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{"metadata":{"id":"0007752bd3ca8070343eca6a97b4783a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5efc1659-9d57-4cee-ac18-8b07ddee079e/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"ILRI-Masaka partnership","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The partnership made it possible to regularly collect blood samples to confirm disease outbreaks "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"3 At the project inception in 2012, Masaka was ranked as a potential site for SPVCD During the scoping survey by ILRI there was evidence of active small holder pig farmers that justified the need for SPVCD work A partnership was then formed between Masaka District Local Government and ILRI to implement the program Several Interventions have been piloted with this partnership "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Potato silage; an alternative pig feed Marketing (Pig business hubs) Pig Multi-Stakeholders' Platforms Pig Multi-Stakeholders' Platforms 10 10 Pig MSPs was one of the Masaka opted for a pig business Other interventions greatest achievements under hub model under the \" More pork the partnership project\" sub-component with Irish comprises of stakeholders from Greater Masaka pig MSP Aid Buyers, middlemen and Transporter s Pig MSPs was one of the Masaka opted for a pig business Other interventions greatest achievements under hub model under the \" More pork the partnership project\" sub-component with Irish comprises of stakeholders from Greater Masaka pig MSP AidBuyers, middlemen and Transporter s Mpigi, Masaka, Kalangala, Mpigi, Masaka, Kalangala, Ssembabule, Bukomansimbi, Kalungu, Rakai Farmers Butchers Ssembabule, Bukomansimbi, Kalungu, RakaiFarmersButchers Arising out of the MSPs Arising out of the MSPs discussions, Eight (8) Primary pig discussions, Eight (8) Primary pig farmers cooperative societies were formed that united to form the Greater Masaka Pig The consumer farmers cooperative societies were formed that united to form the Greater Masaka PigThe consumer Cooperative union Ltd Cooperative union Ltd "},{"text":"Sweet Potato silage; an alternative pig feed Capacity development We seek the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries and Partners to give technical and financial support to complete the pig-hub proposal to fulfill the farmers objective of having fair trade of their pigs Conclusion Conclusion 13 14 13 14 392 farmers connected to the cooperative The value chain approach ensures holistic development 392 farmers connected to the cooperative The value chain approach ensures holistic development were trained in enterprise development were trained in enterprise development 300 farmers have been trained in silage 300 farmers have been trained in silage making making Extension staff have had trainings in; pork Extension staff have had trainings in; pork inspection, silage making, biosecurity, disease inspection, silage making, biosecurity, disease surveillance surveillance Pork Butchers trained in safe handling of pork Pork Butchers trained in safe handling of pork "}],"sieverID":"0eccf324-7735-407b-8195-5326367057e8","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"002254e7f4e28cf9df70c9ef817b03e2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/888051c2-8e3a-42db-8f6a-f4d780b40989/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Genetic diversity of Sri Lankan cassava mosaic virus (SLCMV) in Southeast Asia -preliminary analysis","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":256,"text":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) stands as a pivotal staple crop supporting millions in tropical and subtropical regions (Ferrero et al., 2016). Despite its significance, cassava cultivation faces ongoing challenges, prominently from diseases such as Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD), with Sri Lankan cassava mosaic virus (SLCMV) emerging as the predominant causative agent in South Asia and Southeast Asia since its discovery (Ntui et al., 2023). Classified within the genus Begomovirus of the family Geminiviridae, SLCMV possesses a genome consisting of two singlestranded DNA molecules, DNA-A and DNA-B, each approximately 2.8 Kb in size. Transmission occurs via the whitefly Bemisia tabaci and contained stem (Fauquet et al., 2008;Maruthi et al., 2014). The virus induces mosaic symptoms, leaf distortion, and stunted growth in infected plants (Figure 1), impacting both the quality and quantity of cassava yield and posing a serious risk to cassava production worldwide (Legg et al., 2014;Siriwan et al., 2020). Originally identified in Sri Lanka, SLCMV has rapidly spread to various parts of Asia. Countries, including India, Indonesia, Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, China, and Laos, have reported outbreaks of SLCMV (Wang et al., 2016;Uke et al., 2018;Wang et al., 2019;Leiva et al., 2019;Chittarath et al., 2021;Wang et al., 2020). Given the recent outbreak in Southeast Asia, the identification of two SLCMV virus variants that can differ in their virulence (Wang et al., 2020) and the multiple species of rel;ated viruses that can cause the same symptoms (Legg et al., 2014), there is a critical need to develop an early detection method for all Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD)causing begomoviruses."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Currently, Sanger sequencing remains the standard for virus sequencing, either through cloning in plasmids or directly as PCR products. While next-generation sequencing (NGS) approaches, such as Illumina technology (Illumina, Inc.), often have longer turnaround times and require larger capital investments (Besser et al., 2018), emerging portable sequencing technologies like Oxford Nanopore are gaining wider application. This trend necessitates a comprehensive understanding of virus distribution for effective management strategies (Kreuze et al., 2022)."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"Nanopore sequencing, pioneered by Oxford Nanopore Technologies, offers several advantages in the context of SLCMV genomics. This technology operates on the principle of passing DNA through nanopores, enabling real-time, long-read sequencing and the capture of complex genomic structures (Jain et al., 2016). The adoption of nanopore sequencing has significantly contributed to exploring the genomic diversity of SLCMV in Asian countries. Studies utilizing this innovative technology have revealed novel strains, variations, and genomic rearrangements, providing valuable insights into the evolutionary dynamics of the viruses within the region (Tyagi et al., 2020)."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"The capability of nanopore sequencing to generate long reads facilitates comprehensive genome coverage, thereby aiding accurate strain identification and the detection of potential recombinant events (Wick et al., 2019). The method used here has been peer-reviewed (Leiva et al., 2020) and in this report we confirm its suitability as a genome surveillance tool when applied to multiplexed samples."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"Here we report the preliminary analysis of SLCMV, delving into its genomic features and current geographical distribution. An urgent need exists for an in-depth understanding of the virus's evolution to enhance early detection methods and inform management. Through the integration of diverse research perspectives, our objective is to contribute to the development of sustainable strategies for mitigating the impact of SLCMV on cassava."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Biological samples:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"We analyzed a total of 187 samples for our study. SLCMV sequences were acquired through two methods. Firstly, we accessed the Viral Genome Resource (VGR) at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/viruses/), a reference resource designed to enhance the usability of viral sequence data. From this resource, we selected 64 complete SLCMV genomes. In addition, we incorporated 123 new sequences from Southeast Asia (SEA) gathered in Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia between 2019 and 2022. The sequences from Southeast Asia were accessed via: https://pestdisplace.org/projects/PDP_00063/map#1.74/6.8/51.6 (Table 1). Regarding genome characterization, DNA-A exhibits an average size of 2759 base pairs (bp), with 2500 bp conserved, representing 9.9% variable positions. Nucleotide frequencies are distributed as follows: 28.9% (A), 25.2% (T), 23.8% (C), and 22% (G) (Table 2). Conversely, DNA-B averages 2762 bp, with a conserved gene length of 2369 bp. Nucleotide frequencies for DNA-B are 26.1% (A), 31.3% (T), 19.6% (C), and 23% (G) (Table 2). These characteristics align with reported values for the SLCMV virus (Zhou et al.,2003;Malichan et al., 2023). et al., 2020;Wang et al., 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":162,"text":"The analysis utilized the Maximum Composite Likelihood model, considering codon positions 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and noncoding. Ambiguous positions were excluded using pairwise deletion, resulting in a final dataset of 2759 positions for evolutionary analyses. The results of the neutrality test are presented in Tables 4 and 5 for DNA-A and DNA-B, respectively. The hypothesis of a population in two-fragment equilibrium is rejected based on the test outcomes. Tajima D values were consistently negative across all cases, suggesting that SLCMV is under negative selective pressure in all countries except Thailand for DNA-B (Tajima et al., 1989). Negative selection acts to maintain or eliminate deleterious mutations (Manrubia and Lázaro, 2006). Viruses undergo changes or experience instability in their environment, influenced by the dynamic immune response of the host, which can result in variable effects on the virus's genetic makeup (Markham et al., 1998). Regarding nucleotide diversity, it was higher in Thailand than in the other countries assessed, confirming the observations listed in Table 3. "}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The genomic information obtained with the described protocol is of a high quality according to standard tests. This quality is required to proceed with the sequence analysis presented here."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"The analysis of SLCMV genome surveillance in Southeast Asia confirms the presence of only one species, as our generic protocol has not detected any other CMD-associated begomovirus. However, a second branch of SLCMV, characterized by isolates containing a larger rep gene, is identified at the border between Cambodia (Svay Chek) and Thailand."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"The prevalence of genomes with the short version of the Rep gene dominates across all regions. The neutrality test consistently yielded negative indices for the evaluated regions, indicating a population in equilibrium. These results affirm the efficacy and versatility of the nanopore sequencing technique and the employed protocol for SLCMV."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Symptoms to CMD in cassava plant from Thailand 2019. (Siriwan 2019) "},{"text":"FIGURE 2 . FIGURE 2. Phylogenetic analysis of all consensus sequences from DNA-A of SLCMV using IQTree with 1000 bootstrap replications using Maximum Likelihood. involving 2759 Nucleotide bases. The provenance of each sample is represented on the tree by one color per country, Red: Vietnam; Blue: Laos, Black: Cambodia, Yellow: Thailand, Dark Purple: South Korea, Purple: China, Green: India, and Turquoise: Sri Lanka "},{"text":"Table 1 . List of samples used in this reporting. Sample Code DNA-A sample code DNA-B virus Country Locality Sample Code DNA-Asample code DNA-BvirusCountryLocality 1_F15_L 1_F15_L SLCMV Laos Champasack 1_F15_L1_F15_LSLCMVLaosChampasack 1_F7_L 1_F7_L SLCMV Laos Attapue 1_F7_L1_F7_LSLCMVLaosAttapue 1_L 1_L SLCMV Laos Attapue 1_L1_LSLCMVLaosAttapue 10_C_u_S1_20_C 10_C_u_S1_20_C SLCMV cambodia Oddor Meanchey 10_C_u_S1_20_C10_C_u_S1_20_CSLCMVcambodiaOddor Meanchey 105_V 105_V SLCMV Vietnam Đăk Lăk 105_V105_VSLCMVVietnamĐăk Lăk 109_V 109_V SLCMV Vietnam Đăk Lăk 109_V109_VSLCMVVietnamĐăk Lăk 110_V 110_V SLCMV Vietnam Đăk Lăk 110_V110_VSLCMVVietnamĐăk Lăk 12_C_u 12_C_u SLCMV cambodia Oddor Meanchey 12_C_u12_C_uSLCMVcambodiaOddor Meanchey 125_V 125_V SLCMV Vietnam Binh Phuoc 125_V125_VSLCMVVietnamBinh Phuoc 126_V 126_V SLCMV Vietnam Binh Phuoc 126_V126_VSLCMVVietnamBinh Phuoc 130_V 130_V SLCMV Vietnam Binh Phuoc 130_V130_VSLCMVVietnamBinh Phuoc 131_V 131_V SLCMV Vietnam Binh Phuoc 131_V131_VSLCMVVietnamBinh Phuoc 132_V 132_V SLCMV Vietnam Binh Phuoc 132_V132_VSLCMVVietnamBinh Phuoc 133_V 133_V SLCMV Vietnam Tay Ninh 133_V133_VSLCMVVietnamTay Ninh 134_V 134_V SLCMV Vietnam Tay Ninh 134_V134_VSLCMVVietnamTay Ninh "},{"text":"TABLE 2 . Characteristics of the studied SLCMV sequences. A. values determined for DNA-A genome and B. values determined for DNA-B genome.Table3presents estimates of net evolutionary divergence among DNA-A sequences. The number of base substitutions per site reflects the net average between sequence groups. While most groups exhibit low divergence values, noteworthy distinctions arise in the Sri Lankan region, the initial reported site in Asia, and the group in Thailand. The latter group features both short and long versions of the rep gene, showcasing a correlation with virulence (Sirwan A B AB "},{"text":"Table 3 . Estimates of net evolutionary divergence among sequence groups utilizing DNA-A reveal the number of base substitutions per site, illustrating the net average between these groups. The analyses employed the Maximum Composite Likelihood model. India SriLanka China Thailand South_Korea Laos Cambodia IndiaSriLankaChinaThailandSouth_Korea LaosCambodia India India SriLanka 0,0010749 SriLanka0,0010749 China 0,0046855 0,0072919 China0,0046855 0,0072919 Thailand 0,0029914 0,0055521 0,0012357 Thailand0,0029914 0,00555210,0012357 South_Korea 0,0050785 0,0075928 0,0009722 0,0016313 South_Korea 0,0050785 0,00759280,00097220,0016313 Laos 0,0044972 0,0070473 0,0006736 0,0013144 0,0011971 Laos0,0044972 0,00704730,00067360,00131440,0011971 Cambodia 0,0043940 0,0069394 0,0004669 0,0011655 0,0009584 0,0000413 Cambodia0,0043940 0,00693940,00046690,00116550,00095840,0000413 Vietnam 0,0044171 0,0070107 0,0005042 0,0011548 0,0008083 0,0000812 0,0000287 Vietnam0,0044171 0,00701070,00050420,00115480,00080830,0000812 0,0000287 "},{"text":"Table 4 . Results from Tajima's Neutrality Test DNA-A Number of segregating sites, ps = S/n, Θ = ps/a1, π = nucleotide diversity, and D is the Tajima test statistic. = number of sequences, S = Number of segregating sites, ps = S/n, Θ = ps/a1, π = nucleotide diversity, and D is the Tajima test statistic m S ps Θ π D mSpsΘπD Vietnam 71 157 0,056905 0,011775 0,003307 -2,483336 Vietnam711570,0569050,0117750,003307-2,483336 Cambodia 28 49 0,017760 0,004564 0,002108 -2,028154 Cambodia28490,0177600,0045640,002108-2,028154 Laos 38 63 0,022834 0,005435 0,002180 -2,173049 Laos38630,0228340,0054350,002180-2,173049 SK 3 16 0,005799 0,003866 0,003866 n/c SK3160,0057990,0038660,003866n/c Thailand 20 50 0,018123 0,005108 0,004637 -0,370838 Thailand20500,0181230,0051080,004637-0,370838 China 3 8 0,002900 0,001933 0,001933 n/c China380,0029000,0019330,001933n/c Total 164 259 0,093875 0,016545 0,003355 -2,573849 Total1642590,0938750,0165450,003355-2,573849 SriLanka 6 201 0,072852 0,031906 0,025806 -1,241112 SriLanka62010,0728520,0319060,025806-1,241112 India 17 330 0,119609 0,035380 0,023932 -1,395375 India173300,1196090,0353800,023932-1,395375 "}],"sieverID":"3a2f5d80-c087-466d-971c-4a97612a114d","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"003fce3387b6e9c9f9f323476ed7e89e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/28ae12ca-0e95-4d77-804f-0f5721e24cb6/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"Effective Strategies to Mitigate Methane Emissions by Ruminants","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Ruminant Livestock Burps Release Methane (CH 4 )"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• The rumen (stomach) of ruminants is a fermentation vessel"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• It harbors microbes that decompose and ferment feed "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" metric tons Source: Modified after Henchion et al., 2021 and FAO. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Coal Mining, 9% Municipal Solid waste, 11% Oil & Gas, 24% Wastewater, 7% Rice cultivation, 7% Other sources, 12% Global CH 4 Emissions Global CH 4 Emissions • Livestock enteric fermentation • Livestock enteric fermentation contributes 27% of anthropogenic CH 4 Enteric Fermentation, 27% contributes 27% of anthropogenic CH 4Enteric Fermentation, 27% Agriculture (Manure Agriculture (Manure Management), 3% Management), 3% • This process is called enteric • This process is called enteric fermentation and produces fermentation and produces CH 4 as one of the by-products CH 4 as one of the by-products "}],"sieverID":"5aa1f1be-498f-4bcb-b008-ca75a6a8f722","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0130474565f21df082eff6c9bddf7b2b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/072a961a-babd-437f-840b-2246759c8833/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"Financing animal health services in some African countries LPU Working Paper No. 1","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Table of Contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Past livestock development projects in sub-Saharan Africa have mostly emphasized the transfer of technology proven successful in commercial ranching operations in the developed market economies and the provision of credit as well as technical assistance to facilitate such a transfer. After long years of somewhat frustrating experience, it has now become increasingly obvious that an adequate understanding and analysis of the economic and social policy issues involved in the livestock sector are as important as technological inputs or credit. The International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) recently established a Livestock Policy Unit to look into some of the policy issues considered important in sub-Saharan Africa. One of these is the financing of livestock services."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"The systematic study of the financing of agricultural services is a topic which has largely been neglected in the past, both by African governments and external donors. In the livestock field, the few exceptions which exist have been studies concerning animal health services carried out for some West African countries under French technical cooperation."},{"index":3,"size":136,"text":"Livestock services obviously cover a wider area than just animal health services for which information from the existing literature is more readily available, partly as a result of the historical importance of veterinary services in livestock development in' tropical Africa. ILCA's Livestock Policy Unit, however, intends to study also other services which include animal husbandry. services involving extension and training, as well as marketing, management and research services among others. The general purpose of the study is to examine how such livestock services are financed and the effect that the method of financing has on: the adequacy of the service provided the government's net budgetary burden; the extent to which different classes of livestock owners producers use livestock services; equity issues in the delivery and use of these services; and the economic efficiency of resource allocation."},{"index":4,"size":242,"text":"As a starting point this paper deals with the financing of animal health services and extensively draws on information available in the studies carried out by IEMVT, GTZ and SEDES. The paper is essentially descriptive at this stage mainly due to lack of complete data. It therefore attempts to describe the financing situation in 13 West African countries (mainly Francophone) and to some degree Madagascar. The period covered is mostly the 1970's although data are reported for earlier periods. The analysis toward the end of the paper is only very preliminary and at that further restricted, in several instances, to some six or seven of the fourteen countries. Although the quality of data available for these countries has naturally been a criterion for selecting them, lack of consistency in the information contained in the several sources has at times created considerable problems. One such problem has been that some of the reports tend to treat livestock services as being identical with animal health services while in others the distinction between animal health services and other livestock services is recognized but only partially accounted for in the information presented. The evidence from those countries which make the distinction indicates that the animal health budgets constitute on average over 70% of the livestock services budgets. So in practice I have glossed over the problem for the time being, by treating the data for livestock services as ones also pertaining to animal health services. 1"}]},{"head":"The size and composition of the animal health services operating budget","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The evolution of the animal health budget","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"Much of the information contained in this part of the paper is taken from reports prepared by IEMVT (1980), GTZ and SEDES (1976, 1977), and SEDES (1975). IEMVT covered about 19 countries in West and Central Africa, while the GTZ/SEDES reports covered seven West African (Sahelian) countries. The SEDES (1975) statistical tables cover a total of 24 countries-13 in West, 8 in Central and 3 in Eastern and Southern Africa (Mauritius, Somalia and Madagascar). The data presented in the tables in this paper are the result of a combination of these sources for the 14 countries selected. Where figures for the same year are given in each source, the figures from the more recent reports are taken in the belief that these represent a more reliable basis. Table A in the annex to this paper summarizes the evolution of the animal health budget over 14 years for the 14 countries for which data are readily available from the literature."},{"index":2,"size":209,"text":"It can be seen from that table that funds allocated by most countries to livestock services have generally been increasing in absolute (but current value) terms during the 12-14 years up to 1978/79. The striking exception is the Central African Republic's allocation from 1970/71 onwards which, if the figures are correct, have sharply fallen and have remained well below that of 1970/71. The share of animal health services in total national budgets for all sectors shows a consistent decline in most cases: This is demonstrated by some of the countries for which data are continuously available over a reasonably long period. In Chad, a major surplus producer, the share of the livestock services in the total national budget has fallen from about 2% in 1965/66 to about 1% in 1975/76. In Upper Volta, Mauritania and Niger, again major surplus producing countries, this share has fallen respectively from 1.4, 2 and 3% in 1965/66 to 0.8, 0.4 and 1% in 1977/78. On the other hand Mali, Senegal and Benin seem to have maintained the share of their budgetary allocations to livestock at more or less the same and relatively high level over the years. The Gambia and Ivory Coast have maintained a stable share but at a relatively lower level."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Table A includes information on the share of livestock services in government budgetary expenditure for agriculture as distinct from total budgetary expenditure for all sectors. On the whole, data for total agricultural expenditure on which the percentage share calculations are based were available only for a few years and for a few countries."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"Although absolute allocations to livestock services have continuously increased in all the countries (except Sierra Leone in 78/79) over the different years for which percentage share calculations could be made, no general pattern of relationship can be established between these allocations and their relative share in total agricultural expenditure."},{"index":5,"size":142,"text":"In Chad, the relative share of livestock services in the total agricultural budget declined from 4.7% in 1971/72 to 2.9% in 1973/74 and again rose to 4% in 1975/76. The increased percentage share in 1975/76 resulted from the reduction in the absolute allocation to non-livestock agricultural services rather than to any dramatic increase in the allocation to livestock services. In Niger, the percentage share by livestock services in total agricultural expenditure declined from 16% in 1975/76 to 7.9% in 1978/79 as a result of a higher rate of growth in the allocation to non-livestock agricultural services than to livestock services. For the Gambia, the figure declined from 11.5% in 1972/73 to 3.2% in 1977/78 for basically the same reason as Niger, although the increase to 5.8% in 1974/75 was due to the absolute reduction in the allocation to the nonlivestock agricultural services."},{"index":6,"size":84,"text":"In Upper Volta between 1972/73 and 1977/78, and Sierra Leone between 1973/74 and 1976/77, increases in the relative share of livestock services resulted from the higher rate of growth in the allocation to livestock services while both this and the absolute allocations to non-livestock services continued to grow. For Sierra Leone, the sudden jump in the percentage share by livestock services was a result of the absolute reduction in the allocation to non-livestock agricultural services as was also the case for Cameroon in 1977/78."},{"index":7,"size":61,"text":"One need not over-emphasize the weakness of the data base for drawing meaningful conclusions from the above presentation. On the other hand, the figures may be indicative of the inherent inconsistencies in the budget allocation process which can adversely affect the financing of livestock services in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The following section is meant to demonstrate this point further."}]},{"head":"Expenditure for animal health services and livestock's role in the economy","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":189,"text":"Table B shows the relationship between the contributions the livestock sub-sector makes to agricultural GDP and the central government expenditures allocated, to the sub-sector. Unfortunately the figures shown could only be calculated from data available for 1979 so that any trend which may have emerged in relation to earlier years could not be identified. Nevertheless, it is clear that in many cases the livestock sector is not getting an allocation proportionate to what it contributes to the agricultural sector and the economy as a whole: A simple measure to test this was used for the countries for which all relevant data were available. The measure-the ratio of the percentage share of government agricultural expenditure in agricultural GDP to the percentage share of livestock expenditure in livestock CDP-was calculated and gives the following results: Cameroon's case may be more justifiable both in terms of the large livestock population involved and the diversified ecology existing in the country. Cameroon also happened to be one of the few so-called high performers in both livestock and general agricultural production during the last 15-20 years (preliminary indication from a study under preparation in ILCA)."}]},{"head":"Composition of the animal health budget","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"In many cases staff and non-staff costs can be separately distinguished in the overall budget for livestock services. Table C shows the breakdown for the 14 countries and the years for which data are available. It is clear from the table that in most of the countries the share of non-staff costs in the total operating expenditure indicates a declining trend. Madagascar and Sierra Leone are the exception. In Madagascar the share of non-staff expenditure was more or less maintained during the six years reported; in Sierra Leone this share in fact showed a substantial increase."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Although non-staff budgetary allocations have in the majority of cases shown an increase in absolute terms 2 during the 13-or 14-year period it is the higher rate of increase of staff budgets that has given rise to this situation. Staff budgets have risen mainly for two, reasons. Firstly, the number of national animal health staff of all categories has considerably increased after independence without a commensurate or proportionate increase in the allocation of the facilities and materials made available for them to work effectively."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"2. The sources do not state whether the figures are at current or constant prices but it is assumed that both staff and non-staff expenditures are in current prices."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"Secondly, salary increases to animal health staff have further contributed to staff cost increases. One could say that increasing unit costs of materials such as vaccines, drugs and veterinary equipment could have equally contributed to increased non-staff costs. These, however, could be varied by reducing the amount or number to be purchased in order to keep overall budgetary expenditure under restraint. This could hardly be done in the case of staff already trained or in post."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"While, the ideal proportion of staff and non-staff expenditure is a subject that needs more investigation, at this stage the more worrisome part is that the share of non-staff expenditure (often referred to in the literature as expenditure for \"material\") is declining in the majority of the countries. The implications of this in terms of the quality of services provided is rather evident apart from the wastage of expensively trained but underutilized manpower. We will come back to the presentation of the available information in somewhat greater detail later in the paper."},{"index":6,"size":296,"text":"Information on the composition of the animal health budget, as between operational (current) and investment (capital or development) expenditure, is very difficult to obtain. In fact the operational budgets of some of the countries include the investment or capital portion (e.g. Cameroon). The very term investment or capital expenditure needs a clearer definition, because in many cases vehicles are considered as part of the operating budget (in Francophone countries designated as \"budgets de fonctionnement\"). In one case (Chad) even expenditure for the construction of stock routes (pistes à betail) is considered as part of the operational budget. Data are only available for budgetary expenditures of the six French-speaking Sahelian countries as shown in Table D. Due to lack of adequate data providing separate figures for operational and investment expenditure for most countries, it was unfortunately not possible to provide a broad picture of how operational and investment expenditure by government on livestock services compared to these two categories of government expenditure in the rest of the agricultural sector or in the economy as a whole. We could only calculate some approximate indicator for three of the countries (Mali, Upper Volta and Senegal) using national expenditure data reported by the IMF (1982). Using simple annual averages from the data in Table D and IMF (1982) budgetary expenditure figures for 1975 or 1976 as a base it was possible to calculate that the percentage shares of operational and investment expenditure by livestock services in total national operational (current) and investment (capital) expenditure were as follows. 3 A, which were used as a basis for calculating livestock expenditure as a proportion of the total national budget, excluded external aid and capital expenditure. However, the calculations given here are based on agricultural budgets which include external aid and capital expenditure."}]},{"head":"The national budget figures in Table","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"The above could only be taken as a further demonstration of the inadequate attention that is being given to livestock development, particularly in the case of Mali and Upper Volta where livestock contributes over 10% of the total GDP."}]},{"head":"Sources and methods of financing","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"The role of external financing","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Again there is information only for the six Francophone Sahelian countries and only for four or five years up to1975. As can be calculated from Table D the share of external financing in total expenditure is quite high. Table 1 below provides data for some individual countries."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"Table 1. Share of external aid in total operating and investment expenditure (1971)(1972)(1973)(1974)(1975). In Chad, Mali and Upper Volta investment expenditure for animal health services is totally dependent on external sources. For Niger, this share is relatively low. In Senegal, external aid was either not available or was not used for investment purposes, if the data in Table D give the correct picture. In Senegal, the growth rate of budgetary allocations for livestock services has in general kept pace with the growth rate of the total operating budget from domestic sources."