su aceptación en el mercado.Las recomendaciones pueden resumirse en los siguientes puntos: Colombia Ministerio de Agricultura. Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (C.N.I.A.) 1958 Almacenamiento de los fríjoles en la Finca. Ilogotá, eh. (hoja inf. No. 1.). "},{"text":"4 . Cosechar los fríjoles tan pronto como sea posible. Désgranarlos y limpiarlos de basuras y de granos dañados. Exponerlos al sol, en un lugar limpio, para que queden bien secos. 5. Tratar los fríjoles que se van a almacenar por más de dos o tres meses con una de las siguientes fórmulas: "},{"text":"al 6 . Con una espolvoreadora de mano al tiempo de llenar los costales. bl Poniendo los fríjoles y el polvo en un tambor que se hace girar hasta que • , 43 el insecticida 'haya cubierto uniformemente los granos. Limpiar los fríjoles tratados con el polvo insecticida, antes de darlos al consumo. Se pueden limpiar pasándolos por un elevador de granos, bajo un chorro de agua, o sumergiéndolos en agua rápidamente. Para el tratamiento del grano que se va a usar exclusivamente Cama semilla, se puede emplear SEVIN del 10%, en la proporción de un gramo por kilogramo de semilla. APROXIMACION DE NIVELES DE NUTRIENTES EN EL SUELO PARA FRIJOL "},{"text":" durante la germinación; esta aplicación se hace en bandas. En tierras fértiles como las de la Granja Experimental del CIAT en Palmira no se usan estos tipos de fertilizantes excepto cuando hay la necesidad de corregir deficiencias de microelementos tales como B y Zn. Mascarenhas et al(1966)  aplicó fertilizante nitrogenado durante las siguientes épocas 7, 14, Y 21 días después de la germinación y no obtuvo diferencias significativas en los rendimientos debido a que los fertilizantes nitrogenados son muy solu- erimentos.  erimentos.  Debido a la gran cantidad de materiales para probar, es necesario divi- Debido a la gran cantidad de materiales para probar, es necesario divi- irlos en grupos pequeños con ciertos criterios a .saber: irlos en grupos pequeños con ciertos criterios a .saber: .2.1. Hábito de crecimiento • .2.1. Hábito de crecimiento • • 2.2. Color de semilla • • 2.2. Color de semilla • . 2.3. Tamaño de los granos. . 2.3. Tamaño de los granos.  De acuerdo a 10 anterior, se describe la siguiente tabla: De acuerdo a 10 anterior, se describe la siguiente tabla: Grupo 10000 Arbustivo grano negro pequeño. Grupo10000Arbustivo grano negro pequeño. Grupo 20000 Arbust i vo grano rojo pequeño. Grupo20000Arbust i vo grano rojo pequeño. Grupo 20500 Arbus ti vo grano rojo grande/mediano. Grupo20500Arbus ti vo grano rojo grande/mediano. Grupo 30000 Arbustivo grano blanco pequeño. Grupo30000Arbustivo grano blanco pequeño. Grupo 30500 Arbus ti vo grano blanco grande/mediano. Grupo30500Arbus ti vo grano blanco grande/mediano. Grupo 40000 Arbustivo pacíf i ca Sur grande/mediano. Grupo40000Arbustivo pacíf i ca Sur grande/mediano. Grupo 40500 Arbustivo México grande/mediano. Grupo40500Arbustivo México grande/mediano. Grupo 50000 Arbus t j va Srasi 1 pequeño/mediano. Grupo50000Arbus t j va Srasi 1 pequeño/mediano. Grupo 60000 Voluble grano negro pequeño. (VNA) • Grupo60000Voluble grano negro pequeño. (VNA) • Grupo 60500 Voluble grano negro pequeño. (VNB) . Grupo60500Voluble grano negro pequeño. (VNB) . Grupo 70000 Voluble grano rojo pequeño. (VRA). Grupo70000Voluble grano rojo pequeño. (VRA). Grupo 70500 Voluble grano rojo grande/mediano. (VRB) • Grupo70500Voluble grano rojo grande/mediano. (VRB) • Grupo 80000 Voluble grano claro grande. (VeA) • Grupo80000Voluble grano claro grande. (VeA) • Con aplicaciones foliares de N. P. K. se puede lograr un aumento en el 8. MATERIALES DE EVALUACION y SU PREPARACIDN Grupo 80500 Voluble grano claro grande. (ves) • Con aplicaciones foliares de N. P. K. se puede lograr un aumento en el 8. MATERIALES DE EVALUACION y SU PREPARACIDN Grupo 80500 Voluble grano claro grande. (ves) • rendimiento hasta de 26%; por el contrario, si la aplicación es basal, el Los materiales para las pruebas preliminares se dividen en 2 grandes gru- rendimiento hasta de 26%; por el contrario, si la aplicación es basal, el Los materiales para las pruebas preliminares se dividen en 2 grandes gru- rendimiento sólo aumenta un 18% (Bulisani et al 1973). pos as í: rendimiento sólo aumenta un 18% (Bulisani et al 1973). pos as í: Brower et al (1976), mostró la efectividad de aplicación foliar de Zn 8.1. Materiales standard. Brower et al (1976), mostró la efectividad de aplicación foliar de Zn 8.1. Materiales standard. con 2 Ó 3 aplicaciones. con 2 Ó 3 aplicaciones.  "},{"text":" ). Fusari is, Mancha gris (CeJlCo!.JpMa vafldeJ¡M,:ty), Mancha Harinosa (RamuA'.cvr..{a pha-6eo OJU1JJ1 Sacc.), Ant racnos i s (Coile:to:DUchum LiJ'ldrJnu.:tfUa.Í1um (Sacc. y Se!elLo;t.{um lLO.t66Ü (Curz il \\Ies t. Los pr ¡- Magn.) Sr. y Cav.} Oidium (EILYI.>.{plte pa-eygoru. OC.), Mancha del ascoquita Magn.) Sr. y Cav.} Oidium (EILYI.>.{plte pa-eygoru. OC.), Mancha del ascoquita (Meae yta pItMCO.tOJU1JJ1 Sacc.). (Meae yta pItMCO.tOJU1JJ1 Sacc.). E las regiones frías, principalmente: Esclerotiniosis (Sc~eÁot.{n.{a E las regiones frías, principalmente: Esclerotiniosis (Sc~eÁot.{n.{a -be!e Ü.oltum(Lib.) Oby.), Antracnosis, Roya, Marchitamiento en corona -be!e Ü.oltum(Lib.) Oby.), Antracnosis, Roya, Marchitamiento en corona (PlJe_U omOJ1CU pllMCOUc.a. (Burk.) DON), Bacteriosis común, Mancha angular. (PlJe_U omOJ1CU pllMCOUc.a. (Burk.) DON), Bacteriosis común, Mancha angular. n forma resumida se mencionan a continuación algunos aspectos de las n forma resumida se mencionan a continuación algunos aspectos de las princ pales enfermedades. princ pales enfermedades. las enfermedades de mayor incidencia en las condiciones del Valle del las enfermedades de mayor incidencia en las condiciones del Valle del Cauca y similares, son: Roya (U~omyCe6 phaóeoti varo typ~ca Arth.), me os síntomas se incian mostrando ligero amaril1amiento de las hojas y man- Cauca y similares, son: Roya (U~omyCe6 phaóeoti varo typ~ca Arth.), me os síntomas se incian mostrando ligero amaril1amiento de las hojas y man- Bacteriosis común (XanthomOllaó phaóeoti E. F. Smith), Mosaico común (Virus ch s húmedas, oscuras en la corteza, del tallo a la altura del nivel del Bacteriosis común (XanthomOllaó phaóeoti E. F. Smith), Mosaico común (Virus ch s húmedas, oscuras en la corteza, del tallo a la altura del nivel del 1 del fríjol), Mancha angular (I~~op6~-9~eota Sacc.), Mancha del Cer-su lo. A medida que la infección avanza, las hojas inferiores se secan y 1 del fríjol), Mancha angular (I~~op6~-9~eota Sacc.), Mancha del Cer-su lo. A medida que la infección avanza, las hojas inferiores se secan y  "},{"text":" C~oma ~u6~eo~~Germ. V~b~oUea I.>peUol.>a 01 iv. V~b~oUea I.>peUol.>a 01 iv. Ep;;tJUx. spp. Ep;;tJUx. spp. U~banlL6 pMtelL6 L. U~banlL6 pMtelL6 L. cl.>Ugmellte aMea Drury cl.>Ugmellte aMea Drury AutogMplta sp. Cramer AutogMplta sp. Cramer TlvU.eltopM~ sp. TlvU.eltopM~ sp. Al1ÜeaA6~ gemna;ta,l'i-6 Hubner Al1ÜeaA6~ gemna;ta,l'i-6 Hubner Platino;('.a s p. Platino;('.a s p. 14. PLAGAS 14. PLAGAS Las plagas del fríjol son diversas y las especies predomiantes en una Las plagas del fríjol son diversas y las especies predomiantes en una zona generalmente son diferentes en otras o variables en cuanto a importan- zona generalmente son diferentes en otras o variables en cuanto a importan- cia económica y los daños que ellas puedan provocar. cia económica y los daños que ellas puedan provocar. En las regiones cál idas y templadas de Colombia se presentan causando En las regiones cál idas y templadas de Colombia se presentan causando perjuicios de importancia variable y agrupados por el tipo de daño. perjuicios de importancia variable y agrupados por el tipo de daño. a) Trazadores de Plántulas: a) Trazadores de Plántulas: AgfU).t{.6 ypú.f.oll (Rott.) AgfU).t{.6 ypú.f.oll (Rott.) SpodopteJto. FJwg'¿peJtdo. Smi th SpodopteJto. FJwg'¿peJtdo. Smi th  "},{"text":" 15.2. Elementos móviles en las Plantas.Potasio. El potasio siempre se encuentra en el jugo celular, y nunca \",ntra a ser parte esencial del compuesto. Los síntomas aparecen muy marcados en las hojas viejas y un poco en las nuevas. Esto indica la movil ¡dad de los elementos en la planta, cuando se tras loca el elemneto de hojas viejas a nuevas.  "}],"sieverID":"e5c4431d-d3da-4083-973b-5e9541d29b2b","abstract":"C 1ón en 1492 encontró en Cuba fríjoles de variedades rOjas y blancas dist ntas a las que él conocía y después también las observó en Honduras.De acuerdo con Vavi1ov, los fríjoles son originarios de la parte tropial del suroeste de México,"}

data/part_1/044ad9928bedaabd956882aaca0447e4.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"044ad9928bedaabd956882aaca0447e4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/576e0aa5-8a1c-46d9-bd4c-98a928978d69/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Year round feed and fodder availability in smallholder dairy farms across high and low altitude areas in Eastern Africa","keywords":["Agro-ecology","Feeds and Fodder","Seasonal Variation","Utilization","Year-round"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Feed-year strategies involve matching the cycles of dairy production with the changing availabilities of all sources of nutrients over time [1]. Locally available feed resources have to be consistent with the diverse production objectives of farmers and with the feasibility of achieving the nutritional support required [2]. These in turn vary seasonally with farmers' bio-physical, sociopolitical, economic and environmental circumstances [3]. Therefore, seasonal variation in feed resources [4] is important in future planning and development of appropriate technologies/strategies to ensure resilience of smallholder dairy systems to seasonality driven milk shortages [5], [6]. Based on this context, the objectives of this study were to: a) evaluate the current pattern of seasonal variation in feed and fodder availability in smallholder dairy farms across high and low altitude areas of Kenya and Tanzania in Eastern Africa; and b) assess seasonal variation in year-round feeds and fodder based feeding strategies in smallholder dairy farms across the high and low altitude areas of Kenya and Tanzania in Eastern Africa."}]},{"head":"Material and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":455,"text":"Study location: Four distinct locations representing the highlands and lowlands agro-ecologies were selected, namely Mbulu (highlands) and Karatu (lowlands) in Manyara region of Tanzania; and Kakamega (highlands) and Siaya (lowlands) in Western region of Kenya. Karatu lies in latitudes 3.3454ºS and longitudes 35.6697ºE. Mbulu lies in latitudes 4.0805ºS and longitudes 35.5466ºE. Siaya lies in latitudes 0.0998ºN and longitudes 34.2747ºE, while Kakamega lies within latitudes 0.2827ºN and longitudes 34.7519ºE. Data Collection: The Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST), which is a systematic method to assess local feed resource availability and use (www.ilri.org/feast) was used for data collection [7], [8]. FEAST qualitative data was collected through participatory rapid appraisal (PRA) and focus group discussions (FGD) [3]. Farmers were identified and classified into four categories (wet and dry seasons in highlands agro-ecology and wet and dry seasons in lowlands agroecology) in both Kenya and Tanzania. In each agroecology (highlands and lowlands), 18 farmers (12 men and 6 women) were selected for the survey, giving a total of 108 farmers in all the two countries. The PRA was followed by quantitative data collection carried through individual household interviews using a pre-tested structured questionnaire from a purposive multistage random [9] sample of 400 smallholder dairy farmers, 100 each for the highlands and lowlands agro-ecological zones in the two countries. Information from cross sectional survey was validated through a purposive observational study covering two seasons (wet and dry) in the study locations between July 2017 and June 2018, to monitor and capture the seasonal/year-round variations in fodder and feed sources including utilization in the study areas Verification of data collection method: During the cross sectional survey, the dependent variables were scored on a five point scale of 0-5 (where 0=none; 1=moderately low; 2=low; moderately high; 4=high and 5=very high) and validated during the wet and dry seasons of observational study. Verification of the method was achieved through comparison of farmer estimates of monthly rainfall, scored on a five point scale of 0-5 and actual normalized meteorological measurement of monthly rainfall. The farmer estimates and normalized rainfall data were almost similar, an indicator that the method was valid and highly applicable for this study, as it was un-biased and non-subjective [3]. Data analysis: Independent variables comprised location (country), seasons (wet and dry), agroecological zones (highlands and lowlands) and production systems (intensive, semi-intensive and extensive). While, dependent variables comprised five (5) point scale farmer estimates of monthly rainfall and locally available fodder and feed sources. Analysis was done using MANOVA (Multivariate analysis of variance) at 95% Confidence Interval (Significance P≤0.05) to find out the effect of independent factors on dependent variables. Means were compared using least significant difference (LSD). Further, Pearson's was carried out to find the association/relationship between the different feeds and fodder sources."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Rainfall seasonality: Country was significant (P≤0.001) on the rainfall received throughout the year (Figure 1). There was significant difference (P≤0.001) in rainfall received between Kenya and Tanzania most of the year, except during the months of March and November (Figure 1). Tanzania received more rainfall from the months of November-March compared to Kenya (Figure 1). On the other hand, Kenya received more rainfall during the months of April to October compared to Tanzania. Similar monthly rainfall was received across the highlands and lowlands agro-ecological zones of the two countries. Rainfall variability throughout the different months yearly was a confirmation of seasonality driven changes in the two countries. Overall across the two countries, wet season period peak long rains were in April, while peak short rains were in November. The dry season period with very minimal or no rains was between June-September for Tanzania and December-February for Kenya (Figure 2). Rainfall variability influences seasonal fluctuation in quantity of feeds and fodder available and utilized, as similarly reported by [10]. "}]},{"head":"Figure 1. Rainfall variability (score, 0-5) in in the highlands and lowlands areas of Kenya and Tanzania (95% CI) during 2016/17 and 2017/18","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":357,"text":"Trends and association in year-round feed and fodder availability in Eastern Africa: Effect of country, agro-ecological zone, feed and fodder type and interaction between country and feed and fodder type were significant (P≤0.05) on availability and utilization of feeds and fodder in Kenya and Tanzania (Figure 2). Overall, with exception of concentrates feeds, the other feeds and fodder resources varied greatly by country and rainfall pattern (Figure 2). The mean difference significantly (P≤0.05) showed that Tanzania had more feeds and fodder availability and utilization from January to May, while in Kenya from July to November (Figure 2). Variation in feed and fodder sources, availability and utilization during the dry and rainy season period and correlation with rainfall variability in this study, agree with many authors who have reported acute shortage of feed supply during the dry season and the available feed during this period is of very poor quality [11]. There was considerable variation in the availability and utilization of crop residues from dualpurpose food crops by type (green or dry) across highlands and lowlands of Eastern Africa. Similar findings were reported by [12], that the availability of feed on a dry matter basis from the above groups of crop residues has varied during the last two decades. Green feeds and fodder resources (as opposed to dry ones) were positively correlated in both the highlands and lowlands of Kenya and Tanzania. There was a highly significant (P≤0.001) correlation (coefficient of determination, R 2 ≥0.75) between (planted) fodder and natural pastures in both the highlands and lowlands of Kenya. This implied that an increase in improved fodder resulted in a tandem increase in natural pastures and vice versa. This scenario was explained by their dependence on the rainfall pattern (Figure 1). Similarly, there was highly significant (P≤0.001) positive correlation (R 2 ≥0.60) between improved fodder and natural pastures with green crop residues, legume forage and fodder trees/shrubs in both the highlands and lowlands of Kenya. Results also showed highly significant (P≤0.001) positive association (R2≥0.60) between natural pastures, green crop residues, forage legumes and fodder trees/shrubs in both the highlands and lowlands of Tanzania in response to rainfall variability "}]},{"head":"Fig.2. Overall trend in year-round feeds and fodder availability and utilization (95% CI) in highlands and lowlands of Kenya and Tanzania","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conclusions and Outlook","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Evidenced from this study, year-round feed planning and budgeting, coupled with effective utilization of the available feeds and fodder, based on site/region specific seasonal availability trends, appear to be the necessary steps to alleviate the nutritional problems of dairy animals. The new knowledge gained with this study on variations in feeds and fodder sources, utilization and responses to environment factors can be incorporated into models of strategic optimization of dairy cow feeding strategies for overcoming seasonal milk fluctuation in Eastern Africa. Compliance with ethical standards: All procedures performed in study involving human and animal participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards."}]},{"head":"Conflict of Interest:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"The authors declare that they have no competing and/or conflicting interests "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"NB: NS=Not Significant; *** Significance level (P≤0.001); **Significance level (P≤0.01) "},{"text":"Funding information: This study was funded by the Programme for Enhancing the Health and Productivity of Livestock (PEHPL ID: OPP1083453) and ILRI/NM-AIST Sustainable Intensification of Maize-Legume Based Cropping Systems for Food Security in Eastern and Southern Africa (SIMLESA II) Project in Tanzania. ILRI Internal Grant Number (CIM008). "}],"sieverID":"20270430-fa73-46e9-9af6-ef1210093f1d","abstract":"An understanding of seasonal variation in availability of feeds and fodder resources is important in future planning and development of appropriate technologies to ensure resilience of smallholder dairy systems to seasonality driven milk fluctuations. It is against this context that this study was carried out to: 1) evaluate the current pattern of seasonal variation in feed and fodder availability in smallholder dairy farms across high and low altitude areas of Kenya and Tanzania in Eastern Africa; and 2) assess seasonal variation in year-round feeds and fodder based feeding strategies in smallholder dairy farms across the high and low altitude areas of Kenya and Tanzania in Eastern Africa. Data was collected from a purposive representative sample of 400 smallholder dairy farmers using the Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST) through cross sectional survey and observational study from 2016-2018 to capture the season's effect (wet and dry). Data was analyzed using the general linear model procedure of SPSS version 21.0 and FEAST Version 2.21. Results showed that location (country), agro-ecological zone and season were significant (P ≤ 0.05) on rainfall variability throughout the year. Further, country, agro-ecology, seasons, production systems and their interaction were significant (P ≤ 0.05) on year-round availability and utilization of concentrate feeds, green and dry crop residues, improved fodder, natural grass and legume forage. Rainfall variability was crucial in determining year-round variation in availability and utilization of feeds and fodder. Correlation between the feeds and fodder resources revealed highly significant (P ≤ 0.001) positive relationships across the two countries, pointing further to the dynamics of seasonality change effects. In conclusion, different seasonality driven site/region/country specific year-round feeding/supplementation strategies could be applied depending upon the type, availability of feeds and fodder to overcome seasonal milk fluctuations in smallholder dairy farms in Eastern Africa."}

data/part_1/048ac6d548de034d79f8fb307429da5c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"048ac6d548de034d79f8fb307429da5c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/88914a46-88dc-4591-82fb-03aafa8e7184/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Smallholder pig producers face a number of constraints in the areas of health, feeds, breeding and marketing in developing their enterprises. The high cost and poor quality of commercial feeds, and a lack of low-cost local alternatives, prepared from amply available cheap ingredients found on farms, are probably the major constraints facing smallholder pig producers. This situation is aggravated by seasonal changes in the environment causing fluctuations in feed quantity, quality and price. Consequently, farmers engage in opportunistic and inadequate feed practices. ILRI has undertaken a number of feed-related interventions designed to alleviate some of the above constraints, including:  "}]},{"head":"Intervention sites","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The Masaka and Mukono districts of the Central Region, Uganda"}]},{"head":"Approach","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The approach included assessing and documenting the seasonal availability, relative importance and nutritive content of local resources. Two compounded diets using common feedstuffs: forage-based and silage-based diets, and a commercial diet were tested. The local ingredients used to formulate diets based on local feed resources included: avocado fruits, banana leaves, cassava leaves, cotton seedcake meal, jack fruit, maize bran, papaya leaves, mukene (silver fish), sweetpotato vines and roots, limestone, common table salt and vitamin premix. A feeding trial involving 90 pigs was undertaken in Masaka district at Kamuzinda farm. The formulation took into account the nutrient requirements of pigs and feed costs."}]},{"head":"Key findings","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Feeding commercial diets to newly weaned pigs, and then feeding silage-or forage-based diets to finishing pigs is the most cost-effective solution. The poor growth performance of newly-weaned pigs in this study indicates that strategies resulting in increased weaning weights, creep feeding, and the identification of nutrient dense, digestible, palatable feedstuffs and their incorporation into low-cost balanced diets suitable for newly weaned pigs are needed. The results of this study indicate forage and silage-based diets can be year-round low-cost pig-feeding strategies that improve the growth performance of pigs, thereby increasing pig farmer income and food security."}]},{"head":"Impact","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Farmers in Masaka district were trained on how to formulate experimental diets using available local feed resources. Some smallholder farmers have adopted these diets and one of the farmers even planted avocado trees to increase availability of avocado fruits for pig feed."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Increased use of nutritious forages in the pig diets"}]},{"head":"Aims","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Identify and promote nutritious forages for pig feeding that can be incorporated in the pig diets to improve their nutrition value and reduce feed costs."}]},{"head":"Intervention sites","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The Kamuli, Masaka, Hoima and Lira districts of Uganda, in collaboration with local governments."}]},{"head":"Approach","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Best-bet forages for feeding pigs with low fibre and high protein were selected. The varieties were also selected on the basis of seed availability and suitability to local conditions. Participant pig farmers were supplied with seed to plant forages on at least 0.125 acres of land. The planted forages are shown in Table 1 below. After establishment of the forages, a monitoring study was unddertaken in November 2016 to assess the germination and growth performance of the forages. The farmers assessed pig preferences for the varieties. The farmers were also asked about the challenges they faced in planting and using these forages. "}]},{"head":"Key findings","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"In general, the establishment of the forages was affected by the long dry spell. The preliminary findings indicated that amongst these forages, Brachiaria species established well in all the districts. Farmers reported that the pigs loved the Brachiaria species. However, some species like the Morus mulberry did not establish well with the dry season. There is a need to evaluate further the use of Brachiaria species as pig feed."}]},{"head":"Impact","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The impact was not assessed since most of the farmers had just established the forages, and for some of forage species, the biomass yields were poor due to the long dry spells."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Use of supplemented sweetpotato silage "}]},{"head":"Aims","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• Increase the shelf life of the vines through silage making to even out the seasonal feed scarcity."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"• Determine the performance of growing pigs fed on a supplemented sweetpotato silage-based diet."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• Develop innovative business models to promote and commercialize sweetpotato silage."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"This intervention is expected to transform the production and utilization of sweetpotato vines and non-commercial roots to attenuate the constraints of livestock feed shortages."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"Sweetpotato silage provides an opportunity to reduce waste in urban markets and at household level it can open up business opportunities for young people and women."}]},{"head":"Intervention sites","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"The Masaka and Kamuli districts of Uganda."}]},{"head":"Approach","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"The experiments were carried out in Makerere University to determine the best sweetpotato silage combination using different fermenters (maize bran and cassava flour). Then on-station feeding trials were carried out on 48 pigs fed on three 'best bet' silage-based diets and one commercial diet. The best performing diet of supplemented silage at 40% with the commercial feeding ingredients was validated with farmers in Kamuli and Masaka districts. To increase the awareness of the technology, district extension staff of Kamuli and Masaka were trained in silage making so that they would act as trainers in their respective areas. "}]},{"head":"Key findings","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• The use of sweetpotato vine silage can even out the supply of feed on smallholder pig farms."}]},{"head":"•","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The feeding of Sweetpotato silage that constitutes 60% of the daily ration of pigs combined with 40% provided by the supplement improves the growth performance of the animals.  "}]},{"head":"Impact","index":16,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Feeds and forage interventions in the smallholder pig value chain of UgandaBen Lukuyu, Peter Lule, Brian Kawuma and Emily Ouma "},{"text":" This publication is copyrighted by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). It is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. March 2017 ILRI thanks all donors that globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR system Patron: Professor Peter C Doherty AC, FAA, FRS Animal scientist, Nobel Prize Laureate for Physiology or Medicine-1996 Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Phone +254 20 422 3000 Fax +254 20 422 3001 Email [email protected] ilri.org better lives through livestock ILRI is a CGIAR research centre Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone +251 11 617 2000 Fax +251 11 667 6923 Email [email protected] ILRI has offices in East Africa • South Asia • Southeast and East Asia • Southern Africa • West Africa "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Varieties of forages given to farmers established in different districts of Uganda District Sub-counties No. of Varieties established District Sub-countiesNo. ofVarieties established   farmers  farmers Masaka Kabonera, 36 Morus alba, Lablab purpureus, Masaka Kabonera,36Morus alba, Lablab purpureus,  kyanamukaka  Brachiaria cv. Mulato, Clitoria kyanamukakaBrachiaria cv. Mulato, Clitoria    ternatea, Canavalia cathartica ternatea, Canavalia cathartica Kamuli Bugulumbya, 36 Morus alba, Lablab Kamuli Bugulumbya,36Morus alba, Lablab  Butansi,  purpureus, Brachiaria cv. Butansi,purpureus, Brachiaria cv.  Namwendwa  Mulato, Clitoria ternatea, NamwendwaMulato, Clitoria ternatea,    Canavalia cathartica, Canavalia cathartica,    Brachiaria hybrid cvs.: Brachiaria hybrid cvs.:    Cayman, Cobra and Mulato Cayman, Cobra and Mulato    II II Lira Ojwina Division, 12 Trifolium decorum, Lablab LiraOjwina Division,12Trifolium decorum, Lablab  Adyel Division,  purpureus, Desmodium Adyel Division,purpureus, Desmodium  Adekokwok and  uncinatum, Lupinus Adekokwok anduncinatum, Lupinus  Barr sub county.  angustifolius, Desmanthus Barr sub county.angustifolius, Desmanthus    virgatus, Trifolium tembense, virgatus, Trifolium tembense,    Desmodium intortum, Vicia Desmodium intortum, Vicia    villosa and Stylosanthes villosa and Stylosanthes    hamata hamata Hoima Busiisi, Kitoba 14 Trifolium decorum, Lablab Hoima Busiisi, Kitoba14Trifolium decorum, Lablab  and Kiziranfumbi  purpureus, Desmodium and Kiziranfumbipurpureus, Desmodium    uncinatum, Lupinus uncinatum, Lupinus    angustifolius, Desmanthus angustifolius, Desmanthus    virgatus, Trifolium tembense, virgatus, Trifolium tembense,    Desmodium intortum, Vicia Desmodium intortum, Vicia    villosa and Stylosanthus villosa and Stylosanthus    hamata hamata  "},{"text":" Smallholder farmers (280 young people, 1458 females and 402 males) were trained for over two years in silage production. Two silage business centres were launched in Masaka and Kamuli districts. Partner organizations attended several agricultural shows around the country exhibiting the sweetpotato silage technology. Two open days were organized in Kamuli and Masaka districts and the public were invited to witness demonstrations on silage making.  "}],"sieverID":"fb6a48fa-cf1d-4bf9-beda-7bee5229c438","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04ff2f17c68ba292035c7a23a3374794","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e72ec6a2-b4b8-4131-8335-0870cabbe708/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Use of agro-climate ensembles for quantifying uncertainty and informing adaptation","keywords":["Climate models","Crop models","Ensembles","Climate change","Adaptation","Food security","Climate variability","Uncertainty","Crop yield"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":241,"text":"The use of climate ensembles with agricultural models, particularly crop models, is an increasingly common method for projecting the potential impacts of climate change (see e.g. reviews by Challinor et al., 2009a,b). These developments are timely, given the significant societal interest in both the implications of climate change and the uncertainty surrounding predictions. Ongoing increases in greenhouse gas emissions will continue to alter climate for some decades. Climate and impacts ensembles provide a tool for predicting the implications of these changes and for developing adaptation options. This special issue demonstrates the maturity of this field by highlighting recent progress in methodologies for the design and use of ensembles and in the agricultural modelling that is used in such studies. The word ensemble is used here to indicate any multiple model simulations that seek to quantify uncertainty. This includes both ensembles that quantify parametric uncertainty using one model and ensembles that quantify structural uncertainty by using a number of models. Ensemble agricultural and climate modelling, or more briefly agro-climate ensemble modelling, refers here to a set of directly comparable agricultural simulations generated using one or more climate projections with one or more agricultural models in one or more configurations. The direct comparability of the simulations makes the ensemble a tool for quantifying and exploring uncertainty. An ensemble crop simulation, for example, seeks to quantify uncertainty due to some or all of: climate, crop response to climate, and other determinants of crop productivity."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"The papers in the special issue reflect the growing breadth of topics that are being assessed using ensemble techniques. They also suggest a parallel with the development of ensemble methods within climate change science itself, whereby a \"new era\" in prediction was identified as a result of the increasing use of ensembles (Collins and Knight, 2007). The increase in the use of ensemble techniques in agriculture has been largely enabled by this development in climate science. The influence of climate science is evident from the common use of multiple climate realisations in agroclimate ensembles, compared to the far rarer use of multiple crop models. Thus agro-climate ensembles are often the result of the use of an agricultural model as a tool for interpreting climate ensembles in an agriculturally relevant way."},{"index":3,"size":155,"text":"The generation of robust projections of agricultural production requires adequate account of uncertainty in future atmospheric composition and climate, the subsequent response of agricultural systems, and the range of non-climatic drivers that affect agriculture. Only in this way can appropriate adaptation and mitigation actions be determined. The question of how much account of uncertainty is adequate for any specific adaptation and mitigation action is not trivial. This important question is discussed briefly in section 3.2, but falls largely outside the scope of this special issue. Our starting point here is the recognition that, in an effort to ensure that treatments of uncertainty are at least adequate, the climate impacts community is putting increasing efforts into improving the methods used to assess impacts and adaptation, and understanding the associated uncertainties. This includes assessing, intercomparing and improving tools and methodologies (see Rosenzweig et al. 2012) and asking: what do our models tell us about the real world?"},{"index":4,"size":225,"text":"The choices in climate impacts modelling regarding model complexity, ensemble size and spatial resolution, whether made explicitly or resulting from the inherent trade off forced by limited computer power, affect the way in which the model results need to be interpreted (Challinor et al., 2009a). Computing power limits the potential for studies to employ complex models over a large spatial domain and systematically sample uncertainty, so that modelling work tends to focus on one, or maybe two, of these three characteristics. The agricultural simulation studies in this special issue demonstrate this trade off: they vary in their sampling of uncertainty and can broadly be divided into those that have relatively high spatial resolution (Ewert et al. 2012, Gouache et al. 2012, Graux et al. 2012, Robertson et al. 2012, Teixeira et al. 2012, Ramirez et al. 2012, Kroschel et al. 2012) and those that use relatively complex models and/or simulate a number of different agricultural processes and practices (Ruane et al. 2012, Tao et al. 2012, Hemming et al. 2012, Osborne et al. 2012, Fraser et al. 2012, Berg et al. 2012). The studies also reflect the increasing ability to simulate agricultural responses across large or multiple regions, including global assessment (Berg et al. 2012, Fraser et al. 2012, Hemming et al. 2012, Kroschel et al. 2012, Osborne et al. 2012, Ramirez et al. 2012)."},{"index":5,"size":114,"text":"Due to the focus on the use of climate ensembles, either to achieve large geographical coverage, or to capture uncertainty through the use of many ensemble members, relatively few studies here employ downscaling techniques (Gouache et al. 2012, Graux et al. 2012, Hoglind et al. 2012, Ramirez et al. 2012, Kroschel et al. 2012). Efforts to produce coordinated ensembles of regional climate model simulations (e.g. ENSEMBLES, COREDEX) are likely to lead to an increasing potential to sample uncertainty at higher spatial resolution. Downscaling is not covered explicitly in this introductory paper, except to note that two studies in this special issue (Hawkins et al. 2012, Hoglind et al. 2012) are relevant to weather generation."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"Every approach to climate impacts assessment has its pros and cons. In the development of each approach, a number of questions are addressed, either implicitly or explicitly. The following list is drawn in part from a workshop on climate impacts held in April 2010 1 :"},{"index":7,"size":160,"text":"1. What is the appropriate degree of complexity for simulation? This is relevant both to the biophysical model (section 2.1) and in considering the influence of, and interactions between, the range of other drivers of agricultural productivity, such as pests and diseases and management practices (section 2.2.2.). 2. What are appropriate methodologies for quantifying and representing uncertainty (section 2.2.1)? There are an increasing number of sets of climate ensembles produced from a range of research programmes. How are impacts modellers and, more broadly, users of climate information to choose between these? Which uncertainties in climate and its impacts dominate under which circumstances? Given that complete sampling of uncertainty using ensembles is not possible, can objective probabilities be determined? How should uncertainty in agricultural models be represented and evaluated? 3. How should uncertainty be presented and communicated? How do these choices affect the methods used to quantify uncertainty? These questions have implications for the design and use of ensembles (section 3.2)."},{"index":8,"size":112,"text":"In addition to introducing and framing the special issue, this opening paper seeks to identify methodologies for making effective use of agro-climate ensembles. Thus, the summary of progress in section 2 is used as a basis for a discussion of knowledge gaps (section 3.1) and some brief reflections on the utility of agro-climate ensembles (section 3.2). Conclusions are presented in section 4. Throughout the manuscript, the word uncertainty, where used without further qualification, is used to denote a lack of predictive precision due to either inherent limitations to predictability (e.g. due to unknown future greenhouse gas emissions) or to a lack of predictive skill (e.g. errors in the design of a model)."}]},{"head":"Progress in agro-climate modelling","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Here we highlight progress in the models used for agricultural impacts assessment (section 2.1) and improvements in the methodological design of studies that use those models, both in terms of the quantification of uncertainty (section 2.2.1) and the use of modelling studies to inform adaptation, which necessarily implies simulating crop yield but also a range of other quantities and processes (section 2.2.2)."}]},{"head":"Agricultural models designed for use with climate ensembles","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"Judicious choices of both agricultural model and the technique used for calibration are crucial for the development of robust conclusions regarding the impacts of climate change. Implicit in this choice is a judgement on the appropriate degree of complexity for simulating biophysical and agricultural processes. Insufficient complexity, by definition, renders a model incapable of simulating the processes that result in observed quantities. Excess complexity in a model results in sufficient degrees of freedom to reproduce observations, but this will often require parameter values that cannot be adequately constrained -thus increasing the chances of getting the right answer for the wrong reason (Challinor et al., 2009b). In practice, use of a range of approaches, with associated recognition of the pros and cons implicit in the assumptions made, is a way of assessing the robustness of results. This observation has been developed and labelled in a number of research fields and in a number of ways, e.g. equifinality (Beven, 2006) and consilience (Wilson, 1998)."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"The use of a range of approaches within agricultural modelling is perhaps most evident with crops, as is indicated by the papers in this special issue, which range from detailed process based models (e.g.  2012) used the positive and monotonic relationship between CERES-Maize yield and carbon dioxide concentrations as a metric for the uncertainty associated with CO2 fertilisation and found this uncertainty to be significant (10 to 20%). This issue may be addressed by constraining the response of crops to increased CO2 using observations (Challinor et al., 2009c). However, interactions between water stress and CO2 can add significantly to the uncertainty in the response of crops to changes in CO2 (Challinor and Wheeler, 2008a)."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"Model simulations with fully coupled vegetation and climate also provide evidence of the magnitude of the CO2 fertilisation effect. Hemming et al. ( 2012) examine both direct and indirect plant physiological responses to CO2 using such a model. The direct effects of elevated CO2 account for a 75% increase in net primary productivity (NPP), whilst indirect effects (i.e. the sum of effects mediated through the associated change in climate) account for a 21% decrease in the ensemble average. The extent to which results for NPP can be directly compared to results from calibrated and/or constrained crop model simulations is not yet clear."}]},{"head":"(ii) Assessments of the impact of uncertainty in agricultural model inputs, including climate model data.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":211,"text":"It is clear from the analysis above, and from a broader reading of the studies presented here, that the uncertainty resulting from simulation of a climate impact (such as crop yield or disease occurrence), and the fraction that this contributes to total uncertainty, varies across studies. Studies using crop and climate models have suggested that uncertainty in climate is a significant, if not dominant, contribution to total projected uncertainty (e.g. Challinor et al., 2009c). The broader issue of error in the inputs to climate impact models is therefore an important one. Lobell (2012) finds, using an empirical crop model, that studies that ignore measurement errors are unlikely to be biased for estimating the temperature sensitivity of yields, but can easily underestimate sensitivity to rainfall by a factor of two or more. Watson et al. (2012) examine the impact of error in rainfall, temperature and yield data (used for calibration) on process-based crop model, by randomising and perturbing observed data. For their study case, errors generated by randomising the temporal sequence of seasonal total precipitation produced an error in simulated yield of approximately three times that of temperature or yield. However, perturbing input data to values beyond those found in the current climate increased all yield errors significantly and to comparable values."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"The above studies all focus on the importance of input data from the perspective of agricultural models themselves. An important exception is the study of Craufurd et al. ( 2012), which highlights the role of crop science experiments in providing high quality data to inform crop modelling. In particular, the authors note that the diversity of genotypic responses is not well represented by existing crop science experiments, since responses have only been quantified for a limited number of genotypes."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"The importance of weather and climate inputs in determining the predictive skill of agricultural models implies that appropriate effort should be made to ensure that these inputs are as accurate as possible (without introducing false confidence through unwarranted precision). After reviewing the methods available for post-processing climate model output, Hawkins et al. ( 2012) employ these methods using a 'perfect sibling' framework, which is similar to the perfect model approach, and find significant variation in results. Whilst that study does not employ a weather generator, the results are relevant for the on-going development of weather generators."}]},{"head":"Going beyond biophysical crop yield impacts","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":198,"text":"Much of the progress in agricultural modelling using ensembles has occurred with crop models. However, in order to inform adaptation, information is needed not just on likely future crop yields as influenced by biophysical processes, but also on the influence of a broader range of processes. Many of the studies discussed in section 2.1, and those presented elsewhere in this special issue, address adaptation in some way. These studies aim for a more complete description of the system through accounting for socio-economic drivers of productivity As the use of ensembles is extended to increasingly complete descriptions of agro-climatic processes (including biotic stresses and human actions), the complexity of the associated models and/or model chains will increase. Since the number of interactions between physical, agricultural and biological systems increases as the number of processes simulated increases, the uncertainty in the interactions will likely result in greater total uncertainty. Thus additional complexity brings with it demands for increased ensemble size in order to adequately sample uncertainty. If such models and model chains are carefully calibrated and have appropriate complexity then we may expect to see increasingly accurate representations of agro-climatic processes that in turn can be used to inform adaptation."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Remaining science questions and challenges","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"If projections based on agro-climate ensembles are to be robust, then a number of questions remain to be answered. Crop modelling relies on measurements for development, calibration and evaluation. How can field experiments, such as those that assess crop phenotypes, be best targeted towards modelling? Without addressing this question and others like it, agricultural models will at best make sub-optimal use of environmental data, and at worst they will be relied upon in lieu of that data, thus likely misleading adaptation efforts."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"A second challenge is to better understand the relationship between model complexity, measured uncertainty and actual uncertainty, and the manner in which this varies across spatial scales. Repeated projections for the near future, such as seasonal forecasts of crop yield, produce uncertainty ranges that are verifiable using standard techniques (e.g. Challinor et al., 2005). No such techniques can exist for projections of changes in the mean and variability of agricultural productivity on longer timescales, since there will be only one evolution of climate. Where climate change predictions are repeated many times, e.g. for multiple locations, ranges can be verified; but the extent to which these ranges can be compared to assessments of structural and parametric uncertainty is not clear."},{"index":3,"size":205,"text":"The move from emissions scenarios to Representative Concentration Pathways (van Vuuren et al., 2011) facilitates improved understanding of the consequences of uncertainty for prediction: by separating the uncertainty in future greenhouse gas emissions from uncertainty in the subsequent response of the climate system, the new framework has the potential to identify the component of future climate change that we can control. However, it is not yet clear whether or not this change will lead to more robust projections. Bayesian theory demonstrates that prior assumptions, whether made implicitly or explicitly, affect uncertainty estimates. Whilst some authors (e.g. Berger 2006) maintain that this does not preclude objective quantification of uncertainty, other authors question the potential for objective uncertainty assessment, both within ( O'Hagan, 2006) and beyond (Yohe and Oppenheimer, 2011) the Bayesian framework. Given this conceptual difficulty, and given that attempts to quantify uncertainty in agro-climate modelling can lead to very large ranges, and that ranges that can rarely be inter-compared (Challinor et al., 2007), it may be that new frameworks for quantifying and managing uncertainty are needed (sections 3.2 and 4). Studies that aim to compare and improve agricultural models, notably AgMIP (Rosenzweig et al., 2012), should do so in a manner that permits direct inter-comparison."},{"index":4,"size":100,"text":"Uncertainty in projections can be reduced by detailed examination of processes (see section 3.2) and/or by using observations to constrain simulations (e.g. Watson et al. 2012). Observational data for calibration and evaluation are critical to both of these methods of reducing uncertainty. For example, the yield simulations of Ewert et al. ( 2012) where the crop model is calibrated for individual regions using phenology and growth parameters are more skilful than those without this calibration, leading the authors to argue for region-specific calibration of crop models when conducting pan-European assessments. Similarly, the bivariate yield emulator tested by Ruane et al."},{"index":5,"size":124,"text":"(2012) for maize in Panama underestimated the potential yield impacts of extreme seasons and revealed errors due to the omission of additional crucial metrics including the number of rainy days and the standard deviation of temperatures. Thus, at least in some cases bivariate yield emulators are not sufficient for the prediction of yield in current or future climates. This work demonstrates the need for sufficient complexity in the development and calibration of agricultural models. Similarly, Watson et al. (2012) demonstrate the importance of yield data for the calibration of regional-scale models. Crop experiments relevant to future climates are also important (Craufurd et al. 2012), for example in evaluating the performance of crop varieties under climate change and in assessing crop response to elevated CO2."}]},{"head":"Effective use of agro-climate ensembles","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"The issues outlined in section 3.1 regarding data, model complexity, and simulated and actual uncertainty, make it clear that validated, definitive probabilistic ensembles of impacts are difficult, if not impossible, to produce. This implies the need for significant thought in the way that uncertainty and prediction are framed. It also implies a need to recognise that different models may be needed for different parts of the decision cycle. Depending on the aims of any given study, one of two approaches is usually taken to developing agro-climate ensembles. Projection-based approaches use models and data to increase understanding and view decision-makers as end users. Utility-based approaches focus on the decisions that need to be made, rather than projections of impacts. For a broader discussion of these two approaches to managing uncertainty in climate and its impacts, see Mearns et al. (2010) or Dessai et al. (2007)."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Projection-based approaches map out the cascade of uncertainty from climate through to impact."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"Their success may be contingent on a degree of consilience (see section 2.2.1), which is something that the research process is apt at achieving, albeit at a speed limited by the publication cycle. Model inter-comparisons and combinations (Rosenzweig et al. 2012) -including the synthesis of information from process-based and statistical approaches -are likely to be particularly useful techniques for achieving consilience. Since attempts to combine both climatic and socio-economic drivers of agriculture (e.g. Challinor et al., 2010) are relatively few in number, it is not yet clear whether or not consilience can be achieved across the biophysical and socio-economic domains."},{"index":4,"size":127,"text":"Projection-based approaches are particularly well-suited to research and this is perhaps the approach most commonly found in the literature. Over time, new knowledge about agro-climatic systems is generated and this knowledge can then be used wherever and however the opportunity arises. Projections with well-bounded and uncertainty ranges are more likely to be useful in this context than those with wide ranges. Robust outcomes may emerge by focussing on underlying processes. For example, Ruane et al. found that avoided water stress from rapid maturity offsets the effect of temperature increases. Thornton et al. (2009) found that maize and bean yields in the drylands of East Africa responded in a similar fashion to climate change under both increased or decreased rainfall, due to the relationship between temperature and rainfall."},{"index":5,"size":173,"text":"Utility-based approaches hypothesise that taking into account how information is used can improve its utility. Thus research design is informed by the decision-making process, for example the chain of decisions around investment in new crop varieties. Since decisions naturally involve social and economic systems, utility-based approaches usually involve the social sciences (Raymond et al., 2010;Twyman et al., 2011). The specific nature of the decisions examined in a utility-based approach may make it difficult to generalise the results from different studies. However, the embedding of information and learning within decision-making processes can provide an alternative framework within which to seek consilience: synthesising sources of information in to a decision may, in spite of some individually weak elements, enable a decision that is more robust, due to other elements being stronger in the full decision context. For example, Ash et al. (2007) and McIntosh et al. (2005) found that an integrated plant growth index was both more predictable and more relevant to farm decision-making than the rainfall and temperature data on which that index depends."},{"index":6,"size":142,"text":"Whether a projection or utility based approach is used in any given study will depend on a range of factors. The nature of the specific agro-climatic system studied, and the ability (skill) of the tools developed to reproduce the properties of this system, may in part determine the likely success of a utility-based approach. Model skill in turn is underpinned by the development of models for understanding and for prediction. As agro-climatic ensembles are developed and applied to a range of systems, the skill and utility of these tools needs to be carefully assessed. Promising areas for future work include the use of household models of agricultural activity as part of ensemble systems, in order to assess the impact of human responses to climate change at the local scale; and ensembles of integrated assessment tools and economic models (Rosenzweig et al., 2012)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"In addition to providing an introduction to this special issue, some recommendations for research may be drawn from the analysis above."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"1. Analysis of processes as a tool for navigating uncertainty. The use of models as black boxes, with the associated focus on model outputs, places a significant burden on the model to correctly reproduce the interactions between processes. The examination of processes across a series of models can identify research gaps in both modelling and field data (Challinor and Wheeler, 2008b). Such analyses are not routinely applied; indeed, it is often unclear which processes have been simulated within a given study (White et al., 2011). Model intercomparison projects -notably AgMIP (Rosenzweig et al. 2012) -provide opportunities to clearly document which processes are simulated and synthesise the results of numerous models."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"2. Explicit reporting on sources of uncertainty. When seeking either to improve understanding or to produce decision-relevant information, it is important to distinguish the sources of uncertainty. For example, climate change can be affected by policies to alter greenhouse gas emissions, but there is no political control over the response of the climate system to any given greenhouse gas forcing. Thus uncertainty in these two contributions to climate change has different implications for decision making."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"3. Strategies for combining diverse models and datasets. Agro-climate ensemble modelling rarely uses ensembles of agricultural models. Techniques for using multiple agricultural models could be targeted at projection-or utility-based approaches. In the latter case, different models may be needed for different parts of the decision cycle. In either case, there is likely to be a role for the development of field experiments that are targeted towards modelling, such as those that assess crop phenotypes."},{"index":5,"size":153,"text":"Underpinning all three of these recomendations is a methodology that treats models (and also data) as tools from which information is extracted, rather than as competing attempts to represent reality. This methodology could be used to improve understanding of the role of complexity, utility, spatial scale and uncertainty in agricultural prediction and adaptation. For example: how can net primary productivity from climate models (as analysed by Hemming et al. 2012) be used as part of crop yield assessments?; what are the relationships between model complexity, measured uncertainty and actual uncertainty, and how do these vary across spatial scale?; and can utility-based and projectionbased approaches to agricultural prediction be combined by explicitly simulating the decision making process in projection-based agro-climate modelling (e.g. Garrett at al. 2012)? One approach to this final question is to develop methods for combining analysis of uncertainty from projections with an assessment of the accuracy needed for a specific decision."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" EcoCrop database with a basic mechanistic model that uses environmental ranges as inputs to determine the main niche of a crop and then produces a suitability index as output.Ruane et al. (2012)  investigate the ability of empirical models of crop yield to reproduce the results from more complex processbased crop model simulations and infer pros and cons of each approach. The range of models now available is increasingly enabling spatially explicit global assessments of the actual (Osborne et al. 2012) and potential(Berg et al. 2012) productivity of crops and the impact of specific processes such as heat stress(Teixera et al.2012). Section 2.2.2 highlights progress in other non-crop simulations, for example socio-economic processes and pests and diseases.2.2 Improvements in the design of agro-climate ensembles2.2.1 Improved quantification of uncertaintyThe papers in this special issue present advances in both the methods used to assess uncertainty and the knowledge resulting from agro-climate ensembles. Methodological improvements address the inability to associate occurrence of events across an ensemble with the probability of those events occurring. More broadly, methodologies are required that enable the calibration and evaluation of ensemble prediction systems in order to better constrain ensemble outputs.Tao et al. (2012)    applied Bayesian probability inversion and a Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) technique to a large-scale crop model in order to attempt to make probabilistic predictions. This study, which focuses on the use of statistical tools to constrain ensembles, contrast with approaches that focus on specific processes such as heat and/or water stress (e.  "},{"text":" models of livestock, crops, pests and disease, whilstKroschel et al. (2012)  present a specific tool for adaptation planning in the integrated management of potato tuber moth. (Fraser et al. 2012), on-farm management (Fraser et al. 2012), on-farm management such as choice of crop variety or planting date (Osborne et al. 2012; Ruane et al. 2012), or the such as choice of crop variety or planting date (Osborne et al. 2012; Ruane et al. 2012), or the impact of pests and diseases (Garrett et al. 2012; Kroshel et al. 2012; Gouache et al. 2012). For impact of pests and diseases (Garrett et al. 2012; Kroshel et al. 2012; Gouache et al. 2012). For  "}],"sieverID":"fbd3c3f4-4201-48af-b4cc-7c2181d01a4d","abstract":"Significant progress has been made in the use of ensemble agricultural and climate modelling, and observed data, to project future productivity and to develop adaptation options. An increasing number of agricultural models are designed specifically for use with climate ensembles, and improved methods to quantify uncertainty in both climate and agriculture have been developed. Whilst crop-climate relationships are still the most common agricultural study of this sort, on-farm management, hydrology, pests, diseases and livestock are now also examined. This paper introduces all of these areas of progress, with more detail being found in the subsequent papers in the special issue. Remaining scientific challenges are discussed, and a distinction is developed between projection-and utility-based approaches to agro-climate ensemble modelling. Recommendations are made regarding the manner in which uncertainty is analysed and reported, and the way in which models and data are used to make inferences regarding the future. A key underlying principle is the use of models as tools from which information is extracted, rather than as competing attempts to represent reality."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05528c690e535d286751a2a8a7a9ffb2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H026015.pdf"},"pageCount":8,"title":"NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAM AND RESTRUCTURING OF IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT INTO BIDA","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"It takes a comprehensive approach to River Basin Management (RBM); Seeks to enhance the knowledge base to adopt sound technical solutions to drainage; and seeks t o reduce fiscal dependency especially for on-fami drainage."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"The strategy consists of the following inter-linked parts:"},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"(1) (ii) (iii) (iv) restructuring the Provincial Irrigation Departments (PIDAs) to form Public Utilities (PUS) around canal commands; actively promoting formation and development of Farmer Organizations (FOs); strengthening federal agencies, notably the Water and Power Development Authority's (WAPDA's) Water Wing, to better implement their federal responsibilities; and formalizing water markets and individual water property rights."}]},{"head":"OBJECTIVES OF NDP","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"The goal of the project is : "}]},{"head":"H o w W o u l d Be These Achieved?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"The objectives of the project are to improve the efficiency of tlie irrigaition and drainage systeiii in Pakistaii, and ensure its sustainability, tlirough: establishing an appropriate pol icy envi ronmetit and institutional framework, strengtlieiiing capacity of sectioii institutions, improving sectioii policies and planning strengthening the technical foundations of and knowledge base on irrigation and drainage, improving the irrigation a i d drainage infrastnicture network, institutional reforins to decentralize the irrigition and drainage system, capacity building of key irrigation and drainage institutions (\\VAPDA, PlDAs, A\\VBs and FOs), policies to iniprove the efficieiicy of water allocation, nioderiiization of caiial systeiii manageiiient, iiiiprovement of it-rigatioii systems and watercourses (e.g. to reduce seepage), ensuring proper OBM of canals and drains so that they can function as designed. "}]},{"head":"MAJOR COMPONENTS OF NDP","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Linkage of NDP \\\\.it11 BIDA","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The Boi-ro\\ver (COP) and IDA anticipate that if NDP is successfiilly implemented: the project includes fimds to prepare a pipeline of major drainage projects to be it \\vould be follo\\ved by tlie proposed National Irrigation Progam (NIP) which is under preparation, and by a series of NDP's and other associated investments in the water sector implemented from the second half of this project, and for the preparation of NDP 11.  To exercise all tlie powers under the Balochistan Canal and Drainage Ordinance, 1980 and Balocliistaii Groundwater Rights Administration Ordinance, 1978."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"To fix the rate in consultation with the Provincial Coverninent at which it will tipp ply irrigation water at its disposal to its various constituent Area 1Vater Boards other entities as provided iiiider BlDA Act 1997 as also the Drainage Cess payable by the A\\VBs or any other entity for the coiiveyance/disposal of the effluent tlirougli the relevant drains."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"The Authority may levy appropriate surcharge for late payiiients and recover arreai-s from defaulters tinder the Balochistan Land Reventie Act 1967."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"Provided that in case the Go\\,ernnient declares a remission, water, I-escheduliiig or suspension of payment of aiiy of tlie dues of tlie Authority, tlie saiiie shall be the account of the Government who shall simultaneously notify how the Authority shall be compensated for the loss thereby caused to the Authoi-ity andor other entity established under BlDA Act 1997"},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"To forintilate aiid implement policies in the water resources sector \\vitIi a view to coiitiiitiorisly iiiipi-ove and achieve effective, economical and efficient utilization, preservation and improvement of such water resources by the Water Users of Province on a financially and environmentally sustainable basis."},{"index":6,"size":50,"text":"To formulate and implement policy guidelines/procedures for the proper and efficient exercise of powers available under BIDA Act 1997 by the various entities and their directors, employees and to prescribe training requirements and programs which may be conducted by the various entities under this BIDA Act 1997 in tlus behalf."},{"index":7,"size":341,"text":"To conduct any inquiries and hear any complaints and adjudicate on any disputes andor any individual in accordance with the principles of natural justice spirit thereof. To prescribe and adhere to the procedures for the filing of documentation regarding allocation the Province and all concessions, licenses and leases granted by any entity under BIDA Act 1997 and to ensure availability thereof to the general public for inspection and taking copies thereof. To establish criteria and procedures for granting modifying, reassigning renewing suspending or revoking any concessions, licenses, subleases granted by the Authority to any other entity or person and/or for the management of the infrastructure in the event of suspension or revocation of a concessions, licenses or subleases granted by tlie Authority to any &her entity or person. To operate and maintain the irrigation, drainage, storage reservoirs and flood control infrastructure in the Province including hill torrent control and development works for irrigation of adjoining lands including watershed management practices in catchment areas. To plan, design, construct and improve tlie irrigation drainage, storage reservoirs and flood control system with a view to ensure optimal utilization of the water resources of the Province on an equitable and efficient basis. To undertake anti erosion operations including conservation of forests and reforestation and with a view to achieve this purpose, to restrict or prohibit by general or special order the clearing or brealung up of land in the catchment areas of any rivers, hill torrents a d o r other streanis. To undertake any work, incur any expenditure, procure machinery, plant and stores required for use by the Authority and to negotiate, execute and adopt ratify all such contracts as may be considered necessary or expedient with the approval of the G ove r ime lit. To formulate, adopt and implement policies aimed at promoting formation, growth and development of Area Water BoardsRarmer Organizations, and compilatioidfaitliful monitoring of the results thereof as per the requirements prescribed under BIDA Act 1997 ant to ensure orderly and systematic induction thereof into the operations of the Authority."}]},{"head":"Area Water Board's Responsibilities:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"To forinulate and implement policies with a view to aclueve and continuously improve effective, economical and efficient utilization of irrigation water at its disposal and to ensure that within a period not exceeding 07 to 10 years from the date of its constitution, it becomes fully operative as a self-supporting and financially self-sustaining entity. To plan, design, construct, operate and maintain the irrigation, drainage and flood control infrastructure located within its territorial jurisdiction. To adopt aqd implement policies aimed at promoting formation, growth and development of Farmer Organizations including pilot projects for Farmer Organizations and faithful monitoring of the results thereof."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"To perforill any other functions assigned by the Authority (BIDA Act, 1997).  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" NDP in 25-year to niininuze saline drainable surplus Senior Irrigation Engineer, Pakistan National Program 5 International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) 12-ICM Multan Road, Chowk Thokar Niaz Baig, Lahore-Pakistan Tel (92-42) 5410050-53 Fax: (92-42) 5410054 Em d: W2W&.l13!&~br:2~g 0 to facilitate the eventual evacuation of all saline drainable surplus from the Indus Basin to tlie Arabian Sea, and to restore environmentally-sound irrigated agriculture in Pakistan. "},{"text":" N D P coiisists of the following three compleinentary components, with estimated total cost of US $ 7 Delays of NDPThe iiiain risk to the project during its implementation phase is slow implementation due to the fol lo\\vi ng factors: of Investment Projects, delay in approval of contracts and iiivestment projects, and failure of PAS to meet eligibility criteria on schedule. "},{"text":" other hand; If the pace of reforms is slow due to lack of government comniitment, implementatioii constraints, or resistanceilack of commitinent by WAPDA, PIDAS of AlVBs for real change, the Boi-ro\\ver and I D.4 lia\\.e a g e e d and understand that: the iiicremental finalicing commitments for irrigation and drainage investnieiits tinder NDP would be scaled back 01 canceled altogether after the MTR or 2-3 years, and this factor wold be taken into account in determining IDA's fiiiancing for additional iiivestnieiits i n the water sector notably NIP and the proposed Fourth On-Farni 1Vater hlaiiagement i V Project. N DP I ~~I ~L E R ~E N , I ' . ~T I O N . Z L STRUCTURE AND JURISDICTION Coinpoileiits of 1iii~~le1iiciit;itioii Redefining roles and functions; Decentralizing roles and responsibilities; S t reanilining; Iiistitutioiinl reforms for 1VAPDA's lVater 1Ving and PIDs of Transferring management responsibility for those functions which should be niaiiaged by other entities \\vhicli \\till succeed PIDs; and capacity building for WAPDA and the new public and private institutions. "},{"text":" ROLE O F DIFFERENT ~NSTITUTIONS AND QUALIFYINC CAPACiTY UNDER NDP . B I D A' s R cs 1) o ii s i 11 i I i t i es :Subject to the provisions of the Indus Water Treaty, 1960 and the Water Apportionment Accord, 199 I to receive irrigation supplies at the barrages falling within the Province and/or from the inter-provincial'liiik canals and d'eliver the saiiie it1 agreed quantities to the various .4\\VBs in the Province at the relevant canal headworks. Shall receive drainage effluent at designated points on canal command bonndaries and con\\.ey the saiiie to the inter-provincial outfall drains. "},{"text":" Irrigation aid Drainage outside within canal comtiiands in which AWBs have not been established (other that1 onfarm drainage and irrigation). "},{"text":"0 Imgation a i d Drainage witlun its ~ canal command (other than on-fami drainage and F i irrigation) On-farm drainage; and On-farm irrigation upto minor/ distributary level. Comiiiitnity ownership and cost-sharing arrangements;(0 Basin stratebv;(g) Hand-over arrangements, where applicable; arid ,, (11) Awareness campaign directed at beneficiaries.FINANCIAL CONTRIBUTION OF FOS INTHE PROJECTS [ Yo 30 % of cost of civil works iiiaterials (Plus all the skilled and unskilled labor) 10% (Plus land required) 10% (Plus skilled and unskilled labor, and any land required) Rs. 10,000 Balance cost of civil works if any after considering grant of Rs. 20,000 from Provinces. Balance cost of civil works if any, after considering grant of Rs. 30,000 from Provinces. 10% of cost of civil works 20% of cost of civil works 0 Equitable distribution of water Instant decisions. Reach to the ajyculttiralhrrigation science and technology Operation auld Maintenance of Cat.aal/Distributaries at low cost "}],"sieverID":"814b7c00-4ade-4435-807a-b1551861674d","abstract":"This article is about the National Drainage Program (NDP) and restructuring of Irrigation Department into Balochistan Irrigation and Drainage Authority (BIDA). It, first, describes the strateby of the NDP, throws light on its objectives and discusses how these objectives can be achieved. It then, mentions the major components of the NDP, highlights, the main causes of the implementation delay of NDP, establishes linkage between NDP and BIDA, and provides implementation structure of NDP in hierarchical jurisdiction. It, then, gives the detail of the role of different entities (BIDA, AWB and FOs,) under NDP, enlists the condition for sponsoring projects for FOs, explains project approval cycle, illustrates guidelines for screeiiing projects, depicts FO's share in these projects, represents maximum upper limit of the expenditures of the projects for these different entities and, finally, it summarizes the benefits of farmer's participation to the government and to the farmers. This article heavily draws from the (World's Banks' Staff Appraisal Report NDP's PC-1)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0602ab86418975d72fc5b5c1450cdcb0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/10585948-cc41-436c-bc25-7b40de944751/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Expanding use of the Women's Empowerment in Livestock Index (WELI)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Context","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• Women's empowerment in the livestock sector is essential to progress towards gender equity and to foster livestock development."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"• Diverse strategies exist to empower women, yet they are difficult to assess or prioritize without a reliable and accepted means to measure 'empowerment'. "}]},{"head":"Our innovative approach","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"• The WELI measures women's empowerment in livestock and crop farming. • The index includes six domains of women's empowerment: decisions on livestock and crop production, decisions related to household nutrition, access to and control over resources, control and use of income, access to and control of opportunities, workload and control over own time -across animal health, genetics and feeds and forages. • WELI data collection is comprised of both a quantitative and a qualitative component, providing complementary information."}]},{"head":"Future steps","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The WELI is being tested in various contexts, including 4 IDRC projects, for refinement."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• Together with these improvements, we are also aiming to shorten the tool."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"• We are currently adapting the WELI, focused on livestock producers, to the business node of the value chain in order to assess changes in the empowerment of women in livestock business."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• We are developing a web-based resource on WELI."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"Alessandra Galiè, ILRI [email protected] Nils Teufel, ILRI [email protected]"}]},{"head":"LLAFS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"By understanding which interventions can provide empowering opportunities and how, we can refine these interventions and provide more effective empowering opportunities for women involved in livestock."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Applying the tool also provides value in itself. By facilitating conversations on how gender dynamics affect the empowerment of women and men differently the WELI opens a space for both local communities and researchers to establish how development interventions affect change in their context."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"A chicken trader sells her chickens at a traditional market in Maputo, Mozambique. Photo S. Mann/ILRI"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"622a003e-a448-4c13-a395-29767bd9fcf5","abstract":"§ The WELI is enabling programs, donors and other stakeholders to measure changes in the empowerment of women in livestock § The growing body of data is providing the basis for a global conversation on the kinds of interventions that work best to empower women involved in livestock around the world The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock thanks all donors & organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund. cgiar.org/funders"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0685e3507aa365a166483f474a04bc0f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2945ddb8-9713-4618-bef2-7d159508ca62/retrieve"},"pageCount":31,"title":"Acronyms and Abbreviations ACE Agricultural Commodity Exchange for Africa ADC Area Development Committee ADIN Agricultural Diversification Income and Nutrition AEDC Agriculture Extension Development Coordinator AEDO Agriculture Extension Development Officer AR-Africa RISING Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation AGRA Alliance for Green Revolution in Africa AGSWAp Agriculture Sector-wide Approach AHCX Auction Holdings Commodity Exchange AISL Agri-Input Suppliers Ltd BVO Bid Volume Only CAADP Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme CADECOM Catholic Development Commission of Malawi CBO Community-based Organization CDI Clinton Development Initiative CDCS Country Development Cooperation Strategy (USAID) CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CMI Champion for Market Information CNFA Citizens Network for Foreign Affairs CRS Catholic Relief Services DADO District Agricultural Development Officer DAES District Agricultural Extension Service DAECC District Agricultural Extension Coordinating Committee DARS Department of Agriculture Research Services DEC District Executive Committee DFID Department for International Development (UK) EPA Extension Planning Area ETG Export Trading Group FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FO Farmers' Organization FtF Feed the Future FOG Fixed Obligation Agreement FUM Farmers' Union of Malawi FY Fiscal Year GAP Good Agronomic Practices GDP Gross Domestic Product GIS Geographic Information System GoM Government of Malawi GP Groundnut platform GPS Global Positioning System GSL Grain Security Limited Ha Hectare ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":384,"text":"The following milestones were achieved during the reporting period:  A Bridging Activity launching workshop was held for AR/IITA and stakeholders, and the output was used in the development of the INVC Activity proposal development; multiple consultations with partners and stakeholders provided insights and ideas for refining the draft proposal and for establishing networking relationship between Bridging Activity and partners.  An INVC Activity concept note which benefited greatly from stakeholders' inputs was prepared and submitted to USAID who provided valuable comments that necessitated substantial revision of the proposal before resubmission.  The revised proposal was approved by USAID in August.  Consultation with potential Bridging Activity partners was initiated and an understanding for partnership in Activity implementation was reached.  ACE agreement developed. ACE sub-contracted AgroTech to undertake Activity 3 (Creative Financing) of Component 1 (Enhancing Market Value Chains) in which it will implement a seed loan scheme.  Preliminary identification of farmer groups, determination of seed quantities and varieties by partners, and notices to seed companies of imminent issuing of tenders were undertaken in preparation for procurement and delivery of legume seeds to beneficiaries.  Agreement with CRS for implementation of Seed Fairs in three districts was finalized; partnerships with MISST, CADECOM, FUM, and WE Effect were agreed upon but were yet to be formalized. Visits were made to DAES HQ and DADOs in all seven districts to discuss the implementation roles of each party in the activity.  Development of agreements with CADECOM, DAES, FUM, and WE was initiated.  Project Management and Staff Recruitment.  Office space and administrative assistance were provided for the Interim Activity Manager. Additional office space and furniture provided would be adequate for current and prospective Chitedze-based staff.  Transport was provided by IITA Malawi for the Interim Activity Manager.  Agreement was reached on equipment and vehicles to be transferred to the Bridging Activity; there were delays in the implementation of the agreement which will take place in October upon INVC close-out.  Several meetings were held with USAID during the quarter plus joint field trips to all districts to seek stakeholder input into the project proposal. This expedited the process of proposal revision and partnership plan development.  SOWs for five positions were prepared and the positions were advertised; candidates were shortlisted and interviewed. "}]},{"head":"Project description:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The Activity features two of the four major components of INVC: (1) Advancing value chain competitiveness and (2) Improving productivity. The objective is to deepen participation in grain legume value chain by farmers previously assisted by INVC."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Component 1 aims to improve the competitiveness of the grain legume value chain by increasing access to business development, financial and extension services, transforming the relationships between value chain actors, and strengthening market linkages. The hypothesis is that the development of efficient value chains and remunerative markets will act as a pull factor for the sustainable production of the different commodities. Priority is being placed on fostering direct agreements among participating producer groups, sources of inputs, and buyers of products that have the potential to be sustained after the conclusion of the Activity."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Component 2 aims to increase productivity in the targeted crops through the efficient use of natural resources (land and water) and increased adoption of improved varieties and recommended agronomic practices while at the same time minimizing the negative impacts on the environment."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"Support for grain legume Seed Fairs in three districts (Mangochi, Balaka, and Machinga) is also a feature of Component 2."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"The main objective of the Activity is inclusive agricultural sector growth that will contribute to improved household incomes. The focus on grain legumes has the potential to contribute to increased incomes and also to a diversified diet with improved protein intake which should lead to reduced stunting and improved nutritional outcomes for women and children. The objective will be achieved through the following intermediate results:"},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"(1) improved agricultural productivity, and (2) expanded markets and trade, as measures that will also transform the less productive agricultural sector in Malawi."}]},{"head":"Geographic Zone of Influence:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"The INVC Bridging Activity is operating in seven districts in FtF's ZOI in Malawi. The Activity's services are targeting up to 39,000 rural households that will benefit from productivity and value chain interventions in five districts (Dedza, Ntcheu, Mchinji, Lilongwe rural, and eastern highlands in Mangochi). In total, the activity will cover 15 EPAs in Mangochi, Ntcheu, Dedza, Lilongwe, and Mchinji. An additional 18,000 will benefit from Seed Fairs in Mangochi lowlands, Balaka, and Machinga during this year (Table 1 and Figure 1)."}]},{"head":"The relative importance of the target districts in production of both soybean and groundnut in Malawi.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Bridging Domasi and Nyambi In Year 1, the Activity is providing seeds and extension services related to production and marketing to 15,000 households in communities that are proximate to one another in the target EPAs and associated with functioning community groups (e.g., co.ops, clubs, and nutrition care groups). An additional 24,000 households in the same areas will be added in Year 2. The Activity will build on the efforts of INVC and consolidate the knowledge gains of past beneficiaries within five focal districts. For Component 1, the Activity will focus on marketing 1 Tentative targeting to be confirmed with District Agricultural Staff. and trade at the district level whereas for Component 2, the Activity will focus on increasing productivity in the EPAs that have high agro-ecological potential and/or those that demonstrated the best progress during INVC implementation (Table 1). Together the five target districts account for approximately 50% of groundnut and soybean production in the country"}]},{"head":"Implementation progress","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"This quarter marked the period of the Activity's initial operation in Malawi and featured the following:  Preparation, revision, final submission, and approval of Activity proposal;  Recruitment of staff;  Definition of the Activity's structure;  Development of partnership agreements and implementation plans;  Identification of participating farmer groups;  Initiation of seed procurement; and  Transition arrangements during the final months of INVC and the initiation of ADIN."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Each of these topics is discussed below."}]},{"head":"Project Proposal and Budget Preparation and Submission:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"In response to a request from USAID Malawi, IITA/AR agreed to implement the Bridging Activity beginning in June 2016. A concept paper was prepared by IITA/AR and circulated to stakeholders in May. A stakeholder consultation took place at the Golden Peacock Hotel in Lilongwe on 13 and 14 June and was organized / facilitated by IITA/AR and the IITA Malawi office. The gathering was well attended and participants expressed a range of views on INVC and future directions. The results of the stakeholder consultation were taken into account in the preparation of the full project proposal that followed in mid-June 2 ."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"A project proposal and budget was prepared under the leadership of the AR Manager (Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon) assisted by the Interim Activity Manager (Elon Gilbert) and other members of the IITA/AR team. The proposal was submitted by IITA PDO to USAID on 27 June 2016, revised and resubmitted in response to comments from USAID and partners, and finally approved in September 2016."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"Component 1, Advancing value chain competitiveness, will be largely implemented by ACE with inputs from other partners including FUM, CADECOM, and WE Effect. Component 2, Improving productivity, includes two major activities. Seed procurement and distribution are the responsibilities of the Activity management team (Sub-activity 1.1). Provision and strengthening of extension services (Sub-activity 1.2) will be carried out as part of the ongoing grain legume promotional programs of MISST being implemented by IITA and ICRISAT. Seed Fairs (Activity 2) will be the responsibility of CRS. Both components will feature the involvement of additional partners at the district, EPA, and farmer group levels as discussed below (Section 3.3 Activity Structure)."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"Adjustments in activities included the addition of a seed credit program for 3000 farmers in Lilongwe and Mchinji districts which builds upon the experience of a successful pilot project implemented by ACE with support from MOST. The seed credit program is part of an effort to close the gap between Components 1 and 2 by providing seeds on credit to farmers so that the loan can be repaid in grain. Interested farmers are screened for their ability and commitment to produce grain legumes in sufficient quantities to ensure a marketable surplus (see Annex 2) 3 ."}]},{"head":"Project management and staffing","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"During Q1, Activity staff was limited to the Interim Activity Manager (Elon Gilbert) who was contracted as a consultant by IITA/AR. He is scheduled to complete his assignment in October. Administrative and logistical support was provided by the IITA Malawi team. Terms of Reference for five staff positions (Activity Manager, Value Chain Specialist, Agricultural Production Specialist, M&E Officer, and Administrator) were drafted with the assistance of the IITA Malawi team. The position of Administrator encompasses grant management responsibilities."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"The recruitment of project staff conformed to the existing processes used by IITA Malawi. The development of TORs was followed by the successful recruitment of three staff members, Activity Manager, Activity Administrator, and Agricultural Productivity Specialist, all of whom are to start their assignments in early October (see below)."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"The Activity Manager previously served as Agricultural Productivity Specialist with INVC and her presence will help to ensure that the Activity takes account of the experiences of that project which ends in October. A Project Administrator/Grants Manager and an Agricultural Productivity Specialist were also recruited and started working in early October."},{"index":4,"size":207,"text":"Three of the four short-listed candidates for the M&E officer positions dropped out and the position was re-advertised. Interviews took place in early October. To be advertised, Consideration is being given to recruiting additional staff to complement the existing capacities of Africa RISING and the IITA country team as well as those of partner organizations. The approved proposal and budget include provision for staff directly engaged by the Activity at the district and EPA levels to coordinate programs supported by the Activity. Discussions were held on district-level staff, numbers, responsibilities, and how they relate to partners at the district level. The Activity will share the costs of some of the field technicians that partners will engage/are engaging since it will carry out joint activities rather than having separate staff. It was agreed that it would not be necessary for the Bridging Activity to recruit and manage staff at the EPA level to avoid duplication of effort with partners. Partners will be asked to assign staff to focus on Bridging Activities where that is appropriate as part of their agreements. However, serious consideration is being given to directly engaging officers to oversee and ensure the coordination of activities partially or wholly supported by the Activity in selected districts."}]},{"head":"INVC Bridging Activity Management Team","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Appointment","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Activity structure","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"In contrast to a \"normal\" development project such INVC which has a full complement of staff at the national and district levels who are involved in all aspects of planning, implementation, and reporting, the Bridging Activity operates virtually entirely through partners who develop and implement programs in accordance with a series of agreements or sub-contracts. The partners are all local organizations or development projects who have ongoing programs."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"The success of the Bridging Activity depends to a very considerable extent on the performance of the partners as well as those served by these partners: the farmer groups, communities, and individual farmers."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"At the national/project level, there is a small core of staff based at IITA Chitedze including the Activity Manager, Administrator, and Agricultural Productivity Specialist, and later this will include the Value Chain Specialists and M&E Officer. The core Activity staff develops a set of agreements with partners and oversees the implementation of the work plans featured in those agreements. The core team also contracts with seed companies to procure and deliver certified grain legume seeds to partners and farmer groups directly and via agro-dealers. (Component 2, Activity 1.1.)"},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"As described above (Section 3.1), there are three major partners: ACE for Component 1 (Value Chain Enhancement); MISST for Component 2 Activity 1.2 (Promotional Activities); and CRS for Component 2 Activity 2 (Seed Fairs), as described in the approved proposal. The Activity Management team is responsible for seed procurement and distribution (Component 2 Subactivity 1.1). MISST and ACE provide specific services to farmer groups working with partners in each district and EPA as detailed below. In addition ACE has subcontracted Agrotech to administer a seed credit program for 3000 farmers in two locations in Lilongwe and Mchinji districts. This program essentially spans and links Components 1 and 2."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"In each of the five target district there are four or more partners. The Activity is partnering with DAES, MISST, and ACE in all five target districts. MISST and ACE have ongoing programs and have agreed to factor in the needs for providing promotional services to farmer groups (cooperatives, clubs, etc.,) participating in the Activity's services at the EPA level in each district."}]},{"head":"Visualization of INVC Bridging Activity operations in Malawi","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Mangochi: WE Effect (WE) is the lead partner, coordinating its activities with MISST, DAES, and ACE. In addition to coordination, the operational responsibilities of WE include identification of participating farmer groups, development of plans for the provision of services for each group and coordination of the delivery of those services by partners in accordance with those plans; management of the seed credit program for those groups; and Monitoring, Evaluation, and Reporting."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"WE will make provision for one staff person in their agreement budget that will be the Coordinator and have reporting responsibilities."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"The DADO for Mangochi will also play a coordinating role in the sense of being kept aware of what is happening by WE and convene meetings of partners as needed. WE also chairs the DAECC at the present time so that formal interactions/reporting/information sharing could take place as part of DAECC meetings. DAES staff at the EPA level will be facilitated in carrying out specific bridging activities as they are currently doing with support from MISST."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"WE already partners with CRS, FUM, NASFAM, MISST, and DAES in various activities. These partnerships will continue and be selectively expanded with support from the Bridging Activity. DAES, MISST and ACE will be service providers to farmer groups being assisted by WE."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"CRS will be overseeing the implementation of the Seed Fairs (Component 2 Activity 2) in Mangochi as well as in the neighboring districts of Balaka and Machinga as described below and in the CRS work plan. CRS plans to formally contract a third party organization to manage the Seed Fairs in Mangochi; this should better ensure the close coordination of the Fairs with the services provided by ACE, DAES, and MISST to participating farmer groups."},{"index":6,"size":127,"text":"Ntcheu and Dedza: In addition to MISST, ACE, and DAES, the Activity envisages the participation of CADECOM in two EPAs in each district and of FUM in one EPA in Dedza. As with WE Effect in Mangochi, the responsibilities of FUM and CADECOM include identifying participating farmer groups; developing plans for the provision of services for each group and coordinating the delivery of those services by partners in accordance with those plans; and managing the seed credit program for their respective farmer groups, as well as Monitoring, Evaluation, and Reporting. For a range of reasons, serious consideration is being given to directly recruiting one staff person to serve as Coordinator for these two districts based in Dedza rather than having either FUM or CADECOM perform this function."},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"DAES will play coordinating and operational roles in both districts, similar to those in Mangochi, with the operational details and relationships to be worked out between the partners and relevant DADOs."},{"index":8,"size":46,"text":"ACE and MISST will continue to provide services as they have been doing in the two districts, with the understanding that those services will be extended to farmer groups selected for participation in the Bridging Activity to the extent that these groups are not already covered."}]},{"head":"Lilongwe and Mchinji:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"FUM is providing services to the participating farmer groups in four EPAs in Year 1 (two each in Lilongwe and Mchinji) as described above for Dedza and Ntcheu. ACE and MISST will be providing services in both districts to the FUM groups. In addition, ACE/AgroTech will be implementing a seed credit program in two or three locations for 3000 farmers in the vicinity of existing ACE warehouses in these two districts. Again for a range of reasons with the need for coordination and communication among all partners, including AgroTech and ACE MOST, serious consideration is being given to having the core Activity team based in Chitedze handle this task for the two districts."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Balaka and Machinga: CRS is the lead or coordinating partner in these two districts where Seed Fairs featuring grain legumes are the only activities being supported by the Bridging Activity. However, it is envisaged that the Seed Fairs will be coordinated with other efforts to promote grain legumes, notably by MISST and PCI/Njira, with CRS playing the leading role in that process as far as the Bridging Activity involvement is concerned."}]},{"head":"Development of Partnerships:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Well over half of the efforts during Q1 were devoted to exploring and selectively developing the partnerships required for implementation. As already noted, the key partners include ACE (for Component 1); MISST (Component 2, Sub-activity 1.2) and CRS (Component 2, Activity 2). Agreements with Year 1 work plans and budgets were concluded with ACE and CRS during the quarter."},{"index":2,"size":320,"text":" ACE: ACE was subcontracted by INVC to implement a range of activities related to strengthening the value chains for groundnut and soybean in particular and it is envisaged that those activities will continue for the most part under the Bridging Activity. The activities include the development of marketing information systems (MIS) serving producers and a range of value chain participants; a warehouse receipt system by which producers and others holding inventories can have access to credit using produce stored in warehouses as collateral; and training of participants at various levels of the value chains for the selected commodities. ACE also plans to initiate additional services with support from the new project.  The agreement with ACE has been expanded to include a seed credit component similar to the approach that they had successfully piloted with support from the Malawi Oil Seed Transformation (MOST) project this past season.  Multiple interactions with ACE were held in conjunction with the preparation of the proposal and budget for a better understanding of the mode of operation of the warehouses they manage (which are owned by FUM and NASFAM); the status/effectiveness of the MIS system in providing information to farmers/farmer organizations in such a fashion that they can act upon that information; and whether these activities interface with each other as well as with Component 2 activities so that the participation of small-scale farmers in the market will be enhanced/improved. The major beneficiaries of the ACE activities to date appear to be not so small producers and trading companies; this is understandable and not a bad thing, but there appears to be a serious gap in efforts to engage small-scale farmers with such services.  To date ACE has focused most of its warehousing and commodity financing efforts on soybean because of problems with aflatoxin in groundnut. ACE/AgroTech plans to feature groundnut along with soybean in their supervised credit program this coming season. "}]},{"head":"Identification of participating farmer groups:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Partners are assisting in the identification of participating farmer groups in all five districts and it is anticipated that a complete list of groups representing at least 15,000 farmers will be ready by mid-October. Participating groups will be selected in consultation with partners. Since the funding for seed purchases from the activity is limited, the farmer groups served by INVC and partners in the 15 EPAs will be ranked according to the following criteria."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":" Strong, effective leadership;  Performance, notably in the aggregation and marketing of products;  Volume of grain legume production and sales in recent seasons;  Financial capacity (savings, assets, financial management capacities);  Adequate aggregation arrangements;  Connections with buyers and experience in dealing with them; and  Proximity to transport/markets/storage facilities."}]},{"head":"Procurement and distribution of seeds:","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"The Activity plans to procure and distribute approximately 200 t of certified seeds for groundnut and soybean. A small amount of pigeon pea seeds may also be procured in response to the expressed preferences of specific participating farmer groups. The Activity plans to contract with seed companies to deliver the required amounts to specific locations, hopefully early in Q2, in accordance with the specifications in the contracts. Special attention is being paid to ensuring the quality of the seeds that will be delivered."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Estimates of seed requirements were developed during the quarter in consultation with partners. Information on seed procurement procedures was obtained from partners and the process was initiated in late September with the sending out of notices to prospective suppliers of seeds (see Annex 3). This will be followed by a formal tender notice in October which will request bids for the delivery of certified grain legume seeds to locations in the five districts by early November."}]},{"head":"Transitions:","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The Bridging Activity is a tale of two transitions. The first transition featured prominently during Q1 as INVC wound down its field activities in June and commenced the formal close-out process in July that was completed by the end of October. Although the process has had more than its share of flaws, the results in relation to a major purpose of providing a degree of continuity in approach, relationships with partners, and services to farmer groups have been quite positive on balance."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Multiple interactions with INVC staff were held during the quarter to gain a better understanding of the status of activities that would be continued with the Bridging Activity, notably the Value Chain Strengthening and Productivity Enhancement components of INVC. These discussions were aimed at ensuring a smooth transition as INVC winds down and finally is concluded in October 2016. Discussions with INVC also featured the transfer of assets, notably vehicles and equipment, and continuity in relation to selected partners. The contract for the ADIN project was awarded to the Palladium Group and a team, including the Chief of Party (Tom Gardener), is to arrive in early October."}]},{"head":"Challenges","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"The process of developing agreements with partners has been very time consuming, especially where coordination and communication among the partners were required. Partners generally prefer to operate independently of each other and are particularly wary of being dependent on inputs from partners with whom they may have had problems previously. There is a tendency to expect or possibly to prefer all communications between partners to pass through the Implementing Partner, even though agreements may specify the roles of partners and how they should work together. There are advantages and disadvantages in having a high level of centralization but in the context of the Bridging Activity's set of activities which is quite decentralized to the district level, the disadvantages of centralization are significant and would be likely to require a significantly larger core staff than is currently the case."},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"A related consideration is the extent to which different partnering and management arrangements should be concerned with the sustainability of those arrangements and the capacities of partner organizations beyond meeting the immediate needs of the Activity. The implementation of activities specified in the work plan is de facto the most important consideration, even though some attention may be given to sustainability and institutional strengthening in project documentation. The arrangement with WE Effect in Mangochi builds upon existing organizational relationships (with MISST, DAES, and other partners) with WE Effect continuing in a coordinating role among partners. In contrast, serious consideration is being given to having District Coordinators engaged by the project to be based in other districts, notably Ntcheu and Dedza. Such arrangements are likely to cease with the conclusion of the Activity and the organizational relationships may be interrupted as a result."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"The Activity has communicated with other projects and organizations, including SANE and STEPS, seeking guidance on interactions with the partners that are the focus of their programs, notably DAES, FUM, and CADECOM. The Bridging Activity has sought to complement their efforts although it has not always been so easy or straightforward."},{"index":4,"size":265,"text":"Planned activities for quarter 2 1. Develop Year 1 work plans for all components and activities with partners and submit to USAID. 2. Complete staff recruitment. 3. Visit five target districts and 15 EPAs covered by the project to finalize and initiate district and EPA plans for the provision of services to participating farmer groups. 4. Finalize agreements with four partners (MISST, FUM, WE Effect, and CADECOM). 5. Finalize arrangements to procure seeds for seed procurement, complete ordering of seeds and have them distributed by early November. 6. Finalize selection of farmer groups in at least 11 EPAs and identification of at least 15,000 farmers who will be given the option of receiving seeds on terms that are mutually agreeable to their cooperatives, or associations, the specific partners involved with those groups, and the Bridging Activity. 7. Develop ToRs for District Coordinators and recruit for those positions. 8. Operationalize M&E activities as discussed in the approved proposal as soon as the M&E Officer has been recruited. 9. Initiate discussions with ADIN on transition. To: Gbenga Akinwale <[email protected]> Cc: naomi kamanga <[email protected]>, Joseph Atehnkeng <[email protected]>, Soka Chitaya <[email protected]>, Arega Alene <[email protected]> Dear Gbenga/all, Thanks for coming by on Monday pm. I like your ideas very much on how MISST, IITA, and the Bridging Activity can work together jointly at the district and EPA levels. Here is my recollection of the topics we covered. I have some thoughts that we might not have specifically discussed. These arrangements could serve as a model for working will other MISST consortium members as well. Comments are most welcome from all."},{"index":5,"size":267,"text":"1. Seed procurement and distribution: This is basically in line with what is stated in the current version of the revised Bridging Activity proposal that will go to USAID shortly.  MISST will advise on (i) grain legumes and varieties which should be offered to specific EPAs on the basis of MISST's trials, feedback, and experiences in the last two seasons.  MISST will advise on sources of quality seeds (reliable seed companies and producers).  Bridging Activity and partners (including MISST) will determine the demand for different grain legumes by each participating farmer group/EPA.  The Activity will communicate needs, delivery timing, and locations to eligible/prequalified seed sources and invite proposals/bids; contracts will be finalized  The Activity and partners will monitor performance of seed delivery, including seed quality at all stages 2. Promotional Activities:  MISST will provide guidance on the set of messages/GAPs and promotional activities for each district/EPA.  MISST and the Bridging Activity will have a common promotional effort at the district and EPA levels rather than two separate programs, (assuming reporting arrangements can be sorted out in a fashion that is acceptable to USAID).MISST and the Bridging Activity, working together with other partners, will develop joint plans for providing services to participating farmer groups. These plans will take account of the promotional activities that these groups have already been exposed to by MISST, INVC, and partners to build on that experience.  MISST and the Bridging Activity will share the costs of the promotional activities, including the time of the MISST field technicians devoted to services to participating farmer groups/target EPAs. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"AnnexesAnnex:Annex 3 : Seed credit pilot project (most model) Partnership with MISST From: Gilbert, Elon (IITA) <[email protected]> Subject: Re: DRAFT AGENDA MISST Bridging Activity meeting Thurs 4 Aug 8:15 am, IITA Conference Room Chitedze Date: 10 August 2016 at 10:25:28 am GMT+2 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Three positions were filled (Activity Manager, Administrator, and Agricultural Productivity Specialist); the Value Chain Specialist candidate declined the offer made; the position of M&E Officer was re-advertised.IntroductionThis report summarizes the activities of the INVC Bridging Activity (the Activity) for the period June through September 2016.INVC is ending in October 2016 and a successor project, Agricultural Diversification of Incomes and Nutrition (ADIN), which officially starts in the same month, is just getting underway. The Activity provides continuity in assistance for the next two farming seasons (2016/17 and 2017/18) to a subset of the farmer groups and EPAs that received services from INVC.  "},{"text":"District High potential EPAs for 2-yr Bridging Activity Activity districts and targeted high potential EPAs or EPAs that made promising progress during INVC implementation. Mchinji Chiwoshya, Mlonyeni, Mikundi MchinjiChiwoshya, Mlonyeni, Mikundi Lilongwe rural Chileka, Mpingu, Chitsime, Nyanja Lilongwe ruralChileka, Mpingu, Chitsime, Nyanja Dedza Linthipe, Kanyama, Chifumbwa DedzaLinthipe, Kanyama, Chifumbwa Ntcheu Njolomole, Manjawira, Bilira NtcheuNjolomole, Manjawira, Bilira Mangochi Ntiya and Katuli MangochiNtiya and Katuli Seed Fairs 1  Seed Fairs 1 Balaka Bazale and Rivirivi BalakaBazale and Rivirivi Mangochi Katuli and Masuku MangochiKatuli and Masuku Machinga  Machinga  "},{"text":"  MISST: A number of meetings and communications with representatives of the MISST Consortium were held on their participation in the INVC Bridging Activity as partners. Agreement was reached on combining efforts in the promotion of improved grain legume varieties and best-bet production practices in the 15 targeted EPAs. It is anticipated that the partnership with MISST will be formalized in a working agreement and a set of EPA and district plans in Q2 (seeAnnex 4).  Partnership with MSU: MSU is providing teaching and learning materials for delivery of best bet agronomic practices to farmer groups through training of trainers for extension staff of implementing partners and DAES in collaboration with the Bridging Activity Agricultural Productivity Specialist and M&E Specialist.  CRS: CRS will implement a program of Seed Fairs in three districts (Balaka, Machinga, and Mangochi) in accordance with an agreement, work plan, and budget that were developed and agreed in September.  FUM/CADECOM: Considerable time was devoted to developing agreements with FUM and CADECOM, focusing on the substance of how they are going to operate with ACE, MISST, and DAES in each district. These efforts are continuing and should be concluded early in Q2.  WE Effect: WE Effect is a Swedish Cooperative working with local partners in Mangochi on a range of topics relating to agricultural productivity, greater participation in value chains for grain legumes in particular, natural resource management, and the strengthening of local organizations, community savings and loans, among other activities <http://www.weeffect.se>. They are currently involved with promotion of OFSP with CIP MISST in that district and an agreement was concluded on the possibility of their assistance in reaching farmer groups in the two targeted Mangochi EPAs which were previously covered by NASFAM and later by INVC.  Other Contacts/Potential Partners: There were contacts with several additional potential partners including SANE, STEPS, Cultivating New Frontiers in Agriculture (CNFA), AGRA, and MOST 4 .  "},{"text":" Initial focus was on trying to get ACE, FUM and CADECOM at the national level to develop a common approach based on lessons from INVC and work out a division of labor. This failed for a range of reasons. Subsequent efforts to build consensus at the district and EPA levels proved much more successful. B1.2 have access Activity 2 USAID Agreement AR/IITA, resulted in a Agreement B1.2have access Activity 2USAID AgreementAR/IITA,resulted in a Agreement  to improved with CRS to CRS substantial revision developed and to improvedwith CRS toCRSsubstantial revision developed and A.2.2 B.2.1 a Activity1.1: Revision and resubmission inputs (seeds and inoculum) and services E.8 Operationaliz M&E Officer soon as the activities as e M&E Revised proposal Procurement plan and M&E activities implement three districts Seed Fairs in program of initiated AR/IITA with inputs from AR/IITA, IITA/AR and partners and the resubmission of the proposal. Revised proposal approved Preliminary formalized A.2.2 B.2.1 a Activity1.1: Revision and resubmission inputs (seeds and inoculum) and services E.8 Operationaliz M&E Officer soon as the activities as e M&ERevised proposal Procurement plan and M&E activities implement three districts Seed Fairs in program of initiatedAR/IITA with inputs from AR/IITA, IITA/AR and partnersand the resubmission of the proposal. Revised proposal approved Preliminary formalized  of proposal Procure and has been submitted to and delivery of stakeholders Seed by USAID identification of of proposal Procure and has beensubmitted to and delivery ofstakeholders Seedby USAID identification of  deliver quality recruited USAID legume seeds to Companies, farmer groups, deliver quality recruitedUSAID legume seeds toCompanies,farmer groups, B: Developing Partnerships B1 Component 1, Activities 1 and 2: Advancing Value Chain Competitiven ess Development of Agreements with ACE FUM, CADECOM, DAES, and WE Effect that draw on INVC experience seeds and inoculum to farmers participating farmers via contracts with seed companies E.9 Transfer Assets C. Project Management and Staffing C5.1 assets from transferred Recruitment Five SOWs INVC to of Staff prepared; Bridging positions Activity B1.2 Component 1, Activity 3: Creative Financing Seed Credit Pilot covering 3000 farmers in two including plus joint field Mchinji other partners during quarter Lilongwe and Participation of USAID meetings held locations in farmer groups. C5.2 Meeting with Several to three B2.1 b Activity 1.2: Provision and strengthening of extension services MOU with MISST to extend its activities in five districts to include participating advertised, candidates shortlisted and interviewed E.10 Initiate Discussions discussions initiated transition with ADIN on AR/IITA; ACE, FUM, CADECOM, WE Effect, FUM, CADECOM, WE Effect IITA and INVC AR/IITA USAID AR/IITA and ACE/AgroTe ch AR/IITA, MISST, CADECOM, FUM, WE Effect, DAES IITA/AR, ADIN, and USAID AR/IITA; ACE, Agro determination of seed quantities and varieties by partners; notice to Three positions were filled (Activity Tech Agreement seed companies of Manager, completed; agreements with other partners pending formalized in Oct. participation in the which should be submission; and WE Effect proposal prior to CADECOM, FUM Modification of Subcontract with AgroTech included in ACE agreement imminent issuing of tender Agreement was reached with agreements with re-advertised. was made on Officer position was October; progress the offer. M&E formalized in candidate declined MISST to be Administrator, and Agricultural Productivity Chain Specialist Specialist; The Value This was a lengthy process. Interim Project Manager operated alone during the quarter. of partnerships and implementation plans. expedited the proposal development process and assisted in development Valuable assistance/guidance was provided by USAID Malawi which B: Developing Partnerships B1 Component 1, Activities 1 and 2: Advancing Value Chain Competitiven ess Development of Agreements with ACE FUM, CADECOM, DAES, and WE Effect that draw on INVC experience seeds and inoculum to farmers participating farmers via contracts with seed companies E.9 Transfer Assets C. Project Management and Staffing C5.1 assets from transferred Recruitment Five SOWs INVC to of Staff prepared; Bridging positions Activity B1.2 Component 1, Activity 3: Creative Financing Seed Credit Pilot covering 3000 farmers in two including plus joint field Mchinji other partners during quarter Lilongwe and Participation of USAID meetings held locations in farmer groups. C5.2 Meeting with Several to three B2.1 b Activity 1.2: Provision and strengthening of extension services MOU with MISST to extend its activities in five districts to include participating advertised, candidates shortlisted and interviewed E.10 Initiate Discussions discussions initiated transition with ADIN onAR/IITA; ACE, FUM, CADECOM, WE Effect, FUM, CADECOM, WE Effect IITA and INVC AR/IITA USAID AR/IITA and ACE/AgroTe ch AR/IITA, MISST, CADECOM, FUM, WE Effect, DAES IITA/AR, ADIN, and USAIDAR/IITA; ACE, Agro determination of seed quantities and varieties by partners; notice to Three positions were filled (Activity Tech Agreement seed companies of Manager, completed; agreements with other partners pending formalized in Oct. participation in the which should be submission; and WE Effect proposal prior to CADECOM, FUM Modification of Subcontract with AgroTech included in ACE agreement imminent issuing of tender Agreement was reached with agreements with re-advertised. was made on Officer position was October; progress the offer. M&E formalized in candidate declined MISST to be Administrator, and Agricultural Productivity Chain Specialist Specialist; The ValueThis was a lengthy process. Interim Project Manager operated alone during the quarter. of partnerships and implementation plans. expedited the proposal development process and assisted in development Valuable assistance/guidance was provided by USAID Malawi which B.2 Component 2: DAES, FUM, trips to all  Visits to DAES HQ development of B.2Component 2:DAES, FUM, trips to allVisits to DAES HQ development of  Improving CADECOM, and districts  and DADOs in all 7 partnerships ImprovingCADECOM, and districtsand DADOs in all 7 partnerships C5.3. Agricultural Office space, Productivity furniture, and WE Effect was Office space to be worked and districts resulted in IITA Malawi Adequate during understandings on quarter Additional office space and furniture were provided which should be adequate for current and prospective Chitedze-based staff. C5.3.Agricultural Office space, Productivity furniture, andWE Effect was Office space to be worked anddistricts resulted in IITA Malawi Adequate during understandings on quarterAdditional office space and furniture were provided which should be adequate for current and prospective Chitedze-based staff. B.2.1 Activity 1: administrative out. administrative  their roles. B.2.1Activity 1: administrativeout. administrativetheir roles.  Enabling assistance assistance for   Enabling assistanceassistance for  farmers to Interim Activity   farmers toInterim Activity  "}],"sieverID":"5be8eba9-b847-46fd-86cc-f91a78c94416","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06d385bbb4dbdd641c0dcb18c0038011","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/881ea757-89b5-4b63-95a5-f28340fa3e69/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"Factors that transformed maize productivity in Ethiopia","keywords":["Success story","Maize revolution","Productivity gains","Food security","Input use","African agriculture"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Food security in Ethiopia, and elsewhere in Africa, is a major socio-political issue. Its economic wellbeing is also dependent on the success of its agriculture. Ethiopia has long suffered from food shortages and economic underdevelopment even though it is endowed with a wide range of crop and agroecological diversity. Maize, teff (Eragrostis tef), sorghum, wheat, and barley among cereals and enset (Ensete ventricosum) (Bfalse banana^) among Broots and tubers^provide the main calorie requirements in the Ethiopian diet. Crop productivity and production remained low and variable in the 90s for the most part but there have been clear signs of change over the past decade."},{"index":2,"size":205,"text":"Maize has expanded rapidly and transformed production systems in Africa as a popular and widely cultivated food crop since its introduction to the continent around 1500 A.D. (McCann 2005). Maize arrived in Ethiopia slightly later, around the late 17th century (Huffnagel 1961), and was mainly grown as a subsistence crop in the mid-altitudes (1500-2000 m above sea level) in southern, south-central, and southwestern parts of the country. The production system in the 1960s and for the first quarter of 1970s was truly subsistence, the yields barely exceeding 1 metric ton (MT)/ha. The rate of growth for area declined following the great drought of 1974, and while there was expansion in the 1980s, the average annual yield was volatile and rarely exceeded 1.5 MT/ha. Maize production and its status in determining food security in the country received a major focus in the mid-1980s, particularly spurred by the 1984 devastating drought and the famine that followed. The wide adaptability of the crop and the potential to produce more calories and food per area of land cultivated than all major cereals grown in Ethiopia were important factors in considering maize as part of the national food security strategy, including its inclusion under the government-led intensive agricultural extension program."},{"index":3,"size":314,"text":"With increased production driving market prices down, maize became more affordable (e.g., relative to other staples such as teff and wheat) to rural and urban consumers. It is now increasingly used both separately as well as in mixed flour with other more expensive cereals in traditional Ethiopian diets. Maize is the most important staple in terms of calorie intake in rural Ethiopia. The 2004/5 national survey of consumption expenditure indicated that maize accounted for 16.7 % of the national calorie intake followed by sorghum (14.1 %) and wheat (12.6 %) among the major cereals (Berhane et al. 2011). Compared to the 1960s the share of maize consumption among cereals more than doubled to nearly 30% in the 2000s, whereas the share of teff, a cereal that occupies the largest area of all crops in Ethiopia, declined from more than 30% to about 18% during the same period (Demeke 2012). 1  The popularity of maize in Ethiopia is partly because of its high value as a food crop as well as the growing demand for the stover as animal fodder and source of fuel for rural families. Approximately 88 % of maize produced in Ethiopia is consumed as food, both as green and dry grain. Maize for industrial use has also supported growing demand. Very little maize is currently used as feed but this too is changing in order to support a rapidly growing urbanization and poultry industry. Unlike its neighbor, Kenya, which imports a significant share for its consumption needs, Ethiopia has increasingly attained self-sufficiency in maize production since early this decade and even exports some quantities to neighboring countries (e.g., Sudan and Djibouti) in years of surplus production. If production can be significantly expanded, the potential for maize export to all the neighboring countries including Kenya is very high although the national demand is expected to continue to grow in the coming years."},{"index":4,"size":155,"text":"The emerging maize green revolution for Africa that Byerlee and Eicher (1997); Byerlee and Heisey (1997); Byerlee and Jewell (1997); and Eicher and Kupfuma (1997) envisioned in the 1990s has remained elusive so far but is showing strong signs of becoming a reality now in Ethiopia and perhaps in other countries of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). There is evidence that the increased productivity and production of maize is also having a significant positive impact on poverty reduction (Dercon et al. 2009;Zeng et al. 2013). In this article, we bring together our collective knowledge and experience to bear on Ethiopian agriculture and beyond. We analyze the drivers behind this rapid increase in production and productivity of maize and attempt to draw lessons. These lessons and insights are drawn from a review of recent literature, analysis of existing data and from our own long-standing field experience in observing the process of change and productivity growth in Ethiopian agriculture."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"The major source of production and agricultural input data was the time series publications of the Central Statistical Agency (CSA) (www.csa.gov.et); organized and comprehensive data on inputs are available starting 2004, even though records on production have been going on for a much longer period. We also used unpublished data from the Agricultural Inputs Marketing Directorate of the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA). References in this study have also been made to published sources (e.g., MOA 1984;Tolossa and Ransom 1993;Nigussie et al. 2002;Worku et al. 2012;FAOSTAT 2015) and secondary sources to describe the development of maize that could have significant implications for the future direction of agricultural research and development in Africa."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Furthermore, meteorological data for sites, including Gonder (1973 m asl 2 ; 1099 mm rainfall), Finote Selam (1980 m asl; 1300 mm), Bako (1700 m asl; 1316 mm), Jimma (1750 m asl; 1564 mm), Wolaita-Sodo (1854 m asl; 1275 mm), Hawassa (1980 m asl; 941 mm), Chiro [formerly Asebe-Teferi] (1792 m asl; 767 mm), and Haramaya (1900 m asl; 748 mm), which represent the major maize production zones in Ethiopia were obtained from the National Meteorological Agency (www.ethiomet.gov.et)."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"The various data sets mentioned above were used to calculate percent area covered by improved maize varieties as well as areas that received inorganic and organic fertilizers in the various administrative regions. As CSA provides mineral fertilizers as di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) and urea in kilograms, we converted these data sets into actual nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) nutrients for standardized comparisons. Information on agro-ecological zones was obtained from the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA 2005). Comprehensive long term yield data were sourced from FAOSTAT (http://faostat. 1 The contributions of all other cereals have either declined or showed little change; the only exception was wheat, with about 21 % in the 2000s compared to about 18 % in the 1960s (Demeke 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"2 asl=above sea level fao.org/site/567/default.aspx#ancor), whereas yield data for 2004 to 2013 were obtained from CSA (www.csa.gov.et)."},{"index":5,"size":105,"text":"To calculate the rate of yield gains over the years, the FAO data were regressed on years. The resulting regression coefficient was taken as an annual rate of yield gain. Additionally, regression analyses were conducted to determine the relationship between maize grain yield and N and P applications for the major maize growing administrative regions and at the national level, using the CSA data for 2004 to 2013. We also calculated the annual rates of growth using log estimates. The GLM procedure in Statistical Analysis System (SAS 2007) was used to generate Least Square Means of the total annual rainfall recorded from 1990 to 2012."}]},{"head":"The maize story in Ethiopia","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"Maize is the second most widely cultivated crop in Ethiopia and is grown under diverse agro-ecologies and socioeconomic conditions typically under rain-fed production. The maize agro-ecologies in Ethiopia can be broadly divided into six major categories (MOA 2005), including Moist and Semi-moist mid-altitudes (1700-2000 m above sea level; 1000-1200 mm rainfall), Moist upper mid-altitudes (2000-2400 m; >1200 mm), Dry mid-altitudes (1000-1600 m; 650-900 mm), Moist lower mid-altitudes (900-1500 m; 900-1200 mm), Moist lowlands (<900 m, 900-1200 mm), and Dry lowlands (<1000 m, <700 mm)). As presented in Table 1, the moist and semi-moist mid-altitude zones comprise the bulk of the national maize area in Ethiopia. These are mostly located in the SW and W Oromia, W and NW Amhara, parts of the Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNPR), and Ben Shangul-Gumuz (BSG). Taken together, the Semi-moist and Moist ecologies cover about 75 % of the national maize production area whereas the dry ecologies cover the remaining 25 %."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"Smallholder farms account for more than 95 % of the total maize area and production in Ethiopia. The farmers use animal traction for land preparation and cultivation; almost all production is rainfed, irrigated areas accounting for only about 1 % of the total."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"Smallholders across all 70 administrative units of Ethiopia, which include 59 zones and 11 special weredas 3 grow maize (Fig. 1). The top five maize producing zones of Ethiopia, according to the 2011 CSA data, are West Gojjam, Jimma, East Welega, West Welega and East Gojjam. Most of these fall into the mid-altitude (1500-2000 m asl) range."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"More than 9 million households, more than for any other crop, grow maize in Ethiopia (CSA, 2011-13 data). The annual rate of growth for the number of households cultivating maize grew at 3.5 % each year between 2004 and 2013, compared to 3.0 % for sorghum, 3.1 % for teff, 2.1 % for wheat, and 1.8 % for barley. At present, as a sub-Saharan country, Ethiopia has the fifth largest area devoted to maize but is second, only to South Africa, in yield and third, after South Africa and Nigeria, in production."},{"index":5,"size":112,"text":"Maize currently occupies about 2 million ha with an average yield of upwards of 3 MT/ha (Fig. 2). National maize yields have doubled from about 1.50 MT/ha during the early 1990s to 3.23 MT/ha in 2013. Analysis of FAO data revealed that a highly significant (p<0.0001) annual yield gain of 68 kg/ha was recorded for maize in Ethiopia for the period 1990 to 2013. Only South Africa exceeded this figure (119 kg/ ha/yr) in SSA whereas some countries such as Tanzania and Kenya registered negative growth. Ethiopia's figure is superior to Mexico (55 kg/ha/yr), China (55 kg/ha), and India (47 kg/ha/yr). Yield gains grew even faster (120 kg/ha/yr) between 2000 and 2013."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"Despite the pockets of change across Africa, such change at the national level is a significant transformation in a region where a green revolution seemed largely unattainable (Howard and Mungoma 1997;De Groote et al. 2002;Smale et al. 2011;Smale and Olwande 2014). On average, maize area and productivity increased by 4.0 and 6.3 % pr annum, respectively, during the 10 years between 2004 and 2013. Similarly, the annual rate of growth for production during the same period was 10.5 %."},{"index":7,"size":89,"text":"It is interesting to see that the increases in maize production in Ethiopia resulted more from increases in productivity rather than area expansion -i.e., the yield grew faster than the area (Fig. 2). The current performance of maize in Ethiopia compares favorably with the main maize producing countries in SSA (Fig. 3). Ethiopia is the only country in SSA outside South Africa that has attained >3 MT/ha yield; only Zambia and Uganda have achieved >2.5 MT/ha, followed by Malawi, with >2 MT/ha. The SSA average is about 1.8 MT/ha."},{"index":8,"size":150,"text":"Largely because of the increasing demand (Rosegrant et al. 2001) driven by population growth and competitiveness of the crop, maize area in Ethiopia also doubled during the past two decades from 1 to 2 million ha. This increase in area came mainly from two sources. First, the traditionally sorghum-growing smallholder farmers in the rift valley shifted to maize because of the weaver bird (Quelea quelea) invasion that resulted in the total destruction of sorghum in the early 1980s. The second driver of maize area increase was the adoption of maize by the traditional teff-growing farmers in north-central Ethiopiaparticularly in West Gojjam, North Gondar, and other surrounding agro-ecologiesbecause of its high productivity achieved through new hybrids (starting with the hybrid BH140) and diversity in end-uses of maize. Unlike in the central rift valley, farmers here did not necessarily shift from teff to maize but rather expanded the area of the latter."},{"index":9,"size":91,"text":"In general, the growth in the proportion of maize area was higher than all other major cereals over the last three decades (Fig. 4). For example, maize occupied roughly 16 % of the total cereals area in 1981-83 compared to 30 % for teff, 20 % for sorghum, 14 % for wheat, and 19 % for barley; the area occupied by maize, teff, sorghum, wheat and barley in 2001-03 was 24, 31, 17, 15, and 13 %, respectively. Currently teff, maize, sorghum, wheat and barley occupy 30, 22, 20, 17, and "}]},{"head":"Maize transformation in Ethiopia","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"The expansion and productivity change in maize production in Ethiopia is attributable to multiple factors. These include a) increased availability of modern varieties, b) increased commitment to enhance farmer access to and use of modern inputs through better research-extension linkages, c) wider adaptability of the crop and modern varieties, d) better production conditions and low production risks and e) growing consumption demand and market access for producers to support marketbased production to absorb surplus supply. We discuss some of these factors and draw lessons on the key drivers of change in the following section to show the relevance of similar processes of transformation in African agriculture."}]},{"head":"Maize research and development","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":196,"text":"Maize research and development in Ethiopia has gone through a number of changes over the last several decades, which marked critical periods in terms of driving the current change in production and productivity. We summarize the major ones in Table 2 below. Some of the key events that warrant specific mention include the 1984 major drought and famine that helped to increase the profile of maize in attaining national food security; the introduction of nationally developed hybrids adapted to the local production conditions in the late 1980s and early 1990s; the launching in 1993 of the government campaign, NEIP (National Extension Intervention Program) in partnership with Sasakawa Global 2000 (or SG2000) to increase food security; the introduction of a maize grain floor price in the early 2000s; the introduction of an integrated systems approach for research and development by the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) in the early 2000s (Abate 2006(Abate , 2007)); and inclusion of maize in the commodity exchange in recent years. Earlier attempts made to introduce hybrids from Kenya were unsuccessful due to poor adaptation to the prevalent production systems and high seed price. Further details can be found in Table 2."}]},{"head":"Modern varieties (MVs)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Undoubtedly, the maize story in Ethiopia is largely homegrown and improved maize germplasm has played a key part in catalyzing change in production practices by replacing traditional varieties with input-responsive, stable and high yielding MVs. The Ethiopian NARS has released a total of 61 maize varieties between 1973 and 2013. The first locally developed hybrid (BH140, in the early-to intermediate-maturity group) was released in 1988, followed by a late-maturing hybrid (BH660) in 1993, and BH540 and the Pioneer Hi-bred Seed Ethiopia hybrid PHB3253 (marketed as Jabi) in 1995."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"There was a total of 16 hybrids and 4 Open Pollinated Varieties (OPVs) under production in 2013 (Table 3). Hybrids accounted for 97 % while OPVs represented only 3 % of the total seed market. Furthermore, the Ethiopian seed market has been dominated by BH660 and BH540; the average age of 80 % of the currently grown varieties is more than 20 years. There are also hybrids that came into production between 2005 and 2008, but their amounts remain limited, with the exception of the Pioneer hybrids Shone and Agar (Table 3)."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"BH661, promoted under the auspices of the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) project, is of particular significance because of its drought tolerance, resistance to major diseases, higher yield potential and wide adaptability. This variety is expected to replace both BH660 and BH540. The demand for foundation seed by seed companies of this new hybrid is rapidly growing. In 2012 Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE) produced 6 MT of certified seed; by 2014 five companies, including Amhara Seed Enterprise (ASE), Avallo, ESE, Oromia Seed Enterprise (OSE), and Southern Seed Enterprise (SSE) produced nearly 2,900 MT."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"Only four OPVs are at all common but their use is limited to the more drought-prone areas such as the central rift valley. The OPVs Melkassa2 and Melkassa4 have been used extensively in the last several years; two new ones (Melkassa6 and Gibe2) were recently introduced into the market and their use is expected to expand before getting replaced by higher yielding hybrids that are in the process of development."}]},{"head":"Uptake and diffusion of modern inputs","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Maize inputs in Ethiopia include mainly improved seed and fertilizers. The use of pesticides (including fungicides,  "}]},{"head":"Improved seed","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":264,"text":"In order to see the patterns of diffusion across the country, we conducted an analysis of CSA data 4 on use patterns of improved seed across major maize growing administrative regions of Ethiopiaviz. Amhara, BSG, Oromia, SNNP, and Tigray. Owing to the size of maize area, Oromia, followed by Amhara and SNNP, have the largest amount of improved seed usage. 5 The share of total MVs used in Oromia region during 2010-12 was 49 % of the total; Amhara and SNNP accounted for 33 and 18 %, respectively, with BSG and Tigray both receiving <1 % each. 6  Table 4 depicts the percent area coverage by MVs in Ethiopia between 2004 and 2013. The area covered by MVs varied according to regions and years. The Amhara Region has shown consistently higher percentages of coverage through the 10 year period. For example, the area under MVs was 24 % in 2004, compared to 55 % 10 years later. This was followed by SNNP and Oromia, in that order. The national average also followed consistent upward trends, especially over the last 5 years. The national average maize area under MVs in 2013 was 40 %, compared to 16 % in 2004. This is a far cry from reports in the distant and recent past (MOA 1984;Langyintuo et al. 2011;Spielman et al. 2013). Most recent studies and adoption monitoring surveys of DTMA suggest that the total maize area covered by MVs is more than 65 % (CIMMYT 2014) but these have mostly sampled only limited households in the central rift valley and cannot reflect the national picture."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"The federal government-owned company ESE has been the largest supplier of foundation and certified seed in the country until recently. Regional government-owned companies, including the ASE, OSE, and SSE have also entered the seed market in recent years."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"The role of the private sector has been limited in the past and private seed companies have been affected by limited technical capacity, lack of land and capital, inadequate access to breeder seed of publicly-bred varieties, less competitive seed pricing, and lack of clarity on freely marketing their materials (Alemu 2010;Alemu et al. 2010;Spielman et al. 2013)."},{"index":4,"size":169,"text":"Pioneer Hi-Bred Seed (Ethiopia) 7 has been an important supplier of hybrid seed since the mid-1990s; its annual average market share between 2004 and 2013 was 21.1 %. National small seed companies and community-based organizations (CBOs) such as Meki-Batu Union (MBU) have also entered the maize seed market in recent years. The combined seed market share of parastatals (ESE, ASE, OSE, and SSE) in 2014 was 63 %, compared to 31 % for Pioneer Hi-Bred Seed (Ethiopia), 4 % for CBOs, and 2 % for all national small seed companies combined. MBU is the only CBO marketing maize seed in Ethiopia. Small national seed companies marketing improved maize are represented by Avallo, Ano Agro-Industry, Gadisa Gobena Farm, Hadia, and Ethio VegFru. The southern Africa-based regional seed company, SeedCo, has recently started marketing the maize variety Duma (SC 403) through its local representation by Alemayehu Makonnen Farm. Two new seed companies from India -Advanta Seeds and CP Seeds registered new maize varieties in 2013 but have not started marketing them."}]},{"head":"Fertilizer use","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"Historically, Ethiopian farmers have used organic fertilizers (such as farmyard manure, compost, crop residue, and household refuse) for agricultural production. Today, commercial fertilizer use is the dominant input that goes with modern varieties. All of Ethiopia's mineral fertilizer is imported. Based on CSA data for 2004 to 2013, we estimated that about 23 % of the total mineral fertilizer in Ethiopia is applied to maize. Mineral fertilizers in Ethiopia are marketed as DAP (di-ammonium-phosphate) and urea. Potassium fertilizers are not considered to be important in Ethiopian agriculture, as there is a perception that Ethiopian soils are not deficient in this element. Historical data show that, on average, DAP accounts for about 64 % of the total volume of fertilizer used, with urea accounting for the remaining 36 %. We converted the two products into N and P equivalents and report here the total N and P consumption, the area fertilized and application rates."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Figure 5 shows the overall N and P consumption by maize in Ethiopia between 2004 and 2013. The total nutrient  consumption on maize in 2013 was 68,000 MT compared to 20,000 MT in 2004a more than 3-fold increase. In other words, fertilizer consumption increased at an annual rate of about 12 % over the 10 years. Overall, N and P accounted for approximately 67 and 33 % of this, respectively. Oromia and Amhara accounted for 43 % each of the total nutrient consumption, with SNNP, Tigray and BSG receiving about 11, 2 and 1 %, respectively, of the total fertilizer in 2013."},{"index":3,"size":184,"text":"Table 5 depicts the average maize area covered by mineral fertilizers in different regions of the country between 2004 and 2013. An average of 69 % of all maize grown in 2013 in Ethiopia received some amount of mineral fertilizer application, compared to 56 % in 2004. There were appreciable differences in the maize area receiving fertilizer application among the regions. For example, about 92 % of the area planted to maize in Tigray and 85 % in Amhara received fertilizer in 2013 whereas Oromia, SNNP, and BSG showed lesser area coverage of 67, 61, and 41 %, respectively. In other words, the fastest growth in the area covered by mineral fertilizers was in Oromia (with an annual growth rate of 3.0 %), followed by SNNP (2.6 %) and Tigray (1.3 %); annual growth rates in the maize area covered by fertilizer for Amhara (0.7 %), and BSG (0.1 %) were less appreciable. The overall annual growth rate for Ethiopia was 2.3 %. The relatively lesser growth rate in area coverage for Amhara is because it was already high even in 2004 (Table 5)."},{"index":4,"size":107,"text":"Application rates showed appreciable differences across regions and years both for the overall national average as well as for those who do apply fertilizers (Table 6). The overall application rates more than doubled for all administrative regions and the country as a whole between 2004 and 2013; application rates for those who do apply fertilizers changed little over the course of the 10 years, perhaps with the exceptions of Amhara and SNNP. These two regions showed the fastest annual rates of growth of application rates both for the national average (and those who do use fertilizers) of 8.7 % (4.5 %) and 9.7 % (4.2 %), respectively."},{"index":5,"size":121,"text":"The national average for all growers is 34 kg/ha of N and P nutrients. This falls short of the NEPAD recommendation of 2006 (also known as Abuja Declaration) that suggested 50 kg/ ha (Wanzala 2011). Obviously, the national application rate of 68 kg/ha in 2013 by those who use fertilizers (and throughout the 10 years' period) is higher than the NEPAD recommendation. However, both of these still fall short of the national recommendation of about 110-130 kg/ha of N and P nutrients (or the equivalent of 150-200 kg/ha of urea and 100-150 kg/ ha of DAP), depending on the variety (higher rates are recommended for hybrids). This suggests that, most often, farmers do not always implement the whole package of technologies."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"The implication of this is that priority for policy makers must be expanding fertilizer use to areas that have not been covered previously, which at present account for more than 30 % of the total maize area in Ethiopia."},{"index":7,"size":144,"text":"We also observed appreciable variation among the regions in the use of organic fertilizers on maize. Application rates were extremely lowaveraging about 45 kg/ha -and showing little change over the 10 years (not shown in the table). However, there was a persistent decline in the percent area covered by organic fertilizers across the regions and years (Table 7). The national average declined from 27 % in 2004 to 18 % in 2013, an average annual negative growth rate of 2.9 %. This has been the case for all regions but some were more seriously affected than others. For example, the annual growth rates for SNNP, Amhara, BSG, and Oromia declined by 6.2, 4.9, 3.8, and 1.3 %, respectively. Tigray maintained its highest percentage of area under organic fertilizers over the years but the 2013 level was much lower than that in 2004 (Table 7)."},{"index":8,"size":105,"text":"The declines in the area covered by organic fertilizers may be attributed to one or both of two things. First, there has been a general decline in the unit area of land available for animal grazing, particularly in the highlands, over the last several decades and therefore associated declines in the number of animals (cattle in particular) kept per family. Second, cow dung is widely used as fuel by farmers or sold as an important source of immediate income. It is also possible that the availability of mineral fertilizers at affordable prices might have also contributed to the decline in the use of organic fertilizer."},{"index":9,"size":86,"text":"To quantify the contribution of the various factors to increases in maize productivity in Ethiopia, we ran regression analyses using grain yield as a dependent variable and each factor as an independent variable (Table 8). We observed significant correlations between maize yield with percent area under MVs, percent area under N and P fertilizers, N and P application rates for all maize growers, and percent area under organic fertilizer. Correlations between yield and application rate by those using fertilizers were non-significant for Ethiopia and all regions."},{"index":10,"size":99,"text":"There were obvious regional differences for many of the variables tested. For example, area under MVs was significant at P<0.001 probability level for Ethiopia, Amhara and SNNP whereas it was significant at P<0.01 for Oromia and BSG and non-significant for Tigray. Area under N and P fertilizer was highly significant (P<0.01) for Ethiopia and SNNP, significant (P<0.05) for Oromia and Amhara and non-significant both for Tigray and BSG. The overall N and P application rate was highly significant for Ethiopia (P<0.001) and Amhara (P < 0.01); significant for Oromia, SNNP and BSG (P<0.05), and non-significant for Tigray (Table 8)."},{"index":11,"size":59,"text":"There was a highly significant negative correlation between yield and area under organic fertilizer for Amhara (P<0.001), and SNNP and BSG (P<0.01), and significant correlation at the national level (P<0.05). Correlations for Tigray were non-significant (Table 8). Declines in the area covered by organic fertilizers may be a consequence of increases in the availability and use of inorganic fertilizer."}]},{"head":"Drivers of change: lessons and insights","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"It is perhaps safe to conclude that the major driver of the rapid growth in the production and productivity of maize in Ethiopia is the increased use of MVs, coupled with area covered by N and P fertilizer and increased application rate. However, as discussed above, it is also fair to say that there were several other contributing factors to this success. Several of these came together for maize research and development in Ethiopia. In terms of scalability of the process to reach new areas, it is important to identify and draw on those lessons and insights that made this dramatic change in Ethiopia possible. Here we provide highlights of those important enabling conditions."},{"index":2,"size":342,"text":"First, Ethiopia has a well-organized, nationally coordinated agricultural research and development (AR&D) system with clearly defined vision and responsibilities. Moreover, Ethiopia's AR&D system is not dependent on external funding. Government support for research has been consistent throughout the years. Ethiopia's spending on AR&D grew by 10.9 and 16.5 % per year between1991 and 96 and 1996 and 2001, respectively; similarly, the number of researchers also grew at 8.7 and 10.3 % during the same period (Beintema 2011). Ethiopia spent 16.5 % of its total expenditure in agriculture in 2005 (Fan and Saurkar, undated). The research system introduced hybrid maize for the first time in the early 1990s. The introduction of hybrid maize came at a very opportune moment when the government was about to launch its program on improved food security and ending extreme poverty. These efforts demonstrated the importance of locally-led innovations and appropriate technologies in igniting the process of a green revolution in Ethiopia. Second, the Government support and commitment for agricultural extension in Ethiopia. These created farmer awareness 8 of available technologies and enhanced knowhow in many major growing regions, especially on major and priority staple crops such as maize, wheat, teff, and legumes, which has led to improvement of food security across the country. Whereas public extension systems across SSA have declined significantly over the years, Ethiopia has trained nearly 63,000 young men and women as agricultural extension agents throughout the country starting in the first half of 2000 (Davis et al. 2009). Ethiopia's extension agent to farmer ratio is estimated at 1:476, compared to 1:1000 for Kenya, 1:1603 for Malawi, and 1:2500 for Tanzania (Kassie et al. 2015). This has had a significant effect in creating awareness of the new technologies by smallholder farmers and enhanced adoption, thereby contributing to poverty reduction (Dercon et al. 2009;Dorosh and Thurlow 2013;Spielman et al. 2013;Zeng et al. 2013). Working with 15 villages in Ethiopia, Dercon et al. (2009) reported that receiving at least one extension visit reduces poverty by nearly 10 % and increases consumption by more than 7 %."},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"Third, whereas farmers historically received seasonal input credit for seed and fertilizer through cooperatives and development banks, this has changed significantly over time. Following the structural adjustment and liberalization policies implemented since the early 1990s, there has been no direct input or credit subsidy provided by the government. Given the high input costs for smallholder farmers to benefit from integrated input packages, seasonal credit is important for the relaxation of liquidity constraints. Most of the credit for fertilizer, improved seed and agrochemicals comes from farmer cooperatives, the offices of agriculture and rural development, and the private sector. In 2009, the cooperatives provided about 60, 38 and 12.5 % of the credit for fertilizer, improved seed and agrochemicals, respectively (Gebremedhin et al. 2009). The role of development banks as sources of direct credit to farmers has declined significantly."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"Fourth, EIAR introduced a paradigm shift in AR&D in the early 2000s towards an innovation systems approach that is based on active participation of farmers in technology development and diffusion and involvement of partnerships with several actors along the value chain (Abate et al. 2011); agricultural technology scaling was championed by the top leadership and started to show results in terms of enhancing the relevance of research itself and approaches for linking research with smallholders."},{"index":5,"size":276,"text":"Fifth, through proper targeting of the technology, maize varieties were adopted by farmers in north-central and northwest Ethiopia where the crop had not been grown traditionally on such a large scale; today these areas are among the most highly productive and largest producers of maize in the country. As new adopters, the farmers in these areas have the advantage of adopting the most modern methods of productionplanting in rows, increased use of MVs and fertilizer, and good crop management. Sixth, increased liberalization and investment in marketing systems, including farmer cooperatives and infrastructure development in rural areas has created opportunities to remedy traditional market failures as farmer coops, agro-dealers, traders and other service providers increasingly connected the remote producing regions into the national economy. A hard lesson was learned at early stages about the importance of market development and commercialization when maize prices collapsed in 2001/02 following a bumper harvest the previous year. In the absence of storage and processing facilities, farmers were forced to sell maize at throwaway prices. This made it abundantly clear that productivity change cannot be sustained without commensurate interventions to improve the marketing systems. The increased liberalization and participation of both the private sector and farmers' cooperatives in grain marketing has reduced the market risks for farmers and fueled the uptake of modern technologies (Bernard and Spielman 2009;Gebremedhin et al. 2009). More recently, maize has also been included along with other crops under the commodity exchange (ECX) system, further reducing the problem of asymmetric information and transaction costs through adoption of harmonized standards and warehouse receipt systems. The overall impact of this on cereal marketing in Ethiopia is yet to be evaluated."},{"index":6,"size":110,"text":"Finally, the human effort has benefited from adequate rainfall and absence of extended drought over the last two decades (Fig. 6) 9 affecting large production regions similar to those of the mid-1970s and early 1980s. As shown in Fig. 6, the national average annual precipitation varied from 829 to 1352 mm for 23 years, with differences among years being not statically significant. This has helped the continued growth of maize production and productivity. How this will play out in the future under climate variability and change is uncertain. Farmers will need to adopt sustainable intensification options along with modern inputs to cushion themselves from such shocks (Shiferaw et al. 2014b)."},{"index":7,"size":181,"text":"The lessons for policy makers in Ethiopia are obviousmaize has demonstrated that productivity change is achievable: indigenous innovation and investment in agriculture are paying dividends and they need to be expanded to large areas which have not yet benefited from these game-changing research products. This requires further strengthening of the research, extension and input supply systems through increased investment in generating new products, enhancing the use of home-grown research results, giving recognition to outstanding researchers, retaining experienced researchers and increasing competitiveness in the delivery of quality seed, complementary inputs and services to farmers. The maize story has clearly shown that technology alone will not lead to transformation; farmers will need access to credit, extension and market services to drive and benefit from sustained productivity growth. The lesson for other African countries is the fact that there are no shortcuts to increasing agricultural production and productivity; long-term and sustained investment is the key to achieving that goal, as seen here for maize, and for other crops such as legumes (Abate et al. 2011) and wheat (Shiferaw et al. 2014a;Zeng et al. 2013)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and policy implications","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"This study has shown that maize area and yields in Ethiopia have doubled since the early 1990s, making it feasible for national yields to reach more than 3 MT/ha which is significantly higher than the average for SSA. This change and transformation were fueled through indigenous innovation processes ranging from development of widely adapted and profitable varieties and hybrids, increased investment in public extension systems, seed and fertilizer supply and improved access to markets for smallholder producers in the outlying areas. This has clearly shown that maize can be a model for scaling agricultural innovations to achieve locally driven transformation to greatly improved productivity."