}]},{"head":"Country","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"It is perhaps not surprising that investment expenditure was so much dependent on external sources since much of the fixed capital items required the outlay of scarce foreign exchange which foreign donors could provide. Moreover, donors usually prefer to finance investment expenditure for several reasons which need not be elaborated here. The surprising thing is that the operating budget depended on outside financing to the extent it did particularly in Chad. It is again unfortunate that yearly figures are not available to show if the share of external financing has been increasing or decreasing during the period covered, but it would be interesting to find out how such countries cope with financing operating costs after external aid phases out. 4 4. M. Sall (personal communication July 1983) categorically states that they do not do anything apart from asking another donor to take over."},{"index":2,"size":381,"text":"Apart from personnel costs, much of the operating expenditure in animal health services consists of the purchase and distribution costs of vaccines, drugs and acaricides and the running and maintenance costs of vehicles, veterinary equipment and fixed capital items such as buildings. Senegal, Chad, Niger and Mali produce vaccines required for many of the contagious animal diseases. In fact Senegal and Chad export considerable quantities of vaccines to neighbouring countries (IEMVT 1980) while Niger and Mali are reported to produce enough vaccine for their own needs in treating or immunizing the more important economic diseases such as rinderpest and CBPP. Veterinary drugs and chemicals as well as fuel and maintenance items for vehicles normally have to be imported. Assuming that external financing is directly related to the requirement of foreign currency to purchase these items, then the share of external financing in the operating expenditure of animal health services ought to bear some relationship to the required expenditure on these items. The absence of information providing an itemized breakdown of the \"materials\" portion of the operating expenditure does not allow an exploration of what the relationship should look like in the different countries. However, using budget data developed by Nico Nissen (1982) for the provision of government veterinary services, there is an indication that for Chad, which produces vaccines locally and is assumed therefore not to need to import, the actual share of external financing is higher than the requirements of foreign currency to purchase important items. Nissen's data were developed on the assumption that vaccines and vaccinations are free, drugs have to be paid for by livestock owners and both are applied by government veterinary services and on more or less ideal standards of staffing. Let us further assume that vaccines need not be imported and paid for in foreign currency by countries that produce these (Senegal, Chad, Mali and Niger); that all drugs and chemicals are imported, and that operating costs for transportation, storage and distribution have a 75% foreign exchange component. On this basis, the share of external financing in total operating expenditure should be only 51% instead of 64% in the case of Chad, and 37% instead of 8%, 56% instead of 48%, and 49% instead of 17% in the case of Senegal, Mali and Niger respectively."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"The assumption that external funds are provided to finance only foreign exchange needs in livestock services may appear a rather unrealistic assumption. However, historically external aid for development had most often been directly related to meeting foreign currency shortages faced by recipient countries. This said, could not one conclude that Chad's \"domestic effort\" in financing the recurrent expenditure portion of livestock services is less than the rest? At this point, it may be interesting to note that Chad has registered the weakest annual growth rate in its domestic livestock services budget during the 1961/62 -1975/76 period (2.6%), while Senegal registered the highest rate (8.9% per year on average). Niger's and Mali's livestock services budget grew at 5.2 and 4.7% respectively (Nissen 1982)."},{"index":4,"size":184,"text":"Most indications are that the financing of animal health services in most countries has not reached a level appropriate to the need of adequate protection of the livestock population from the most important economic diseases. Several factors could explain this situation. One may be the low priority which has been given to livestock in development policy despite its significant contribution to the economy and despite the fact that in many African countries veterinary services not only comprise the single most important service package provided for livestock development but also have a relatively good record, at least in comparison with other livestock and agricultural services, for effectiveness. Another factor could be the absolute or relative inability for countries to mobilize resources and maintain an adequate level of financing to provide adequate animal health services even if the political will to do this were there. Still another could be the way in which they raise and utilize financial resources from domestic sources. The next section will try to deal with this aspect however qualitative the discussion is bound to be due to lack of quantitative data."}]},{"head":"Livestock related revenue","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"In many African countries taxes on cattle used to be the major source of revenue collected from pastoral herders. Cattle head taxes have now been suspended or abolished in several countries in Africa either because of practical administrative difficulties and irregularities in their collection or because they became counterproductive in the governments' efforts to census the animal resource: For example in Nigeria the \"jangali\" tax which existed from the early 19th century was abolished in 1975, and in Madagascar the cattle head tax was abolished in 1972. In most Sahelian countries the cattle head tax was either suspended or abolished to reprieve herders from the hardship brought about by the drought of the early 1970's. In many cases these taxes were in existence from pre-colonial times although they were legalized during the colonial period."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"In more recent times a wide variety of duties, taxes, fees and charges have been applied in most countries possibly in part as a response to the increased livestock services being provided by veterinary or animal production departments. This could be because of the administrative and even political difficulties which arise from levying and collecting these charges or because of the cost of doing so."},{"index":3,"size":246,"text":"The most popular appear to be external and internal trade taxes and charges as well as slaughtering fees perhaps because they are easier to administer (despite the disadvantage that taxes on. livestock export trade and slaughtering fees encourage black market transactions and unofficial slaughter respectively) and less politically sensitive (because they do not directly confront livestock owners). It is perhaps partly because of this indirect relationship to the final beneficiaries of livestock services, that trade taxes and slaughtering fees have very little chance of being recirculated to finance livestock services but normally enter general purpose central treasury or municipal accounts. Claims that user charges should be earmarked and recirculated to livestock services have a stronger basis, although in practice this often does not happen, particularly in the case of vaccination charges, among the countries considered. Cattle head taxes (usually levied on pastoralists) could be considered to fall in between the two: they are both part of the general government revenue raising effort to which livestock owners/producers are expected to contribute as well as a specific charge for raising funds to provide services particular to this sector of the population. It has sometimes been argued that head taxes should not be charged where animal health services are paid for (Nissen, 1982). However, in most cases user charges are subsidized and do not cover the full direct cost of providing services-it is perhaps because, of this that some countries still maintain head taxes while charging for veterinary services."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"Although the revenue figures that could be potentially raised were not calculated from duty, tax and charge rates available, there are some indications of how much revenue some of the countries considered here raise from livestock and livestock products. The figures in Table 2 below are reported in the IMF (1982) yearbook for 5 of the 14 countries."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"It is interesting to note that in Mali livestock head tax receipts alone are many times the operating budget allocated to livestock services. 5"},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"5. According to Shapiro (1979) in Mali and Upper Volta 10 percent of the predrought tax revenues came from livestock but only 2 to 3 percent of budget expenditures were allocated to livestock."},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"From the figure for 1975 in Table 2 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1. Chad (mill CFA) Source IMF (1982)."},{"index":8,"size":5,"text":"1. NA = Not available."},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"2. Only central government's share of total receipts; percentage share not stated."},{"index":10,"size":104,"text":"We are not trying to make the point that all receipts from livestock related duties, taxes and charges should be channeled to financing livestock services including animal health, or even that 100% collection is feasible on the basis of the rates established. The point we are trying to make is that there is a great leeway for governments to raise larger amounts to help operate improved livestock services, especially in those countries where the sector plays an important role in the economy. In the first instance, this of course implies that such countries undertake to accord the priority to livestock development which it deserves."}]},{"head":"Methods and channels of financing","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"In many African countries, mass vaccinations against the principal contagious diseases such as Rinderpest and CBPP are provided free of charge. Anti-parasitic treatments are usually charged (not necessarily at full cost) to livestock owners after an initial phase of demonstration campaigns. The practice. in the 13 African countries considered here (no information for Madagascar) gives the following picture. In six countries (Benin, Cameroon, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Mauritania and Togo) all vaccinations and treatments were provided free of charge at least as of 1976 (Nissen 1982). In Cameroon and Ivory Coast free services are specified only for the traditional livestock production sector (GTZ/SEDES 1976). In the Central African Republic, Chad, Mali, Niger and Sierra Leone all vaccinations were free of charge while treatments are paid for; in Senegal all vaccinations and treatments are paid for except for vaccinations against Rinderpest and CBPP, whereas in Upper Volta all animal health interventions are paid for (Nissen 1982)."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"The provisions of animal health services is normally the monopoly of government agriculture or livestock departments. There is no indication in the literature that private veterinary practice exists although there are bound to be some non-governmental organizations providing animal health services as part of their agricultural development assistance activity: Private services, where they exist, are usually involved only in the procurement, sale and/or distribution of veterinary medicine. However, the role of the private sector at present appears to be minimal in most of Africa although certain governments (e.g. Senegal) have started to encourage private business to enter the trade."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"We have more definitive information on the five Francophone Sahelian countries on how finance for livestock services is channeled. The picture looks like this (GTZ/SEDES 1976):"},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Mali: in addition to the central government budget for livestock and animal health services, there are regional (local) government budgets funded through taxes raised at the local level 6 and through service charges. In 1975 about 20% of the animal health budge was financed from regional budgets."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"6. Local taxes funded 90% of the local expenditure while services, charges, fees etc. funded the remaining 10%."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"Upper Volta: a similar set up as in Mali with the regional budgets, again mainly raised from local tares, financing 3% of the total domestically financed livestock services budget and about 30% of the (domestically financed) animal health budget. The Livestock Services Department has at its disposal a revolving fund for the supply of biological products and veterinary drugs."},{"index":7,"size":72,"text":"Mauritania: it seems that 100% of the livestock services budget is channeled through the central treasury. What is interesting here as in Upper Volta is that a special fund was set up for the purchase of veterinary medicine to be distributed to the regions initially in kind. The proceeds from the sale of the commodities were supposed to be used to establish a revolving fund to be used exclusively for livestock services."},{"index":8,"size":35,"text":"Niger: in addition to the national budget, funds are raised by regions from local taxes (\"taxes d'arrondissement\" constituting 80%). In 1975, regional budgets constituted about 5% of the total internally funded expenditure on livestock services."},{"index":9,"size":24,"text":"Senegal: essentially similar to Niger with regionally raised funds (mainly from \"taxes rurales\") making 3-4% of total budgetary expenditure for livestock services in 1975."},{"index":10,"size":30,"text":"In all the above countries, the amounts made available to livestock services or animal health services are apparently allocated by the regional administrations from a larger locally financed regional budget."},{"index":11,"size":78,"text":"In Chad, it seems that allocations are totally made by the central government from funds raised by the national authorities. In the Gambia, it is reported that small subventions are made from local councils to finance expenditure for animal health services. Funds are principally raised by means of a cattle head tax levied annually, and are used by the Department of Animal Health and Production to purchase veterinary supplies for use in each local council area (IEMVT 1980)."},{"index":12,"size":46,"text":"There is unfortunately no quantified information on this to compare with the national or regional livestock or animal health services budgets. In Sierra Leone available budgetary data (IEMVT 1980) indicate the establishment of a revolving fund for sale of medicines to farmers (30,000 Leone per year)."},{"index":13,"size":49,"text":"The GTZ/SEDES report (1976) states that livestock head taxes have been cancelled in Chad, Mali, Niger and Senegal since 1973; the SEDES report (1975) makes no mention of such cancellation, although it mentions that it was suspended in some countries for a number of years because of the drought."},{"index":14,"size":127,"text":"These cancellations have apparently not adversely affected the size of the animal health or the livestock services budget in absolute terms (at current prices). On the other hand, they seem to have negatively affected the share of the livestock budget in the national budget probably because, as indicated earlier, the livestock services budgets are in an even weaker position to have claims on funds raised from charges on activities such as cattle trade and slaughtering not directly carried out by livestock producers. There is an indication that the decline of the share of livestock services is sharper for the years after 1973 at least in the case of Mali, Niger and Senegal, although it is uncertain that this is an effect of the change in fiscal policy."}]},{"head":"Some indicators of the adequacy of animal health services","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The adequacy of services could be measured by several means. Here we used the following as indicators:"},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":" the number of technical staff of different categories available to animal health services in different years. the number of animals (only cattle for simplicity's sake) served per staff category. the recurrent budget allocation/expenditure per head of cattle population. the ratio of expenditure on personnel and non-personnel costs to measure the so-called coefficient of efficiency."},{"index":3,"size":161,"text":"Obviously we need some standard or norm against which to measure the adequacy of the services provided. Fortunately a set of standards have been developed by the GTZ/SEDES (1977) group to make calculations of the technical manpower and financial requirements as well as the number and type of veterinary centers required for adequate animal health services. In brief, the following standards have been used: With the exception of Togo, Niger and CAR where particularly in the last two the ML:HL ratio was excessively high to start with because of the low number of high level staff, this ratio increased or remained at about the same level in the remaining 8 countries. Of these 8 countries, the ML:HL ratio in Upper Volta increased mainly because the number of high level staff declined while in Mauritania it was a result of a decrease in the number of high level staff at the same time as the number of middle level staff increased substantially."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"In the case of low level staff, it is only in 5 countries (Mali, Niger, Ivory Coast, Benin and CAR) that. their numbers have increased between 1970 and 1979 and these are the only countries in which the number of all categories of staff showed an increase. In the remaining six countries, the number of low level staff decreased."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"Except for Ivory Coast and CAR, the LL:ML ratio decreased for all the other countries. These include those where the number of low level staff has increased but where its growth rate has been slower than that of middle level staff."},{"index":6,"size":251,"text":"The general picture one draws from this is that the majority of the countries concerned have concentrated on increasing the number of middle level staff mainly at the cost of increasing the number of low level field staff: As a result only very few countries could favourably measure against the standard LL:ML ratio (5:1) in 1979 while the ML:HL ratio in many of them was closer to the standard ratio of 3:1. This indicates that the staffing of animal health services in most of these countries has increasingly become top heavy and has likely affected the quantity of services provided. G shows the size of the cattle population, which was actually served and should, according to the norm, be covered by different categories of staff and veterinary centers respectively. The information in the J shows the changes in the coefficient of efficiency (CE ratio) 7 for 9-10 years. The CE ratios differ greatly for the different countries. Although not a totally adequate expression of comparative efficiency (e.g. Mauritania may appear to look more efficient than, say, Mali or Niger because of a much smaller number of staff given the area and the livestock population), it is important to note that except in Sierra Leone, there has been a constant decline for all the countries listed. This deterioration should be of serious concern to governments and it would be interesting to find out if there is any specific policy or procedure in Sierra Leone to maintain the effectiveness of animal health personnel."}]},{"head":"Table","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Table","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"7. The CE ratio is calculated by dividing the non-staff expenditure by the staff expenditure in order to determine the degree to which animal health staff are supplied with vaccines or drugs, means of transportation and veterinary field equipment to facilitate their operation in the field."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Both GTZ/SEDES and IEMVT consider a ratio of 1 or very close to 1 as a measure of an efficient operation."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"Staff and non-staff cost estimates have been calculated (GTZ/SEDES 1977) using the standards and assumptions mentioned earlier in this section. According to the results arrived at from these calculations, the average CE ratio for the six Sahelian countries (Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal and Upper Volta) works out at around 1.1 with a range of 0.7 and 3.5. A comparison of these figures with those depicting the situation in the 1970's (Table J) makes it clear that the CE ratio was far below this level in almost all the countries listed in the table. There will therefore be a lot of effort required on the part of these countries in the first instance in reversing the deteriorating non-staff expenditure situation."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"It is also important not only that increasing funds are made available to animal health. services. but also that a policy of keeping an appropriate balance between personnel and non-personnel expenditure is subsequently maintained."},{"index":5,"size":107,"text":"The adequacy of animal health services is not only a function of the availability of adequate manpower and funds. It is also a function of the management of the resources made available. It is outside the immediate scope of this paper to deal with the organization and management issues relating to the provision of livestock services. However, things like organizational structure, staff motivation procedures, disease reporting systems, and the control of livestock movements are important elements which need to be looked into, even if retrospectively at the initial stage, as this paper tried to do in the area of financing animal health services in some African countries."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"5.1 It is obvious that one cannot generalize too far from the evidence presented for the countries considered in this paper. However, the evidence presented in the earlier sections indicates that:"},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":" animal health services have generally not been funded by national operating budgets to an adequate level, especially considering the important role livestock plays in the economies of several of these countries; there are indications that more finance could be made available, if government policy were more favourable toward allocating to the livestock services a higher portion of the revenues already being tapped from the livestock sector; the composition of the recurrent budget of animal health services should be cause for concern -staff costs continue to take a disproportionately large portion and this situation, if it continues, will at some stage make field operations almost totally ineffective; there was and likely is a high degree of dependence on external financing, particularly for investment expenditure; the quantity and quality of services provided in many of these countries have still a considerable way to go before they will attain adequate standards of; controlling animal diseases of economic importance."}]},{"head":"5.2","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"The present paper has essentially attempted to give a summary view of the existing situation regarding the financing of animal health services in a restricted number of African countries. The underlying reasons for selecting animal health services at this stage have been explained earlier."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Within the area of animal health services itself there is still a need to carry out further studies in several respects. One that seems obvious is extending the geographical coverage of similar studies on the financing of animal health services in other parts of sub-Saharan Africa e.g.-the important livestock countries of eastern and southern Africa."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"A second and very important area would be a set of in-depth studies investigating issues that arise from the delivery and use of animal health services and are likely to have a significant relevance to policy-e.g. equity issues, issues related to the economic efficiency of resource allocation. A related study would look into the assessment of alternative managerial or organizational mechanisms of channeling finance and of cost recovery as they affect the cost effectiveness of services-e.g. central government as against parastatals, public versus private veterinary services, the use of livestock owners (groups or individuals) in the delivery of veterinary services etc."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"Verification and updating surveys in the countries considered here could be another worthwhile future activity. Its usefulness would, however, have to be judged by the incremental benefit such as exercise would yield in developing hypotheses for testing under the in-depth studies. As is recognized such surveys are costly affairs."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"As mentioned in the introduction there are still other livestock services which need to be dealt with in the financing context. AI services are quite widespread, at least in eastern Africa; and the financing of livestock research in Africa is almost totally untouched, just to give. two examples."},{"index":6,"size":52,"text":"The future studies on the financing of these services and the others are likely to combine both a similar type of situation study and in-depth analyses. Whatever priorities we are to attach to the sequence of these studies these definitely will be one or two services to cover besides animal health services."},{"index":7,"size":105,"text":"5.3 Manpower and financial resources will, as usual, remain a big constraint in trying to carry out such studies. Additional constraints are the access to data already available in government files and the indifference of many of us in Africa to the usefulness of such studies. May be the last two constraints are equally important or even more important than the financial constraints facing African researchers and research organizations If this paper has aroused interest in the need to research livestock policy issues in Africa at least among my African colleagues, it would have gone a long way toward achieving one of its important objectives."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" a. As far as staff is concerned the relationships between high (HL), medium (ML) and low level (LL) staff should be: b. financial norms were established taking (a) above into account and further assuming that 100% of the animals are vaccinated against rinderpest and CBPP and that treatments are paid for and administered by livestock owners/producers. 4.1 Table F in the annex shows the situation as regards the different categories of staff numbers existing in 1970, 1975 and 1979 and the ratios of middle level (ML) to high level (HL) and that of low level (LL) to middle level staff. It can be seen that the total number of staff increased in 7 out of the 11 countries shown. The number of high level staff increased in nine countries including the seven referred to above while the number of middle level staff increased in all countries. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" TableEshows the type of duties taxes, fees and charges applicable to livestock and livestock products in the 13 West African countries and Madagascar in the 1970's. Partly due to lack of time, at this stage of the exercise it was not possible to quantify, on the basis of the rates available, the total amounts which are raised or could potentially be raised from the duties, taxes and charges levied by the different countries. "},{"text":"Table 2 . and Table A in the annex it can be shown that the livestock head tax revenue was over five times the livestock services budget allocation. From figures available in SEDES (1975) a sum of CFA 1,400 million could have been theoretically collected in 1972 while the livestock services budget was only 11% of this figure. Using SEDES figures along the same lines, one can calculate that the livestock budget in the Gambia was equivalent to only 1.2% of the potential receipts from livestock head taxes(1970); in Chad the 1974 livestock services budget accounted for 20%; and in Mauritania 25%(1973). In UpperVolta (1974), Cameroon (1970) andSenegal (1970) potential livestock head tax receipts amounted to 90, 75 and 60% of their respective livestock services budget. Livestock related revenue. "},{"text":" table, while not exactly comp arable, shows that the staffing composition is top heavy (compared to the GTZ/SEDES norm) in the majority of cases and that middle and low level staff should be increased in number relative to the other categories.4.3 TableHshows the recurrent budget allocation or expenditure per head of cattle population. According to similar norms used byGTZ/SEDES (1977) andNissen (1982) the six Sahelian countries should spend an average of US$0.75 -US$0.90 per head of cattle based on 1976 data and at 1976 prices. It can be seen from the above or from Table H that only Niger, Mauritania and Senegal reach that level of financing, although the current dollar expenditures per head have increased for all six countries between 1970 and 1979. The increased expenditure per head is only partly caused by the decline in the cattle population as a result of the 1972-73 drought, since the overall rate of increase in expenditure per head is much higher than that of the decrease in the cattle population, particularly between 1970 and1975.As mentioned earlier, the figure for Ivory Coast looks exceptionally high and needs further investigation. Again it is interesting to note that the total animal health staff in Ivory Coast was equal in number to those of Senegal although the cattle population in Senegal was about 4 times that of Ivory Coast. "}],"sieverID":"f0687cd0-64f5-453e-bb02-bcd7e6c0af13","abstract":"In 1982 the International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) established a Livestock Policy Unit (LPU). The objectives of the LPU are: 1. To heighten the awareness in African governments and in other organisations of the importance of livestock policy issues. 2. To collate in an easily assimilable form what is already known about policy issues and to present it to policy makers. 3. To carry out research of its own (including that commissioned from consultants) on priority livestock policy issues and to present the results to policy makers. 4. To encourage others to carry out similar research and to assist in presenting their results to policy makers."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0149de426b03cfd4277fb545df5953be","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3e22a3aa-b530-4f2f-9aa1-3c456c868d35/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Con más de 50 años de trabajo de investigación para el desarrollo en papa y camote","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Mejora de la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional mediante la introducción de dietas más saludables para las poblaciones vulnerables (mujeres, jóvenes y personas desplazadas) Mayores oportunidades de medios de subsistencia y empleo y desarrollo a gran escala de cadenas de valor inclusivas entre las zonas rurales y urbanas Intensificación sostenible y diversificación de sistemas agroalimentarios a través de una agricultura biodiversa y resiliente al clima"}]},{"head":"Metas institucionales del CIP","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CENTRO INTERNACIONAL","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"PAPA","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"DE LA","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Logros clave","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"en África y Asia aumentaron su rendimiento e ingresos con semillas de papa de calidad, manejo mejorado de cultivos y enfoques de cadena de valor."}]},{"head":"DE PEQUEÑOS AGRICULTORES","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Más de","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MILLONES","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"en África y Asia mejoró mediante el desarrollo y la difusión de variedades OFSP ricas en vitamina A. "}]},{"head":"DE HOGARES","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MUESTRAS DE GERMOPLASMA","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CULTIVO ALIMENTARIO","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"La conservación ex situ e in situ de la diversidad genética es fundamental para preservar y monitorear los cambios en los recursos fitogenéticos del mundo para la alimentación y la agricultura. La diversidad genética perdida, en particular de los parientes silvestres de los cultivos, impediría que los mejoradores de cultivos y los investigadores desarrollen variedades que mejoren la resiliencia y la capacidad de los agricultores para producir suficientes alimentos nutritivos para el mundo."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"El banco de germoplasma del CIP conserva in vitro las colecciones más extensas del mundo de papa, camote y sus parientes silvestres, así como la única colección global segura de cultivos de raíces y tubérculos andinos, cuyos atributos genéticos, fisiológicos y bioquímicos recién han comenzado a explorar los científicos. El CIP salvaguarda la biodiversidad en fideicomiso para la humanidad para garantizar su disponibilidad para la reproducción y otros usos ahora y en el futuro. También trabajamos en estrecha colaboración con las comunidades andinas en la conservación in situ de la diversidad de la papa y hemos repatriado miles de accesiones que antes se les habían perdido debido a enfermedades o al cambio climático."