},{"index":2,"size":219,"text":"Despite the significant changes, there are unexploited opportunities for further increasing maize productivity and production in Ethiopia. Most importantly, a significant portion of the maize area is yet to be reached with modern innovations and several new hybrids are yet to be integrated into the seed production and extension systems. Exploiting these potentials will require replacing the old varieties such as BH140, BH660 and BH540, which are still dominating the seed system; increased participation of private seed companies in the production and marketing of both foundation and certified seed; expanding the use of improved varieties; and increasing both the application rate and the share of area under mineral fertilizers. These will require addressing some of the remaining handicaps that reduce farmer access to modern varieties, inputs and services. Some of the institutional and policy issues raised by several authors, especially around the seed system (e.g., Alemu 2010;Alemu et al. 2010;Dorosh and Rashid 2013;Rashid et al. 2013;Spielman et al. 2013), have been changing, albeit slowly, through partnerships with the national program and regional initiatives such as DTMA, Program for Africa's Seed Systems (PASS), and other bilateral programs. We highlight below some of the key issues, including the need for variety replacement, addressing issues related to seed systems, raising the level of input use, and maintaining a critical mass of researchers."},{"index":3,"size":146,"text":"The first issue is increased transformation and modernization of the extension system. The public sector extension programs currently coordinate the provision of credit and the supply of inputs, including seed, fertilizer and credit. Part of this service needs to be privatized (including farmers' co-ops) so that extension workers can focus on farmer education and innovation. The conventional top-down and supply-driven approaches for extension still remain across the country and this needs to quickly give way to provision of efficient services in terms of information, knowledge, and skills, and facilitation of linkages with other institutional support services of input supply, credit service, and output marketing (Gebremedhin et al. 2009). In a competitive environment, farmers' cooperatives can play a greater role in enhancing farmer access to local public goods (extension, market information) and services (credit and rural finance), especially when there are no alternative providers (e.g., remote villages)."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"The Ethiopian farmer cannot rely on varieties that are, or close to, 20 years old, mainly BH660 and BH540, which accounted for nearly 73 % of seed produced of all varieties in the country in 2013. There are reports that these hybrids are deteriorating in their reaction to diseases and their yield performance. BH140 was released more than 25 years ago and was still in use in 2013. Proven technologies with high adaptability and productivity potential need to reach farmers both to enhance competitiveness and build resilience in the face of climatic and market-induced shocks."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"There are a good number of new hybrids and a couple of OPVs released within the last 5 years (Table 2) and entering the seed system, but their seed production and use needs to be accelerated. Emphasis should be put on the promotion and inclusion of high-yielding and low-risk varieties that have been released more recently (e.g., BH661, MH130, MH138Q, MH140, BH546, BH547, and Gibe-2)."},{"index":6,"size":110,"text":"Initiatives are being undertaken by MOA to implement the Bdirect seed marketing^1 0i.e., private seed companies can sell their seed to farmers directly even beyond their immediate vicinities but there is a strong need for a more inclusive approach; the role of the private sector is crucial to making this approach more effective. Increased access to modern inputs through improved seed systems and better access to credit and markets will reduce seed recycling and encourage farmers to invest in fresh and high quality seed. Recycling of seed (including maize hybrids) is a common problem, partly because of credit and capital constraints, and partly due to inadequate supply of modern varieties."},{"index":7,"size":74,"text":"One major factor limiting increased production and use of improved seed in Ethiopia is the inadequate quantity and quality of foundation seed (FS). Currently, the public sector, more specifically, the research centers at Bako and Melkassa and ESE are responsible for FS production. Mechanisms need to be established to help expand FS production by the private sector. The private sector should be encouraged and supported to include FS production into their seed business portfolio."},{"index":8,"size":126,"text":"As stated earlier, the overall fertilizer application on maize in Ethiopia has shown significant growth over the last decade. The consumption rate grew at more than 12 % per annum between 2004 and 2013, in comparison to the SSA average of 3.8 % (between 2004 and 2012). Ethiopia has one of the fastest growth rates of fertilizer usage in SSA. However, the country needs to make every effort towards achieving the Abuja Declaration of 50 kg/ha fertilizer usefrom its current figure of about 34 kg/ha. The declining trend of organic fertilizer application on maize should be of concern to researchers and policy makers alike; there is urgent need to find mechanisms to reverse the current condition (e.g., through rotations and intercropping with legumes and manure application)."},{"index":9,"size":147,"text":"Finally, although it has taken substantial time and more needs to be done yet, the recent trends in maize productivity and diffusion of modern inputs clearly indicate that Ethiopia is now on track to consummate the full potential for productivity change and green revolution. As popular as it is, maize certainly offers these possibilities for dramatic improvement in food security and can become an example for other crops to emulate. The homegrown research, institutional support and sustained commitment to agricultural research and development are the key drivers of this change. Hence, it is essential to progressively improve access to and effectiveness of extension and marketing services and continue to increase the critical mass of researchers and retain highly skilled and qualified scientists by providing appropriate incentives if further advances are going to be made in improving the productivity of maize and other crops in a sustainable manner."},{"index":10,"size":90,"text":"The rapid growth in population and urbanization will increase the demand for more food as well as for industrial and other uses of maize in Ethiopia. Consequently, maize will remain a strategic crop to meet this demand in the foreseeable future. The rapid emergence of new indigenous seed companies, coupled with the continued generation of a large number of productive hybrids adapted to the diverse production systems and socio-economic circumstances will enhance competitiveness of the seed system, which in turn will further contribute to sustained maize productivity gains in Ethiopia."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Distribution of maize production in Ethiopia. Source: based on CSA data for 2011(www.csa.gov.et)     "},{"text":"Fig. 4 Fig. 4 Area occupied by major cereals in Ethiopia, 1981-2013. Source: constructed by the authors from FAOSTAT, accessed 29/11/2014). Please note that FAOSTAT lumps teff with other cereal data for Ethiopia "},{"text":"Fig. 5 Fig. 5 N and P consumption by maize in Ethiopia. Source: Constructed by the authors from CSA data (www.csa.gov.et). Data for 2011 were incomplete and discarded "},{"text":"Fig. 6 Fig. 6 Average annual rainfall for maize growing areas of Ethiopia (source: constructed by the authors from National Meteorological Agency data; sample station names are shown in Figu. 1) "},{"text":"Table 1 Major agro-ecological zones for maize in Ethiopia(MOA 2005)  Agro-ecological zone Elevation (m) Rainfall Estimated Administrative regions Agro-ecological zoneElevation (m)RainfallEstimatedAdministrative regions   (mm) area (%)  (mm)area (%) Moist and semi-moist mid-altitudes 1700-2000 1000-1200 30 Parts of SNNPR, SW and W Oromia;W and NW Amhara; Moist and semi-moist mid-altitudes1700-20001000-120030Parts of SNNPR, SW and W Oromia;W and NW Amhara;     Ben Shangul-Gumuz (BSG) Ben Shangul-Gumuz (BSG) Moist upper mid-altitudes 2000-2400 >1200 25 Central highlands; highlands of SNNPR, Amhara and Oromia Moist upper mid-altitudes2000-2400>120025Central highlands; highlands of SNNPR, Amhara and Oromia Dry mid-altitudes 1000-1600 650-900 20 Parts of SNNPR, SW and W Oromia; W and NW Amhara; Dry mid-altitudes1000-1600650-90020Parts of SNNPR, SW and W Oromia; W and NW Amhara;     parts of BSG parts of BSG Moist lower mid-altitudes 900-1500 900-1200 15 Pockets of Amhara, Oromia, SNNPR and BSG Moist lower mid-altitudes900-1500900-120015Pockets of Amhara, Oromia, SNNPR and BSG Moist lowlands <900 900-1200 5 Gambella and parts of BSG Moist lowlands<900900-12005Gambella and parts of BSG Dry lowlands <1000 <700 5 Afar and parts of Oromia and lowlands of Somali Dry lowlands<1000<7005Afar and parts of Oromia and lowlands of Somali Total maize area was 1.52 million ha     Total maize area was 1.52 million ha  "},{"text":"Table 2 Milestones in maize research and development in Ethiopia Year Event YearEvent  "},{"text":"Table 3 Maize hybrids and Open Pollinated Varieties (OPVs) on the seed market and their relative importance in Ethiopia (as at December 2013) Release name Variety name Release year Age (years) Owner Percent of total seed Release nameVariety nameRelease yearAge (years)OwnerPercent of total seed      production production Hybrids      Hybrids Limu P3812W 2012 1 Pioneer 0.67 LimuP3812W20121Pioneer0.67 Shala P2859W 2011 2 Pioneer 0.24 ShalaP2859W20112Pioneer0.24 BH661 BH661 2011 2 EIAR 0.04 BH661BH66120112EIAR0.04 Wabi AMH760 2011 2 EIAR 0.08 WabiAMH76020112EIAR0.08 Agar P30G79 2008 5 Pioneer 1.96 AgarP30G7920085Pioneer1.96 Morka UCBS1C2 2008 5 EIAR 0.10 MorkaUCBS1C220085EIAR0.10 BHQPY545 BHQPY545 2008 5 EIAR 0.05 BHQPY545BHQPY54520085EIAR0.05 Wenchi AMH850 2008 5 EIAR 0.02 WenchiAMH85020085EIAR0.02 Shone P30G19 2006 7 Pioneer 7.67 ShoneP30G1920067Pioneer7.67 BH543 BH543 2005 8 EIAR 5.78 BH543BH54320058EIAR5.78 Argane AMH800 2005 8 EIAR 0.03 ArganeAMH80020058EIAR0.03 BH542 BH542 2002 11 EIAR 0.16 BH542BH542200211EIAR0.16 BH540 BH540 1995 18 EIAR 21.31 BH540BH540199518EIAR21.31 Jabi PHB3253 1995 18 Pioneer 2.38 JabiPHB3253199518Pioneer2.38 BH660 BH660 1993 20 EIAR 51.40 BH660BH660199320EIAR51.40 BH140 BH140 1988 25 EIAR 5.02 BH140BH140198825EIAR5.02 Sub-total     96.92 Sub-total96.92 OPVs      OPVs Gibe2 ZM721 2011 2 EIAR 0.01 Gibe2ZM72120112EIAR0.01 Melkassa6 Pool 15C7 QPM 2008 5 EIAR 0.25 Melkassa6Pool 15C7 QPM20085EIAR0.25 Melkassa4 ECA-EE-36 2006 7 EIAR 1.73 Melkassa4ECA-EE-3620067EIAR1.73 Melkassa2 ZM521 2004 9 EIAR 1.10 Melkassa2ZM52120049EIAR1.10 Sub-total     3.08 Sub-total3.08 Varieties are from the National Variety Registry of MOA; percentages are calculated by the authors from MOA Varieties are from the National Variety Registry of MOA; percentages are calculated by the authors from MOA (unpublished data)      (unpublished data)  "},{"text":"Table 4  Percent maize area            Percent maize area covered by modern varieties in Region 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 covered by modern varieties inRegion2004200520062007200820092010201120122013 selected administrative regions of            selected administrative regions of Ethiopia (2004-13) Amhara 24 26 29 37 35 35 45 50 47 55 Ethiopia (2004-13)Amhara24262937353545504755  SNNP 17 23 10 17 20 18 25 33 32 43 SNNP17231017201825333243  Oromia 15 19 14 15 16 - 25 25 33 38 Oromia1519141516-25253338  BSG 3 8 0 6 8 - 8 1 4 1 0 1 7 BSG38068-81 41 01 7  T i g r a y 1 2 0 0 1 - 1 1 2 3 T i g r a y12001-1123  Ethiopia 14 20 15 20 20 23 29 33 34 40 Ethiopia14201520202329333440  Millionha 1.39 1.52 1.69 1.77 1.77 1.77 1.96 2.05 2.01 2.00 Millionha1.391.521.691.771.771.771.962.052.012.00  Constructed by the authors from CSA (www.csa.gov.et)      Constructed by the authors from CSA (www.csa.gov.et)  Data for Oromia, BSG and Tigray were inconsistent and left out of the calculation; the national figure is a Data for Oromia, BSG and Tigray were inconsistent and left out of the calculation; the national figure is a  weighted average of Amhara and SNNP        weighted average of Amhara and SNNP  Total area of maize for the year         Total area of maize for the year  "},{"text":"Table 5 Percent maize area covered by N and P fertilizers in selected administrative regions of Ethiopia Table 6 Application rates (kg/          Table 6 Application rates (kg/ ha) of N and P nutrients on maize Region 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010  2013 ha) of N and P nutrients on maizeRegion20042005200620072008200920102013 in selected administrative regions          in selected administrative regions of Ethiopia A: Overall maize growers        of EthiopiaA: Overall maize growers  Amhara 26 35 31 43 41 50 48  57 Amhara2635314341504857  Oromia 14 21 17 16 15 - 20  29 Oromia1421171615-2029  SNNP 11 17 13 21 18 19 24  28 SNNP1117132118192428  T i g r a y 5 0 5 6 4 7 9 9 1 9 T i g r a y505647991 9  B S G 5 1 2 9 1 0 7 8 1 0 4 1 3 B S G51 291 0781 041 3  Ethiopia 16 22 18 22 20 - 26  34 Ethiopia1622182220-2634  B: Exclusively those applying fertilizers      B: Exclusively those applying fertilizers  Amhara 57 70 62 82 83 92 79  91 Amhara5770628283927991  Oromia 58 62 57 61 61 51 52  60 Oromia5862576161515260  B S G 4 9 7 0 6 5 6 9 5 6 8 8 6 2 5 5 8 B S G4 97 06 56 95 68 86 255 8  SNNP 37 42 40 58 54 56 54  53 SNNP3742405854565453  T i g r a y 3 6 0 3 6 3 4 2 8 3 2 3 1 5 4 4 T i g r a y3 603 63 42 83 23 154 4  Ethiopia 54 62 56 68 68 71 61  68 Ethiopia5462566868716168  "},{"text":"Table 7  Percent maize area            Percent maize area covered by organic fertilizers in Region 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 covered by organic fertilizers inRegion2004200520062007200820092010201120122013 selected regions of Ethiopia            selected regions of Ethiopia (2004-13) Tigray 74 - 65 59 66 60 56 55 46 48 (2004-13)Tigray74-6559666056554648  Amhara 37 31 32 29 32 27 24 28 25 20 Amhara37313229322724282520  Oromia 24 19 22 23 25 17 21 23 19 19 Oromia24192223251721231919  B S G 2 6 2 4 2 8 2 6 2 7 2 5 2 4 2 0 2 0 1 8 B S G2 62 42 82 62 72 52 42 02 01 8  SNNP 18 13 13 13 16 14 9 11 11 8 SNNP181313131614911118  Ethiopia 27 22 24 24 26 20 21 23 20 18 Ethiopia27222424262021232018  "},{"text":"Table 8 Regression of maize grain yield on various factors across selected administrative regions ofEthiopia (2004-13)     Factors Factors  "}],"sieverID":"f0207017-f11d-4e88-aa78-22d6c9c438e8","abstract":"Maize became increasingly important in the food security of Ethiopia following the major drought and famine that occurred in 1984. More than 9 million smallholder households, more than for any other crop in the country, grow maize in Ethiopia at present. Ethiopia has doubled its maize productivity and production in less than two decades. The yield, currently estimated at >3 metric tons/ha, is the second highest in Sub-Saharan Africa, after South Africa; yield gains for Ethiopia grew at an annual rate of 68 kg/ha between 1990 and 2013, only second to South Africa and greater than Mexico, China, or India. The maize area covered by improved varieties in Ethiopia grew from 14 % in 2004 to 40 % in 2013, and the application rate of mineral fertilizers from 16 to 34 kg/ ha during the same period. Ethiopia's extension worker to farmer ratio is 1:476, compared to 1:1000 for Kenya, 1:1603 for Malawi and 1:2500 for Tanzania. Increased use of improved maize varieties and mineral fertilizers, coupled with increased extension services and the absence of devastating droughts are the key factors promoting the accelerated growth in maize productivity in Ethiopia. Ethiopia took a homegrown solutions approach to the research and development of its maize and other commodities. The lesson from Ethiopia's experience with maize is that sustained investment in agricultural research and development and policy support by the national government are crucial for continued growth of agriculture."}

data/part_1/06d75166c31d46d44d91f049c247748a.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06d75166c31d46d44d91f049c247748a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ee9dee08-e868-42a2-8976-a6bbcc66ca0f/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"varianza requiere de un conocimiento previo de la heterogeneidad de la población."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"En el caso del conj oint sólo Se disponla de un ,estudio realizado en Pescador con 10 agricultores y 8 variedades, del que se podla obtener una variación aproximada de preferencia por cada variedad."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Métodos para el CálCUlo de -p-"},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Se citarán 4 métodos más apropiados para cálculo de n, con una explicación breve de cada uno:"},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"l."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"Estimación de p para la diferencia de Medias: Y1-n."},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"2. Estimación de n con un error relativo E -XY. 3."},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"Estimación de n con un error absoluto d."}]},{"head":"4.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Estimación de n mediante el teorema Chebyshev. "}]},{"head":"\"","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Consecuentemente, podemos pasar entonces a calcular n en cada uno de los métodos, teniendo en cuenta que utilizaremos el estadigrafo t (usado en el cálculo de muestras pequeíl.as) en lugar de el estadigrafo z."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Método 1: n para Diferencias de Medias."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Para el caso de la comparación de dos medias con el fin de detectar diferencias significativas entre ellas, se cuenta con: Donde d -tnl+n2-2, \"\"/2 Sin embargo, si nuestro caso fuera el de desconocer la distribución de las preferencias, optariamos posiblemente por la muestra de 30 agricultores con un error máximo de 1.1 puntos sobre la preferencia media (observar variedad 5) y con una confianza del 85%."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"CONCWSION:"},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"Resumiendo, y eomo lo podemos apreciar en el cuadro 7, los diferentes métodos arrojan suficiente luz como para recomendar un tamafto de muestra de 30 agrieultores, basados en un estupéndo n1ve1 de confianza y un error de muestreo tolerable."},{"index":6,"size":2,"text":"J.4 2.01. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Yes la prueba de normalidad Shaphiro Yilk (para n < 51), que examina la hipótesis nula Ho: La variedad es normal. Si Prob < IYI es mayor que 0.05 se rechaza la Ho. En este caso se ha detectado que 4 de las 8 i variedadas tienen su preferencia distribuida aproximadamente Normal, a ivariedadas tienen su preferencia distribuida aproximadamente Normal, a Ir pesar de contar con sólo 10 observaciones de cada una. Irpesar de contar con sólo 10 observaciones de cada una. cuadro:    cuadro:  Cuadro 1. Prueba de normalidad sobre la preferencia en 8 variedades Cuadro 1. Prueba de normalidad sobre la preferencia en 8 variedades   (Pescador)   (Pescador) No. Variedad  Prob.< Ivl No.VariedadProb.< Ivl 1 ASR205 0.806 0.02 1ASR2050.8060.02 2 A486 0.928 0.44 *** 2A4860.9280.44*** 3 A36 0.798 0.017 3A360.7980.017 4 5 A66 PVA1261 0.85 0.85 0.195 *** 0.66 4 5A66 PVA12610.85 0.850.195 *** 0.66 6  BATl297 0.85 0.076 6BATl2970.850.076 7  AT40 0.89 0.268 *** 7AT400.890.268 *** 8  CALIMA 0.96 0.876 *** 8CALIMA0.960.876 *** ***: Acepta la hipótesis nula de que p< ;-!l-'N 'lA ;'f>( ('¡'lA la variedad es distribuida normalmente. ***: Acepta la hipótesis nula de quep< ;-!l-'N 'lA ;'f>( ('¡'lA la variedad esdistribuida normalmente.  "},{"text":" Para explicar mejor el cuadro l. supongamos que la variedad 1 tuviera una preferenc la promedio da 7 puntos y la variedad 7. 8 .1 ,puntos • entonces con una muestra de 62 agricultores estas dos variedades serian diferentes al 95% de confiabilldad pues la diferencia de sus promedios es mayor que l. Caso contrario sucederia si esa diferencia fuera 1 o Método 2: n con un Error (El Relativo Algunas veces, podriamos desear por ejemplo, estimar Y con un error no mayor al 10%, o sea, queremos definir un valor E -porcentaje del estimador, en este caso el estimador es Y, que variará para cada media. ; 97.36 él.trI 4951 :194.33 48.!B 33.73 :;)1.78 97.36 ~ l6.ai Como se observa. este método es el que arroja los n más elevados y esto por la seneilla razón de que al no conocerse la distribución de las muestras, no se puede utilizar ningún estadigrafo como t o z que optimice el cálculo. 1I .<.~'      S 1I .<.~'S     aa:iD6: \"-.lal1oda np:rEilI H ISIft da ~ aa:iD6: \"-.lal1oda np:rEilI H ISIft da ~    !fl% S6I¡ Q!dD4: e laiIoda npm Ulma:lI!!1lÉi\\o 9:1 g)I; iQ a3f¡ !fl% S6I¡Q!dD4: e laiIoda npm Ulma:lI!!1lÉi\\o 9:1 g)I;iQ a3f¡ UI:i .. 'Al Vrjgtd 0.5 o.s 1.0 1.2 1.4 OS 1.0 1.2 J.4 o.s LO 1.2 LO 1.2 L4 o.s LO 1..2 L4 0.5 LO 1.2 L4 UI:i .. 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ZU5 5 !B3.ll lt6.77 lOI..23 74.31 :m.!Xi 72JB !D.61. 31.]8 JlA77 36M :a.:n 4.11 l5.5l 19.71 :o.m JD.(» l8.!:B Variedad Con este criterio, el tamaño de 30 para la muestra parece el más X Med X Varo conveniente contando con un 90% de confianza y una diferencia máxima permitida de 1.2 1 JS.5l 8.34 4.63 2..(6 aLa) JD.'l3 6.Q; 2.!B 3UD l6..44 9.2) 2 l:9.:iJ) :B.6l 22.3) 3 en.93 ~ lO.!B lO.I7 3 4i'6.44 m.ll &.71 6.1.77 2l3.22 !:BS 4l..:.fi ~ lJ9.ll 'B.77 '2Il.6l '8.77 19.91 l3.a5 lO.I7 J2l.61 :n4l 21.l2 9.91. ll6.E9 SL.a5 <9.11 12,96 m91 i9.lO 4tU} 3 4 5L.CB 32.77 s.a; 8.S2 E6.82 l/!i.'itl Jl.ED 8.S2 lO1..92 25AJ 11.$ 4 :m.U '!S.77 ES~ !!ruD E S 49.m 34.6ol 2SA) '!S.77 :'»'94 17.:2 45.32 ::n.J4 n.:n 5.03 3':l.:;B :as.:!) 14.82 6.3':l !n42 4l.lS :?2.1'D 5 74.6J l8.f.5 12.!O l2.45 g¡.6J 3t.4J l/!i.!O l2.45 lIIB.!lI. 37.71. 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J2.Z7 lfB.53 74.<:0 42.13 0.78889 \",\"-8.Jfi 5.59 71.13 11.91 l2.45 :B>.a3 :uza 48.~ 35.82 111).44 :!i.U :;)1.33 17.91. :uza 17S l2.l9 SU7 37~ 2l.l1 9.33 l3.!O 8.93 6.3t 5.59:18.72 , 9.:14 2 6 8 8 103.(5 49.74 12..43 45.8) :m.e 25.~ 8.6J 3.25 11.45 134m 3':l.91 33.';U 1491 a:5.1'D 9l.37 5IAJ 3.68056 83.) a5.(B Jfi.Zl Jl.29 83.) 9U) 3L.8l 17.23 :.?'.2& 12.ED 2 6 8 8103.(5 49.74 12..43 45.8) :m.e25.~ 8.6J3.25 11.45 134m 3':l.91 33.';U 1491 a:5.1'D 9l.37 5IAJ 3.68056 83.) a5.(B Jfi.Zl Jl.29 83.) 9U) 3L.8l 17.23:.?'.2& 12.ED 3 7 33..'.)l 14.71 8.31 3.E9 5.80 '0.48 J9.32 ]0.87 4.83 a;.32 'ZMl l6.!B 5.95556 7.:!15 3 733..'.)l14.718.313.E95.80 '0.48 J9.32 ]0.87 4.83 a;.32 'ZMl l6.!B 5.955567.:!15 4 8 75.82 33.';U :18.$6 8.42 5.60 lB.J9 4.98889 44.00 ~.i9 1l.0í! lSI...4B ól.'Z3 37.82 l6.S) 4 875.82 33.';U :18.$68.425.60 lB.J94.98889 44.00 ~.i9 1l.0í! lSI...4B ól.'Z3 37.82l6.S) 5 El cuadro 5 presenta los diferentes tamaños obtenidos y podemos de a1l1 4.70 7.28889 5 El cuadro 5 presenta los diferentes tamaños obtenidos y podemos de a1l1 4.70 7.28889 6 extraer los más idóneos para nuestro caso. yesos son: n -24.4 con 4.10 6.76667 6 extraer los más idóneos para nuestro caso. yesos son: n -24.4 con 4.10 6.76667 7 Como vemos la variedad 6 es la que presenta los n más altos, asi que nos 5.20 3.51111 d -1 Y 90% de confianza y n -25.8 con d -1.2 Y 95% confianza para la 7 Como vemos la variedad 6 es la que presenta los n más altos, asi que nos 5.20 3.51111 d -1 Y 90% de confianza y n -25.8 con d -1.2 Y 95% confianza para la 8 guiaremos por ella. De acuerdo a nuestras expectativas, los tamaños 4.05 4.85833 variedad 5. Si quisieramos redondear n a 30 con los nismos niveles de 8 guiaremos por ella. De acuerdo a nuestras expectativas, los tamaños 4.05 4.85833 variedad 5. Si quisieramos redondear n a 30 con los nismos niveles de 25.76 (85% de confianza), 33.7 (90%) Y 22.8 (95%) son los más confianza en ambos casos. tendriamos para el primero un error d -0.9. Y 25.76 (85% de confianza), 33.7 (90%) Y 22.8 (95%) son los más confianza en ambos casos. tendriamos para el primero un error d -0.9. Y apropiados. para el segundo un error d -1.1; lo que interpretaremos en el último En el caso de querer redondear ese tamaño a un entero, apropiados. para el segundo un error d -1.1; lo que interpretaremos en el último En el caso de querer redondear ese tamaño a un entero, podriamos optar por un error porcentual del 21.2% sobre la media (0.87) caso. que de 30 agricultores. 28 darían un puntaje promedio de 4.7 podriamos optar por un error porcentual del 21.2% sobre la media (0.87) caso. que de 30 agricultores. 28 darían un puntaje promedio de 4.7 y obtendrlamos un tamaño n -30 con una confiabilidad del 90%. Esto puntos con un error no mayor a 1.1 puntos. mientx:as que los otros dos y obtendrlamos un tamaño n -30 con una confiabilidad del 90%. Esto puntos con un error no mayor a 1.1 puntos. mientx:as que los otros dos significa que con 30 agricultores podríamos estimar en la variedad 6, tendrían un error mayor. significa que con 30 agricultores podríamos estimar en la variedad 6, tendrían un error mayor. por ejemplo, una calificación promedia de 4.1 puntos con un error de por ejemplo, una calificación promedia de 4.1 puntos con un error de magnitud maximo de 0.87 en 27 de los 30 agricultores, y de más de 0.87 Método 4: Teorema de Chebyshev magnitud maximo de 0.87 en 27 de los 30 agricultores, y de más de 0.87 Método 4: Teorema de Chebyshev en el resto de ellos.    en el resto de ellos. • S 2 1 t18, 0.025 -2.1 El Teorema de Chebyshev se utiliza cuando se desconoce todo acerca de la + S 2 (t para el caso de muestras tl8, 0.05 -1.73 t18, 0.075 -1.53* -1. NI N pequeíl.as) 95% 90% 85% Método 3: Estimación de n con un error absoluto d población de estudio. es decir, se ignora a que función de distribución 2 2 2 S 2) (t 2n-2. cI./Z) x (SI dado que nI -n2 -n, entonces n-1 62 42 33 Si en el caso anterior, en lugar de controlar el error relatIvo queremos + 2 pertenece, y se define: • S 2 1 t18, 0.025 -2.1 El Teorema de Chebyshev se utiliza cuando se desconoce todo acerca de la + S 2 (t para el caso de muestras tl8, 0.05 -1.73 t18, 0.075 -1.53* -1. NI N pequeíl.as) 95% 90% 85% Método 3: Estimación de n con un error absoluto d población de estudio. es decir, se ignora a que función de distribución 2 2 2 S 2) (t 2n-2. cI./Z) x (SI dado que nI -n2 -n, entonces n-1 62 42 33 Si en el caso anterior, en lugar de controlar el error relatIvo queremos + 2 pertenece, y se define: 1.2 controlar el error absoluto d en Y, constante para cualquier Y. 43 30 23 2 n-S donde (Ji. es el nivel de confiabilidad y d la 1.2 controlar el error absoluto d en Y, constante para cualquier Y. 43 30 23 2 n-S donde (Ji. es el nivel de confiabilidad y d la 1.4 obtendremos: d 2 xc{ 30 22 diferencia máxima permitida de la estimación de Y. 1.4 obtendremos: d 2 xc{3022 diferencia máxima permitida de la estimación de Y. n aumentará a medida que crezcan las varianzas y el nivel de confianza n aumentará a medida que crezcan las varianzas y el nivel de confianza deseado. * valor calculado por interpolación. n- deseado. * valor calculado por interpolación. n-  "}],"sieverID":"8fc5af3b-59a1-4790-8126-9f693f0256bc","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07292c0d84838715b271b253fe89c346","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/796325fe-7a91-4e43-9b08-8104de78cb72/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"Reducing susceptibility to drought under growing conditions as set by farmers: The impact of new generation drought tolerant maize varieties in Uganda","keywords":["drought","maize","multinomial switching regression","impact","Uganda"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":253,"text":"Given the challenges brought about by the increasing frequency of climatic stressors (droughts) and other biotic challenges (pests and diseases), breeding for tolerance to these traits is now seen as an indispensable adjunct to the enhancement of yield potential. Drought tolerant (DT) maize varieties that do well under moderate drought and outperform (or do not underperform) commercial checks under normal rainfall are becoming available. This study examines the role of these maize varieties in mitigating the e ects of drought on maize yields in drought-prone areas of eastern Uganda. We estimate the causal impact of these new generations of maize varieties using a multinomial endogenous switching regression treatment e ect framework. The average treatment e ects of adopting DT maize show that farmers who actually cultivated DT maize achieve % more yield than what they would have obtained with non-DT hybrids. Similarly, average treatment e ects on the untreated, revealed that farmers who grew non-DT modern and local maize would have and % more yield, respectively, if they instead had adopted DT maize. While being superior to all other maize seeds, the magnitudes of the benefits of DT maize varieties were more pronounced in areas with comparatively less rainfall amount providing strong evidence that the yield potential of these varieties is stable across space and a wide range of rainfall conditions. If the genetic gains of these varieties can be secured over the long term, their impacts in improving the resilience of maize farming systems are likely to be considerably large and favorable."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Achieving food security and related goals cannot happen without considerable enhancement of agricultural productivity through high yielding crop cultivars. The enhancement of yield potential has been the cornerstone of maize breeding programs for decades and justifiably so (Bänziger et al., 2006;Cairns et al., 2013). Yet, given the challenges brought about by the increasing frequency of climatic stressors (droughts) and other biotic challenges (pests and diseases), breeding for tolerance to these traits is now seen as an indispensable adjunct to the enhancement of yield potential. High-yielding varieties that are susceptible to droughts, pests, or diseases are not likely to impart the needed resilience to the millions of African families who depend on staple crop production under precarious economic and climatic conditions."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"Ongoing climatic changes have exceeded farmers' existing adaptive capacities and experiences (Fisher and Carr, 2015). Traditional low-cost practices, such as shifting planting dates, changing crop species, or switching between existing crop varieties, used by African farmers may no longer be adequate to mitigate the negative impacts of weather variability (see Fisher et al., 2015). Projections on the impact of climate change in SSA suggest that in the absence of more climate-resilient crops, drought-induced constraints will not only decrease yield but also amplify the rate at which yield loss will happen (Li et al., 2009;Cairns et al., 2013). Conceivably, drought-related challenges will continue to threaten the region's prospect of achieving food security."},{"index":3,"size":143,"text":"About 40% of the maize area in Africa faces occasional drought stress that may lead to yield losses of about 10-25%. Nearly, a quarter of the maize crop suffers from frequent drought which involves losses extending up to half of the potential harvest (Fisher et al., 2015). Likewise, in Uganda, maize production is predominantly rain fed and, therefore, vulnerable to weather and climatic risks such as extreme temperature and drought [Hartmann et al., 2013;Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2014]. Improving maize production and productivity thus requires dealing with these challenges, not least the threats of drought-induced yield losses or even crop failure (Twinomugisha, 2005;Ekiyar et al., 2010;Nabikolo et al., 2012). Such risk is notable; particularly, because maize is most susceptible to drought stress occurring at the flowering and grain-filling stage which can cause barrenness and serious yield degradation (Magorokosho et al., 2009)."},{"index":4,"size":163,"text":"Maize is an important crop among Uganda's staple crop system. It is cultivated by at least 86% of smallholder farmers across all agro-ecologies [United States Agency for International Development (USAID), 2010; Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), 2013], shared 63% of the area planted to cereals, ranked third after plantain and cassava in average daily calories intake, and a major source of income for most farmers in eastern, northern, and north-western Uganda [Ferris et al., 2008; United States Agency for International Development (USAID), 2010]. Maize productivity in Uganda is three to four times less than the potential [Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry and Fishery (MAAIF), 2011 ;Ahmed, 2012]. The overall trend of production, area, and yield shows that yield has either stagnated or declined, and the growth in maize production has primarily been due to area expansion [Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), 2013]. Efforts at developing and mainstreaming new drought-tolerant varieties are important to ensure resilient maize production systems in the decades to come."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"New maize varieties that can withstand drought and achieve yield parity with legacy varieties under normal rainfall conditions offer farmers greater flexibility in adapting to these changes (Lobell et al., 2008;Lybbert and Sumner, 2012). In the last decade or so, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) has facilitated the development of over 200 such maize varieties. The Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) was such a project."},{"index":6,"size":149,"text":"Multi-location on-farm trials conducted in eastern and southern Africa by CIMMYT scientists in conjunction with those from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and national research institutes in 13 SSA countries have demonstrated the strong agronomic performance of these new drought tolerant (DT) maize seeds. The evidence from these trials suggests that these new generations of DT maize varieties can out-yield commercial hybrid checks by 83-137% (controlled drought), 26-47% (random drought), and 25-56% (under optimal rainfall conditions) (Fisher et al., 2015). Additionally, an ex-ante impact assessment suggested that wider adoption of DT maize varieties developed through DTMA can generate US$ 532 million of increased maize grain value under conservative yield improvement. These maize seeds are expected to reduce not only the chances of drought-related harvest failure but also harmful post-failure coping strategies like reducing food consumption, selling assets, or withdrawing children from school (La Rovere et al., 2014)."},{"index":7,"size":96,"text":"While researcher-managed trials have largely confirmed that the DT varieties have superior yield advantage, especially, when \"all states of nature\" (normal rainfall and moderate drought conditions) are considered, the realization of these benefits on farmers' fields under their own management and resource conditions is another matter. It is only when farmers can observe these benefits for themselves under their own growing conditions will they sustainably adopt these varieties. Although the ex-ante assessments based on simulated yields predicted positive impacts of using these varieties on yield potential, food security, and household income, these results remain to be"},{"index":8,"size":32,"text":"The DTMA project was implemented by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) in conjunction with International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and national research institutes in African countries including Uganda."},{"index":9,"size":264,"text":"Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems frontiersin.org replicated by data retrieved from farmers' fields. The most recent adoption studies (such as those by Tambo and Abdoulaye, 2013;Fisher and Carr, 2015;Fisher et al., 2015) that looked into the level and determinants of DT maize seed adoption, generally did not address the incremental yield or economic impacts of these seeds under farmers' conditions. This study is designed to offer evidence of the impact of the new DT varieties in reducing susceptibility (potential harm) due to drought in the form of yield penalty based on farmers' own production data to determine if the promise of these varieties is being realized on-farm, i.e., under growing conditions as set by farmers. An important contribution to this study is that our analysis uses plot-level survey data collected from 34 villages in Uganda to examine, for the first time to the best of our knowledge, the causal effect of cultivating DT maize seed on the productivity of maize farmers operating in droughtprone areas of eastern Uganda. The study further evaluates if the cultivation of DT maize had meaningfully larger per unit production of maize when compared to other commercial maize varieties developed for other traits than drought. Finally, using locally observed rainfall data, we spatially correlate the impacts of DT with observed rainfall conditions. This was important to determine the impacts of DT varieties both under adequate and less adequate rainfall. The yield stabilization effect of DT varieties is their key advantage. This study helps to confirm this using farmer survey data as an important check on on-station or researcher managed trials."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Data and description of study area","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":198,"text":"Data for the present study came from a household survey conducted in Uganda between June and August 2014. The geographical focus was eastern Uganda, where the DT maize seed dissemination activities have been concentrated. The region constitutes 32 districts lying over an area of 39,478.8 hectares covering about 16% of the total area of Uganda. The elevation of the area ranges between 1,075 and 1,524 m above sea level. The region's population is estimated at 9,154,960 of which about 90% lives in rural area. The average household size for the region is about 4.9 vs. 4.7 for the country as a whole [Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), 2014]. The mean annual rainfall varies from 1,374 to 2,058 mm with a range between 895 and 3,001 mm. The rainfall exhibits significant annual and seasonal variation in the amount and distributional pattern (Kansiime et al., 2013). The region has three distinct agroecological zones (AEZs) viz., Lake Victoria Crescent; Southern and Eastern Lake Kyoga basin; and Mount Elgon high farmlands. These AEZs also capture variability in altitude, soil productivity, cropping system, livestock systems, and land use intensity. Agriculture is the main source of livelihood in the region. Crop production is dominant."},{"index":2,"size":203,"text":"The major crops produced in the region are finger millet, maize, rice, sweet potato, and cassava. The region accounted for about 38% of the total maize area and half of the total maize produced in Uganda in 2008/09 [Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), 2012]. Important livestock includes cattle, small ruminants (goats and sheep), pigs, and poultry (chicken, ducks, turkey). While about 57% of agricultural households face food shortages in certain periods of the year, the Eastern region was reported to have the highest percentage (30%) and the least was for the central region (17%). Households with access to credit are low both at the national (10%) and in the Eastern region (9%). From 31% of the agricultural households using improved seed, the region has the highest share (43.7%) vs. the lowest in the Western region (16.6%) [Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), 2010]. The Eastern region is subject to the vagaries of climate variability. The effect of climate variability is assumed to be complicated by poorly developed economic and social services and infrastructures, and severe poverty status in the region. Generally, the region is characterized by a combination of acute poverty, vulnerability to drought, floods, landslides, and natural resource degradation (Kansiime et al., 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":282,"text":"Unlike many cross-sectional data sets, the current data has information on the spatial heterogeneity of selected districts which we use as a proxy for the temporal dimension of rainfall variability. Multistage sampling was employed to identify sample households for the study. In the first stage, three districts were purposively selected from Lake Victoria Crescent agroecological zones (LVC AEZs) of the eastern region where drought risk is more likely and where the DT maize seeds are disseminated. The LVC AEZ is one of the three distinct AEZs in the eastern region of Uganda which includes the southern and eastern Lake Kyoga basin and Mount Elegon high farmlands (Figure 1). These AEZs are mainly differentiated by the amount of rainfall. According to 40-year (1971-2010) observational rainfall data for the region, there is significant inter-annual rainfall variation within and across AEZs. Particularly, the long-term data show that the LVC exhibits significant intra-and inter-seasonal rainfall variations (Kansiime et al., 2013). The sample districts (Iganga, Tororo, and Bulambuli) are geographically well spread across the LVC AEZ (see Figure 1). Accordingly, they are assumed to account for the spatial heterogeneity as well as the temporal rainfall variability within this AEZ. In the second stage, we used probability proportional to size sampling to select a total of 34 out of 3,119 villages from the study districts. Details of the number of households in each village were acquired from the 2012 Uganda population and housing census of enumeration areas by the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS). Finally, from each sampled village, 12 households were selected for interview using a simple random sampling technique. The interview involved 696 individuals (householders and their spouses) drawn from a total of 408 sampled households."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"Both household and plot-level data were collected through face-to-face interviews using two structured questionnaires, viz., a household and an individual questionnaire. A village questionnaire was also used to interview key informants [including extension workers, local council chairpersons (an elected head of the village-the lowest administrative level), progressive farmers, and local opinion leaders] regarding villagelevel variables such as input/output prices, distance to markets, and subjective assessments of rainfall patterns."},{"index":5,"size":173,"text":"The survey covered plot-level information where for each plot, the respondent recounted the names and details of maize varieties cultivated during the 2013/2014 production year. Other plot-level data collected included slope, soil fertility, plot size, irrigation access, plot tenure, erosion incidence, crop production estimates, and input use. Important socioeconomic and demographic variables collected were age (number of the year lived), gender, education (number of school years), family size (number of household members), access to extension service (dummy variable for the source of information), the likelihood of getting credit (dummy variable), and social capital (an index calculated based on the number of groups the respondent is a member out of a list of selected group related to agricultural activity). Moreover, maize network size was defined as the number of other farmers the respondent regularly talks to get information regarding maize farming, the number of progressive farmers in the respondent's village, the number of DT maize seeds known to the respondent, and sources of information on new maize seed were also retrieved from the respondents."},{"index":6,"size":63,"text":"We collected data on drought shocks based on the number of times the farmer could remember having encountered drought and drought-induced maize harvest loss in the previous 5 years prior to the date of the interview (i.e., 2010-2014). Experiencing frequent episodes of drought may influence farmers' decisions to cultivate DT or other types of maize that withstand droughts and help minimize yield losses."},{"index":7,"size":84,"text":"Data related to rainfall patterns were collected from village key informants based on their subjective assessment of the timeliness, amount, and distribution in the major growing season immediately prior to the date of the survey. We considered farmers' perception of the timeliness (onset and cession), adequacy (whether the amount received is enough to Progressive farmers are those who achieve higher agricultural yields and earn higher agricultural profits than other farmers. These farmers are also usually the first in the village to adopt new technologies."},{"index":8,"size":344,"text":"Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems frontiersin.org support maize production), and distribution [based on rainfall availability at critical growth stages and extent of dry-spell (based on farmers' estimate of the time interval between any rainy day and the next rainy day) experienced] of rainfall to construct an index variable for the adequacy of rainfall or lack thereof. Perceived responses to each of these items (as \"yes\" or \"no\") were coded as favorable and unfavorable rainfall outcomes and averaged over the number of questions. The index values range from zero to one where one stands for a favorable outcome and zero for the worst. While farmers' decision to cultivate a particular maize seed (i.e., DT or non-DT maize seed) may depend on their expectations regarding rainfall pattern, their perception of the actual rainfall pattern may help to explain the performance of a particular type of maize cultivated (Teklewold et al., 2013). Also, the survey involved the administration of a risk elicitation experiment to measure farmers' risk preferences (risk-taking behavior) using Gneezy and Potters (1997) risk elicitation mechanism. The experiment provided a hypothetical situation that elicits the risk preference of farmers based on actual pay-offs made following: (1) respondents' choice from the combination of high and no-risk maize seeds and (2) probabilistic determination of weather conditions (favorable or unfavorable outcomes) which is based on the toss of a coin. Farmers' risk-taking behavior is important in explaining decisions regarding the cultivation of new maize varieties as a potential adaptation strategy. Although DT maize seeds are developed to deal with drought risk, a decision to switch to new unfamiliar varieties may involve some risk, the potential benefits notwithstanding. Farmers who are more vulnerable to extreme weather events are less likely to use improved varieties as an effective means to cope with drought; instead, they tend to delay it (Cavatassi et al., 2011;Liu, 2013). In this study, we expect that farmers who are averse to risk could decide to cultivate DT maize if their belief in drought tolerance of the variety outweighs the potential risk associated with its being new."},{"index":9,"size":116,"text":"Given that the DT maize seeds are developed for drought tolerance and yield, farmers who have a preference for these two traits are expected to cultivate these varieties. Farmers' preferences for these traits are captured based on whether he/she mentioned them among his/her most preferred traits of maize variety. Social capital may exert behavioral influences in various ways (that is, information sharing, positive externality, resource sharing, and relaxing liquidity constraints through informal credit). The possible roles of farmers' social capital in the decision to grow DT maize are captured using the social capital index constructed based on group membership, roles assumed in each group, the nature of the group composition (homogeneous or diverse), and its functionality."},{"index":10,"size":22,"text":"Actual rainfall data are preferable for the purpose, but reliable data that are villagespecific are scarce in most developing countries, including Uganda."}]},{"head":"Conceptual framework","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The adoption of new technology is often modeled as a utilitymaximizing choice between two or more alternatives. It can be influenced by the characteristic features embodied in the technology and many other factors. Observed adoption choice of agricultural technology (for example, modern crop varieties) is hypothesized to be the end result of a process of preference comparisons by farmers."},{"index":2,"size":179,"text":"In this study, adoption is defined as the reported use of DT maize variety (that is when the farmer exactly mentions the variety by name) on a specific plot managed by the head or spouse of a household during the 2013/14 growing season. Adopting the utility maximization concept, a maize farmer (also referred to as plot manager )-who has to make decisions regarding what type of maize to grow-has three possible alternatives, which are DT modern maize, non-DT modern maize, and \"unimproved\" or local maize seed. Each one of these categories of choice includes a distinct list of maize varieties. Plots are identified with the type of maize varieties cultivated by matching the name of the varieties reported by farmers with the list under each category. The DT maize seeds are mainly developed for drought tolerance and yield whereas the non-DT modern maize seeds are developed for traits other than drought (mostly higher yields under optimal conditions). The actual choice is assumed to be made based on farmers' utility derived from the adoption of one of these maize varieties."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"Farmers' decisions to adopt a particular maize seed are assumed to be driven by maximization of the utility derived from the alternative types of maize seeds. For farmer i to choose any maize type, j, from available alternatives, m, it is required that U ij > U im , m = j; the expected benefit, U ij , that a farmer derives from the adoption of maize type j (that is, DT, non-DT modern, or local maize) is a latent variable determined by observed household, individual, plot, and location characteristics (X i ), and unobserved characteristics (e ij ):"},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"Where X i is a vector of observed exogenous variables; β j is a vector of parameters to be estimated for each type of maize; and"},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"Plot manager, also referred to as farmer, refers to the head or spouse in a household who made decision (had management access) regarding what type of maize variety to cultivate on a given household plot."},{"index":6,"size":63,"text":"In this study unless specified, modern maize refers to all improved maize seed-DT or non-DT modern maize. In addition, the terms \"DT maize\" and \"non-DT maize\" are used in subsequent sections to denote DT modern maize and non-DT modern maize, respectively. While modern maize seeds are products of formal breeding process, the local ones are results of farmers own long years of selection. "}]},{"head":"Frontiers in","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"for all m = j, (2) Equation ( 2) implies that ith farmer will adopt modern maize type j to maximize his/her expected gain (η ij ) if j provides greater benefit than any other alternative type of maize m; that is, if Bourguignon et al., 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Assuming that e ij are independently and identically Gumbel distributed, the probability that farmer i with characteristics X will choose maize type j can be specified by a multinomial logit (MNL) model (McFadden, 1973):"},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Since MNL is a model where regressors do not vary over choices, coefficients are estimated for any choice. MNL requires identification, thus one of the choices of m maize types (the local maize seed in our case) is treated as the base category (correspondent β m is constrained to equal 0)."},{"index":4,"size":173,"text":"Based on the adoption literature, farmers' decisions to adopt a new agricultural technology depend, among others, on socioeconomic, demographic, and institutional factors. Hence, the choice of explanatory variables in this study is made based on a review of past studies on technology adoption and impact in developing countries (these include Feder et al., 1985;Bandiera, 2006;Deressa et al., 2009;Matuschke and Qaim, 2009;Kafle, 2010;Kassie et al., 2011;Asfaw et al., 2012;Teklewold et al., 2013;Fisher and Carr, 2015;Jain et al., 2015). This body of literature indicates that many factors influence adoption and thus affect our outcome variable. The factors are categorized as demographic and farmer characteristics (family size, gender, age, education, risk attitude, preference to drought tolerance, preference to yield, drought risk perception, experience of maize loss due to drought), social and institutional characteristics (social capital, number of progressive farmers in the village, main sources of information, credit access, distance to input market, distance to extension office), maize plot characteristics (plot size, tenure, extent of erosion, soil fertility, slope, irrigation), and geographic characteristics (captured through district dummies)."},{"index":5,"size":150,"text":"A fundamental problem when comparing adoption outcomes between individuals is that adoption is not randomly assigned-farmers endogenously select themselves into adopters or non-adopters of particular technologies. So decisions are likely to be influenced by both observed and unobserved characteristics. Unobserved factors that can influence adoption include aptitude, motivation, experience, or other factors, which are not readily observed in the present data. These \"other\" factors may be correlated with the adoption outcome. As adopters and non-adopters can be systematically different, estimating the effect of adoption without accounting for this implied endogeneity problem would lead to inaccurate results where outcomes are attributed to adoption when in fact significant aspects of the outcome are the result of other factors not accounted for. We apply an endogenous switching regression treatment effects approach to correct for self-selection bias (Dubin and McFadden, 1984) and provide treatment effects that take both observed and unobserved factors into account."}]},{"head":"Econometric estimation strategy","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The endogenous switching regression (ESR) framework we used to estimate the impact of adoption while accounting for selection biases involves two stages. In the first stage, farmers' choices of maize types are modeled using the MNL selection model as specified above; and in the second stage of the estimation, the impact of adoption on the outcome variable is evaluated using ordinary least squares (OLS) which includes a selectivity correction term from the first stage."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"The relationship between the outcome variable and the set of exogenous variables Z is estimated for the maize type chosen. The outcome equation for each possible regime j is given as"},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"Where Y ij are the outcome variables of the i th farmer in regime j, Z is as defined above, and the error terms (u) are distributed with E(u ij |X,Z) = 0 and var u ij X, Z = σ 2 j . For consistent estimation, Equation (4) will be augmented with plotspecific unobservable characteristics such as land quality that can help in controlling for unobserved heterogeneity among plots. Y ij is observed if and only if alternative j is adopted which  4) requires the inclusion of the selection correction terms of the alternative choices as recovered from the MNL models. Bourguignon et al. (2007) show that consistent estimates of the parameter in the above equation can be obtained by estimating the following multinomial endogenous switching regression models:"},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"Where θ j is the covariance between e's and u's; and λ j is the inverse Mills ratio (IMR) computed from the estimated probabilities in Equation (3) as follows:"},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"of the selection equation and u's of the outcome equations, and ω represents error terms with an expected value of zero. In the multinomial choice setting, there are J-1 selection correction terms, one for each alternative maize type. The standard errors in Equation ( 5) are bootstrapped to account for the heteroscedasticity arising from the generated regressor (λ j )."},{"index":6,"size":131,"text":"For Equation (5) to be identified, it is good practice in empirical analysis to use variables that affect the choice decision but not the outcome variable (as exclusion restrictions) in addition to those automatically generated by the non-linearity of the selection regression. The specification chosen for the outcome equations in Equation ( 5) follows the common practice in the agricultural economics literature (see, e.g., Solis et al., 2007;Di Falco et al., 2011;Teklewold et al., 2013), allows us to use variables related to information sources, farmer and farm household's characteristics as well as including the number of DT maize varieties known to the farmer as exclusion restriction. The validity of the exclusion restriction is tested based on the significance of these variables in the selection model but not in the outcome equation."},{"index":7,"size":85,"text":"Using the above framework, the average treatment effect on the treated (ATT) which is the average effect of adoption for adopters (DT maize growers), and on the untreated (ATU) which is the average effect of adoption for non-adopters, are both examined by comparing the expected actual and counterfactual outcomes. The computation of the counterfactual and average treatment effects using endogenous switching regression is implemented in the same manner as in Di Falco et al. ( 2011), Teklewold et al. (2013), and Kassie et al. (2014)."},{"index":8,"size":3,"text":"Actual outcomes for"},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"Adopters:"},{"index":10,"size":3,"text":"Counterfactual outcomes for"},{"index":11,"size":1,"text":"Adopters:"},{"index":12,"size":84,"text":"While Equations ( 6) and ( 7) represent the actual outcome observed in the sample for adopters and non-adopters, respectively, Equations ( 8) and ( 9) are the respective counterfactual outcomes. These conditional expectations are used to compute ATT and ATU. The average adoption effect for adopters (ATT) is calculated as the difference between Equations ( 6) and ( 8). The difference between Equations ( 7) and ( 9) provides the average adoption effect for non-adopters (ATU). ATT, for example, is shown as follows:"},{"index":13,"size":47,"text":"The first term on the right-hand side (RHS) of Equation ( 10) represents the expected change in adopters' average outcome if adopters' characteristics had the same return (coefficient) as the characteristics of non-adopters. In the second term (on the RHS), λ j , is the selection correction "}]},{"head":"Type of maize cultivated Decision to cultivate (Actual/counterfactual) Treatment effect (A-B)","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"DT maize Non-DT/Local maize (A) (B)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"DT maize   term that captures all potential effects of difference in unobserved variables."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"The average treatment effect (ATE) can be calculated by taking the difference between the two actual outcomes (Equations 6, 7). In observational studies, ATE gives the treatment effect without accounting for selection bias. The computation of the conditional expectations and treatment effect are summarized in Table 1."}]},{"head":"Results and discussions","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Descriptive summary","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"About 77% of the sampled respondents grew modern maize varieties of which 24% used DT maize. The average size of all maize plots was 0.40 hectares; the corresponding figure for plots allocated to all modern and only to DT maize seed was 0.41 and 0.45 hectares, respectively. DT growers tend to cultivate maize on relatively larger plots. The share of maize plots planted to DT maize was about 19%. Comparatively, non-DT modern maize seeds were widely cultivated covering 60% of the maize plots of the sample households. These maize seeds have been part of the seed systems in Uganda since the 1960s (Balirwa, 1992) and their spread might imply that over time the DT maize would also follow similar diffusion trends. At the time of this study, the uptake level of DT maize suggests that it is still at the early diffusion stages (Figure 2)."},{"index":2,"size":155,"text":"Table 2 presents descriptive statistics of variables that are used in the empirical models (selection and outcome equation) applied to make casual attribution of adoption of DT maize. From the three types of maize used as the categorical dependent variable, local maize is used as the base category. The tests of goodness-of-fit reported at the bottom of the table show the model fits the data reasonably well. The Wald χ 2 test statistics (672.26) rejects the hypothesis that the regression coefficients of the explanatory variables are jointly equal to zero (p = 0.00). Accordingly, the result showed that the gender of plot managers, size of the maize plot, preference for the drought tolerance trait, number of DT varieties known to the plot manager, source of information on new maize seed and location dummies, as expected, influenced the probability of adopting DT maize varieties. Male-headed plot managers have a higher adoption probability than their female counterparts."}]},{"head":"Results from the adoption models","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Also, plot managers who receive information about new maize seed varieties from research centers and other farmers, are more likely to cultivate DT maize. Research can provide reliable technical information, but it may not be accessible to many farmers mainly due to limited presence in terms of geographical spread. As expected proximity to the nearest extension service increases the chances of adoption."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Farmers who have a preference for DT traits are expected to cultivate DT maize. The results indicate that compared to the base category, preference for drought tolerance is an important driver for the adoption of DT varieties. This suggests that those who grow DT seeds are well-informed about this unique trait. Moreover, these DT varieties maintain (to a large degree) yield parity with extant hybrids. It stands to reason then that preference for DT trait would be the main differentiation for many farmers in evaluating DT varieties compared to non-DT ones."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"Finally, the positive correlation of some location dummies with adoption could be a reflection of agro-ecological factors (like rainfall) as well as other underlying unobserved spatial differences. The reference district (Iganga) received relatively better rainfall (in amount and distribution) over the main growing season (March-June; see Table A1). Comparatively, low  In parentheses are standard errors. Since the unit of analysis is plot, the standard error is adjusted for within-cluster correlation using the household identifier variable."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"rainfall signal at planting time (March) might have prompted a higher likelihood of growing DT maize seeds in Bulambuli and Tororo than in Iganga."}]},{"head":"Plot level impacts of DT maize","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The results presented in this section are based on the conditional and unconditional average effects of DT maize adoption on expected maize yield. The ATT and ATU are computed using the predicted value of yield following the schema presented in Table 1."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"The coefficient estimates from the second stage regression (OLS) are presented in Table A2. It is to be noted that the coefficients on selection correction terms are almost not significant suggesting that our results are unlikely to be driven by selection bias. The regression estimates without the correction terms remain similar but in the interests of brevity, we have not reported the results."},{"index":3,"size":217,"text":"The figures reported in Table 4 are expected values of yield. A simple pairwise comparison of means (ATE) indicates that cultivation of DT maize, on average, gives higher maize yield to  adopters than non-adopters who grew either non-DT or local maize. Such comparisons, however, could be misleading as it does not control for observed and unobserved factors that may influence the outcome variable. We used Equation (10) to estimate the true average adoption effect and compare the expected yield of farmers cultivating DT maize with their counterfactual outcome-if the same farmers had instead cultivated local or non-DT maize seed. The results indicated that both adopters and non-adopters would benefit from adoption. The magnitude of the adoption effect, however, differs when the comparison is between DT vs. non-DT and DT vs. local maize growers. The ATT showed that farmers who actually cultivated DT maize get 30% more yield than what they would have obtained had they instead adopted non-DT maize seed. The corresponding yield effects of adopting DT instead of local maize were four times high. Similarly, ATU revealed that farmers who grew non-DT modern and local maize received 32% and 54% more yield, respectively, if they instead had adopted DT maize. That is, non-adopters would have realized higher productivity if they decide to switch to DT maize."}]},{"head":"Outcome variable","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Spatial variation of the impacts of DT maize","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"We examined the treatment effect both by location (districts) and rainfall status, the latter was determined using the rainfall index (as described in the data section). Table 5 presents the ATT and ATU of DT adoption against non-DT and local maize by the district. In all the districts, the average yield of DT outperformed that of non-DT and local maize. As would be expected, the magnitude of the ATT was relatively higher against local varieties than non-DT maize varieties. The ATT against local maize indicates a yield advantage ranging from 2.6 times at Tororo to six times at Iganga. The corresponding yield advantage for ATU ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 times more at Tororo and Bulambuli, respectively. The ATT against non-DT growers shows a yield advantage of 52% at Iganga, 18% at Tororo, and 17% at Bulambuli. The ATU (for DT vs. non-DT) had a relatively better yield advantage than the ATT in all the districts suggesting that the adoption of DT would have been even more beneficial to those who grew non-DT (had they grown DT) than those who already adopted DT."},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"According to the rainfall records from proximate weather stations (Table A1), the amount of rainfall received by each of the study districts during the 2014 main season covered by the survey (that is, March-June 2014) was well below the long-term average (that is, 659 mm) reported by Kansiime et al. (2013). In relative terms, the Iganga district received a higher amount with better distribution during the main season of 2014. Theoretically, the treatment effect should have been pronounced more in the Bulambuli district where the amount and distribution of rainfall received during the surveyed season was relatively less favorable. But this might be an indication that district-level rainfall data adopted from the meteorological stations are less representative of the rainfall distribution under more granular scale conditions at the micro level, given the low density of weather stations in Uganda."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"To mitigate this, we tracked rainfall conditions/patterns at a lower level using the rainfall index constructed for each village. The index is then used to categorize the villages into those  which had potentially poor rainfall status (with a rainfall index value equal to or <0.5) and those which had potentially good rainfall status (with an index value greater than 0.5) in the 2014 main season."},{"index":4,"size":147,"text":"Table 6 shows the treatment effect by rainfall status of sample villages. In all cases, be it under poor or good rainfall conditions, DT adoption makes the productivity of adopters (ATT) and non-adopters (ATU) better off. Leaving the substantial yield advantage of DT maize adoption over local maize under the two states of rainfall aside, the treatment effect over non-DT reveals an interesting result. The average treatment effect (ATT) over non-DT maize under poor rainfall conditions was about 417 kg ha −1 , that is, cultivation of DT maize offers a yield advantage of 44% over what would have been obtained if the plot was instead planted to non-DT maize. The corresponding ATT under good rainfall conditions has an additional yield advantage of about 21%. This supports the claim that DT maize outperforms other commercial maize (non-DT) more in seasons when the rainfall condition is less favorable."},{"index":5,"size":89,"text":"Despite its inability to account for confounding effects, we further ran ANOVA of the linear prediction of DT yield as  a partial metric to compare its performance difference across the three districts. The result suggests a significant (p = 0.00) productivity difference in mean DT maize yield across the three districts. Pairwise yield comparisons between these districts further revealed statistically meaningful differences (Table 7). Bulambuli district-where the highest share (40%) of plots was planted to DT maize varieties-had the highest mean DT yield, and Tororo district had the least."},{"index":6,"size":126,"text":"To help in visualizing the results described above, we summarized these spatial variations in the impact of DT in Figure 3 based on the ATT comparing DT with local maize varieties (Figure 3A) and DT with non-DT maize varieties (Figure 3B). Although the mean ATT is positive and significant across all districts, there are pockets where the impact as measured by ATT was below the sample average. This can be seen in the Tororo district where both the magnitude of the impact is relatively lower (see Tables 5, 6), and the DT coefficient on the district dummy is comparatively smaller (see Table A2). Further examination of the particularities of the Tororo district might be worth looking at to bring out and learn about the underlying causes."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":331,"text":"This study evaluates the potential impact of maize varieties developed for drought tolerance. These varieties are said to stabilize maize yield under drought conditions thereby offering maize farmers living in drought-prone areas a greater possibility to adapt to climate change. The study utilizes crosssectional household and plot-level data collected from 696 plot managers of randomly selected 408 sample households. The finding of this study revealed that compared to plots planted to non-DT/local maize varieties, those planted to DT maize had superior yield performance both across locations and under varying rainfall conditions. Particularly, putting the superior yield performance of DT over non-DT maize varieties in favorable rainfall conditions aside, the more pronounced yield performance observed when the rainfall conditions were less favorable provides evidence that the yield potential of these varieties is stable across space and a wide range of rainfall conditions. Irrespective of locations and rainfall conditions, the magnitude of the yield impact of cultivating DT maize over non-DT maize, which is about 30% larger, is consistent with the previously reported experimental results which showed that DTs offer a yield advantage of 26-47% (random drought), and 25-56% (under optimal rainfall conditions) over commercial (non-DT modern) maize seeds (Fisher et al., 2015). As expected, the corresponding ATT (yield effect of adopting DT instead of local maize) was found many times larger. Likewise, it is not only the farmers who already started cultivating DT maize who reap the benefit but also farmers who grew non-DT modern and local maize would have potentially received 32 and 54% more yield benefits, respectively, if they instead had adopted DT maize. That is, non-adopters would have realized higher productivity if they decide to switch to DT maize. The results generally confirm the direct role and prospect of DT maize adoption in reducing susceptibility to drought, thereby improving food security and welfare status of maize farm households-as higher yields are likely to translate to a greater household food supply, sellable surplus, and better crop income, all else equal."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Farmers' decision to cultivate DT maize tends to follow rainfall signals. Spatial differences observed in technology adoption across districts are partly the results of variable rainfall on-set signals across sample districts. Teklewold et al. (2013) and Kassie et al. (2014) also observed spatial differences in technology adoption induced by various factors. The DT impacts observed in each of the districts showed that the adoption of DT would have been even more beneficial to those who grew non-DT (had they grown DT) than those who already adopted DT. This implies that those not currently using DT maize would greatly benefit from them once the factors preventing these farmers from adopting them are removed."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"The impact analysis based on the rainfall condition indicated that cultivation of DT maize offers more yield  advantage over non-DT maize during relatively poor rainfall conditions than a favorable one (44 vs. 21%). This supports the claim that DT maize outperforms other commercial maize (non-DT) more in seasons when the rainfall condition is less favorable. In fact, the DT maize varieties are meant to ensure stable yield across variable rainfall conditions."},{"index":4,"size":197,"text":"The fact that DT maize seeds are cultivated by only about a fifth of the sample households is suggestive of an initial diffusion cycle. The relatively wider cultivation of other commercial non-DT maize varieties which had long been in the seed system suggests that over time the DT maize would follow a similar trend as most of the barriers would be removed. In addition, a higher potential benefit for non-adopters should they cultivate DT maize suggest the barriers to adoption are not occasioned by the low benefits of DT varieties, but by the interplay of factors such as access to information and ready availability of retail supplies of seed. For example, compared to the female head plot managers, higher adoption probability associated with plot managers who are male household heads could be an indication of variable access to key resources (land, capital, information, and so on) that can influence adoption decisions. Such gender-linked resource constraints which resulted in variable adoption status is also observed in earlier studies (Doss and Morris, 2001;Smale, 2011;Fisher and Kandiwa, 2014). Interventions to improve adoption might require, among others, appreciating and accommodating such gender-linked differences through affirmative actions in favor of female farmers."},{"index":5,"size":127,"text":"The implication is that public policy institutions involved in agricultural development may need to provide necessary supportive actions which can strengthen and leverage public extension services to promote these new generations of varieties. Government should underwrite programs for technology promotion and dissemination at early stages to provide the basis for the private sector (particularly input dealers) to enter into retailing these varieties. Promising policy mix to speed up adoption may include exposing farmers to these technologies through networks of field demonstrations and using farmers' social networks as most of the sample farmers relied on their fellow farmers for information. Distribution of sample seeds for farmers to experience the benefit and improving local availability of seed at affordable prices can accelerate the uptake of the DT maize varieties."},{"index":6,"size":63,"text":"Although this study presents evidence that the benefits of DT maize are commensurate or better than existing non-DT maize seeds, the results are based on crosssectional analysis which offers a snapshot and associational effects. In the future, panel data analysis will be needed to truly capture the dynamics and account for unobserved heterogeneities that underpin DT maize variety adoption and its corresponding impact."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE FIGUREAgro-ecological zones of Uganda, and location of sampled districts. Source: Wasige (). "},{"text":" Bourguignon et al. ( ) using Monte-Carlo experiments, show that selection bias correction based on multinomial logit model can provide consistent and e cient estimates of the selection process and a reasonable correction for the outcome equations, even when the assumption of the independence of irrelevant alternatives (IIA) is not achieved. occurs based on the utility maximization indicated earlier. If the error terms of the selection equation (e) and that of the outcome equations (u) are correlated, unbiased estimation of Equation ( "},{"text":" FIGUREPercentage of maize plots planted in di erent types of maize. "},{"text":" d |A = nd)-E(Y nd |A = nd) E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y nd |A = nd) 425d |A = loc)-E(Y loc |A = loc) E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y loc |A = loc) 822.36*** (66.49) ATE=[(a)-(b)] Numbers in parenthesis are standard errors; ***Statistical significance at 1% level. ATT, average treatment effect on the treated; ATU, average treatment effect on the untreated; ATE, average treatment effect (unconditional); A, adoption; d, DT maize; nd, non-DT maize; loc, local maize. (a) and (b) represent observed expected yield; (c) and (d) represent counterfactual expected yield. "},{"text":" (a) and (b) represent observed expected yield; (c) and (d) represent counterfactual expected yield; ATT=[(a)-(c)]; ATU=[(d)-(b)]. "},{"text":" (a) and (b) represent observed expected yield; (c) and (d) represent counterfactual expected yield; ATT=[(a)-(c)]; ATU=[(d)-(b)]. "},{"text":"FIGURE( FIGURE (A) Spatial distribution of ATT (average treatment e ects) of DT maize compared to local varieties. (B) Spatial distribution of ATT (average treatment e ects) of DT maize compared to all non-DT varieties. "},{"text":" ij are unobserved characteristics. Let the choice from among the alternative maize types by a farmer is denoted by an index variable, I, such that: Habte et al. . /fsufs. . Habte et al../fsufs.. Sustainable Food Systems  frontiersin.org Sustainable Food Systemsfrontiersin.org  "},{"text":"maize Local maize Mean or Prop. Std. Dev. Mean or Prop. Std. Dev. Mean or Prop. Std. Dev. TABLE Descriptive summary of selected variables used in estimations. Habte et al.     . /fsufs. . Habte et al../fsufs.. Variable description Non-DT Average yield of maize plot (kg/ha) DT maize 2,270 2,666 1,891 2,285 1,460  1,675 Variable description Non-DT Average yield of maize plot (kg/ha) DT maize 2,270 2,666 1,8912,2851,4601,675 Plot manager's educational level (school years) 7.10 3.46 6.34 3.56 5.00  3.74 Plot manager's educational level (school years)7.103.466.343.565.003.74 Plot manager's age (years) 40.95 14.45 42.67 13.77 45.64  12.77 Plot manager's age (years)40.9514.4542.6713.7745.6412.77 Plot manager is female head (ref. category) 0.05 0.21 0.11 0.32 0.24  0.43 Plot manager is female head (ref. category)0.050.210.110.320.240.43 Plot manager is male head 0.91 0.29 0.77 0.42 0.53  0.50 Plot manager is male head0.910.290.770.420.530.50 Plot manager is wife in male head household 0.05 0.21 0.11 0.32 0.23  0.42 Plot manager is wife in male head household0.050.210.110.320.230.42 Family size (number of household members) 6.93 2.91 7.50 3.55 7.64  3.19 Family size (number of household members)6.932.917.503.557.643.19 Number of perceived droughts in the last 5 years 2.08 1.10 1.93 1.25 2.21  1.53 Number of perceived droughts in the last 5 years2.081.101.931.252.211.53 Number of times farmer faced maize harvest loss 1.55 1.01 1.33 1.09 1.79  1.49 Number of times farmer faced maize harvest loss1.551.011.331.091.791.49 due to drought in the last 5 years       due to drought in the last 5 years Plot manager mentioned yield as one of preferred 0.39 0.49 0.55 0.50 0.31  0.46 Plot manager mentioned yield as one of preferred0.390.490.550.500.310.46 traits (yes = 1, 0 otherwise)       traits (yes = 1, 0 otherwise) Plot manager mentioned drought tolerance as one 0.51 0.50 0.43 0.50 0.40  0.49 Plot manager mentioned drought tolerance as one0.510.500.430.500.400.49 of preferred traits (yes = 1, 0 otherwise)       of preferred traits (yes = 1, 0 otherwise) Plot manager's social capital index (0-1) 0.04 0.08 0.03 0.08 0.02  0.06 Plot manager's social capital index (0-1)0.040.080.030.080.020.06 Plot manager's risk attitude [ranges from risk 4.81 3.24 4.59 3.30 3.98  3.23 Plot manager's risk attitude [ranges from risk4.813.244.593.303.983.23 averse (0) to risk lover (10)]       averse (0) to risk lover (10)] Plot acquired through market based tenure (ref. 0.51 0.50 0.39 0.49 0.45  0.50 Plot acquired through market based tenure (ref.0.510.500.390.490.450.50 category)       category) Plot acquired through customary tenure 0.46 0.50 0.58 0.49 0.49  0.50 Plot acquired through customary tenure0.460.500.580.490.490.50 Plot acquired through other tenure 0.04 0.18 0.03 0.17 0.07  0.25 Plot acquired through other tenure0.040.180.030.170.070.25 Plot soil fertility rated as good (vs. poor) 0.44 0.50 0.43 0.50 0.40  0.49 Plot soil fertility rated as good (vs. poor)0.440.500.430.500.400.49 Extent of erosion on plot rated as none (ref. 0.46 0.50 0.36 0.48 0.37  0.48 Extent of erosion on plot rated as none (ref.0.460.500.360.480.370.48 category)       category) Extent of erosion on plot rated as moderate 0.34 0.48 0.42 0.49 0.45  0.50 Extent of erosion on plot rated as moderate0.340.480.420.490.450.50 Extent of erosion on plot rated as high 0.20 0.40 0.22 0.42 0.18  0.38 Extent of erosion on plot rated as high0.200.400.220.420.180.38 Plot slope rated as steep (ref. category) 0.10 0.30 0.19 0.39 0.13  0.33 Plot slope rated as steep (ref. category)0.100.300.190.390.130.33 Plot slope rated as moderate 0.40 0.49 0.53 0.50 0.45  0.50 Plot slope rated as moderate0.400.490.530.500.450.50 Plot slope rated as flat 0.50 0.50 0.28 0.45 0.42  0.50 Plot slope rated as flat0.500.500.280.450.420.50 Plot is irrigated (yes = 1, 0 otherwise) 0.06 0.24 0.06 0.24 0.06  0.23 Plot is irrigated (yes = 1, 0 otherwise)0.060.240.060.240.060.23 Maize plot size (ha) 0.45 0.28 0.39 0.28 0.37  0.25 Maize plot size (ha)0.450.280.390.280.370.25 Maize network size of the respondent 3.41 1.57 3.17 1.59 2.65  1.56 Maize network size of the respondent3.411.573.171.592.651.56 Number of progressive. farmers in the village 9.00 2.58 8.86 2.32 9.35  3.30 Number of progressive. farmers in the village9.002.588.862.329.353.30 Number of DT maize varieties known to the 2.33 1.84 1.50 1.77 1.07  1.67 Number of DT maize varieties known to the2.331.841.501.771.071.67 respondent       respondent Extension is main info source (yes = 1, 0 0.05 0.21 0.05 0.21 0.02  0.16 Extension is main info source (yes = 1, 00.050.210.050.210.020.16 otherwise)       otherwise) Research is main info. source (yes = 1, 0 0.05 0.21 0.00 0.07 0.00  0.00 Research is main info. source (yes = 1, 00.050.210.000.070.000.00 otherwise)       otherwise) Input shop is main info. source (yes = 1, 0 0.03 0.17 0.04 0.21 0.01  0.09 Input shop is main info. source (yes = 1, 00.030.170.040.210.010.09 otherwise)       otherwise) Other farmers are main info. source (yes = 1, 0 0.25 0.43 0.19 0.39 0.24  0.43 Other farmers are main info. source (yes = 1, 00.250.430.190.390.240.43 otherwise)       otherwise) Elec. Media is main info source (yes = 1, 0 0.20 0.40 0.22 0.42 0.13  0.33 Elec. Media is main info source (yes = 1, 00.200.400.220.420.130.33 otherwise)       otherwise)        (Continued) (Continued) Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems      frontiersin.org frontiersin.org Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systemsfrontiersin.org frontiersin.org  "},{"text":"TABLE (  Continued)   Continued) Variable description DT maize Non-DT Variable descriptionDT maizeNon-DT  "},{"text":"maize Local maize Mean or Prop. Std. Dev. Mean or Prop. Std. Dev. Mean or Prop. Std. Dev.  Likely to get credit (yes = 1, 0 otherwise) 0.59 0.49 0.46 0.50 0.41 0.49 Likely to get credit (yes = 1, 0 otherwise)0.590.490.460.500.410.49 Distance (km) to input market 7.83 8.06 9.15 8.39 7.52 5.63 Distance (km) to input market7.838.069.158.397.525.63 Distance (km) to the nearest extension office 4.88 4.51 5.74 5.67 5.29 4.05 Distance (km) to the nearest extension office4.884.515.745.675.294.05 Iganga district (ref. category) 0.29 0.46 0.33 0.47 0.57 0.50 Iganga district (ref. category)0.290.460.330.470.570.50 Tororo district 0.31 0.46 0.39 0.49 0.34 0.47 Tororo district0.310.460.390.490.340.47 Bulambuli district 0.40 0.49 0.28 0.45 0.09 0.29 Bulambuli district0.400.490.280.450.090.29 Rainfall index (0-1) 0.43 0.24 0.44 0.24 0.37 0.24 Rainfall index (0-1)0.430.240.440.240.370.24 Quantity of fertilizer use (kg/ha) 19.44 48.36 20.18 72.27 3.98 20.89 Quantity of fertilizer use (kg/ha)19.4448.3620.1872.273.9820.89 Cost of hired labor (USD/ha) 86.62 121.00 52.62 92.63 25.49 61.76 Cost of hired labor (USD/ha)86.62121.0052.6292.6325.4961.76 Other input costs (Seed + Chemicals) (USD/ha) 54.07 87.34 86.97 466.60 17.70 170.04 Other input costs (Seed + Chemicals) (USD/ha)54.0787.3486.97466.6017.70170.04  "},{"text":" Table 3 presents the estimation results of the first stage (the MNL selection model) of the endogenous switching regression.  "},{"text":" TABLE Parameter estimates of the determinants of DT and non-DT maize adoption-multinomial logit selection model (Local maize as base category). Variables DT maize Non-DT VariablesDT maizeNon-DT   maize maize  Coeff. (Rob Coeff. (Rob Coeff. (RobCoeff. (Rob  se) se) se)se) Plot manager's (PM) characteristics   Plot manager's (PM) characteristics PM's educational level (school years) 0.00 (0.06) 0.00 (0.05) PM's educational level (school years)0.00 (0.06)0.00 (0.05) PM's age (years) 0.00 (0.01) −0.01 (0.01) PM's age (years)0.00 (0.01)−0.01 (0.01) PM is male head 2.52*** (0.70) 0.69** (0.45) PM is male head2.52*** (0.70)0.69** (0.45) PM is wife in male head household 0.86 (0.87) 0.16 (0.54) PM is wife in male head household0.86 (0.87)0.16 (0.54) Family size (number of household −0.13*** (0.07) 0.01 (0.05) Family size (number of household−0.13*** (0.07)0.01 (0.05) members)   members) Perception and preference   Perception and preference PM mentioned drought tolerance as one 0.69*** (0.42) 0.47** (0.30) PM mentioned drought tolerance as one0.69*** (0.42)0.47** (0.30) of preferred traits (yes = 1, 0 otherwise)   of preferred traits (yes = 1, 0 otherwise) PM mentioned yield as preferred traits −0.48* (0.40) 0.63*** (0.30) PM mentioned yield as preferred traits−0.48* (0.40)0.63*** (0.30) (yes = 1, 0 else)   (yes = 1, 0 else) PM's risk attitude (0-10) 0.04 (0.07) 0.03 (0.05) PM's risk attitude (0-10)0.04 (0.07)0.03 (0.05) No. of times PM faced maize harvest loss −0.07 (0.25) −0.20 (0.19) No. of times PM faced maize harvest loss−0.07 (0.25)−0.20 (0.19) due to drought in the last 5 years   due to drought in the last 5 years No. of perceived droughts (by PM) in the 0.02 (0.22) −0.01 (0.17) No. of perceived droughts (by PM) in the0.02 (0.22)−0.01 (0.17) last 5 years   last 5 years Plot characteristics   Plot characteristics Maize plot size (ha) 0.62*** (0.27) 0.22 (0.21) Maize plot size (ha)0.62*** (0.27)0.22 (0.21) Plot acquired through customary tenure −0.06 (0.34) 0.50*** (0.27) Plot acquired through customary tenure−0.06 (0.34)0.50*** (0.27) (vs. market tenure)   (vs. market tenure) Plot acquired through other tenure (vs. −0.88 (0.87) −0.86* (0.65) Plot acquired through other tenure (vs.−0.88 (0.87)−0.86* (0.65) market tenure)   market tenure) Plot soil fertility rated as good (vs. poor) −0.13 (0.37) −0.08 (0.28) Plot soil fertility rated as good (vs. poor)−0.13 (0.37)−0.08 (0.28) Extent of erosion on plot rated as −0.49 (0.45) −0.56** (0.40) Extent of erosion on plot rated as−0.49 (0.45)−0.56** (0.40) moderate (vs. no erosion)   moderate (vs. no erosion) Extent of erosion on plot rated as high (vs. −0.04 (0.50) −0.28 (0.43) Extent of erosion on plot rated as high (vs.−0.04 (0.50)−0.28 (0.43) no erosion)   no erosion) Plot slope rated as moderate (vs. steep 0.55 (0.55) 0.19 (0.40) Plot slope rated as moderate (vs. steep0.55 (0.55)0.19 (0.40) slope)   slope) Plot slope rated as flat (vs. steep slope) 0.60 (0.55) −0.61* (0.43) Plot slope rated as flat (vs. steep slope)0.60 (0.55)−0.61* (0.43) Plot is irrigated (yes = 1, 0 otherwise) 0.33 (0.71) 0.09 (0.48) Plot is irrigated (yes = 1, 0 otherwise)0.33 (0.71)0.09 (0.48) Social capital and access to services   Social capital and access to services PM's social capital index (0-1) 1.87 (2.95) 1.89 (2.28) PM's social capital index (0-1)1.87 (2.95)1.89 (2.28) Maize network size of the PM 0.01 (0.13) 0.08 (0.10) Maize network size of the PM0.01 (0.13)0.08 (0.10) Number of progressive. farmers in the −0.00 (0.07) −0.04 (0.06) Number of progressive. farmers in the−0.00 (0.07)−0.04 (0.06) resp.'s village   resp.'s village Number of DT maize varieties known to 0.29*** (0.14) 0.03 (0.11) Number of DT maize varieties known to0.29*** (0.14)0.03 (0.11) the PM   the PM Extension is main info source to PM (yes 0.80 (1.10) 1.44*** (0.89) Extension is main info source to PM (yes0.80 (1.10)1.44*** (0.89) = 1, 0 otherwise)   = 1, 0 otherwise) Research is main info. source to PM (yes 13.42*** (1.05) 12.49*** (1.04) Research is main info. source to PM (yes13.42*** (1.05)12.49*** (1.04) = 1, 0 otherwise)   = 1, 0 otherwise)   (Continued) (Continued)  "},{"text":"TABLE (  Continued)   Continued) Variables DT maize Non-DT VariablesDT maizeNon-DT   maize maize  Coeff. (Rob Coeff. (Rob Coeff. (RobCoeff. (Rob  se) se) se)se) Input shop is main info. source to PM (yes 0.86 (1.54) 2.04** (1.36) Input shop is main info. source to PM (yes0.86 (1.54)2.04** (1.36) = 1, 0 otherwise)   = 1, 0 otherwise) Other farmers are main info. source to PM 0.67* (0.55) 0.11 (0.39) Other farmers are main info. source to PM0.67* (0.55)0.11 (0.39) (yes = 1, 0 otherwise)   (yes = 1, 0 otherwise) Elec. Media is main info source to PM (yes 0.11 (0.59) 0.37 (0.44) Elec. Media is main info source to PM (yes0.11 (0.59)0.37 (0.44) = 1, 0 otherwise)   = 1, 0 otherwise) PM is likely to get credit (yes = 1, 0 0.36 (0.41) −0.18 (0.33) PM is likely to get credit (yes = 1, 00.36 (0.41)−0.18 (0.33) otherwise)   otherwise) Distance (km) to input market 0.01 (0.03) 0.03** (0.02) Distance (km) to input market0.01 (0.03)0.03** (0.02) Distance (km) to the nearest extension −0.07** (0.06) −0.04 (0.05) Distance (km) to the nearest extension−0.07** (0.06)−0.04 (0.05) office   office Agro-ecology (Location and season)   Agro-ecology (Location and season) Planted maize in 2014 major season (yes 0.20 (0.16) 0.13 (0.13) Planted maize in 2014 major season (yes0.20 (0.16)0.13 (0.13) = 1, 0 otherwise)   = 1, 0 otherwise) Tororo district 0.89*** (0.47) 0.62*** (0.33) Tororo district0.89*** (0.47)0.62*** (0.33) Bulambuli district 2.99*** (0.82) 1.84*** (0.78) Bulambuli district2.99*** (0.82)1.84*** (0.78) Observations (plots) 1,026  Observations (plots)1,026 Wald chi-squared (68) 672.26  Wald chi-squared (68)672.26 Pseudo R 2 0.21  Pseudo R 20.21 Log Likelihood −771.6  Log Likelihood−771.6  "},{"text":"TABLE Average e ect of DT maize adoption on maize yield, multinomial ESR.  "},{"text":"Outcome variable (Comparison): Maize yield in kg per ha (DT vs. NDT)       . /fsufs. . ./fsufs.. TABLE Average e ect of DT adoption by districts.     TABLE Average e ect of DT adoption by districts. (i) Location Average Adotion status Decision DT adoption effect (i) Location AverageAdotion statusDecisionDT adoption effect  seasonal rainfall a (mm)  DT maize Non-DT   seasonal rainfall a (mm)DT maizeNon-DT Iganga 612.90 DT maize 1672.84 (a) (95.21) 1099.01 (c) 50.35) 573.83*** (107.70) ATT Iganga612.90DT maize1672.84 (a) (95.21)1099.01 (c) 50.35)573.83*** (107.70)ATT   E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y nd |A = d)     E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y nd |A = d)   Non-DT maize 2139.16 (d) (83.24) 1074.97 (b) (33.89) 1064.20*** (89.87) ATU Non-DT maize2139.16 (d) (83.24)1074.97 (b) (33.89)1064.20*** (89.87)ATU   E(Y d |A = nd)-E(Y nd |A = nd)     E(Y d |A = nd)-E(Y nd |A = nd) Tororo 561.10 DT maize 1056.66 (a) (67.05) 898.19 (c) (44.94) 158.46** (80.72) ATT Tororo561.10DT maize1056.66 (a) (67.05)898.19 (c) (44.94)158.46** (80.72)ATT   E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y nd |A = d)     E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y nd |A = d)   Non-DT maize 1198.42 (d) (42.07) 850.62 (b) (24.50) 347.80*** (48.68) ATU Non-DT maize1198.42 (d) (42.07)850.62 (b) (24.50)347.80*** (48.68)ATU   E(Y d |A = nd)-E(Y nd |A = nd)     E(Y d |A = nd)-E(Y nd |A = nd) Bulambuli 457.00 DT maize 2305.11 (a) (115.43) 1970.68 (c) 334.43*** (141.53) ATT Bulambuli457.00DT maize2305.11 (a) (115.43)1970.68 (c)334.43*** (141.53)ATT   E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y nd |A = d)     E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y nd |A = d)   Non-DT maize 2821.05 (d) (123.02) 2189.48 (b) (82.54) 631.57*** (148.15) ATU Non-DT maize2821.05 (d) (123.02)2189.48 (b) (82.54)631.57*** (148.15)ATU   E(Y d |A = nd)-E(Y nd |A = nd)     E(Y d |A = nd)-E(Y nd |A = nd)  (ii)      (ii)  "},{"text":"Outcome variable (Comparison): maize yield in kg per ha (DT vs. LOC) Amount of rainfall for main growing season (March-June) from the proximate weather station (see TableA1). Location Average  DT maize Local maize DT Adoption effect LocationAverageDT maizeLocal maizeDT Adoption effect  seasonal      seasonal  rainfall a (mm)      rainfall a (mm) Iganga 612.90 DT maize 1672.84 (a) (95.21) 236.47 (c) (10.59) 1436.37*** (95.79) ATT Iganga612.90DT maize1672.84 (a) (95.21)236.47 (c) (10.59)1436.37*** (95.79)ATT   E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y loc |A = d)     E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y loc |A = d)   Local maize 1844.20 (d) (87.51) 785.89 (d) (29.42) 1058.31*** (92.32) ATU Local maize1844.20 (d) (87.51)785.89 (d) (29.42)1058.31*** (92.32)ATU   E(Y d |A = loc)-E(Y loc |A = loc)     E(Y d |A = loc)-E(Y loc |A = loc) Tororo 561.10 DT maize 1056.66 (a) (67.05) 287.68 (c) (12.28) 768.98*** (68.17) ATT Tororo561.10DT maize1056.66 (a) (67.05)287.68 (c) (12.28)768.98*** (68.17)ATT   E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y loc |A = d)     E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y loc |A = d)   Local maize 1264.07 (d) (83.55) 831.57 (b) (36.01) 432.50*** (90.98) ATU Local maize1264.07 (d) (83.55)831.57 (b) (36.01)432.50*** (90.98)ATU   E(Y d |A = loc)-E(Y loc |A = loc)     E(Y d |A = loc)-E(Y loc |A = loc) Bulambuli 457.00 DT maize 2305.11 (a) (115.43) 385.35 (c) (12.26) 1919.76*** (116.07) ATT Bulambuli457.00DT maize2305.11 (a) (115.43)385.35 (c) (12.26)1919.76*** (116.07)ATT   E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y loc |A = d)     E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y loc |A = d)   Local maize 3061.33(d) (583.27) 1205.36 (b) (158.70) 1855.97*** (604.48) ATU Local maize3061.33(d) (583.27)1205.36 (b) (158.70)1855.97*** (604.48)ATU   E(Y d |A = loc)-E(Y loc |A = loc)     E(Y d |A = loc)-E(Y loc |A = loc) Numbers in parentheses are standard errors.      Numbers in parentheses are standard errors. *, ***Statistical significance at 5% and 1% level, respectively.     *, ***Statistical significance at 5% and 1% level, respectively. As shown in Table 1,       As shown in Table 1,  "},{"text":") Outcome variable (Comparison): Maize yield in kg per ha (DT vs. NDT) TABLE The average e ect of DT adoption by rainfall status of sample villages. Village rainfall status Adoption status Decision DT adoption effect  Village rainfall statusAdoption statusDecisionDT adoption effect   DT maize Non-DT   DT maizeNon-DT Poor DT maize 1359.08 (a) (97.54) 941.92 (c) (49.86) 417.17*** (109.55) ATT PoorDT maize1359.08 (a) (97.54)941.92 (c) (49.86)417.17*** (109.55)ATT  E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y nd |A = d)     E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y nd |A = d)  Non-DT maize 1542.00 (d) (70.02) 956.96 (b) (33.17) 585.05*** (77.48) ATU Non-DT maize1542.00 (d) (70.02)956.96 (b) (33.17)585.05*** (77.48)ATU  E(Y d |A = nd)-E(Y nd |A = nd)     E(Y d |A = nd)-E(Y nd |A = nd) Good DT maize 1882.38 (a) (83.59) 1545.74 (c) (62.67) 336.64*** (104.47) ATT GoodDT maize1882.38 (a) (83.59)1545.74 (c) (62.67)336.64*** (104.47)ATT  E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y nd |A = d)     E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y nd |A = d)  Non-DT maize 2129.35 (d) (68.55) 1432.10 (b) (46.13) 697.24*** (82.62) ATU Non-DT maize2129.35 (d) (68.55)1432.10 (b) (46.13)697.24*** (82.62)ATU  E(Y d |A = nd)-E(Y nd |A = nd)     E(Y d |A = nd)-E(Y nd |A = nd)  (ii)     (ii)  "},{"text":"Outcome variable (Comparison): Maize yield in kg per ha (DT vs. LOC) Village rainfall status Adoption status DT maize Local maize DT Adoption effect  Poor DT maize 1359.08 (a) (97.54) 260.22 (c) (16.99) 1098.86*** (99.01) ATT PoorDT maize1359.08 (a) (97.54)260.22 (c) (16.99)1098.86*** (99.01)ATT  E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y loc |A = d)     E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y loc |A = d)  Local maize 1700.02(d) 807.74 (b) (32.80) 892.28*** (110.97) ATU Local maize1700.02(d)807.74 (b) (32.80)892.28*** (110.97)ATU  E(Y d |A = loc)-E(Y loc |A = loc)     E(Y d |A = loc)-E(Y loc |A = loc) Good DT maize 1882.38 (a) (83.59) 328.91 (c) (9.12) 1553.46*** (84.09) ATT GoodDT maize1882.38 (a) (83.59)328.91 (c) (9.12)1553.46*** (84.09)ATT  E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y loc |A = d)     E(Y d |A = d)-E(Y loc |A = d)  Local maize 1770.79 (d) (113.88) 852.09 (b) (36.60) 918.70*** (119.62) ATU Local maize1770.79 (d) (113.88)852.09 (b) (36.60)918.70*** (119.62)ATU  E(Y     E(Y  "},{"text":" TABLE Pairwise comparison of mean yield of DT maize by districts.  "}],"sieverID":"531e1507-8de3-49e9-80f5-10cdfb0d1a6c","abstract":"Habte E, Marenya P, Beyene F and Bekele A ( ) Reducing susceptibility to drought under growing conditions as set by farmers: The impact of new generation drought tolerant maize varieties in Uganda."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07937d74200f79df1d6f31f18e706cf9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/57ca9055-38a4-441f-a043-fbfb973cb600/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"Gender proportions -in technology development, delivery and decision making  Assessment of 2009 to 2012 outcome Assessment of 2009 to 2012 outcome Outcome achievement against 2013 target Outcome achievement against 2013 target OUTCOMES level Market access 09 to '12 ('000) 10,800 12,000 2013 Female Male Achieved 45.6 ('000) (%) 54.4 90 OUTCOMESlevel Market access 09 to '12 ('000) 10,800 12,000 2013 Female Male Achieved 45.6 ('000) (%) 54.4 90 Multiple resistant varieties Integrated crop management options Micronutrient varieties and products Skills & Knowledge 5,900 Micronutrient varieties and products 7,100 43 5,000 63.3 1,500 57 118 36.7 47 Multiple resistant varieties Integrated crop management options Micronutrient varieties and productsSkills & Knowledge 5,900 Micronutrient varieties and products 7,10043 5,000 63.3 1,50057 118 36.7 47  ICM 31.9 68.1 ICM31.968.1  Multiple resistant   Multiple resistant  varieties 62.4 37.6 varieties62.437.6  Average gender   Average gender  Aggregation 49.2 50.8 Aggregation49.250.8  "},{"text":"Niche market varieties and value added products   1,100 1,500 71 1,1001,50071 Women involvement & participation ( at   49 Women involvement & participation ( at49 37.5%)    37.5%) Access to skills and knowledge (capacity 39.864 15 324.2 Access to skills and knowledge (capacity39.86415324.2 building)    building)  "}],"sieverID":"b3e9f408-f35d-4bac-ad4e-160fd5f0e192","abstract":""}

data/part_1/085d30c4f59c4960df59157a5f144a28.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"085d30c4f59c4960df59157a5f144a28","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9ad519c2-11a3-48a8-a198-1616c1c7366d/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"Feed storage practices and aflatoxin contamination of dairy feeds in the Greater Addis Ababa milk shed, Ethiopia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Aflatoxins","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Aspergillus flavus (Maize breeding program at Texas A&M University)"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"•Toxic secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus fungi."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"•Contaminates variety of foods such as corn, oil seed and animal feed."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"•One of the most toxic forms of aflatoxin (AFB1) is converted to AFM1 and excreted in milk by lactating animals that consume contaminated feed."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"•Highly carcinogenic, cause liver cancer, stunting and immunosuppression. •The sector is commercial and uses concentrate feeding."}]},{"head":"Aflatoxin Regulatory Guidance","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sululta","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Sebeta Debre Zeit IDDELS (http://www.ideels.uni-bremen.de/highlands.html)"}]},{"head":"Study Methods","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"• Study participants:"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"• 100 dairy farmers"},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"• 27 from Addis Ababa, 23 from Debre Zeit, 9 from Sebeta, 31 from Sendafa and 10 from Sululta The fate of wheat bran and noug cake in the peri-urban dairy value chain Noug Seed (Guizotia abyssinica)"},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Beside its use as oil seed and animal feed, noug is sold in the local market for consumption."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"Feed analysis of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) "}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"•High level contamination of aflatoxin (AFB1) in feed."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"•Noug (Guizotia abyssinica) cakes are widely used in the greater Addis Ababa milk shed as cattle feed and have been found to be highly contaminated with AFB1."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"Future activities"},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"•Investigate the moisture and temperature conditions that are conducive for Aspergillus fungi to grow on noug cake."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"•Intervention studies that involve improving feed storage conditions."},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"•Chemical detoxification of aflatoxin (AFB1)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" traders • A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to all study participants • 100 grams of each feed samples were collected Results -feed storage practices • In general, feed kept indoors in plastic bags • Preventive measures such as raised platforms uncommon • Quality assessment limited to visual inspection • Feed often stored for up to 6 months Storage conditions conducive to accumulation of moulds and aflatoxins All dairy farmers used concentrates every day to feed cattle of all ages •Ingredients in concentrates feed include: •Wheat barn (100%) •Noug seed cake (73%) •Pea hulls (37%) •Maize grain (12%) Noug cake W Pea hulls and wheat bran "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"f3f733f9-2f4b-46f7-be7d-12e9bdd0bc1a","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0912e81b0bf5792bcb8a1e8ea362a4e1.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0912e81b0bf5792bcb8a1e8ea362a4e1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/718/4247.pdf"},"pageCount":22,"title":"INNOVATION PLATFORMS IN AG RICULTURAL RESEARCH FOR DEVELOPMENT Ex-ante A ppraisal of the Pur poses and Conditions Under W hich Innovation Platfor ms can Contribute to Ag ricultural Development Outcomes","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"2","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"M A RC S C H U T et al."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"alternative, that should be considered first. Based on the review of critical design principles and plausible outcomes of innovation platforms, this study provides a decision support tool for research, development and funding agencies that can enhance more critical thinking about the purposes and conditions under which innovation platforms can contribute to achieving agricultural development outcomes."}]},{"head":"I N T RO D U C T I O N","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":193,"text":"Multi-stakeholder alliances or platforms are an increasingly popular approach to enhance collaboration and innovation within the agricultural research for development (AR4D) sector (Dror et al., 2016;Lundy et al., 2005;Neef and Neubert, 2011), as well as in other sectors such as healthcare (McHugh et al., 2016), natural resource management (Faysse, 2006;Misiko et al., 2013;Steins and Edwards, 1999;van Rooyen et al., 2017;Warner, 2006) and infrastructure (Klijn and Teisman, 2003). In the AR4D sector -the focus of this paper -multi-stakeholder innovation platforms (henceforth referred to as 'innovation platforms') are promoted to bring together groups of individuals (who often represent organisations) with different backgrounds, expertise and interests -farmers, traders, food processors, researchers, government officials -and to provide them with a space for learning, action and change (World Bank, 2006). The fact that previously disconnected stakeholder groups come together to diagnose agricultural and broader livelihood problems, identify opportunities and find ways to achieve their goals is among the main benefits of innovation platforms (Klerkx et al., 2012). As the name indicates, innovation platforms have an 'innovation' objective, that is, the introduction and utilisation of any new knowledge (technological or other) in an economic or social process (OECD, 1999)."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"Depending on the level at which an innovation platform is established (e.g. village, regional and national), and on those initiating the platform, the objective might be to tackle a specific technological, organisational or institutional challenge in a value chain (e.g. access to high quality potato seeds), or a more generic problem that needs to be addressed across different value chains (e.g. farmers' access to credit). Once the innovation platform has achieved its objective, its members may (or may not) decide to take up new challenges (Davies et al., 2018;Hounkonnou et al., 2012). Innovation platforms can start as informal networks and some may transit into more formalised structures, such as public-private partnerships or a cooperative, with the goal of becoming self-sustaining entities (Schut et al., 2017a)."},{"index":3,"size":194,"text":"Over the past years, innovation platforms have increasingly been established within the framework of AR4D initiatives (Dror et al., 2016). The innovation platform approach is particularly being embraced as a model for achieving development outcomes through participatory action research (Chave et al., 2012;Ottosson, 2003). The existing literature mainly focusses on providing step-by-step advice on how to implement and facilitate innovation platforms for technological or institutional change. Such implementation and facilitation advice can be found in Adekunle et al. (2010), Makini et al. (2013), Brouwer and Woodhill (2016), Francis et al. (2016) and Nederlof and Pyburn (2012). What currently lacks in the literature are discussions on the usefulness of innovation platforms in overcoming a range of agricultural challenges. In particular, there is a lack of decision support tools that can stimulate Innovation platforms in agricultural research 3 critical ex-ante reflection on when and for what purpose innovation platforms are an appropriate mechanism for achieving development outcomes. This poses the risk of innovation platforms being promoted as a panacea for all research and development problems in the agricultural sector, something for which authors analysing multistakeholder partnership models in other sectors have warned for (e.g. Warner, 2006)."},{"index":4,"size":142,"text":"The objective of this study is to complement the existing body of scientific literature by focussing on the usefulness question of when and for what purpose innovation platforms are an appropriate mechanism for achieving agricultural development outcomes. In doing so, this study contributes to generating more realistic expectations about what innovation platforms can and cannot achieve in AR4D initiatives. As the implementation of innovation platforms can consume significant time, energy and other human and financial resources, this study is geared towards providing decision support to development practitioners, researchers, funding agencies or farmer unions in determining whether the innovation platforms can help them to achieve their objectives. Data for this study were collected through literature review, and sourced from the practical experiences of the authors, who all contributed significantly to the design and implementation of innovation platforms across different value chains and continents."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"The next section elaborates on the rationale for using innovation platforms in AR4D. This is followed by a section that discusses the conditions that should be in place for innovation platforms to be effective. Subsequently, we explore what can realistically be the expected outcomes of innovation platforms. This provides the basis for a decision support tool that can help research, development and funding agencies in more critical reflection on whether and how innovation platforms can truly strengthen their AR4D approaches and programmes. The final section summarises the main conclusions from this study."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"Before adopting an innovation platform approach, one should carefully reflect on whether or not innovation platforms are the most useful and cost-efficient vehicle to achieve project or stakeholder objectives. Questions that can guide decision making include (1) what are the expected functions of the platform; (2) what can innovation platforms achieve efficiently and (3) when are innovation platforms particularly useful?"}]},{"head":"What are the expected functions of innovation platforms?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"In an effort to create space for learning, action and change, innovation platforms can fulfil a collated range of functions and related activities in AR4D processes (Table 1). Innovation platforms do not necessarily fulfil -or indeed need to fulfilall of these functions and activities. Depending on the composition of the innovation platform, as well as its specific objectives, specific functions and activities may be more or less relevant (Klijn and Teisman, 2003;Lamers et al., 2017). Furthermore,   Hekkert et al., 2007;Kilelu et al., 2011). the functions and activities outlined can be undertaken in various orders, either sequentially or parallel to one another."}]},{"head":"What can innovation platforms achieve effectively?","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"Innovation platforms aim to counter weaknesses in agricultural innovation systems by building interaction amongst different kinds of actors and their organisations, promoting change in practices, institutions and policies and to effectively deploy available human and financial resources to solve problems and capitalise on opportunities (Davies et al., 2018). Regardless of whether innovation platforms are established at local or higher levels, they can explore technological, organisational and institutional solutions, making them ideal for addressing problems in an integrated manner (Flor et al., 2016;Sanyang et al., 2014;Schut et al., 2016a). In a way, the formation and operation of innovations platforms is an organisational or institutional innovation in itself (Schut et al., 2016a). It entails changes in ways of collaborating, interacting and in relationships between actors and organisations to overcome obstacles and improve the impact of their collective action (Ngwenya and Hagmann, 2011;Swaans et al., 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":177,"text":"In AR4D, innovation platforms can support participatory action research. Participatory action research combines both conducting research together with key stakeholders, as well as performing outcome-oriented research (Minh et al., 2014). The involvement of key stakeholders is important for three reasons. First, stakeholder groups can provide various complementary insights about the biophysical, technological and institutional dimensions of the problem, thereby broadening the knowledge base. Thus, by engaging in a social learning process with one another, stakeholders can negotiate what type of innovations are technically feasible, economically viable and socio-culturally and politically acceptable (Esparcia, 2014;Hermans et al., 2011;Schut et al., 2014). Second, through their interaction and participation, stakeholder groups become aware of their different interests, needs and objectives, but also of their fundamental interdependencies and the need for concerted action across different levels to overcome their constraints and reach their objectives (Leeuwis, 2000;Messely et al., 2013;Schut et al., 2013). Third, stakeholders are more likely to support the implementation and scaling of innovations when they have been a part of the design and testing process (Faysse, 2006;Neef and Neubert, 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Doing action-and outcome-oriented research requires flexibility, as innovation platforms operate in dynamic contexts, and themselves aim to promote change. Action research takes the innovation platform members through cycles of designing interventions, testing in practice, observing whether activities bring about desirable change, reflecting on what goes well and what can be improved, which results in a new phase of (re)designing the interventions (Ottosson, 2003). Members, as well as their supporting organisations, need to be prepared to adapt their approach and expectations and, in some cases, for failure."},{"index":4,"size":133,"text":"The effective innovation platform size depends on the specific innovation challenge or opportunity at hand. For farm-level experimentation, working with 20-40 participants may be appropriate (e.g. Andres et al., 2016), whereas innovation platforms aiming at market or regulatory change are more likely to be smaller in size to enhance flexibility and decision-making (Fichter, 2009;Klerkx et al., 2009). Innovation platforms that aim to create economies of scale (e.g. by accessing or distributing inputs or by jointly supplying to private processors) may actually be much larger in size (e.g. Woomer et al., 2016). Furthermore, membership and size may change over time as new farmer groups can join or new members are invited to address specific challenges, or partners may lose interest or leave the platform if their needs have been met (Lamers et al., 2017)."}]},{"head":"When are innovation platforms particularly useful?","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"In general terms, innovation platforms are useful when (1) persons or organisations that represent different socio-economic backgrounds, interests and perspectives have a stake in a particular problem or solution; (2) multiple persons or organisations want or need to experiment jointly on aspects that they cannot solve individually or that benefit from synergies; (3) new solutions require a combination of new technologies (technological innovation), effective collaboration (organisational innovation) and/or new rule, funding and incentive structures (institutional or policy innovation) and ( 4) actors and organisations are willing to share knowledge, resources, benefits and risks, as well as sufficient common interest and trust to engage in collective innovation to address a common challenge (Buerkler, 2013). These conditions are also frequently mentioned in relation to other types of multi-stakeholder approaches such as publicprivate partnerships (e.g. Hall, 2006;McHugh et al., 2016;Van der Meer, 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Additional questions related to (1) the specific problem at stake, (2) the specific type of solution or innovation needed to overcome that problem and consequently (3) the types of innovation partners that should be engaged and (4) the most cost-and time-efficient partner engagement model can further guide decision making on the need for an innovation platform, or for other innovation and partnership approaches (Hermans et al., 2017). If addressing problems does not require the involvement of multiple stakeholder groups and/or organisations, then simpler and more shortterm partner collaborations or formal bilateral arrangements may be more desirable (Head, 2008)."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"When an innovation platform approach is deemed the most useful innovation and partner engagement model, then it is advised to first make an inventory of existing stakeholder platforms and networks (Boogaard et al., 2013). If the purpose, modus operandi and power dynamics of these existing platforms are in line with the objectives and needs of the involved stakeholders, then building on these existing platforms and networks may be more efficient and quicker than initiating a new innovation platform (Boogaard et al., 2013;Cullen et al., 2013Cullen et al., , 2014aCullen et al., , 2014b;;Schut et al., 2018)."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"Once the usefulness of an innovation platform has been identified based on the criteria mentioned in the above section, five key conditions for effective innovation platforms need to be met: (1) ability and mandate to pitch the platform at the right level(s); (2) conducive institutional environment for an innovation platform approach; (3) availability of sufficient capacities and skills; (4) organising monitoring, evaluation and learning (ME&L) and ( 5) adequate funding for innovation platform implementation."}]},{"head":"Ability and mandate to pitch the platform at the right level(s)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"Innovation platforms can be established at different levels such as village or community level, district level and even province or national level (Tucker et al., 2013). The guiding question should be 'At what level or levels can a challenge be addressed most efficiently?' For example, a problem of access to good quality planting material may be best tackled at the village or community level, whereas exploring irrigation options would require the involvement of stakeholders at the watershed level (e.g. van Rooyen et al., 2017). As problems at local level are often rooted in, and interrelated with, problems at higher levels (e.g. lack of input certification leading to poor quality fertiliser on the market), the strategic involvement of national level policy actors may be desirable (Schut et al., 2016b). Local innovation platforms might resolve concrete agronomic or organisational issues but, without linkages to decision makers at higher level, will most likely not have enough weight to foster structural changes at higher levels (Lamers et al., 2017). Conversely, higher level innovation platforms may be less relevant for farmers with specific needs but can serve to review and, ideally, shift the rules of the game to make the overall system more amenable to farmer interests and overall public goals such as sustainability, incomes, competiveness, etc. (Hounkonnou et al., 2012;Hounkonnou et al., in press)."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Making changes at higher levels often requires more time and is political by nature, which may not well align with the perceived mandate of AR4D organisations (Schut et al., 2016b). Nevertheless, the spin-offs from achieving changes at policy level may lead to the desired agricultural development outcomes. AR4D organisations can find strategic partners who are experienced in engaging high-level decision-makers. Davies et al. (2018) describe how the engagement of an influential representative of a local chamber of agriculture in Burkina Faso developed a basis for gaining support from regional development policy actors, which created an enabling environment for the innovation platform to achieve its objectives."}]},{"head":"Is the institutional environment conducive for an innovation platform approach?","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":227,"text":"Through their demand-driven approach and their capacity to expose and balance existing power inequalities, innovation platforms can create tensions within AR4D establishments (Hounkonnou et al., in press). Innovation platforms may request AR4D organisations to work on themes, commodities or value chains that are outside of their normal mandate or comfort zone (Schut et al., 2016a). Such institutional tensions and the institutional innovations to deal with them are often the unintended consequences of working through innovation platforms, and can have widespread impacts in the sense of how organisations identify demand, work action-oriented and try to be relevant for their next-and end-users (van Paassen et al., 2014). Schut et al. (2016a) pointed out that many AR4D organisations face challenges in supporting and institutionalising innovation platform approaches and principles due to inflexible mandates, incentive structures, procedures and funding mechanisms. They questioned whether in the absence of such an enabling environment or unwillingness of organisations to embrace these tensions, innovation and other multistakeholder platforms can lead to real change, or whether that would just result in a continuation of 'business as usual'. Similar tensions, and institutional and strategic barriers have been observed in other partnership approaches such as public-private partnerships, both within the AR4D sector (e.g. Hall, 2006;Kilelu et al., 2017;Poulton and Macartney, 2012;Spielman and von Grebmer, 2006), as well as in other sectors (e.g. Faysse, 2006;Klijn and Teisman, 2003;Warner, 2006)."}]},{"head":"Are sufficient capacities and skills available?","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":207,"text":"Innovation platforms consist of multiple and heterogeneous groups of stakeholders with different interests, ideas and competencies in terms of what they can offer to the platform. Bringing together a group of stakeholders with diverse needs, interests and objectives is likely to lead to tensions, conflicts, manoeuvring to seek advantage and even group displacement, which can hinder collective action towards achieving development outcomes (Hinnou et al., 2018;Kilelu et al., 2013Kilelu et al., , 2017;;Ruttan, 2008;Thiele et al., 2011). Innovation platforms are known to become arenas of struggle, as solutions for some members may create new obstacles for other members (Leeuwis, 2000). Moreover, power differences exist between different members (e.g. farmer versus government official), and not all members may have equal discussion and negotiation skills (Brouwer et al., 2013;Cullen et al., 2014b). Facilitation of interactions, collaborations, power dynamics and actions is needed to arrive at commonly agreed upon objectives (Tenywa et al., 2011). Innovation platforms are also known to have successfully contributed to prevention of conflict and resolution of disputes (in crop-livestock systems) (Davies et al., 2018). Depending on the specific body of literature, such facilitation has been referred to as 'championing' (Klerkx et al., 2013), 'brokerage' (Madzudzo, 2011), 'boundary spanning' (Fleming and Waguespack, 2007) or 'promoting' (Fichter, 2009)."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"Researchers and development practitioners engaged in AR4D projects are increasingly called upon to act as facilitators (Cadilhon, 2013b). Stakeholders in an innovation platform that is in its early stage may not feel confident to facilitate; they may look to project implementers and researchers to take the lead (Glin et al., 2016). When researchers act as facilitators, conflicts of interest may arise, and they may confront problems about ambiguity of roles and responsibilities, or they can be viewed by other actors as competitors rather than as neutral or legitimate facilitators (Devaux et al., 2010;Klerkx et al., 2009). Facilitation may also be shared between various people, e.g. through establishment and IP coordination and facilitation team (Hinnou et al., 2018) which can in itself be a strategy to build a collaborative ethos and shared ownership in the innovation platform."},{"index":3,"size":198,"text":"To effectively support innovation platforms, competence and skills of facilitators may need to be strengthened through training, coaching and mentoring (Sanyang et al., 2016). Competencies and skills often go beyond fulfilling solely knowledge brokerage or knowledge management roles, but also require stimulating demand articulation, collective problem analysis with diverse stakeholders, supporting joint decision-making, multi-level network building, mobilising institutional and political support and managing overcoming power inequalities (Kilelu et al., 2011;Schut et al., 2011). In doing so, facilitators do much more than just organise and manage platform meetings. They ensure transparency of discussions and negotiations, and that innovation platforms stay solution-and action-oriented so they can reach their objectives. Additional competencies of facilitators can include (1) bringing about changes in the values, attitudes and self-perception of those who engage in innovation platform activities; (2) keeping an innovation platform functional even without external funding; (3) developing the innovation platform's capacity to move from individual to collaborative activities, with the ability to self-organise and learn; (4) providing mechanisms for accountability and feedback within the innovation platform and (5) establishing lessons with other innovation platforms for learning and collective action. Facilitation requires substantial financial investments (Cadilhon, 2013b;Glin et al., 2016;Swaans et al., 2013b)."}]},{"head":"Organising effective monitoring, evaluation and learning (ME&L)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"Impact assessment of innovation platforms and their effectiveness is a contentious issue, and suitable ME&L tools for multi-stakeholder innovation processes in AR4D are limited (Davies et al., 2018;Swaans et al., 2013c). They produce either qualitative case studies from which data cannot be easily generalised or quantitative impact assessments that do not provide insights into ongoing process dynamics (Sartas et al., 2017). New tools to effectively monitor, evaluate and learn in innovation platforms have been developed and tested. Cadilhon (2013a) developed a conceptual framework, using quantitative research methods to assess the impact of innovation platforms. The framework has been applied in Ghana and Tanzania to evaluate the impact of innovation platforms on marketing relationships (Adane-Mariami et al., 2015;Pham et al., 2015). Another is the learning system for agricultural research for development (LESARD), which provides integrated quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis tools to assess the performance of multi-stakeholder processes (Sartas et al., 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Without appropriate ME&L mechanisms, innovation platforms run the risk of not being able to provide proof of their success or share important learning experiences. ME&L also provides a mechanism to have quick feedback from the innovation platform members so that that a timely adjustment in the innovation platform focus or strategy can be made. This reduces the risk of investing valuable time, energy and financial resources in activities that do not lead to the desired outcomes. The need for continuous reflection, learning and adaptation based on robust ME&L is an essential design principle of innovation platforms (Swaans et al., 2013a)."}]},{"head":"What are the costs of innovation platforms?","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":234,"text":"There is very little information on the costs of innovation platforms in an AR4D project, and -to the best knowledge of the authors -no cost or cost-benefit analysis has been conducted on innovation platforms in an AR4D context. As mentioned before, innovation platforms are human-and financial-resource intensive, and research and development donors will require evidence on the return on investments. Innovation platform costs vary, depending on the (1) type of organisation that is implementing/supporting the innovation platform (average staff costs in international organisations are usually much higher than average staff costs in local NGOs); (2) type of innovation that is being explored, e.g. planting distance or intercropping practices (relatively cheap) versus local processing that requires machinery (relatively expensive); (3) level at which the innovation platform is operating (higher level platforms are usually more expensive); (4) number of innovation platform members (more farmers or other members involved can increase operational and support  5) level of platform support functions required (e.g. facilitator, logistics, documentation, and so forth); (6) spin-off activities that emerge as the platform starts to operate (innovation platforms must have flexibility to cover unplanned but important activities); (7) proximity of facilitators to implementation sites (platform facilitation has to be monitored, so having a local facilitator can make a difference to operational costs) and ( 8) time for preparing, holding and following-up on meetings, and for general exchange, searching for compromises and documentation (transaction costs)."},{"index":2,"size":317,"text":"As becomes clear from Box 1, most of the initial costs of innovation platforms are investments in the institutional set-up of the platform or the organisation in general. These are not costs that often quickly result in benefits or outcomes. Buizer (2016) conducted cost analysis of two innovation platforms and its overarching steering committee in Uganda. She concluded that the innovation platform costs are approximately US$83.29 per farmer per year (Box 1). We are aware that we cannot use the Ugandan case to draw firm conclusions on whether innovation platforms provide value for money. To do that, we need to compare the costs of innovation platforms with other approaches of innovation design, testing and dissemination. That is, compare the costs of a platform with the costs of dissemination through extension services or the services provided by agribusinesses (contract farming approaches) to their members. Work by IFAD (1998) published in Quizon et al. (2015) demonstrated that for Farmer Field Schools (FFS) in Uganda, high allowances, transportation costs and several layers of supervision programmes could make extension cost up to US$53 per FFS-trained farmer for a one-season long training, excluding the costs of trainer salaries. Several studies show that diffusion of innovation to non-FFS participants has been disappointing (e.g. Rola et al., 2002). Empowerment and innovation skills of FFS participants were expected to generate economic multiplier effects and more longterm behavioural change of participants, which is similar to the expected outcomes of innovation platforms. When comparing costs of innovation platforms with the costs of government extension services in Uganda, we calculated that the costs per farmer are US$7.36 per farmer 1 . Using an alternative analysis, we could also conclude that the innovation platforms that Buizer analysed, should at least benefit 2357 farmers in order to be competitive with the FFS approach, or even 16 974 farmers in order to be competitive with the incumbent government extension services system."}]},{"head":"Box 1. Cost-analysis of two innovation platforms implemented under the CGIAR Research Program on Integrated Systems for the Humid Tropics (Humidtropics) in Uganda.","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Buizer ( 2016) conducted cost analysis of two innovation platforms implemented under the CGIAR Research Program on Integrated Systems for the Humid Tropics (Humidtropics). Two calendar years (2014 and 2015) of innovation platform activities were analysed. One innovation platform focussed on indigenous vegetables and pigs, the other on intercropping soya beans and maize. A national level steering committee was formed to coordinate the work across the two innovation platforms and to link them to policy and other public agencies and the private sector. The two innovation platforms reached approximately 1500 farmers in the areas where they were operating."},{"index":2,"size":166,"text":"To analyse the costs, the study differentiated between (1) basic costs for platform events, coordination of meetings of intervention actors, reflection and preparation for meetings and (2) theme-specific costs for conducting trials, providing training, data collection, etc. The idea behind this separation is that the basic costs will be approximately the same for all innovation platforms, regardless of their specific topic or theme. To organise basic meetings and activities and to hire most of the basic staff, US$71 677 was spent in 2014 and US$64 216 in 2015. Of the total basic costs, expenditure on human resources accounted for the largest part (39% and 42% in 2014 and 2015, respectively). Basic staff include the national facilitator (responsible for facilitating the steering committee as well as the two innovation platforms), a project coordinator, a communications officer, an ME&L expert and drivers and other support staff. When including the theme-specific events and staff costs, the costs were significantly higher: US$109 607 in 2014 and US$140 255 in 2015."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"The cost of basic events decreased between 2014 and 2015 for the two innovation platforms and the steering committee. This is mainly because the platform attracted investments from other organisations. Meeting costs were the largest cost category and represented 64% and 59% in 2014 and 2015, respectively. Meeting costs included renting the meeting venue and lunch or transport refunds for participants such as farmers or government officials. Meeting costs decreased after the first year because of a decrease in the number of people attending meeting as the platform's focus had become clear. Fuel costs and participants' transport reimbursements formed the second largest cost category."},{"index":4,"size":139,"text":"In conclusion, establishing and maintaining the two innovation platforms with one overarching steering committee in Uganda, reaching an estimated 1500 farmers, cost at least US$71 677 in the first year and US$64 216 in the second year (total US$135 893 for 2 years). If the theme-specific costs are added, reaching the estimated 1500 farmers cost US$109 607 in the first year and US$140 255 in the second year (total US$249 861 for 2 years). The average cost per farmer per year was calculated at US$83.29 ((US$249 861/2 years)/1500 beneficiaries). The innovation platform facilitator accounted for the largest share of the basic human resource costs ($1000 per month). The cost per farmer is likely to decrease if the innovation platform is supported by local government and/or local NGOs, instead of being implemented and coordinated by an international agricultural research organisation."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"More detailed information can be found in Buizer (2016) and Schut et al. (2017)."},{"index":6,"size":281,"text":"Innovation platforms are resource intensive, and research and development donors will require evidence on the return on financial and human resource investments against outcomes and impacts. Mapping the costs of innovation platforms is an important first step towards conducting (long-term) cost-benefit analysis and showing whether innovation platforms can provide value for money. International NGOs and AR4D organisations often provide funding to kick-start innovation platforms. However, this funding is usually available for a limited period and may not be sufficient to meet all the costs associated with the establishment and facilitation of the platform. Continuous support may moreover have a reversed effect on platform ownership, as innovation platform members may not feel fully responsible for the costs and investments. Innovation platforms that are supported through AR4D projects should therefore develop strategies for reducing (financial) dependence on these projects. If engaging in the platform results in obvious benefits, the innovation platform can attract financial resources or other types of support from the private or public development sector. In Bolivia, for example, the private sector took a more proactive role and sought additional funding for the ANDIBOL (Andino Boliviana) multi-stakeholder platform for linking smallholder farmers to value chains (Thiele et al., 2011). Davies et al. (2018) explain that 'In Amantin and Savelugu [Ghana], the registration of the IP as a cooperative was identified as a factor that explained its outcome because this structure was considered to balance the self-interest and shared interest of members. ' Cadilhon et al. (2016) illustrate this using the case of the Tanga Dairy Platform that successfully lobbied policy makers to reduce value-added tax on dairy inputs and products, and remove limitations on urban dairy farming in Tanga City, Tanzania."},{"index":7,"size":90,"text":"Innovation platform outcomes should be considered on two levels. The first level concerns the direct beneficiaries (the platform members) and the second level concerns the indirect beneficiaries (the target population or region beyond the platform's direct influence). To reach the second category, some form of scaling is required (Hendrickx et al., 2015). The three leading questions that need to be addressed are (1) what are the benefits for innovation platform members; (2) what strategies can support the scaling of innovation platform processes and outcomes and Innovation platforms in agricultural research"}]},{"head":"13","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"(3) which additional mechanisms and arrangements may be needed to broaden the coverage and impact of innovation platforms?"}]},{"head":"What are the benefits for innovation platform members?","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Innovation platforms can create different types of benefits for its members. These benefits include, but are not limited to (1) a space where each platform member has access to a variety of experts who could enhance their skills, including farmers, researchers, private sector and government; (2) a protected niche where a group of people can experiment, learn and make mistakes without it having huge negative consequences; (3) increased credibility and legitimacy as a result of speaking with a collective voice when the objective is to create change at different levels; (4) a better power and bargaining position as a group for accessing knowledge, inputs, finance, markets and other types of services and (5) network building for developing new initiatives, enterprises and projects (Boogaard et al., 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"Among organisations that implement innovation platforms, there is debate on whether and how innovation platform members should be compensated for being part of the innovation platform, and in line with Nederlof et al. (2011) we advise against financial incentives for platform members. Reimbursement of -for example -transport costs can be considered, especially for those participants who are not supported by their constituencies. Benefits should result from the above-mentioned activities and the opportunities that platform membership provides. As membership in innovation platforms is voluntary, members who feel that the platform is not benefitting them sufficiently are free to leave it."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"As elaborated earlier, innovation platforms need financial and human resource investments. Facilitation, platform establishment, platform activities and ME&L incur costs that cannot be expected to be carried by the platform members from the beginning. That said, the platform should develop a strategy for becoming independent of permanent outside financial and technical support (e.g. through a development project). Innovation platforms are known to transit into cooperatives (Davies et al., 2018) where platform members make a small financial contribution to the platform's costs. Platforms can also cease to exist once its members feel the mission has been accomplished, or when motivation levels have dropped."}]},{"head":"What strategies can support the scaling of innovation platform processes and outcomes?","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":245,"text":"Innovation platforms initiated through AR4D projects often have the ambition to have impact beyond the initial target area or direct beneficiaries (Duncan et al., 2015). Such processes of scaling innovation platform processes and outcomes should be an integral design element of innovation platforms and the manner in which they are implemented. The literature (e.g. Hermans et al., 2017) distinguishes between two types of scaling: outscaling and upscaling. Outscaling refers to the horizontal diffusion of innovations to individuals or organisations at the same level (e.g. from one district to another district). Upscaling refers to the embedding of processes or technologies at higher levels (e.g. institutionalisation of new cropping practices in policies). For the innovation platform members (e.g. farmers), the scaling of innovations may not always be beneficial. If there is competition among platform members and secondary beneficiaries, then scaling is challenging. There need to be clear benefits for the platform members to scale out, for example, developing a local brand or production standard that requires a critical mass or a large buyer who requires a minimum quantity produced in one region. An example is the maize innovation platform established by the DONATA Project in The Gambia where women farmers collectively packaged, labelled and sold maize flour and grits in standard bags (Sanyang et al., 2014). Another example is from the Bante and Glazoue rice innovation platforms established under the SARD-SC project in Benin that developed brands for local white and parboiled rice (Sanyang et al., 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":202,"text":"Innovation platforms can fulfil an important function in the pathway leading to the scaling of agricultural innovations. Through their participatory approach to identifying and analysing problems, and designing and testing innovations to overcome those problems, they have a higher likelihood to result in solutions that are not only technically sound, but also affordable for farmers and coherent with government policies and objectives. However, if the basic innovation platform features are not respected (e.g. innovation platforms for implementing pre-cooked AR4D projects, with limited participation space for farmers and scaling partners to influence the AR4D agenda), the basis for scaling of innovation may be compromised (Wigboldus et al., 2016). As mentioned before, the involvement of farmers, policymakers and the private sector in decision-making and innovation processes provides an important precondition for supporting the wider use and spread of validated technologies and other types of innovations developed in innovation platforms. Public and private scaling partners can be strategically engaged from the early stages of innovation platform establishment, be allocated explicit roles in the innovation platform (e.g. in an advisory or steering committee) and/or be involved in the developing strategies that align with their core business, values and strategies (Klijn and Teisman, 2003;Lamers et al., 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Whether innovation platforms can support or play a role in large-scale diffusion or scaling of agricultural innovations also depends on their institutional embedding. A recent meta review in Schut et al. (2018) of mature innovation platforms concluded that innovation platforms need to be firmly embedded in private or public mechanisms and broader networks that have the capacity to reach target populations beyond the original scope of the innovation platform. Innovation platforms run the risk of staying solitary initiatives if they are not firmly linked to such existing mechanisms and networks, which reduces the chance of having impact beyond the direct beneficiaries."}]},{"head":"Which additional mechanisms and arrangements may be needed to broaden the coverage and impact of innovation platforms?","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"Once an appropriate combination of stakeholders is defined, it is critical to define the process and associated institutional arrangements for collaboration. Innovation platforms may start off with a very focussed approach to addressing a specific or number of problem(s). In an initial stage, a rather loose arrangement, based on clearly defined goals, roles, activities, results and resource needs, may suffice. As the number of stakeholders and the size of operations increases, more formalised institutional arrangements may be needed to govern the innovation platform, its process and its benefits. This may involve the creation of subgroups with specific contracts within and between them. Over time, it may also be worthwhile to consider obtaining a legal entity (e.g. as cooperative) for an innovation platform to enhance its sustainability in terms of independence, its (monetary and non-monetary) benefits for its members, and its potential to become eligible for donations or credit. A comparative case study paper by Davies et al. (2018) providing examples of improved financial access for innovation platform members as a result of the innovation platform's negotiation with finance providers."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"The above-mentioned design principles and expected innovation platform outcomes are brought together in flow diagram to support project developers, funding agencies and implementers in deciding whether or not innovation platforms are the most appropriate pathway towards achieving their development outcomes (Figure 1). The diagram focuses on the critical questions that research, development and funding agencies need to ask themselves before deciding to embark on implementing innovation platforms in their AR4D projects and programmes. These questions include the following:"},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"1. For what main purpose are innovation platforms being used? i. For developing and testing new technological innovations (e.g. home vegetable gardens) or institutional innovations (e.g. a contract-farming model or improved market access). ii. For tailoring technological or institutional innovations to the specific needs of end-users or agro-ecological areas (e.g. composition of seed kits for home vegetable gardens for specific households in different districts). iii. For outscaling of existing technological or institutional innovations for the benefit of large numbers of end-users (e.g. disseminating seed kits for home vegetable gardens to thousands of farmers). iv. For upscaling of existing technological or institutional innovations to influence policy, development and business sectors (e.g. embedding distribution of seed kits for home vegetable gardens in nutrition and agricultural policy or markets)."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"A number of additional questions related to whether innovation platforms would result into the desired development outcomes bring us to the second key question as follows:"},{"index":5,"size":97,"text":"2. Do we have sufficient resources as well as institutional support and flexibility to support the implementation of impactful innovation platforms? i. Do we have adequate human and financial resources (facilitator, sufficient and flexible funds) to support innovation platform activities? ii. Is there flexibility in our project to support innovation platforms (e.g. to change focus if the platform feels this is necessary)? iii. Is there institutional support to work in a demand-driven and participatory way with the innovation platform (e.g. is AR4D leadership supportive of the innovation platform approach; are there investments in capacity building of staff)?"},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"If there is sufficient institutional support and flexibility, then an additional third question should be reflected upon as follows:"},{"index":7,"size":29,"text":"3. Are there existing multi-stakeholder innovation platforms on which the project could build? i. If yes, is that innovation platform willing and able to collaborate to achieve joint objectives?"},{"index":8,"size":132,"text":"The answers to the above questions will to a large extent depend on the specific socio-political context in which the innovation platform is supposed to contribute to achieving agricultural development outcomes (Pamuk et al., 2014). In some countries, for example, it will be experienced as extremely positive that rural actors organise themselves, sit down together around joint constraints and self-organise and implement interventions to overcome these constraints. In other countries, such processes may be viewed with suspicion by governments or other dominant parties, who may feel that these platforms are not needed or undermining their role, mandate and function. In line with Hermans et al. (2017), we conclude that project designers and implementers need to think more critically about how innovation platforms and their principles align with specific governance or socio-political contexts."}]},{"head":"C O N C L U S I O N S","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":226,"text":"This study complements the many (case) studies that provide implementation and facilitation principles for, and lessons learned from innovation platforms. By focussing on design principles and setting realistic goals, this article seeks to provide decision support to research, development and funding agencies to think more critically about when, how and in what form innovation platforms can contribute meaningfully to agricultural development outcomes. As the implementation of innovation platforms can consume significant human and financial resource investments, research and development donors will require evidence on the return on investments. This requires investments in structured ME&L, which is missing in many innovation platform initiatives. Furthermore, attaining tangible development outcomes through innovation platforms requires time and flexibility which cannot be taken for granted in the current international AR4D landscape. The study provides decision support to development, research and funding agencies in determining whether and how innovation platforms can help them in achieving their objectives. It is clear in the sense that if the innovation platform approach is not suitable for a specific purpose, or when enabling institutional conditions are absent, then alternative, more costand time-effective approaches need to be considered. It also provides an incentive to better reflect whether development outcomes can be achieved by building on existing platforms and networks, rather than initiating new innovation platforms, which seems to be the mainstream modus operandi in many AR4D initiatives."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"4MA RC S C H U T et al. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Flow diagram to support decision-making on whether or not innovation platforms are the most appropriate vehicle for reaching a desired research or development outcome. The innovation platform phases (orange boxes) are derived from Homann-Kee Tui et al. (2013). "},{"text":"Table 1 . Innovation platform functions and activities (adapted from  "}],"sieverID":"954b8283-0fd9-4495-a89c-b1e1bcf5fade","abstract":"Innovation platforms are fast becoming part of the mantra of agricultural research for development projects and programmes. Their basic tenet is that stakeholders depend on one another to achieve agricultural development outcomes, and hence need a space where they can learn, negotiate and coordinate to overcome challenges and capture opportunities through a facilitated innovation process. Although much has been written on how to implement and facilitate innovation platforms efficiently, few studies support ex-ante appraisal of when and for what purpose innovation platforms provide an appropriate mechanism for achieving development outcomes, and what kinds of human and financial resource investments and enabling environments are required. Without these insights, innovation platforms run the risk of being promoted as a panacea for all problems in the agricultural sector. This study makes clear that not all constraints will require innovation platforms and, if there is a simpler and cheaper"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"091d0e5791753f53ad07ae9d605031bb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1f2afd1b-c3c2-4001-a3fb-707defe8f587/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"RESEARCH QUESTIONS v Thus the potential to increase agriculture water productivity exist in the current situation? v Will increased dry season agriculture activities help reduce poverty? v Is there an AWM intervention that has the potential to improve livelihood in a sustainable way? "}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"▪ Small Reservoir having main canal, laterals, furrow had CWCF of between 86.79% -87.47%, hence over irrigation. ▪ Shallow wells over irrigated vegetable by between 6.6% -24.45%. ▪ Water pumps with small reservoir or riverine was chosen due to its ability to enhance better agricultural water management and also promote off farm skills acquisition in the repairs and maintenance of the water pumps. ▪ Livestock had a better productivity although the animals were not engaged for any domestic or agricultural activity in the dry season."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"From the work, the potential to increase the agricultural water productivity in the Black Volta basin, Ghana exits through good AWM interventions."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Acknowledgement This work was sponsored by CPWF VI 'Targeting and Scaling Out'. Thanks to GIDA and MoFA for the field assistance and Dr. Fosu and Jennie Barron for their comments."}]},{"head":"NB:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"This research work was conducted at the field (farm) scale and must be stated that the \"water losses\" realized here when looked at the sub-basin scale is beneficial by recharging ground water and raising water table for dry season irrigation. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"METHODOLOGY  "},{"text":"STEPHEN QUANDZIE JUNE,2012 POTENTIAL FOR INCREASING AGRICULTURAL WATER PRODUCTIVITY IN THE BLACK VOLTA BASIN, GHANA. BY STEPHEN QUANDZIE MSc. Thesis Funded By CPWF VI 'Targeting and Scaling Out' Corresponding author; e-mail: squandzie @ yahoo.com DATA REQUIREMENT: Volume of water applied, DATA REQUIREMENT: Volume of water applied, CROPWAT 8.0/CLIMWAT 2.0 CROPWAT 8.0/CLIMWAT 2.0 Crop Water Consumption Factor Crop Water Consumption Factor Physical Crop Water Productivity Physical Crop Water Productivity Economic Water Productivity Economic Water Productivity Livestock Water Productivity Livestock Water Productivity Agricultural Water Productivity Agricultural Water Productivity  "},{"text":"Black Volta Catchment in Upper West Region   "}],"sieverID":"09def3f9-4797-4fbf-979d-99c051043627","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"092418e5c95527099f9a15f7c83c2998","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2324e694-e782-4a90-8b87-8fe59133878e/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"d407bf5b-401f-4941-8a8a-ffa4118a7009","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0937b8d8f6e4882873d4902badebf063.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0937b8d8f6e4882873d4902badebf063","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/82dde751-87a0-4bb1-afe6-7a9d012e9711/retrieve"},"pageCount":25,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"The research strategy on soil fertility and plant nutrition of the .Tropical Pastures Program is based on a low-input soil management technology. Its general objective is to make the most efficient use of scarce fertilizer inputs by establishing pasture species and ecotypes that are most tolerant to existing soil constraints, thus decreasing the rates of fertilizer applications while attaining reasonable, but not necessarily maximum quality and yield. The specific objectives of this strategy are the management of soil acidity (Al and Mn toxicities, Ca and Mg deficiencies) and management of low native soil fertility (macro and micro-nutrient deficiencies, except nitrogen) for the establishment and maintenance of tropical pastures."}]},{"head":"Management of Soil Acidity","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"The main soil acidity constraints are identified as aluminum and/or manganese toxicities, calcium and magnesium deficiencies, which need to be alleviated in order to obtain successful pasture establishment. Selection of productive pasture species and ecotypes that are tolerant to Al and/or Mn toxicities is the main component in soil acidity management. In addition, the aluminum-tolerant species and ecotypes of tropical pastures do not need a decreased aluminum saturation leve! of the soil by liming, but in most cases the plants require fertilization with calcium and magnesium."}]},{"head":"Tolerance to aluminum toxicity","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":272,"text":"Although the hematoxylin test is a very useful technique to separate the germplasm into two broad groups according to tolerance to Al toxicity, it was found that the evaluation in many cases was very qualitative. In order to avoid this situation and in addition to the visual estimation of the stainability of the root system by the hematoxylin, the relative root length was introduced as a quantitative measurement. Figure 1 shows the relationship between regression coefficients of the relative root length and the relative dry matter yields of 47 ecotypes of Stylosanthes macrocephala grown under three levels of Al stress. This figure shows the distribution of the ecotypes according to their Al tolerance. Comparing with the hematoxylin test and the Al-susceptible control (Stylosanthes sympodialis 1044), the Al-susceptible ecotypes of ~• macrocephala fall within the group defined as susceptible by the hematoxylin test. There are severa! ecotypes that were grouped as Al-tolerant by the hematoxylin test but that were identified as susceptible by their low regression coefficients of •relative root length. These results may be explained in the sense that the ecotypes identified as Al-tolerant by the visual-hematoxylin test were healthy planta although their root growth was reduced under Al stress. In fact, the relative dry matter yields of most of the ecotypes were over 50% of maximum yield obtained with no Al stress. It appears that not only the reduction in root growth but also the top growth has to be considered in this screening process. However, for practical use the selection of the most Al tolerant ecotypes by any of the two tests is enough considering the high number of ecotypes. "}]},{"head":"Tolerance to manganese toxicity","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Managenese toxicity is another constraint in certain acid soils but its geographical extent is not known. During the soil characterizations for the pasture regional trials, however, severa! soils were identified with available soil manganese above the toxic leve! for tropical pastures (>50 ppm Mn). Using the natural distribution of the soil manganese from low (0-20 ppm Mn) to high ( > 50 ppm Mn) at Quilichao, a field experiment was established to study the differential tolerance of severa! species and ecotypes of tropical pasture grasses and legumes."},{"index":2,"size":168,"text":"The results are shown in Tables 1 and 2. The idea that legumes are more susceptible to manganese toxicity than the grasses appears not to be true since among paature species and ecotypes within species in both grasses and legumea there ia a differential tolerance to Mn toxicity. Among the pasture grasses the differential tolerance is better appreciated among ecotypes than at species leve!. On the other hand, the most tolerant ecotypes had higher dry matter production at high Mn stress than at low Mn stress which would indicate a beneficia! rather than a detrimental effect. Some ecotypes within a speciea judged on the basis of the relative index as Mn-susceptible (Relative Index less than 0.5) had a dry matter production similar to the most Mn-tolerant ecotypes. This fact can be related to the high inherent potential of these ecotypes for biomass production which in many cases may be enough for animal feeding. This is the case of Brachiaria humidicola 679, Brachiaria eminii 6241 and Andropogon gayanus 6200."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Table 2 shows the dry matter yield and differential tolerance of severa! tropical legume species and ecotypes to Mn toxicity in the soil. The performance of theae pasture legumes follows a similar trend to that of grasses. In general, the manganese toxicity symptoma included marginal chlorosis, induced iron deficiency, distortion of young leaves, and localized spots where manganese accumulates."