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"El banco de germoplasma sirve como modelo a través de su investigación avanzada, base de datos pública y uso interactivo de las colecciones. El CIP trabaja con otros bancos de germoplasma para garantizar que se respalde el material limpio de sus colecciones, evitando la pérdida de diversidad. La protección de la biodiversidad de los cultivos juega un papel fundamental para facilitar el desarrollo y el lanzamiento de nuevas variedades para agricultores y consumidores de todo el mundo. Por ejemplo, el banco de germoplasma comparte entre 5000 y 6000 muestras de germoplasma cada año con científicos de todo el mundo, lo que contribuye al desarrollo de variedades más nutritivas, productivas y resistentes al clima."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"© CIP/J.Gonterre © 2022. Esta publicación está registrada por el Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP). Está licenciada para su uso bajo la Licencia Internacional de Atribución 4.0 de Creative Commons"},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"El CIP agradece a los donantes y organizaciones que apoyan globalmente su trabajo a través de sus contribuciones al Fondo Fiduciario del CGIAR: www.cgiar.org/funders"},{"index":6,"size":77,"text":"El CIP es una organización de investigación para el desarrollo dedicada a la papa, el camote y las raíces y tubérculos andinos. Ofrece soluciones científicas innovadoras para mejorar el acceso a alimentos nutritivos asequibles, fomentar el crecimiento sostenible e inclusivo de empresas y empleos, e impulsar la resiliencia climática de los sistemas agroalimentarios de raíces y tubérculos. Con sede en Lima, Perú, el CIP realiza investigación en más de 20 países en África, Asia y América Latina."}]},{"head":"www.cipotato.org","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"El CIP es un centro de investigación de CGIAR, una asociación mundial de investigación para un futuro con seguridad alimentaria. La ciencia y la innovación de CGIAR buscan avanzar en la transformación de los sistemas de alimentos, tierra y agua en una crisis climática. Su investigación es llevada a cabo por 15 centros CGIAR en estrecha colaboración con cientos de socios, incluidos institutos de investigación nacionales y regionales, organizaciones de sociedad civil, instituciones académicas, organizaciones de desarrollo y el sector privado. +51 1 3496017 [email protected] www.cipotato.org @cipotato @Cipotato @cip_cipotato"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" diarias de vitamina A de un niño en edad pre-escolarA-que afecta a más de 140 millones de niños menores de 5 años en todo el mundoayudando a eliminar la ceguera en los niños y reduciendo la falta de crecimiento y la muerte También es una fuente saludable y barata de alimento para animales en África, Asia y América Latina dependen de la papa para sus ingresos "},{"text":" www.cgiar.org Para más información, por favor contactar la sede principal del CIP. Av. La Molina 1895, La Molina. Apartado 1558, Lima 12, Perú. "},{"text":"al año compartidas con científicos de todo el mundo para desarrollar variedades más nutritivas, productivas y resistentes al clima. de más de de más de 7 MILLONES 7 MILLONES "}],"sieverID":"7875ef3e-8c32-4cda-ac71-7720b9e49f5d","abstract":"CIP) ha contribuido a una mayor seguridad alimentaria y nutricional, y al crecimiento económico. Los mejoradores y científicos de cultivos del CIP trabajan con socios y agricultores locales para desarrollar y manejar variedades de papa y camote que produzcan mayores rendimientos, tengan mejores cualidades nutricionales y culinarias y sean más resistentes a los extremos del clima, las plagas y las enfermedades.Nuestros científicos sociales, de nutrición y alimentarios aportan la misma dedicación para ayudar a los agricultores y a las comunidades rurales a comprender, adoptar y beneficiarse de las tecnologías agrícolas y de poscosecha, y las mejores prácticas diseñadas para diferentes agroecologías, sistemas de producción y cadenas de valor. En asociación con gobiernos, empresas y organizaciones internacionales, estamos escalando estas innovaciones y enfoques científicos, poniendo las herramientas para lograr mejores cosechas, ingresos y salud en manos de millones de agricultores, procesadores, comerciantes y sus comunidades."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"019557d1382c94bfb49026c6dabb3734","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/22408d3c-14c0-4bcf-900a-505581a66a60/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Resilient seed systems approach and methodology","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Milestones:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"• New priority setting framework being used to target more transformational food system interventions in selected countries"}]},{"head":"Sub-IDOs:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"• 28 -Increased resilience of agro-ecosystems and communities, especially those including smallholders"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• 29 -Enhanced adaptive capacity to climate risks (More sustainably managed agro-ecosystems)"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• 12 -Increased conservation and use of genetic resources"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Innovation type: Other Stage of innovation: Stage 3: available/ ready for uptake (AV) Geographic Scope: Global Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Description of Stage reached: The participatory approach and methodology was field tested and implemented in a number of countries around the world with international and national partners. 2nd edition of resilient seed systems handbook was published in 2019, a training course was developed and delivered in Ethiopia for participants from East and Southern Africa. Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: Bioversity (Alliance) -Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT -Headquarter (Bioversity International) Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • FAO -Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations • WUR -Wageningen University and Research Centre • DAFF -Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (South Africa) • CTDT -Community Technology Development Trust • LI-BIRD -Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development "}],"sieverID":"215ded54-b978-44a1-83fe-5b1cdf6d8562","abstract":"The innovation is a participatory approach that includes multiple methodological options to work towards (more) resilient seed systems that meet the needs of tomorrow and help farmers adapt to climate change effects, based on an assessment of local conditions, needs and interests. It brings together Bioversity's work of several decades on the different components of seed systems (conservation, crop improvement, seed production and distribution, climate and crop modeling and crowdsourcing/citizen science, policies and laws)."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"01997ea1f3c751660692828c56a0722c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/79372335-a7aa-46e1-a0fa-af5ce52c46a2/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Reconciling approaches to climate change adaptation for Colombian agriculture","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":232,"text":"The increased likelihood of the climate change signal emerging from observed variability has brought projection of impacts and planning for adaptation to the centre of contemporary scientific and political discourse. Climate change is expected to have widespread impacts on agro-ecological systems, particularly across the global tropics (Battisti and Naylor, 2009;Easterling et al., 2007;Fischlin et al., 2007). As in many other countries, adaptation to climate change is likely to be an important challenge in Colombian agricultural systems and adaptation responses will critically affect the livelihoods of Colombian farmers (Eslava and Pabon, 2001;Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2012). However, because the required responses to counter such impacts are dependent on the biogeographic and administrative characteristics of the agricultural system in question, adapting Colombian agriculture to climate change has no single 'silver-bullet' solution (Costa Posada, 2007;Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2012;Ruiz et al., 2012). Colombia possesses a highly diverse and complex agricultural system, owing to vast climatic and soil diversity and a long history of traditional agricultural development by a variety of ethnic groups across the Colombian Andes, the Amazon and the eastern plains (Pabon, 2003;Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2012). The system also features high rates of poverty and important land-tenure and distribution issues (DNP, 2011b), not least due to large numbers of low-input smallholders with limited technological and agricultural extension access, and the lack of organization in a number of important sectors (Deininger and Lavadenz, 2004;Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":287,"text":"In a recent study, a national-level assessment of the likely future impacts of climate change on agriculture was performed [see Ramirez-Villegas et al. (2012), RV2012 hereafter]. The study diagnosed key challenges directly affecting the Colombian agricultural system and suggested a number of actions thought to facilitate adaptation, while refraining from proposing specific strategies at local scales. The study, which was conducted during 2009 [see Ramirez et al. (2009) for an earlier version], has contributed to a number of research and adaptation initiatives, including the Colombian Inter-institutional Climate Change and Food Security network (RICCLISA, see http://www.ricclisa.org/) and the policy document CONPES (National Council for Economic Policy) No. 3700 (DNP, 2011a). These processes have further led to the development of regional and local projects on climate change impacts and adaptation (see Sect. 6 of Supplementary Information in Ramirez-Villegas et al. 2012). Remarking on the study, Feola We are pleased with the constructive commentary of F2013 that suggests additional factors be taken into account for successful adaptation by vulnerable communities and in recognition that different stakeholders maintain diverse priorities for adaptation. We emphasize that these factors make no less important the recommendations outlined by RV2012. We take this opportunity to expand our discussion of the spectrum of adaptation processes necessary for the agriculture of a highly diverse country such as Colombia. In doing so, we clarify RV2012's proposal (Sect. 2) and, more specifically, the important role of the government within the adaptation planning process (Sect. 3). We then argue for a reconciling of approaches to adaptation to climate change following a very recent line of evidence [see Vermeulen et al. (2013)], and stress the importance of considering the temporal scale of the climate change impact for adaptation planning (Sect. 4)."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"To illustrate these points we conclude with two case studies of research on climate change impacts and adaptation developed in Colombia that serve as examples of productive sectorial and sub-national assessments (Sect. 5)."}]},{"head":"Clarifications on RV2012's proposal for adaptation","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":217,"text":"RV2012 assessed future climate change impacts in what may be called a top-down (i.e. impactsbased, see Sect. 3 for a definition) approach (see Sect. 5 of Supplementary Material in RV2012 for methodology followed). RV2012 assessed the required responses to such impacts at the government level as well as the possible constraints to such actions. Importantly, RV2012 focused on one particular aspect of the future of Colombian agriculture, namely climate change, in large part because of the lack of recent analyses focused on the impact on particular crops and sectors within the country and therefore the subsequent inadequacy of policy enacted to understand and to address vulnerability within the agricultural system. In addition to national policy RV2012 highlighted the need for sub-sector-specific assessments, implying that a combination of sub-sector-specific actions (which need to be defined by each sub-sector, with the participation of farming communities) and government policies should lead to integrated, effective adaptation. Thus, RV2012 were inclusive of a diversity of levels where actions are necessary to identify, prioritize and actualize adaptation responses. The critical need for coordination between levels of integration for adaptation planning was included (also see Sect. Ramirez et al. 2009) in recognition of the necessity of government policy grounded in local reality, as well as sub-sector action encouraged, rather than hindered, by enabling policy."}]},{"head":"in","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"One of the limitations in RV2012, however, is that it lacked a clear definition of the specific role of the actors in the adaptation process, to which F2013 has provided important insight. Here we further delineate the role of the government (Sect. 3), as well as that of other actors in the adaptation process (Sect. 4)."}]},{"head":"The role of the government","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":357,"text":"In climate change adaptation a government will ideally enable understanding, coordination and action, especially within sectors identified as key priorities, such as agriculture in Colombia (Ramirez et al., 2009). Here, the debate is not what the current Government is capable of doing, but rather what are the actions that the Government should be taking to safeguard food security and rural livelihoods. The task of a government under adaptation is to intervene when required resources are lacking, when insufficient coordination precludes actions from being taken, or when enabling policies are required (Rickards and Howden, 2012). In this sense, policies should be put in place and funds for research and development released for sub-sectors to diagnose climate change impacts and to adapt. The creation of the climate change CONPES is probably the clearest example of a needed government action directly specifically toward counteracting the negative effects of global change (DNP, 2011a). Government-level mobilizations should not stand isolated from local and/or sectorial actions (DNP, 2011a, b;Smith and Stern, 2011) and thus they ought to be grounded in the context of the agricultural sector, particularly in recognition of its particular strengths and vulnerabilities. RV2012 proposed a framework within which both sub-sectors and the government have complementary roles. Sub-sectorial organisation has proven to be of paramount importance for sectors such as coffee, rice and sugarcane in Colombia (Arguello and Lozano, 2007;Norton and Balcázar, 2003). Under climate change, diverse sectors more than ever must capitalise on opportunities for funding, research and development, and use their complementary knowledge and capacities to bridge traditional and expert knowledge to form an integrated response. Coordinated responses prove important especially within diverse countries such as Colombia, where stakeholders within and between communities may vary widely in the degree of awareness of broader sectorial, political, and economic change. Likewise government and scientific recommendation may lack critical information key to the success of interventions particularly in rural communities, and in the absence of dialog such interventions are less likely to receive the support of the intended stakeholders, may not correlate well with local priorities, and in the worst case may drive maladaption and exacerbate vulnerability (Agrawal, 1995;Kok et al., 2011)."}]},{"head":"An adaptation framework for Colombian agriculture","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"In this section we propose a framework for identifying risks and define potential roles of farmers, sub-sectorial organisations and the government in adaptation planning. At the sub-sector level, it is critical to determine the scientific approach to adaptation. Here, we introduce the concepts of 'top-down' (i.e. impacts-based) and 'bottom-up' (i.e. capacity-based). In short, impacts-based approaches aim at developing model-based future projections of climate change impacts to then identify adaptation measures that are subsequently tested at field scales and which affect government-level policy actions (such as those outlined in RV2012). On the contrary, capacitybased approaches focus on diagnosing existing vulnerabilities and adaptive capacity typically on household or community levels to then develop measures that increase local resilience. Defining these approaches, identifying the specific contexts in which the approaches are most useful in developing adaptation strategies and placing the approaches in the time scales appropriate to climate change adaptation are critical to understanding the analyses and the recommendations presented by RV2012 and F2013."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"Figure 1 illustrates the response of a biophysical indicator (e.g. crop yields) in time under a given future climate scenario. The blue line represents the mean response of a cropping system under a variety of plausible circumstances (i.e. uncertainty, light blue shading). As time passes, the impacts signal emerges from observed variability (illustrated by the yellow box), crossing tolerable limits [see Dow et al. (2013) and red vertical lines in Fig. 1], hence forcing more substantial changes to the production system (see Fig. 2 for the types of changes). It is thus critical to identify the magnitude of the risk involved in failure to respond, which varies spatiotemporally."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"Climate impacts at very short time scales are usually within the experience of farmers and subsectorial organisations (i.e. within observed variability, yellow area in Fig. 1). In these cases, a capacity-based approach is generally successful (Feola, 2013;Vermeulen et al., 2013). Changes in sowing dates, in timings and amounts of fertilizer, irrigation and fungicides are generally the type of coping responses at these scales (Fig. 2). With a more pronounced climate signal (dark yellow area in Fig. 1), coping strategies (and thus capacity-based adaptation) may, however, fail in delivering their intended objective. In these cases, more systemic alterations may be needed."},{"index":4,"size":433,"text":"Changes in crop rotations, increasing on-farm diversity and crop improvement are examples of adaptation strategies at these scales (Fig. 2). There is, however, a level of climate change at which a cropping system may no longer be viable (orange area in Fig. 1). Transformational change (e.g. changing livelihood and/or land-use) is in such cases warranted (Fig. 2). <Figure 1 here> RV2012 reported that most major crops are likely to be negatively impacted across the country, confirming the need for agricultural adaptation. Importantly, however, the study also highlighted significant uncertainties which suggest relevant predictability limits on impacts, particularly if water availability and precipitation play a role (see Fig. 1g and the ensemble spread in Fig. 2b of Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2012). In this particular case, the impacts-based approach where science informs policy and/or field-scale decisions is thus useful in identifying both the key processes involved in the impact and the levels of predictability (Vermeulen et al., 2013). As in other impacts-based approaches [see e.g. Challinor et al. (2010); Osborne et al. (2013)], limitations may arise when the degree of predictability is too low (i.e. high uncertainty), or when the complexity of the socio-economic system precludes desired adaptation measures from being implemented (Vermeulen et al., 2013). On the other hand, a purely stakeholder-based approach may fail to foresee required transformational changes or capitalise on longer-term benefits, especially when resilience requires action at greater scales than local or community levels (see e.g. the case studies presented by Vermeulen et al., 2013). We thus argue that both impacts-based and capacity-based approaches for adaptation are needed, and that the important question is not 'what is the best approach?' but rather 'in what context should each approach be considered?' Under this framework, the role of impacts-based science is thus not only one of identifying the thresholds of future risks (Dow et al., 2013), but also contributing to adaptation strategies that may help in countering the negative effects. The livelihood transformations identified by Vermeulen et al. (2013) in their case study of coffee in Nicaragua, as well as those proposed by Jones and Thornton (2009) exemplify how model-based projections can help developing adaptation strategies. However, because 'impacts' science outcomes cannot be isolated from field-level decision processes (Feola, 2013), stakeholder dialogue and institutional trust is critical for adaptation to actually happen (Claessens et al., 2012). For a more complete analysis of adaptation under uncertainty the reader is referred to Vermeulen et al. (2013). For a complete review on transformational adaptation the reader is referred to Rickards and Howden (2012), Howden et al. (2007), and Moser and Ekstrom (2010). <Figure 2 here>"}]},{"head":"Case studies of sectorial adaptation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"The first case study explored here is that of the Agriculture, Vulnerability and Adaptation (AVA) project, led by RICCLISA (Navarrete et al., 2013;Peterson et al., 2012). For AVA, international funds from the Climate and Development Knowledge Network (CDKN) were accessed by a multi-institutional network. Researchers from various national and international research centres as well as universities led the design of a methodology to diagnose current and future vulnerabilities across the upper-Cauca River basin. Even though the methodology can be classified as 'impacts-based', all stakeholders (including scientists) had equally important (but complementary) roles in diagnosing the impacts (Peterson et al., 2012). A better understanding of the local issues was gained through a stakeholder-led process, and then used as part of the inputs to a regional analysis of vulnerability that allowed the identification of current vulnerability, adaptive capacity, and future impacts and adaptation needs. Communication and feedback at local levels from groups of farmers occurred throughout the process, and this allowed a cohesive and robust analysis framework with field-validated, grounded conclusions."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"The use of scientific and traditional knowledge in conjunction with spatially explicit information allowed the disaggregation of impacts on a crop and municipality basis, thus allowing the generation of local-and regional-level information critical for both the local and policy dimensions of adaptation (Navarrete et al., 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"The above example illustrates the use of international funds for local and regional adaptation actions in Colombia. This second example illustrates the use of national government funds for "}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"We stress that impacts, vulnerability and adaptation assessments at the full range of scales are critical to adaptation in the mega-diverse country of Colombia. We discuss a framework for adaptation and clearly define the role of the government as an enabling agent. Importantly, we clarify that the recommendations in RV2012 were not meant as prescriptions for multi-scale adaptation, but rather a set of actions that are required to diagnose and develop adaptation actions, particularly aimed at Governmental levels. Such adaptation actions ought to be, ideally, a product of sub-sectorial assessments, which can take different forms and/or use different approaches. These also need to ensure farmers' inclusion in the adaptation process, as well as a clear definition of adaptation strategies at different temporal scales. The two case studies presented in Sect. 4 exemplify productive steps toward the goal: (1) multi-institutional actions in the face of climate change with government participation, and (2) needed government-level policies and actions to enable adaptation through both a combination of both science-and stakeholder-centred processes. and Ekstrom (2010) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"( 2013) (F2013 hereafter) stressed the importance of \"transformative\" change in the rural sector (i.e. rural reform) due to the variety of major factors affecting the livelihoods particularly of resource-limited Colombian farmers, including recent free trade agreements and the ongoing armed conflict along with global change. In proposing a way forward for addressing vulnerability, F2013 advocated a bottom-up, stakeholder-centred adaptation process. "},{"text":" reducing vulnerability at local levels through (1) the improvement of local practices through a stakeholder-centred site-specific agriculture program, and (2) the generation of model-based scientific knowledge. The Colombian government through the MADR signed an agreement with the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) to reduce vulnerability to climate change across the country. Even though CIAT is the leader of the program, a number of universities and sub-sectorial organisations are involved in the design and execution of the nearly 12 m USD project, of which at least 40 % is executed through national organisations. Four multidisciplinary components are part of the major research and development effort: (1) climate variability and climate change impacts, (2) identification of promising germplasm for adaptation, and (3) eco-efficiency and ecosystem services. In this program, stakeholder participation takes place in a direct form through the transversal action of a national-level site-specific agriculture component, which is planned to bridge farming communities and science through the development of a stakeholder-centred experimental network and learning process. Stakeholders may also be involved indirectly by means of national research organisations involved in individual components. The three project components thus take advantage of science outputs and farm-level knowledge and interaction to develop and ground their outcomes. The program, which is the first of its kind in Colombia, is expected to be completed by mid-2014, and is probably the clearest result of needed government actions stressed in the CONPES No. 3700 (DNP, 2011a). "},{"text":"Figure 1 Figure 1 Response of a biophysical indicator of an agricultural system to climate change across temporal scales in climates. Continuous blue line shows the response of the system where no adaptation measures are taken at any time (i.e. no adaptation scenario). Vertical red lines (marked with the prefix \"L\" in the x-axis) indicate thresholds of the biophysical indicator that somehow affect livelihoods. These indicate moments where adaptation measures to counter the negative impact need to take place in the system (with grey indicating projection uncertainty). Coloured boxes indicate the extent of the climate change signal and the type of adaptation required in the system. "},{"text":"Figure 2 Figure 2 Types of adaptations needed in a system as the degree of climate change impact increases. Note that three different variables are given in the y-axis. SEA: Site-specific agriculture; PA: precision agriculture. Figure based on Rickards and Howden (2012) and Moser "}],"sieverID":"94239f5a-17ed-4bd4-bfdf-5e2b4796e356","abstract":"The projected impact of climate change on agro-ecological systems is considered widespread and significant, particularly across the global tropics. As in many other countries, adaptation to climate change is likely to be an important challenge for Colombian agricultural systems. In a recent study, a national-level assessment of the likely future impacts of climate change on agriculture was performed (Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2012, RV2012). The study diagnosed key challenges directly affecting major crops and regions within the Colombian agricultural system and suggested a number of actions thought to facilitate adaptation, while refraining from proposing specific strategies at local scales. Further insights on the study were published by Feola (2013) (F2013), who stressed the need for transformative adaptation processes to reduce vulnerability particularly of resource-limited farmers, and the benefits of a predominantly stakeholder-led approach to adaptation. We clarify that the recommendations outlined in RV2012 were not intended as a recipe for multi-scale adaptation, but rather a set of actions that are required to diagnose and develop adaptation actions particularly at governmental levels in coordination with national and international adaptation initiatives. Such adaptation actions ought to be, ideally, a product of inclusive sub-sectorial assessments, which can take different forms.We argue that Colombian agriculture as a whole would benefit from a better outlining of adaptation needs across temporal scales in sub-sectorial assessments that take into account both RV2012 and F2013 orientations to adaptation. We conclude with two case studies of research on climate change impacts and adaptation developed in Colombia that serve as examples of realistic, productive sectorial and sub-national assessments."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"01ff9ebd7b37adff182254c0582dd820","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5f310b4d-2151-4be5-9e13-ee4f9bdf9e01/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Building resilience through \"Open Source Seed Systems\" for Climate Change Adaptation in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania: What are the options for policy?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":203,"text":"Climate change poses a serious and ever-growing threat to the food and nutrition security of resource-poor farmers globally. In Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, this trend is likely to lower agricultural production rates by an average of 22 percent by 2050, sending farmers deeper into poverty and malnutrition (IFRPI, 2018). The homogenization of agriculture to single crop or variety production in the hope of attaining higher yields and the associated loss of biodiversity have decreased the resilience of resource-poor farmers. In addition, accessing seed appropriately adapted to both biotic and abiotic stresses is becoming a challenge. Only about 20 percent of seed used in the three East African countries is supplied by the 'formal' (or industrial) production seed system. Over 80 percent of the seed used by smallholder farmers in East Africa is sourced from the 'informal\" seed systems, also referred to as farmer-managed seed systems (Louwaars & De Boeuf, 2012). Farmers have been managing seed and propagating plant materials through on-farm conservation, maintenance, and selection for diversity. They engage in seed saving, re-use, exchange and sales amongst family, neighbours and communities to produce the bulk of the food consumed. Thus, farmers are the custodians of genetic biodiversity and related indigenous technical knowledge (ITK)."},{"index":2,"size":232,"text":"Recent global \"corporatization\" of seed systems, made possible by exclusive intellectual property rights, has led to diminishing diversity and access to genetic resources (Chaudhuri, 2003;Otieno et al., 2017). Seed and genetic resources policies and legislation restrict access to and freedom of exchange of seeds among farmers. For example, Kenya's 2013 Crops Act (Part IV -Licensing and Taxation Provision) presents limitations to smallholder farmers in their freedom to process or sell seeds unless they are licensed as dealers. Seed diversity does not occupy a significant place within the business models of the largest seed companies. By using intellectual property rights (patents, Plant Variety Protection), big players in the seed industry are eradicating seed-saving and sharing practices, diminishing the gene pool and reducing the adaptive capacity of smallholders. The right to adequate food implies that national food and nutrition security strategies and policies should accommodate the rights of people to access diverse seed and consequently diverse and nutritious diets. This Policy Brief is a result of a series of national and regional consultations in East Africa and discussions among stakeholders interested in the establishment and application of Open Source Seed Systems. The brief is also based on research on seed networks as well as policy and legislative frameworks in the three countries. It is an appeal to policy makers and custodians to provide for a \"facilitative\" environment for the establishment and development of OSSS."}]},{"head":"Contradicting policy and legislation","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":232,"text":"The prevailing policy and legislative environment in East Africa does not adequately support farmers' roles in establishing and maintaining genetic diversity. The region operates under several national, regional, and international policy and legal instruments that control production and distribution of genetic material as shown in Text Box 1. The policies, legal and regulatory frameworks at national levels support formal/industrial seed production. They are silent on how farmers can produce and share their crop varieties. Furthermore, there are gaps, overlaps, and contradictions in the policies and legislation; for example, plant variety protection (PVP) and seed trade laws prohibit saving, re-use, and sale of farm-saved seed of 'protected' varieties. However, Article 9 of the ITGRFA that all the three countries are signatories to and therefore obliged to implement in their national laws and policies gives provisions for the freedom of farmers to sell, save, use, and exchange saved seeds/propagating material. The Arusha Protocol for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants within the framework of the African Regional Intellectual Property organization (ARIPO), which Tanzania signed, promotes strong plant breeders' rights, which also undermines farmers' rights to save, share, and exchange seeds. Articles 10, 12, and 13 of the plant treaty has provisions on facilitated access through the multilateral system of access, benefit sharing, (MLS) 1 and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use (including commercial) of plant genetic resources included in the MLS."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Although the three countries have signed and are party to the ITPGRFA, national legislations are yet to be developed and implemented at country levels. Thus, the treaty has not been used to create supportive legal and regulatory instruments for its implementation. As a result, farmers' contribution to the diversity of crops is not recognised and access to their plant genetic materials is not guaranteed. Consequently, they do not get maximum benefits from existing benefit sharing agreements."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Based on the analysis of national seed policies and legislation, we found that the current variety testing, registration, and release mechanisms in the three countries are left exclusively to breeders, without space for the release and use of farmers' varieties. This is despite the fact that farmer-preferred varieties evolve over time, have desired cultural and functional traits, and may be well adapted to changing climatic and environmental conditions."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"1 The multilateral system of access and benefit sharing established by contracting parties of the ITPGRFA is a system that facilitates access to plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, and sharing, in a fair and equitable way, the benefits arising from utilisation of these resources, on a complementary and mutually reinforcing manner. There is a list of 64 crops to be shared freely through the multilateral system. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i0510e.pdf"},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"Moreover, PVP laws and plant breeders' rights in the three countries are based on UPOV provisions that create restrictions on the use and exchange of seeds by farmers. Under UPOV, farmers are only allowed to save and re-use seed of a protected variety \"on their own holding\" and \"within reasonable limits and subject to safeguarding the legitimate interests of the breeder\", which may imply that farmers have to pay a royalty to remunerate the breeder."},{"index":6,"size":70,"text":"The exchange and sale of farm-saved seed, as is common practice amongst farmers in informal seed systems, is now prohibited for protected varieties (De Jonge, 2014). Under these regimes, varieties are protected for 20 years but in Kenya, all released varieties regardless of the time they were released are still protected and cannot be saved, re-used, or sold. This limits access to diversity for farmers in the East African region."},{"index":7,"size":139,"text":"In Tanzania and Uganda, seed policy reviews have seen the introduction of a new class of seed known as quality declared seed (QDS), which farmers and seed cooperatives can produce, label and sell. This is based on FAO's recently developed Quality Declared Seeds (QDS) concept, which provides opportunities for small-scale seed production and local sale, and therefore improves access to seeds for farmers at local levels. Under this scheme, local seed business, local cooperatives, and farmer groups can now produce QDS under guidelines developed by FAO 2 . This is an accepted set of guidelines on standards and procedures for seed production that has been taken up in Tanzania and Uganda but not in Kenya, owing to stringent seed regulations in the country, i.e, the 2005 Seeds and Plants Act that prohibits production and sale of seed by farmers."}]},{"head":"Exclusion of smallholders' in national research, documentation, and policy support","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Research programmes have paid much attention to high-value commercial seed developmentt within the formal seed system. As a result, only minimal research has been carried out on farmers' varieties with their participation and contribution. Furthermore, PVP laws favour only breeders as having the rights to protect plant varieties even though farmers may sometimes hold and share traditional knowledge related to these varieties."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"National and institutional research policies do not prioritize development and maintenance of local/communities' genetic resources; moreover, documentation of what is in farmers \"hands\" and related traditional knowledge that may contribute to knowledge for the development of new varieties is lacking. Furthermore, resource investment into farmers' seed varieties and community seed banks is inadequate."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"The \"Open Source Seed systems\" a solution?"},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Despite the legal protection, the formal seed production sector has not adequately served smallholder farmers' demand for seeds particularly in affordability, diversity, availability, and reliability."},{"index":5,"size":101,"text":"Intellectual property rights on seeds has increased their costs due to exclusive breeders' ownership rights. As a result of the prevailing international, regional and national policies and legal frameworks, there is an increasing reduction in agricultural biodiversity, food and nutrition security, and resilience to climate change. Throughout the 20th Century, 75 percent of plant genetic resources has been lost as farmers worldwide left their multiple local varieties and landraces for genetically uniform and high-yielding varieties (FAO, 2010). There is need to develop a system that allows for protected freedom of exchange of seeds and genetic resources for resilience and food security."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"PVP laws favour only breeders as having the rights to protect plant varieties even though farmers may sometimes hold and share traditional knowledge related to these varieties"}]},{"head":"75%","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"of plant genetic resources had been lost in the last decade as farmers worldwide left their multiple local varieties and landraces for genetically uniform and high-yielding varieties (FAO, 2010)."}]},{"head":"Photo: Akil Mazumder-Pexels","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"The Open source seed systems (OSSS) is a concept that allows for freedom of access and use of plant genetic material, prohibits exclusive rights, applying this to any subsequent derivatives of those materials. A distinct feature is a commitment-legal or ethical-to maintain the freedom to use seed and any of its derivatives. Anyone committing to OSSS agreement receives freedom of access and use of the material under Material Transfer Agreements (MTAs). Open source seeds would be available for farmers and breeders with freedom to use, sell, re-use, and allow selection and breeding of derivatives. A clear acknowledgement of the source of breeding material is required and the derivatives can only be distributed under an \"open source\" arrangement. Most importantly, the OSSS concept allows for commercial seed production by farmers and farmers cooperatives."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"In an attempt to increase the supply of improved seed and reduce the certification costs, the FAO developed the QDS model, which has been taken up in Tanzania and Uganda. The model improves accessibility to varieties for climate change adaptation and in essence aids in increasing access to diverse seeds. There are no provisions for the use of QDS in Kenya."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"Awareness and understanding of the concept and role of OSSS and how these can address gaps and challenges posed by the formal seed system is limited. As was reported in one of the country forums, \"Open source seed systems will be a way of ensuring that there is access to seed as a common good by protecting it against privatisation so that it is a regulated and \"protected global commons. \" OSSS constitutes, in principle, a framework that can be adapted to protect seeds production and distribution. This commitment accompanies the seed and its derivatives through any and all transfers and exchanges\" (Uganda, Kenya andTanzania OSSS Reports, 2016, 2017). This is a concept and its application will require a policy and legislative environment that accommodates extensive awareness creation, acceptance, adoption, and effective adaptation."}]},{"head":"Policy recommendations (Building an enabling environment for OSSS)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"This brief is a presentation of policy recommendations for effective establishment and functioning of OSSS for East Africa as a region and in the specific respective countries."}]},{"head":"Recognition of farmer-managed seed varieties","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"There is a need for recognition, in regional and national policy and legislation frameworks, of the value and contribution of farmer varieties to food security and nutrition, livelihoods, biodiversity, and resilience to climate change. Policies and legislations should embrace a human rights-based approach and provide exceptions and exemptions in national laws to protect farmers' rights to save, share, exchange, and sell seeds. The East Africa region and each specific country should fast track domestication of the provisions of Article 9 of the ITPGRFA to give farmers official recognition of their contribution. Some key practical ways can be through registration of farmers' varieties to allow for their production under the QDS frameworks provided through the FAO."}]},{"head":"Establishment of a functional open seed source system","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Communities are responsible for development, maintenance, and conservation of biological "}]},{"head":"The enactment of policies that protect farmers' rights to save, exchange and use seeds","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"There is a need to develop specific provisions for farmer-managed seed systems, protecting them in the public domain (in community, national and regional gene banks) from exclusive ownership and patenting. When breeders and seed companies access seed varieties, they should have prior consent from local communities, who should benefit from utilisation of these resources as outlined in the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). There is a need to fast track domestication of the provisions of the ITPGRFA, CBD and Nagoya protocol to ensure that farmers are involved in managing gene banks and linking them to in-situ and ex-situ conservation measures."}]},{"head":"Institutional coordination, collaboration, networking, and awareness","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"This is the establishment of a harmonised and functional national genetic resources coordination mechanism that allows for stakeholder representation and participation by government and other non-state actors. Creating awareness about the open seed source system will require learning, knowledge and dissemination, networking, using national portals, opinion leaders, and social media forums."}]},{"head":"Research and development for establishment and growth of OSSS","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Genetic biodiversity in the hands of farmers and national gene banks should be documented, characterised, and evaluated using the best research tools including DNA fingerprinting. This is to prevent loss of farmer-managed seeds through bio-piracy and genetic erosion. While documenting, farmer-friendly variety testing criteria and registration procedures should be created to help capture indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) related to their genetic resources."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Participatory research methodologies must be employed during the entire process from collection to evaluation of beneficial germplasm. The farming communities, as custodians of genetic resources, must have their contribution recognised in the conservation and development of plant genetic resources and accrue benefits from them."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Text Box 1: Policy and legal framework control seed production and distribution in East Africa International Treaties and Conventions the countries are signatory to 1991 Act of the International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants UPOV 1991 Act of the International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants UPOV 1991 (Kenya, Uganda) 1991 (Kenya, Uganda) The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) (Kenya, The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania) Uganda and Tanzania) Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania) Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania) The Nagoya Protocol (Uganda and Tanzania) The Nagoya Protocol (Uganda and Tanzania) Regional Seed COMESA Seed Trade Harmonized Regulations (2014) (Kenya and Uganda) Regional SeedCOMESA Seed Trade Harmonized Regulations (2014) (Kenya and Uganda) Agreements and Protocols the Protocol on Establishment of East African Community (EAC) (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda) Agreements and Protocols theProtocol on Establishment of East African Community (EAC) (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda) countries have signed EAC Standards for Variety Testing and registration, Seed certification and Phytosanitary Control (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania) countries have signedEAC Standards for Variety Testing and registration, Seed certification and Phytosanitary Control (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania) The African Regional Intellectual Property Organization (ARIPO) Arusha Protocol of Protection The African Regional Intellectual Property Organization (ARIPO) Arusha Protocol of Protection of New Varieties of Plants (Tanzania) of New Varieties of Plants (Tanzania) SADC Technical Agreement on Harmonization of Seed Regulations (2008) (Tanzania) SADC Technical Agreement on Harmonization of Seed Regulations (2008) (Tanzania) SADC Protocol on Protection of New Variety off Plants (Plant Breeders Rights) SADC Protocol on Protection of New Variety off Plants (Plant Breeders Rights) "},{"text":"National Seed Policies and Legislation Kenya • Constitution of Kenya (2010) Kenya• Constitution of Kenya (2010) • National Seed Policy (2010) • National Seed Policy (2010) • Crops Act (2013) • Crops Act (2013) • Seed and Plant Variety Act 2012 (Amendment for 2013 and 2016) • Seed and Plant Variety Act 2012 (Amendment for 2013 and 2016) "},{"text":"Photo: Miguel Á. Padriñán-Pexels diversity . Governments should develop policy and legislation that facilitate and support the role of OSSS, e.g. by supporting farmers' groups to take up related enterprises. There should be an obligation for breeders to work with farmers at all stages of the seed development processes. There is need to amend current regulations to allow for free access to seeds registered by public institutions, community seed banks, and universities. Farmers can access and trade their seed and researchers can use them for related studies in adaptation to climate change. Varieties whose protection period has expired Varieties whose protection period has expired should be declared 'open source' . There is need for should be declared 'open source' . There is need for development of a separate registration procedure development of a separate registration procedure with simplified criteria other than DUS (Distinctness, with simplified criteria other than DUS (Distinctness, Uniformity, and Stability) and VCU (Value for Uniformity, and Stability) and VCU (Value for Cultivation and Use). The processes should include Cultivation and Use). The processes should include farmer-chosen traits for official registration of farmer-chosen traits for official registration of their varieties. Registered farmers' varieties should their varieties. Registered farmers' varieties should be made available for multiplication under QDS be made available for multiplication under QDS regulation. regulation. "}],"sieverID":"f6310ebc-1374-4d7c-8be0-f8f5a10aecab","abstract":"nadequate availability of quality and preferred plant genetic materials in East Africa continues to constrain smallholder agriculture and threatens food security especially during times of unfavourable weather. Only about 20 percent of seed used by East African farmers is supplied by the formal (or commercial) sector; the rest is sourced from farmer-managed seed systems (FMSS), which are not supported by the existing policy or legal environment. Associated mechanisms for seed certification and quality assurance are unclear; the rules and regulations regarding the sale and exchange of seed are sometimes stringent. These restrict farmers' ability to save and freely exchange seed for food security. These factors, coupled with homogenisation of agriculture and climate change, are leading to a reduction in agricultural biodiversity and food and nutrition insecurity. The Open Source Seed Systems (OSSS) approach enhances access to and availability of seed and genetic resources by ensuring freedom of use and exchange among farmers and breeders without restrictions on subsequent varieties and their derivatives."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0200b6965ce3e7a001ff8ea988e4bbd6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8bd9237a-a594-4551-be69-6b2f209261f0/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Effect of sources of sweetpotato planting material for quality vine and root yield","keywords":["sweetpotato","clean planting material","net tunnel","negative selection","genotype by environment interaction","farmer varieties"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"drought spells. The annual average rainfall ranges from 950 mm to 1200 mm (GSS 2010). Meanwhile the southern Ghana has bi-modal pattern, although it is little weak. In this paper, we focused on the northern regions because of some reasons, i.e. sweetpotato was an important crop for people in Upper East Region, and less importance in Upper West and Northern Regions. The Regional Analytical Report by the Ghana Statistical Service described the soil in Nyankpala as sandy-loam with deposits of gravel while that of Navrongo and Wa are predominantly savannah ochrosols and laterites (GSS 2010). Furthermore, during our routine work done in these chosen trial sites, we became aware of the soil in Nyankpala relatively fertile compared to Navrongo and Wa. Table 1 shows the results of soil analysis for the three trial sites."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"The incidence of SPVD was recorded in Nyankpala and Wa, while in Navrongo, the sweetpotato weevil was noticed to be a problem. Four farmer varieties were used: Apomuden (Kamala Sundari (CIP440243), orange-fleshed sweetpotato), Bohye (CIP199062.1) light orange flesh), Dadanyuie (KEMB 37) white-fleshed sweetpotato) and Ligri (Cemsa 74-228 (CIP400004), white flesh). Planting materials were multiplied in insect-proof net tunnels and in adjacent field plots at the primary multiplication located at Bontanga near Tamale in northern Ghana. Except for Apomuden, the crops, including sweetpotato. This work was undertaken to determine the potential for using cultural practices, specifically net tunnels and visual selection, to improve quality of sweetpotato planting material, and yield of crops derived from it."}]},{"head":"Methods and Materials","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Studies were conducted in 2015 at three defined environments in the northern parts of Ghana, i.e., Nyankpala, Northern Region (9°23'35\"N, 1°00'21\"W), Navrongo, Upper East Region, (10°48'27''N, 1°6'24''W) and Wa, Upper West Region (10°4'37''N, 2°30'21\"W). Figure 1 shows the map of Ghana indicating the trial sites."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"From the evidence-base experiences, the northern parts of Ghana has relatively lower sweetpotato virus diseases (SPVD) pressure compared to the southern parts of Ghana. However, in the northern Ghana, the sweetpotato weevil incidence is more pronounced as compared to the southern regions. The above reasons could be fairly explained due to having a difference in rainfall distribution pattern between the above two regions. In northern Ghana, people have experience with a uni-modal rain season distribution pattern with long "}]},{"head":"Results","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":270,"text":"Table 2 shows the number of plants established, rating of plant vigor, foliage yield, biomass and HI. There were highly significant differences among varieties on plant establishment, plant vigor, biomass, and HI, but not for foliage yield. There were highly significant (p-value<0.001) differences among locations for all variables being observed. Moreover, a non-significant (p-value = 0.625) difference was noted from the two sources of planting material. There were also highly significant genotype by environment interactions for plant establishment at p-value<0.001 with LSD 5%=2.0 and plant vigor at p-value<0.001 with LSD 5% = 1.2 (data not shown), but interactions were not significant (p-value = 0.674) for foliage yield, biomass and HI. Interactions of variety by source of planting material were significant only for plant establishment (p-value<0.045, LSD5% =2; data not shown). In Nyankpala, plant establishment and HI were significantly(p-value = 0.001) higher than in Navrongo and Wa, when planting material was from the net tunnel (data not shown). However, from the three-way ANOVA, varieties strongly determined the meaningful results of the trials. From our observation, it was noted that Bohye and Dadanyuie established well (p-value<0.001) and had higher harvest index (p-value<0.01) at Nyankpala. For the harvest index calculation, Apomuden was superior in Wa, and Bohye in Navrongo (p-value<0.01). In contrast, the source of planting material from the open field as defined as \"apparently\" healthy material was interestingly found to have a better result, in some cases throughout our trials. For instances, Dadanyuie variety in Wa and Navrongo, Bohye in Wa, and Ligri in Navrongo had better HI from the open field source than from the net tunnel (p-value<0.001; data not shown)."},{"index":2,"size":513,"text":"Table 3 shows the storage root yield (t/ha), weight of marketable storage roots (t/ha), rating of the first and second observation SPVD and rating for weevil damage throughout the trials in 3 sites and two sources of planting materials. A highly significant difference was found among varieties on storage root yield, weight of marketable planting materials grown in net tunnels came from the tissue culture lab after cleaning them from sweetpotato virus diseases (SPVD). The field multiplications were done using the \"apparently\" healthy planting material, which was a non-pathogen-tested material. \"Apparently\" healthy field-derived planting material was produced by rogueing plants showing virus symptoms (namely Negative Selection). A total of 8 treatment combinations were arranged in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 3 replicates. The 4 X 5.1m plots were planted to 17 cuttings per row by 4 rows. Plants were spaced at 0.30 m within plants and 1m between rows. The experiments were conducted during the rainy season. Weeding, reshaping and vine lifting were carried out in all locations. It was strongly advised that we needed to give a basal application of fertilizer (NPK 15:15:15) in Navrongo and Wa, at the rate of 400 kg/ha at four weeks after planting (WAP). Harvesting was done at 120 days after planting (DAP). For the data collection, two inner rows of each plot were harvested, leaving a plant each at the beginning and the end of row, and giving a net plot of 9m 2 . Number of plants established, rating for plant vigor, foliage yield (kg/plot), biomass weight (kg/plot), weight of marketable roots (kg/plot), and total root yield (kg/plot) were measured and recorded and yield per hectare calculated. Plant establishment was observed and recorded at 4 WAP and the plant vigor at 1 month before harvest. Biomass was calculated from the total root weight per plot (kg/plot) and the total vine weight per plot (kg/plot). Harvest index (HI) was calculated from the total root weight (kg/plot) divided by the weight of biomass (kg/ plot). Sweetpotato weevil damage and SPVD were rated and analyzed. For the weevil damage and the incidence of SPVD symptoms, we used the scale of 1 to 9 whereas 1 was no damage and 9 was worst. For plant vigor, we rated 1 for very poor and 9 excellent growth. The first SPVD symptoms were observed at 6-8 WAP. The second SPVD symptoms were taken 1 month before harvest. The general analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the three-way ANOVA (Anonymous, 2013) were utilized to calculate the means of each variable recorded from the trials to be statistically analyzed to draw conclusions. analysis of variance. Interestingly, in this case, we did not have any serious problem with weevil damage on the varieties being investigated. Possibly, we have used the clean planting material for this trial, so that we could maintain the clean condition of the planting material. Lastly, Nyankpala was recorded to have the least weevil damage. The sweetpotato Weevil (Cylas spp.) can cause losses of 60 to 100% due to quality loss in susceptible varieties and with delayed harvesting (Sorensen 2009)."},{"index":3,"size":518,"text":"From Table 3, it was noted that among varieties, there were highly significant differences on the SPVD symptoms at the first (LSD5% = 0.4) and second (LSD5% = 0.5) observation at p-value<0.01. Furthermore, no significant difference (p-value = 0.38) on the SPVD symptoms among locations at the first observation was observed but the symptoms at the second observation on the SPVD incidence were clearly appearent and this was significantly noted and importantly to be considered (written in vague manner, needs to be re written), although, it was only at p-value of 0.1 and LSD10% of 1.1 (Snedecor and Cochran 1980;Morad 1989;Moore and McCabe 1999). It is shown from the results that the SPVD incidence were clearly depended on varieties and the sources from where the planting materials were taken. The Bohye, Dadanyuie and Ligri plants continued having less SPVD symptoms across the three sites, i.e. Navrongo, Nyankpala and Wa if the source of planting material came from net tunnel. It is likely that Wa and Nyankpala were noted to have a high SPVD pressure compared to Navrongo (Table 3). Nonetheless, a non-significant (p-value = 0.38) difference on SPVD symptoms was recorded in Apomuden. Furthermore, this variety has shown a SPVD symptomless in all the three sites. There was non-significant (p-value = 0.38) difference on the SPVD incidence from Apomuden irrespective of the case whether the planting material was from the net tunnel or from the open field. This result could be from the \"negative selection\" which was intensively done on this variety. Hence, this variety has steadily been showing less symptoms for SPVD. This finding has confirmed the early research finding done in Malawi in 2012 (Abidin 2012). This result is also consistent with the fact that the Apomuden was not from pathogen-tested sources, so in this case, there was no clear advantage to multiplying planting material in the net tunnel, where as in the case of the pathogen-tested varieties, there was a clear advantage. Nevertheless, the lack of virus-free or clean planting material is regarded as a major constraint. Most of the local landraces and introduced materials are degenerated because of the sweetpotato virus disease. In fact, a variety can be disappeared from the farmers' collections. For instance, an old orange-fleshed sweetpotato variety in storage roots, the first and second observation of the SPVD and rating of the damage by sweetpotato weevils (Cylas spp). A highly significant (p-value = 0.001) difference was found in among locations on storage root yield, weight of marketable storage roots and rating of weevil damage. Non-significance (p-value = 0.743) was found on the first observation of SPVD. However, the second observation of this disease showed no statistically significant differences among experiment variance at p<0.05, but differences of virus incidence was stated with 10% probability (p<0.1). Non-significance was noted between the two sources of planting material, i.e. net tunnel versus open field, on the total yield of the storage roots, weight of marketable storage roots and weevil damage. Nonetheless, a high significance (p-value<0.001) was observed between the two sources of planting materials (net tunnel vs open field) for both observations on the SPVD."},{"index":4,"size":169,"text":"A highly significant difference was found among varieties across locations on the total root yield (p-value<0.001), weight of marketable storage roots (p-value = 0.01), SPVD at the second observation (p-value = 0.003), and weevil damage (p-value<0.001). In the first observation of SPVD symptoms, a non-significance was recorded among varieties across locations (data not shown). With respect to the two sources of planting material (net tunnel vs open field), there were no significant differences among varieties on total yield of the storage roots (p-value = 0.305), weight of marketable storage roots (p-value = 0.547), the second observation of SPVD symptoms (p-value = 0.278) or damage caused by weevils, except for first observation of SPVD symptoms at p-value = 0.001 (LSD5% = 0.5; data not shown). It was recorded that Bohye, Dadanyuie and Ligri varieties have shown their superiority if the sources of their planting material came from the net tunnel. Meanwhile, Apomuden did not show any differences whether it was collected from the net tunnel or from the open field."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The statistical analyses were also done using three-way analysis of variance. The interactions between the four varieties across the three locations and two sources of planting material were investigated. No significant interaction was found in the total root yield (p-value = 0.320), weight of marketable storage roots (p-value = 0.456), and weevil damage (p-value = 0.370). Although in Table 3, it shows that Navrongo had weevil damage significantly higher compared to other sites if we considered that the locations were the main factor in the Malawi, Kamchiputu, cannot be found anywhere in this country (B. Mtimuni, personal communication)."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"It is also revealed that by improving the fertility of the soil, i.e. Navrongo, this can give high yield as seen in Table 3. There is a need to improve more soil fertility in Wa as seen on its average yield, it is almost like the yield recorded in Nyankpala where we did not utilize any fertilizers in this site. The health status of plants is very important to be maintained and it is considered through its good agricultural practices and using clean planting material. Several references indicate that a yield gain of 30-50% could be obtained through healthy planting material (Fuglie et al. 1999). In our trial, healthy planting material selected against SPVD symptoms, (for example employing the negative selection method intensively at the farmers' fields), effectively maintained the health status of the sweetpotato in the field in the absence of pathogen-tested planting material. However, the advantage of pathogentested planting material multiplied in net tunnels was also demonstrated through reduced virus symptoms in the cases of Ligri, Bohye and Dadanyuie."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"The results from this research have indicated that \"apparently\" healthy planting material was as effective as pathogen-tested planting material on the assumption that an intensive Negative Selection method was taken on. Net tunnels may have a distinct advantage for maintaining and multiplying planting material to produce healthy sweetpotato crops. It is suggested that for SPVD, net tunnel source is better than open field. For weevils, net tunnel was also significantly better than open field, but this was also dependent on locality. Nonetheless, work in Cuba indicates that about 10-20% increase in yield could be expected through a better control of sweetpotato weevil (Lagnaoui et al. 2000)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Map of the trials conducted in Ghana "},{"text":"Table 1 : Soil analysis for the three trial locations Trial Location pH %OC %N Mg/Kg P Mg/Kg K Cmol+/Kg Ca Cmol+/Kg Mg %Sand %Silt %Clay Trial Location pH%OC%NMg/Kg PMg/Kg KCmol+/Kg Ca Cmol+/Kg Mg %Sand%Silt%Clay Nyankpala 5.75 0.027 0.025 7.85 39.33 1.66 0.51 62.37 36.7 0.92 Nyankpala5.750.0270.0257.8539.331.660.5162.3736.70.92 Navrongo 5.63 0.468 0.046 6.811 20 1.56 0.24 83.48 16.1 0.4 Navrongo5.630.4680.0466.811201.560.2483.4816.10.4 Wa 6.59 0.468 0.045 3.602 40 1.36 0.4 75.08 24 0.88 Wa6.590.4680.0453.602401.360.475.08240.88 Mean 5.99 0.321 0.039 6.088 33.11 1.53 0.38 73.643 25.6 0.733 Mean5.990.3210.0396.08833.111.530.3873.64325.60.733 Notes: OC = organic Carbon; Cmol+/Kg = centi-mol charge per kg Notes: OC = organic Carbon; Cmol+/Kg = centi-mol charge per kg "},{"text":"Table 2 : Number of plant establishment, rating of plant vigor, foliage yield, biomass and harvest index (HI) Item Number of Rating of plant vigor Foliage yield Biomass Harvest Index ItemNumber ofRating of plant vigor Foliage yieldBiomassHarvest Index established plants (kg/plot) (kg/plot) (HI) established plants(kg/plot)(kg/plot)(HI) Variety Variety Apomuden (orange flesh) 31 7.1 8.9 22.0 0.6 Apomuden (orange flesh)317.18.922.00.6 Bohye (light orange flesh) 32 5.8 7.4 16.0 0.5 Bohye (light orange flesh)325.87.416.00.5 Dadanyuie (yellow flesh) 28 6.0 8.3 15.1 0.5 Dadanyuie (yellow flesh)286.08.315.10.5 Ligri (cream flesh) 32 6.8 8.5 22.4 0.6 Ligri (cream flesh)326.88.522.40.6 p-value ** ** Ns ** ** p-value****Ns**** LSD5% 1 0.7 - 4.0 0.05 LSD5%10.7-4.00.05 Location Location Navrongo 31 7.0 12.1 26.2 0.5 Navrongo317.012.126.20.5 Nyankpala 30 5.3 7.4 16.3 0.5 Nyankpala305.37.416.30.5 Wa 32 7.0 5.3 14.0 0.6 Wa327.05.314.00.6 p-value ** ** ** ** ** p-value********** LSD5% 2 0.6 2.0 3.4 0.05 LSD5%20.62.03.40.05 Source of Planting Material Source of Planting Material Net tunnel 31 6.5 8.6 19.6 0.6 Net tunnel316.58.619.60.6 Open field 31 6.4 7.9 18.1 0.6 Open field316.47.918.10.6 p-value ns ns ns ns ns p-valuensnsnsnsns LSD - - - - - LSD----- Grand mean 31 6.4 8.3 18.9 0.6 Grand mean316.48.318.90.6 cv% 6.6 15.8 41.4 31.4 14.0 cv%6.615.841.431.414.0 Item Root yield Weight of marketa- 1 st SPVD 2 nd SPVD rating Rating of weevil ItemRoot yieldWeight of marketa-1 st SPVD2 nd SPVD ratingRating of weevil (t/ha) ble roots rating (1 to 9) damage (t/ha)ble rootsrating(1 to 9)damage (t/ha) (1 to 9) (1 to 9) (t/ha)(1 to 9)(1 to 9) Variety Variety Apomuden (orange flesh) 14.5 7.4 1.2 1.2 2.9 Apomuden (orange flesh)14.57.41.21.22.9 Bohye (light orange flesh) 9.5 6.8 2.6 3.2 1.8 Bohye (light orange flesh)9.56.82.63.21.8 Dadanyuie (yellow flesh) 7.6 5.5 2.4 2.2 2.1 Dadanyuie (yellow flesh)7.65.52.42.22.1 Ligri (cream) 15.4 13.1 1.7 1.7 1.4 Ligri (cream)15.413.11.71.71.4 p-value ** ** ** ** ** p-value********** LSD5% 2.4 2.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 LSD5%2.42.40.40.50.4 Location Location Navrongo 15.7 10.4 1.9 1.8 2.9 Navrongo15.710.41.91.82.9 Nyankpala 9.9 7.4 2.0 2.3 1.1 Nyankpala9.97.42.02.31.1 Wa 9.7 6.7 2.0 2.1 2.2 Wa9.76.72.02.12.2 p-value ** ** Ns (*) ** p-value****Ns(*)** LSD5%; (LSD10%) 2.4 2.1 - (0.3) 0.3 LSD5%; (LSD10%)2.42.1-(0.3)0.3 Source of Planting Material Source of Planting Material Net tunnel 12.2 8.4 1.5 1.7 2.1 Net tunnel12.28.41.51.72.1 Open field 11.3 7.9 2.5 2.4 2.1 Open field11.37.92.52.42.1 p-value ns ns ** ** ns p-valuensns****ns LSD5% - - 0.3 0.4 - LSD5%--0.30.4- Grand Mean 11.8 8.2 2.0 2.1 2.1 Grand Mean11.88.22.02.12.1 cv% 30.9 42.6 28.7 37.3 27.2 cv%30.942.628.737.327.2 "}],"sieverID":"bb269d49-aa45-4738-8fce-955ac0a504b9","abstract":"Sweetpotato is mostly grown in small plots by subsistence farmers in low-input agriculture systems (Carey et al. 1998;Abidin 2004;Ebregt 2007). This crop produces far greater amounts of food per unit area per unit time than grain crops (e.g. 194 MJ/ha/day for sweetpotato vs 159 for maize or 135 for wheat) (Scott et al. 2000). Maintaining good caloric intake in developing countries, particularly in Sub-Sahara Africa, has proved to be a challenge due to variable weather conditions, drought, floods, declining soil fertility and landholding size, high levels of poverty and malnutrition, pests and diseases. Sweetpotato has the potential to contribute much more to alleviate hunger and address food and nutrition security in Sub-Saharan Africa (Abidin 2013). Recently, our proof of concept project, Jumpstarting orange-fleshed sweetpotato (OFSP) in West Africa through diversified markets, has shown that OFSP producers will invest in planting material when they have a market for their crop. Since farmers can maintain and multiply their own planting material, there is a need to demonstrate the value of investing in good quality planting material in order to generate repeat sales for vine multipliers.The northern regions of Ghana are characterized by small land holdings and low input -low output farming systems, which adversely impact food security, and indeed, income generation. In particular, they are subject to a seasonal cycle of food insecurity of three to seven months for cereals (i.e., maize, millet and sorghum) and four to seven months for legumes (i.e., groundnuts, cowpeas, and soybeans). These crops in the savannahs are often produced in a continuous monoculture, steadily depleting soil natural resources and causing the yields per unit area to fall to very low levels. The poverty profile of Ghana identifies the three northern regions as the poorest and most hunger-stricken areas in the country. Gender inequalities are also apparent in these regions, since women have limited access to resources and therefore limited capacity to generate income on their own. Techniques are needed to reliably boost productivity of"}