}]},{"head":"Calcium requirements by tropical pastures","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":376,"text":"The diagnosis of aluminum toxicity in acid soils of tropical America has been based on exchangeable aluminum extracted by 1N KCl. Liming recommendations are commonly derived from the leve! at which thia exchangeable aluminum is almost neutralized and the soil pH is raised to the range 5.2-5.5. However, liming requirements based only on exchangeable aluminum may overestimate the lime ratea because of varying degrees of plant tolerance to aluminum toxicity. In addition, initial resulta (Tropical Pastures Program, Annual Report, 1980) provided the information that the response of the Al-tolerant pasture grasses and legumea was mainly related to calcium requirements rather than to liming. Thus a field experiment waa establiahed on an Oxisol of Carimagua to determine the calcium requirements of severa! tropical pasture grasses and legumes. Four calcium rates (50, 100, 200 and 400 kg Ca/ha) plus a control (no Ca applied) were used and calcitic lime was the calcium source. Table 3 shows the externa! and interna! critica! calcium requirements associated with about 80% of maximum yield during the rainy season and dry seasons of severa! tropical pastures species and ecotypes. Among the grasses, Brachiaria humidicola 679 had the least externa! calcium requirement (50 kg Ca/ha equivalent to only 125 kg calcitic lime/ha) and also the least interna! calcium requirement (0.22% Ca) as compared with the other grasses which required twice the amount of externa! calcium to have more or less the same dry matter production. However, all these grasses have a low Ca requirement since the small amount of calcium applied to the soil practically did not change the soil pH or the Al saturation percentage at all. Resulta with pasture legumes also show marked variations in their calcium requirements not only among species but also among ecotypes within species. Although the externa! calcium requirements were in many cases the same as with the grasses, the interna! calcium requirements for legumes were higher than those of the grasses at both rainy and dry seasons. These observations have implications for competitive effects with respect to calcium in grass-legume mixtures and especially for those with the same externa! Ca requirement. Under these conditions pasture legumes may compete with grasses since when the immediate supply of calcium falls below the combined demands of the planta, competition begins."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"The equivalent amount of calcium to that applied with the calcitic lime would be also applied with the basic slag (Calfos) or rock phosphates to meet the external calcium requirements avoiding in this way the use of lime. "}]},{"head":"Management of Low Native Soil Fertility","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The main low-input technology required to manage low native soil fertility centers on increasing the efficiency of fertilization. This may be possible through the identification and correction of soil nutrient deficiencies and use of pasture species and ecotypes that are more efficient users of low fertilizer inputs. In addition, the promotion of nutrient recycling in pasture production systems needs substantial investigation."}]},{"head":"Phosphorus and potassium requirements of tropical pastures","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Following the methodology for regional trials but with three fertilization levels of F and K, a field experiment was established with the germplasm identified for the isohyperthermic well-drained savannas such as Carimagua. The results are presented in Tables 4 and 5 in relation to the externa! and interna! requirements for P and K during the establishment period of the pasture species and ecotypes. With few exceptions, most of the pasture species and ecotypes required 20 kg P/ha and 20 kg K/ha."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"All the pasture grasses present quite low interna! phosphorus requirements in both rainy and dry seasons. On the contrary, the pasture legumes in many cases present twice the tissue P concentrations. These differential interna! P requirements imply that pure stands of pasture grasses may not satisfy the animal P requiremen~s (0.2% P). Consequently, a mineral P supplementation would be necessary since these tropical grasses even with high P fertilizer inputs did not increase their tissue P concentration beyond 0.15% P. However, grass-legume mixtures may provide enough phosphorus to fulfill the animal P requirements, and this suggests that research is needed with and without mineral P supplementation to the animal grazing grass-legume mixtures. Results indicating that mineral P supplementation could be reduced or eliminated would imply less input costs."},{"index":3,"size":294,"text":"The differences in interna! potassium requirements are less marked between legumes and grasses. In general, there are no major inter or intraspecific differences in terms of tolerance to low available soil potassium. The results presented in Tables 4 and 5 only indicate a temporary low K requirement since sooner or later an externa! source of K will be needed. The main reason for this is that potassium is similar to nitrogen in that potassium deficiencies increase with time due to the fast consumption by the plants and high susceptibility to leaching in most of the acid soils. All this suggests that the main avenues for increasing the efficiency of the K inputs for the establishment and maintenance of tropical pastures in highly weathered acid soils are: 1) the use of the sources of potassium with slow K release and long residual effects; cement plant kiln flue dust rich in potassium might be evaluated as an alternative for the highly soluble K sources, and 2) the recycling of potassium to the soil from the pasture litter and excreta depositions. Table 4. Externa! and interna! critica! levels of P and K of various species and ecotypes of tropical pasture legumes at the establishment period of the isohyperthermic well-drained savanna. Effects of micronutrient applications on pasture establishment A field experiment was set up in Carimagua to determine the external and internal micronutrient requirements for promising pasture grasses and legumes as well as to determine the residual effects of micronurient applications. Zinc, cooper, boron, manganese and molybdenum (only in legumes) were the micronutrients studied. The grasses tested were Andropogon gayanus 621, Brachiaria decumbens 606, Brachiaria humidicola 679 and, Brachiaria brizantha 665 and the legumes were Stylosanthes capitata 1019, Pueraria phaseoloides 9900, Desmodium ovalifolium 350 and Zornia latifolia 728."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"The results for the establishment period are presented in Tables 6 (legumes) and 7 (grasses). After ayear of establishment none of the pasture grasses or legumes showed significant responses to the micronutrient applications. Under native savanna conditions, soil analyses of the upper 20 cm provided the information that the levels of available soil zinc and cooper were higher than those considered as deficient for acid soils (0.5 ppm Zn, 0.2 ppm Cu). After ayear, the availability of these two micronutrients was even higher with an increment of fertilizer levels."},{"index":5,"size":128,"text":"In the plant tissue, marked differences in zinc concentrations among species as well as between grasses and legumes were observed. During the rainy season and without zinc applications, the pasture grasses with exception of Brachiaria humidicola 697, showed zinc tissue concentrations near or below the level required for the animal. Similar results were obtained with copper. These results indicate that although the dry matter production was not affected when zinL and copper were not applied, the concentrations of these micronutrients in the plant tissue would not fulfill the animal's requirements. Therefore, it would be important to determine whether mineral supplementation provides a more economic source of these micronutrients of whether direct application to the soil is more efficient, since both zinc and copper fertilization produce long residual effects."},{"index":6,"size":40,"text":"Pasture legumes without zinc and copper applications to the soil all fulfilled the minimal requirements for the animal. The plant tissue concentrations showed a differential increment by species, especially Stylosanthes capitata 1019 with zinc and Pueraria phaseoloides 9900 with copper."},{"index":7,"size":73,"text":"In the case of boron the tendency was to increase only with the first level of application (0.5 kg B/ha). In both grasses and legumes the boron concentrations in the plant tissue were.higher than that considered as a deficiency level (20 ppm B for legumes and 4 ppm B for grasses). Manganese applications had no effects either on grasses or on legumes. Similar results were found with molybdenum in the case of legumes."},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":". .   Mn 20 ppm \" \" 1.0 ppm \" \" \" DM = dry matter production"}]},{"head":"•","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"From the resulta obtained, the recommendation for the establishment of tropical pasture grasses and legumes in Carimagua is that there is no positive effect of micronutrient applications on the forage availability. The available amount of B and Mn under native savanna is adequate for pasture establishment. Zinc and copper applications to this soil improve the zinc and copper contenta in grasses, which is important since without them the levels are below those req~ired by the animal. Hence, maintenance fertilization with zinc and copper is important in pure stands of grasses. The presence and consumption of tropical legumes in the pasture, in addition to the quantity and quality of the protein, may supplement to a great extent the zinc and copper deficiencies in the grasses. This implies that reduction if not elimination of mineral supplementation of copper and zinc may be possible. However, this figure may change completely for tropical pastures growing in sandy soils."}]},{"head":"Effects of sulfur fertilization on tropical pastures","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Under native savanna conditions with well-drained acid soils, the available soil sulfur is often deficient, and as the soil texture becomes sandier and the organic matter decreases this deficiency is accentuated. Under Carimagua conditions the available sulfur (calcium phosphate extraction) was about 4 ppm S, a value considered as inadequate for pasture establishment."},{"index":2,"size":258,"text":"Tables 8 and 9 show the data from a field experiment established in Carimagua to study the effect of sulfur fertilization on the response of several tropical pasture grasses and legumes. The dry matter production of both shows no significant response at any S rate. In addition, the tissue S concentrations without S application were similar to the critica! concentrations determined under greenhouse conditions (Tropical Pastures Program, Annual Report, 1980). The lack of response toS fertilization by the pasture legumes and grasses was attributed to the considerable increment in availability of the native soil sulfur after conventional land preparation. This increment was about five times the initial S value found under native savanna, which was enough to support 90% of the maximum dry matter yields in both grasses and legumes. An explanation for this appears to be that the Carimagua Oxisol has a relatively high organic matter content (about 4%), With the conventional land preparation for pasture establishment, organic sulfur becomes available for the plants during the establishment period, Table 10 shows the sulfur contenta and forms in the top layer of the Carimagua Oxisol under native savanna and under pasture one year after establishment. Total sulfur and mainly organic sulfur were less under the established pasture than under the native savanna. As a consequence of this, the available sulfur increased almost four times when no sulfur was applied. This has an important implication for pasture establishment on this type of soil since one can avoid S fertilization when using conventional land preparation and therefore reduce input costs."},{"index":3,"size":139,"text":"-. .   However, the sulfur requirements for maintenance fertilization of pastures under grazing may be completely different. lt appears that after a certain time the organic matter returns to a stable state, and there is a net sulfur immobilization. Since a pasture does not receive an annual land preparation, the available soil sulfur seems to return to the status under native savanna. This was the case of a Desmodium ovalifolium pasture established in 1978, which received in addition to a basal fertilization about 20 kg S/ha during establishment. In August 1980 it received four maintenance fertilization treatments including sulfur. The soil nutrient dynamics as a function of these four treatments is shown in Figure 2. Results regarding forage availability, protein quality, tannin content and preferential intake by the animal are presented and discussed in the Tropical Pastures Quality Section."},{"index":4,"size":149,"text":"The available P, with exception of Treatment 4, increased five months after phosphorus was applied, which may be an effect of the end of the rainy season. A similar response was observed with the exchangeable calcium, but the increase occurred at the beginning of the rainy season and in all the treatments, except the control which did not receive any maintenance fertilizer. Treatment 4 received Mg and S in addition to P and Ca. The available P, S, and Mg but not exchangeable Ca became available in the soil as soon as the fertilizers were applied. The sulfur and magnesium levels can be acredited to the fertilizer applied, but the higher availability of P as compared with treatments 2 and 3 may be due to a better nutritional balance in the soil caused by an almost complete fertilization which might have stimulated chemical and biological activity of the soil."},{"index":5,"size":90,"text":"The main conclusion from these results is that the only significant response of this pasture was obtained with the maintenance fertilization applied in Treatment 4. Later on this experiment was modified to test the hypothesis that sulfui is the key element in modifying the soil fertility dynamics as well as the changes in forage availability, protein quality, tannin content and intake of Desmodium ovalifolium by the animal. Preliminary evaluations are confirming the hypothesis. ,...__ Treatments: 1 = control; 2 = P + Ca; 3 = P + Ca + K;"}]},{"head":"Nutrient Recycling in Pastures","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"In pasture production systems, there is a natural recycling mechanism in which the three main componente, the soil, plant, and animal, represent the nutrient pools and determine to a great extent the pasture productivity and the yield of animal product. Thus the magnitude of nutrient recycling in pastures needs quantification in order to define maintenance fertilizer recommendations."}]},{"head":"Legume residues as a nitrogen pool","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The contribution of a legume to tropical pastures is both as high-protein feed and as plant residues which are sources of nutrients for recycling to the grass-legume components. A major pathway of nitrogen cycling is through legume leaf litter. Thus two experimenta were established to evaluate the contribution of this litter to tropical pastures."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"For the first experiment, legume leaf materials from two pasture legumes (Pueraria phaseoloides 9900 and Desmodium ovalifolium 350) were incubated in the presence of a growing grass (Brachiaria humidicola 679). The grass was harvested at 11, 18, and 24 weeks and N recovery was calculated. Two soils plus one lime treatment were employed: Soil from a Desmodium ovalifolium 350 pasture and the same soil plus lime (Al saturation below 40%); anda soil from an Andropogon gayanus 621 pasture. The results are shown in Figure 3. At the first harvest the N in the grass leaves apparently represented the easily mineralizable-N (soluble N). The soil from the Andropogon gayanus pasture hada lower Al saturation percentage (74% Al Sat.) than the soil from the D. ovalifolium pasture (82% Al Sat.) and this was reflected in higher net nitrogen uptake by B. humidicola. The second harvest probably represented mineralization of sorne of the tannin-bound protein."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"Apparently the soil from the A. gayanus pasture did not have a high population of the micro-organisms that could mineralize this type of protein as there was net immobilization of N, especially with the D. ovalifolium dead leaf material (moderately low in both N and tannin)."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"Cumulative net nitrogen recovery data show that the soil from the !• gayanus pasture was able to mineralize more of the nitrogen from the dead f• phaseoloides leaf material than the other soils and this may be related to its lower Al saturation percentage. Liming the soil from the D. ovalifolium pasture apparently stimulated the microbial population responsible for mineralizing tannin-bound protein."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"All the soils mineralized N in a similar way and in high quantities from the green leaf material off• phaseoloides (high N, low tannin). However, only limed soil from the D. ovalifolium pasture was able to mineralize substantial quantities of nitrogen from the high tannin material, but for sorne reason this soil was much less able to mineralize the low-tannin dead f• phaseoloides leaf material than the other soils at 18 and 24 weeks, respectively."},{"index":6,"size":43,"text":"For the second experiment, four pastures under grazing were sampled to determine the amounts and nitrogen concentrations of the litter; the soils were also sampled at different depths in order to observe the variations in nitrate and ammonia levels in the four pastures."},{"index":7,"size":230,"text":"Figure 4 shows the amount of N from the litter of the four pastures as a function of time (March-August, 1981). In general, the tendency was a decrease in the amount of N as the rains increased. This reduction of N was mainly related to reduced amount of litter and not to a decrease in the N content in the litter due to the growing season in which there is a higher amount of green biomass and lesser defoliation than in the dry season. The litter present at the end of the dry season was high and correlated with the concentration of N-NOJ in the soil. The pasture Andropogon gayanus 621/ Pueraria phaseoloides 9900 (A.g/P.p) had hígh lítter production (4.5 t/ha) and was the lítter with the highest N content (1.8% N). The litter from the Brachiaria decumbens 606/Pueraria phaseoloides 9900 (B.d/P.p) pasture also had a relatively high N content (1.65% N), but the amount of litter was less (2.2 t/ha). The pasture Andropogon gayanus 621/ Desmodium ovalifolium 350 (A.g/D.o) had the higher litter production (5.9 t/ha) but the N content was only 0.91%. Finally the pasture Brachiaria humidicola 679/ Desmodium ovalifolium 350 (B.h./D.o) had the least amount both of litter and N content (2.6 t/ha and 0.68% N). Continuation of the sampling for a full year will be essential to characterize the N contribution of the litter material fully."},{"index":8,"size":199,"text":"Figures 5 ahd 6 show the changes in the nitrate and ammonia levels with soil depth at two sampling dates (May 5 and August 4). At the first soil sampling date the nitrate levels tended to increase with the soil depth with exception for the A.g/P.p pasture soil which had higher levels of nitrate at all depths. For the second set sampling date, nitrate levels tended to decrease and mainly for the A.g/P.p soil but only on the 20 cm topsoil. Ammonium levels decreased sharply with soil depth in the four pastures at the two sampling dates. Apparently the improved grasses are not fully exploiting the 100 cm depth. However, the improved grasses are utilizing this nitrate much more than the native savanna, where there is sometimes abundant \"fossil\" nitrate (up to 16 ppm NOJ-,N at 100 cm depth and up to 6•. 5 ppm NOJ-N at 180-190 cm depth). This has implications for the establishment of legumes associated with improved grasses, because legumes would not be able to compete with these grasses as long as they had access to the \"fossil\" nitrate. Once the nitrate is depleted the legumes would be more able to compete with the grass."}]},{"head":"Animal excreta as nutrient pools","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Return of nutrients to the soil via excreta in pasture production systems is an important natural recycling mechanism but depends considerably on stocking rate, grazing management, and other factors. Preliminary data are presented jn Figure 7 which shows the changes in tl1<. to¡:; 20 cm of an Ultisol from Quilichao, Colombia, caused by dung deposition in a hrachiaria decumbens pasture under rotational grazing every 15 days. -  .. . . "}]},{"head":"100.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"The resulta show that the topsoil inorganic nitrogen content doubled at the first 15 days within a 1 m radius from the excreta and declined sharply afterward. Available phosphorus, potassium, calcium and sulfur also showed a similar increase but with less effects at 1 m distance, except for sulfur, and followed by a more gradual decrease with time than nitrogen. The effects of the urine depositions (Table 11) indicate a sharper increase in potassium and sulfur than with feces, but a smaller increase in the availability of nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium. The overall effects of these additions were favorably reflected in increases of all five elements in plant tissue concentrations within the first 30 days after excreta deposition. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Figure l. Relationship between regression coefficients of the relative root length and the mean relative dry matter yields of 5 and 10 ppm Al of 47 ecotypes of Stylosanthes macrocephala and their comparisons with the hematoxylin test. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Soil nutrient dynamics as a function of four fertilizer treatments applied to a Desmodium ovalifolium 350 pasture under grazing at Carimagua (August 1980-May 1981). "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Nutrient recycling on the top cm of an Ultisol from Quilichao, Colombia, as a result of dung deposition by cattle grazing a Brachiaria decumbens pasture. Distance from dung (cm):e 20; "},{"text":"Table l . Dry matter production and differential tolerance of severa! species and ecotypes of tropical pasture grasses to manganese toxicity unaer field conditions. Species Ecotype Dr~ matter ~ieli SpeciesEcotypeDr~ matter ~ieli   Low Mn  High Mn Relative Index Low MnHigh MnRelative Index   (10 ~~m Mn) (86 ~~m Mn) (High Mn/Low Mn) (10 ~~m Mn) (86 ~~m Mn) (High Mn/Low Mn)   -----t ha -1 -1 year ------ -----t ha-1-1 year ------ Brachiaria ruziziensis 654 2.88  3.00 1.04 Brachiaria ruziziensis6542.883.001.04  655 4.86  3.10 0.64 6554.863.100.64  660 3.53  1.83 0.52 6603.531.830.52  656 3.30  1.48 0.45 6563.301.480.45 Brachiaria decumbens 606 5.52  6.69 1.21 Brachiaria decumbens6065.526.691.21  6130 3.37  3.19 0.95 61303.373.190.95  6131 2.82  1.93 0.68 61312.821.930.68  6132 3.14  1.28 0.40 61323.141.280.40 Brachiaria humidicola 675 2.66  2.63 0.98 Brachiaria humidicola6752.662.630.98  6013 3.76  3.00 0.80 60133.763.000.80  679 5.73 2.78 0.48 6795.732.780.48 Brachiaria brizantha 665 5.74 6.05 1.05 Brachiaria brizantha6655.746.051.05  667 5.44  3.29 0.60 6675.443.290.60  6016 1.47  0.86 0.58 60161.470.860.58 Brachiaria radicans Brachairia dict~oneura 6133 6020 1.30 2.42 1.87 1.86 1.43 o. 77 Brachiaria radicans Brachairia dict~oneura 6133 60201.30 2.421.87 1.861.43 o. 77 Brachiaria eminii 6241 4.70  2.20 0.47 Brachiaria eminii62414.702.200.47 Andro~ogon ga~anus 6054 3.40 4.06 1.19 Andro~ogon ga~anus60543.404.061.19  621 3.70 4.01 1.08 6213.704.011.08  6053 6.81  6.78 0.99 60536.816.780.99  6200 6.07  4.39 0.72 62006.074.390.72 Panicum maximum 661 3.14 4.45 1.42 Panicum maximum6613.144.451.42  673 4.30 4.54 1.05 6734.304.541.05  697 4.78  4.85 1.01 6974.784.851.01  684 2.28  1.95 0.85 6842.281.950.85 Pennisetum ~urpureum 658 10.0  8.73 0.87 Pennisetum ~urpureum65810.08.730.87  672 13.1  10.39 0.79 67213.110.390.79 Setaria anceps 6187 6.25  7.13 1..14 Setaria anceps61876.257.131..14  6188 3.13 1.16 0.37 61883.131.160.37  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Dry matter yield and differential tolerance of severa! species and ecotypes of tropical pasture legumes to manganese toxicity under field conditions. Species Ecotype DrJ::: matter J:::ield SpeciesEcotypeDrJ::: matter J:::ield    Low Mn  High Mn Relative index Low MnHigh MnRelative index    (10 l!l!m Mn~ (86 l!l!m Mn~ (Hish Mn/Low Mn) (10 l!l!m Mn~ (86 l!l!m Mn~ (Hish Mn/Low Mn)   -----t/ha -1 -1 year ------ -----t/ha-1-1 year ------ StJ:::losanthes caJ:!itata  1405 1.93  2.59 1.34 StJ:::losanthes caJ:!itata14051.932.591.34   1315 2.14  2.31 1.07 13152.142.311.07   1019 1.95  2.01 1.03 10191.952.011.03   1097 3.23  3.32 1.02 10973.233.321.02 Stilosanthes suianensis 136 4.82  6,21 1.29 Stilosanthes suianensis 1364.826,211.29   184 5.39  5.80 1.07 1845.395.801.07 Stilosanthes hamata  147 4.78  5.05 1.05 Stilosanthes hamata1474.785.051.05 Centrosema macrocar12um 5065 3.11  2.72 0.87 Centrosema macrocar12um 50653.112.720.87   5462 2.95  2.36 0.80 54622.952.360.80 Centrosema brasilianum 5237 2.10  2.52 1.20 Centrosema brasilianum 52372.102.521.20   5180 1.61  1.44 0.89 51801.611.440.89 Centrosema J:!Ubescens  5118 1.26  1.95 1.54 Centrosema J:!Ubescens51181.261.951.54   5053 1.88  2.20 1.17 50531.882.201.17   5112 3.03  3.23 1.06 51123.033.231.06   5189 2.27  2.27 1.00 51892.272.271.00   5126 3.23  2.80 0.87 51263.232.800.87   438 3.16  2.55 0.80 4383.162.550.80   Common 2.47  1.89 0.76 Common2.471.890.76 Desmodium ovalifolium  350 3.95  4.52 1.14 Desmodium ovalifolium3503.954.521.14 Desmodium heteroJ:!hillum 349 2.80  2.36 0.84 Desmodium heteroJ:!hillum 3492.802.360.84 Desmodium heterocar12on 365 2.34  1.15 0.49 Desmodium heterocar12on3652.341.150.49 Codariocalyx Siroides  3001 3.37  2.20 0.65 Codariocalyx Siroides30013.372.200.65 Calol!osonium mucunoides 7367 2.27  2.41 1.06 Calol!osonium mucunoides 73672.272.411.06   Common 4.09  3.72 0.90 Common4.093.720.90   9161 2.79  1.68 0.60 91612.791.680.60 Pueraria J:!haseoloides  9900 4.79  5.79 1.20 Pueraria J:!haseoloides99004.795.791.20 Zornia latifolia  9286 1.93  1.65 0.85 Zornia latifolia92861.931.650.85   728 1.54 1.27 0.82 7281.541.270.82  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Externa! and interna! critica! calcium requirements* and critica! dry matter yields for the rainy and dry seasons of various tropical pasture species for the establishment period.  Interna! Interna!  "},{"text":"Table 5 . External and internal critical levels of P and K of four tropical pasture grasses at the establishment period for the isohyperthermic well-drained savanna.  Species Ecotype Externa! critica! leve!*  Interna! critica! level* SpeciesEcotypeExterna! critica! leve!*Interna! critica! level*    p 7ha 1 K Rain;! season p K % DEI season p K p7ha1 KRain;! season p K%DEI season p K  Catesory V        Catesory V  Desmodium ovalifolium 350 20  20 0.10 1.03  0.08 0.43 Desmodium ovalifolium35020200.101.030.080.43  Pueraria Ehaseoloides 9900 20  20 0.22 1.22  0.10 0.66 Pueraria Ehaseoloides990020200.221.220.100.66  Catesory IV        Catesory IV  Stylosanthes capitata 1019 20  20 0.11 1.15  0.08 0.67 Stylosanthes capitata101920200.111.150.080.67  -ª..• capitata 1315 20  20 0.18 1.18  0.08 0.60 -ª..• capitata131520200.181.180.080.60  . §.. capitata 1318 20  20 0.11 0.98  0.09 0.64 . §.. capitata131820200.110.980.090.64  §_. capitata 1342 20  20 0.12 1.16  0.10 0.62 §_. capitata134220200.121.160.100.62 ... :¡¡! §... capitata É_• capitata -ª.• capitata .. §.• capitata 1405 1441 1693 1728 20 20 20 20  20 20 20 20 0.11 0.12 0.14 0.12 0.98 1.18 1.21 1.22  0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.58 0.61 0.56 0.64 ... :¡¡!§... capitata É_• capitata -ª.• capitata .. §.• capitata1405 1441 1693 172820 20 20 2020 20 20 200.11 0.12 0.14 0.120.98 1.18 1.21 1.220.09 0.09 0.09 0.090.58 0.61 0.56 0.64  Catesory III        Catesory III  Centrosema macrocarpum 5065 11  10 0.16 1.24  0.09 0.72 Centrosema macrocarpum506511100.161.240.090.72  f• pubescens f. pubescens 5053 5126 20 20  20 20 0.18 0.18 1.50 1.40  0.09 0.11 0.76 0.75 f• pubescens f. pubescens5053 512620 2020 200.18 0.181.50 1.400.09 0.110.76 0.75  Coddriocalyx !Iroides 3001 35  30 0.17 1.15  0.11 0.57 Coddriocalyx !Iroides300135300.171.150.110.57  Other categories        Other categories  . §_. capitata 2013 20  20 0.13 1.28  0.10 0.68 . §_. capitata201320200.131.280.100.68  . §_. capitata 1943 35  30 0.15 1.19  0.13 0.86 . §_. capitata194335300.151.190.130.86  . §_. macrocephala 1582 20  20 0.10 0.93  0.08 0.50 . §_. macrocephala158220200.100.930.080.50  Zornia sp. Zornia sp. 728 9199 11 20  10 20 0.12 0.15 1.16 1.11  0.08 0.09 0.43 o. 72 Zornia sp. Zornia sp.728 919911 2010 200.12 0.151.16 1.110.08 0.090.43 o. 72  Zornia sp. 9286 20  20 0.18 1.28  0.09 0.60 Zornia sp.928620200.181.280.090.60  Zornia sp. 9600 20  20 0.14 1.00  0.09 0.68 Zornia sp.960020200.141.000.090.68  C. brasilianum 5055 20  20 0.14 0.12  0.09 0.57 C. brasilianum505520200.140.120.090.57  Aeschynomene histrix 9690 11  10 0.19 1.25  0.07 0.47 Aeschynomene histrix969011100.191.250.070.47  "},{"text":"Table 6 .   "},{"text":"of micronutrient applications on the dry matter production and micronutrient contenta in plant tissue and soil during the establishment period of four tropical pasture legumes in an Oxisol of Carimagua, Colombia.  Micronutrient  ~ D. ovalifolium 350  P. Ehaseoloides 9900  S. caEitata 1019  z. latifolia Micronutrient~ D. ovalifolium 350P. Ehaseoloides 9900S. caEitata 1019z. latifolia Applied 1 Soil available DM Tissue content Rainz: Drx DM Tissue content Rainz: Drz: DM Tissue content Rainz: nrx DM Tissue content Rain:z: Applied 1Soil availableDMTissue content Rainz: DrxDMTissue content Rainz: Drz:DMTissue content Rainz: nrxDMTissue content Rain:z:  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Effects of micronutrient applications on the dry matter production and micronutrient contente in plant tissue 1 1 and soil during the establishment period of four tropical pasture grasses in an Oxisol of Carimagua, Colombia.  7 1.7 5.2 2.8 2.9 5.4 2.4 2.4 3.4 2.6 2.8 71.75.22.82.95.42.42.43.42.62.8  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Effects of sulfur fertilization on the dry matter production and sulfur contents in the plant tissue and soil during the establishment period of four tropical pasture legumes in an Oxisol of Carimagua, Colombia.   S treatment D. ovalifolium 350  P. Ehaseoloides 9900 S. caEitata 1315  z. latifolia 728 S treatmentD. ovalifolium 350P. Ehaseoloides 9900S. caEitata 1315z. latifolia 728     S   S   S   S SSSS Applied Available soil DM in the tissue DM in the tissue DM in the tissue DM in the tissue Applied Available soilDMin the tissueDMin the tissueDMin the tissueDMin the tissue   sulfur  Rain:x: Dr:x:  Rain::z: Dr:x:  Rain;t Dr;t  Rain::z: Or;t sulfurRain:x:Dr:x:Rain::z:Dr:x:Rain;tDr;tRain::z:Or;t kg/ha -1 ppm _ 1 ha jyr ton{ 1 (%)  _ 1 ha /yr ton¿ 1 (%)  _ 1 to~{ ha /yr (%)  _ 1 ha /yr ton{ 1 (%) kg/ha-1ppm_ 1 ha jyr ton{ 1(%)_ 1 ha /yr ton¿ 1(%)_ 1 to~{ ha /yr(%)_ 1 ha /yr ton{ 1(%) o S lO 15  22* 24 24 29 5.3 5.9 5.6 5.3 0.12 O; 13 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.12 0.14 o. 13 4.7 4.9 5.0 4.6 0.17 0.18 0.20 0.20 0.19 o o 17 0.17 o o 19 7.8 8.4 8.6 7.3 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.13 0.16 0,16 3.2 2.9 3.2 2.7 0.17 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.17 0.17 o .15 0.16 o S lO 1522* 24 24 295.3 5.9 5.6 5.30.12 O; 13 0.13 0.130.14 0.12 0.14 o. 134.7 4.9 5.0 4.60.17 0.18 0.20 0.200.19 o o 17 0.17 o o 197.8 8.4 8.6 7.30.12 0.13 0.13 0.140.15 0.13 0.16 0,163.2 2.9 3.2 2.70.17 0.18 0.20 0.220.17 0.17 o .15 0.16 20  27 5.5 0.14 0.15 4.7 0.19 0.22 7.1 0.16 0,18 2.8 0.21 0.17 20275.50.140.154.70.190.227.10.160,182.80.210.17 30  27 5.7 0.15 0.15 4.7 0.20 0.19 7.8 0.16 0.18 3 .l 0.20 0.18 30275.70.150.154.70.200.197.80.160.183 .l0.200.18  "},{"text":"conventional land preparation: 4 ppm-available soil sulfur.   "},{"text":"Table 9 , Effects of sulfur fertilízation on the dry matter production and sulfur contenta in the plant tissue and soil during the establishment period of four tropical pasture grasses in an Oxisol of Carimagua, Colombia.   S treatment A. saxanus 621  B. decumbens 606  B. humidicola 679  B. brizantha 665 S treatmentA. saxanus 621B. decumbens 606B. humidicola 679B. brizantha 665 Applied Available soil  S   S   S  DM. S in the tissue Applied Available soilSSSDM.S in the tissue   sulfur  Rain:z: Dr:z:      DEJ:  Rain;t Drx sulfurRain:z:Dr:z:DEJ:Rain;tDrx kg/ha -1 ppm _fon/_ 1 ha /yr (%)  _fon/_ 1 ha /yr (%)  _ 1 ha /yr ton{ 1 (%)  !?ni _ 1 ha /yr (%) kg/ha-1ppm_fon/_ 1 ha /yr(%)_fon/_ 1 ha /yr(%)_ 1 ha /yr ton{ 1(%)!?ni _ 1 ha /yr(%) o  25* 8.9 0.12 0.10 8.5 o .12 0.13 7.2 o .11 0.12 8.5 0.12 0.12 o25*8.90.120.108.5o .120.137.2o .110.128.50.120.12 5  24 9.0 0.13 0.08 9.3 0.14 0.13 7.1 0.12 0.12 8.4 0.15 0.13 5249.00.130.089.30.140.137.10.120.128.40.150.13 lO 15  24 24 10.0 8.6 0.12 0.13 0.09 0.09 9.1 7.8 0.15 o .15 0.15 0.13 7.7 7.5 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.13 8.1 8.1 0.16 0.20 0.15 0.17 lO 1524 2410.0 8.60.12 0.130.09 0.099.1 7.80.15 o .150.15 0.137.7 7.50.14 0.140.13 0.138.1 8.10.16 0.200.15 0.17 20  24 7.6 0.14 0.08 9.2 0.16 0.14 6.7 0.16 0.15 7.7 0.17 0.15 20247.60.140.089.20.160.146.70.160.157.70.170.15 30  27 8.3 0.13 0.09 8.7 0.18 0.16 7.4 0.14 0.15 7.7 0.20 0.16 30278.30.130.098.70.180.167.40.140.157.70.200.16  "},{"text":"conventional land preparation: 4 ppm available soil sulfur.   "},{"text":"Table 10 . Sulfur fractions in the Carimagua Oxisol under native savanna vegetation and under tropical pastures after one-year established with three sulfur treatments. Sulfur fraction Native savanna One-year pasture established Sulfur fractionNative savannaOne-year pasture established  O kg S/ha 15 kg S/ha 30 kg S/ha O kg S/ha15 kg S/ha30 kg S/ha  -  -  "},{"text":"Table 11 . Nutrient recycling on the top cm of an Ultisol from Quilichao, Colombia, as a result of urine deposition by cattle grazing a Brachiaria decumbens pasture. Time after Distance urine from urine (NH + N03) Inofganic:N Available Available Exch. K Exch. Ca p S Time after Distance urine from urine (NH + N03) Inofganic:N Available Available Exch. K Exch. Ca p S deposition deposition ppm (Bray II) ppm meq/lOOg meq/lOOg deposition depositionppm(Bray II)ppmmeq/lOOg meq/lOOg (da:¡:s) (cm)  !!!!m    (da:¡:s)(cm)!!!!m o 20 20 2.5 25 0.09 1.20 o20202.5250.091.20  100 21 3.0 26 0.10 1.24 100213.0260.101.24 15 20 65 2.0 36 0.19 1.39 1520652.0360.191.39  lOO 35 2.3 33 O.ll 1.17 lOO352.333O.ll1.17 30 20 28 1.8 37 0.20 l. 61 3020281.8370.20l. 61  lOO 27 1.8 38 O.ll 1.61 lOO271.838O.ll1.61 45 20 13 2.1 42 0.22 1.59 4520132.1420.221.59  lOO 9 2.2 40 O.ll 1.56 lOO92.240O.ll1.56  "}],"sieverID":"540f7284-f6e9-47c8-9fab-6c54d7980c65","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0956833b0307049c3548c63ebe5c2e89.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0956833b0307049c3548c63ebe5c2e89","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5d21a4ca-6ecf-40b1-bc7c-af29f6be04f9/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"","keywords":["• P267 -[Flagship Leader] FP3","Engagement, synthesis and support OICR","Outcome Impact Case Report"],"chapters":[{"head":"Outcome story for communications use:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"In Vietnam, one of the leading coffee-producing countries in the world, women contribute significantly to coffee production, but less to the marketing. The gender gap in access to resources, such as credit, knowledge and information, is creating a measurable gap in coffee farm income. Empowering women in the coffee sector contributes to gender equality, notably intrahousehold decision making and labour distribution. Moreover, the conversion of monocultural coffee production to coffee-based agroforestry systems can increase the quality of the coffee beans, contribute to micro-climate regulation for climate change adaptation, as well as sequester carbon both above and below the ground."},{"index":2,"size":231,"text":"The World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) and CARE International have closely worked with both government and non-government organizations in Vietnam to empower women through Village Savings and Loan Associations (VSLA) in coffee-based agroforestry systems. The training components consisted of gender training, financial literacy and coffee agroforestry. Vietnam currently has over 500 VSLA groups with over 10,000 members and a successful record of high loan repayment and savings with deposits increasing up to 60% annually, which gives the opportunity to access additional financial products and services. The team has developed training materials on coffee management and marketing targeting ethnic minority women and men. Training of Trainers materials on coffee-based agroforestry were developed to minimize the gender gap by providing information about coffee cultivation and management practices, harvesting and storage, and access to market to the farmers and their groups (1,2,3). ICRAF, CARE International and their local partners combine VSLA with technical training on coffee-based agroforestry system through Farmers Field and Business Schools (FFBS). The project focuses on ethnic minority areas with village savings and loans associations, training on household economics, gender awareness and negotiation, and technical training on coffee-based agroforestry management. The Vietnam Women's Union has committed to promoting VSLA development. ICRAF's research has showed the importance of social learning particularly among women, who pass on and exchange their technical knowledge and skills in their networks to benefit additional women in the community."}]},{"head":"Links to any communications materials relating to this outcome:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"• https://tinyurl.com/y86bfu7g and practices for intercultural operations such as pruning, water and nutrient management, pest and diseases control and use of production and market related information; and iii) harvesting, processing, storage and marketing of coffee. These materials provide a pathway for gender gap minimization in the coffee-based agroforestry system."}]},{"head":"Innovations: <Not Defined>","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Elaboration of Outcome/Impact Statement:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"ICRAF has developed an ex-ante approach for estimating the mitigation potential and investment necessary to scale up agroforestry under Vietnam's Nationally Determined Contribution (1, 2). Scientists in ICRAF estimate that converting 400,000 hectares of monocultural coffee production system into shade-grown agroforestry will yield 20-40 million tons of carbon sequestration both above and below ground (3)."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"women are coffee producers and entrepreneurs in the Vietnam ( 4), yet women's participation in coffee markets has been weak. men tend to be responsible for tasks involving technical planning, participated more frequently in technical training and had more contacts with agricultural traders and extension. Enhancing women's implementation of agroforestry-based coffee production and participation in the coffee market is one strategy for scaling up coffee-based agroforestry, that should empower women's decision making and improve their livelihoods, while also yielding significant benefits for climate change mitigation and adaptation. Incorporating shade trees in coffee production creates a cooler and more humid micro-climate, which enhances resilience to seasonal rainfall shortages,, reduces the need for irrigation and enhances carbon sequestration."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"ICRAF has closely worked with both government and non-government organizations in Vietnam to empower women in coffee-based agroforestry production and marketing. In Dien Bien and Son La provinces, in northwest Vietnam, ICRAF and CARE-Vietnam developed training materials targeting ethnic minority women to strengthen their capacity and increase benefit from the coffee-based agroforestry system. By the end of 2020, 24 provincial women's unions will have used the training materials (9 provinces used the manual in 2019, and 15 additional provinces will use it in 2020; there are 58 provinces in the country). "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" The training materials have been also used by the Agriculture Extension Services in two provinces, Center for Nature Conservation and Development (CNCD), and Northern Mountainous Agriculture and Forestry Science Institute (NOMAFSI). Similarly, ten local government organizations and NGOs have used the materials to train women in coffee agroforestry and marketing, including the Center for Community Development in Dien Bien, Agroforestry Research Center in Thai Nguyen University, Community Development Center in Cao Bang, Center for Family Support and Community Development (CFSCD), Winrock, Institute for Community Health Development of Light (LIGHT), Micro-finance and Community Development Institute (MACDI), Hanoi International Women's Club (HIWC), and Centre for Sustainable Rural Development (SRD), Action on Poverty (AOP). "},{"text":"CGIAR system level reporting Link to Common Results Reporting Indicator of Policies : No Stage of maturity of change reported: Stage 1 Links to the Strategic Results Framework Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Yes SRF 2022/2030 targets:• # of people, of which 50% are women, assisted to exit poverty Description of activity / study: There is a high potential of coffee-based agroforestry system to support NDC planning and applications for climate finance, including identification of gender benefits. Geographic scope: Geographic scope: • Sub-national • Sub-national Country(ies): Country(ies): • The Socialist Republic of Viet Nam • The Socialist Republic of Viet Nam Comments: <Not Defined> Comments: <Not Defined> Key Contributors: Key Contributors: Contributing CRPs/Platforms: Contributing CRPs/Platforms: • CCAFS -Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security • CCAFS -Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security • FTA -Forests, Trees and Agroforestry • FTA -Forests, Trees and Agroforestry Contributing Flagships: <Not Defined> Contributing Flagships: <Not Defined> Contributing Regional programs: Contributing Regional programs: • SEA: Southeast Asia • SEA: Southeast Asia Contributing external partners: Contributing external partners: • MARD -Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Vietnam) • MARD -Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Vietnam) • CARE -CARE • CARE -CARE CGIAR innovation(s) CGIAR innovation(s)  "},{"text":"or findings that have resulted in this outcome or impact   "}],"sieverID":"1bf03a2e-f1e6-4988-9bc8-522c956ef0f8","abstract":"In northwest Vietnam, women's unions in nine provinces and ten local NGOs used \"Training for Trainers\" materials developed by CCAFS partners in the World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) and CARE International to empower women and strengthen 65 Village Savings and Loan Associations in the production and marketing of coffee. More than 10,000 farmers have been trained to date, with a potential impact of ~1 Mt carbon sequestration on 20,000 ha and 350,000 indirect beneficiaries, 50% of which are ethnic minority women."}

data/part_1/0969b5019bf2df79685bd94d4148772d.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0969b5019bf2df79685bd94d4148772d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5c8e0ac5-e8ff-474d-9db7-794ec4d396bb/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":232,"text":"The ISPC provided a commentary on the 27 th of June 2014 on the extension proposal for CRP 1.3 Aquatic Agricultural Systems (AAS) for 2015-2016. The ISPC noted in that commentary that \"the CRP responds to the reform vision of the CGIAR [in attempting to] deliver direct impacts for the poor\"; and the CRP was \"an example of research in development\". The ISPC commentary also sensed that, at least from the text presented, the CRP had shifted its emphasis from a systems program working principally to improve livelihoods and resource conditions for those poor dependent upon aquatic and agricultural resources towards an experiment in development process. The ISPC felt that this represented an excessive shift away from bio-technical innovation research. The ISPC critique therefore focussed on three major concerns: 1) much more attention is needed on the issue of how the CRP adds value to research particularly the pipeline of biophysical technologies being developed in the commodities CRPs; 2) there should be plans for collecting panel data and counter factual designs implemented with some urgency so that the program might be able to determine its impacts (and to some extent the experimental proof of concept for the program itself); 3) that expansion to further hubs (geographical foci) should remain on hold until such time as a more credible case can be made that the investments in the existing sites have delivered results."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"The AAS CRP has responded (22 nd of August 2014) with a revised version of the extension proposal, which contains substantial additional material and to more thoroughly explain its perspectives both through the proposal as well as a management response addressed to the ISPC (and a separate response to the Consortium Office)."},{"index":3,"size":131,"text":"Overall, the AAS revised proposal offers a significant improvement over the initial submission. There is much more detail in a number of dimensions, and the proposal overall appears responsive to the previous ISPC commentary. As was true of our previous comments, we acknowledge the ambition of the research program that AAS has undertaken. The CRP has shown a willingness to take a calculated risk by departing from the conventional approaches to research and by placing a major bet on development-oriented research. The new proposal makes it explicit that one of the major research questions for this CRP is about the effectiveness of their alternate model of research engagement. The theories of change that they are proposing are quite clear, the measures and IDOs and the target locations for research are described."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"The supporting documentation for the extension proposal, represented in the annexes, adds detail on AAS beneficiaries IDO targets and indicators; valuation designs for AAS; thematic research questions being pursued across program hubs; the engagement of CGIAR Centers in AAS and linkages with other CRPs and more specifics on the collaboration between AAS and L&F, A4NH and WLE. Some items that were previously discussed only in the annexes have been moved to the body of the document. The gender section is now particularly strong, and it shows a multi-faceted commitment to a gender strategy that extends from human resources issues all the way to gender norms and roles, and differential impacts on women as farmers."},{"index":5,"size":242,"text":"However, for the reasons given below, the ISPC continues to consider the AAS CRP as an experiment in development. Rather than assuming that the program approach will automatically be successful and scalable, the ISPC considers that progress towards the proposed development outcomes will be difficult to measure by the means described or allow gains to be attributed easily to the approach of the program. The development experiment needs to be tested in a proof of concept approach. From the CGIAR portfolio standpoint, the approach and the rationale espoused by AAS is to some extent divorced from addressing aquatic agricultural systems and livelihoods per se and could have been combined (possibly with other providers) in other agro-ecological systems. From this perspective, the costs of a proof of concept testing of the approach appear to be high and increasing. It was also difficult for the ISPC to assess the quality of other aspects of aquatic resources and systems science from the revised proposal and the ISPC notes that the program evaluation of AAS is currently in progress. The ISPC thus recommends that the FC approves support for the AAS CRP for the extension period. This should allow for further testing of the CRP's approach and metrics within its current five hubs only. The report of the independent evaluation of AAS should be used to help determine the nature of the future call for a research approach to aquatic agricultural systems and its geographic scope."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"The ISPC's remaining comments focus on where the proposal still apparently leaves questions."}]},{"head":"Lack of specificity about technologies and interventions:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"Section 2 of the new proposal does describe more of the aims of science to be conducted at the geographical foci/hubs (pp 5-7) and section 6 provides an outline workplan for 2015 and 2016 in terms of major outputs. One can work back from the outputs to infer what sort of research might be involved but many of the outputs are reports and assessments which look more as though they are setting the scene for intervention, and this document is almost silent about the specifics of the technology packages that will be introduced and the technologies that might be developed as part of the CRP. Particularly revealing in this regard is the detailed Annex 6, which spells out the nature of collaborative arrangements between AAS and other CRPs. In this Annex, the entirety of the AAS involvement appears to be in social science, gender analysis, and perhaps nutrition analysis. The presentation therefore is not ultimately of a CRP that intends to engage very heavily in natural science; instead, it aims to be a broker between farm communities and researchers."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"This may be a reasonable strategy, but it is also curious as AAS is based in a lead Center that has extensive aquatic resource experience in several of the hubs. It appears to be a maintained assumption that research has already delivered the requisite technologies to achieve impact. Indeed, given the time lags of new research, this CRPwhich has defined its goals in terms of development impacts -is effectively making an assumption that the needed technologies are already available and ready for use. This seems like a strong assumption, not well supported by examples or evidence."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"The proposal is silent also as to the nature of the engagements with communities. Perhaps they already have enough experience in diagnostics, community organizing, and promoting collective action that there are well-defined approaches that they will follow. But there is not much discussion of the ways in which these methods will be researched or refined; even on these issues, the research agenda seems to be subordinated to an implementation agenda."}]},{"head":"Lack of clarity about impact assessment counterfactuals:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"A second point of concern is the rather vague treatment of impact assessment and counterfactuals. Since the CRP is to focus primarily on delivering development outcomes, and since the principal measures of its success will be changes in measurable IDOs, it is reasonable to ask how the impact of the CRP will be distinguished from the background changes taking place in the areas where AAS is active. We applaud the mention of monitoring change in some comparable sites, but there is no real discussion of how this will be used to think about counterfactuals. For instance, many of the targeted measures of success should probably be redefined in terms of incremental effects relative to some counterfactual group."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"For example, rather than counting the number of people experiencing income growth of over x%, it would seem important to compare this outcome with what is achieved in sites where AAS is not active. We suggest that these measures be altered to reflect this kind of comparative achievement; e.g., number of people experiencing income growth relative to those experiencing the same income growth in comparable locations without project activity. In short, impacts need to be measured relative to some plausible counterfactual. In this case, that would be the non-project locations."},{"index":3,"size":154,"text":"Work is still required on aspects of measurement: Even before the program can address impacts, the more proximal outputs are still cast as \"opportunities identified.., regional consensus.., capacities improved..\" etc. Several useful foresight studies or assessments of aquatic agricultural technologies are also anticipated. There are thus a mixture of learning, tools, processes and capacities expected from the work in the extension period. However, there are still a number of remaining challenges in developing IDO change indicators (table 1.3), particularly related to future options and the feasibility of measuring a number of the \"enabling\" IDOs, such as capacity to adapt. For instance, the feasibility and reliability of measuring \"efficiency\" may also be one of the experiments being undertaken by this CRP. However, some agreement on acceptable measures is needed as the M&E proposed practises are listed in the anticipation that there would be a three yearly update to measure change and to evaluate program performance."}]},{"head":"Sustainability of impacts:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"Another key issue that the revised proposal still does not address is the sustainability and scalability of the effects that may be achieved in target locations. Because the CRP envisions intensive interventions in a small number of locations, it is reasonable to ask about the costs of the interventions in relation to the number of people benefiting. A quick glance at Table 2 makes the point clear. This table envisions achieving income benefits for 200,000 households by 2019. But at a budget that might run to USD200 million by that time, that does not seem like a large number of beneficiaries. Much will depend on the ability of the CRP to scale up the impacts that are achieved in the communities that are at the center of the AAS effort. This is acknowledged and discussed in the proposal, but we flag this as an important concern. It is not only an issue of money and resources, but of capacity more broadly. The teams from AAS cannot deliver this kind of intensive intervention at scale, so they will need to partner with (and perhaps to train) teams from governments and NGOs. There is little discussion in the proposal of how best this can be done."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"This observation is also relevant to the revised proposal's rationale for extending to new sites. The choice of Myanmar and lower Volta region of Ghana is attractive thinking of the importance of aquatic-resource-based livelihoods, but the proposal highlights, instead, the opportunity to bring in additional CRPs for work in these areas. The ISPC again asks if the program will have the staff-power to do detailed social mapping and building of an enabling context (a key part of the program's concept of scaling) in 7 parts of the globe simultaneously."},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"Overall, the proposal has made an ambitious attempt to place development at the center of the research agenda. Indeed, one could almost see this not as a CGIAR Research Program but as a CGIAR Development Program. That is not a criticism, but a comment that AAS may need to be viewed and judged by slightly different criteria from other CRPs. This CRP is arguably an experiment in itself, and the outcome of the experiment may have much to teach the rest of the CGIAR. There are also some very specific and important questions being asked of aquatic agricultural livelihood systems on the way (Annex 3) which should be highlighted for answer in the shorter term and which will add value to the conduct of the CRP."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" on the revised extension proposal of the CRP Aquatic Agricultural systems (AAS) for 2015-2016. "}],"sieverID":"b9d0c9f6-a924-4a71-a206-3f22b0f5670d","abstract":"Fund%Council% ! 12 th %Meeting%(FC12)-Brussels,%Belgium% November%4>5,%2014% % ! ! !"}

data/part_1/098e20ea3263a95ac0c15c30a88232d2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"098e20ea3263a95ac0c15c30a88232d2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1132/2795.pdf"},"pageCount":9,"title":"International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability","keywords":["fish farming","rural development","sub-Saharan Africa"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":266,"text":"The potential for integrating aquaculture with agriculture (IAA) has been widely recognized as a means of improving the use of inputs, diversifying output and economic opportunity, and enabling smallholder producers to maintain and strengthen livelihoods. Traditionally applied in Asia, the concepts and practical application have been a major area of development interest elsewhere, particularly in Africa. Here, the aim has been to develop IAA-based technology and extension approaches to stabilize and improve the economic and food production performance of small-scale African farming systems in the context of sustainable watershed management. Incremental increases in sustainable production at farm level could lead to widespread adoption into sustainable landscapes (Figure 1). This review describes the outcomes of this approach and explains the extent to which it has been taken up and has led to sustained and selfgenerated capacity. Based in particular on experience in Malawi and Cameroon, it also considers implications more widely in the region. The overall picture is that this is a partial and still emerging success story, linked as much with the social and economic drivers surrounding smallholder farmers as with the development support approach adopted. Over time, a more targeted approach built around better identification of high-potential context, together with a gradually rising technical and skill base, and better market access, is strengthening the process of adoption. However, the spillover effects are also important, and the evolution of more specialized and commercial aquaculture in the region, the basis of much of the current growth in the sector, has been due in no small part to the skills and technologies made available through the IAA initiative."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"The WorldFish Center (formerly The International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, ICLARM) has been the primary agent in developing IAA approaches in Africa since 1983. A range of donors have been engaged, most notably BMZ/GTZ (Malawi 1987-1992and Ghana 1991-1994), DANIDA (Malawi 1995-1999), USAID (Malawi 1999-present) and DFID (Cameroon 2000(Cameroon -2005))."}]},{"head":"What partnerships helped?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"From the outset, WorldFish research has been influenced by the principles and practices of participatory action research, described by an approach to on-farm collaboration dubbed the Farmer-Scientist Research Partnership (FSRP). This iterative process engaged farmers, field researchers and extensionists in a series of joint learning exercises aimed at incrementally integrating aquaculture into the farming system (Figure 2). The FSRP was also adopted by the Malawian (1996) and Cameroonian (2003) Fisheries Departments as the principal method for conducting on-farm research and extension. From 2005, the French research for development agency, CIRAD, initiated the Renforcement des Partenariats dans la Recherche Agronomique au Cameroun (REPARAC) project, the aquaculture part of which also adopted an FSRP-based approach. The outcomes reported below reflect the experiences of this wide range of partners."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"Partnering with farmers to evolve technology in situ empowered users with a more thorough understanding, thus enabling them to further adapt and share IAA with their neighbours. Within six months of a May 1990 open day, 46 per cent of adopters in the target area had learned about IAA from other farmers, a third of whom had adopted two or more technologies from their neighbours. By the end of 1992, almost 80 per cent of farmers practising integrated rice-fish farming in Zomba District had never witnessed an extension demonstration. In Zomba East, where the WorldFish Center worked with 34 farmers from 1991 to 1995, there were some 225 practising fish farmers by the end of 1998."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) seeking to address the complex constraints faced by rural smallholders rapidly understood the potential of IAA. OXFAM, World Vision, ActionAid, CARE, Salvation Army, Africare, Christian Health Association, Creative Centre for Community Mobilisation, Community Partnership for Sustainable Resource Management and Malawi Social Action Fund incorporated IAA into their portfolios for Malawi, facilitated by donor funding targeting food-insecure rural populations. These partnerships have been critical in scaling up IAA."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"In Cameroon, a 2003 survey identified six local NGOs -COSADER, CANADEL, CHASAADD-M, PPDR de Sa'a, AGRO-PME and the Voix du Paysan CDDR -interested in IAA as part of a basket of lowexternal input farming technologies. However, competing donor priorities and other limitations constrained NGO support to small, short-term interventions that failed to significantly increase the rate of adoption of IAA."}]},{"head":"Role of social capital development","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Although no specific emphasis was placed on building social capital, initial work in both the WorldFish and CIRAD activities was organized around farmers' groups in the hope that mutual dependence based on collective action could help overcome the considerable constraints faced by rural African smallholding farmers, most specifically the lack of capital and access to markets. However, there were important limiting factors, particularly social levelling, in getting rural communities to cooperate in such ways, even when strong outside intervention temporarily imposed transparency on local decision-making structures."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"Although a number of NGOs sought to catalyse collective action by helping groups to organize, register with the government, establish bank accounts and/ or revolving credit schemes for inputs, and undertake group marketing arrangements, impacts were questionable. Although women worked more successfully in groups than men, significant increases in social capital associated with IAA development were not noticeable. At a regional meeting in Cameroon in 2005, farmers listed 'conflict with neighbours' as one of the top three constraints to expansion, after fingerling supply and market access. Most of the more successful outcomes were associated with individuals or family groups taking up the technical opportunities in a more privatized context."}]},{"head":"The mix of agricultural innovations","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Early work focused on generating innovations to increase the efficiency and productivity of resourcepoor farms, based only on the on-farm resource base. In collaboration with the University of Malawi, on-farm resources were inventoried and tested as fishpond inputs, indigenous species for aquaculture were screened and a range of management options were piloted, focusing on integrating existing crop production practices with fishponds. At the research station, these resulted in significant improvements in fish productivity from some 700kg/ha to a maximum of about 2,500kg/ha."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"The difference in performance is due to the recycling of previously unused materials and/or fish stocking and management technologies that optimize outputs. In Malawi, maize bran is the primary input, where the average farm production of around 192kg of dry matter is only 37 per cent of typical needs. However, they generate some 3,700kg of dry matter per year that can be used if well integrated. In Cameroon, farms are larger and better endowed, and compost is the primary input. However, labour for cutting and transporting organic matter is limiting. In Mozambique, farmholdings are larger; although pond sizes are relatively small, low agricultural productivity limits the amount of by-products available for fish production."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"Based on these results, a series of extension bulletins, on-farm trials/demonstrations and farmer field days were developed. Researchers engaged government and NGO extension personnel to improve both their technical capacity and their field methodologies. The other significant production input, fish seed, was made available through a range of sources, with particular emphasis on improving quality by avoiding traditional and poorly controlled in-pond breeding, which commonly leads to adverse selection pressures."}]},{"head":"Outcomes Number of farmers adopting","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"From an original 32 farmers involved in FSRP pilot trials, by 2004 there were over 7,000 small-scale IAA adopters in Malawi (Figure 3)."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"In Cameroon, the number of small-scale farmers practising IAA increased from 15 to 137 over the course of the 2000-2005 project, and partner NGOs were, in 2003, providing limited support to another 260 farmers. However, although formal data are lacking, indications are that these numbers have not significantly increased since. More farms are now producing commercial quantities of fish, virtually all in periurban areas, with new adopters seeking to replicate the success of those project participants who succeeded in commercializing their farms through IAA. In mid-2008, a Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations survey identified 16 smalland medium-scale commercial fish farms with a total pond surface of 18.4ha (11,500m 2 average per farm) operating in the southern part of the country."}]},{"head":"Number of hectares covered by new technologies or practices","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"The 7,000 small IAA farms in Malawi have a combined total of 186ha in pond surface area, an average 275m 2 per farm. The best and most productive IAA units average over 2ha in total land area, compared to an average of less than 0.4ha for all small farms. In contrast, Cameroon has only 300-400 IAA farms, with about 125ha under ponds, but the average water surface is close to 1,400m 2 out of average landholdings of about 5ha. Mozambique has currently just over 3500 small backyard earthen ponds ranging from 100 to 400m 2 with a total area of 105ha. Collectively these produce about 100 tonnes per year mainly for family consumption. The 6,400 IAA farms in Zambia have a combined total of 155ha of pond area, an average 242m 2 per farm."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Predicted trends for both farmers and hectares into the future Given the importance of context -market access and the support environment for smaller-scale farmers -a trend towards specialization, intensification and higher productivity and profitability can be foreseen as natural capital is developed and as rural-urban transfers shift aspirations towards cash economies. The outcome for IAA can be outlined as in Table 1."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"A considerable spillover effect could also be expected, in that the fertilization, feeding, management, and marketing knowledge and skills developed during the IAA approach are equally relevant for more intensive systems and can be easily transferable. Effects on food production or productivity (either yields or total production) Near the end of 1996, a GTZ review of their nearly 10 years of aquaculture interventions in Malawi found that adoption of IAA in small farms through the farmer -researcher process (FSRP) had led to substantial increases in fish production compared with those who had adopted IAA through field days or receipt of extension materials (Figure 4)."},{"index":4,"size":106,"text":"By 1996, the average productivity of the 32 IAA units in Malawi engaged in FSRP reached 1,350kg/ha in rain-fed areas and 1,650kg/ha in spring-fed areas compared to an average 900kg/ha/year for the 48 best non-FSRP farms. However, productivity has since changed only modestly to an average of 1,200 and 2,000kg/ha, respectively (Russell et al., 2008), being constrained by small farm sizes and limited access to more lucrative urban markets (Andrew et al., 2003). Elsewhere, productivity was found to be constrained by low levels of agricultural productivity (Mozambique), inadequate supply of high-quality agricultural byproducts (Zambia) and in Kenya, where market access is moderately high, expensive agricultural by-products."},{"index":5,"size":120,"text":"In Cameroon, five years of FSRP engagement engendered increases from 498kg/ha (range: 113-905kg/ha) to 2,060kg/ha (range: 1,062-4,710kg/ ha). However, there were significant differences in pond size, inputs, production, allocation for sale, market value and productivity between rural, lowmarket-access farms and peri-urban farms (Table 2). In a follow-up study in 2008, most of the 100 original FSRP participants continued to produce fish but rural farmers had more or less returned to pre-project production levels, generating an average value of CFA 30,400 (£32.00). By contrast, peri-urban farmers had improved their production systems, with average outputs of 4,400kg/ha valued at CFA 400,000 (£421). Interestingly however, even the more commercialized peri-urban systems recorded significant allocations of production to gifts (social exchange) and household consumption."}]},{"head":"Effects on environmental services","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"At the farm level, positive impacts include a 40 per cent improvement in farming system resilience  (i.e. defined by the ability to maintain positive cashflows through drought years), a 50 per cent reduction in nitrogen loss and improved nitrogen-use efficiency. Uptake among rural smallholders in Malawi and Cameroon has, however, been insufficient to generate evidence that landscapes have been substantially stabilized or improved. In Malawi, despite very positive changes on some farms, the 7,000 small-scale aquaculture investments are too small (186ha) to signify in terms of reducing soil erosion, fertility declines or loss of tree cover."}]},{"head":"Social outcomes","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Depending on the degree of out-sales from the different IAA enterprises, the primary beneficiaries are farming households and consumers. Although farm sizes and market access varied widely, most farms produced substantial amounts for domestic consumption and social exchange. Impacts of IAA varied with economic context. In generally wealthier conditions in Cameroon, small farm households are not starving, but lack the cash income to move out of poverty. Aquaculture enterprises that meet this need expand and grow. If not, IAA diversifies farming systems, marginally increases the resilience of household food security, but does not justify substantial investment in time and energy to move beyond subsistence level productivity. In Malawi the adoption of IAA increased the total farm productivity by 10 per cent, per hectare farm income by 134 per cent and total income by 61 per cent. Per capita consumption of fresh fish increased by about 208 per cent and that of dried fish by 21 per cent."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Although the cycling of on-farm nutrients and the retention of water within ponds may have represented potential opportunity costs with respect to alternative activities, or in more extreme cases deprived others of livelihoods, there were no apparent negative impacts of this. More broadly, a greater supply of fish could depress the prices for other sources, thereby reducing incomes for capture fishing communities. However, partly because of the limited output in national terms and the generally high demand for fish in most countries concerned, there was little evidence of this, either."}]},{"head":"Options for spread, greater resilience and increased productivity","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"With a broad shift from localized household food security and ecological sustainability towards rapid economic growth and poverty alleviation, sector development focus has moved towards entrepreneurial individuals in zones considered to be of high potential (as defined by suitable land and water, and proximity of markets for both inputs [such as seed, feed, fertilizer and technical advice] and outputs). To define the scope for this, in 2005 WorldFish initiated a three-year study of the biophysical and socio-economic potential for the further expansion of aquaculture in Malawi and Cameroon. This suggested that although the approach could be scaled up further, there were important constraints. Without support in the form of technical assistance, communications, marketing and logistics, only those farmers with better market access generated sufficient earnings to keep them interested in aquaculture, and for aquaculture to provide a route out of poverty."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"An underlying premise was that if thresholds of productivity and profitability could be achieved, small-scale farmers will evolve in the direction of increasing revenues and larger scale (Brummett and Williams, 2000). However, in rural areas in both countries, together with various socio-cultural constraints, constrained access for inputs, high production cost and poor markets for produce kept production and profits below a level above which capitalized farms could reinvest assets and grow."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"The broad conclusion was that depending upon context, and provided water and soils were suitable for pond construction, promoters of IAA in Africa could expect that (i) entrepreneurial farmers with good market access and appropriate technical advice can create successful aquaculture enterprises and (ii) subsistence farmers in rural areas can -with logistical, technical and coordination support -adopt IAA to improve household food security and farming system resilience."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"Based on the partnership approach adopted (and including international salaries of key researchers), the internal rate of return (IRR) from research and dissemination of IAA technologies in Malawi was estimated to be at least 12.2 per cent (Dey et al., 2006). This was very conservative and did not include many of the positive non-market benefits of IAA technology such as impact on ecosystem health and local institutions. Regression analyses showed that better extension, higher amounts of training opportunities in IAA, better access to water, higher number of farm enterprises and bigger farm size positively affected the adoption of IAA technologies in Malawi."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"Depending upon the context, IAA interacted with the bioresource base to produce different outcomes. In Malawi, resource poverty and poor market access limited productivity, but perceived benefits of an integrated fishpond in terms of household food security were such that many farmers were willing to invest their labour. With technical assistance and coordination services provided by the many active NGOs, risks could be minimized, enabling even very poor farmers to successfully adopt increasingly integrated production."},{"index":6,"size":54,"text":"In Cameroon, superior natural resources shifted farmers away from household food security towards cash income. With a range of alternative cash crops, but little or no technical or logistical support from NGOs, aquaculture was only favoured where technology was readily available and market access was not a major constraint, that is, close to town."},{"index":7,"size":92,"text":"The main similarities between the patterns of adoption in Malawi and Cameroon were that measurable positive economic impacts of aquaculture were limited to wealthier farmers, and collective action for others, although sometimes workable with external influence from NGOs, failed to sustainably improve access to productive inputs or to markets for product. As with other sectors of the rural economy, the data indicate that the rural poor can be given opportunities to improve their livelihoods, albeit at significantly higher costs than those farmers with greater adaptive capacity (e.g. human, natural and economic capital)."},{"index":8,"size":85,"text":"To target economic expansion and job creation, means need to be found for supporting the growth of rural businesses of a sufficient scale to produce adequate profits to achieve sustainability in the absence of subsidies. The best small-scale fishpond systems in Central Cameroon generate profits of about CFA 530,000 (£560) per year, compared to an average of about CFA 2.6 million (£2,700, on sales of 1.7 tonnes of fish) reported by what could be described as commercial SMEs (small-to medium-scale enterprises) in the same area."},{"index":9,"size":147,"text":"A more strategic issue, although not measured in these examples, has been that this longer-term initiative, together with other capacity-building programmes and the gradual improvement of rural infrastructure, has started to bring about conditions where access to inputs, including technical skills, and access to markets, is gradually improving. The availability of better-quality seed and better feeds at competitive prices is starting to change opportunities for many small farmers, and where market prices are positive, the aquaculture industry is starting to grow. The overall balance between subsistence production, for which IAA may be a viable technical alternative, and more commercialized small-scale production may be changing, but changes may also be expected in markets for agricultural by-products, as these also become commercialized. Evidence from Asia suggests that this follows on from a shift towards more specialized aquaculture production, also bringing local employment opportunities in collecting and supplying fertilizing materials."},{"index":10,"size":118,"text":"By carefully targeting external assistance, the benefits of further expansion, especially those accruing to lower-income investors and consumers, can be maximized. Options for creative, positive and pro-poor interventions would include: † low-cost credit to allow lower-income investors to afford the inputs for a meaningfully profitable system; † appropriate technical assistance at SME production scales; † reduction of arbitrary tariffs and simplification of permitting; † assistance with market access and information. Among these, providing direct technical assistance to SME investors who want to build commercially viable farms may be the cheapest and quickest way to help rural farming communities out of poverty, and with good technical assistance, many other constraints to profitability might be resolvable (Pouomogne and Pemsi, 2008)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2 | Figure2| The FSRP approach for systematic integration of aquaculture into existing farming systems "},{"text":"Figure 3 | Figure 3 | Trend in number of small-scale aquaculture operations in Malawi Source: Russell et al. (2008) "},{"text":"Figure 4 | Figure 4 | Evolution of fish pond productivity on FSRP and non-FSRP farms in Malawi "},{"text":"Table 1 | Anticipated outcomes for IAA approaches in sub-Saharan Africa Support/ Market Outcome Support/MarketOutcome external access  externalaccess assistance   assistance No Low Little adoption or evolution NoLowLittle adoption or evolution   towards profitability towards profitability No High Adoption mainly by wealthier NoHighAdoption mainly by wealthier   investors; more rapid investors; more rapid   evolution towards evolution towards   intensification, higher yields intensification, higher yields   and profitability and profitability Yes Low Higher adoption; little YesLowHigher adoption; little   evolution towards profitability evolution towards profitability Yes High High adoption among a range YesHighHigh adoption among a range   of investors; range of of investors; range of   intensification and yields, high intensification and yields, high   rates of evolution towards rates of evolution towards   profitability profitability  "},{"text":"Table 2 | Differences in scale, intensity and market parameters between rural and peri-urban fishpond harvests in southern Cameroon following 7 production cycles (£1.00 ¼ CFA 950) Variable Periurban Rural P VariablePeriurbanRuralP  (N 5 40) (N 5 44)  (N 5 40)(N 5 44) Weight per 2,060 + 940 1,200 + 475 0.0194 Weight per2,060 + 9401,200 + 4750.0194 pond harvest    pond harvest (kg/ha)    (kg/ha) Total pond area 6,260 + 4790 1,083 + 495 0.0711 Total pond area6,260 + 4790 1,083 + 4950.0711 per farm (m 2 )    per farm (m 2 ) Average 957 + 984 476 + 193 0.1343 Average957 + 984476 + 1930.1343 production    production pond size (m 2 )    pond size (m 2 ) Fingerling 1.56 + 0.876 0.603 + 0.655 0.0070 Fingerling1.56 + 0.876 0.603 + 0.655 0.0070 stocking    stocking density per m 2    density per m 2 Use of 75 + 0.463% 23 + 0.417% 0.0259 Use of75 + 0.463% 23 + 0.417% 0.0259 purchased    purchased feed    feed Number of 25.4 + 8.96 8.31 + 7.32 0.0004 Number of25.4 + 8.968.31 + 7.320.0004 buyers in    buyers in market    market Average 4.12 + 3.47 2.4 + 0.76 0.1660 Average4.12 + 3.472.4 + 0.760.1660 quantity per    quantity per sale (kg)    sale (kg) Total quantity 89.9 + 48.7 28.2 + 23.5 0.0127 Total quantity89.9 + 48.728.2 + 23.50.0127 marketed per    marketed per harvest (kg)    harvest (kg) Total quantity 55.7 + 41.2 11.4 + 9.3 0.0458 Total quantity55.7 + 41.211.4 + 9.30.0458 given as    given as gifts (kg)    gifts (kg) Total quantity 50.3 + 89.6 8.3 + 6.8 0.3020 Total quantity50.3 + 89.68.3 + 6.80.3020 consumed by    consumed by household (kg)    household (kg) Mean fish 1,908 + 570 1,290 + 386 0.00533 Mean fish1,908 + 5701,290 + 3860.00533 selling price    selling price (CFA/kg)    (CFA/kg)  "}],"sieverID":"66e3551a-13a3-4a3e-8d7d-fa3be6d9ed8d","abstract":"The potential for integrating aquaculture with agriculture has been widely recognized as a means of improving the use of inputs, diversifying output and economic opportunity, and enabling smallholder producers to maintain and strengthen livelihoods. This paper describes the outcomes of this approach and explains the extent to which it has been taken up and has led to sustained and self-generated capacity. Based in particular on experience in Malawi, Ghana and Cameroon, it also considers implications more widely in the region. The overall picture is that this is a partial and still emerging success story, linked as much with the social and economic drivers surrounding smallholder farmers as with the development support approach adopted."}