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{"metadata":{"id":"022c2e3512dda94b21d3d5792957de3e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/df4a3a76-4830-4173-85f8-c5a864c4a813/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Study #2841 Contributing Projects: • P1572 -IRRI Contribution to RICE Flagship Project 2","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Outcome story for communications use:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"From harvest to market, farmers usually lose 30-50% of their earnings. Conservatively, they are losing around US$30 per ton of rice harvested. Delayed, incomplete, or ineffective drying is the main reason for the deterioration of rice seed and grain. In order to maintain high grain quality, IRRI and its partners have developed mechanical flatbed dryers that can be used by smallholder farmer and farmer groups."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"The flatbed dryer is one of IRRI's widely adopted technologies. The flat bed dryer was originally developed by IRRI and improved by Nong Lam University of Vietnam targeting farmers groups, processors and service providers scaled by private manufacturers with assistance of public sector extension. Capacity of flatbed dryers can range from 4 to 8 tons, which are permanent structures and have furnaces fueled by rice husk or rice straw for heating the drying air."},{"index":3,"size":163,"text":"To ensure proper uptake of dryers, IRRI and its NARES partners spearheaded additional initiatives that will create proper mechanisms on sustained use and maintenance of the dryer. Establishment of the machine was complemented with appropriate capacity building activities, focusing on training on dryer operation including measurement of grain quality after drying. Additionally, it is known that farmers and users also lack understanding on the importance of having high quality grains that translates to higher market price. To address this, training and learning activities were conducted to compare grain quality after milling at different moisture contents to inform farmers and millers of the benefit of using the dryer. This intervention worked well in Myanmar, and was found to improve grain quality and milling recovery. In Myanmar, the flat bed dryers are locally produced (based on a technology transfer from the projects) and can be installed on demand within a month. Learning activities on establishing business models using dryers among farmers groups were also explored."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Currently, IRRI and its NARES partners have successfully installed around 10,000 dryers in Vietnam, 1,000 in the Philippines (3), 1,700 in Cambodia, 400 in Myanmar, 200 in Indonesia (1) and more than hundred units in Cambodia (2)."}]},{"head":"Links to any communications materials relating to this outcome:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"• https://youtu.be/sZvB8b6vPro "}]},{"head":"Innovations:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"• 536 -Adaptation of flatbed dryer for paddy drying in the Southeast Asian countries (https://tinyurl.com/2kd25jtm) Elaboration of Outcome/Impact Statement: a) Using the flat bed dryer with rice husk furnace for heating the drying air reduces the physical and quality losses that occur in sun drying. The result are: 1.) Reduced postharvest losses leading to higher financial returns; 2.) Improved quality compared to sun drying and elimination of fungal growth and thus minimised mycotoxin contamination, 3.) Elimination of the weather risk associated with sun drying. b) First users are local manufacturers fabricating and installing the dryers. Final users are processors (millers), drying service providers and in some cases groups of farmers. In Myanmar IRRI is supporting Rice Inc. a startup that is setting up drying services for farmers in villages."},{"index":2,"size":227,"text":"c) The first version of the flat bed dryer with kerosene was developed and piloted in IRRI programs throughout Southeast Asia in the 1980s. It was not adopted due to high operating cost. In the 1990s it was optimised in Vietnam and a rice husk furnace was added to lower the operating cost. IRRI worked with Nong Lam University to transfer the improved dryer initially to Cambodia, Myanmar, Lao, Indonesia and the Phillippines, and then to Bangladesh, India and by assisting AfricaRice to Senegal. Key interventions were: 1.) Training of local manufacturers on manufacturing, testing and trouble shooting dryers 2.) Training of NARES partners and extension workers on the technology 3.) Developing business models for contract service provision using the dryers 4.) Continued backstopping to local manufacturers and national programs on optimising the dryer and the use of the dryer Based on experiences of users the incorporation of improvements is a continuous process. One example is the development of the reversible air flow flat bed dryer, that had been developed by NLU in Vietnam and is now being transferred to other countries. By reversing the air flow after some time more even drying is achieved, resulting in less broken grains and higher quality while also reducing the floor area of the dryer. This continued support to the various key stakeholders is integral part of FP2 of RICE."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"CGIAR system level reporting Link to Common Results Reporting Indicator of Policies : Yes Policies contribution change/ change/ • https://youtu.be/cGdyMlbvVjk • https://youtu.be/cGdyMlbvVjk • https://tinyurl.com/y4bo62bm • https://tinyurl.com/y4bo62bm • https://youtu.be/ldsReKPINOE • https://youtu.be/ldsReKPINOE • http://ricetoday.irri.org/eclipsing-the-sun-blank/ • http://ricetoday.irri.org/eclipsing-the-sun-blank/ Part II: Part II: "},{"text":"Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs: • Increased capacity for innovations in partner research organizations • Reduce pre-and post-harvest losses, including those caused by climate change Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Yes Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Yes SRF 2022/2030 targets: SRF 2022/2030 targets: • Increased rate of yield for major food staples from current 1%/year • Increased rate of yield for major food staples from current 1%/year Description of activity / study: <Not Defined> Description of activity / study: <Not Defined> Geographic scope: Geographic scope: • Multi-national • Multi-national Country(ies): Country(ies): • Indonesia • Indonesia • The Socialist Republic of Viet Nam • The Socialist Republic of Viet Nam • Cambodia • Cambodia • Myanmar • Myanmar • Philippines • Philippines Key Contributors: Key Contributors: Contributing CRPs/Platforms: Contributing CRPs/Platforms: • Rice -Rice • Rice -Rice Contributing Flagships: Contributing Flagships: • F2: Upgrading rice value chains • F2: Upgrading rice value chains Contributing Regional programs: <Not Defined> Contributing Regional programs: <Not Defined> Contributing external partners: Contributing external partners: • NLU -Nong Lam University • NLU -Nong Lam University • MAFF -Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Cambodia) • MAFF -Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Cambodia) • PhilRice -Philippine Rice Research Institute • PhilRice -Philippine Rice Research Institute CGIAR innovation(s) CGIAR innovation(s) "},{"text":"or findings that have resulted in this outcome or impact: Flat bed dryer, initially developed by the IRRI Engineering Division "}],"sieverID":"a551b026-797d-406a-920a-b795285e91eb","abstract":"The flat bed dryer originally developed by IRRI and improved by Nong Lam University of Vietnam targets farmers groups, processors and service providers and scaled by private manufacturers with assistance of public sector extension. Around 10,000 dryers were adopted in Vietnam, 1,000 in the Philippines, 1,700 in Cambodia and 400 in Myanmar."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0325d28264287635aa40267f056045c0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e9cc8082-3f55-4ac5-b7ba-b04d787844de/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"ISPC Commentary on the revised proposal for CRP1.1 Dryland Systems: Integrated Agricultural Production Systems for the Poor and Vulnerable in Dry Areas","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The four strategic research themes (SRTs) are maintained and appear to address appropriate research and development challenges (reducing vulnerability and enhancing sustainable productivity) for the dry areas. Principles for engagement and criteria for site selection are given. Gender, for instance, is given prominent consideration in the participatory approaches and the roles of women farmers/herders/fishers and entrepreneurs are appropriately described in the overall research program. Research hypotheses are presented in the new draft, but these are too general to be useful in providing a foundation from which clear researchable questions can be formulated. An example of what was expected is the text on possible outcomes from the implementation of index-based livestock insurance (IBLI; P88, para 4), which provides some very specific testable hypotheses although they are not categorised as such."},{"index":2,"size":224,"text":"The plan for the CRP is to define many of its elements through an implementation phase using participatory processes to engage many different stakeholder groups. As such, the revision offers virtually no concrete activities at this stage of proposal development. On P11 it states that the proposal does not describe specific activities in detail (i.e., the next level below outputs) but remains at a conceptual level. The Benchmark areas are very large and the majority of Action sites are still to be confirmed. Approaches to partnership are stated but the linkages remain generic or to be worked out, including collaborations with other CRPs. Because activities are not proposed, nor the contribution of earlier CGIAR experience to the alleviation of the problems identified made clear, there is effectively no research plan and the quality of science in the proposal cannot be judged. The proposal's discussions of outcomes and how impacts might be derived or measured remain general and non-specific, except for two modest or incomplete examples. Because of these remaining issues, the ISPC does not consider that the proponents have met all the Fund Council's -Must Have‖ requirements at this time. As the proposal further envisages a needs assessment and development of agreed activities over the next three years, it is unclear what the three year budget covers, in addition to these start up activities."}]},{"head":"Recommendation:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"The ISPC considers that some progress has clearly been made as a result of the two additional meetings held by program design partners. However, in the absence of concrete priorities and activities anchored in actual places, linked by a good rationale as to how the integrated agro-ecosystems approach will deliver impact at scale, the ISPC considers it is too early to consider this proposal as having met the specific requirements. The ISPC suggests that it will be necessary to make a further commentary on a more detailed proposal after the inception meetings have concluded and the outcomes have been analysed. This should be done within a year."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Detailed ISPC comments on eac of the \"must haves\" for CRP 1.1"}]},{"head":"Requirement","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"Response ISPC commentary From ISPC 1. Clearly characterize the target dryland systems. The proposal must define dryland areas of the developing world and identify geospatial distribution using a water balance approach that quantifies risk and severity of water shortage as the basis for categorizing regions that fall into the -reduce vulnerability‖ focus of SRT1, or the -sustainable intensification‖ focus of SRT2 A definition of dryland areas is provided and the proponents have made a reasonable effort to characterize dryland systems as summarized in Table 2, and as presented in maps (http://crp11.icarda.cgiar.org). This is welcome. The definition does not correct for irrigation, however, and it could be argued that this definition is therefore too broad, relative to the overarching objective of targeting the poor and highly vulnerable sectors of the population in dry areas."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"The ISPC encourages the proponents to work towards publishing (in a peer reviewed journal) these maps on the semi-arid tropics as part of the thinking behind this program characterizing the current situation in these areas and the challenges confronting sustainable agricultural development. This would need the data on water scarcity to be considered at a level below the national level."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"The estimates of poverty and population (as pointed out in earlier comments) would appear to be over-inflated, especially in the Indo-Gangetic plains. Do these relate to the geospatial distribution of the targeted dryland systems as defined in Table 2 or to a different geospatial aggregation?"},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"The ISPC had expected the number of sites to decrease as the result of a tighter definition, to provide more focus, but more sites have been added. It is accepted that sites will come and go over the lifetime of the program, but such decisions should be based on how agricultural research can best contribute to the delivery of benefits to the poor and vulnerable in dry areas."},{"index":5,"size":130,"text":"Overall, therefore, the current framework is seen as a useful starting point which should be further developed to focus on the target areas of the individual SRTs 2. Establish clear set of hypotheses as an organizing principle to help prioritize the research and results agenda Hypotheses are described in detail for each SRT (e.g. pages 42,48,49) A section on hypotheses has now been included in each SRT. Many of these hypotheses are, however, written at a very generic level of premise and not specific to dryland systems. This gives the impression that the thinking on how agricultural research can help the poor and vulnerable in dryland systems by the team has not been done in depth. The hypotheses therefore cannot be used for prioritising research on dryland systems as requested."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"The hypotheses need to be further developed through discussion with stakeholders and then described with a tighter focus on the researchable issues and considering the requirements of high quality of science."},{"index":7,"size":74,"text":"3. Provide the criteria for choice of benchmark sites and the development of relevant data to inform research requirements in both the biophysical and social sciences, and their synthesis The section on Benchmark Areas and Action Sites has been expanded to clearly explain the selection criteria. Annex 10 provides further details on the criteria used for selecting Action Sites. Annex 11 contains maps illustrating the key biophysical and socio-economic characteristics of each Target Region"},{"index":8,"size":101,"text":"The criteria for selection of these sites and development of site specific activities could have been better explained. Since the CGIAR cannot work in each and every location, it is important that sites vary significantly so that the research results (with some finetuning) can be adopted over large areas. The revised proposal could have defined problems specific to each region and a better estimate of past global experience (if any) in tackling such problems; strategies developed; major milestones and monitoring parameters. As mentioned, an activity plan and, subsequently, monitoring and evaluation and impact assessment goals etc. are yet to emerge clearly."}]},{"head":"Refine site selection and","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":181,"text":"This comment was addressed At a high level, the choice of -Benchmark‖ and -Action‖ sites is characterization and prioritize activities to be carried out, working from impacts to activities through detailed discussions at the Regional Design Working Meeting (Nairobi, 27-30 June 2011). Maps of the Benchmark Areas, Action Sites and Satellites Sites are shown in Figs 10 to 14 (pages 69-77) generally appropriate. The characterization (including on the web site) is of huge geographical regions and not on the basis of systems. Some criteria are given for site selection but there is very little information on specific sites where the work will be carried out and hence little insight into the types of problem which will be addressed. At a minimum it would have been useful to have had major sites characterised in terms of poverty, risks, major drivers etc together with problems and opportunities, as a basis for priority setting and targeting at those sites. -Action‖ sites appear similar to -sentinel‖ sites referred to in other CRPs, and the duration of research could be defined considering long-term data collection needs."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"A couple of the sites in east and southern Africa appear to have the potential to overlap with the CRP on maize which has a big systems component in this region. No mention is made of how this CRP will link with the maize CRP in this region."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"The site selection needs more planning and elaboration. The ISPC would wish to comment further once more details on this emerge. 5. Provide more detail on the underpinning science and agronomic, genetic, and farming system approaches to be evaluated once the first phase has progressed Details have been added underpinning science as well as the methodology for each SRT (e.g. pages 43,56,57) The added sections (with references) on methodology are welcomed but together with the hypotheses in each SRT, they still do not provide sufficient details on the underpinning science and approaches in the different areas of research. As mentioned above, most of the hypotheses are quite inadequate regarding specificity to the systems of focus in this CRP."},{"index":4,"size":174,"text":"It is difficult to justify long-term funding for a systems-specific CRP without more detail on the underpinning science and thus the ISPC would like to comment again once the detail has been developed. 6. Provide a more Three paragraphs have been At a conceptual level, an attempt has been made to link to a theory comprehensive theory of how social change will result from the livelihood, gender and innovations systems approaches espoused in the current proposal added in section on Impact Pathways (p 84 ) that address this point of social change and define impact pathways, particularly using examples of previous experiences, e.g. alley cropping in North Africa and the IBLI example (although this still awaits results). Emphasis is on empowerment, which is necessary for achieving social change in these areas. How new activities yet to be defined will work and contribute under the integrating principles (gender, integrated systems, participation, communication) to effect social change and create the suggested impacts remains unclear. The proponents suggest that these parameters will evolve in the learning phase."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"The proposal suggests that -CRP1.1 will develop Region and Benchmark Area specific impact narratives and pathways based on the general frameworks presented‖ (p88 para 5). One major challenge defined is the uncertainty around the many more macro policy, institutional and socioeconomic circumstances determining uptake of innovations and subsequently outcomes and impact."},{"index":6,"size":212,"text":"While the proposed integrated framework will strive for more policy engagement and support for up-and out-scaling (two core components of SRT2 & 3 activities) it suggests diminishing roles for CRP1.1 during the adoption phases (beyond proof-of-concept phase) of the impact pathways (pp 84, 88 and figure 19). It is also clear from what is presented in Annex 1 (points of intersection and differences between CRP1.1 and CRP 5 on p128) that the overlap is so large between what these two programs will be working on that there is need for more careful thinking and programming to avoid duplication and redundancy. It is clear that both programs are still struggling with drawing boundary lines. What is more important is what is proposed in the distinctions made in Annex 1 that also confirms a diminishing role of CRP1.1 beyond field and farm levels. This poses the question of how the proposed integration principles will function along the defined impact pathways when roles along that chain are divided between two or more CRPs and how CRP 1.1. STR2.2 and 3.3 (up & out-scaling) outputs will be produced? In fact Table 5 on p93 (which attempts to link CRP1.1 outcomes to the SLO) does not have outputs to establish links between CRP1.1 specific outputs to outcomes?"},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"In summary, the ISPC continues to have concerns about the lack of a comprehensive theory of change and thus whether the impact claimed can indeed be delivered."}]},{"head":"Discuss current research priorities and how they would inform and complement new initiatives","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Each SRT section now includes hypotheses that underpin research approaches and priorities. A partial inventory of current research priorities and ongoing initiatives by CGIAR Centers and partners is available at http://crp11.icarda.cgiar.org CRP1.1 will build on these initiatives during the transition phase and new funding will be sought for testing the indicated hypotheses"},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"The response to this point was disappointing. The material at the cited url did not easily provide even a partial inventory. There are references in the text to work completed/in progress but description as to how this will be built on is patchy. The ISPC was looking for a much better review of lessons learned from successes and failures in the past. It is true that the CGIAR has not had many successes in these areas, but lessons could be drawn from elsewhere and an analysis of these should be part of the diagnosis."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"The few successes presented in Boxes 1-5 are not convincingvery small scale (integrated agroforestry livestock), pilot program (livestock insurance), development rather than research (watersheds), irrigated areas (Egypt only)."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"If there is insufficient CGIAR expertise to develop the thinking, then the CGIAR should look beyond its own accomplishments and see what local organizations (Government and Non-government) have achieved in the past. Developing partnerships with those organizations will be extremely important."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"This point is underlined by the high dependence in the proposal on a paper by Cooper et al which appears to be an internal CGIAR document and not subject to peer review. The ISPC encourages better use of peer reviewed references."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"Presumably the links between past or current research and what is planned will be a point for discussion at the inception meetings and this argues for further detail to be presented in a report to the ISPC after the inception meetings have been held."},{"index":7,"size":53,"text":"From Here again review of a further revised proposal would be needed after the outcome of the inception meetings have been analysed and decisions on appropriate approaches taken. 9. Describe the framework of selecting external and centers' partners, their respective research activities, how these activities collectively contribute to an integrated agro-ecosystem research agenda"},{"index":8,"size":44,"text":"The framework for selecting partners is addressed in the section International, Regional and National Partners (p 102-103). Table 7 indicates the value added for each partner type. CRP1.1 conceptual framework and ensuing SRTs show how they will contribute collectively to an integrated agro-ecosystem research-for-development"},{"index":9,"size":95,"text":"The section does not appear to have been changed. Despite considerable detail on different types of partners, the main points raised in the ISPC commentary of partner selection process and integration of the complementary competences and knowledge, have not been addressed. This could be helped by clarifying who in the CRP management team has overall responsibility for partnership management. Relationships with partners (apart from conflict resolution which is covered) appear to be delegated to Interdisciplinary research teams, which may mean that significant partnership opportunities (and hence integration) at a higher level of aggregation are missed."},{"index":10,"size":92,"text":"undertaking. Inception workshops will further help to identify main partners and potential roles for implementing CRP1.1. The inception workshops will provide the opportunity for broadening the range of partners according to the testing hypotheses and R4D undertakings for this CRP Decisions taken at the inception workshops will be crucial in determining the success of this CRP. During the workshop, the entire planning; deliverables; important milestones; implementation strategy etc. are to be worked out. The current revised proposal therefore remains incomplete. 10. Differentiate the roles of the crop/commodity CRPs and this system CRP"}]},{"head":"Updated text in section Integration with other CRPs addresses this point","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"The text on the interaction between this CRP and the ‗commodity' CRPs is disappointing. The ISPC accepts that CRPs are at different stages of development and thus it is difficult to write more detail at this stage, but it would be helpful to understand what process will be put in place to ensure adequate communication between CRPs. As noted, the description of the relationship with CRP5 raises more questions than are answered and the linkages to the CRP3 series of CRPs are only sketched."}]},{"head":"Integrate available lessons learned from SSA-CP See Annex 12 (p 192 )","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"There is a need to build on the conclusions from the SSA-CP on the validity and merits of the IAR4D approach, which are still pending. In the innovation systems approach (which SSA-CP has been testing) the issues of research content, quality of science, impact pathways, scalability and sustainability need to be considered. The lessons so far from the SSA-CP including scenarios for international research on the further activities and development of the Innovation Platforms, documented in the SSA-CP external review report from 2010, should be carefully considered. The SSA-CP lessons on experimental designs for impact assessment are very relevant. The CGIAR reform process seeks a step change to provide convincing SLO-level impact and the CRP1 series programs are a major tool of the portfolio to try and ensure this happens. There is a requirement to justify the sort of investment being asked for, and a clearer explanation of what is new and what will be delivered for the dry areas. 12. Develop a log frame and articulate impact pathways to explicitly link a cluster of outputs to outcomes, and impacts and to SRF system level outcomes"},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"The updated proposal includes in its section System Level Outcomes and CRP1.1 Impacts the -mapping‖ of CRP1.1 outcomes to CGIAR system level outcomes (p92 ), which supplements the information provided in Fig. 5 (p32). This figure shows the major linkages amongst SRT outputs and overall CRP1.1 outcomes. Certainly, many outputs influence each outcome and single outputs may contribute to many outcomes, but only key linkages are highlighted in this figure"},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"The revised proposal does not include a logframe. Table 5 and Figure 5 are at too general a level and the underpinning logic is weak. The IBLI model remains the closest attempt at characterizing what a cluster of research outputs aims to achieve and how it feeds into the wider research effort of the program."},{"index":4,"size":195,"text":"There is a conceptual discussion of CRP outputs, outcomes and impacts and this is related to System level outcomes (which actually are impacts), However, the text on p92 is not very convincing and concerns have been raised earlier about the feasibility of the impact pathways to deliver. One of the benefits of developing a full logframe is that it can highlight the risks at various stages of the process between research design and delivery and thus help in the management of those risks. Also, because the program is not designed at the activity level, there is no sense of magnitudes -of how many people would be targeted or how many hectares of land would be put on a sustainable footingor of a time period for achieving those outcomes. The two impact examples provided are written up without numbers. This means that the discussion is at a very conceptual level at this stage with no detail on potential impacts. This also raises the issue that the ISPC alluded to in earlier comments that the scaling up issue is really left hanging. Working at sites is one thing but getting impacts to scale is much more challenging."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"The ISPC thus do not consider that this ‗must have' has been met."