data/part_1/0ad9cef2c254be4225099430853af397.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0ad9cef2c254be4225099430853af397","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e6ac79ed-c494-4f30-a533-575bf26c0a56/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Linking Poor Farmers into Information Management Systems","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Problem Definition","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Getting timely information from farmers in rural development areas e.g. about their farm-performance important for thorough producer-to-consumer supply chain management."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Manually gathering relevant data on remote sites by third parties is time consuming, expensive, and risky at times. Therefore providing a mobile online-information-system, where farmers can input and retrieve relevant information themselves, would be highly beneficial.  The project application has to be the only one running on the PDA, all hardware buttons have to be deactivated"}]},{"head":"Usability Test Interfaces Survey Conclusions","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Missing Link","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Information Management Website"}]},{"head":"Internet","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Central IM Database Research topics:"}]},{"head":"Growers","index":5,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" The following challenges have to be tackled: Diminish information asymmetry along the supply chain Enable rapid information flow and product manipulation Deal with connectivity problems in rural areas Bridge the gap between humans and technology Access To Central System Central IM Database On-farm data entry in PDA's (Personal Digital Assistant) Plug PDA into Desktop with Internet connection Send new data to database, get results and messages of previous data. "},{"text":"Farmers prefer full screens to multiple windows Custom \"virtual keyboard\" for text input worked well Use of fingernails/fingertips instead of stylus Prefer text-buttons or combinated text-image buttons over simple arrows Support input with \"beep\" Farmers prefer digital devices (PDAs) over manually collecting data Interface is easy to use, but more thorough explanation necessary for complete novices Source of most problems is nervousness Participants' children always understood concept and controls straight away The use of the fingernail as stylo should be preferred, but with finger-input optimised PDAs "}],"sieverID":"75234b3c-7496-4196-a46f-1e633b00ca1f","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0af5bffb29b01e88642b50726e007186.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0af5bffb29b01e88642b50726e007186","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5e4c70cc-657d-4da6-9707-7373cec6a3a9/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"ASI thresher for reducing postharvest loss in rice production in Senegal","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"468a16d5-ffb7-4822-a4ed-9c29e3f7e128","abstract":"Description of the innovation: ASI is a throw-in type of motorized machine for rice threshing. The ASI is capable of processing 6 tons of rice per day using the equivalent of 6 manual labourers, while the traditional methods would require 36 manual labourers to thresh an equivalent output levelASI cleanly separates 99% of the grains, resulting in a better-quality product. New Innovation: No Innovation type: Production systems and Management practices Stage of innovation: Stage 4: uptake by next user (USE) Geographic Scope: National Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Country(ies): • Senegal Outcome Impact Case Report: <Not Defined> Description of Stage reached: ASI is already diffuse at large scale. It is produced and marketed by private and local fabricators. It is available in Senegal,"}

data/part_1/0b1745676e31c98aa20e4266ba2c68e4.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b1745676e31c98aa20e4266ba2c68e4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/5097/c64b8912652f8aca1c85e22bcb300e8f.pdf"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Almost 50% of all children in the Sylhet division of northeastern Bangladesh suffer from stunted growth, a sign of chronic malnutrition. In response to this, Suchana is promoting nutrition-sensitive fish and vegetable production systems in the region to promote sustainable production and consumption of nutritious food items."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"The programme aims to reduce childhood stunting by an additional 6% in 235,500 poor and very households in Sylhet and Moulvibazar. Suchana has 8 consortium members to ensure holistic development of intervention communities. Each consortium member contributes to improved nutritional intake, production of nutritious foods, increased incomes, and empowerment for women and adolescent girls through different initiatives."}]},{"head":"Context","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"It was anticipated that 30% of Suchana beneficiaries have access to ponds and other small water bodies, and were selected to receive support on nutritionsensitive fish and vegetable production. This focused primarily on carp and Tilapia polyculture, and the production of small indigenous fish species (SiS), especially Mola, and different kinds of vegetables."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"There are three categories of aquaculture support provided to beneficiaries with access to ponds and small water bodies. These include: Aquaculture for Homestead Food Production (HFP Aquaculture), Aquaculture as an Income Generating Activity (IGA Aquaculture), and Demo Ponds."}]},{"head":"Demo Pond","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Demo ponds act as resource centres to showcase different steps of improved fish farming, and the subsequent results arising from the usage of improved technologies and practices related to aquaculture and horticulture. These ponds support both beneficiary and non-beneficiary groups in the community."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Demo pond beneficiaries receive basic training with their neighbouring beneficiaries, and advanced training on various forms of improved technologies. They attend linkage formation events every season, with local service providers, officials from government departments, and their neighbours, both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Demo ponds are often used as learning centres to organise physical training, coaching, and linkage formation for improved technologies. Neighbouring households visit demo ponds to observe changes brought about by updated technologies, and adopt them if they are motivated. Demo pond owners visit their neighbours, who own ponds themselves, to enhance improved aquaculture practices ."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"The owners of demo ponds are also connected to private and public sector extension support agents. This allows them to act as a point of contact for quality inputs and information for their community. Demo pond owners receive extended support in the form of training, input, technical follow-ups, linkages formation with local service providers and printed guidelines to enhance their fish and vegetable production and marketing systems. "}]},{"head":"About Suchana","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Suchana: Ending the cycle of undernutrition in Bangladesh is a multisectoral nutrition programme that aims to reduce chronic undernutrition leading to stunting among children under two years of age living within 235,500 poor and very poor households in the Sylhet and Moulvibazar districts of Bangladesh."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"The programme involves an integrated approach to nutrition-specific and nutrition-sensitive interventions, and is a sustainable and replicable model that can be scaled to other regions."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"\"We produced 130 kg of fish, of which 110 kg consisted of carp and 20 consisted of SiS. This is all due to the usage of climatesmart technologies. We now produce enough to meet the daily consumption needs of our own household, and that of our neighbours, and we even have enough remaining for sales!\""},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Jesmin's father"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• To disseminate improved pro-poor, nutritionsensitive aquaculture and horticulture technology at the community level • To demonstrate women-friendly Mola harvest practices among the community and its uses for the benefit of young children • To establish aquaculture extension agents at the community level Aquaculture and horticulture in Suchana • 235,579 beneficiary households were selected for nutrition-sensitive horticulture interventions till November 2020 • 55,210 BHHs supported with training for HFP-Aquaculture and Fisheries like subsistence fishing • 8,389 IGA-BHHs supported with training for income generation through aquaculture • 1,082 BHHs received support to establish demonstration ponds (Demo ponds) • Door-to-door follow-up • Input supplies including vegetable seeds, fish fingerlings, lime, and fish feed • Development of linkages with local service providers and market actors (input sellers and output retailers) Outcomes of demo ponds and aquaculture activities • Average annual fish production increased from 35 kg to 69 kg per beneficiary household for Demo Pond Aquaculture (Rapid Assessment 2018) • Average annual fish production increased from 38 kg to 86 kg per beneficiary household for IGA Aquaculture (Semi-Annual Survey 2019) • Average annual fish production increased from 26 kg to 42 kg per beneficiary household for HFP Aquaculture (Semi-Annual Survey 2019) • 42.7% reproductive age women of HFP-Aquaculture households consumed a minimum diversified diet (Semi-Annual Survey 2019) • 36.0% children (6 to 23 months of age) of HFP aquaculture households consumed minimum diversified diets (Semi-Annual Survey 2019) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"424a2997-22a8-41a6-aa34-2bf469108f36","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0b59d4f36c6d981de904832db8818dc9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b59d4f36c6d981de904832db8818dc9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H044072.pdf"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Rural poverty and inequality in Ethiopia: does access to small-scale irrigation make a difference?","keywords":["Rural poverty","FGT indices","Small scale irrigation"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":256,"text":"Farmers in rural Ethiopia live in a shock-prone environment. Agricultural production, which is the source of livelihood for eight out of ten Ethiopians, is extremely vulnerable to climatic conditions. The causes of rural poverty are many including wide fluctuations in agricultural production as a result of drought, ineffective and inefficient agricultural marketing system, under developed transport and communication networks, underdeveloped production technologies, limited access of rural households to support services, environmental degradation and lack of participation by rural poor people in decisions that affect their livelihoods. However, the persistent fluctuation in the amount and distribution of rainfall is considered as a major factor in rural poverty. Small-scale farmers are the largest group of poor people in Ethiopia. Their average land holdings are smaller, their productivity is low and they are vulnerable to drought and other adverse natural conditions. Cognizant of this reality the successive Ethiopian governments and farmers have made investments in small scale irrigation schemes. Despite efforts to reduce poverty in the country over the past decade, farmers, herders and other rural people remain poor. Poor people in rural areas face an acute lack of basic social and economic infrastructure such as health and educational facilities, veterinary services and access to safe drinking water. Households headed by women are particularly vulnerable. Women are much less likely than men to receive an education or health benefits, or to have a voice in decisions affecting their lives. For them, poverty means high numbers of infant deaths, undernourished families, lack of education for children and other deprivations (IFAD)."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"The impact of drought on the overall macroeconomy of Ethiopia is very significant. There is very strong correlation between hydrology and Ethiopia's GDP performance. It is widely accepted that the Ethiopian economy is taken hostage to hydrology due to the so far insignificant infrastructural development in the water sector (World Bank, 2006). Oftentimes, Ethiopia is ravaged by droughts, leading to dramatic slow downs in economic growth. The development of water storage facilities which could be used, among other things, to develop irrigation is seen as a way of reducing Ethiopia's dependence on the annual availability of rainfall (UNPD, 2006;World Bank, 2006)."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"In Ethiopia, the persistent correlation between rainfall and GDP growth is striking and troubling. The effects of hydrological variability emanate from the direct impacts of rainfall on the landscape, agricultural output, waterintensive industry and power production. These impacts are transmitted through input, price and income effects onto the broader economy, and are exacerbated by an almost complete lack of hydraulic infrastructure to mitigate variability and market infrastructure that could mitigate economic impacts by facilitating trade between deficit and surplus regions of the country."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"Evidences from elsewhere indicate that initial investments in water resources management and multipurpose hydraulic infrastructure had massive regional impacts with very large multiplier effects on the economy. Therefore, it is possible that irrigation investments in Ethiopia may have contributed to poverty reductions among other people than the irrigators, who are direct beneficiaries of the investment. However, in this paper we limit ourselves to the poverty impact of small-scale irrigation development on the direct beneficiaries or farmers."}]},{"head":"Definition of concepts","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Before addressing the rural poverty and irrigation nexus, it is important to clarify the meaning of poverty. There is great variation in the manner in which poverty is being defined and measured in developing countries (May,2001). Poverty is a persistent feature of socioeconomic stratification through out the world. Over the last twenty five years the understanding of poverty has advanced and become more holistic."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"From having been understood almost exclusively as inadequacy of income, consumption and wealth, multiple dimensions of poverty and their complex interactions are now widely recognized. These include isolation, deprivation of political and social rights, a lack of empowerment to make or influence choices, inadequate assets, poor health and mobility, poor access to services and infrastructure, and vulnerability to livelihood failure."},{"index":3,"size":358,"text":"Often distinction is made between absolute and relative poverty. Relative poverty measures the extent to which a household's income falls below an average income threshold for the economy. Absolute poverty measures the number of people below a certain income threshold or unable to afford certain basic goods and services. Absolute poverty is a state in which one's very survival is threatened by lack of resources. Consideration is also necessary of the dynamics of both chronic 1 and transient poverty, and of the processes which lead people to escape from or fall into and remain trapped in poverty (Carter et al. 2007). Another related concept is equity, which is usually understood as the degree of equality in the living conditions of people, particularly in income and wealth, that a society deems desirable or tolerable. Thus equity is broader than poverty and is defined over the whole distribution, not only below a certain poverty line. The meaning of equity encapsulates ethical concepts and statistical dispersion, and encompasses both relative and absolute poverty. Hence, ideally any 1 Chronic poverty is an individual experience of deprivation that lasts for a long period of time. In this sense the chronic poor are those with per capita income or consumption levels persistently below the poverty line during a long period of time. Transient poverty is associated with a fluctuation of income around the poverty line. assessment of how irrigation can affect poverty must consider impacts on these varied dimensions of poverty and their interactions. For example, it must consider whether changes are in absolute or relative terms, and whether they are long lasting or transient. Similarly, it must encompass the other dimensions of poverty beyond income, consumption and wealth. In order to understand the dynamics of poverty, one can draw on the notions of 'capabilities' and 'entitlements' that have received a good deal of attention (Sen 2000). Sen's work belies the idea that income shortfalls are the main attribute of poverty. He emphasises the importance of the bundle of assets or endowments held by the poor, as well as the nature of the claims attached to them, as critical for analyzing poverty and vulnerability."},{"index":4,"size":227,"text":"Nevertheless, while recognizing that poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon consisting of material, mental, political, communal and other aspects, the material dimensions of poverty expressed in monetary values is too important an aspect of poverty to be neglected (Lipton 1997). Given the fact that there is 'a lack of consensus regarding the measurement of other forms of deprivation', the approach followed in this paper is ultimately grounded on the notion of some minimum threshold below which the poor are categorized (Lipton 1997). There is growing recognition that poverty may adequately be defined as private consumption that falls below some absolute poverty line. This is best measured by calculating the proportion of the population who fall below a poverty line (the headcount) and the extent of shortfall between actual income level and poverty line (the depth or severity of poverty). The poverty line is usually based on an estimated minimum dietary energy intake, or an amount required for purchasing a minimum consumption bundle. This paper analyses the state of poverty and inequality among sample farm households with and without access to irrigation. It also analyses the correlates of poverty. Section two presents the data collection and analytical methods. Section three shows the results of poverty profiling, while section four assesses the determinants of poverty and their quantitative significance in predicting poverty. Section fives gives some policy conclusions and implications."}]},{"head":"Methodological Issues","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Data sources","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"This study is part of a comprehensive study on the impacts of irrigation on poverty and environment run between 2004 and 2007 in Ethiopia implemented by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) with support from the Austrian government. The socio-economic survey data on which this paper is based is gathered from a total of 1024 households from eight irrigation sites in 4 Regional states involving traditional, modern and rain fed systems. The total sample constitutes 397 households practicing purely rainfed agriculture and 627 households (382 modern and 245 traditional) practice irrigated agriculture. These households operate a total of 4953 plots (a household operating five plots on average). Of the total 4953 plots covered by the survey, 25 percent (1,250 plots) are under traditional irrigation, 43 percent (2,137 plots) are under modern while the remaining 32 percent (1,566 plots) are under rainfed agriculture. The data was collected for the 2005/2006 cropping season."}]},{"head":"Poverty indices","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"When estimating poverty using monetary measures, one may have a choice between using income or consumption as the indicator of wellbeing. Most analysts argue that, provided the information on consumption obtained from a household survey is detailed enough, consumption will be a better indicator of poverty measurement than income for many reasons (Coudouel et al. 2002). One should not be dogmatic, however, about using consumption data for poverty measurement. The use of income as a poverty measurement may have its own advantages. In this paper we estimate poverty using income adjusted for differences in household characteristics. As for the poverty measures, we will be concerned with those in the Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) class. The FGT class of poverty measures have some desirable properties (such as additive decomposibility), and they include some widely used poverty measures (such as the head-count and the poverty gap measures). Following Duclos et al. (2006), the FGT poverty measures are defined as"},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"where z denotes the poverty line, and α is a nonnegative parameter indicating the degree of sensitivity of the poverty measure to inequality among the poor. It is usually referred to as poverty aversion parameter. Higher values of the parameter indicate greater sensitivity of the poverty measure to inequality among the poor."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"The relevant values of α are 0, 1 and 2."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"At α =0 equation 1 measures poverty incidence or poverty head count ratio. This is the share of the population whose income or consumption is below the poverty line, that is, the share of the population that cannot afford to buy a basic basket of goods."},{"index":5,"size":221,"text":"At α =1 equation 1 measures depth of poverty (poverty gap). This provides information regarding how far off households are from the poverty line. This measure captures the mean aggregate income or consumption shortfall relative to the poverty line across the whole population. It is obtained by adding up all the shortfalls of the poor (assuming that the nonpoor have a shortfall of zero) and dividing the total by the population. In other words, it estimates the total resources needed to bring all the poor to the level of the poverty line (divided by the number of individuals in the population). Note also that, the poverty gap can be used as a measure of the minimum amount of resources necessary to eradicate poverty, that is, the amount that one would have to transfer to the poor under perfect targeting (that is, each poor person getting exactly the amount he/she needs to be lifted out of poverty) to bring them all out of poverty (Coudouel et al. 2002). At 2 = α equation 1 measures poverty severity or squared poverty gap. This takes into account not only the distance separating the poor from the poverty line (the poverty gap), but also the inequality among the poor. That is, a higher weight is placed on those households further away from the poverty line."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"We calculated these indices using DAD4.4 (Duclos, J-Y et al., 2006) "}]},{"head":"Inequality indices","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"To assess the income inequality among the different farm household groups, we calculate the Gini coefficient of inequality and Decile ratios. Gini coefficient of inequality is the most commonly used measure of inequality. The coefficient varies between 0, which reflects complete equality, and 1, which indicates complete inequality (one person has all the income all others have none). The decile dispersion ratio presents the ratio of the average consumption or income of the richest 10 percent of the population divided by the average income of the bottom 10 percent. This ratio is readily interpretable by expressing the income of the rich as multiples of that of the poor."},{"index":2,"size":172,"text":"In summary the analysis of poverty and inequality followed four steps. First, we have chosen household income as a welfare measure and this was adjusted for the size and composition of the household. Second, a poverty line is set at 1075 Birr (1USD=9.07Birr), a level of welfare corresponding to some minimum acceptable standard of living in Ethiopia (reference). The poverty line acts as a threshold, with households falling below the poverty line considered poor and those above the poverty line considered non-poor. Third, after the poor has been identified, poverty measures such as poverty gap and squared poverty gap were estimated. Fourth, we constructed poverty profiles showing how poverty varies over population subgroups (example irrigators Vs non-irrigators) or by characteristics of the household (for example, level of education, age, etc.). The poverty profiling is particularly important as what matters most to many policymakers is not so much the precise location of the poverty line, but the implied poverty comparison across subgroups or across time. Lastly, we analyzed income inequality among sample households."}]},{"head":"Household income distribution","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The income distribution differentiated by access to irrigation and irrigation use intensity is shown in table 1. A close scrutiny of the table shows the following interesting results:"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"The mean per capita income of rainfed farmers is below the poverty line."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Interestingly also the mean per capita income values up to the eighth income decile is lower than the assumed poverty line. However, the mean per capita income for irrigators and the overall sample is higher than the poverty line and the gap between mean per capita income and poverty line widens in proportion to the size of irrigated area."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"Comparison of the mean per capita income for the richest 10% of irrigators and nonirrigators shows that the mean per capita income for the former is almost doubles that of the latter group. The income difference widens with the size of irrigated area."},{"index":5,"size":201,"text":"Comparison of the per capita income for the lower 10% of income distribution for irrigators and non-irrigators shows that the per capita income for the irrigators is three times that of non-irrigators. This difference is also influenced by the size of cultivated area The gap in mean per capita income between poor and non-poor households is substantial irrespective of access to irrigation. Even though the mean per capita income of poor people with access to irrigation is higher than that of the poor without access to irrigation, the difference seems to be insignificant. The Gini index of income inequality values suggests that income inequality is higher among households with access to irrigation as compared to those with no access. The values for the decile ratios also indicate that income inequality is lower among the rain-fed farmers. Given the assumed poverty line, the proportion of poor households among those households with no access to irrigation is higher than those who have access to irrigation. The poverty reduction impact of access to irrigation is very much influenced by the size or irrigated area. The relationship between poverty and irrigation and other relevant factors will be analyzed in more detail in the succeeding sections."}]},{"head":"Poverty profile","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rural poverty and irrigation","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"Table 2 shows the incidence, depth and severity of poverty by access to irrigation, irrigation typology, and extent of irrigated area owned by those who have access to irrigation. As expected the poverty incidence, depth and severity values are lower for farmers that have access to irrigation. While the interpretation of the incidence values is straight forward (i.e., it indicates the proportion of poor people in the sample), that of the depth and severity is not. The depth of poverty for irrigators is about 0.322 as compared to 0.425 for those without access to irrigation. The interpretation is that the per capita income of farmers with access to irrigation needed to be increased on average by 32.2% to lift their per capita income level to the poverty line or alternatively to move them out of absolute poverty, while the income of rain-fed poor farmers should be increased by 42.5% to lift them out of poverty. The higher poverty severity value for rain-fed poor farmers also indicates that inequality among the poor rainfed farmers is higher when compared to irrigating poor farmers. Similar interpretations hold for tables 3 through 6 as well."},{"index":2,"size":178,"text":"However, note that the incidence of poverty among the sample households is still higher irrespective access to irrigation. When comparing irrigation scheme types, the poverty situation is worse among irrigators belonging to traditional scheme. Poverty indices are also responsive to the size of irrigated area. Poverty incidence for households belonging to the first quartile of irrigated area is about 65.8%, which decreases to 40.3% for those in the fourth quartile. It is true that the exact magnitude of the calculated poverty incidence, depth and severity values is influenced by the level of the chosen poverty line. This is particularly true when one considers the fact that the different regions of Ethiopia are expected to differ in the magnitude of poverty line due to several reasons (Coudouel et al.2002). To avoid the potential bias that might be created due to the use of in appropriate poverty line, we have plotted a graph depicting the relationship between all the realized income per capita and the corresponding poverty incidence values 1 and the results are shown in Figure 1 and 2."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Figure 1 shows that baring the results for the extreme low values of income per capita, at all of the realized per capita income (plausible poverty lines), the poverty incidence is higher among farmers with no access to irrigation. The vertical line indicates the assumed poverty line (1075 Birr).  "}]},{"head":"Poverty, farm size and livestock holding","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"The effect of farm size and livestock holding on the incidence, depth and severity of poverty is shown in table 3. The incidence depth and severity of poverty among farmers in the higher farm size category is significantly lower. However, it should be noted that the room for expanding farm size is limited in most parts of Ethiopia due to population pressure. Any farther expansion is possible only in fragile lands or important natural resources enclaves. The relationship between livestock holding and poverty is generally as expected: poverty incidence is lower among farmers with highest livestock holding. "}]},{"head":"Poverty and cropping pattern","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Table 4 depicts the influence of cropping pattern on poverty indices. It is interesting to note that as the proportion of cultivated area devoted to cereals increases the value of the FGT poverty indices increases. This is particularly important because most of the sample farmers grow low value staple cereal crops. On the other hand, the incidence, severity and depth of poverty is significantly lower among farmers whose substantial proportion of cultivated area is devoted to vegetables and root crops. This suggests that poverty among smallholders can be reduced through diversifying crop production by including high value crops such as vegetables. However, it is also important to note that most of the farmers who grow vegetables and root crops had access to irrigation. "}]},{"head":"Poverty and geographic characteristics","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"Table 5 shows poverty indices by geographic location of the sample households. The poverty incidence is generally higher in all of the Ethiopian regional states. It is relatively lower in Oromia and Tigray regional states and higher in Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples states 2 . When comparing the zones included in 2 However note the regional differences in poverty line and the non-representative ness of the sample the study, the lowest poverty incidence was observed in East Shewa and the highest in North Omo. The observed low poverty incidence rate in East Shewa is not surprising given the fact that the zone is relatively well developed in terms of services and infrastructure, thus providing relatively better marketing conditions and employment opportunities. We have also assessed poverty according to which basin the sample irrigation schemes or farm households 106 belong. It was found that poverty is significantly lower in Awash and Denakil basins. The incidence of and severity of poverty is higher in rural than urban areas (52 per cent and 36 per cent, respectively). Poverty is uniformly distributed throughout the country's rural areas."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"An exception is the region of Oromiya, where the level and intensity of poverty is significantly lower."}]},{"head":"Poverty and household demographic and socioeconomic characteristics","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Table 6 presents the state of poverty among sample farmers by their demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. Education had a profound effect on poverty. In fact there are no poor people with post secondary education."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Poverty is also highly associated with family size . The poverty incidence is almost 90% among households having 10 members or more. Contrary to our expectation, the poverty incidence is relatively lower among female headed households. Poverty incidence is also lower among younger households. "}]},{"head":"Determinants of rural poverty: the role of access to irrigation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Poverty and poverty changes are affected by both microeconomic and macroeconomic variables. Within a microeconomic context, the simplest method of analyzing the correlates of poverty is to use regression analysis to see the effect on poverty of a specific household or individual characteristic while holding constant all other characteristics, which is the focus of this section. In these regressions, the logarithm of consumption or income (possibly divided by the poverty line) is typically used as the left hand variable (Qiuqiong et al.2005). An alternative framework transforms the continuous income variable into binary variable using poverty line as a cutoff value (Anyanwu 2005)."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"The resulting dummy variable indicates whether a household is poor (i.e., the household's income is less than the poverty line) or non-poor (i.e., household's income is more than the poverty line). In this paper we follow the later approach. The right-hand explanatory variables span a large array of possible poverty correlates, such as education of different household members, number of income earners, household composition and size, and geographic location. The regressions will return results only for the degree of association or correlation, not for causal relationships."}]},{"head":"Empirical Model","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"The discussion in section 3 has relied largely on descriptive results, exploring relationships between variables without holding the effect of other factors constant. However, correlations among key variables potentially could obscure the relationship between poverty and a single factor of interest. Consequently it is useful to analyze the impact of the relevant variables on poverty holding all other factors constant. This implies the need to separate the effects of correlates. We approach this problem through the application of multivariate analysis, using logistic regression. The dependent variable is a discrete variable which takes a value equal to 0 for non-poor, if a household had per capita income equal to or more than 1075 Birr and 1 for poor if a household had a per capita income less than 1075 Birr (which is considered her as a poverty line)."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"The explanatory variables considered in the model were household heads' personal characteristics (age, gender, educational achievement, etc), household demographic characteristics (household size and its square), household wealth (farm size, livestock holding), the nature of farming system (share of grains in the total cultivated area, size of irrigated area), and location (zones to which the household belong). See table 7 for details of the variables included in the model."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"In the model, the response variable is binary, taking only two values, 1 if the rural household is poor, 0 if not. The probability of being poor depends on a set of variables listed above and denoted as X so that:"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Using the logistic distribution we have:"},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"x e e "},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"Since the logistic model is not linear, the marginal effects of each independent variable on the dependent variable are not constant but are dependent on the values of independent variables. Thus, to analyze the effects of the independent variables upon the probability of being poor, we calculated the conditional probabilities for each sample household. Once the conditional probabilities are calculated for each sample household, the partial effects of the continuous individual variables on household poverty can be calculated using"},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":"The partial effects of the discrete variables will be calculated by taking the difference of the mean probabilities estimated for respective discrete variables at values 0 and 1."},{"index":8,"size":142,"text":"Alternatively, we present the change of the odds ratios as the dependant variables change. The odds ratio is defined as the ratio of the probability of being poor divided by the probability of not being poor. This is computed as the exponents of the logit coefficients ( β Before presenting the model results we wish to give a brief description of the variables included in the model (See table 7). There is significant association between poverty and access to irrigation. Irrigating households have also significantly higher farm size, family size, and years of schooling. They also devote significantly lower area to the cultivation of food grains than the non-irrigators. The proportion of female headed households is relatively higher among farmers without access to irrigation. The logistic regression analysis is fitted to strengthen and clarify the descriptive results of the preceding descriptive sections."}]},{"head":"Empirical results","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"The The results of the parameter estimates of determinants of poverty generally agree with the descriptive results of the preceding section. Of the twelve variables included in the model, nine were found to have a significant impact on poverty. Increases in farm size, irrigated area and years of schooling significantly reduce the probability of being poor, while increases in family size and area share of food grains in the total cultivated area significantly increases the probability of being poor. The relationship between poverty and family size is non-linear. Family size increases the probability of being poor up to a certain point beyond which any successive addition of a family member contributes to the reduction of poverty. This confirms the usual inverse U relationship between poverty and family size (World Bank 1991, 1996;Lanjouw and Ravallion 1994;Cortes 1997;Szekely 1998, Gang et al. 2004). Livestock holding size, which is usually regarded as a measure of wealth (Shiferaw et al.2007), had the expected sign but not statistically significant. Contrary to our expectation female headed households had lower chance of being poor as compared to male headed households. Concerning location effects, the probability being poor for sample households from North Omo and West Shewa is significantly higher, whereas the probability of being poor for households from East Shewa and Raya Azebo zones is significantly lower."},{"index":2,"size":415,"text":"We assess the magnitude of the effect of changes in statistically significant and policy 110 relevant variables on household poverty based on the partial effects of the respective variables on conditional probabilities (Table 9). The partial effects of continuous variables were calculated using equation 4, while those of the discrete variables were calculated by taking the difference between the mean probabilities estimated at the respective values (0 and 1) of the discrete variables. The partial effects thus calculated from the logistic model show the effect of change in an individual variable on the probability of being poor when all other exogenous variables are held constant. In logit model analysis, it is marginal effect values and elasticities that have direct economic interpretation not the estimated coefficients. Looking at the marginal effect and elasticity values presented in table 8, the irrigation variable comes third or after area share of grains and family size variables in quantitative importance with respect to poverty reduction. Rural poverty is highly responsive to the cropping pattern. A unit increase in the proportion of area of grain crops increase the probability of being poor by 0.41% or a 1% increase in the proportion of area devoted to grain crops increase the probability of being poor by 0.44%. This implies that changing the crop mix managed by farmers towards high value crops such as vegetables would have a profound effect on rural poverty. Irrigation technology facilitates the cropping pattern shift process. A one timmad increase in irrigated area would reduce the probability of being poor by 0.075% . In other words, a 1% increase in irrigated area would reduce the probability of being poor by 0.2%. Increasing the household member by one person would increase the probability of being poor by 0.15%. Alternatively a 1% increase in the family size would increase the probability of being poor by 1.21%. Another significant policy relevant variable is years of schooling. An unit increase in year of schooling decreases the probability of being poor by 0.0245.  3). In the past due mainly to the demand for irrigated land exceeding the supply and due to also partly to the egalitarian policies followed for rural development, the irrigated land is rationed in Ethiopia. In an effort to reach many people the irrigated plots distributed to farmers are often far below an economic size that is sufficient to warrant the full engagement of farmers in irrigated production business. Consequently, irrigated farming is considered as a second best option by farmers."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"Rural poverty is also very responsive to cropping pattern changes (see panel c and d of Figure 3). Reductions in area share of food grains and increases in the area share of high value crops such as vegetables significantly reduces rural poverty. Two major variables that allow the change to high value crops are access to irrigation and proximity to the demand centers thus allowing easy marketing. Figure 4 ( panel a and b)show that poverty is highly related to family size and level of education of the household head."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"From the results presented in this paper, the following conclusions may be made: There is significant difference in incidence, depth and severity of poverty between households with access to irrigation and those without. However, the poverty incidence among the sample households is still unacceptably high irrespective of access to irrigation, indicating that poverty deeply entrenched in rural Ethiopia."},{"index":5,"size":309,"text":"Poverty indices are responsive to irrigation typology and irrigation intensity. Among the irrigation the two irrigation typologies studied the poverty situation is relatively milder among modern irrigation scheme users. Poverty indices were found also to be responsive to the irrigation intensity as measured by the size of irrigated area. Poverty incidence is significantly lower among households with higher irrigated area size. Due to demand outstripping the limited supply of irrigation service and due to considerations for equity, irrigation plots are rationed in Ethiopia. The limited differentiation observed in the size of irrigated land among sample farmers is due to the prevalence of informal irrigable land markets. This calls for an investigation to determine a minimum irrigated area that needed to be allotted to a household for sustained poverty reduction and food insecurity eradication. Poverty incidence is also related to the cropping pattern, indicating that mere access to irrigation would not bring the desired results. Poverty situation is more sever among farmers devoting significant proportion of their cropping land to food grains (cereals, oil seeds and pulses) irrespective of access to irrigation. Vegetable growers are better off in terms of poverty situation. The implication is that irrigation project planners should consider the crop mix in future irrigation development plans. Income inequality among households with access to irrigation is worse than that of those with out access. The implication is that even though accesses to irrigation moves up the mean income, farmers have different capacity in making better use of the available irrigation water and therefore irrigation widens the income gap 4 . However, the main policy concern in Ethiopia is reducing absolute poverty at this moment. Finally, our study confirms that while the income inequalities among households without access to irrigation are lower, it was found that inequality among rainfed poor farmers is higher than those with access to irrigation!!! "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Poverty incidence curves for irrigators and non-irrigators under different poverty line assumptions. "},{"text":"Figure 2 Figure 2 Shows poverty incidence for different irrigated area categories. The figure indicates that poverty incidence is very responsive to the size of irrigated area. "},{"text":" Λ represents the logistic cumulative distributions function. Then the probability model is the expression: "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Distribution of per capita income by income deciles for irrigators and non-irrigators Deciles Rainfed Irrigators Overall 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th DecilesRainfedIrrigators Overall1 st2 nd3 rd4 th     quartile a quartile quartile quartile quartile aquartilequartilequartile First 38.5 114.5 72.6 90.8 80.4 116.5 233.4 First38.5114.572.690.880.4116.5233.4 Second 166.8 331.0 236.4 274.6 242.6 362.9 520.0 Second166.8331.0236.4274.6242.6362.9520.0 Third 285.6 503.0 391.0 385.5 466.7 538.9 708.2 Third285.6503.0391.0385.5466.7538.9708.2 Fourth 401.6 648.2 526.8 509.3 584.3 658.8 960.2 Fourth401.6648.2526.8509.3584.3658.8960.2 Fifth 514.2 850.9 651.5 673.4 813.8 864.0 1268.3 Fifth514.2850.9651.5673.4813.8864.01268.3 Sixth 617.0 1127.9 842.0 827.0 1035.8 1270.1 1641.1 Sixth617.01127.9842.0827.01035.81270.11641.1 Seventh 774.2 1507.0 1099.5 1112.8 1245.2 1766.1 2295.2 Seventh774.21507.01099.51112.81245.21766.12295.2 Eighth 984.5 2067.9 1542.5 1481.8 1729.0 2506.7 3294.9 Eighth984.52067.91542.51481.81729.02506.73294.9 Ninth 1379.2 3231.7 2425.7 2033.6 2374.8 3889.2 4796.6 Ninth1379.23231.72425.72033.62374.83889.24796.6 Tenth 4152.5 8736.3 7096.5 6395.6 7447.2 9352.3 10212.0 Tenth4152.58736.37096.56395.67447.29352.310212.0 Mean 930.7 1908.3 1487.3 1369.6 1613.7 2230.9 2492.7 Mean930.71908.31487.31369.61613.72230.92492.7 Poverty line 1075 1075 1075 1075 1075 1075 1075 Poverty line1075107510751075107510751075 poor 486.2 498.5 492.8 503.4 527.0 525.2 602.9 poor486.2498.5492.8503.4527.0525.2602.9 non-poor 2688.4 3497.1 3290.5 2980.4 3123.2 3998.4 3718.5 non-poor2688.43497.13290.52980.43123.23998.43718.5 % poor 77.1 58.5 65.7 66.3 58.9 53.9 41.8 % poor77.158.565.766.358.953.941.8 Gini coefficient 0.499 0.546 0.547 0.507 0.515 0.537 0.503 Gini coefficient0.4990.5460.5470.5070.5150.5370.503 Deciles ratio 11.6 26.9 20.7 14.8 20.1 22.6 16.4 Deciles ratio11.626.920.714.820.122.616.4  "},{"text":"Table 2 . The effect of irrigation on incidence, depth and severity of poverty Variables Incidence ( α = 0 ) Depth ( α = 1 ) Severity ( α = 2 ) VariablesIncidence (α=0) Depth (α=1)Severity (α=2)  value SD   Value  SD  Value SD   value SDValueSDValue SD Access to irrigation               Access to irrigation Irrigators 0.585 0.0197  0.322  0.0140 0.226 0.0125 Irrigators0.585 0.01970.3220.0140 0.2260.0125 Non-irrigators 0.771 0.0211  0.425  0.0161 0.283 0.0144 Non-irrigators0.771 0.02110.4250.0161 0.2830.0144 Irrigation Scheme Type               Irrigation Scheme Type Traditional Schemes 0.661 0.0303  0.404  0.0234 0.297 0.0216 Traditional Schemes0.661 0.03030.4040.0234 0.2970.0216 Modern Schemes 0.537 0.0255  0.270  0.0169 0.181 0.0148 Modern Schemes0.537 0.02550.2700.0169 0.1810.0148 Size of Irrigation area               Size of Irrigation area No irrigation 0.792 0.0191  0.466  0.0160 0.333 0.0154 No irrigation0.792 0.01910.4660.0160 0.3330.0154 1 st quartile (0.66) 0.658 0.0374  0.351  0.0259 0.230 0.0220 1 st quartile (0.66)0.658 0.03740.3510.0259 0.2300.0220 2 nd quartile (1.87) 0.586 0.0436  0.299  0.0298 0.203 0.0254 2 nd quartile (1.87)0.586 0.04360.2990.0298 0.2030.0254 3 rd quartile (3.56) 0.524 0.0390  0.268  0.0246 0.171 0.0209 3 rd quartile (3.56)0.524 0.03900.2680.0246 0.1710.0209 4 th quartile (7.92) 0.403 0.0450  0.177  0.0246 0.104 0.0181 4 th quartile (7.92)0.403 0.04500.1770.0246 0.1040.0181  "},{"text":"Table 3 . The effect of farm size and livestock holding on poverty incidence, depth and severity Variables Incidence ( α = 0 ) Depth ( α = 1 ) Severity ( α = 2 ) VariablesIncidence (α=0)Depth (α=1)Severity (α=2)  Value SD    Value  SD Value SD  ValueSDValueSDValueSD Farm Size                Farm Size 1 st quartile 0.789 0.0249  0.524  0.0216 0.400 0.0211 1 st quartile0.7890.02490.5240.02160.4000.0211 2 nd quartile 0.700 0.0288  0.360  0.0204 0.235 0.0181 2 nd quartile0.7000.02880.3600.02040.2350.0181 3 rd quartile 0.600 0.0313  0.291  0.0201 0.183 0.0164 3 rd quartile0.6000.03130.2910.02010.1830.0164 4 th quartile 0.531 0.0312  0.260  0.0194 0.163 0.0157 4 th quartile0.5310.03120.2600.01940.1630.0157 Livestock holding                Livestock holding 1 st quartile 0.657 0.0230  0.407  0.0231 0.299 0.0217 1 st quartile0.6570.02300.4070.02310.2990.0217 2 nd quartile 0.669 0.0295  0.383  0.0212 0.260 0.0182 2 nd quartile0.6690.02950.3830.02120.2600.0182 3 rd quartile 0.654 0.0299  0.353  0.0205 0.231 0.0172 3 rd quartile0.6540.02990.3530.02050.2310.0172 4 th quartile 0.607 0.0308  0.272  0.0190 0.164 0.0155 4 th quartile0.6070.03080.2720.01900.1640.0155  "},{"text":"Table 4  . The effect of cropping pattern on poverty incidence, depth and severity Incidence ( 0 = α ) Depth ( 1 = α ) Severity ( = α Variables 2 ) . The effect of cropping pattern on poverty incidence, depth and severity Incidence ( 0 = α ) Depth ( 1 = α ) Severity ( = α Variables2)  Value SD Value SD Value SD ValueSDValueSDValueSD Crop area shares: cereals      Crop area shares: cereals 0.0 -0.25 0.575 0.0319 0.385 0.0257 0.307 0.0239 0.0 -0.250.5750.03190.3850.02570.3070.0239 0.25-0.50 0.630 0.0290 0.334 0.0196 0.218 0.0170 0.25-0.500.6300.02900.3340.01960.2180.0170 0.50-0.75 0.641 0.0303 0.290 0.0190 0.175 0.0152 0.50-0.750.6410.03030.2900.01900.1750.0152 0.75-1.0 0.780 0.0259 0.441 0.0203 0.299 0.0185 0.75-1.00.7800.02590.4410.02030.2990.0185 Crop area shares: vegetables      Crop area shares: vegetables No vegetables 0.766 0.0158 0.440 0.0126 0.308 0.0117 No vegetables0.7660.01580.4400.01260.3080.0117 0.0 -0.25 0.455 0.0399 0.178 0.0195 0.091 0.0130 0.0 -0.250.4550.03990.1780.01950.0910.0130 0.25-0.50 0.368 0.0495 0.179 0.0313 0.125 0.0291 0.25-0.500.3680.04950.1790.03130.1250.0291 0.50-0.75 0.263 0.1011 0.096 0.0528 0.062 0.0440 0.50-0.750.2630.10110.0960.05280.0620.0440 0.75-1.0 0.258 0.0786 0.181 0.0603 0.145 0.0537 0.75-1.00.2580.07860.1810.06030.1450.0537 Crop area share: root crops      Crop area share: root crops No root crops 0.661 0.0161 0.366 0.0117 0.252 0.0105 No root crops0.6610.01610.3660.01170.2520.0105 0.0 -0.25 0.645 0.0435 0.329 0.0291 0.210 0.0239 0.0 -0.250.6450.04350.3290.02910.2100.0239 0.25-0.50 0.667 0.0786 0.411 0.0592 0.295 0.0518 0.25-0.500.6670.07860.4110.05920.2950.0518 0.50-0.75 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.50-0.750.00.00.00.00.00.0 0.75-1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.75-1.00.00.00.00.00.00.0 Crop area shares: fruits      Crop area shares: fruits No fruits 0.671 0.0176 0.351 0.0120 0.233 0.0109 No fruits0.6710.01760.3510.01200.2330.0109 0.0-0.25 0.523 0.0377 0.296 0.0257 0.203 0.0217 0.0-0.250.5230.03770.2960.02570.2030.0217 0.25-0.50 0.738 0.0480 0.471 0.0383 0.345 0.0351 0.25-0.500.7380.04800.4710.03830.3450.0351 0.50-0.75 0.625 0.1211 0.398 0.0930 0.297 0.0855 0.50-0.750.6250.12110.3980.09300.2970.0855 0.75-1.0 0.903 0.0531 0.668 0.0647 0.675 0.0672 0.75-1.00.9030.05310.6680.06470.6750.0672  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Headcount, depth and severity of poverty among sample households Variable Incidence ( α = 0 ) Depth ( α = 1 ) Severity ( α = 2 ) VariableIncidence (α=0)Depth (α=1)Severity (α=2)  value SD    Value  SD Value SD  valueSDValueSDValueSD Sample total 0.657 0.0148  0.362  0.0107 0.248 0.0010 Sample total0.6570.01480.3620.01070.2480.0010 Zones                Zones North Omo 0.871 0.0285  0.626  0.0286 0.506 0.0302 North Omo0.8710.02850.6260.02860.5060.0302 Arsi 0.648 0.0460  0.268  0.0261 0.145 0.0222 Arsi0.6480.04600.2680.02610.1450.0222 Awi 0.717 0.0438  0.390  0.0325 0.264 0.0279 Awi0.7170.04380.3900.03250.2640.0279 Raya Azebo 0.565 0.0351  0.299  0.0227 0.193 0.0178 Raya Azebo0.5650.03510.2990.02270.1930.0178 East Shewa 0.455 0.0387  0.177  0.0192 0.092 0.0132 East Shewa0.4550.03870.1770.01920.0920.0132 West Shewa 0.727 0.0347  0.417  0.0260 0.286 0.0227 West Shewa0.7270.03470.4170.02600.2860.0227 West Gojam 0.664 0.0418  0.330  0.0277 0.207 0.0231 West Gojam0.6640.04180.3300.02770.2070.0231 Basins                Basins Abay 0.707 0.0227  0.388  0.0166 0.262 0.0145 Abay0.7070.02270.3880.01660.2620.0145 Awash 0.535 0.0301  0.219  0.0162 0.120 0.0127 Awash0.5350.03010.2190.01620.1200.0127 Denakil 0.444 0.0500  0.272  0.0362 0.204 0.0310 Denakil0.4440.05000.2720.03620.2040.0310 Rift Valley 0.871 0.0284  0.626  0.0286 0.506 0.0302 Rift Valley0.8710.02840.6260.02860.5060.0302 Tekeze 0.704 0.0440  0.369  0.0302 0.235 0.0256 Tekeze0.7040.04400.3690.03020.2350.0256 Region                Region Amara 0.693 0.0299  0.368  0.0215 0.236 0.0188 Amara0.6930.02990.3680.02150.2360.0188 SNNP 0.871 0.0285  0.626  0.0286 0.506 0.0302 SNNP0.8710.02850.6260.02860.5060.0302 Oromia 0.607 0.0233  0.293  0.0148 0.182 0.0123 Oromia0.6070.02330.2930.01480.1820.0123 Tigray 0.580 0.0343  0.323  0.0237 0.220 0.0200 Tigray0.5800.03430.3230.02370.2200.0200  "},{"text":"Table 6  . Household socioeconomic and demographic characteristics Incidence ( 0 = α ) Depth ( 1 = α ) Variables Severity ( α = 2 ) . Household socioeconomic and demographic characteristics Incidence ( 0 = α ) Depth ( 1 = α ) VariablesSeverity (α=2)  value SD Value SD Value SD valueSDValueSDValueSD Education       Education No education 0.677 0.0186 0.364 0.0132 0.243 0.0114 No education0.6770.01860.3640.01320.2430.0114 Elementary 0.649 0.0295 0.356 0.0209 0.241 0.0182 Elementary0.6490.02950.3560.02090.2410.0182 Secondary 0.539 0.0465 0.295 0.0333 0.215 0.0311 Secondary0.5390.04650.2950.03330.2150.0311 Post secondary 0.0 NA 0.0 NA 0.0 NA Post secondary0.0NA0.0NA0.0NA Household Size       Household Size 1 person 0.348 0.0703 0.177 0.0445 0.122 0.0390 1 person0.3480.07030.1770.04450.1220.0390 2-4 persons 0.529 0.0278 0.277 0.0181 0.183 0.0153 2-4 persons0.5290.02780.2770.01810.1830.0153 5-9 persons 0.727 0.0183 0.399 0.0139 0.275 0.0126 5-9 persons0.7270.01830.3990.01390.2750.0126 10 + persons 0.885 0.0408 0.581 0.0401 0.435 0.0411 10 + persons0.8850.04080.5810.04010.4350.0411 Gender       Gender Male 0.664 0.0162 0.368 0.0118 0.254 0.0105 Male0.6640.01620.3680.01180.2540.0105 Female 0.626 0.0370 0.330 0.0257 0.221 0.0220 Female0.6260.03700.3300.02570.2210.0220 Household age group       Household age group 15 through 24 0.561 0.0658 0.301 0.0463 0.212 0.0419 15 through 240.5610.06580.3010.04630.2120.0419 25 through 34 0.592 0.0347 0.310 0.0239 0.211 0.0215 25 through 340.5920.03470.3100.02390.2110.0215 35 through 44 0.665 0.0292 0.359 0.0412 0.245 0.0187 35 through 440.6650.02920.3590.04120.2450.0187 45 through 54 0.710 0.0320 0.315 0.0225 0.315 0.0225 45 through 540.7100.03200.3150.02250.3150.0225 55 through 64 0.680 0.0381 0.359 0.0268 0.236 0.0232 55 through 640.6800.03810.3590.02680.2360.0232 65 through 74 0.686 0.0460 0.358 0.0322 0.233 0.0278 65 through 740.6860.04600.3580.03220.2330.0278 75 + 0.646 0.0691 0.364 0.0491 0.248 0.0430 75 +0.6460.06910.3640.04910.2480.0430  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Description of variables included in the model Variables Irrigators Non-irrigators t-statistic χ 2 VariablesIrrigatorsNon-irrigatorst-statisticχ2 Proportion of poor (Y=1=poor, 0 other 56.8 76.6 NA 41.578*** Proportion of poor (Y=1=poor, 0 other56.876.6NA41.578*** wise) (%)      wise) (%) Proportion of female (%) (X1) 14.8 19.6 NA 4.051* Proportion of female (%) (X1)14.819.6NA4.051* Zones (Number) (X2)      Zones (Number) (X2) North Omo 55 55 NA NA North Omo5555NANA Arsi 109 30 NA NA Arsi10930NANA Awi 55 53 NA NA Awi5553NANA Raya Azebo 107 100 NA NA Raya Azebo107100NANA East Shewa 108 57 NA NA East Shewa10857NANA West Shewa 110 55 NA NA West Shewa11055NANA West Gojam 83 47 NA NA West Gojam8347NANA Irrigated area (Timmad) (X3) 3.02 NA NA NA Irrigated area (Timmad) (X3)3.02NANANA Farm Size (Timmad) (X4) 6.87 5.90 8.321*** NA Farm Size (Timmad) (X4)6.875.908.321***NA Area share of grains (%) (X5) 64.33 91.21 234.085*** NA Area share of grains (%) (X5)64.3391.21234.085*** NA Livestock holding in TLU (X6) 3.78 4.20 2.708 NA Livestock holding in TLU (X6)3.784.202.708NA Family Size (number) (X7) 5.63 5.34 3.569* NA Family Size (number) (X7)5.635.343.569*NA Age of household head (years) (X8) 45.99 44.84 1.386 NA Age of household head (years) (X8)45.9944.841.386NA Years of schooling (X9) 2.34 1.65 11.389*** NA Years of schooling (X9)2.341.6511.389***NA  "},{"text":" model results are summarized in table 8. The likelihood ratio 2 χ statistic is used to test The likelihood ratio 2 χ statistic is used to test the dependence of rural poverty on the variables the dependence of rural poverty on the variables included in the model. Under the null hypothesis included in the model. Under the null hypothesis (Ho) where we have only one parameter, which is the intercept ( o β ), the value of the restricted (Ho) where we have only one parameter, which is the intercept ( o β ), the value of the restricted log likelihood function is -666.39, while under log likelihood function is -666.39, while under the alternative hypothesis ( 1 H ) where we have the alternative hypothesis ( 1 H ) where we have all the parameters, the value of the unrestricted all the parameters, the value of the unrestricted log likelihood function is -453.64. The model log likelihood function is -453.64. The model 2 χ statistic is highly significant, indicating that 2 χ statistic is highly significant, indicating that the log odds of household poverty is related to the log odds of household poverty is related to the model variables. With regard to the the model variables.With regard to the predictive efficiency of the model, of the 1024 predictive efficiency of the model, of the 1024 sample households included in the model, 822 or sample households included in the model, 822 or 80.3% are correctly predicted. 80.3% are correctly predicted.  "},{"text":"Table 8                    ***Statistically significant at p<0.01; ***Statisticallysignificantatp<0.01;                   **Statistically significant at p<0.05; **Statisticallysignificantatp<0.05;                   *statistically significant at p<0.1. *statistically significant at p<0.1.      . Parameter estimates of determinants of . Parameter estimates of determinants of poverty model         poverty model Variables           Estimate a SE e β 100( β e -1) VariablesEstimate aSEeβ100( β e -1) Constant           -1.018 0.913 0.361 -63.9 Constant-1.0180.913 0.361-63.9 Size of irrigated area       -0.354*** 0.117 0.702 -29.8 Size of irrigated area-0.354***0.117 0.702-29.8 Area share of grains cultivation    1.942*** 0.433 6.970 597 Area share of grains cultivation1.942***0.433 6.970597 Irrigated area-by-area share of grain   0.291* 0.156 1.338 33.8 Irrigated area-by-area share of grain0.291*0.156 1.33833.8 Farm size           -0.202*** 0.026 0.817 -18.3 Farm size-0.202***0.026 0.817-18.3 Livestock holding in TLU      -0.039 0.025 0.961 -3.9 Livestock holding in TLU-0.0390.025 0.961-3.9 Family size          0.724*** 0.146 2.064 106.4 Family size0.724***0.146 2.064106.4 Square of family size       -0.022* 0.012 0.979 -2.1 Square of family size-0.022*0.012 0.979-2.1 Age of household head       -0.050 0.035 0.951 -4.9 Age of household head-0.0500.035 0.951-4.9 Square of age of household head    0.001 0.000 1.001 0.1 Square of age of household head0.0010.000 1.0010.1 Level of education of HH head    -0.116*** 0.032 0.890 -11 Level of education of HH head-0.116***0.032 0.890-11 Sex of the household head(=Male)   0.438* 0.246 1.549 54.9 Sex of the household head(=Male)0.438*0.246 1.54954.9 Zones:              Zones: North Omo          2.248*** 0.440 9.470 847 North Omo2.248***0.440 9.470847 Arsi               0.663* 0.378 1.940 94 Arsi0.663*0.378 1.94094 Awi               -0.161 0.353 0.852 -14.8 Awi-0.1610.353 0.852-14.8 Raya Azebo         -0.569* 0.296 0.566 -43.4 Raya Azebo-0.569*0.296 0.566-43.4 East Shewa          -1.353*** 0.309 0.258 -74.2 East Shewa-1.353***0.309 0.258-74.2 West Shewa         1.107*** 0.357 3.026 202.6 West Shewa1.107***0.357 3.026202.6 West Gojam (reference)        West Gojam (reference) Note:                Note: Restricted log likelihood value [Log(L0)]=- Restricted log likelihood value [Log(L0)]=- 666.3848            666.3848 Unrestricted log likelihood value [Log (L1)]=- Unrestricted log likelihood value [Log (L1)]=- 453.6428            453.6428 Log        likelihood    value Loglikelihoodvalue ( χ 2 ( df = 9 ) ) = − [ log 2 ( ) 0 L − ( − log ( ) ) ] 1 L = . 425 4841 ( χ2(df=9))=−[ log 2( ) 0 L−( −log( ) ) ] 1 L=. 4254841 ***                 *** % of correct prediction=80.3      % of correct prediction=80.3 Number of observation=1024     Number of observation=1024 a The parameters were estimated using maximum a The parameters were estimated using maximum likelihood methods. They are un-weighted  likelihood methods. They are un-weighted  "},{"text":"Table 9  . Marginal effects of the significant access to irrigation (See panel a and b of Figure . Marginal effects of the significantaccess to irrigation (See panel a and b of Figure variables     variables Determinants  Marginal Elasticity DeterminantsMarginalElasticity    effects  effects Irrigated area in -0.0747 -0.20 Irrigated area in-0.0747-0.20 Timmad     Timmad Area share of 0.4089 0.44 Area share of0.40890.44 grain crops    grain crops Farm size in -0.0426 -0.40 Farmsizein-0.0426-0.40 Timmad     Timmad Family size  0.1526 1.21 Family size0.15261.21 Years  of -0.0245 -0.07 Yearsof-0.0245-0.07 schooling    schooling Gender (Male)  0.0865 0.02 Gender (Male)0.08650.02 Zones     Zones North Omo  0.3113 0.06 North Omo0.31130.06 Arsi   0.1240 0.02 Arsi0.12400.02 Awi   -0.0346 -0.01 Awi-0.0346-0.01 Raya Azebo  -0.1268 -0.04 Raya Azebo-0.1268-0.04 East Shewa  -0.3156 -0.07 East Shewa-0.3156-0.07 West Shewa  0.1948 0.05 West Shewa0.19480.05 The interesting results contained in table 10 can The interesting results contained in table 10 can be graphically depicted. Poverty is more be graphically depicted. Poverty is more responsive to the size of irrigated area than mere responsive to the size of irrigated area than mere  "},{"text":" World Bank 2005. Water Resources, Growth and Development. A working paper for discussion prepared by the World Bank for the Panel of Finance Ministers. The U.N. Commission on Sustainable Development 18 April 2005. World Bank. 1991. Assistance strategies to World Bank. 1991. Assistance strategies to reduce poverty: a policy paper, World reduce poverty: a policy paper, World BankWashington DC. BankWashington DC.  "}],"sieverID":"aebd2e2c-9584-4bd1-98ad-30c1cc6fffc1","abstract":"Ethiopia is an agrarian society in a land of drought and floods. Agricultural production, which is the source of livelihood for eight out of ten Ethiopians, is extremely vulnerable to climatic conditions. The causes of rural poverty are many including wide fluctuations in agricultural production as a result of drought, ineffective and inefficient agricultural marketing system, under developed transport and communication networks, underdeveloped production technologies, limited access of rural households to support services, environmental degradation and lack of participation by rural poor people in decisions that affect their livelihoods. However, the persistent fluctuation in the amount and distribution of rainfall is considered as a major factor in rural poverty. Cognizant of this reality the successive Ethiopian governments and farmers have made investments in small scale irrigation schemes. This paper aims to assess the efficacy of these investments in reducing poverty based on data obtained from a survey of 1024 farmers drawn from four major regional states of Ethiopia. The Foster, Greer and Thorbecke poverty measures were used to compare the incidence, depth and severity of poverty among groups of farmers defined by relevant policy variables including access to irrigation. In order to explore the correlates of rural poverty and their quantitative significance, logistic regression model was estimated. The main conclusion of the study is that the incidence, depth and severity of poverty is affected more by the intensity of irrigation use (as measured by the size of irrigated area) than mere access to irrigation. Alternatively, there seems to be an economy of scale in the povertyirrigation relationship."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b959d4d1c2ac7ceed985bc7cb173503","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/wle/legacy/wle_legacy_series-2.pdf"},"pageCount":30,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"For at least the past ten years, donors have insisted that agricultural research for development (AR4D) organizations map out and track their pathways to outcomes and impact. At the same time, these organizations, particularly CGIAR (a global network of 15 AR4D organizations), have been expected to 'take impact to scale' to maximize the number of their beneficiaries with the aim of also maximizing the return on donor investment. This push grew out of public sector reforms carried out by many Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries in the 1990s (Binnendijk 2000), and the subsequent widespread implementation of results-based management (RBM) in government agencies. RBM provided the framework and tools for strategic planning, risk management, performance monitoring and evaluation (Binnendijk 2000). It involved identifying expected results and monitoring progress towards them to fulfill accountability obligations and support institutional learning."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"In the early 2000s, against a backdrop of growing financial constraints and global questioning of the efficacy of aid, the use of RBM spread to development cooperation, funded by the same governments (Vähämäki et al. 2011). Donors in the vanguard of AR4D, like the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) and the UK's Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) (a merger of the UK Department for International Development [DFID] and the Foreign and Commonwealth Office [FCO]), quickly adopted RBM expectations as an accountability mechanism. One of the more widely-adopted RBM frameworks in both fields has been the 'theory of change' (Stein and Valters 2012;Vogel 2012)."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"In response to the greater emphasis on impact, in 2011, CGIAR reorganized its research portfolio into CGIAR Research Programs (CRPs). Each CRP proposal included a theory of change (ToC). Fifteen CRPs commenced in 2012, all of which were scheduled to be completed by the end of 2021; they will be succeeded by a (yet to be determined) number of Initiatives housed within One CGIAR. One CGIAR justifies this transition as necessary to achieve greater and more targeted impact, arguing that \"[S]cientific innovations [will be] deployed faster, at a larger scale, and at reduced cost, having greater impact where they are needed the most\" (CGIAR 2021a)."},{"index":4,"size":157,"text":"CGIAR's problem in achieving impact at scale is that its funding for AR4D is relatively small compared to funding for development cooperation. Official development assistance provided by OECD countries in 2020 was USD 161 billion; CGIAR's 2020 annual budget of about USD 1 billion was just 0.6% of this figure (OECD 2021). The second problem is that expectations have been set extremely high. For example, in negotiating for funding for second phase CRPs, running for six years from 2016 to 2022, CGIAR told prospective donors that its aspirational target was, with partners, to bring 30 million people out of poverty for an annual investment of USD 1 billion. 1 This equates to about USD 233 per person benefited, not including investment by partners. To put the number and timeframe in perspective, in his book The End of Poverty, Jeffrey Sachs estimated that this endeavor would cost USD 2,900 per person and would take 20 years (Sachs 2006)."},{"index":5,"size":132,"text":"If One CGIAR is to meet impact expectations, it must do so with relatively small, well-planned and strategic interventions that result in disproportionally greater change than might reasonably be expected. Clearly, triggering and harnessing non-linear processes will be key. Using these processes is helped by having a good understanding of how underlying generative mechanisms are triggered in different contexts for different types of technology. 2   As the CRPs end, and One CGIAR begins, there is a unique opportunity to reflect on what worked for different CRPs in different contexts for different types of intervention. These reflections can them inform science and technology (S&T) policy in One CGIAR. We understand One CGIAR S&T policy to cover the measures designed for the creation, funding, support and mobilization of scientific and technological resources (Arvanitis 2002)."},{"index":6,"size":173,"text":"Ideally, learning from what worked in going to scale would be carried out across all 15 CRPs. However, this is impractical given the significant investment in time and resources it would require. In this paper, we take advantage of three outcome evaluations carried out over the past two years across four CRPs: Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE); Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS); Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB); and Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH). In doing so, we chose three cases aligned with Systems Transformation, one of the three One CGIAR 'Action Areas'. CGIAR defines systems transformation as \"a major shift -bringing about significant positive change for the majority of people involved -in the governance and functioning of a system\" (CGIAR 2021b: 35). We chose the Systems Transformation Action Area (Figure 1), rather than the Resilient Agrifood Systems or Genetic Innovation Action Areas, because it is the least familiar to CGIAR and may also be the action area in which research has the most leverage to bring about desired positive change."},{"index":7,"size":107,"text":"The objective of our study is to provide findings that relate to One CGIAR's overarching view of how it will achieve positive and measurable impacts so as to inform S&T policy in One CGIAR, and for AR4D generally. Specifically, the paper examines similar approaches that resulted in successful outcomes in the Action Area of Systems Transformation. In the first section of the paper, we discuss our methodological approach and assumptions. We then apply this approach to our three case studies in order to illuminate similarities and differences between them. In the final sections, we draw conclusions from our analysis and present recommendations for the future One CGIAR. "}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Our approach takes advantage of three published outcome evaluations that have used a similar methodology: to identify significant outcomes that have been achieved and then trace causal relationships backwards to understand how the relevant CRP contributed to them. The three evaluations are: To ensure diversity between the cases, we chose one project from each of the three evaluations based on its potential to bring about transformational change. The chosen case studies are:"},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"• Development and use of an integrated database on soil and agronomic data by advisory services in Ethiopia. 3 • Inclusion of solar power as a remunerative crop (SPaRC) as part of a large government-funded program in India, Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (KUSUM) • Development and use of cassava clean seed systems in Tanzania"},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"We assume that the main outcomes in each case resulted from an outcome trajectory (Paz and Douthwaite 2017). We define an outcome trajectory (OT) as the interacting and co-evolving system of actors, knowledge, technology and institutions that produce, sustain and sometimes scale a coherent set of outcomes over time. This definition reflects our observation that reported outcomes are rarely, if ever, one-off events, but rather are generated over time through interacting and co-evolving systems, as described by Axelrod and Cohen (1999) and similarly by Douthwaite et al. (2003). The evaluations from which the cases are drawn also used the concept of an OT."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"Our comparison between the cases is framed by a middle-range theory that applies to all three cases. Middle-range theories (Pawson et al. 2010;Pawson 2013) are positioned between universal social theories and more location-and context-specific program theories or ToCs. Middle-range theories apply to clusters of similar programs and can therefore help develop cross-case learning and insight. A number of middle-range theories exist in the policy realm (Sabatier and Weible 2014)."},{"index":5,"size":181,"text":"We adapt a middle-range theory developed by Douthwaite and others (Douthwaite and Hoffecker 2017;Douthwaite et al. 2017) to describe how AR4D contributes to OTs (Figure 2). The model in Figure 2 shows that AR4D contributes to an OT through three overarching pathways. As part of the technology development/innovation pathway, AR4D contributes by developing new knowledge and/or technology that addresses a problem or an opportunity, which trajectory actors adopt and benefit. As part of the capacity development pathway, outcomes result from trajectory actors developing both technical and functional capacities that help them act in ways they have not done so before. 4 As part of the policy influence pathway, OT outcomes are supported through the enactment of new policies that influence the behavior of OT actors. The model shows interactions within and between the three pathways. For example, learning from early adoption of a new technology helps develop it further, leading to greater benefits from its adoption. The model also shows how the main outcome sought by the OT actors (i.e., their purpose) emerges from their interactions and becomes clearer over time."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"We chose this model because One CGIAR has identified the same pathways as being responsible for scaling research and innovation. Hence, we assume insights into how the three pathways have worked and interacted in the past will be applicable to research on S&T policy in One CGIAR."}]},{"head":"Findings","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The characteristics of the three case studies are summarized in Table 1. The ultimate goal of eachsystem transformation -is suggested by the extent of the desired potential impact sought by each. All three relate to the governance and function of the systems in which they are embedded. The following section of the paper explores how the three impact pathways identified in Figure 2 were manifest in the three cases. "}]},{"head":"Technology development/innovation pathway","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"The evaluation reports show that in each of the three cases, the technology development/innovation pathway began with efforts to identify and frame a problem and efforts to develop and frame a technological solution. These related efforts co-evolved over time with the development of new ideas as well as knowledge and/or technologies. Benefits from adoption stemmed from efforts to scale the technical advances and publicize the results of that work (Figure 2)."}]},{"head":"Case A: Ethiopia","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"In Case A, the problem was framed as the underuse and misuse of fertilizer as a major contributor to poor soil health that was costing Ethiopia billions of dollars a year. About half of all farmers were not applying any chemical fertilizers, contributing to severe degradation of soil health. Those farmers with access to chemical fertilizers had been applying only urea and phosphorous to manage soil fertility (Sheahan and Barrett 2017). Research by trajectory actors showed that soils were being made increasingly acidic through continued fertilizer use, which in turn made fertilizer increasingly ineffective. Other research found that there was a lack of other nutrients, such as sulfur, potassium, zinc and copper, in farmers' fields, which made urea and phosphorous fertilizers much less effective."},{"index":2,"size":207,"text":"Trajectory actors carried out research to develop components of the solution even before an appropriate solution was widely accepted. From 2000, technological advances were made in soil spectroscopy as a way to rapidly analyze soil samples. Advances were also made in digital soil mapping, machine learning, development laboratory workflows, development of protocols to allow databases to be linked up, establishment of fertilizer blending plants, and online apps that would enable extension workers to make location-specific agronomy and soil recommendations. GIZ played an important role as a 'site integrator', helping to establish improved soil health advisory services as the goal by bringing together the component parts through the projects it designed and funded. Specifically, GIZ funded a project, \"Supporting Soil Health Initiatives in Ethiopia,\" that began in 2017 and was subsequently extended to run until 2025. This supported trajectory actors in forming themselves into a 'coalition of the willing'. The coalition was committed to achieving the vision of Ethiopia saving billions of dollars through more effective fertilizer application and better agronomic practices, as the result of reliable location-specific recommendations of what fertilizer to add and in what quantity. The coalition played an important role in communicating the benefits of more effective fertilizer application in conferences and professional meetings."