}]},{"head":"Include a performance management framework","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"See updated M&E section that addresses this point (p 111-112) The table on p112 provides an adequate framework for monitoring and evaluation at a general level and it includes reference to how the M&E results will be used and by whom. However, the effectiveness of M&E depends crucially on the characterization of outcomes and intermediate impacts and the ability to measure them in these large NR systems, which hasn't been well addressed. It is advisable to set quantitative goals to make evaluation more meaningful. The proponents appropriately state that outcome monitoring needs to be an important focus and it should cover monitoring of near-term changes and early impacts. 14. Build climate variability resilience and sustainable dry land systems through an integrated program combining indigenous knowledge with improved technologies, information dissemination and engagement with stakeholders"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"The updated proposal addresses this point throughout and wherever appropriate highlights the use of indigenous knowledge"},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"The ISPC believes this request has been met. More can always be done, such as exploring whether and how small and marginal farmers could earn carbon credits by leading the development and testing of methodologies for studying carbon foot prints in highly variable dryland agroecosystems. The proponents' statement is clear and adequate. This request may have arisen from a mis-reading of the original proposal."},{"index":4,"size":101,"text":"16. Broaden the focus of the proposal to include Latin America and South Asia (cereal system) CRP1.1 includes northeast Brazil and the dry Andes of South America as Knowledge Sharing Centers (p 78 and The proposal suggests that regions not targeted in the CRP, such as Latin America, could be included in the Knowledge Sharing Centers, and EMPRABA is now mentioned as one of the knowledge providing institution. Thus there are no explicit plans to Annex 13 for further details) broaden the geographic focus, and the proponents may have felt this would be beyond the capability of the already broad program."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"The ISPC supports the proposed geographic focus of CRP1.1."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 15. Redefine management structure to ensure that the Steering Committee (strategic oversight) and the Research Management Committee (manage research) are not both chaired by the DG for the lead center to avoid potential conflict of interest The Director General of the Lead Center will chair the Steering Committee (SC). The Research Management Committee is not chaired by the Director General of the Lead Center, but by the CRP1.1 Leader appointed by the SC (see p 95) "},{"text":" As mentioned above, the diagnosis of the problem and prioritization has not yet sufficiently drawn from past experiences (or at least this problem diagnosis/evaluation of experience/and prioritization of approach is not adequately reflected in the revised proposal). New sections on the methodologies which might be used have been inserted at the level of the SRTs. This illustrates that thought has been given to the options. The proponents appropriately recognise the need to consult the main stakeholders to help prioritise interventions. Fund Council Fund Council 8. Identify clearly the research The SRT sections of the updated 8. Identify clearly the researchThe SRT sections of the updated interventions proposed as a proposal provide details on interventions proposed as aproposal provide details on result of the diagnosis of the problem-solving R4D for this result of the diagnosis of theproblem-solving R4D for this problems CRP, whose priority problemsCRP, whose priority interventions results after interventions results after consulting with main stakeholder consulting with main stakeholder in Target Regions in Target Regions "}],"sieverID":"5fc4d5ed-e552-4fd8-96a4-7c90b69dac08","abstract":"The proposal for CRP 1.1 on Drylands has been revised by the ICARDA-led partnership to address the changes requested by the Fund Council for its full endorsement. The ISPC has considered the revised proposal against these requirements and provides summary comments and recommendation below, followed by a table with detailed ISPC comments on each of the -must have‖ elements."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0415f6bb926d81c552494ccc7c1ba1e8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7f7dd290-7960-49d6-88f1-1225cc1b4731/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"The proposal has been drawn up as a tripartite science partnership on rice merging research from the three CGIAR Centers that deal with rice (IRRI, Africa Rice and CIAT). Both research and management options need to be optimised for a single, coherent Mega Program. This new MP should have more focus on a narrower set of key challenges and problems that can be addressed through rice research and where the CGIAR has a clear comparative advantage. Prioritized research should include sustainability and eco-efficiency of rice systems. The requested levels of funding must be rationalized against prioritized activities and deliverables."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"To qualify as a true MP proposal more clarity should be provided as to how the science will translate into developmental outcomes and impacts. Thus the proposal needs to present more specific impact pathways including clarity on the role of partners that will be required to turn research into widespread impacts. The proposal would benefit from a more dynamic scenario analysis regarding changes that are likely to affect the need for rice research in the future."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"A stronger partnership analysis is needed, particularly regarding the relationships with NARS, and especially the BRIC countries and the effects of their increasingly powerful programs in rice, agricultural research and capacity building. A convincing proposal for a global rice program stretching over more than a decade cannot be developed without attention to these players. We acknowledge that full coordination with other Mega Programs may not be feasible until the other programs are further developed. However, the overlapping, common and synergistic elements related to climate change can already be considered and this should be done in consultation with the forthcoming MP on climate change. It is also important to address the relationships between MP1 and GRiSP regarding systems that include rice."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"We offer these observations in support of the improvement of this important program of research for the CGIAR, and for the benefit of MP development in the system as a whole. "}]},{"head":"General","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The program for a global rice science partnership has its genesis in earlier arrangements and collaboration between Centres with the program now adapted to the new CGIAR requirement for MegaPrograms (MP). It reflects the desire of three CGIAR Centres (IRRI, Africa Rice and CIAT) to bring their rice research together, which was agreed to before the change in the CGIAR, and thus it was not intended to make their research a coherent part of the CGIAR's overall agenda. The title is thematic and does not really match the concept of a MP. It can thus only be considered a pilot MegaProgram in a general sense. However, rice is a highly important staple and enhancing food security in many developing countries through yield increases and more sustainable rice supplies for the poor would be considered central to the CGIAR portfolio. This is particularly the case now that more vulnerable and difficult environments and ecosystems are being considered."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"These initial comments by the ISPC are provided in this light, awaiting a more comprehensive assessment. They are based on a very brief consultation with members of the Council and not the required peer review as the three days available for this interaction was much too short."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Overall, the GRiSP MP proposal is well written and clear. As a stand alone program it has several strong features. It is a comprehensive and thematically compelling proposal built on the work of existing Centres and their partners, with a maturing understanding of what it will take to collaborate in a global program of rice research. The program's future visibility as THE international rice R&D program is likely to be high."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"In the CGIAR reform context, the GRiSP proposal's weaknesses are related to two particular aspects: a) the difficulty in demonstrating synergies and overlaps with other MPs (lacking an effective SRF) and, subsequently, the CGIAR's ability to build a coherent program to address specific developmental challenges, and b) the effects that it may have on development of the Fund."}]},{"head":"Content of GRiSP proposal","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Clarity of Program objectives","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Strengths:"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"• The proposal addresses a high priority strategic research area and provides convincing evidence of the global importance of rice."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"• It provides a global research program in rice that integrates research across regions and disciplines as well as along the value chain. The clear distinction of a product and product line approach by region is commendable."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• Comprehensive product line descriptions are helpful for understanding the scope and potential value of the six thematic areas."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"• The proposal still uses yields rather than total factor productivity (TFP), but it does link to poverty and sustainability."},{"index":6,"size":51,"text":"• There are good examples of enhanced research approach from the merger of the key partners of the MP: e.g. the research concepts for ecological resilience to pest and diseases and innovative technologies for ecological intensification of rice production systems under current and future climates in Asia, Africa, and Latin America."},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"Weaknesses:"},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"• The proposal reflects a tripartite approach combining Center activities and plans. This approach affects the proposal's quality particularly regarding prioritization, focus, internal synergies and management."},{"index":9,"size":77,"text":"• There are only a few examples of savings in terms of \"business merger\". For example there are 3 rainfed rice ecosystem product lines maintained for each of the regions. In all, the MP attempts to bring 32 \"global and regional R&D product lines\" to the market. And some of these product lines have multiple plant traits to add to the complexity. The \"business-like results-based programme\" would be better served by selecting fewer, high priority product lines."},{"index":10,"size":34,"text":"• There are indications that the individual and separate activities (for instance in intellectual policy) will merge at some point. IP, in particular, is, however, not only a MP issue but a Consortium issue."},{"index":11,"size":57,"text":"• There is a plan to seek bilateral funding to both program activities and non-program activities. The Fund is expected to contribute, but the assumed Fund portion is not prioritized. The overall benefit of a value-added approach is not clear -rather the proposal projects more as a new funding opportunity to conduct ongoing and new rice research."},{"index":12,"size":42,"text":"• The targeting of the research on traits and systems of special importance to poor producers and consumers needs sharpening. This done, it is likely that LAC and China (especially if poverty is projected out 25 years) would receive much lower priority."},{"index":13,"size":28,"text":"• The proposal is very much oriented towards productivity gains, and short on presenting alternative future scenarios that are likely to affect the future research needs. For example:"},{"index":14,"size":33,"text":"o longer term threats to rice production (pest and pathogens, climate change, etc.) o large scale changes from current patterns of production (major river systems elsewhere than Asia, consequences of land grabbing etc.)"},{"index":15,"size":44,"text":"o changing farming systems to enhance ecological efficiency and resilience • CGIAR's comparative advantage could be questionable in some areas such as biofuels, value adding, and real time crop monitoring and forecasting. It should be made clear that these are, at best, secondary priorities."}]},{"head":"Research outputs and plausibility of impact","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Strengths:"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"• The proposal has a strong analytical base in terms of ex ante analysis and priority setting that feed into a results framework with specific quantified indicators."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"• There are very specific targets and even bold claims of expected impact (production increases, reduction in rice price, # of malnourished reaching caloric sufficiency, reduction in rice area, etc.). Projecting such specific impact targets is commendable, as is providing details and justification for these claims in an appendix."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"• The proposal includes specific components on scaling up adoption, on capacity building, and gender-all important to achieving wide impacts."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"• For capacity building there is an innovative set of activities with key roles for Partners such as CIRAD and Leuven university in higher degree rice science training linked to field work in the regions."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• A component for continued strategic planning, priority setting and impact assessment is commendable."},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"Weaknesses:"},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"• The impact pathways analyses are still quite generic and vague."},{"index":9,"size":25,"text":"• The ex ante assessment is done only for South Asia. How the extrapolations for SE Asia, Africa and LAC were done is not stated"},{"index":10,"size":36,"text":"• The M&E program will need clearer product pathway analysis including anticipated dates of output availability and resource requirements identified per activity. It is not possible to assess appropriateness of amounts proposed with the available information."},{"index":11,"size":16,"text":"• The expected outcomes from current projects will need to be better presented and subsequently evaluated."}]},{"head":"Quality of research","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Strengths:"},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"• The research approaches are solid and appear to capture state of the art approaches in key areas such as genomics, system resilience to pests, yield gap analysis and adaptation to climate variation."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"• The proposal incorporates the main recommendation about systems research from the last EPMRs of IRRI and Africa Rice regarding the need for genotype x environment interaction studies to define trait specific effects and to incorporate early multi-site testing in the breeding programs to capture favourable GXE effects."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"• There are some new areas of research, such as N fixation in rice and research on labor saving technologies in Africa which is long over due. A research fund will provide grants for innovative proposals to blue sky research."}]},{"head":"Quality of research and development partners and partnership management","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Strengths:"},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"• Although the MP could be stronger regarding ARI partnerships -for instance in genomics, it includes two major ARI partners with significant rice research assets."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"Weaknesses:"},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"• More clarity is needed on specific roles of specific partners (the proposal is too generic and often sites the 450 odd rice research partners). Only 18% of budget allocated to partners, which appears small. \"Partners\" are really \"clients\" in many cases."},{"index":5,"size":90,"text":"• The proposal is lacking in its consideration of the strong NARS (BRICS), particularly China (with substantial programs in rice, its own direction in hybrid rice -and probably massive potential for technological capacity building in Africa) and Brazil. These countries are lumped together with other NARS. In LAC, CIAT and FLAR will be building/rebuilding activities from a very small current base compared with the Brazilian national system. China and Brazil should be thoroughly considered in their two regional settings as well as global policy, global rice gateways, capacity building etc."},{"index":6,"size":42,"text":"• Roles of and aspirations for the private sector are not addressed. The role for the private sector in hybrids appears static; no clear analysis of private sector expertise in innovation and business know-how for added value of rice products is presented."},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"• Roles of the CGIAR Centers in the innovation pathway are not explicit."},{"index":8,"size":27,"text":"• In planning much of the extension of technologies through existing networks (INGER, CLAR etc) there should be a plan to enhance their performance and perhaps staffing."}]},{"head":"Appropriateness and efficiency of Program management","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The new and added management structures reinforce the observation about compilation of all existing activities of the 3 Centers. It is not designed to streamline decision-making at the CGIAR system level. Thus the management structure of this MP seems already unwieldy."}]},{"head":"Efficiency of governance","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The governance is logical (but leads to high real overheads). It will be important to exert the authority of the program management and oversight groups in relation to the host/lead centre."}]},{"head":"GRiSP in the context of the SRF and regarding other MPs","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"The GRiSP proposal mentions but could not detail links with other MPs in the absence of the SRF [or other MPs] as a guiding document. The main risk would be loss of potential synergies among MPs or weakening of other future MPs through this program's encroachment into their core business. The program covers some \"product lines\" that will also be the domain of other MPs. It appears that interactions with other MPs will be at additional cost."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"There are some examples of lost opportunities for synergies at the CGIAR system level:"},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"• Work on genomics and bioinformatics is further compartmentalized by crop. The GRiSP proposal appropriates rice-specific components of the Generation CP."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"Although the proposal includes an articulation of a comparative genomics and breeding platform for the system (following from GenCP?), this is then lacking from the SRF where it should be. Subsequently the opportunity for increased synergy across commodities could be lost."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"• One of the hallmarks of the SRF is to think in terms of systems, but this MP has a strong commodity lens. For example, in the upland systems in Africa and Asia rice is only one part of the system and focusing on rice will be inadequate for solving major problems in those systems. The greater opportunity is to focus on key rice-based ecosystems."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"• In general, the rice-based systems of South Asia should be at the core of MP1 on systems research, as they concern hundreds of millions of poor people. At the portfolio level, the rice-wheat systems must be appropriately addressed, for instance."},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"• Germplasm conservation could be fragmented; in this proposal it is considered Center-specific and the costs additional to the already large GRiSP budget."},{"index":8,"size":50,"text":"• There are other areas of potential overlap, such as climate change issues, policy areas, labour productivity enhancement and post harvest issues in Africa, etc. which cannot currently be evaluated. As the program matures higher levels of programmatic integration would be expected, with an increased focus around fewer research challenges."},{"index":9,"size":129,"text":"The proposal seems to raise the specter of Centers seeking ways of getting their portfolios fully funded, with or without the Fund. That could potentially erode the key concepts of the reform. The debate between the GRiSP proponents and the Consortium Board is indicative of such a collision. Strong Centers, including those in GRiSP, may not be expected to shed parts of their portfolio to accommodate others, but the outcomes from this kind of a race could be quite negative for the reform. The Consortium Board has the responsibility to establish the balance. Considering a portfolio of MPs, it will be important to have plans adjusted to different levels of realizable funding. There is a need to balance steady increases to current Center budgets with potential savings from streamlining."},{"index":10,"size":47,"text":"Additional clarifications arising from Fund Council discussion [16/07/2010] 1. Noting the potential conflict in views about funding envelopes for GRiSP, the ISPC confirms that the authority for determining the upper funding limit from the CGIAR Fund to be presented in proposals should rest with the Consortium Board."},{"index":11,"size":22,"text":"2. Attention should be paid to distinguishing or unifying \"workplan\" years and \"budget\" years in the proposal as currently both are used."},{"index":12,"size":11,"text":"3. Logframes which introduce timelines for deliverables are required (as Annexes)."},{"index":13,"size":79,"text":"4. The ISPC strongly supports the separation of genebank maintenance costs from the program encompassing research on genetic resources. This is a system issue, not unique to the rice Centres, and should be treated as such. The ISPC has offered to augment the Consortium Board commissioned studies of genebank costs and \"research gaps\" as it believes a comprehensive assessment of genebanks, research on agro-biodiversity and the genetic resources policy (needs and instruments of the system) should be tackled together."},{"index":14,"size":43,"text":"5. The ISPC urges a more comprehensive description of the future engagement with the BRICS and the effects that the growth of the rice programs of the strong NARS will have for the future of the GRiSP and possibilities for devolution of effort."},{"index":15,"size":51,"text":"6. Whilst the proposal generates some excitement and expectation of gains through genetic and genomic approaches, more could be said of the advances in rice systems (and the breadth of benefits for environmental sustainability, including climate change mitigation, and human welfare) expected from augmenting research on eco-efficiencies, water and soil nutrition."},{"index":16,"size":34,"text":"7. However, in some cases (page 10) the proposal does make evident the likely achievements from the promise of new science. This is to be commended and such approaches encouraged in future MP development."},{"index":17,"size":35,"text":"8. Related to the above, is the opportunity in newly emerging commodity systems (like rice in Africa) to enhance \"ecological literacy\" and so leapfrog traditional stages in systems development and purely serendipitous increase in yields."},{"index":18,"size":66,"text":"9. Whilst the proposal should be more keenly aware of the environmental and other consequences of targeting an increase in yield of 100 million tonnes of rice, proper management of intensive production systems may be a means to mitigate the production of GHGs, excess soil nitrogen etc. rather than automatically assuming that a rice program can only work towards adaptation in the face of climate change."},{"index":19,"size":31,"text":"10. Similarly the consequences of the research succeeding to enhance the global rice harvest should be projected in terms of the interplay of production and livelihoods, and translated into development scenarios."},{"index":20,"size":48,"text":"11. The ISPC confirms the role that policy must play in the global enhancement of rice. Further, acting in its role as an honest broker, the CGIAR's strong suit is to make scientific knowledge internationally available and so set out the evidence base which underpins good policy formulation."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Partnership Council of the CGIAR GRiSP, Global Rice Science Partnership -the first fast tracked CGIAR Mega Program proposal Initial comments from the interim Independent Science and Partnership Council [16 July 2010] "}],"sieverID":"79d45461-cf5d-4a66-973d-05729f5249b7","abstract":"We are pleased to provide the interim iISPC comments on the GRiSP proposal that were presented in the recent Fund Council meeting in Rome. The commentary text has been slightly augmented on the basis of key points brought up in the discussion which the ISPC would like to endorse. We emphasise that these comments are initial ones and the iISPC will engage external peer reviews in a thorough assessment following the criteria agreed. We plan to use, when applicable, the peer reviews that were commissioned by the Consortium Board.From the interim assessment it is clear that the proposal has many strengths, several of which are enumerated in the attached commentary. We would draw the attention of the Funders and proponents to the following issues that in our view need to be addressed as a highest priority:"}
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{"metadata":{"id":"045313bb23148728f5031932a61803cc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/4552/a95408c9b50bde9fcd1423fa2bfbf641.pdf"},"pageCount":21,"title":"Acronyms BDT Bangladesh Taka BFRI Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute BMP Better Management Practices BSFF Bangladesh Shrimp and Fish Foundation CGIAR Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research Centers CLA Collaborating, Learning, and Adapting COP Chief of Party DCOP Deputy Chief of Party DoF Department of Fisheries FFI Formal Financial Institution FTFMIS Feed the Future Management Information System GIP Genetic improvement program GSC GreenDale Service Centers GIS Geographical Information System ICT Information, Communications Technology IR Intermediate Result LSP Local Service Provider MEL Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning NCE No-cost extension NGO Non-Government Organization OSP Orange Sweet Potato SBCC Social and Behavior Change Communication USAID United States Agency for International Development ZOI Zone of Influence ZOR Zone of Resilience","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"educational institutions closed and declared a series of lockdowns in which it was suggested that people stay at home, restrict outdoor movement, maintain social distance, and self-isolate."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"As a result, the work of the aquaculture activity slowed dramatically. During this period, all partners stopped group activities. Some partners tried to continue activities and support to the beneficiaries over the telephone."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"By June, some field work had resumed after two months hiatus in areas not under a specific lockdown ('red zones', as the GoB calls them). In the cases, the partners generally divide a typically 20-member group into two smaller sub-groups and maintain social distancing."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"The aquaculture activity began a series of twice monthly survey of market actors to gather specific data on the impact of the lockdown. The survey series includes telephone surveys of 100+ market actors in the ZOI and ZOR and tracks price and production changes, transportation, and market activity at in all sub-sectors. The survey tracks proxy inputs such as pituitary gland, oxygen, and ice sales to predict trends. Interviews with a range of market actors discovers coping actions and plans."},{"index":5,"size":102,"text":"By the end of May, about six weeks into the crisis, there had been significant declines in all subsectors--declines in production, in sales, and in re-stocking and maintaining current stock. These declines were significant--often over 50% below previous levels and rarely less than a third lower. Labor shortages were particularly serious; with lockdown limiting mobility, there are substantial shortages of day labor across all sub-sectors in aquaculture. Aquaculture production was reduced, and household incomes were severely hurt. By the end of June, there were slight signs of easing, but these were only in comparison to the serious shocks of the first months."},{"index":6,"size":81,"text":"In Bangladesh, this lockdown hit during the peak season for the fish business, and when travel restrictions were eased on 31 May the fish business took an upward turn. Most retail fish markets started to resume normal operations, though feed sales points at Jessore and Cox's Bazar are in covid \"red zones\" and remained closed. With the end of the government ban on transport services, fish seed and food fish transportation services improved notably along with travel from outer distance districts."},{"index":7,"size":63,"text":"Average weekly fish consumption in the household from home ponds remained low, down 58% from pre-covid levels. Women farmers' consumption has dropped from 11 kg per week to 3, and men's consumption is down from 8 kg to 5. (The 11 kg/week figure is presumably overstating the case by including family consumption to some degree. This number was obtained via different sampling method.)"},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"As of this writing, the trend lines since April, 2020, show little change in most sub-sectors:"},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"• Levels of commercial activity remain well below baseline in all aquaculture sub-sectors with most sub-sectors are 30 and 70% below pre-COVID levels."},{"index":10,"size":28,"text":"• For small holders the situation remains very bad as household consumption and small holder sales remain very low, 70-90% off normal levels. Small holders are suffering greatly."},{"index":11,"size":37,"text":"• Sales of food fish have increased as more fish are reaching markets after a two-month delay in harvesting. Pent up demand and the increased production and keeping larger fish in ponds have been pushing prices up."}]},{"head":"This activity's response to the COVID-19 crisis","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"The aquaculture and nutrition activity adjusted very quickly to the crisis and began a program to deliver information & assistance."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"WorldFish has the active phone numbers of 116,638 aquaculture markets actors in ZOI and ZOR and sent SMS and voice messaging about availability of emergency finance and gender issues (data attached). Examples: Do you know, due to COVID 19, Government has announced loan with 4% interest to provide working capital for agricultural sector including aquaculture? To learn more about this loan please contact nearest bank and agent banking outlets. Stay at home and frequently wash hands with soap water. Wear a mask and maintain social distancing when you are out of home. By: USAID Feed the Future Bangladesh Aquaculture and Nutrition Activity."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Well wishes to sisters and brothers in fish farming during this pandemic. Maintaining health and hygiene is bringing added workload to the home. Let's not the household work burden go to women only. Let's share, let's care. Father-Mother-Brother-Sister, let's do the care work and chores together. By: USAID Feed the Future Bangladesh Aquaculture and Nutrition Activity"},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"The aquaculture activity also issued a press release addressing an early rumor that COVID-19 could be contracted by eating farm-raised fish, particularly tilapia. This release was published 25 times across the country. Example here: https://banglarkagoj.net/?p=8754"},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"The activity's Breeding Specialist maintained regular communication with hatchery owners about bio-security measures, and there was increased partner outreach by Coast, Shushilan, Prottyashi to thousands in both ZOI and ZOR. The activity distributed GoB announcements about sanitation and emergency credit to farmers and also produced new nutrition posters for distribution in all 23 districts of the ZOI and ZOR."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"In addition, WorldFish proposed a two-part COVID-19 response strategy to USAID."},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"Mitigation actions are needed to take action on near-term, critical needs and overcome the adverse effects of the lockdown. The activity's detailed survey series, revealed priority needs in information, transportation, finance, and wet market sanitation."},{"index":8,"size":39,"text":"The activity began co-creation discussions with potential partners in the second quarter to design interventions. For recovery of the aquaculture sector, the activity designed sustainable mechanisms to rebuild better via sub-grant funded partnerships and increased direct delivery of interventions."