}]},{"head":"Case B: India","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"In Case B, the problem was the long-running difficulties of providing highly-subsidized electricity for farm pumping, avoiding over-extraction of groundwater and allowing farmers' incomes to increase. The pivotal role played by CGIAR, through ITP, was to link these three problems, calling the ensemble the 'energy-water-agriculture' nexus. The technical innovation developed by ITP was to connect solar panels of the right capacity to both irrigation pumps and the electric grid, enabling farmers to meter and sell their surplus power to the grid. None of the components were novel: the innovation was making them work in a new way that addressed all three nexus issues by moving power generation to farmers' fields and providing an incentive to pump less water, while increasing farmer incomes through payments for surplus capacity. ITP labeled the innovation 'solar power as a remunerative crop,' or SPaRC."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"Crucial to the adoption of the concept of SPaRC was the setting up of pilot cooperatives that showed how SPaRC worked in practice while at the same time promoting the model as a solution for key decision-makers in a number of very high-level meetings. The case shows that making a theoreticallycompelling argument for a three-way solution, while simultaneously allowing decision-makers to see it work in practice, either by visiting a pilot site or by watching a video, proved to be very persuasive. The publication of related articles in the Economic and Political Weekly and national newspapers, including the Hindu, the Times of India and the Business Post, also proved important to winning over decision-makers. The decision to include SPaRC in the USD 50 billion KUSUM program was taken before the research results from the pilot sites had been thoroughly analyzed."}]},{"head":"Case C: Tanzania","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"In Case C, the problem was the threat posed by cassava diseases, particularly cassava mosaic disease (CMD) and cassava brown streak disease (CBSD). CBSD and CMD have been present in Tanzania for at least 85 and 110 years, respectively. Research has been carried out on cassava in Tanzania since 1935. Since 1995, both diseases have caused large-scale losses as they became more virulent. According to an analysis conducted by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), CBSD and CMD together cause production losses worth more than USD 1 billion every year in East and Central Africa and threaten food and income security for over 30 million farmers (IITA 2017). Dealing with the threat had been a political priority for a number of years because cassava is the most important subsistence and food security crop in Tanzania, providing protection against hunger should less drought-tolerant staple crops fail."},{"index":2,"size":175,"text":"The technological solution, developed over several project cycles since 1997, was the development of phytosanitary practices in which cassava cuttings could be produced disease-free. This required establishing a viable seed system, including developing and implementing cassava seed certification and an inspection protocol. Part of the solution was also to provide farmers with varieties of cassava resistant to CBSD and CMD. From 2013, trajectory actors worked together to develop a cassava seed certification and inspection protocol to use in practice. The protocol was signed into law in 2017 as part of amendments to the 2003 Seed Act. However, the widespread use of the protocol still depends on developing a seed system whereby seed producers can produce the seed and have it inspected, at a cost that farmers can afford. This is a continuing area of work for three trajectory actors in particular: TOSCI, IITA, and MEDA. These actors are developing workable business models with 400 entrepreneurs and have developed a mobile phone app called SeedTracker. SeedTracker allows farmers to link up to providers of clean seed."}]},{"head":"Capacity development pathway","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The three cases show that an essential part of making a technological solution work, as well as advocating for its broader use, was capacity development. This involved building technical and functional capacities, both of which are required to build the innovation capacity of OT actors (Figure 2)."}]},{"head":"Case A","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"In Ethiopia, building technical capacity involved improving the ability of the trajectory actors to develop and implement the component parts of the advisory services solution. For example, from 2013 to 2017, ICRAF and WLE provided six training events for EthioSIS staff on soil spectroscopy and digital mapping, in addition to on-the-job training on spatial prediction of soil properties, machine learning, laboratory workflows, quality control, soil archiving and databases. ICRAF and WLE helped EthioSIS establish spectral technology at National Soil Testing Center and five satellite laboratories across Ethiopia."},{"index":2,"size":189,"text":"In Ethiopia, the main functional capacity built was the capacity of individuals to engage in strategic and political processes in support of the end goal. This capacity was identified and labeled by senior Ethiopia-based researchers as 'impact tracking', which is described by Child et al. (2021). Impact tracking involves researchers using their professional networks to establish and move an OT forward, using a set of behaviors akin to a product champion. A product champion is an individual who is intensely interested and involved in the overall OT and the outcomes it can deliver. They also play an important role in many of the research-implementation interaction events, overcoming technical and organizational obstacles by sheer force of will and energy. 5   It was not clear how the capacity to be an impact tracker was built, although it is possible that the way of thinking may have been influenced by the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF), in which the impact trackers had previously been engaged. CPWF worked to develop impact pathways for each of its projects, including drawing network maps to help show the importance of partnerships and influence."}]},{"head":"Case B","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"In India, technical capacity was built along the value chain linking solar pumps to the state and national distribution grid through agricultural feeders. 6 The case study shows the capacity to link farmers to feeders was built in previous schemes through a requirement imposed upon DISCOMs, who were obliged to allow households to sell power back to the grid. The main technical training and backstopping provided by ITP-CGIAR was to enable farmers to understand, operate and maintain their solar pump installations."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"Case B shows that advocacy was critical to the success of the SPaRC trajectory. ITP began to successfully advocate for SPaRC in 2012. This involved the head of ITP being invited to attend highlevel meetings on nexus issues and effectively make the case for SPaRC. As with impact tracking in Ethiopia, it is not clear how he developed the functional capacity to make good use of time in front of key policymakers. That he was invited to the meetings in the first place was a result of having provided good advice to the State of Gujarat with respect to establishing agricultural feeders (Shah et al. 2004). Other functional capacities included the capacity to write persuasively and publish articles in national newspapers, which helped pique and direct the interest of the broader print and TV media."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"ITP was fortunate in its membership of CCAFS, which provided the relatively small amount of funding required to establish the Dhundi pilot as the world's first solar power cooperative. A well-recognized strength of CCAFS, WLE and CRPs in general is their quick and straightforward provision of relatively small grants for innovative yet sometimes risky ideas."}]},{"head":"Case C","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"In Tanzania, building technical capacity was required along the value chain, providing farmers with disease-free seed. This involved building the capacity of TOSCI to diagnose cassava diseases both in the laboratory and by 60 seed inspectors in farmers' fields. It also included training more than 400 seed entrepreneurs to produce and sell planting material to meet quality standards for basic, certified and quality-declared seeds."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"A long-term close working relationship between IITA/RTB and the Ministry of Agriculture in Tanzania meant that the development and approval of cassava seed standards did not require overt advocacy. IITA and TOSCI staff, who had been part of earlier projects that had identified the importance of clean cassava seed systems, were able to advance their OT without the explicit identification and training of champions to influence policymakers in the Ministry of Agriculture."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"MEDA, one of the OT actors, trained champions at the district level to influence how District Councils use the funds allocated to them to support cassava production, processing and commercialization. This has involved a project advocacy team training 'champions' at the district level. The case found that less emphasis may have been put on seed certification advocacy than warranted because of a prohibition on 'lobbying' imposed by BMGF on its grantees, and a lack of clarity on the difference between 'lobbying' and 'advocating.'"}]},{"head":"Policy influence pathway","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Renkow (2018: 2) acknowledged five types of policy-oriented outcomes to which CGIAR research contributes:"},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"• Changes in or creation of laws, regulations, standards and guidelines • Creation of institutions • Changes in government and/or donor investment priorities and budget allocations • Innovations to the operations and management of government agencies and programs • International treaties, declarations or agreements among parties reached at major policy conferences."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"This typology helps to explain what policy-related outcomes can contribute to a more enabling environment for the OT in question (Figure 2)."}]},{"head":"Case A","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"At the core of a soil health advisory system is the data sets that drive it. If data sets are to work together then common data standards are required. The existence of common data standards is a policy-related outcome. There also needs to be an inter-organizational agreement to share data, which is another policy-related outcome. Box 1 describes how both outcomes were achieved in Ethiopia, with the help of a 'coalition of the willing,' i.e., an institution. Here, a coalition is defined simply as an alliance for combined action. The advisory system, when developed, will lead to farreaching changes in the operation and management of the Department of Agriculture and other government and non-government organizations."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Box 1: Policy-related outcomes supporting the development of a soil health advisory system in Ethiopia."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"The following is an extract from the report (Douthwaite and Getnet 2019) upon which this case is built:"},{"index":4,"size":137,"text":"When EthioSIS started to carry out soil surveys and produce soil maps, a number of organizations and individuals asked to be allowed access to the data sets. EthioSIS was slow in meeting the requests largely due to a lack of a data sharing policy and guidelines. Various bilateral discussions took place to resolve the issue but progress was limited until 2015, when CIAT/WLE, supported by GIZ, held more than five awareness creation meetings to facilitate data sharing, including the potential of 'big data' analytical approaches which require data sharing to work. CIAT/WLE, together with the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), played a leadership role in establishing a coalition of the willing to bring together about 50 individuals from a wide range of organizations who volunteered to share data and support the process of collective data sharing."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"The coalition of the willing established a task force that developed a set of data sharing guidelines."},{"index":6,"size":77,"text":"While this exercise was ongoing, the Ministry of Agriculture noted the potential and constituted a national taskforce, made up of several coalition of the willing task force members, to develop a national soils/agronomy data sharing policy. The taskforce developed a national soils/agronomy data sharing policy that was endorsed and launched at a national workshop held in June 2019. After endorsement of the policy, various organizations received letters from the Ministry to request them to share their data."},{"index":7,"size":72,"text":"GIZ supported generation of the policy-related outcomes through a project \"Supporting Soil Health Initiatives in Ethiopia\" that ran from November 2017 to June 2021, and was subsequently extended, and is likely to be granted a second phase. The goal of the project is to help coordinate the creation of an integrated database of soil and agronomic data to allow advisory services to provide optimal site-specific recommendations to improve soil health and fertility."}]},{"head":"Case B","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The main policy-related outcome in Case B was the inclusion of SPaRC in the Indian government's USD 50 billion KUSUM initiative, which aims to help 2 million farmers adopt SPaRC by 2022. How CGIAR actors were able to influence this decision is described in the section on capacity development. What appeared to work can be summarized as a combination of a compelling win-win-win argument that applied to the three dimensions of the water-energy-agriculture nexus."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"More granular policy-related outcomes contributed to making the pilots work, not least the agreement with the DISCOMs servicing the SPaRC adopters to purchase power at an attractive rate that was above the market rate. A second outcome was the formation of SPaRC farmers into so-called 'solar cooperatives.'"},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"The evaluation of SPaRC found that while ITP/WLE had been very effective in influencing solar irrigation policy in India, it was unique in CGIAR in several ways:"},{"index":4,"size":107,"text":"• Its equal partnership between a CGIAR Center (IWMI) and a foundation concerned with development (Tata Trusts) • Its objective to help policymakers at all levels address their water challenges by translating research findings into practical policy recommendations -this was not a research objective but rather one that spoke to bridging research and development • Its employment of people with a background in business management rather than research; this aligns well with ITP's mandate for 'problem-solving' research with a strong bias toward field action and impact • Its practice of giving more credit to policy-relevant publications than academic ones • Its level of comfort with policy engagement."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"The evaluation identified ITP as a bridging organization (Davila et al. 2012), which is characterized as a type of organization that is important for research impact (Spielman et al. 2009). 7 The evaluation findings suggest that there is much for CGIAR to learn from ITP's experience, should it wish to see a greater return on its research investment through influencing policy."}]},{"head":"Case C","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"The main policy-related outcome in Case C was the passing into law of cassava seed standards for all seed qualities. In 2012, BMGF funded three projects on cassava seed systems in Tanzania, based on learning from the previous GLCI. Under the auspices of one of the projects, researchers began discussing the establishment of a safe cassava seed system with TARI. TOSCI began organizing meetings to develop regulations in consultation with the key stakeholders, including nongovernmental organizations, commercial seed producers and farmers' representatives. TARI, IITA and MEDA supported the work. TOSCI convened a technical committee to draft a cassava clean seed inspection and certification protocol approved by the National Seeds Committee and published in January 2017. In the same month, seed regulations for cassava were gazetted. This included a description of how inspections and certification should happen, including fees to be charged by TOSCI inspectors. As of October 2020, 80 extension officers were gazetted by the Ministry of Agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"In parallel, MEDA has led two projects, with IITA and TARI as partners, to develop and pilot cassava seed entrepreneur business models (i.e., institutional innovations with 400 individuals, providing the inspectors will work). At the same time, the projects strengthened an existing institution, TOSCI, by setting up and supporting the Cassava Seed Growers' Association to help seed entrepreneurs coordinate the testing of their fields by TOSCI inspectors."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"The evaluation found that the four organizations most involved in the trajectory -IITA, MEDA, TARI and TOSCI -had formed a de facto coalition funded by BMGF. The coalition had been able to develop and implement a series of projects that contributed to the OT, beginning with the GLCI in 2009 and set to continue at least until 2024."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"In this section, we explore the implications of the findings above for S&T policy in One CGIAR, and for AR4D more generally, where S&T policy covers the measures designed for the creation, funding, support and mobilization of scientific and technological resources."}]},{"head":"Insights from understanding the cases as outcome trajectories","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Evidence supports the assumption that the outcomes achieved in each of the three cases were generated by an OT -an interacting and co-evolving system of actors, knowledge, technology and institutions that produce, sustain and sometimes scale a coherent set of outcomes over time to which a variety of actors contributed, including CGIAR."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Understanding the cases as OTs allowed a number of insights to be drawn, all of which have implications for S&T policy. The three OTs at work in the three respective cases were similar in a number of ways. Each gained momentum ten or more years before the main outcome had been identified and the respective evaluations commissioned. Each had roots that went back even further."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"The ultimate, positive outcome was not clear at the beginning of the trajectories. Each trajectory began by clarifying and defining a compelling problem while at the same time posing a potential, but convincing, solution. In each case, the problem was clearer than the solution at the start and, not surprisingly, more resources went into the latter. Only in one case were champions formally acknowledged as such (Tanzania). In the other cases, the senior leaders most involved in the trajectory advocated for the solution during interactions with colleagues in meetings and conferences, and when making courtesy calls to government ministries. Initially, they did not necessarily think of themselves as champions."},{"index":4,"size":119,"text":"Similar to the role of a champion was that of an impact tracker, identified as an important role in Ethiopia by the trajectory actors themselves (Child et al. 2021). Impact tracking involves researchers using their professional networks to establish and move an OT forward. An impact tracker is an individual who is intensely interested and involved in the overall OT and the outcomes it can deliver, and who plays an important role in many of the research-implementation interaction events, overcoming technical and organizational obstacles. An important part of impact tracking is keeping the OT intact from one project to the next, which is necessary given that the lifespan of an OT is likely to be longer than one project."},{"index":5,"size":84,"text":"Another important driver in two of the OTs were coalitions: a so-called 'coalition of the willing' in Ethiopia and a de facto coalition in Tanzania. The formation of coalitions, as described in the literature and which fits reasonably well with the two cases, is that groups of stakeholders coalesce around broad, shared agendas. Members bring resources to the table, including strategic knowledge, capacity to act on that knowledge, relationships with other allies and constituencies, and control of financial and other resources (Stachowiak 2013: 13)."},{"index":6,"size":113,"text":"The cases also helped identify the role of a 'site integrator' as the organization that becomes the focal point of the OT. This was GIZ in Ethiopia and IITA in Tanzania. The site integrator helped support the respective coalitions in both countries. In Ethiopia, GIZ played an important part in bringing three CGIAR Centers to work together towards a common goal, when previously they had been competing with each other. In India, the dynamic was somewhat different, with ITP/WLE functioning as a wellrespected think tank that provided policy solutions that were needed. It seemed as though policy advice was more accepted coming from the well-known individual leading ITP, rather than from ITP itself."}]},{"head":"Insights from modeling AR4D contribution to outcome trajectories as the result of three high-level pathways","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Evidence from the cases also supports the assumption that the AR4D contributed to the respective OTs through three impact pathways, as shown in Figure 2. Table 2 summarizes the main strategies used by trajectory actors in pursuing each pathway in each case. Most of the functional capacities required by the OTs to progress were innate, such as the ability to track impact seen in Ethiopia, or to form coalitions in Ethiopia and Tanzania. The exception was the training of champions at district level in Tanzania."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"All three OTs also benefited from innate technical capacity. For example, the capacity of DISCOMs in India to meter and buyback solar power from households made it easier to connect solar cooperatives to the grid."}]},{"head":"Policy influence","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"AR4D actors in the three OTs contributed to three of the five policy-related outcomes identified by Renkow (2018: 2). The manifestation of the outcomes was different in the three cases. Achieving the outcomes took time, receiving and giving impetus to the capacity development and technology development/innovation pathways. Coalitions played an important role in Ethiopia and Tanzania."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Substantial, continuous BMGF funding spanning more than eight years was important in Ethiopia and Tanzania. In India, IWMI and the Tata Trusts' long-term support to ITP, together with a flexible and relatively low amount of funding provided by CCAFS to set up a SPaRC pilot, proved catalytic to SPaRC's inclusion in the KUSUM program."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: One CGIAR overarching view of how it will achieve positive and measurable impacts (source: CGIAR 2021b). "},{"text":" Outcome evaluation of the work of the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) on soil and water management in Ethiopia (Douthwaite and Getnet 2019) • Outcome evaluation of climate-smart research on solar-powered irrigation in India (Douthwaite and Shepherd 2020) • Development of a cassava seed certification system in Tanzania: Evaluation of CGIAR contributions to a policy outcome trajectory (Douthwaite 2020). "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: A middle-range theory showing how AR4D contributes to an OT through three interconnected pathways (source: adapted from Douthwaite et al. 2017). "},{"text":"Table 1 : Characteristics of the three cases. Case A: Agronomy and fertilizer advisory services in Ethiopia Case B: Solar irrigation in India Case C: Clean cassava seed in Tanzania Potential beneficiaries   Farmers in Ethiopia earn more by Farmers in India earn more Cassava farmers in Farmers in Ethiopia earn more byFarmers in India earn moreCassava farmers in  improving their use of fertilizer and reduce groundwater Tanzania earn more improving their use of fertilizerand reduce groundwaterTanzania earn more   depletion by planting clean depletionby planting clean    seed seed Outcome Integrated soil database developed Farmers supported in Cassava seed OutcomeIntegrated soil database developedFarmers supported inCassava seed sought and used by agronomic advisory selling surplus electricity to certification system soughtand used by agronomic advisoryselling surplus electricity tocertification system  services in Ethiopia to improve the grid as a 'remunerative implemented by services in Ethiopia to improvethe grid as a 'remunerativeimplemented by  farmers' use of fertilizer crop' and reducing the use the Tanzanian farmers' use of fertilizercrop' and reducing the usethe Tanzanian   of aquifer water as a result government of aquifer water as a resultgovernment Year the OT 2011, when World Agroforestry 2012, when the 2007, with the start Year the OT2011, when World Agroforestry2012, when the2007, with the start took shape (ICRAF) worked with the Africa Soil International Water of the Great Lakes took shape(ICRAF) worked with the Africa SoilInternational Waterof the Great Lakes  Information Service (AfSIS) and the Management Institute Cassava Initiative Information Service (AfSIS) and theManagement InstituteCassava Initiative  Ethiopian Agricultural (IWMI)-Tata Water Policy (GLCI) Ethiopian Agricultural(IWMI)-Tata Water Policy(GLCI)  Transformation Agency (ATA) to set Research Program (ITP)  Transformation Agency (ATA) to setResearch Program (ITP)  up the Ethiopian Soil Information began promoting solar  up the Ethiopian Soil Informationbegan promoting solar  System (EthioSIS) to use satellite power as a remunerative  System (EthioSIS) to use satellitepower as a remunerative  technology and spectral analysis to crop  technology and spectral analysis tocrop  create comprehensive digital soil   create comprehensive digital soil  maps in Ethiopia   maps in Ethiopia Technological Soil spectroscopy; digital mapping; A solar irrigation system by Development of TechnologicalSoil spectroscopy; digital mapping;A solar irrigation system byDevelopment of advances integrated databases; identifying which farmers can sell solar good phytosanitary advancesintegrated databases; identifyingwhich farmers can sell solargood phytosanitary involved optimal formulations and power back to the grid practices involvedoptimal formulations andpower back to the gridpractices  application rates for specific soil   application rates for specific soil  types and crops; developing apps to   types and crops; developing apps to  allow advisers to make agronomic   allow advisers to make agronomic  and soil recommendations   and soil recommendations Main ICRAF/WLE contributed to the IWMI/WLE/CCAFS Standards MainICRAF/WLE contributed to theIWMI/WLE/CCAFSStandards achievements development of soil maps for developed and promoted published; Tanzania achievementsdevelopment of soil maps fordeveloped and promotedpublished; Tanzania to date Ethiopia. The International Crops the concept of SPaRC, Official Seed to dateEthiopia. The International Cropsthe concept of SPaRC,Official Seed  Research Institute for the Semi-Arid which was subsequently Certification Research Institute for the Semi-Aridwhich was subsequentlyCertification  Tropics (ICRISAT)/WLE developed a adopted within the USD 50 Institute (TOSCI) 5- Tropics (ICRISAT)/WLE developed aadopted within the USD 50Institute (TOSCI) 5-  first version of a decision guide billion government KUSUM year action plan for first version of a decision guidebillion government KUSUMyear action plan for  providing crop and soil-specific scheme Cassava Seed providing crop and soil-specificschemeCassava Seed  nutrient advice in landscapes. The  Certification nutrient advice in landscapes. TheCertification  International Center for Tropical  approved International Center for Tropicalapproved  Agriculture (CIAT)/WLE contributed   Agriculture (CIAT)/WLE contributed  to the development and   to the development and  implementation of a national soil   implementation of a national soil  and agronomy data sharing policy   and agronomy data sharing policy  "},{"text":"Agronomy and fertilizer advisory services in Ethiopia Case B: Solar irrigation in India Case C: Clean cassava seed in Tanzania Further work required   Build on achievements to develop an Trajectory actors to Develop a market- Build on achievements to develop anTrajectory actors toDevelop a market-  advisory service that gives farmers continue to champion led cassava seed advisory service that gives farmerscontinue to championled cassava seed  better, location-specific fertilizer and SPaRC so that it can system that takes better, location-specific fertilizer andSPaRC so that it cansystem that takes  agronomy advice compete against other standards into agronomy advicecompete against otherstandards into   solar irrigation account solar irrigationaccount   arrangements also  arrangements also   promoted by KUSUM that  promoted by KUSUM that   do not take groundwater  do not take groundwater   depletion into account  depletion into account Key trajectory Integrator: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Integrator: Ministry of New Policy owner: TOSCI Key trajectoryIntegrator: Deutsche Gesellschaft fürIntegrator: Ministry of NewPolicy owner: TOSCI actors Internationale Zusammenarbeit and Renewable Energy Research: CGIAR, actorsInternationale Zusammenarbeitand Renewable EnergyResearch: CGIAR,  (GIZ) and Ministry of Agriculture (MNRE) Tanzania (GIZ) and Ministry of Agriculture(MNRE)Tanzania  R&D: CGIAR, ATA, EthioSIS, AfSIS Donor: United States Agency for International Development (USAID), BMGF, German government R&D: ITP-CGIAR; Gujarat Energy Research and Management Institute (GERMI); Gujarat Urja Vikas Nigam Limited (GUVNL); Distribution companies Agricultural Research Institute (TARI), Mennonite Economic Development Associates (MEDA) R&D: CGIAR, ATA, EthioSIS, AfSIS Donor: United States Agency for International Development (USAID), BMGF, German governmentR&D: ITP-CGIAR; Gujarat Energy Research and Management Institute (GERMI); Gujarat Urja Vikas Nigam Limited (GUVNL); Distribution companiesAgricultural Research Institute (TARI), Mennonite Economic Development Associates (MEDA)   (DISCOMs); National Dairy Donor: BMGF (DISCOMs); National DairyDonor: BMGF   Development Board  Development Board   (NDDB)  (NDDB)   Donor: German  Donor: German   Government; CCAFS; IWMI  Government; CCAFS; IWMI Potential Millions of farmers in Ethiopia in 440,000 farmers deriving Millions of cassava PotentialMillions of farmers in Ethiopia in440,000 farmers derivingMillions of cassava impact terms of higher yields, better soil additional income in farmers in Tanzania impactterms of higher yields, better soiladditional income infarmers in Tanzania  health and more appropriate use of Gujarat, out of a target  health and more appropriate use ofGujarat, out of a target  fertilizers population of nearly 1  fertilizerspopulation of nearly 1   million, over 20 years.  million, over 20 years.   Other impacts expected  Other impacts expected   from reduced greenhouse  from reduced greenhouse   gases and from reduced  gases and from reduced   pumping of aquifers  pumping of aquifers  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Strategies employed in each case relating to three impact pathways. AR4D contributed to building both the technical and functional capacity of OT actors. Building technical capacity involved training supply chain actors to implement the solution. Demonstrating that people were trained, willing and able, provided an impetus to the respective OTs. Strategy Case A: Ethiopia Case B: India Case C: Tanzania StrategyCase A: EthiopiaCase B: IndiaCase C: Tanzania Pathway 1: Technology development/innovation   Pathway 1: Technology development/innovation Framing the problem The problem of poor soil ITP was instrumental in The problem of viral Framing the problemThe problem of poor soilITP was instrumental inThe problem of viral  health was well- establishing the energy- diseases in cassava was health was well-establishing the energy-diseases in cassava was  established when the water-agriculture nexus well-established when established when thewater-agriculture nexuswell-established when  trajectory started as three problems that the trajectory started trajectory startedas three problems thatthe trajectory started   needed solving at the  needed solving at the   same time  same time Framing the solution GIZ was instrumental ITP and NDDB Researchers involved in Framing the solutionGIZ was instrumentalITP and NDDBResearchers involved in  among trajectory actors established pilots that the GLCI were among trajectory actorsestablished pilots thatthe GLCI were  in agreeing an ambitious showed an apparently instrumental in in agreeing an ambitiousshowed an apparentlyinstrumental in  common goal of workable solution to the establishing a clean common goal ofworkable solution to theestablishing a clean  developing a system for nexus cassava seed system as developing a system fornexuscassava seed system as  making location-specific  crucial to reduce spread making location-specificcrucial to reduce spread  recommendations for  of viral diseases of recommendations forof viral diseases of  type and amount of  cassava type and amount ofcassava  fertilizer applied, based   fertilizer applied, based  on regularly-updated soil   on regularly-updated soil  maps and local field   maps and local field  trials   trials Technological advances Use of soil spectroscopy A solar irrigation system Development of good Technological advancesUse of soil spectroscopyA solar irrigation systemDevelopment of good  to speed up analysis of that allows farmers to phytosanitary practices to speed up analysis ofthat allows farmers tophytosanitary practices  soil samples, digital sell solar power back to  soil samples, digitalsell solar power back to  mapping, identifying the grid  mapping, identifyingthe grid  optimal formulations   optimal formulations  and application rates for   and application rates for  specific soil types and   specific soil types and  crops, and developing   crops, and developing  apps allowing advisers to   apps allowing advisers to  make agronomic and soil   make agronomic and soil  recommendations   recommendations Communication about Publication of articles Prioritization of press Publication of articles Communication aboutPublication of articlesPrioritization of pressPublication of articles the performance of the and presentations at and TV media over and presentations at the performance of theand presentations atand TV media overand presentations at solution based on conferences and research conferences and solution based onconferences andresearchconferences and research findings meetings  meetings research findingsmeetingsmeetings Pathway 2: Capacity development   Pathway 2: Capacity development Building capacity to No capacity built for No capacity built for Capacity of champions Building capacity toNo capacity built forNo capacity built forCapacity of champions advocate, formally or formal advocacy. formal advocacy. built to encourage advocate, formally orformal advocacy.formal advocacy.built to encourage informally Extensive informal Extensive informal districts in Tanzania to informallyExtensive informalExtensive informaldistricts in Tanzania to  advocacy employed by advocacy by one well- support commercial advocacy employed byadvocacy by one well-support commercial  impact trackers and the respected individual in cassava supply chains. impact trackers and therespected individual incassava supply chains.  coalition of the willing particular, using his Extensive informal coalition of the willingparticular, using hisExtensive informal  "}],"sieverID":"0dabdefa-e478-4967-aa4f-3e653d3472bf","abstract":"Insights from modeling AR4D contribution to outcome trajectories as the result of three high-level pathways ."}

data/part_1/0ba55ced0896e43d39063086834aa1e3.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0ba55ced0896e43d39063086834aa1e3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b97249aa-1ed0-42eb-a931-83bb437b6e6c/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Accelerating the development of biological nitrification inhibition as a viable nitrous oxide mitigation strategy in grazed livestock systems","keywords":["BNI","Animal urine","Livestock systems","Nitrous oxide","Research priorities"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":372,"text":"Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) is a powerful greenhouse gas (GHG) with a global warming potential close to 300 times that of carbon dioxide. Globally, agriculture contributes around 52% of anthropogenic N 2 O emissions, with animal urine patches the largest N 2 O source in grazed livestock systems (Tian et al. 2020). The inhibition of soil nitrification, which is the conversion of ammonium to nitrate, has been shown to reduce N 2 O emissions, with much of the existing understanding of the abatement potential based on studies using synthetic nitrification inhibitors (SNIs; de Klein et al. 2011;Di and Cameron 2016;Minet et al. 2016a;Chadwick et al. 2018). However, there is increasing evidence that plant-induced biological nitrification inhibition (BNI), defined here as attenuation of the nitrification process resulting from the introduction of plant secondary metabolites into the soil through root exudation or turnover of plant tissue, can also reduce N 2 O emissions (Subbarao et al. 2013;Byrnes et al. 2017;Villegas et al. 2020). Although SNIs provide the flexibility to target applications at specific times, locations, and doses to maximize N 2 O reduction, BNIs offer other advantages such as (i) a root delivery network reaching into nitrifying sites in the soil; (ii) affecting both ammonia monooxygenase (AMO) and hydroxylamine oxidoreductase (HAO), two enzymes involved in nitrification (compared to SNI which only acts on the AMO pathway); (iii) not requiring synthetic production and mechanical application and therefore potentially lowering costs; (iv) potential for continuous formation in growing plants; and (v) being more natural, thus offering the potential for greater public acceptance. On the other hand, the effectiveness of BNI relies on soil incorporation of plant tissue containing BNI compounds, or the rhizodeposition of BNI active compounds into the soil. The latter is modulated by many plant-soil interactions and as yet poorly understood (Nardi et al. 2020). We acknowledge that SNI and BNI could be complementary as N 2 O mitigation options for grazed livestock systems, but we focus here specifically on the potential of BNIs and their development as a recognized N 2 O mitigation strategy for livestock systems. The following sections summarize our current understanding and identify key research needs for accelerating this development along key stages of the innovation pipeline (Fig. 1):"},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"(1) Identifying candidate forage species with the genetic capacity to synthesize BNI compounds (discovery) (2) Maximizing the BNI capacity of these compounds in soils with agronomically viable species (proof of concept) (3) Managing species within systems to maintain BNI effect and productivity (proof of function) (4) Implementing systems to incentivize farmers to adopt BNI as a N 2 O mitigation strategy (recognized mitigation option)"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Discovery: which source-plants have the genetic capacity to regulate BNI?"},{"index":4,"size":884,"text":"Much of the work to date has focused on (sub)tropical systems and common agricultural plants that have been shown to exhibit the BNI trait naturally including Brachiaria humidicola (syn. Urochloa), wheat, sorghum, maize, rice (Subbarao and Searchinger 2021), and Elymus grass (Li et al. 2022). There is some evidence that the temperate forb species plantain (Plantago lanceolata) may also exhibit BNI effects (Judson et al. 2019). For all these species, BNI-active root exudates have been identified and many of these plants have genetic variation in BNI capacity among wild populations and modern cultivars (Navarrete et al. 2016;Nardi et al. 2020;Subbarao et al. 2021). Recent research has also demonstrated that the BNI trait from the wild grass Leymus racemosus can be successfully transferred via inter-specific hybridization into elite wheat cultivars without disrupting agronomic features or using regulated gene technologies (Subbarao et al. 2021). Therefore, key elements of success at the \"discovery\" stage are that high potency source-plants containing the BNI trait are identified and that interventions to transfer the trait from potentially raw germplasm sources into elite forage cultivars can occur within agronomic constraints. These efforts will benefit from deciphering the fundamental genetic control of BNI traits in source plants, knowledge of the candidate genes influencing BNI trait expression, and highly efficient means of screening for BNI expression in candidate source populations and largescale breeding populations. The reduction potential of N 2 O emissions through BNI depends on the microbial community composition, abundance, and activity of nitrifiers. The common understanding is that N 2 O originating from nitrification is largely produced by ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and much less so by ammonia oxidizing archaea (AOA) (Prosser et al. 2020). However, a recent study with pure cultures of the AOA Nitrosopumilus maritimus showed that this AOA can also produce N 2 O from nitrification (Kraft et al. 2022). These authors showed that under the anaerobic conditions of the study, the AOA was capable of generating and re-using oxygen (O 2 ) to support their metabolic activity. This suggests that AOA can perform nitrification and produce N 2 O under anaerobic conditions. However, the implications of this finding for managed livestock systems requires further investigation, as increased N availability in these systems is likely to favor AOB over AOA (Egenolf et al. 2022). In addition, the relative contribution of AOA vs AOB to nitrification in different ecosystems is not fully understood yet. N 2 O reductions due to BNI have been measured for some key tropical and subtropical grass species, including Brachiaria humidicola and Guinea grass (Megathyrsus maximus) (Subbarao et al. 2013;Byrnes et al. 2017;Villegas et al. 2020). Byrnes et al. (2017) showed that soils containing a Brachiaria cultivar with high BNI capacity emitted 60% less N 2 O from urine patches than soils with low BNI capacity cultivars, and Villegas et al. (2020) identified varieties of Guinea grass with high N 2 O reduction potentials. Both studies found a direct link between N 2 O reduction and BNI, i.e., reduced nitrifier bacteria abundance and nitrification rates. In temperate climate systems, plantain (Plantago lanceolata) has been suggested as a species with BNI activity (de Klein et al. 2020), but comprehensive investigation into a direct link between N 2 O reduction and BNI activity is lacking. Furthermore, experimental results on the effect of plantain on N 2 O emissions from livestock urine are inconsistent, with both reductions and increases in N 2 O observed (Luo et al. 2018;Simon et al. 2019;Pijlman et al. 2020;Bracken et al. 2021). It is commonly accepted that BNI is an adaptive mechanism that plants use to conserve mineral nitrogen (N) in soils where the competition between plants and microbes for limited N is high. So, one hypothesis is that the inconsistency in the results from intensively managed systems could be attributable to variation in soil N fertility status, with high soil N fertility possibly downregulating the expression of the BNI trait, and thus, the N 2 O reduction potential. A recent study indeed suggested that while BNI seems to determine net nitrification rates in extensive pasture systems with B. humidicola, inter-and intra-competition for N between microbes and plants appeared to be the main determinant in intensive systems (Egenolf et al. 2022). However, the impact of soil N fertility status on BNI-trait expression is yet to be systematically investigated; more studies into this effect are needed. This should include experiments under controlled conditions in greenhouses that enable a focus on specific controlling factors, as well as field trials to investigate the impact under grazing conditions. There are also other potential factors that regulate the release of BNI compounds, including soil pH, soil moisture content, soil aeration, and nematode activity (Wurst et al. 2010;Zhang et al. 2022), that warrant systematic testing in field studies. As it is difficult to separate BNI effects from other plant effects on soil N transformations and microbial community, such studies should measure gross N transformation rates to disentangle the direct and indirect effects of root exudates on soil nitrification (Nardi et al. 2020;Ma et al. 2021). In addition, studies should combine N 2 O measurements with metabolomics and microbial analysis to confirm both the release of BNI compounds as well as nitrifier inhibition of nitrification, thus directly linking any reduction in N 2 O emissions with BNI under field conditions."}]},{"head":"Proof of function: how can the BNI trait for N 2 O reduction be optimized in grazed systems?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":434,"text":"Once our understanding of the links between BNI-induced N 2 O reduction and soil N status or other regulators is improved, the question is how this can be optimized in grazed livestock systems? This may be especially relevant in legumecontaining pasture systems, where there is a strong interaction between soil N fertility status and legume content of the sward, or in grazed systems, where urine deposition results in localized rapid increases in soil N and soil pH. Furthermore, to meet improved productivity as well as environmental outcomes, enhancement of the BNI trait should not compromise the viability of the system through unintended consequences on agronomic characteristics of the species such as productivity, palatability, nutritional value, persistence, winter hardiness, and drought resilience. To date, there is no evidence to suggest that the BNI-trait has a yield penalty either in pastures or in grain crops when comparing BNI-capable varieties with non-BNI capable varieties of the same species (Subbarao and Searchinger 2021). In addition, a BNI-induced increase in farm N use efficiency (NUE) provides the opportunity to reduce farm N inputs and any associated N 2 O emissions. A recent LCA modeling study suggested that the impacts from BNI-wheat with 40% nitrification inhibition by 2050 could  (Leon et al. 2021). However, there is limited research on the effects of BNI species on soil, rumen and farm level N cycling in grazed systems, which severely limits our ability to assess the full impact of BNI species on farm scale GHG emissions. More specifically, due to the apparent inverse relationship between soil N fertility and BNI, a key question is whether there is a \"sweet spot\" of N fertility in managed grazed livestock systems: one that supplies N sufficient to promote exudation of BNI compounds and thus conserve N, yet not too low that plant production is significantly compromised? Another key question is if, and how, the release of BNI compounds is affected by transient changes in soil N and pH in urine patches in grazed systems? In addition, the effect of grazing intensity on soil aeration and root exudation (Sun et al. 2017), and their subsequent impacts on microbial community composition and function, also warrant further investigation. Finally, for optimizing BNIs within grazed systems there may be advantages in synthesizing \"BNI active\" plant compounds that are delivered to the soil via surface application or in animal feeds (Minet et al. 2016b). Although this would eliminate some advantages of BNIs over SNIs, as discussed above, it could provide a solution in the shorter-term, whilst longer-term plant screening and breeding programs are developed and rootdelivery of BNI compounds is maximized."}]},{"head":"Recognized mitigation option: how can farmers be recognized for BNI-induced N 2 O reduction in grazing systems?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"For farmers to be recognized for achieving N 2 O reductions, the effect of the intervention on total N 2 O emissions needs to be accounted for in GHG inventory methodologies and on-farm accounting tools. To the best of our knowledge, BNI is not (yet) recognized as a N 2 O mitigation technology in national GHG inventories nor in on-farm accounting tools. This not only requires robust evidence of the efficacy of BNI and the ability to predict N 2 O reductions under a range of temporal and spatially variable conditions, but it also requires the ability to accurately estimate and record the BNI \"activity\" of plants. For BNI-active plants in grazed systems, this means being able to demonstrate and verify the effects of their presence in the swards and the conditions that influence their efficacy in N 2 O reduction."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":242,"text":"For BNI to be successfully exploited as a N 2 O mitigation option in grazed livestock systems, we identified key questions along key stages of the innovation pipeline and possible approaches to address these (Table 1). We propose that the initial research focus should be prioritized on the \"discovery\" and \"proof of concept\" stages. Firstly, the systematic screening of agronomically desirable plants and cultivars to identify their ability to synthesize and exude BNI compounds (i.e., do these plants have the genetic blueprint for BNI?) requires the development of in situ screening methods that can be combined with reliable N 2 O emission measurements as well as measurements of gross N transformation rates. To ensure that any N 2 O reduction can be assigned to BNI, these measurements should also be accompanied by microbial and metabolomic analyses to confirm the selective inhibition of nitrification. Secondly, whilst understanding the genetic regulation of BNI is a key first step, an equally important challenge will be to discern the apparent influence of soil N fertility status or other soil and climatic factors on the release of the BNIs, particularly for more intensively managed grazing systems. The expansion of an existing BNI consortium (Subbarao and Searchinger 2021) to develop a coordinated global program to address the research gaps we identified here may be a key step towards accelerating the development of BNI as a N 2 O mitigation option in both (sub) tropical and temperate livestock systems."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Stages of development pipeline for BNI as a N 2 O mitigation option and desired outcome of each stage "},{"text":"Table 1 Biological nitrification inhibition key research questions and recommendations for future work for developing BNI into a viable strategy for reduction N 2 O emissions from grazed 2 O emissions from grazed  "}],"sieverID":"0353037c-738e-4e7d-be68-ef3ebf92eb09","abstract":"This position paper summarizes the current understanding of biological nitrification inhibition (BNI) to identify research needs for accelerating the development of BNI as a N 2 O mitigation strategy for grazed livestock systems. We propose that the initial research focus should be on the systematic screening of agronomically desirable plants for their BNI potency and N 2 O reduction potential. This requires the development of in situ screening methods that can be combined with reliable N 2 O emission measurements and microbial and metabolomic analyses to confirm the selective inhibition of nitrification. As BNI-induced reductions in N 2 O emissions can occur by directly inhibiting nitrification, or via indirect effects on other N transformations, it is also important to measure gross N transformation rates to disentangle these direct and indirect effects. However, an equally important challenge will be to discern the apparent influence of soil N fertility status on the release of BNIs, particularly for more intensively managed grazing systems."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0baadd2199b1f1735df192d70b5e4373","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1b1bb9f1-0a7d-49c0-aefa-231fbad33be3/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Farmer training on aflatoxin prevention using low-cost, locally available materials, combined with market incentives for safer food","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Project Title: P339 -Better evidence on foodborne disease in target regions Description of the innovation: Intervention strategies included training on aflatoxin and its prevention, distribution of free drying sheets, and a price premium for groundnuts that comply with local aflatoxin regulations. All strategies are designed to address barriers smallholders face to improve food safety and quality: low awareness, high input costs, and the failure of premium prices to pass through to producers. "}]},{"head":"New Innovation: No","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Innovation type: Social Science Stage of innovation: Stage 3: available/ ready for uptake (AV) reached: A randomized controlled trial was conducted in northern Ghana over the course of two seasons to test the three interventions and results published. Results indicate that training farmers substantially improves post-harvest practices. Drying sheet distribution and to a lesser extent the premium price lead to further improvements. Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: University of Georgia Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • IFPRI -International Food Policy Research Institute • University of Georgia Milestones: No milestones associated Sub-IDOs: • 17 -Reduced biological and chemical hazards in the food system • 38 -Improved capacity of women and young people to participate in decision-making • 41 -Conducive agricultural policy environment Contributing Centers/PPA partners: • IFPRI -International Food Policy Research Institute "}],"sieverID":"58ea46d4-bd68-4955-82d3-437de84759b5","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bbad67e9668adb2158244fb04db1ecc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/018fd466-ee63-4367-8c25-7509f33a6e49/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Effects of Irrigation Regimes and Rice Varieties on Methane Emissions and Yield of Dry Season Rice in Bangladesh","keywords":["methane","rice cultivars","alternate wetting and drying","emission factor","rice yield"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Rice is the staple food crop in Bangladesh and cultivated in is 11.4 million hectares (ha) across three crop growing seasons per year [1,2]. Of the three seasons, Boro (dry season, December/January to March/April) results in an area under rice crop (irrigated rice) production of 4.8 million ha [3]. The total rice production in Bangladesh was 36.6 million tons (t) in 2019/20, and Boro rice contributed the majority of the total production [3]. Although rice plays a critical role in food security, it is associated with environmental pollution due to the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), particularly methane (CH 4 )."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Irrigated rice cultivation emits CH 4 , one of the main GHGs responsible for global warming and climate change [4]. Lowland rice cultivation with continuous irrigation makes the soil environment anoxic, which favors the bacterial decomposition of organic materials through methanogenesis and produces CH 4 gas [5,6]. It is reported that rice cultivation accounts for 1.5% of all anthropogenic GHG emissions worldwide [7]."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"CH 4 emissions are influenced by various soil; climatic; and crop management factors, including irrigation systems, crop variety, and fertilizer management [7][8][9]. Continuous flooding (CF) irrigation, a common practice for lowland rice cultivation, produces a significant amount of CH 4 [7,10,11] and a limited amount of N 2 O [12,13]. CF irrigation lowers the redox potential (−150 mV), which enhances methanogenesis and results in the increased production of CH 4 [14,15]. The CH 4 produced in the soils is emitted to the atmosphere through three different pathways-ebullition, diffusion, and plant-mediated transport [16]. The rice plant plays an important role, as more than 90% of CH 4 is emitted from waterlogged soil to the atmosphere via aerenchyma cells [16]."},{"index":4,"size":210,"text":"In Bangladesh, Boro rice cultivation consumes higher amounts of irrigation water, which is supplied through the extraction of groundwater. Because of continued extraction, the groundwater table has shown a declining trend [17] and this has increased the irrigation costs for farmers. Therefore, the significance of water-saving irrigation methods, such as alternate wetting and drying (AWD), is increasing because they can reduce water use by up to 38% without reducing yield compared with farmers' conventional irrigation method, i.e., CF [17]. Previous studies have reported that the adoption of AWD irrigation could reduce GHG emissions by up to 40% without any yield penalty [7,8,10,11,18,19]. AWD irrigation reduces the total GHG emissions from rice fields, mostly because of decreased CH 4 emissions, despite the fact that it may marginally increase N 2 O emissions [18,[20][21][22]. As a result, the most efficient strategy to reduce the global warming potential (GWP) of rice soil is to reduce the emission of CH 4 [7,23,24]. However, the impacts of AWD on rice yield are still contradictory and inconclusive [1,2,17,25,26]. More studies are needed across different soil types and different agroecological zones, rice-growing seasons, and crop management practices, including different varieties, to develop a comprehensive picture of the effects of water-saving irrigation on rice yield and GHG emissions."},{"index":5,"size":79,"text":"In addition to irrigation regimes, rice variety could affect emissions. Previous studies have shown a considerable difference in emissions among the different rice cultivars. The differences in emission rates are associated with the amount of root exudates, decaying of root tissues and leaf litter, accumulation of photosynthate in grain and straw, and crop growth duration [14,27,28]. There is also the potential option to reduce CH 4 emissions through rice breeding, i.e., developing new varieties with a high-yielding capacity [29,30]."},{"index":6,"size":140,"text":"In Bangladesh, the area under rice cultivation, particularly Boro rice, must be extended to meet the increasing food demand, which may cause significant CH 4 emissions and ultimately accelerate the effects of global warming. The role of rice in global food security is unavoidable as it is one of the three most essential food crops globally, after wheat and maize [31]. Most previous studies have been conducted to quantify the effects of fertilizer and water regime on GHG emissions from rice fields [7,10,11,32]. However, the impacts of different rice cultivars under various water regimes on CH 4 emissions, rice yields, and yield-contributing characteristics are not well documented. Therefore, the present investigation was conducted to determine the interaction effects of the rice variety and irrigation regime (AWD vs. CF) on rice yield and CH 4 emissions during the Boro (dry) season."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experimental Sites and Weather Conditions","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"The field experiment was conducted at the research farm of Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh (latitude: 24 • 44 36 N, longitude: 90 • 23 54 E), during Boro season (January-May 2019). The experiment site had a tropical humid climate. The maximum rainfall was observed in April and the minimum in January. The highest air temperature (28 • C) was observed in May and the lowest (19 • C) in January. The average daily air temperature and rainfall are shown in Figure 1. The detailed soil physicochemical properties are shown in Table 1.  "}]},{"head":"Experimental Design and Treatments","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The experimental treatments were laid out in a split-plot design with three replications. Two irrigation methods-AWD and CF-were considered as the main plots and six rice varieties: BRRI dhan69, BRRI dhan47, BRRI dhan29, Binadhan-8, Binadhan-17, and Binadhan-10 (Table 2) were considered as the sub-plots. In total, there were 36 plots, each having the dimensions of 5 m × 4 m = 20 m 2 . "}]},{"head":"Crop Management","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"The crops were irrigated as per their treatment. For AWD, the plots were irrigated when the floodwater depth dropped 15 cm below the soil surface. AWD irrigation was started 15 days after transplanting (DAT). To monitor the belowground water level, a 20 cm hole was dug in the rice field and a perforated plastic pipe was installed. This water regime was maintained until the flowering stage of the crop. From the flowering to the dough stage, 2-4 cm of standing water was maintained (Figure 2) in order to prevent any potential water stress on the crops. For CF, the floodwater depth for each plot was maintained at a range of 1 to 5 cm."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"Standard doses of fertilizer were applied to the experimental field, as recommended by the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI). The entire amount of urea at 180 kg ha −1 , triple superphosphate at 60 kg ha −1 , muriate of potash at 60 kg ha −1 , gypsum at 40 kg ha −1 , and zinc sulfate at 6.0 kg ha −1 were applied for both AWD and CF practices. Urea was applied in three equal splits at 10-15 DAT, 30-40 DAT, and 50-60 DAT. The rice seedlings were transplanted at a spacing of 25 cm × 15 cm."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"The ten rice hills were harvested from each plot randomly just before harvesting to determine the tillers, effective tillers, grains per panicle, and 1000-grain weight. The rice grain yield was recorded by harvesting 125 rice hills from the middle of each plot. Harvested rice was threshed, cleaned by winnowing, and sun-dried. Grain yield was adjusted at 14% moisture content and converted to tons per hectare [1]."}]},{"head":"Gas Sampling and Analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"The air samples were collected from each plot using the closed chamber technique [38] (Figure 3). Each chamber consisted of a base and a top. The chamber base was inserted into the soils 2-3 days before the first gas sampling, where it remained throughout the crop growing period. The dimensions of the closed chambers were 62 cm × 62 cm × 100 cm. The gas samples were collected between 09:00 a.m. and 11:00 a.m. at 10-day intervals across different growth stages (active trilling, flowering, heading, and ripening stages) to determine the average CH 4 emissions during the cropping season. In each gas sampling day, gas samples were collected from each chamber in 50 mL gas-tight syringes at 0, 15, and 30 min. The samples were analyzed to determine the concentration of CH 4 gas using gas chromatograph (Shimadzu 2014, Kyoto, Japan), equipped with a flame ionization detector. The gas chromatograph was equipped with a stainless-steel column packed with Porapak NQ (Q 80100 mesh). The temperatures of the column, injector, and detector were adjusted to 100 • C, 200 • C, and 200 • C, respectively."}]},{"head":"Estimation of CH 4 Emission Rates and Cumulative Emissions","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"CH 4 emission rates were calculated from the slope of the linear regression curve against the chamber closure time, as explained by Islam et al. [7]. Cumulative CH 4 emissions were estimated by summing the daily emissions."}]},{"head":"Estimation of the EF of CH 4 , GWP, and GHGI","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"The emission factor (EF) of CH 4 (kg ha −1 day −1 ) was calculated by dividing the total CH 4 emissions (kg ha −1 ) by the active rice growth period (days)."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"The global warming potential (GWP; kg CO 2 equivalent ha −1 ) of CH 4 was calculated using the following equation [7]:"},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"where TCH 4 is the total amount of CH 4 emissions (kg ha −1 ) and 28 is the GWP value for CH 4 .  The greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI; kg CO 2 equivalent kg −1 grain yield) was calculated by dividing the total GWP by grain yield (kg ha −1 ) using the following equation [7]:"},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"where GHGI is the total GHG emission per unit of rice yield (kg CO 2 eq kg −1 grain yield)."}]},{"head":"Statistical Analysis","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the yields, yield components, CH 4 emissions, GWP, and EF were conducted with the Statistical Tool for Agricultural Research (STAR 2.0.1, International Rice Research Institute, Philippines) software. The mean differences of the treatments were obtained from the least significant difference (LSD) test at a 5% level of probability."}]},{"head":"Results","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Effects of Rice Varieties and Irrigation Regimes on Yield and Yield-Contributing Characteristics","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Number of Effective Tillers","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"There was no interaction effect of rice variety and irrigation regime on the number of effective tillers per m 2 (Table 3). The number of effective tillers per m 2 varied from 157.75 (BRRI dhan47) to 174.10 (BRRI dhan29). The irrigation method had a significant effect on the number of effective tillers per m 2 . They were higher in AWD irrigation (184 m 2 ) than the CF method (151 m -2 ). In a column, figures having the same letter(s) do not differ significantly, whereas figures with different letter(s) differ significantly, as per LSD at 5% level of significance. AWD = alternate wetting and drying; CF = continuous flooding; ANOVA = analysis of variance; * = significant; ns = non-significant."}]},{"head":"Number of Filled Spikelets per Panicle","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"There was no interaction effect of rice variety and irrigation regime on the number of filled spikelets per panicle. However, it was significantly affected by rice variety, with the highest number observed in BRRI dhan69 (174) and the lowest in BRRI dhan47 (117) (Table 3). The number of filled spikelets per panicle was similar between the two irrigation methods."}]},{"head":"Number of Sterile Spikelets per Panicle","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"There was an interaction effect of rice variety and irrigation regime on the number of sterile spikelets per panicle (Table 3). The highest number of sterile spikelets per panicle was recorded in Binadhan-17 under AWD irrigation and the lowest number of sterile spikelets per panicle was recorded in Binadhan-10 under CF irrigation. The number of sterile spikelets per panicle was not significantly influenced by the irrigation method."}]},{"head":"Spikelet Fertility","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"There was an interaction effect of rice variety and irrigation regime on spikelet fertility (Table 4). The highest spikelet fertility (89.40%) was recorded in Binadhan-10 under AWD irrigation, which was statistically similar to BRRI dhan29. The lowest spikelet fertility (70.07%) was recorded in Binadhan-17 under AWD irrigation. Spikelet fertility was significantly influenced by the irrigation method; a higher percentage (84.54%) was observed under CF compared with AWD irrigation (78.35%). In a column, figures having the same letter(s) do not differ significantly whereas figures with different letter(s) differ significantly, as per LSD at a 5% level of significance. AWD = alternate wetting and drying; CF = continuous flooding; ANOVA = analysis of variance; * = significant; ns = non-significant."}]},{"head":"Spikelet Sterility","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"There was an interaction effect of rice variety and irrigation regime on spikelet sterility (Table 4). The highest spikelet sterility (32.07%) was recorded in Binadhan-17 under AWD irrigation. Similarly, AWD irrigation produced higher sterility (22%) compared with CF irrigation (15%)."}]},{"head":"1000-Grain Weight","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"There was an interaction effect of rice variety and irrigation regime on the 1000-grain weight (Table 4). The highest 1000-grain weight was recorded in Binadhan-10 under CF irrigation. Similarly, the lowest 1000-grain weight was recorded in Binadhan-17 under AWD irrigation. The 1000-grain weight was significantly influenced by the irrigation method; CF produced a higher weight (24.36 g) than the AWD irrigation (23.26 g)."}]},{"head":"Grain Yield","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"There was no significant interaction effect of irrigation regime and rice variety on yield (Table 4). The grain yield ranged from 5.04 to 5.79 t ha −1 . The highest grain yield was observed in BRRI dhan69. The grain yields across AWD and CF irrigation were similar (p > 0.05)."}]},{"head":"Correlations between Yield-Contributing Characteristics of Rice Varieties","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Grain yield showed a significant positive correlation with the number of filled spikelets per panicle (r = 0.437 **). However, there was no correlation with the number of effective tillers per m 2 , number of sterile spikelets per panicle, spikelet fertility, spikelet sterility, or 1000-grain weight (Table 5). "}]},{"head":"Dynamics of CH 4 Emissions","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"The amount and trend in CH 4 emission rates varied by water regime and rice variety (Figure 4). Emission peaks were observed at the tillering and flowering stages, irrespective of variety, under both irrigation regimes. The magnitudes of the emission rates were higher under CF irrigation compared with the AWD irrigation. CH 4 emission rates varied from 32.82 to 95.33 mg m −2 day −1 under AWD irrigation, while they ranged from 62.41 to 161.41 mg m −2 day −1 under CF irrigation (Figure 4). The emission rates were similar between two rice varieties, BRRI dhan29 and Binadhan17, but the total emissions were higher in BRRI dhan29 due to its longer growth duration (Table 2)."}]},{"head":"Cumulative CH 4 Emissions, EFs, GWP of CH 4 , and GHGI","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"There was a significant interaction effect of rice variety and irrigation regime on the total CH 4 emissions, EFs, GWP, and GHGI (Table 6). The maximum total CH 4 emission was found in BRRI dhan29, while the lowest emission was recorded in Binadhan-17 under both the AWD and CF irrigation regimes (Table 6). The EFs ranged from 0.70 to 0.73 kg ha −1 day −1 under AWD irrigation and from 1.01 to 1.11 kg ha −1 day −1 under CF irrigation (Table 6). The lowest GWP was found in Binadhan17, while BRRI dhan29 showed the highest GWP under both AWD and CF irrigation. Similarly, the lowest GHGI was found in Binadhan17, while BRRI dhan29 showed a higher GHGI under both AWD and CF irrigation (Table 6). Across the rice varieties, AWD irrigation significantly reduced the cumulative CH 4 emissions and GHGI by about 35% and 37%, respectively, compared with CF irrigation (Table 6).  "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rice Yield","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"AWD irrigation had no significant effect (p > 0.05) on rice grain yield compared to CF irrigation (Table 4). These results are in close agreement with previous findings [2,10]. The magnitude of grain yield depends on soil type and intensity of soil drying [2,39]. A similar yield between AWD and CF might be associated with similar filled spikelets per panicle (Table 3). Although AWD irrigation increased the effective tillers, it significantly reduced spikelet fertility (Table 4). Islam et al. [1] reported that AWD irrigation significantly reduced grain yield compared with CF irrigation. The difference between our findings and previous findings might be due to the different locations, soil types, growth duration of rice cultivars, climatic conditions, fertilizer management, and crop management [1,2,21,26]. While AWD irrigation in this study did not produce a significant yield advantage over CF irrigation, it reduced CH 4 emissions by about 35%."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"Across the irrigation regimes, BRRI dhan29 produced the highest grain yield compared with the other varieties (Table 4). The highest grain yield under BRRI dhan29 could be linked with a higher number of effective tillers and filled spikelet per panicle and a lower spikelet sterility (Tables 4 and 5). In addition, the variation in genetic characteristics of rice varieties determines the potential yield, which is controlled by heredity [40,41]. The 1000-grain weight of six lowland rice varieties varied from 20.49 to 25.63 g and 20.41 to 26.97 g, with an average value of 23.26 and 24.36 g under AWD and CF irrigation, respectively. The 1000-grain weight is an almost stable varietal characteristic under most conditions [2,42], but in this study, it was significantly influenced by the different rice varieties. This indicates different rice varieties show different grain types, particularly bold or fine grain, which is controlled by varietal characteristics [42,43]."}]},{"head":"CH 4 Emissions, EFs, GWP, and GHGI","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"In general, CH 4 emission rates increase with increased of growth and development of rice plants until flowering, due to the good development of aerenchyma tissue, release of more root exudates, and fermentation of easily degradable soil organic matter in lowland rice cultivation [7,10,11,28,44]. In this study, CH 4 emission peaks were observed at the tillering and flowering stages under both AWD and CF irrigation regimes (Figure 4). This might be explained by the microbial degradation of rhizodeposition, root exudates, algal biomass, and microbial biomass during the tillering stage [28,45]. Similarly, higher emission peaks at the flowering stage might be attributed to higher methanogenesis and soil labile organic carbon [28,46]. Our results are consistent with previous findings [7,10,11,47]. Across the varieties, lower emission peaks were found in AWD irrigation compared with CF conditions throughout the rice-growing season, which might be attributed to the oxidation of CH 4 by the methanotrophs due to the drying of soil [7,28,48]."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"Both the rice variety and irrigation regime affected the total CH 4 emissions (Table 6). Across the irrigation regimes, the lowest CH 4 emission was recorded in Binadhan-17. The variation in CH 4 emissions among the rice cultivars was due to the difference in magnitudes of root exudates, decaying of root tissues and leaf litter, low photosynthate in grain, and difference in growth duration [14,27,28]. For example, Setyanto et al. [27] observed that the early maturing variety produces low CH 4 emissions (52-112 kg CH 4 ha −1 ) compared with the late maturing variety (116-142 kg CH 4 ha −1 ). In this study, Binadhan-17 showed maturity about 15-20 days earlier compared with the other tested varieties. Our results are supported by previous findings [27,49]."},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"Irrigation regimes have a significant role in CH 4 emissions [7,10]. In this study, AWD irrigation significantly reduced CH 4 emissions by about 35% compared with CF irrigation (Table 6), as reported by previous studies [7,10,11,50]. Islam et al. [7] found a 37% reduction in CH 4 with AWD irrigation compared with CF conditions. The reduction in CH 4 emissions under AWD irrigation might be correlated with an increased O 2 supply during dry periods, leading to an aerobic soil environment in which CH 4 is oxidized by the methanotrophic bacteria. In contrast, CF conditions make the soil environment anaerobic, which enhances the anaerobic fermentation of degradable organic material to supply C sources for the methanogens, thus resulting in higher CH 4 emissions [15,28]."},{"index":4,"size":132,"text":"The CH 4 EFs were 0.71 and 1.09 kg ha −1 day −1 under AWD and CF irrigation, respectively (Table 6). Similar emission factors were reported by previous studies [7,10,11]. However, these EFs were lower compared with the IPCC default EF of 1.19 and 0.85 kg ha −1 day −1 for the world and South Asia (no residue incorporation), respectively [51]. Irrigation regime had a significant interaction effect with rice variety on GWP and GHGI (Table 6). The lower GHGI and GWP of CH 4 observed in Binadhan-17 compared with other tested varieties (Table 6) was in close agreement with previous studies [27,49]. However, AWD irrigation significantly reduced GWP and GHGI by about 35% and 37%, respectively, compared with CF irrigation (Table 6), similar to the findings reported by previous studies [7,52]."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"This study suggests that rice variety plays a vital role in mitigating CH 4 emissions. However, there could be some yield penalty with this reduction. The lowest CH 4 emission was found in Binadhan-17, but the rice yield was about 15% lower compared with BRRI dhan69. These results indicate that the carbon credit calculation should also consider crop yield, as it is important for achieving food security, particularly in developing countries. In this case, yield-scaled emissions are more important than area-scaled emissions. We suggest further studies be conducted in different agroclimatic zones of Bangladesh to confirm these findings. Regardless of the varietal role, AWD irrigation has the potential to reduce cumulative CH 4 emissions compared with CF irrigation, without any yield loss. Therefore, climate-smart variety selection in combination with environmentally friendly irrigation management is effective at mitigating GHG emissions in lowland rice cultivation."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Average daily rainfall and air temperature during the rice-growing season (Source: Weather Station of Bangladesh Agriculture University, 2019). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Daily floodwater depth across alternate wetting and drying (AWD) and continuous flooding (CF) plots during the rice-growing season. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Gas sampling from rice field. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Effect of rice variety on CH 4 flux (mg m −2 day −1 ) under alternate wetting and drying (AWD) and continuous flooding (CF) methods of irrigation. Vertical bars correspond to the standard error of means. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Physicochemical properties of the initial soil sample of the experimental field. Parameter Value Methods Reference ParameterValueMethodsReference pH (soil:water = 1:2.5) 6.94 Glass electrode pH meter method [33] pH (soil:water = 1:2.5)6.94Glass electrode pH meter method[33] Organic carbon (%) 0.645 Wet oxidation method [34] Organic carbon (%)0.645Wet oxidation method[34] Total nitrogen (%) 0.058 Micro-Kjeldahl method [33] Total nitrogen (%)0.058Micro-Kjeldahl method[33] Available phosphorus (mg kg −1 ) 5.56 Olsen method [35] Available phosphorus (mg kg −1 )5.56Olsen method[35] Available sulfur (mg kg −1 ) 8.42 Turbidimetric method [36] Available sulfur (mg kg −1 )8.42Turbidimetric method[36] Exchangeable potassium cmol(+) kg −1 0.119 NH4OAC extraction method [37] Exchangeable potassium cmol(+) kg −10.119NH4OAC extraction method[37] Zinc (mg kg −1 ) 0.36 DTPA extraction method [37] Zinc (mg kg −1 )0.36DTPA extraction method[37]  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Details of the six rice varieties used in the experiment. Code Rice Variety Variety Description CodeRice VarietyVariety Description V 1 BRRI dhan69 Parentage: WuShan YouZhan/P1312777, Grain type: Medium bold, Potential yield: 7.3 t ha −1 , Requires 20% less inputs, GSR variety, Duration: 153 days V 1BRRI dhan69Parentage: WuShan YouZhan/P1312777, Grain type: Medium bold, Potential yield: 7.3 t ha −1 , Requires 20% less inputs, GSR variety, Duration: 153 days V 2 BRRI dhan47 Parentage: IR515111-B-B-34-B/TCCP266-2-49-B-B-3, Grain type: Medium bold, Potential yield: 6 t ha −1 , Duration: 152 days V 2BRRI dhan47Parentage: IR515111-B-B-34-B/TCCP266-2-49-B-B-3, Grain type: Medium bold, Potential yield: 6 t ha −1 , Duration: 152 days V 3 BRRI dhan29 Parentage: BG90-2/BR 46-51-5, Grain type: Medium slender, Potential yield: 7.5 t ha −1 , Duration 160 days V 3BRRI dhan29Parentage: BG90-2/BR 46-51-5, Grain type: Medium slender, Potential yield: 7.5 t ha −1 , Duration 160 days V 4 Binadhan-8  V 4Binadhan-8  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Effect of rice variety on the number of effective tiller per m 2 , number of filled spikelets per panicle, and number of sterile spikelets per panicle. Varieties Water Management Number of Effective Tiller per m 2 VarietiesWater ManagementNumber of Effective Tiller per m 2  "},{"text":"Number of Filled Spikelets per Panicle Number of Sterile Spikelets per Panicle Mean of 2 Water Regimes Mean of 2 Water Regimes AWD CF  BRRI dhan69 Mean 171.55 a 173.70 a 38.73 bc 23.53 b BRRI dhan69Mean171.55 a173.70 a38.73 bc23.53 b BRRI dhan47  157.75 a 116.70 c 51.93 b 20.27 b BRRI dhan47157.75 a116.70 c51.93 b20.27 b BRRI dhan29  174.10 a 152.60 ab 28.47 cd 25.13 b BRRI dhan29174.10 a152.60 ab28.47 cd25.13 b Binadhan-8  173.24 a 121.27 c 31.80 c 22.60 b Binadhan-8173.24 a121.27 c31.80 c22.60 b Binadhan-17  165.04 a 147.90 b 76.47 a 51.53 a Binadhan-17165.04 a147.90 b76.47 a51.53 a Binadhan-10  165.59 a 122.60 c 14.27 d 14.07 b Binadhan-10165.59 a122.60 c14.27 d14.07 b Mean AWD CF 184.41 a 151.35 b 138.90 a 139.36 a 40.27 a 26.18 b  MeanAWD CF184.41 a 151.35 b138.90 a 139.36 a40.27 a 26.18 b ANOVA (p value)     ANOVA (p value) Varieties (V)  ns * *  Varieties (V)ns** Irrigation (I)  * ns *  Irrigation (I)*ns* V × I  ns ns *  V × Insns*  "},{"text":"Table 4 . The effect of rice variety on spikelet fertility, spikelet sterility, 1000-grain weight, and grain yield. Variety Water Management Spikelet Fertility (%) AWD CF Spikelet Sterility (%) AWD CF 1000-Grain Weight (g) AWD CF Grain Yield (t ha −1 ) Mean of 2 Irrigation VarietyWater ManagementSpikelet Fertility (%) AWD CFSpikelet Sterility (%) AWD CF1000-Grain Weight (g) AWD CFGrain Yield (t ha −1 ) Mean of 2 Irrigation BRRI dhan69 Mean 79.80 b 88.87 a 20.20 b 11.13 b 23.81 a 24.80 b 5.79 a BRRI dhan69Mean79.80 b88.87 a20.20 b11.13 b23.81 a24.80 b5.79 a BRRI dhan47  70.07 cd 84.80 a 30.60 a 15.20 b 23.63 a 26.37 a 5.36 b BRRI dhan4770.07 cd84.80 a30.60 a15.20 b23.63 a26.37 a5.36 b BRRI dhan29  84.27 ab 85.80 a 15.73 bc 14.20 b 20.91 b 20.41 c 5.22 b BRRI dhan2984.27 ab85.80 a15.73 bc14.20 b20.91 b20.41 c5.22 b Binadhan-8  78.67 bc 85.93 a 21.33 b 14.07 b 25.16 a 26.79 a 5.17 b Binadhan-878.67 bc85.93 a21.33 b14.07 b25.16 a26.79 a5.17 b Binadhan-17  67.93 d 72.73 b 32.07 a 27.27 a 20.49 b 20.84 c 5.05 b Binadhan-1767.93 d72.73 b32.07 a27.27 a20.49 b20.84 c5.05 b Binadhan-10  89.40 a 89.13 a 10.60 c 10.87 b 25.63 a 26.97 a 5.04 b Binadhan-1089.40 a89.13 a10.60 c10.87 b25.63 a26.97 a5.04 b Mean AWD CF 78.35 b 84.54 a 21.75 a 15.45 b 23.26 b 24.36 a 5.38 a 5.16 a MeanAWD CF78.35 b 84.54 a21.75 a 15.45 b23.26 b 24.36 a5.38 a 5.16 a ANOVA (p value)        ANOVA (p value) Varieties (V)  *  *  *  * Varieties (V)**** Irrigation (I)  *  *  *  * Irrigation (I)**** V × I  *  *  *  ns V × I***ns  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Pearson correlation between the yield contributing characters of rice varieties. Dependent Variable Independent Variable Coefficient of Correlation (r) Dependent VariableIndependent VariableCoefficient of Correlation (r)  Number of effective tillers per m 2 0.257 Number of effective tillers per m 20.257  Number of filled spikelets per panicle 0.437 ** Number of filled spikelets per panicle0.437 ** Yield (t ha −1 ) Number of sterile spikelets per panicle Spikelet fertility (%) 0.013 0.030 Yield (t ha −1 )Number of sterile spikelets per panicle Spikelet fertility (%)0.013 0.030  Spikelet sterility (%) −0.024 Spikelet sterility (%)−0.024  1000-grain weight (g) −0.017 1000-grain weight (g)−0.017 ** Correlation is significant at the 1% level (two-tailed).  ** Correlation is significant at the 1% level (two-tailed).  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Effect of rice variety and irrigation regime on total CH 4 emissions, EFs, GWP of CH 4 , and GHGI (kg CO 2 equivalent kg −1 grain yield).In a column, figures the same letter(s) do not differ significantly, whereas figures with different letter(s) differ significantly, as per LSD at a 5% level of significance. AWD = Alternate wetting and drying, CF = Continuous flooding, ANOVA = Analysis of variance. * = significant, ns = non-significant. Varieties Water Management Total CH 4 (kg ha −1 season −1 ) EF of CH 4 (kg ha −1 day −1 ) GWP (kg CO 2 Equivalent ha −1 ) of CH 4 GHGI (kg CO 2 Equivalent kg −1 Grain Yield) VarietiesWater ManagementTotal CH 4 (kg ha −1 season −1 )EF of CH 4 (kg ha −1 day −1 )GWP (kg CO 2 Equivalent ha −1 ) of CH 4GHGI (kg CO 2 Equivalent kg −1 Grain Yield)   AWD CF AWD CF AWD CF AWD CF AWDCFAWDCFAWDCFAWDCF BRRI dhan69  108.31 b 168.21 ab 0.71 ab 1.10 a 3032.80 b 4710.00 ab 0.52 b 0.82 b BRRI dhan69108.31 b168.21 ab0.71 ab1.10 a3032.80 b4710.00 ab0.52 b0.82 b BRRI dhan47  106.25 b 167.38 b 0.70 b 1.10 a 2974.90 b 4686.70 b 0.53 b 0.92 ab BRRI dhan47106.25 b167.38 b0.70 b1.10 a2974.90 b4686.70 b0.53 b0.92 ab BRRI dhan29  112.67 a 176.13 a 0.70 ab 1.10 a 3154.70 a 4931.70 a 0.59 a 0.97 a BRRI dhan29112.67 a176.13 a0.70 ab1.10 a3154.70 a4931.70 a0.59 a0.97 a Binadhan-8  94.30 c 147.65 c 0.71 ab 1.11 a 2640.30 c 4134.10 c 0.51 b 0.81 b Binadhan-894.30 c147.65 c0.71 ab1.11 a2640.30 c4134.10 c0.51 b0.81 b Binadhan-17  81.37 d 115.59 d 0.71 ab 1.01 b 2278.40 d 3236.60 d 0.44 c 0.67 c Binadhan-1781.37 d115.59 d0.71 ab1.01 b2278.40 d3236.60 d0.44 c0.67 c Binadhan-10  94.22 c 142.36 c 0.73 a 1.10 a 2638.30 c 3986.20 c 0.52 b 0.81 b Binadhan-1094.22 c142.36 c0.73 a1.10 a2638.30 c3986.20 c0.52 b0.81 b Mean AWD CF 99.52 b 152.89 a 0.71 b 1.09 a  2786.60 b 4280.90 a 0.52 b 0.83 a MeanAWD CF99.52 b 152.89 a0.71 b 1.09 a2786.60 b 4280.90 a0.52 b 0.83 a ANOVA (p value)        ANOVA (p value) Varieties (V)  *  *  *  * Varieties (V)**** Irrigation (I)  *  *  *  * Irrigation (I)**** V × I  *  *  *  * V × I****  "}],"sieverID":"e774aba4-d2a3-48b4-a835-cd27c0bcd55a","abstract":"Adoption of the right rice variety and water-saving irrigation method could reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in lowland rice cultivation. A study was conducted at the research farm of Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh, in 2019 during the Boro (dry) season to determine the impacts of different rice varieties (BRRI dhan29, BRRI dhan47, BRRI dhan69, Binadhan-8, Binadhan-10, and Binadhan-17) on methane (CH 4 ) emissions under two irrigation methods, i.e., alternate wetting and drying (AWD) and continuous flooding (CF). The treatments were laid out in a split-plot design, considering water regime as the main plots and rice variety as the sub-plots. The emission rates of CH 4 were determined by collecting air samples using the closed chamber technique and measuring the concentrations using a gas chromatograph. CH 4 emission rates varied with the growth and development of the rice varieties. The lowest cumulative CH 4 emission rate was observed in Binadhan-17, particularly under AWD irrigation. Across the rice varieties, AWD irrigation significantly reduced the cumulative CH 4 emissions by about 35% compared with CF. No significant variation in rice yield was observed between AWD (5.38 t ha −1 ) and CF (5.16 t ha −1 ). This study suggests that the cultivation of Binadhan-17 under AWD irrigation could be effective at reducing the carbon footprint of lowland rice fields."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bda21ea022e247c8a08f8e54ced60de","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/006a6b8b-3354-4486-b107-c72bdc06a93b/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Between 2014 and 2017 the GSMA's mNutrition initiative brought together five global content partners (GCP) to deliver the content stream of the initiative across 12 implementing countries. Lead by CABI, GCP activities included: the development of a general framework for nutrition content creation, carrying out landscape analyses of nutritional needs in each implementing country, and identifying key factors for sustainable content services beyond the project. GCPs contracted and provided technical assistance to local content partners (LCP) so that they were able to partner with mobile service providers and/or mobile operators to either scale-up existing or develop, launch and market new mNutrition content services."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Lessons learned from the content development stream of the mNutrition initiative:"}]},{"head":"End-user feedback and its role in producing high-quality localized content","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"In this brief, the focus is on outlining the lessons learned related to content localization and end-user feedback opportunities."}]},{"head":"mNutrition BRIEF #2","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"Local content is a much trickier and timeconsuming concept than one might think by simply putting the two words together. It has been identified as the 'key driver in creating a step change in the usage and engagement of the mobile internet and mobile-enabled services, particularly for mid-and low-income consumers in emerging markets' in GSMA's 'Local World -Content for the next wave of growth' industry intelligence support. However, as the report goes on to define, discuss and differentiate between types of local content (in local language, locally relevant and locally created), a clear conclusion is drawn that local content needs to go beyond local language to be deemed relevant and perceived as engaging by its target audience. As a conclusion, local creation is considered the best way forward. But, local content creation is not an easy task to undertake, especially in markets where there is a lack of data on consumer insights. Therefore, if the idea is to use expert-generated content, it must be produced in a way that it engages with users in a 'user-centred design process' to ensure the content is relevant for the target audience."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"In the case of mNutrition, the majority of LCPs (with the exception of Sri Lanka) carried out end-user testing before publishing the content. By doing so, they were able to incorporate specific end-user feedback before going live with the messages. Whilst this is obviously a clear best practice and offers a significant advantage to the mobile services, MNOs and VAS providers need to be made aware that this is a worthwhile but time-consuming activity."},{"index":3,"size":131,"text":"As the mNutrition project developed, it has soon become clear from the pressured deadlines -and time taken up by other content processes -that end-user testing was often an 'afterthought' that was not developed as well as it should have been. The general assumption was that once messaging was released, there would be user input in real time, providing the LCPs with the opportunity to revise the content based on feedback as part of a retrospective 1 END-USER FEEDBACK OPPORTUNITIES review. However, this failed to occur due to implementation delays at different levels and the inability to extract LCPs' content-related feedback due to the fact that the messages were integrated into existing platforms, making it difficult to know whether the M&E findings pertain to the new content integrated as part of mNutrition."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"A closer collaboration between the LCPs and grantees (mAgri) after developing the content and before releasing it would have helped build stronger relationships between the two parties and smoothen out the editing process (if edits were required based on field research feedback). Furthermore, it would also create open communication channels that would contribute to a greater overall partnership between the two."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"In hindsight, end-user testing should be established as a crucial component of the content development process and conducted before releasing the messages. In fact, user design work should be extended to content as the first step, before the content is even to be developed. This way, any feedback can be incorporated before prior to rolling the content out through the service. Creating content based specifically on user-demand is a costly and timeconsuming endeavour and requires field research into specific local practices, interests and details which have not been well documented in literature so far. Furthermore, ensuring that sufficient time is allocated to this activityincluding incorporating learnings -as part of the content development process is crucial."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"d36eea7a-1ee2-4189-81be-d04505f19cd2","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0c4c94876c0f63ad6479b087936579c0.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c4c94876c0f63ad6479b087936579c0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/773cc2b7-1658-4468-acfc-0d6501bb0986/retrieve"},"pageCount":26,"title":"capacity to climate change and boost agricultural productivity. The meeting requested NEPAD Planning and Coordinating Agency (NPCA) in collaboration with FAO to provide urgent technical assistance to AU Member States to implement the CSA programme and that the African Development Bank (AfDB) and partners should provide support to African countries on investments in CSA","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"EXECUTIVE SUMMARY","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":" Agriculture remains vital to the economy of most African countries and its development has significant implications for food security and poverty reduction in the region. Increase in agricultural production over the past decades has mainly been due to land area expansion, with very little change in production techniques and limited improvement in yields."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Currently one in four people remains malnourished in Africa."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":" Land tenure insecurity for millions of smallholder farmers, including women, declining soil fertility, degraded ecosystems, poor market access, inadequate funding and inadequate infrastructure development continue to hinder agricultural development in Africa. These challenges are expected to be further exacerbated by climate change which has emerged as one of the major threats to agricultural and economic development in Africa. The IPCC's Fifth Assessment report indicates that Africa's climate is already changing and the impacts are already been felt. Although the UNFCCC places great emphasis on mitigation efforts (reducing greenhouse gas emissions and creating carbon sinks) the impact on climate change will not be seen immediately even if the most effective emission reduction measures are implemented. Therefore, developing adaptation mechanisms to deal with the negative effects of climate change must be a high priority."},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":" With the SDGs, the world is committing to \"end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture\", \"ensure availability and sustainable management of water\" and at the same time as \"take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts\". In agriculture, these challenges and aspirations must be addressed together and simultaneously. Agriculture in the coming decades must feed the continent, serve as the engine of growth and adapt to climate change. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) puts these conditions at the heart of transformational change in agriculture by concurrently pursuing increased productivity and resilience for food security while fostering mitigation where possible."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":" CSA integrates all three dimensions of sustainable development and is aimed at (1) sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes;"},{"index":6,"size":108,"text":"(2) adapting and building resilience to climate change from the farm to national levels; and (3) developing opportunities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture compared with past trends. It is an approach to identify the most suitable strategies according to national and local priorities and conditions to meet these three objectives. There is no such thing as an agricultural practice that is climate smart per se. Whether or not a particular practice or production system is climate smart depends upon the particular local climatic, biophysical, socio-economic and development context, which determines how far a particular practice or system can deliver on productivity increase, resilience and mitigation benefits."},{"index":7,"size":72,"text":" Ecosystem functions, including biodiversity and water services, are key to increasing resource efficiency and productivity and ensuring resilience. They are even more critical under the new realities of climate change. Ecosystem Based Adaptation (EBA)-driven agriculture linked to viable supply and demand side value chains, has an important role to play in developing an agricultural sector that is well integrated to the broader landscape, is climate resilient and environmentally and socially sustainable."},{"index":8,"size":81,"text":" For Africa to reap the potential benefits CSA, concrete actions must be taken to: enhance the evidence base to underpin strategic choices, promote and facilitate wider adoption by farmers of appropriate technologies; develop institutional arrangements to support, apply and scale-out CSA from the farm level to the agricultural landscape level; manage tradeoffs in perspectives of farmers and policymakers; strengthen technical, analytical and implementation capacities; ensure policy frameworks and public investments are supportive of CSA; develop and implement effective risk-sharing schemes."},{"index":9,"size":143,"text":" Information relating to the investment needs for agriculture and climate finance is limited, and may not include all related investment needs. Available literature provided an estimate of cumulated needs for agriculture investment in sub-Saharan Africa, North Africa, and the Near East over the period 2005/7-2050, amounting to approximately US$ 2.1 trillion, or USD 48.5 billion per year. The amount of annual investment needed to adapt agriculture to climate change is comparatively low, as the expenditure required to counteract the negative impacts of climate change on nutrition are estimated to be only USD 3 billion per year. For African countries, climate change adaptation is considered to be more important than mitigation, but agricultural mitigation practices can provide adaptation synergies, justifying investment in mitigation. In particular in the livestock sector, improved management practices can result in both increased productivity and substantial reductions in emissions."},{"index":10,"size":127,"text":"If the African mitigation potential of 265 million tCO2 per year up to 2030 is to be harnessed (e.g. through cropland management, grazing land management and the restoration of degraded lands), it will require investments of USD 2.6-5.3 billion per year (at a carbon price of USD 10-20 per ton). An additional 812 million t CO2/year can be mitigated through preventing deforestation driven by agricultural expansion, through forest conservation combined with sustainable intensification practices that are capable of achieving food security. Avoiding 75% of total deforestation in Africa has an additional cost of USD 8.1-16.2 billion per year. However, these estimates do not take into account additional costs, such as research and capacity building, which must be equally financed to ensure that research-based evidence informs decision making."},{"index":11,"size":37,"text":" Financing for CSA needs to be scaled up considerably. Climate financing mechanisms need to give more attention to agriculture and CSA and the sector's particular opportunity of combining adaptation and mitigation benefits while enhancing food security."},{"index":12,"size":87,"text":"Strengthening capacities of African countries to access these funds is also essential in this context. The main financing source for public investment in CSA, however, will be the regular agricultural development budget. CSA should not be treated as an \"add on\" approach. Rather, the approach adopted within the context of CAADP to screen agricultural investments in the National Agricultural Investment Plans (NAIPs) with a climate smart lens to strengthen the climate-smartness of investment plans and programmes and pursue resource mobilization for their implementation should be further strengthened. "}]},{"head":"BACKGROUND","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":180,"text":"Agriculture in Africa must undergo a major transformation in the coming decades in order to meet the intertwined challenges of achieving food security, reducing poverty and responding to climate change without depletion of the natural resource base. Although agriculture looms large in the economy of Africa, employing more than 60% of the population and contributing 25-34% of the GDP, productivity is low and food insecurity is high. Reviewing the different dimensions of food insecurity around the world, FAO, IFAD & WFP (2014), reported that food availability remains low in SSA and slow progress has been achieved in improving access to food due to sluggish income growth, high poverty rates and poor rural infrastructure which hampers physical and distributional access. At the same time the stability of food supplies has deteriorated owing to political instability, civil wars and outbreaks of deadly diseases. As a result, one in four people remains malnourished. The region also faces challenges in food utilization as indicated by high prevalence of stunted and underweight children and in improving the dietary quality and diversity, particularly for the poor."},{"index":2,"size":191,"text":"Currently, about 48% of Africa's population or approximately 450 million people live in extreme poverty, on less than US$1.25 per day, with 63% of the continent's poor living in rural areas depending on agriculture for their livelihoods (World Bank, 2015). At the same time, the continent is experiencing rapid increase in population and urbanization. Half of the 2.4 billion increase in global population that will occur between 2013 and 2050 will occur in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), and 56% of Africa's population is projected to live in urban areas by 2025 (UNDESA, 2013 and2014). Meeting future demand for food would require a big increase in supply. Water and land are likely to present the greatest challenges on the food supply side, given the dwindling availability of arable land and water resources in some parts of Africa and because many of the smallholder farmers and pastoralists that form the backbone of agriculture in Africa are utilizing a degraded natural resource base. The ecosystems that provide healthy surface water and groundwater as well as food, fodder and fibre are deteriorating. With these challenges, agriculture on the African continent cannot proceed in a business-as-usual manner."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"There is evidence that growth in agriculture is the most effective and equitable strategy for reducing poverty and improving food security in developing countries. African agriculture therefore needs to transform itself to improve food and nutrition security of the growing population and to provide a basis for economic growth and poverty reduction."},{"index":4,"size":352,"text":"However, climate change will make this transformation task more difficult. In North Africa annual rainfall is likely to decrease by 4-27% leading to droughts and increased salinity (Barkhordarian et al., 2013;Radhouane, 2013;IPCC, 2014). The IPCC estimates that crop and fodder growing periods in western and southern Africa may shorten by an average of 20% by 2050, causing a 40% decline in cereal yields and a reduction in cereal biomass for livestock (Thornton et al., 2009a(Thornton et al., , 2009b(Thornton et al., and 2009c;;FAO, 2010a;Lobell et al., 2011).Western, central and southern Africa may experience a decline in mean annual rainfall of 4%, 5% and 5%, respectively (Hoerling et al., 2006;IPCC, 2007;IPCC, 2014). Only in East Africa is rainfall anticipated to increase. The other four regions are likely to experience drought conditions that will be more frequent, more intense and longer lasting. As a result, the area of arid and semiarid land is likely to increase by 5-8% by 2080 (IPCC, 2007;Elrafy, 2009). Considering the sensitivity of the prevailing farming systems to drought, crop yields are projected to decline by as much as 50% by 2020 across the continent. Moreover, crop net revenues may fall by up to 90% by 2100 (Jones and Thornton, 2008). Furthermore, livestock producers in agropastoral and pastoral systems, and mixed crop-livestock systems are likely to be affected by a drop in the availability of animal feed and water, as well as the changing severity and distribution of pests and diseases affecting both livestock and fodder (Thornton et al., 2007, Jones andThornton, 2008). The IPCC's Fifth Assessment report states that \"climate change will amplify existing stress on water availability for society and the natural environment in Africa and on agricultural systems, particularly in semi-arid environments. FAO (2014)  Although there has been a rapid uptake of CSA by national organizations and the international community, implementation of the approach is still in its infancy and equally challenging partly due to lack of tools, capacity and experience. This technical paper analyzes the challenges and opportunities and identifies the technical, policy and financial solutions to improve and sustain implementation of CSA across African countries."}]},{"head":"CHALLENGES","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"CSA faces a number challenges related to the conceptual understanding, practice, policy environment and financing of the approach. Specific challenges that are considered as needing critical attention and intervention(s) are outlined below:"},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":" Lack of practical understanding of the approach. CSA approach is obviously attractive and compelling in principle, but its application under Africa's diverse agro-ecologies and highly heterogeneous farming systems, socio-economic conditions and policies still requires concrete examples of success. The evidence of how such successes are measured and achieved is of critical importance (Neate, 2013). Gleaning clear empirical messages to inform farmers and policy makers and support any scaling up initiatives will depend on how the CSA concept is understood in practices, allowing for adaptations and continuous two-way feedback mechanisms between researchers and practitioners, farmers and policy makers."},{"index":3,"size":229,"text":" Lack of data and information and appropriate analytical tools at local and national levels. In many African countries, there are no long-term climatic and landscape level data. Where some data exist they are dispersed and difficult to access. Global models of climate change are at scale and resolution difficult for local, national or regional managers to work with (McCornick et al., 2013). Capacity and analytical tools to downscale the results of global models to regional, national and watershed scales are not readily available in most countries. As a result, decision makers lack knowledge of current and future projected effects of climate change in their country and the implications for agricultural practices, food security and natural resource management. The lack of information, limited human and institutional capacity as well as lack of research-based evidence impedes the ability of decision makers to target CSA implementation to areas most at risk and to implement adequate financing plans. Initiatives such as the EPIC programme 1 in Malawi and Zambia which focuses on building the evidence base to identify country specific climate smart agricultural practices; increasing policy and research capacity to integrate climate change issues into agricultural and food security planning and vice versa; and developing investment proposals for scaling up CSA activities that are linked to climate financing sources as well as traditional agricultural investment finance sources, need to be scaled up."},{"index":4,"size":236,"text":" Lack of adequate investment at the national/regional level and high up-front cost of investment in CSA at the farm level. Increasing climate adaptation and resilience of agriculture requires investments in infrastructure at different scales, from regional to national to river basin and farm levels. The Africa's Infrastructure Diagnostic Report (Foster and Briceño-Garmendia, 2010) reported a deficit in infrastructure investment (in roads, transportation, communication, power, agricultural water infrastructure and development and management of water resources that are germane to CSA. At the farmlevel, farmers have limited assets that they can invest on their own and lack access to financial services that can allow them to invest in CSA. Also, few investors are on the market to offer loans leaving government agencies, donors and NGOs to subsidize famers' investment in CSA. It has been argued that there is a lack of clear business case for CSA practices to attract investors and the credit market sector to invest in CSA. There are few documented examples of CSA practices in Africa, and most of these are on conservation agriculture (CA) and agroforestry (AF) (Kassam et al., 2009;Garrity et al., 2011). However, the adoption of the two technological packages by the predominantly smallholder farmers in Africa has been generally poor and in some cases their applicability in smallholder systems contested (Giller et al., 2009;Sumberg and Thompson, 2012). A related point is the lack of investment in ecosystem-based adaptation (EBA) approaches."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"CSA accommodates EBA approaches so as to better understand the inter-linkages between and water use, agricultural production and ecosystems services within and external to agroecosystems. Sub-Saharan Africa's loss to agro-ecosystem degradation is estimated at 6.6million tonnes of grain annually, enough to meet annual calorific needs of approximately 31 million people (Munang et al., 2015). Although the effectiveness of the EBA approach as a component of CSA in optimizing Africa's agricultural productivity has been documented (Munang et al, 2015) the main policies to enhance agricultural productivity give minimal consideration to ecosystems that underpin food production."},{"index":6,"size":500,"text":" Inadequate coordinated, supportive and enabling policy frameworks. Implementing CSA requires the development of supportive policies and frameworks, as well as coordination across programs and institutions responsible for agriculture, climate change, food security, land use, water management and energy generation to avoid inconsistencies and promote harmonization of efforts. Existing policy frameworks, whose formulation were not informed by the need or demand for CSA, are likely to present compatibility challenges. The emerging evidence of the impact of climate change also point towards a need to clearly enumerate the major elements and effects of climate change in order to identify and inform CSA practices and innovations. Climate change will be mostly affecting agriculture through three main drivers: (i) temperature changes; (ii) atmosphere GHG concentration changes; and (iii) changes in rainy season regime in terms of length, total rainfall amount, and distribution. According to the IPCC, while it is very likely that temperature and CO2 concentration will keep on increasing during the 21st century in SSA, low confidence exists in projections regarding length, total rainfall amount, or distribution of the rainy season (Christensen et al., 2013;IPCC, 2014). Moreover, coordination and integration of policies and plans have proved problematic in Africa. For instance, a recent review of the regional agricultural investment program (RAIP) and national agricultural investment programs (NAIPs) of 15 member states of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), revealed that only one country, Burkina Faso, explicit linked climate change adaptation to its NAIP. The remaining 14 countries failed to mainstream climate change adaptation into their NAIPs. But in all countries strategies for increasing climate resilience are captured in the National Adaptation Programs of Action (Mul et al., 2015). There is lack of institutional arrangements that are needed for CSA to upscale from the farm to the landscape  Socioeconomic constraints at the farm level. Although farmers have always adapted and coped with climate variability manifested, for example, in delayed onset of rains, seasonal water deficit and increasing seasonal maximum temperature, they often lack knowledge about potential feasible options for adapting their production systems to increasing frequency and severity of extreme weather events (droughts and floods) and other climate changes. Another constraint concerns land tenure and access to land and water resources. Millions of poor farmers, including women hold tenuous and unsecured water and land rights in many parts of SSA. Existing customary and institutional factors as well new drivers, for example, large-scale foreign investment in agricultural land that leads to the displacement of current poor land users have exacerbated this state of affairs (Williams, et al., 2012;Williams, 2014).. At another level, lack of accurate and timely information and technical advisory services, unavailability and lack of access to inputs, including suitable crop varieties constrain their ability to assess the risks and benefits of CSA and make informed investment decisions. Competing resource use (e.g. labour, cash, biomass) at the farm scale have been a major constraining factor. Furthermore, smallholders in particular face obstacles in gaining access to domestic, regional and international markets."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":" Inadequate empowerment of women and youth. Women contribute significantly to food production in Africa, yet remain marginalized and lack access to factors of production."},{"index":8,"size":76,"text":"Gender stereotypes on such issues as land and water rights, education, access to technologies, labour, capital, support services and credit, are some of the stumbling blocks to women's effective participation in the agricultural sector. Overlooking women means Africa is losing out on a great income and livelihood creating opportunity. The World Bank estimates that if women worldwide had equal access to productive resources (seeds, extension services, etc.), 100-150 million fewer people would go hungry every day."},{"index":9,"size":59,"text":"Empowering women is essential to unlocking Africa's agricultural productivity. On youth, 60% of Africa's population is in the 15-34 year bracket and this presents an opportunity to reap a demographic dividend on the continent. Youths and women should be empowered through education, access to affordable capital, appropriate mentorship programmmes to enable them play their role in the agricultural sector."},{"index":10,"size":90,"text":" Lack of adequate and innovative financing mechanisms and effective risk-sharing schemes. In many countries there are not yet in place financing plans to promote the uptake of CSA, yet the transition to climate-smart agricultural development pathways requires new investments. \"As farmers in Africa face major risks arising from the effects of climatic hazards, they also face the challenge of managing risks associated with the high costs (at least initial costs) of adopting new technologies (e.g. conservation agriculture and agroforestry) whose benefits often only come after several years/seasons) of production."},{"index":11,"size":19,"text":"Most of the farmers have little or no access to credit, micro-financing and/or insurance.\" (Mapfumo et al., 2015: 41-43)."},{"index":12,"size":11,"text":" Difficulty in managing trade-offs from the farmers' and policymakers' perspectives."},{"index":13,"size":102,"text":"There is often a disconnection between farmers and policy makers in the agricultural sector with respect to priorities for resource management. One of the underlying causes of this problem is the difference in objectives between the two groups. Prioritization of the three objectives of CSA (increased productivity, adaptation and reduction of greenhouse gaseous emissions where possible) is likely to differ among key stakeholders including farmers, government officers and policy makers. This has implications on how CSA practices are ultimately evaluated, and whether or not policy makers and practitioners at various levels will be attracted to the advocated CSA options for financial considerations."}]},{"head":"OPPORTUNITIES","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"1. Africa's natural and human resources. Africa holds 65% of the world's arable land and 10% of internal renewable fresh water sources. With a growing middle class currently estimated at 300million people, the African food market alone is projected to grow to USD 150 billion by 2030. Properly harnessed, the entire agriculture and agribusiness sector is projected to grow to be worth an estimated USD 1trillion by 2030."},{"index":2,"size":179,"text":"When optimized, growth in agriculture is at least two to four times more effective in reducing poverty than in other sectors. Agricultural growth also stimulates productivity in other sectors e.g. processing, transport etc. whose value chains link with the agrochain, hence results in economy wide impacts. The World Bank reports that in Africa, a 10% increase in crop yields translates to approximately a 7% reduction in poverty. This potential in natural and human resources is an opportunity that can be grasped through the provision of policy and fiscal incentives for the promotion of sustainable CSA approaches. c. UNEP works to support decision-makers in balancing the synergies and trade-offs that arise in the choices to be made on the potential paths to transformation of agriculture in Africa. It does so by developing tools and guidance to assess these synergies and trade-offs, and by implementing scenario development and analysis that help in clarifying the potential consequences of existing trends and alternative future policy and management options for food production under changing patterns of consumption and production and under a changing climate."}]},{"head":"Evolving and increasing set of analytical tools and decision support","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"IWMI scientists have developed an analytical tool to evaluate the need for water storage and its likely effectiveness under existing and possible future climate conditions. This has been applied in the Volta Basin, and the Ethiopian part of the Blue Nile Basin. The tool considers reliability, resilience, and vulnerability, and the economic, social, and environmental aspects of water storage options for different areas. The results can be shown in a manner that illustrates the trade-off between the key characteristics of a storage option (Figure 1) • GHG emission reductions: GHG reduced (tCO2/ha) (net balance)"},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"• GHG emission efficiency: GHG reduced from increased efficiency of production (tCO2/unit of product) (net balance) Their analyses showed that throughout sub-Saharan Africa, the greatest need for storage was in the Sahelian zone, the Horn of Africa, and southern Africa, with local hot spots of need in southern Angola, Rwanda, Burundi, and Uganda, as well as in Malawi and Mozambique. In Ethiopia and Ghana, the greatest need was not in areas with the least rainfall as might have been anticipated, but rather in the areas with the highest population densities. Based on changes anticipated for a 'middle impact' climate change scenario, the effectiveness of storage will most likely decrease in both the Volta and Blue Nile basins. The analytical tool provides an initial step in more rigorous approaches to assessing investment in agricultural water storage (McCartney and Smakhtin 2010;McCartney et al. 2013b)."},{"index":3,"size":183,"text":"IWMI studies have also examined a wide range of options for storing water in different social and ecological circumstances and at different scales (Figure 2). Scientists investigated how much water a basin can store under current and increasing variability, types of storage for different situations, types of storage that will provide water when it is needed, and the advantages and disadvantages of different types and combinations of water storage. All storage options have costs as well as benefits and in any given location the extent to which a particular type will provide a reliable water supply will be different. Any water storage structurefrom a small tank to a large damwill have an effect on the natural system in which it lies. Arrangements that combine several kinds of water storage are likely to be more dependable than those based on a single type. There will rarely be an ideal combination and, in most instances, there will be tradeoffs. It is important to look for ways to store water across the continuum from small to large scales and to use complementary water-saving technologies and practices."},{"index":4,"size":141,"text":"3. Opportunities specific to sub-regions: several areas hold prospects for CSA in specific sub-regions of Africa. Some of these are highlighted below: a. Integrated solutions for sustainable agricultural intensification in sub Saharan Africa: Widespread soil fertility decline and land degradation in SSA necessitate a landscape approach to agricultural systems development and climate change adaptation in the region. The development of CSA best practices will need to focus on pathways to intensification of cropping systems, increasing efficiencies in livestock production systems, conservation of soil and water resources, and adaptive management of natural resources at both farm and landscape levels. However, this needs to be combined with the development of a supportive policy environment and the strengthening of advisory systems, including research and extension, to enable local producers to select and adopt practices that are climate smart in their particular context and location."},{"index":5,"size":96,"text":"b. Recovery of forest based farming in Central Africa: Opportunities for CSA in Central Africa arise from a growing but food-insecure population, and for which increasing agricultural productivity does not only enhance food security but also save forest resources. Depletion of forests in the forest-based farming systems will most likely lead to large greenhouse gas emissions and loss of ecosystems services. Required are CSA options that limit expansion of cultivated areas into forests or alternatively seek to establish new agricultural production systems that can at the least restore ecosystem services and values through alternative tree crops."},{"index":6,"size":101,"text":"c. Horticulture led growth in Northern Africa: Increasing agriculture productivity and narrowing the current yield gaps for staple crops is a key priority. For example cereal yields in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and Egypt are still < 1.5 t ha-1 compared with > 2.5 t ha-1 in other regions of the Mediterranean (Alvarez-Coque, 2012). Increasing water scarcity (except in the highland agro-ecozones) and rising air temperatures coupled with diminishing soil fertility and accelerated soil erosion are already identified as major impediments to the goal for increasing productivity and enhancing resilience in North Africa. However, opportunities for increasing tree-based horticultural production are emerging."},{"index":7,"size":174,"text":"As investments in soil and water management and irrigation systems increase, opportunities also exist for employing CSA approaches centred on resource conserving technologies and management practices that enhance the efficiency with which key resources such as land, water, labour, nutrients and plant-based organic biomass are used d. Crop-livestock integration in Southern Africa: Apart from the projected reduction in rainfall and an increase in frequency of drought for a region that is already largely semi-arid, Southern Africa has some of the most infertile and unproductive soils on the continent. As earlier discussed for East Africa, increasing crop productivity through intensification options is a priority for the region. The sub-region also has some of the least diversified cropping systems and a critical challenge in addressing chronic food and nutrient insecurity and land degradation is: \"how to get the region's smallholder communities out of the 'Maize Poverty Trap\" (Mapfumo, 2011). This entails ensuring household self-sufficiency in staple maize through production or alternative access mechanism before communities can invest and/or diversify into other agricultural and non-agricultural livelihood options."},{"index":8,"size":147,"text":"e. Rice and aquaculture systems supplement cereal and tuber staple crops in West Africa: West Africa already has a high and fast growing population. There is therefore limited scope for increasing agricultural production through extensification. In recent years, the region has witnessed an expansion of the maize mixed farming system in the Sahelian and sub-humid zones. There is also growing emphasis on agroforestry and rangeland management in dry regions including Sahelian and Guinean zones and dominant pastoral systems where livestock feed resources will otherwise decline. On the other hand, the increasing prospects for both smallholder and large scale irrigated systems in these semi-arid zones are likely to change the 'landscape' for crop-livestock interactions and open new opportunities for CSA. Opportunities for employing CSA approaches to simultaneously increase crop productivity and reduce greenhouse gas emissions are also likely to emerge in irrigated rice and fisheries (including aquaculture) systems."},{"index":9,"size":135,"text":"f. Water-smart agriculture in East Africa. Is an approach that is being used by a wide-range of farmer support organizations to support smallholders through four interrelated elements: a) making better use of green water (rainfall and soil moisture) to avoid reliance on abstraction of blue water (which already accounts for more than 70% of total global abstractions); b) where sensible and feasible, development of supplementary irrigation based on principles of good resource governance and water use efficiency; c) stronger linking of farmers to markets opportunities and value chains that can provide opportunities for substantial income enhancements, particularly through dry season production; and d) a stronger emphasis on combined soil and water management to enhance soil fertility, reduce degradation and increase capacity to deliver water to root systems during critical growing periods. [Nicol et al, 2015]."}]},{"head":"SUGGESTED ACTIONS/THE WAY FORWARD","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Cognizant of the above development challenges and opportunities for transforming agriculture to underpin climate resilient livelihood systems and foster food and nutrition security as well as sustainable natural resources utilization, agricultural transformation through CSA will require the following necessary actions. These priority action-oriented solutions also capture the priorities highlighted in AGRA's 2014 Africa Agriculture Status Report for enhancing adaptation within Africa's agricultural sector."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"A. Promote climate-smart, context-driven approaches and solutions. This will require investing in ecosystem-based approaches, new technologies and an enabling environment to enhance and facilitate uptake of CSA. \"CSA builds on existing experience. Therefore, knowledge of sustainable agricultural development, and sustainable intensification founded on agro ecological approaches is central to CSA (Campbell, et al., 2014). Sustainable intensification fosters more efficient resource use, and contributes to adaptation and mitigation through effects on farm productivity and incomes, and reduced emissions per unit of product\" (AGRA, 2014: 183-185). Equally needed are stress-tolerant crop varieties and livestock breeds, improved analytical tools and decision support models and small-scale irrigation technologies suitable for smallholder farmers (Giordano, et al., 2012). Moreover, it is necessary to promote sustainable consumption by reducing food loss and waste and promoting balanced dietary habits."}]},{"head":"B. Adapt water management to improve food security within the context of CSA.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Adapting water management to climate change entails four main pillars (McCornick et al., 2013). These include: 1) assessment of water resources and risk to agricultural production; 2) rethinking of water storage, including banking of ground water, managing aquifer recharge and retention and conservation of soil moisture; 3) producing more food per unit of water through boosting rainfed agriculture and managing climate-induced water variability through supplementary irrigation; and 4) boosting resilience through uptake of improved agricultural and water management technologies and income diversification strategies."},{"index":2,"size":452,"text":"C. Improve coordination of policies and strengthen local national and regional institutions to support the implementation of climate-smart agriculture: \"Without appropriate institutional structures in place, CSA-related innovations may overwhelm smallholder farmers. Strong institutional support is required to: promote inclusivity in decision making; improve the dissemination of information; provide financial support and access to markets; provide insurance to cope with risks associated with climate shocks and the adoption of new practices; and support farmers' collaborative actions. Many institutions and stakeholders, including farmers (and farmer organizations), private sector entities, public sector organizations, research institutes, educational institutions, and Civil Society Organizations can play important roles in supporting the adoption of climate-smart agriculture. In addition, national governments not only need to coordinate financing for CSA technologies and practices, but also have the flexibility to plan and work across sectors. As markets become increasingly important, private sector players such as the smallholder farmers themselves become significant. There are growing opportunities for inclusive partnerships involving governments, private sector agribusinesses, and development organizations to collaborate on CSA issues such as carbon finance\". (AGRA, 2014: 183-185) D. Develop innovative financing schemes to unlock both agriculture and climate finance to improve access of smallholders, governments and private sector entrepreneurs to capital needed to develop and implement CSA: \"Strengthening financing opportunities at all levels and for different risks is important, as is the bundling of insurance and agricultural credits. Mobilize AECF, cooperative banks, and national banks for support leading to a partnership-based approach to innovative financing. There is need to develop a programmatic approach to develop a pipeline of investments in support of climate-smart agriculture, which should be country driven. In assuming a leadership role, governments can better organize resource flows to avoid duplication, fill financing gaps and create synergies. In addition, development partners should agree on implementation arrangements for identified investments based on their comparative advantages; synergies should be identified and collaborative arrangements agreed upon. Directing climate finance to support institutional investments that can accelerate adoption of practices for increasing resourceuse efficiency is an important step towards climate-resilient development in agriculture. Public sector finance for adaptation and mitigation is likely to provide the most important sources of climate finance for CSA in developing countries. Funding sources could include: bilateral donors; multilateral financial institutions; the Global Environment Facility (GEF); and the emerging Green Climate Fund that was established by the UNFCCC, which can channel funds through national policy instruments such as Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) and National Adaptation Programs (NAPs).\" (AGRA, 2014: 183-185) E. Raise the level of national investments in agriculture but invest wisely and weigh up costs and benefits. Rigorous analysis of proposed investments in infrastructure and technologies can help decision makers to invest wisely and avoid unintended consequences."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"Assessment and modeling approaches used by IWMI enable countries which have limited planning capacity to envision the likely outcomes of adaptation strategies under various scenarios and to consider alternatives and tradeoffs (McCornick et al., 2013). Moreover, \"finite public resources can be more selectively targeted by using the following criteria: For technologies that generate significant private returns, grant funding or loans may be more suitable to overcoming adoption barriers. For technologies such as conservation agriculture that require specific machinery inputs and significant up-front costs, payment for an ecosystem services scheme could be used to support farmers, break the adoption barrier and support the development of a commercial market for small-scale mechanization."},{"index":4,"size":163,"text":"In some cases, relatively affordable technologies that generate quick and demonstrable benefits may warrant priority and potentially establish some of the channels through which more sophisticated technologies are dispersed in the future. Nationally owned climatesmart agricultural policies and action frameworks will increase adoption of technologies by farmers. There is also the potential for carbon finance to support farmers during the initial period before the trees in agroforestry systems generate an economic return. Larger and more coordinated investments in CSA interventions need to be harnessed and allocated appropriately in order to generate the highest returns for sustainable agricultural growth. Changes taking place in the agricultural sector need to be planned for, including adaptation and mitigation as essential part of developing CSA strategies, investments and financing plans. Increasing agricultural mechanization and investments in rural services for farm machinery should be encouraged in order to enhance food security. Governments should ensure that the Maputo Declaration calling for increasing budgets for agriculture is achieved\" (AGRA, 2014: 183-185)."}]},{"head":"Box 1. Short-, medium-and long-term action points","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The Economic Community for West African States (ECOWAS) provide several recommendations which can help guide the time-scale of CSA action points."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"In the short term, focus should be directed towards adding value to climate change adaptation actions. Adaptation measures that have been successfully tested for wide application within a given region should be scaled up, depending on the context of the country, while taking agroecological zones into account. Furthermore, the dialogue between stakeholders should be structured for better convergence and coordination of initiatives relating to climate change, in order to effectively mainstream the climate dimension. Key actions include establishing interdisciplinary, multi-stakeholder, and/or cross-sector working groups (ECOWAS, 2015: 2-3)."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"In the medium-and long-term, focus should be on leading research to generate more technological innovations across several thematic areas. This should include little-studied areas such as fisheries, bio-agents control in the conditions of climate change, and the economic behavioural adaptation of communities to climate change impacts and mitigation. More knowledge generation is needed for adapted germplasm breeding regarding plant and animal physiologies under water and heat stress conditions. Also, methodological approaches are needed, likely based on the combination of farm and capacity building activities with research outputs, for improving mass diffusion of research outputs and best practice (ECOWAS, 2014: 26). Finally, the development of advanced decision-making tools is to be encouraged, while simultaneously creating mechanisms to ensure their effective use."}]},{"head":"Who should be involved and what roles would each partner play?","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":" National governments and relevant ministries and agencies, AfDB, sub-regional and national development banks, private sector organizations, and NGOs. the resources of 11 CGIAR centers, FAO and numerous national regional and international partners to provide an integrated approach to natural resource management research. WLE promotes an approach to sustainable intensification in which a healthy functioning ecosystem is seen as a prerequisite to agricultural development, resilience of food systems and human well-being."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":" UN Agencies: UNEP focuses on supporting the adoption of CSA through ecological approaches to increasing food productivity in agriculturally dominated landscapes, whilst maintaining important services produced by natural habitats such as forests, wetlands and rangelands. Healthy ecosystems provide services, including for example water (quality and quantity), nutrients, energy, and pollinators that underpin agricultural productivity, particularly in smallholder dominated landscapes. The actual economic value of such ecosystem services is still underestimated. Recent economic valuation studies underline the importance of a better understanding and inclusion of Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services consideration when developing plans for a more sustainable productive sector."},{"index":3,"size":294,"text":"Examples of such emerging studies include the upcoming study on The Economics of Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity for Agriculture and Food production (TEEB-AgF) and the Economic of Land Degradation study (ELD). Resources can be found at: http://www.teebweb.org/agriculture-and-food/ and http://www.esevaluation.org/index.php/ese-unit/vantage and http://www.esevaluation.org/index.php/res/publication/22-food-and-ecological-security-identifyingsynergy-and-trade-offs. UNEP was also instrumental in the formation of the Ecosystems Based Adaptation for Food Security Assembly (EBAFOSA) 3 , a pan-African policy framework and implementation platform, a solutions space bringing together key stakeholders and actors along the entire EBA-driven agriculture value chain, to forge partnerships aimed at upscaling EBA-driven agriculture and its value chains into policy & implementation through a country driven process to ensure food security, climate adaptation, enhanced productivity of ecosystems and link to supply and demand side value chains  FAO is committed to supporting CSA initiatives at all levels and scales. It implements a large portfolio of projects that is aimed at increasing agricultural productivity and adaptation to climate change in Africa. FAO is also continuing to develop methods, tools, approaches and information that assist in the adoption of CSA and the development of appropriate policy frameworks, and supports countries in their application. CSA is a major area of work under its current strategic programme. FAO also supported NEPAD to facilitate the establishment of the African CSA Alliance and at the regional level FAO is also supporting the regional alliances, including the West African CSA Alliance. FAO has supported linking the national, regional and continental CSA agendas to the National and Regional Agricultural Investment Programmes and the NEPAD Comprehensive African Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP). The FAO country representations are working with the relevant national authorities to facilitate these programmes, and particularly to promote integration of the CSA approach in the national agricultural development strategies and National Adaptation Plans (NAPs)."}]},{"head":"ESTIMATED COSTS AND POSSIBLE FINANCING SOURCES","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Investment needs for agriculture in Africa","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":265,"text":"Generally, information relating to the investment needs for agriculture and climate finance is limited, and may not include all related investment needs (FAO, 2012: 20). Schmidhuber et al. (2009) provided an estimate of cumulated needs for agriculture investment in sub-Saharan Africa, North Africa, and the Near East over the period 2005/7-2050, amounting to approximately USD 2.1 trillion, or USD 48.5 billion per year (FAO, 2012: 20). The amount of annual investment needed to adapt agriculture to climate change is comparatively low, as the expenditure required to counteract the negative impacts of climate change on nutrition are estimated to be only USD 3 billion per year (FAO, 2012: 22). For African countries, climate change adaptation is considered to be more important than mitigation, but agricultural mitigation practices often provide adaptation synergies, justifying investment in mitigation (FAO, 2012: 23). If the African mitigation potential of 265 million tCO2 per year up to 2030 is to be harnessed (e.g. through cropland management, grazing land management and the restoration of degraded lands), it will require investments of USD 2.6-5.3 billion per year, in addition to a carbon price of USD10-20 per ton (FAO, 2012: 23). An additional 812 million tCO2/year can be mitigated through preventing deforestation driven by agricultural expansion, through sustainable intensification practices and forest conservation, which are capable of achieving food security (FAO, 2012: 24). Avoiding 75% of total deforestation in Africa has an additional cost of USD 8.1-16.2 billion per year (FAO, 2012: 25). However, it should be noted that these estimations do not take into account additional costs, such as research, capacity building and planning."}]},{"head":"Other cost considerations","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"There are multiple issues and potential caveats along the pathway to transformational adaptation in the agricultural sector that can lead to additional direct or indirect costs. Critical factors and trade-offs must be considered, as the costs of change can be high if they are not properly taken into account. Transformational change can increase transaction costs, where additional economic or informational transactions are necessary to facilitate change. Opportunity costs should be considered in this context, as adaptation change runs the risk of creating path dependency, locking in choices and constraining future decision-making. Additionally, unintended consequences from current actions may result in additional costs in the long-term, due to narrow and short-term conceptualizations of value. Maladaptation is a potential risk, where adaptation interventions fail to reduce climate change impacts and instead increase adverse outcomes related to climate change, as well as present and future costs. Due to the high stakes and level of complexity compared to incremental forms of adaptation, adequate levels of adaptive capacity are critical for transformational adaptation."}]},{"head":"Financing challenges","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"FAO (2012: 25-26) highlight several factors which limit the availability of financing for climate-smart agriculture. Most smallholder farmers are constrained in their ability to provide the necessarily levels of investment. Furthermore, private sector investment in smallholder agriculture is held back by low returns on investment. Investments in some climate-smart interventions entail upfront costs, while the benefits in productivity, resilience, and mitigation may not be realized for several years. To overcome these barriers to adoption, international climate finance has the capability to leverage additional private sector investments and public expenditures. Innovative mechanisms for delivering financial services, blending public and private finance will be key to accelerate climate action."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Although more financing schemes and funds are becoming available, a pipeline of investmentready projects is lacking. More convincing project proposals are needed in order to make a sufficient business case for potential investors."}]},{"head":"Directing investment","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"CSA is highly context specific, and at times involves trade-offs between productivity, adaptation and mitigation. As such, stakeholder consultation is important when deciding which CSA practice to implement, as factors such as labour availability and agro-ecological conditions may constrain CSA outcomes. Given this context specificity, CSA investment portfolios must be nationally and locally determined. Financing for CSA should be aligned with both national goals and priorities which are relevant to CSA. Providing consistent criteria to select projects and investment portfolios could provide guidance to project proponents and generate more results Depending on whether the project involves the public or private sector, different funding time frames and mechanisms should be utilized. Additionally, various actors need to be involved within both implementation and development of financing mechanisms, including: national governments, RECs, research entities, civil society, private sector, AUC-NEPAD, and the AfDB. Including these various actors will avoid duplication, promote buy-in, and grant increased legitimacy."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Stakeholder engagement mechanisms should be applied at various scales:"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"International level: via UNFCCC processes, donors, and global coalitions Continential level: via AUC-NEPAD"}]},{"head":"Regional level: RECs","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"National level: as defined in NAIPs, and other relevant policies and programs."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Local level: on-the-ground coordination and implementation of CSA activities"},{"index":3,"size":138,"text":"The use of results-based financing for the public sector and civil society can provide accountability for donors and fund managers, where funding is contingent on outputs and outcomes. Up-front funding can be given to provide the training and inputs necessary to enable smallholder farmers to transform their practices. Operating funding is thus connected to specific project outputs, e.g. number of farmers that have been trained in a certain practice or supplied with a technology or input. Finally, residual funding can be provided contingent on the outcomes of the project, e.g. number of farmers who continue to utilize practices derived from training or technological dissemination. To operationalize this type of financing, closelylinked monitoring, reporting and verification frameworks are needed, e.g. GIS monitoring and tracking systems, hand-held/mobile survey tools. Reporting standards and independent verification institutions are critical to providing legitimacy."}]},{"head":"Examples of short-, medium-and long-term financing mechanisms","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Proposals for financing mechanisms are capable of addressing needs depending on the time window of the climate-smart actions at hand. These mechanisms can be categorized broadly, as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":" National budgetary resources are critical for addressing immediate climate-related risks in a given country. When these budgetary funds are mainstreamed into mediumterm planning, they can be used as a sustainable funding mechanism for climate change action."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"  Development banks can provide grants, loans and other monetary instruments, e.g. the ClimDev Special Fund at the AfDB."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":" Global adaptation funds have specific windows to provide support for countries and other relevant entities, e.g. Green Climate Fund and the Adaptation Funds."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":" Emerging markets and other investment funds provide potential funding streams for innovative start-up ventures, e.g. renewable energy projects."},{"index":6,"size":21,"text":" Other monetary instruments include the NEPAD climate change fund, in additional to other mechanisms under consideration by regional economic commissions."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":" EBAFOSA is modelled as a self-financing assembly that will run on membership fees and philanthropic, benevolent and other voluntary contributions."},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"6."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig 2 . Fig 2.Options for storing water at various scales (Source: McCartney and Smakhtin, 2010 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Actions are required from a broad range of stakeholders from government and the public sector, private sector, academia and research, NGOs and CSOs among others as implied in SDG 17, and a practical platform for their engagement and delivery of solutions. Some opportunities are emerging for promoting CSA approaches in Africa. At the 23rd ordinary session of the African Union held in June 2014 in Malabo, Equatorial Guinea, African leaders endorsed the inclusion of CSA in the NEPAD programme on agriculture and climate change. The session also led to the development of the African Climate Smart Agriculture Coordination Platform which is expected to collaborate with Regional  "},{"text":" The meeting requested NPCA in collaboration with FAO to provide urgent technical assistance to AU Member States to implement the CSA programme and that the African Development Bank (AfDB) and partners should provide support to African countries on investments in the CSA field (African Union, 2014). Several countries in Africa already screened their National Agriculture Investment Plans using a framework developed by FAO in consultation with NPCA and identified specific additional investment needs for CSA implementation and upscaling(FAO, 2012). noted that 'water noted that 'water mediates much of climate change impact on agriculture and increased water scarcity in many mediates much of climate change impact on agriculture and increased water scarcity in many regions of the world present a major challenge for climate adaptation, food security and regions of the world present a major challenge for climate adaptation, food security and nutrition'. nutrition'. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA), a concept developed by FAO, is an approach to developing Climate-smart agriculture (CSA), a concept developed by FAO, is an approach to developing the technical, policy and investment conditions to achieve sustainable agricultural development the technical, policy and investment conditions to achieve sustainable agricultural development for food security under climate change (FAO, 2013). It integrates the three dimensions of for food security under climate change (FAO, 2013). It integrates the three dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social and environmental) by jointly addressing the food sustainable development (economic, social and environmental) by jointly addressing the food security, ecosystems management and climate change challenges. It is comprised of three main security, ecosystems management and climate change challenges. It is comprised of three main pillars: pillars:  Sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes;  Sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes;  Adapting and building resilience to climate change;  Adapting and building resilience to climate change;  Reducing and/or removing greenhouse gases emissions, where possible.  Reducing and/or removing greenhouse gases emissions, where possible. CSA is not a prescribed practice or a specific technology that can be universally applied. It is CSA is not a prescribed practice or a specific technology that can be universally applied. It is an approach that requires site-specific assessments of the social, economic and environmental an approach that requires site-specific assessments of the social, economic and environmental conditions to identify appropriate agricultural production technologies and practices. A key conditions to identify appropriate agricultural production technologies and practices. A key component of CSA is integrated landscape approach that follows the principles of ecosystem component of CSA is integrated landscape approach that follows the principles of ecosystem management and sustainable land and water use. management and sustainable land and water use. At the farm level, CSA aims to strengthen livelihoods and food security, especially of At the farm level, CSA aims to strengthen livelihoods and food security, especially of smallholders, by improving the management and use of natural resources and adopting smallholders, by improving the management and use of natural resources and adopting appropriate approaches and technologies for the production, processing and marketing of appropriate approaches and technologies for the production, processing and marketing of agricultural commodities. At the national level, CSA seeks to support countries in putting in agricultural commodities. At the national level, CSA seeks to support countries in putting in place the necessary policy, technical and financial mechanisms to mainstream climate change place the necessary policy, technical and financial mechanisms to mainstream climate change adaptation and mitigation into agricultural sectors and provide a basis for operationalizing adaptation and mitigation into agricultural sectors and provide a basis for operationalizing sustainable agricultural development under changing conditions. sustainable agricultural development under changing conditions. Efforts to promote CSA in Africa are advancing at the policy level. At the 23rd ordinary session Efforts to promote CSA in Africa are advancing at the policy level. At the 23rd ordinary session of the African Union (AU) held in June 2014 in Malabo, Equitorial Guinea, African leaders of the African Union (AU) held in June 2014 in Malabo, Equitorial Guinea, African leaders endorsed the inclusion of CSA in the NEPAD programme on agriculture and climate change. endorsed the inclusion of CSA in the NEPAD programme on agriculture and climate change. The session also led to the development of the African Climate Smart Agriculture Alliance The session also led to the development of the African Climate Smart Agriculture Alliance which is expected to enable the NEPAD Planning and Coordinating Agency to collaborate with which is expected to enable the NEPAD Planning and Coordinating Agency to collaborate with Regional Economic Communities (RECs) and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) in Regional Economic Communities (RECs) and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) in targeting 25 million farm households by 2025. As a follow up action at the sub-continental targeting 25 million farm households by 2025. As a follow up action at the sub-continental level, ECOWAS, for instance, also put in place the West Africa CSA Alliance to support the level, ECOWAS, for instance, also put in place the West Africa CSA Alliance to support the mainstreaming of CSA into the ECOWAP/CAADP programmes (ECOWAS, 2015; Zougmoré mainstreaming of CSA into the ECOWAP/CAADP programmes (ECOWAS, 2015; Zougmoré et al., 2015). The NEPAD Heads of State and Government Orientation Committee at its 31st et al., 2015). The NEPAD Heads of State and Government Orientation Committee at its 31st session also welcomed the innovative partnership between NPCA and major global NGOs to session also welcomed the innovative partnership between NPCA and major global NGOs to strengthen grass-root adaptive capacity to climate change and boost agricultural productivity. strengthen grass-root adaptive capacity to climate change and boost agricultural productivity.  "},{"text":" models. A number of new studies, analytical tools and decision support models are becoming available that can help to make informed decision about CSA. A few examples of decision support tools are highlighted below: a. FAO in consultation with NEPAD and the Worldbank developed a screening framework in the context of CAADP to identify priority areas for CSA financing based on existing NAIPS. This framework helps to identify potential activities or programs planned in the current NAIP that have high CSA potential, as well as those that could potentially have high CSA potential but need further refinement and clarification to determine CSA potential.(Table 1). b. The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) leads capacity building of African farmers and up-scaling of CSA technologies through strategic partnership and using several decision support tools developed by the research team.  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Categories of climate-smart agriculture investments 2 Analytical categories for climate-smart investments: resilience  Adaptation Dimensions of system resilience Elements of system resilience AdaptationDimensions of system resilienceElements of system resilience Reducing vulnerability Increase physical resilience Water quantity and quality, soil resource & soil Reducing vulnerabilityIncrease physical resilienceWater quantity and quality, soil resource & soil related to slow onset  fertility, seed resources, livestock related to slow onsetfertility, seed resources, livestock climate change   climate change  Increase economic resilience Income diversification, risk management, off- Increase economic resilienceIncome diversification, risk management, off- (increasing system  farm earnings, diversity of employment (increasing systemfarm earnings, diversity of employment resilience)  opportunities, health and social services, resilience)opportunities, health and social services,   markets markets  Increase human and social Extension and access to technical know-how, Increase human and socialExtension and access to technical know-how,  resilience farmer organization, connection to social resiliencefarmer organization, connection to social   networks, education and training, information networks, education and training, information   management management Reducing   Reducing  "},{"text":"vulnerability to extreme events Analytical categories for climate-smartness: mitigation Mitigation : Comparison against a business-as-usual scenario   "},{"text":" Partnerships networks: including Africa CSA alliance, West Africa alliance, Global CSA alliance, EBAFOSA.  International Agricultural Research Centers: The institutions convoked to develop this technical paper have mandates that will enable them to contribute technical knowledge and expertise to the implementation of CSA in African countries. CCAFS addresses the increasing challenge of global warming and declining food security on agricultural practices, policies and measures through a strategic collaboration between CGIAR and Future Earth. Led by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), CCAFS is a collaboration among all 15 CGIAR research centers and coordinates with the other CGIAR research programs. CCAFS brings together the world's best researchers in agricultural science, climate science, environmental and social sciences to identify and address the most important interactions, synergies and trade-offs between climate change and agriculture. Learn more about our partners. IWMI works as a think tank to provide science-based solutions, products and tools and to facilitate capacity strengthening and uptake of research findings. IWMI has offices in Eastern, Southern, North and West Africa and leads the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems which combines  "},{"text":" Private sector funds and bonds derived from market mechanisms are needed in instances where the private sector is taking an active role in financing new CSA technologies. Different private sector financing mechanisms are needed that target different areas: e.g. large agri-business value chains, sustainability standards, national/regional suppliers, etc.  Concessionary mechanisms have been instrumental in other build, operate and transfer schemes, and could be used to drive climate-related investment where concessionary agreements can be successfully negotiated.  Bilateral and multilateral funding are development tools relied upon by many African countries. Funding can be negotiated to incorporate the additional need for climate change adaptation, bringing climate action into new borrowing and lending instruments.  "}],"sieverID":"3f20dbc8-bf71-47f8-9f7b-748a207fc449","abstract":""}