},{"index":9,"size":48,"text":"To implement these, activity management has requested a modification to the grant agreement to shift funds from the sub-grant line to other direct cost (ODC) to enable the activity ot be more prescriptive in intervention design and streamline approvals. The modification was received in October, 2020 (year four)."},{"index":10,"size":50,"text":"Internally, WorldFish places the highest emphasis on the safety of its staff, beneficiaries, and partners. WF follows all GoB guidance and safety measures pertained to the COVI-19 pandemic and has instituted a comprehensive protocol regarding sanitation and social distancing. All WF offices in Bangladesh have been closed since early April."},{"index":11,"size":96,"text":"Country-wide, WorldFish has worked with the DoF throughout this period and published guidance in the national press. In addition, WorldFish is a member of a working group and met to work on \"Keeping Food Supply Chains Open and Safe\" in May. IFAD, CiMMYT, IFPRI, and FAO joined the WorldFish country Director, Chris Price, to prepare programs to demonstrate how handling, retail, and management practices can be COVID-19 safe, and markets can be safe places. They have created guidelines for food processors, traders, market workers, so that they can continue to operate safely during the COVID-19 era,"}]},{"head":"Activity Description","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"The USAID Feed the Future Bangladesh Aquaculture Activity (BAA), formerly called the Bangladesh Aquaculture and Nutrition Activity (BANA), is intended to foster sustained, positive aquaculture sector growth through an inclusive market systems approach. BAA is a five-year PIO activity (2018-2023) implemented by WorldFish with funding of $24.5 million. Of this, $8 million is reserved for sub-grants. BAA sustainably improves the livelihoods of fish farmers and other aquaculture market actors by applying a market systems approach through which BAA joins with the private sector to identify solutions to systemic obstacles and the partners then test the solution via activities funded through the sub-grants and significant co-funding. BAA focuses on improved nutrition through more productive aquaculture and has strong cross cutting elements of environment, youth, and gender which are inculcated into sub-grantees."}]},{"head":"Activity Goal, objectives, and Targets","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"BAA's goal is to achieve inclusive aquaculture sector growth through a market system approach. The objectives are:"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Increased productivity of aquaculture production systems."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Strengthened aquaculture market system, with particular attention to expanding opportunities for women and youth."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"• Increased awareness and adoption of nutrition-related behaviors, with a particular focus on women and youth."},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"Life of activity targets are:"},{"index":6,"size":52,"text":"• 400,000 men, women, and youth in the ZOI have improved access to better quality aquaculture inputs, services, and/or market channels • 30% expansion of investment by the private sector in the ZOI in aquaculture production and market related to inputs and services (e.g., seed, feed, production/ market related information, technology, etc.)"},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"• 30% increase in productivity from ponds and ghers in the ZOI • 20% increase in the number of households adopting improved nutritional practices (consumption of nutritious food, dietary diversity and hygiene practices)"},{"index":8,"size":65,"text":"The Market Systems Approach BAA uses a market systems approach to achieving its objectives. In this approach to development, there is no direct delivery of services, but rather the intent is to discover and replicate practices which overcome obstacles to lasting improvement. These obstacles might lie in any aspect of the aquaculture industry--in fish health and feeding, certainly, but also in transportation, finance, or marketing."},{"index":9,"size":117,"text":"The market systems approach understands that both the causes of and solutions to market obstacles are known to the market actors. That is, farmers want to grow more food, people want higher incomes, and processors want to reach new customers, but they face difficult challenges. They might have tried to overcome the challenges and fallen short or they have never tested possible solutions for lack of resources. Virtually all program activities are done through partnerships with private sector enterprises and professional associations. In the ZOR, however, there are few private partners with sufficient capacity to engage in USG funded activities so some of BANA's work in Cox's Bazar and Bandarban is done through conventional sub-grants to NGOs."}]},{"head":"Geographical Focus","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"BAA works in the Bangladesh Feed the Future Zone of Influence (ZOI, consisting of 21 southwestern districts) and the Zone of Resilience (ZOR, two districts in the southeast affected by the Rohingya situation)."}]},{"head":"IRs, Sub-IRs, and Cross-cutting Programs","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Sub-grants are currently the activity's only vehicle for delivering service; there is no direct delivery. During this past year, signing new partnership agreements was delayed due to the corrective action moratorium."}]},{"head":"IR 1. Increased aquaculture productivity","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sub-IR 1.1. Increased availability of improved fish seed","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"The activity focuses on hatcheries and nurseries under this sub-IR, and these partnerships are among the activity's smaller sub-grants. Hatcheries and nurseries are almost all small businesses, and their needs rarely include significant investments. These partner hatcheries typically establish demonstration ponds and hold farmer field days to showcase the quality of their seed or fingerlings to their customers and potential customers--quality increases achieved after installing a range of better management practices (BMP) made possible by the partnerships."},{"index":2,"size":211,"text":"In the second quarter, four partner hatcheries completed their interventions--all deliverables and targets were met--and BAA began crowding in the lessons learned by making a video documentary focusing on the recipe for success of a small hatchery business to demonstrate to other hatcheries. During this period, 5,232 fish farmers were reached but other capacity building sessions could not take place due to the outbreak of covid-19. Into the third quarter, while South Bay Hatchery and Rupali Fish Hatchery collected 725 kg and 694 kg brood fish before the lockdown, Asa Fish Hatchery was unable to collect any due to travel restrictions. In the Carp genetic improvement program (GIP), the dissemination of the high yield variety (HYV) of rohu generation-3 moved began in the second quarter with the signing of a Memorandum of Agreement with BRAC. In the MOA it is agreed that the G3 rohu will be raised at the BRAC facility in Magura in addition to WorldFish Talbaria facility in Jessore. BRAC will also preserve improved varieties of silver carp and catla. This supplied the start of a sustainable brood stock of the HYV carp along with 365 rohu generation-2 along with 192 catla generation-0 and 668 silver carp generation-1 for care and production of fish seed for area nurseries."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"At the Talbaria site, construction of the semi-portable carp hatchery was completed in July and supplied four nurseries in Jessore with the first market distribution of the fast growing carp. These fish are expected to grow 30% faster than the rohu existing in the country today. This is part of a nationwide WorldFish program in collaboration with the Department of Fisheries, Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute, BRAC, and the Jessore Fish Hatchery Association."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"In the fourth quarter Quazi Shams Afroz, the DG of DoF made an official visit to the Jessore site. On 5 August she visited the farm at Talbaria to see the GIP activities. BAA delivered a power point presentation, provided documents about the CGIP activities, and showed the process of selective breeding. During this visit she has observed the activities of carp genetic improvement program and was highly appreciated the initiative. She suggested continued close cooperation with DoF, BFRI, and universities for sustain the genetic improvement program. After this visit talks began to make delivery of fry of G3 rohu to stock their centers."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"One issue is the effort to gain permission of the DoF to send fish samples for testing to overseas laboratories. They prefer to do the work in country, but capacity does not exist. There is scope for capacity building of the concerned staff of the DoF by WorldFish, and she promised to discuss the matter with higher officials. This is a precursor to the delivery of the fry to DoF."},{"index":6,"size":82,"text":"In the third quarter, the activity formed a partnerships with MWorld, a local marketing firm, to bring HYV carp to the wider market. The partnership will guide a phased market introduction of HYV sales throughout the ZOI during the coming year and beyond this to the country as a whole. MWorld completed a rapid market assessment of the overall cultivation process and supply chain issues. MWorld organized four courtyard sessions for 58 market actors from different layers of the carp value chain."},{"index":7,"size":115,"text":"The GIFT program (genetically improved farm raised tilapia) introduced a fast growing variety in Bangladesh, and in the second quarter the activity formed two partnerships to ensure a profitable supply chain. BRAC Enterprises and the Bhola Hatchery are coordinating on the cohort breeding hatchery system to supply quality mixed sex tilapia seeds as broodstock for commercial multiplier hatcheries and on to grow-out farmers. The BRAC facility will be a breeding 'nucleus', and the Bhola facility will be a 'cohort breeding center'. They will work together to deliver high quality mixed sex tilapia fry as broodstock to multiplier hatcheries; Bhola Hatchery projects production of 0.5 million mixed sex fries to be disseminated to 20 multiplier hatcheries."},{"index":8,"size":70,"text":"This global WorldFish program will also include at least two hatcheries outside the ZOI (funded by WorldFish). One of these, ASA Tilapia Hatchery, introduced the first batch of 25,000 mixed sex fries as elite broodstock from the TBN of Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute (BFRI), Mymensingh, to replace old brood to increase the productivity and disease free quality fry production for grow-out system and supported 875 Tilapia fish farmers in Bagerhat."}]},{"head":"Sub-IR 1.2. Increased availability of affordable quality feed","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Two significant grantees under this sub-IR, Spectra Hexa and Victor Feeds, Ltd., both completed their interventions as per the work plan and a third, KNB, began work this year."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Spectra and Victor tested variations of LSP involvement and how improved technical assistance can increase sales of feed and improve on-farm performance."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Spectra Hexa completed its sub-grant in January. They established 51 Mega Feeds Schools in seven districts (Khulna, Satkhira, Jashore, Barishal, Patuakhali, Barguna, and Bhola), and their training reached 635 farmers in 19 trainings, 1,325 via 18 farmers field days, and another 11,955 through 94 video shows organized by their dealers at the schools. They also added seven essay competitions and seven debate programs for \"student fish farmers\" at the high school and college level on the growth of aquaculture in Bangladesh and its impact. Mega distributed 1,000 copies of the guide on \"Farmers Support Guide on Aquaculture technology based on BMP\"."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"Victor Feed established 14 service centers and 53 sub-service centers out of which they conducted capacity building training for 352 market actors and 1,606 farmers. Victor Feeds' approach provides extension services using an LSP (Local Service Provider) model, and they conducted capacity building training for 464 market actors such as dealers, sub-dealers, associations, and business groups this quarter."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"The activity is assessing the performance of these two approaches and will begin crowding in activities of the best practices in year four."},{"index":6,"size":98,"text":"A new partner, KNB Agro Industries, began work in the fourth quarter to improve feed quality at their factory by reducing pellet size and making trials of different formulations of feed via pilots with lead farmers. Simultaneously, KNB applies a LSP model to achieve greater outreach and improve on-farm performance. Due to COVID-19 pandemic, KNB had a delayed start in September but has since completed onboarding of all project staff and staff orientation. 18 KNB project officials were oriented on the business model, programmatic aspect, monitoring and evaluation process, and grants and financial compliance necessary for project implementation."}]},{"head":"Sub-IR 1.3. Increased adoption of improved pond management practices","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"To improve farm productivity and output, BANA has four active sub-grants under this sub-IR this year: FishTech, GreenDale, United Agro Fisheries, and Eon Animal Health Product Limited."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"The FishTech partnership strengthens aquaculture service by establishing a privately own and run fish health lab in Khulna to serve fish and shrimp hatcheries as well as the larger commercial farms throughout the central Zone of Influence (ZOI). due to COVID-19, however, the partner could not complete its setup of the \"Aquatic Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory\" on time."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Considering the necessity of rearranging the work plan, the activity approved a three month NCE, and in the fourth quarter Fish Teach resumed near normal operation."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"United Agro Fisheries (UAF) is building a business to supply natural carp pituitary glands (PG) domestically to replace chemical variants and imports to ensure quality fish seed production at the hatchery level. In a fast start, UAF made a PG processing and operational video to help market promotion of dry PG by increasing the awareness and knowledge of users (hatcheries), traders (buyers and commissioning agents) and other stakeholders (DoF, BFRI, Researchers etc.) on benefit and incentives of use of dry PG compared to wet PG and synthetic hormones."},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":"In the second quarter, UAF was already reporting sales of BDT 3,497,950 (about $41,600) domestically and $18,390 exported. Since the lockdown PG prices have increased four to five times as imports stopped, and UAF continues to operate at capacity. The aquaculture activity is now engaged in active co-creation discussions with hatchery groups to find a model for rapid start-up of additional small scale PG producers to meet the demand for this critical input."},{"index":6,"size":94,"text":"The sub-grant to GreenDale is to introduce 'GreenDale Service Centers '(GSC) to provide training and technical assistance to fish farmers in the ZOI. 16 of the planned 20 were operational by the second quarter. Before activity stopped in the third quarter dues to COVID-19, GreenDale had conducted 150 technical sessions for 2,904 fish farmers (468 female), four lead farmer trainings on aquaculture technology and BMP for 104 lead farmers (11 female), and transportation management training for 48 fingerling traders (patilwala) with sales of 3,598 units (kg/liter) of aquaculture medicinal products (AMP) to 3,800 farmers."},{"index":7,"size":103,"text":"EON Animal Health became a partner in the first quarter and began work to strengthen aquaculture services for small holder farmers through its proprietary retail points and existing distribution channels (a vertical integration model) in 32 upazilas in seven ZOI districts. They completed the recruitment of key staff as 38 sales and marketing staff completed orientation on the business model, activities, and established four of its targeted total of ten retail points in the second quarter. By the third quarter, however, the COVID-19 crisis has severely damaged their core business, and EON requested an end to our partnership. They will return the funds."},{"index":8,"size":153,"text":"In another effort to improve pond performance, the activity has been working for two years to address the problem of tilapia lake virus (TiLV) which reportedly affecting farmed tilapia in 16 countries across multiple continents, and during the first quarter completed an important paper on the subject. Based on an early warning in 2017 that TiLV might be widespread, the activity executed a surveillance program at tilapia grow-out farms and hatcheries in ten districts of Bangladesh in 2017 and 2019. Among farms experiencing unusual mortality, eight of 11 farms tested positive for TiLV in 2017, and two out of seven farms tested positive in 2019. These farms were immediately referred to appropriate service providers, With continued research, this study revealed circulation of TiLV in 10 farms and six hatcheries in eight districts of Bangladesh. We recommend continuing TiLV-targeted surveillance efforts to identify contaminated sources to minimize countrywide spread and severity of TiLV infection."}]},{"head":"IR 2. Strengthened aquaculture value chains","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sub-IR 2.1. Increased market linkages","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"This year the activity had three partnerships under sub-IR 2.1: Gorai, Parmeeda, and Pranti."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Gorai Films is a new partner, and they will work to build consumer demand for farm-raised tilapia. This is important because there is a belief among some consumers that the hormone treatment used on tilapia spawn to ensure that all are faster growing males somehow affects humans months later. This is not true; it is, in fact, utterly baseless. Gorai will enroll popular Bangladeshi celebrities, conduct social marketing campaign, and create an image around healthy tilapia."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"During the reporting period, Gorai completed two inception meetings in Jessore and Khulna with a total of 53 tilapia farmers. They discussed the rumors, nutrition, and the commercial value of tilapia. The farmers were very enthusiastic about the support."},{"index":4,"size":120,"text":"The Parmeeda Enterprise partnership closed in the first quarter with good progress on scaling-up safe fish production and marketing by introducing GAP and HACCP practices (good aquaculture practices and hazard analysis. During the period of active implementation Parmeeda selected 225 farmers out of 606 trained versus their target of 200. This is the beginning. As their business grows, more supplier farmers will join. In addition to this, Parmeeda is using social media and their own app to reach suppliers. About 800 farmers have downloaded the app at the time of this writing after Parmeeda outreach and Facebook promotion. During the sub-grant period over 55,000 people visited the Facebook page and 35,000 of these had \"post engagement\", as Facebook calls it."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"Parmeeda will continue to add content to the app to make it a useful learning platform, build a traceability mechanism for supplier farmers, and \"forecast harvests\" by planning purchases from farmers in advance."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"Certification as a means of assuring consumers of quality is very promising, but traditional crowding-in practices are unlikely to succeed in a systems issue at this level. It is necessary to identify perhaps two additional market actors to earn certification to establish a convincing business case. Toward that end, BANA held a consultation workshop in December where 43 participants from 30 organizations participated. The co-creation activity generated 15 concept papers which are under assessment now."},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"The Pranti partnership ended prematurely when irregularities in procurement were discovered, and activity management ended the partnership agreement a couple months early. The partner has promised return the disputed amount. Regrettably, in the third quarter, WorldFish grant management staff had reason to investigate Pranti's procurement practices and assigned an external auditor to investigate. After a thorough investigation and looking at the potential of the business model, the COP decided to continue the partnership under strict financial oversight conditions--conditions the partner refused to accept, and the partnership was ended."},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"The partnership was very near completion and had built linkages between farmers and producers."},{"index":9,"size":76,"text":"Pranti has good quality ready to cook (RTC) fish products and is pursuing certification via the Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institution (BSTI), an agency under the Ministry of Industries. Pranti had selected 1,000 farmers to provide quality table fish with higher prices in comparison to traditional market rates. They provided training to 627 farmers (168 female). Due to the end of the partnership, it is unclear if Pranti will continue to receive fish from these farmers."},{"index":10,"size":15,"text":"COVID-19 and the resulting lockdown led to very serious disruption in all phases of transportation."},{"index":11,"size":28,"text":"The lockdown has exposed a very fragile distribution system. In aquaculture, distribution and transportation are handled by small market actors and independents. Major food companies do not participate."},{"index":12,"size":72,"text":"The aquaculture activity worked throughout the third and fourth quarters with established food distribution companies to identify action steps to build a safe distribution solution in aquaculture value chains to ensure business continuity of input and forward market actors and demonstrate safe transportation practices in the fish value chain to diminish virus exposure. Shohoz, Direct Fresh, MarGen, and Parmeeda Enterprises are engaged in co-creation discussions with the activity's market systems development team."}]},{"head":"Sub IR 2.2. Increased engagement of private sector in aquaculture markets","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"This year, the activity has four partnerships to increase private sectors' engagement and investment in aquaculture sector: Bank Asia, City Bank, Alim, and Fish Bangla."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"All aquaculture market actors have serious unmet needs in finance, and the aquaculture activity has a good access to finance program. Two partnerships with formal financial institutions (FFI) are central to this effort this year."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"The sector is facing a serious liquidity crisis due to the suspension of loan advances from lenders and the commercial banks. Many small operators are taking loan from their relatives, neighbors, and informal sources to continue their business. For operating capital, seasonal credit to farmers has been common in this sector, but this practice has largely shifted to cash transactions due to low harvests and lower market prices for table-size fish. Feed dealers often buy on credit, but this is changing as low sales and lower demand for feed have reduced incomes and cash at the dealers; many are facing problems repaying existing credit from the companies. Almost all subdealers must now purchase in cash rather than on credit."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"Bank Asia made a fast start to extend collateral-free credit services to small holder fish farmers in the second quarter reaching 80 market actors had been reached through three district level meetings, and 63 input retailers already opened their accounts with Bank Asia. Within the subgrant tenure, 100 input retailers will be established as merchant and each merchant will refer at least 10 farmers for this loan package. The market systems aspect is to modify agent banking to include digital payment options for loan repayment."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"The partner projects over $4 million in new credit for aquaculture as a result of this partnership, but COVID-19 caused a brief moratorium on field activity this summer so the activity has agreed to a no-cost extension. Bank Asia has revised its activity plan and started following a 'smallgroup' approach to comply with COVID-19 protocols, and by the fourth quarter the partner was back on pace to achieve all targets."},{"index":6,"size":38,"text":"City Bank became a partner in the third quarter. The City Bank partnership will mobilize 72 crore in new loans--$8,470,000 in new lending to small aquaculture enterprises. In the fourth quarter the partner launched activities in the ZOI."},{"index":7,"size":65,"text":"In addition savings and credit products, City Bank will work to increase financial literacy of the 1,500 aquaculture market actors. In the fourth quarter the partner completed TOT for its staff and banking agents. The staff and agents will in turn develop capacity of the aquaculture fish farmers on financial management, bookkeeping, and loan management. North South University is the training partner of City Bank."},{"index":8,"size":56,"text":"To promote aqua machinery in the Feed the Future areas, the aquaculture activity formed a partnership with Alim Industries Ltd., a national agro-machinery distributor. Alim recruited anad trained new staff and began product demonstrations in the ZOI. Alim will promote a range of smaller aqua-machineries (pumps, filters) to small holder fish farmers to improve farm efficiency."},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"Working closely with 50 LSPs, Alim will reach 2,500 farmers."},{"index":10,"size":74,"text":"The Fish Bangla partnership closed this year. Fish Bangla is an online platform to connect farmers directly to buyers. Digital MachHaat is a smartphone app on which farmers list their offers and through which individuals and restaurants can place orders for delivery. Fish Bangla ensures quality packing and timely delivery. Fish Bangla organized 5,360 small holder fish farmers (539 female) and there have been 315 offers to sell posted and 21 sales totaling $901."},{"index":11,"size":48,"text":"The ACI partnership closed in the first quarter. ACI developed an app called rupali to provide aquaculture information and access to extension services to smallholder farmers. This sub-grant closed in December with 32,349 downloads and 9,064 registered users. Over 1,200 user questions had landed in app's Q&A section."},{"index":12,"size":23,"text":"After FTF funding ended use continued to grow, and in the third quarter ACI report that the rupali app had passed 50,000 subscribers."},{"index":13,"size":68,"text":"Significantly, analysis of the users of the ACI app reveals that feed dealers are the users who benefit most--it is faster and easier for them to order new inventory. It is this aspect of distribution that appears to be a market systems improvement, and the activity will explore it for crowding in opportunities because the reduced cost of selling and shorter order-to-delivery times are true increases in efficiency."}]},{"head":"Sub IR 2.3. Improved enabling environment for inclusive growth in aquaculture","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The activity has two partners working to improve the enabling environment: BSFF and Byte Ally."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"With Bangladesh Shrimp and Fisheries Foundation (BSFF), the activity works in policy consolidation, improvements in licensing, and information and effective use of aqua inputs."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Throughout the year BSFF organized consultation workshops with all relevant stakeholders-officials from the Department of Fisheries (DoF), other departments and ministries, and private sector actors."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"BSFF completed development of a fish pharmacology course curriculum and conducted a series of workshops for input for revisions for farmers, dealers, and retailers--in all, 764 participants. They complied a compendium of articles in Bangla on aquaculture and fisheries from authors of different organizations including WorldFish, the aquaculture activity's implementing partner. DoF plans distribution of the compendium (around 8500 copies) to different institutions at the local and national levels in Bangladesh."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"This year, BSFF also produced a list of aqua inputs used in Bangladesh with their generic names and source/point of origin, an inventory of the country's existing rules and regulations on aqua inputs as well as those from neighboring countries to identify where new rules might be needed or existing rules modified, and a directory of operating aqua chemical testing facilities and recommendations for improvements in the testing system."},{"index":6,"size":98,"text":"ByteAlly in an Indian data management firm and has partnered with the aquaculture activity to implement a blockchain-based system for food traceability. Using the carp GIP as a model market, the partner will install and manage a digital platform for the aqua-farming industry. In the fourth quarter ByteAlly completed its scoping assessment, documented supply chain validation processes, and drafted the first version of farmed fish traceability framework. The system should be operational by the second quarter at which time Byte Ally will begin extensive efforts to crowd in the traceability process with larger aqua-businesses and other food companies."}]},{"head":"IR 3. Improved nutrition related behaviors in rural households","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The activity actively engages nutrition stakeholders including the GoB, INGOs, local NGOs, and UN organizations. Regarding COVID-19, the general sense is a \"nightmare scenario\"; the Needs Assessment Working Group reports that about 75% of their survey respondents are without sufficient access to food at home and almost 66% people think that closed markets as the main challenge."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"The study by the working group shows that 42% of respondents say hygiene materials are not easily accessible, about 48% are using safely managed drinking water services, 75% have hand a washing facility with water and soap, and almost 65% use of \"basic sanitation\" services. Soap and detergents are somewhat available in the market but, there is a shortage of sanitizer and face masks."}]},{"head":"Sub-IR 3.1. Improved nutrition awareness and practices","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The activity has three partners under this sub IR: CODEC, Shushilan, and Duranto TV."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"The partnership with the Community Development Centre (CODEC) closed in the first quarter after a short no-cost extension. Their project, Promotion of Nutrition-Sensitive Agri-Aquaculture for Social Sustainability, promoted fish as a nutritious food for pregnant & lactating women, trained on mola farming, and dyke cropping along with nutrition training. CODEC reached its target of assisting 4,680 household fish farmers and 100 small business entrepreneurs in aquaculture."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"Duronto TV aired the planned 26-episodes of the animated show Mecho Tota Gecho Bhut (Fish loving Tota and the Tree Ghost) with the final episode airing in July. Aimed at parents and their children, the series follows Tota, a boy who loves to eat fish. Most episodes contain some activities or scenes with fish, and messages include the benefit of eating fish, functions of different types of food, and special care for pregnant and lactating mother along with challenges to gender stereo types such as boys and girls playing together and harvesting fish as exclusively men's work."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"Following each broadcast there is a quiz, and viewers respond with answers via SMS messages."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"The quizzes include the importance of fish in the first 1,000 days of life, care for pregnant and lactating women, adolescent nutrition, and gender messages. The NGO partner Shushilan conducted 1,224 sessions of community level farmer training in the reporting year on aquaculture, intra-household food distribution, nutrition, and inclusion of women, men and youth in household chores for 3,060 individual beneficiaries. Within the project period their staff made 17,776 visits to the 3,060 project beneficiary households."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"They were able to do this by reducing group size to allow social distancing in group meetings."},{"index":7,"size":58,"text":"During the lockdown Shushilan communicated with farmers through mobile phone and online platforms (facebook messenger, IMO, whatsapp). Their messages included staying at home, maintaining physical distancing, wearing masks, washing hands with soap and water for 20 seconds, and the need to contact a hospital immediately if symptoms appear. Importantly, they also communicated contact information for health care providers."},{"index":8,"size":54,"text":"With the sudden onset of the virus, Shushilan added efforts to raise awareness of the virus and how people can protect themselves. In addition to regular topics, the training participants also learned about activities and precautions necessary to contain Corona virus. The trainings organized during the COVID-19 pandemic were arranged maintaining appropriate social distancing."},{"index":9,"size":35,"text":"During this year the aquaculture activity's nutrition team engaged in co-creation discussions with book publishing companies and melamine companies to explore market-oriented ways to bring fish based cookbooks and bowls and plates with nutrition messages."},{"index":10,"size":42,"text":"Typically, these items are purchased by nutrition programs and distributed free of charge to participants. The idea here is to launch these as consumer products with a marketing campaign to sustain sales. This generated several partnership applications which are now under review."},{"index":11,"size":41,"text":"The nutrition team also produced videos on fish and nutrition. These videos show the nutrition value of small fish and fish chutney as well as the benefits of consumption particularly for pregnant women, lactating mother and children. The videos are here:"},{"index":12,"size":8,"text":"Small fish: https://cgiarmy.sharepoint.com/:f:/g/personal/m_h_ali_cgiar_org/EtBj1wLmcOVEu4172lGSHpABuCtw AWvdmgdHXOglwNNa_w?e=Y6yTv3 Fish Chutney: https://cgiarmy.sharepoint.com/:f:/g/personal/m_h_ali_cgiar_org/EhW6QxhRZvlOpY9uKeeogcYBaBbg Y6PVV5VHydldkHt72Q?e=gjD7GP"},{"index":13,"size":34,"text":"These videos will be used to reach rural households by various partners over the next two years along with two previously produced videos: 'Fish in first 1,000 days of life' and 'Nutrition-sensitive pond polyculture'."},{"index":14,"size":24,"text":"For COVID-19 response, the activity produced four Bangla version language on COVID-19 awareness and distributed 10,000 copies of each in the ZOI and ZOR."},{"index":15,"size":60,"text":"In collaboration with Feed the Future's behavior change activity, the aquaculture activity joined the Nutri-Champs series. In this cooking competition show, the aquaculture activity supported the six field shows with funding and technical support on the fish recipes. The three winners of the fish recipe competition will work with the aquaculture activity to promote RTE/RTC fish in the coming year."}]},{"head":"Sub-IR 3.2. Improved access to diverse and nutritious foods","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"The partner Shushilan works under this IR as well and during this year distributed mola brood/tilapia fingerlings and carp fry to 3,060 project farmers as input support. 2,907 farmers received almost 1.5 kg of fish fingerlings each, and 153 demo farmers each received 2.5 kg of fish fingerlings. The result of this new species into household ponds will be an increase in consumption of animal protein and possibly an increase farmer income."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"To promote pond dyke agriculture, the partner distributed orange sweet potato vines to 3,060 household fish farmers in Khulna and Satkhira districts for cultivation on pond dykes and in homestead gardens along with vegetable seeds (yardlong bean, bottle gourd/pumpkin, malabar spinach, spinach, and red amaranth)."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"The partner CODEC also contributed in this area with distribution of mola brood stock and carp seeds at a subsidized price to 588 household fish farmers and set up 36 mola/carp poly culture demonstration farms. Mola are high in micronutrients."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"The aquaculture activity is in discussion with the World Food Programme (WFP) to outline a sustainable model for inclusion of fish products at the school feeding program, though this appears to be a longer term proposition than the activity could complete."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"The activity is also working with Feed the Future Bangladesh Nutrition Activity (BNA) to plan linkages between fish processors and retailers in small villages."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"And co-creation talks are underway with RTE/RTC fish processors for market development partnerships in the coming year."}]},{"head":"Cross-cutting Program Areas","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gender","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"In response to the COVID-19 crisis, the aquaculture activity sent two SMS messages on gender issues to the WorldFish list of 130,000 aquaculture enterprises. The first was about sharing the burden of increased work around the house in pandemic situation and men's and boy's engagement, and the second was about maintaining a spirit of togetherness in the family and understanding each other to prevent and resolve conflicts."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"There has been a good deal of discussion about stress related to fear of infection and lockdown pressures and a resulting worry about the potential for increased gender based violence (GBV)."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Unable to find any data on this, and the aquaculture activity's COVID-19 survey series asked if there is any perceived increase in disagreements or conflict within households. Overall, 51% of respondents to this survey answered 'yes' (45% of female and 52% of male respondents)."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"The activity launched a new partnership on income generation for women in aquaculture this year. United Purpose will create income opportunities for women in aquaculture and also provide a needed product for increased production of mola, a small fish high in micro-nutrients."},{"index":5,"size":119,"text":"Research has revealed that a certain type of gillnet is effective when raising mola fish, and a qualitative study shows that household farmers, especially women, prefer using this net to catch small fish from the pond because it can be done by one person alone and without getting into the pond. This gillnet is not readily available in local markets, however, and this partnership will enable women entrepreneurs work through existing business centers provide quality gill nets to new and existing fish farmers to initiate or expand their pond production of mola and then collect the fish produced through a strengthened cold chain supply network for retail sale to support the livelihood and well being of producers and community"},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"The partner will build on 20 established Women's Business Centers in the Khulna district and form 800 producer groups (informal collectives of women producers) to reach approximately 10,000 households."},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"Also this year, all new partners received training on Gender Equality in Aquaculture, Unpaid Care Work, and Intra-household Food Distribution."}]},{"head":"Youth","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Youth mobilization around income opportunities has been the focus during this year, and the positive youth development effort of the aquaculture activity has led to a good response form young entrepreneurs."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"The activity's youth specialist completed online training--USAID Positive Youth Development 101--and began applying the learning to program activities. The first step was a consultation meeting with representatives of ten social enterprises working with youth to understand their business models and to capture their analysis and learning about youth employment and selfemployment. This led to meetings with community youth groups in Botiaghata, Khulna, to engage youth in the effort to increase incomes through job readiness, employment, or self-employment in aquaculture."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"18 applications were received in response to a call for applications and outreach to area universities. Students who have and are studying in the aquaculture and fisheries sectors were invited to present their ideas for small businesses. Of these 18, two were selected for small grant funding. One is about providing quality input and expert guidance to aquaculture market actors, and the other is about establishing small scale fish culture systems in urban areas and bring the production to market."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"As a part of the Positive Youth Development, one agreement has been signed with a university student to enhance the youth entrepreneurship in the aquaculture sector. He along with his other team members will work to provide quality inputs and expert guidelines to the farmers. The initial activity has already been started according to the plan."}]},{"head":"Environment","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The Activity is working with all the team members to ensure that none of the interventions of the activity leaves negative impacts on environment or on people. Throughout this year, 51 Environmental Due Diligence assessments were conducted for partners and applicants, an animated video was developed to popularize the environmental compliance in aquaculture (https://drive.google.com/file/d/1V_fssXa89p-ULLWjsp90yb2cj0STBNxb/view), and integrated guidelines on 'safe' tilapia seed production were drafted."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Basic training-workshops on Environmental Compliance -the USAID Way were held for new activity staff and the 23 new partners. The workshop focuses on developing a common understanding of the importance of environmental compliance and climate risk management for sustainability, USAID requirements, and the scope of environmental compliance and CRM in the activity's EMMP."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Three integrated guidelines on Safe Fish Feed Production, Safe Tilapia Seed Production, and Safe Carp Seed Production were drafted this year. The focus of these guidelines is to bring together guidance on fish health, bio-security, traceability, worker safety, hatchery sanitation, and other environmental issues into single volumes. These will be distributed to DoF and universities."}]},{"head":"The Zone of Resilience","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"During this year the aquaculture activity had six partnerships in the ZOR: CMAI, Coast, Prottyashi, Graus, Tazhingdong, and Ma Matshya Khamar."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"Ma Matshya Khamar is the activity's second private sector partnership in the ZOR. Commercial aquaculture is not well developed in the ZOR. The goal of this partnership is to provide higher quality stock to area farmers to increase yield and farm income in a very under-served areas of Bandarban and Cox's Bazar. This partnership will foster ten new mini nurseries, register and train 20 patilwala (fry traders) who will pass the training to at least 60 pond/creek owners, and set up four demonstration ponds. Through the intervention, a fingerling transportation system will be introduced for the patilwalas to reduce seed mortality. Launched in the fourth quarter, Ma Matshya Khamar has set up four demonstration ponds, and participants received 5500 carp fingerlings and 320 kg fish feed from MMK."},{"index":3,"size":203,"text":"Chittagong Meridian Agro-Industry (CMAI) is the other private sector partner, and they wrapped up in the first quarter of this year. CMAI is the largest tilapia hatchery in the Chattogram region and their experience with COVID-19 is notable. \"We saw this as a challenge to our business,\" says Hasan-Uz-zaman, Head of Operations at CMAI, \"and reorganized our own transport pool to send our fries to the agents and farmers. Each of the trucks can carry 400,000 fingerlings to reduce the transportation gap.\" By April 10, three weeks into the lockdown, CMAI had shipped 6,900,000 fingerlings through its 60 agents to almost 400 farmers. Nonetheless, however, CMAI expects a prolonged lockdown situation and a 50% reduction in sales. CMAI managed 25 batch trainings for seed agents and lead farmers on commercial tilapia culture and collected 100,000 GIFT tilapia seeds from BFRI and imported another 200,000 GIFT tilapia brood stock fry from Thailand. CMAI is rearing the brood stock which will be used for mono-sex tilapia seed production. Corresponding bio-security measures were implemented with technical support of WorldFish experts on fencing of individual units of hatcheries, setting the bird prevention net, renovate entrance/exit gate with the facilities of foot bath & washing hands, and similar."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"In Bandarban, the NGO Graus brings improved aquaculture to rural areas, conducts training to increase nutritional knowledge and practices, works to enhance fish and vegetable production to address malnutrition, and has activities to increase incomes for women and youth. The NGO Tahzingdong works to increase yield and incomes in aquaculture by increasing the availability of fish seed, improves nutrition by enhancing fish and vegetable production, and increases incomes by establishing market linkages."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"GRAUS staff was not allowed to travel at all in Bandarban due to COVID-19 and so communicated over the telephone with 908 fish farmers. Of these, 314 have completed pit preparation in their pond dykes, and all area nursery farmers have completed their pond preparation and are ready to stock new spawn. GRAUS also disseminated the government circular on the movement and transportation of agricultural products issued by the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock among 259 beneficiaries."},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"GRAUS managed to organize 211 training sessions on gender, 138 on aquaculture, 46 on nutrition for 1,729 farmers. They distributed fingerlings of four species among 329 farmers with each farmer receiving 550 fingerlings and creek owner receiving 700 fingerlings. The Upazila Chairman, Upazila Fisheries officer (UFO), Chairman and member of union parishad have attended and distributed the fingerling among the farmers. Fish feed has also been distributed among 329 farmers along with vegetable seeds."},{"index":7,"size":67,"text":"Despite of COVID-19 pandemic situation, GRAUS organized six meetings (53 participants) with upazilla aquaculture and nutrition officers. In collaboration with upazila fisheries office, GRAUS celebrated Fish Week from 21-27 July 2020 with a view to conserve and develop the country's fishery resources through creating awareness among the mass people to boost up fish production. GRAUS also organized 10 community meetings on National Fish Week for 606 people."},{"index":8,"size":36,"text":"Tahzingdong accomplished a total of 50 training sessions on aquaculture for 993 people. Topics were the dyke repairing and bottom leveling, de-weeding, liming, fertilizing, removal of predator fish, examination of natural feeds, and toxicity in water."},{"index":9,"size":40,"text":"Fish fingerlings of four fish species were distributed among 511 farmers with farmer receiving 550 fish fingerlings, creek owner receiving 800 fish fingerlings, and rice-fish pond owners receiving 610. A total of 20.44 MT fish feed was distributed among beneficiaries."},{"index":10,"size":65,"text":"With the technical support of the aquaculture activity, Tahzingdong developed and printed total 550 copy of pond record book for the aquaculture farmers. The record of all types of expenditure, income and stocking and harvesting of fishes are recorded in the pond record book. 531 farmers are using the books as of this writing with 427 ponds, 68 creeks, 16 rice fields, and 20 nursery."},{"index":11,"size":22,"text":"Tahzingdong team marked National Fisheries Week with upazila administration and DoF on a message of conserving and developing the country's fisheries resources."},{"index":12,"size":96,"text":"There are two NGO partners in Cox's Bazar. Coast Trust provides aquaculture support to small holders and dry fish producers to increase incomes, raises awareness of nutrition and hygiene, reduces health hazards to consumers by increasing the availability of pesticide-free dry fish in the market, and develops market channels for dry fish products. Prottyashi focuses on inclusive aquaculture for geographically and socially challenged and financially insolvent rural areas, enhances the availability of fresh water fish among rural people, and works to fill nutrition gaps and provide income opportunities for rural people especially women, youth, and adolescents."},{"index":13,"size":25,"text":"The sub-grant period for both COAST Trust and Prottyashi ended in the second quarter, but considering the covid-19 pandemic, both got no-cost extensions through July."},{"index":14,"size":102,"text":"Prottyashi was able to conduct Prottyashi organized 299 batch trainings on carp-mola polyculture, dike cropping, family nutrition, mola gillnet making, and eel farming; distributed vegetable seeds, orange sweet potato vines, and lemon saplings to 2,000 farmers and 14 batches of training on family hygiene and hand washing for cleanness for 274 participants during this period. Each session was divided into small groups of 5-6, and health cautions were maintained to prevent the spread of COVID-19. Prottyashi developed and distributed three communication pieces: on mola-carp polyculture and vegetable cultivation on dykes (5,000 copies), Kuchia farming (2,500 copies), and fish nursery management (2,500 copies)."},{"index":15,"size":37,"text":"COAST Trust conducted 341 batch trainings on carp-mola polyculture, fish diseases, cost profit analysis, dike cropping, family nutrition, gender integration in aquaculture, fish drying and related waste management, and hygiene; distributed vegetable seeds to 1,300 fish farmers."},{"index":16,"size":89,"text":"During the lockdown, Coast staff is keeping in contact with 1,985 farming households via cell phone to deliver timely information on fish harvesting, summer vegetables plantation and the importance of hygiene practices to prevent spreading of COVID -19. Staff also communicated with 622 dry fish entrepreneurs and discussed their dry fish production problems--there is no dry fish production. Between the lockdown and the cyclone Amphan, Cox's Bazar has been a red zone, and most farmers have not been able to stock fry or fingerlings in their ponds at all."}]},{"head":"Project Management","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"At the end of the first quarter the implementing partner was served with a cure notice which included a moratorium on new partnership formation (no new partnership awards were made during this reporting period), and midway through this quarter the covid-19 virus led to a nationwide lockdown which prohibited all gatherings of more than a few people so few activitysupported training or events took place."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Internally, however, there was considerable progress on remedial action in response to the cure notice, and all milestones required for lifting the cure were achieved."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"The activity bolstered its field presence with the addition of six new Program Officers--two each in Jessore, Khulna, and Barisal--in the third quarter. The Program Officers' primary task is to work closely with partners to support the implementation of program activities. Working closely with partners, the Program Officer is in constant contact with participants and not only monitors but actively supports on time implementation of field activities."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"WorldFish selected Deloitte Bangladesh to perform an external audit of BANA, but with the office closed and all staff working remotely, we intend to start the audit in the last quarter of this year."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"Internally, continuous improvement of partner and sub-grant management is a rule. This quarter, BANA introduced the airtable database system (airtable.com) to keep all communication and documents in a single, accessible tool. All staff were trained on its use this quarter, and proper, diligent use of airtable is now a job performance requirement."},{"index":6,"size":50,"text":"In addition, the activity has added a group chat for partner management. Using MicroSoft Teams, the finance & grants group and the market systems group know communicate directly on all questions related to partnerships rather than relying on email. This direct message system should improve information flow and document completion."},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"The activity has also introduced a new, expanded due diligence checklist. In May partner assessment tasks are now consolidated in one 11-page guide for pre-award site visits. This document is kept in each partner file."}]},{"head":"Grants and Finance","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Due to lockdowns and restrictions on movement, six partners experienced serious difficulty in implementing activities in their partnerships. The aquaculture activity issued no-cost extensions: The aquaculture activity signed 23 new partnerships during this year for a total charge against the sub-grant line of $1,864,462."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"The activity has utilized a total amount of $10,531,987and has an available budget balance of $13,926,205 as of September 30, 2020. While under spending overall, accelerated activities the fourth quarter led to an increase in the expenditure rate. The fully executed modification P012 signed in February 18, 2020, increased the obligated amount to $11,700,000 available for program expenditures for the estimated period from effective date to July 31, 2020. The total remaining obligated funds by the end of September 30, 2020, is now down to $1,168,014."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"By the end of September 30, 2020, BAA had signed forty six sub-grants with a total value of $4,613,040. Among these forty six, twenty four were signed in year three with a total award value of $1,814,889. Eighteen projects have closed and three were terminated."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"An accumulated actual expense of $2,881,875 was recorded as of September 30, 2020. This is behind projections. To address this, the approved year four workplan includes notable increase in both the number and size of sub-grants. In addition, an expected modification will move one million USD from this line to ODC to allow the activity to make contracts for services and direct delivery. Together, these will spend the sub-grant line by the end of the activity."}]},{"head":"Monitoring Evaluation and Learning","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The aquaculture activity's progress against targets was excellent this year. Achievement against target for the number of individuals participating is 145% among aquaculture market actor disaggregates (593% for all participants), 94% for market actors applying improved methods, and 93% in hectares under management. These numbers are a marked improvement from the previous year and achieved in spite of the COVID-19 downturn in all sectors of aquaculture and the moratorium on new partnerships. A separate, detailed report on achievement against targets has been delivered to USAID."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"At the outset of the pandemic, the MEL unit developed a contingency work plan to use a virtual communication platform (MS Teams and mobile) to communicate with farmers, market actors, and stakeholders to collect regular monitoring data and complete surveys."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"The aquaculture activity has delivered a series of surveys of aquaculture sector market actors to assess the impact of COVID-19 pandemic and associated lockdown on all aquaculture subsectors. The surveys show trends as well as actual changes in production, sales, prices, transportation, market activity, buyers, and more. Complementary interviews have discovered coping actions and learned about recovery plans. The activity delivered seven survey updates during the reporting period and continues with regular data collection, analysis, and reporting."},{"index":4,"size":99,"text":"The activity reported FY2019 performance and set targets for FY2020, FY2021, and FY2022 into the FTFMS platform in the first quarter. At the suggestion of USAID the activity has included two new indicators pertained to gender and youth. COVID-19 made data collection difficult, but the MEL team successfully conducted level performance surveys both on-line and in person. The Annual Performance Survey was conducted in July-August 2020. The performance data was collected from 1,017 fish farming households (455 women farmers) from ZOI and ZOR. In addition, sales data was captured from 50 dry fish processors (1 woman) of Cox's Bazar."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"To map aquaculture resources, the activity has added aquaculture resource mapping to the GIS platform. It is a complete GIS census on aquaculture features over the entire 23 districts of ZOI and ZOR. Collection of geo-spatial data began, and the activity collected GIS data points of 6,669 aquaculture farmers (4,995 women) and 125 Market actors (2 women) in the fourth quarter."},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"This was put to immediate use when combined with other WorldFish GIS data as the activity identified viable cluster candidates for program focus. Primarily three clusters were identified in Barishal, Jashore, and Satkhira based on the concentration of aquaculture market activity and concerned actors. ArcGIS software was used to identify suitable location of cluster areas."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"The activity continued to upgrade the web-based MIS system this year. The info-hub was regularly enriched with learning captured by the team using a paperless and online data collection (e.g. using KoBo/ODK platform) for all surveys. Real-time training reporting system was established."},{"index":8,"size":98,"text":"The activity completed a census of local service providers (LSPs) were completed in ZOI. The census graded the 861 LSPs in the database. Only 3.3% were rated excellent and 20.2% rated good. Another 44.7% were rated acceptable to yield 588 viable to semi-viable candidates to engage with the activity (7% women). Fish nurseries were found as the largest single segment of LSPs at 35.7% among the qualified LSPs with patilwalas as the second largest part (22.3%) and feed traders as the third (13.8%). The LSP database wa updated and mapped for use in the year four cluster activities."},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":"MEL training for new partners was held on real-time training reporting and donor requirements."},{"index":10,"size":13,"text":"The KM and CLA Platform was shifted to MS Teams Channel and updated."}]},{"head":"Communications","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"COVID-19 response was the central task of the aquaculture activity's work in the second half of the year. The activity issued press releases, sent SMS & voice messages to fish farmers, created posters (sample attached), and distributed one-pagers (10,000 distributed via partners). A couple of samples:"},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"• Facebook posting by USAID • The government of Bangladesh has announced an emergency loan fund for small farmers in response to the economic fall off due the lockdown. USAID's Feed the Future Bangladesh Aquaculture & Nutrition activity sent details to over 32,000 small scale fish farmers via both SMS and voice mail. The first messages in a new, rapid info advisory service."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"• SMS text and voicemail sent to 116,638 farmers • The government of Bangladesh has started providing loans at 4% interest to all those involved in Fish Farming. You can also be covered by this loan facility. Contact your nearest scheduled bank/Agent bank today to get this loan. (sent in Bangla)"},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"The aquaculture activity also issued a press release addressing an early rumor that COVID-19 could be contracted by eating farm-raised fish, particularly tilapia. This release was published in 25 newspaper across the country and widely shared on social media. This is attached in English, and a Bangla example is here: https://banglarkagoj.net/?p=8754"},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"And the partners publicize their work. One example, a press release from City Bank:"},{"index":6,"size":93,"text":"\"City Bank and USAID funded 'Feed the Future Bangladesh Aquaculture & Nutrition Activity' implemented by WorldFish, have signed an agreement. According to a press release issued on Sunday, the agreement was signed to promote financial literacy and access to finance through different loan products for Aquaculture stakeholders of Bangladesh. The loan will help the stakeholders to run their business smoothly while the financial literacy will help them to increase the efficiency of the business, the press release said. This project will be implemented in Jessore, Khulna, Barishal, Kustia and Faridpur districts of Bangladesh.\""},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"This year the activity launched two media partnerships for the promotion of nutrition and aquaculture messages."},{"index":8,"size":86,"text":"BackBenchers will present messages about nutrition via community radio in an entertaining series of 30 minute radio shows which will \"portray how to become a successful fish producer, the nutritional value of fish, and how fish producing can be a great business.\" Macher Vobiswat (The Future of Fish) will target younger audiences with humor, folk performances, and celebrity guests. The audience of 25-40 years of age and 30% women and 70% youth is attractive to advertisers, and the partner plans on profitable sustainability within three months."},{"index":9,"size":45,"text":"Rohita is a sister a concern of The Daily Bhorer Dak, a daily newspaper in Bangladesh, and they will launch a series of newspaper columns on nutrition and aquaculture. There will be five columns to start as they solicit advertisers to sustain the new column."},{"index":10,"size":49,"text":"The Communications Specialist supported all partners this year as they developed and branded their communications materials this year, and as a part of celebrating National Fish Week 2020, the activity disseminated messages on use of quality fish seed and feed, fish nutrition, gender in aquaculture practice, and COVID-19 safety."},{"index":11,"size":1,"text":"##"}]},{"head":"ANNEXES","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sub-grant table","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Success Story: Women and Mola"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"f8289b45-4ca9-48c4-8dde-5061d721cc19","abstract":"It was an eventful year for the aquaculture activity.Implementation of the aquaculture and nutrition was greatly affected by the COVID-19 crisis during this year three reporting period. The slowdown due to Covid-19 began in the second quarter, and implementation remained adversely affected into year four of the activity.The implementing partner, WorldFish, took action to minimize risk to beneficiaries, partners, and staff before any official direction from the government of Bangladesh (GoB) or USAID. All farmer training was postponed, practical demonstrations and farmer field days were canceled, school sessions and community awareness events were canceled, regular monitoring and data collection stopped, consultant field activities were suspended, and WorldFish implemented a lengthy list of internal safeguards including closing offices, prohibiting air travel and other mass transit, and a range of inter-personal protective measures.Partners also restricted movement of their staff and suspended activities. All partners were affected, six were given no-cost extensions (NCE), and a few have reported serious downturns in their businesses. In the fourth quarter, two partners about to sign agreements reconsidered their decisions and withdrew. JITA Social Business Bangladesh, Ltd., was to promote a women's micro-franchise business model, but with the COVID-19 pandemic their overall sales have declined drastically, and they choose to focus on re-establishing their existing operations rather than launch a new program. Shohoj, Ltd., was to implement a transport solution which integrates rural fish farmers, but they have found it easier to transport fish from a nearer region.At the end of the first quarter the implementing partner was served with a corrective action notice which included a moratorium on new partnership formation (no new partnership awards were made during for over eight months). The \"cure\" notice was lifted on 23 July 2020.The aquaculture activity's progress against targets was excellent this year. Achievement against target for the number of individuals participating is 145% among aquaculture market actor disaggregates, 94% for market actors applying improved methods, and 93% in hectares under management. These numbers are a marked improvement from the previous year and achieved in spite of the COVID-19 downturn in all sectors of aquaculture and the moratorium on new partnerships.The aquaculture activity signed 23 new partnerships during this year for a total charge against the sub-grant line of $1,864,462. (see Annex 1) These partnerships are across all intermediate indicators (IRs), and 21 of the 23 are with private sector market actors.Major operational changes were made during this year. Significant staff changes were completed in the second quarter, and seven out of ten market systems development staff were replaced, a new Manager -Market Systems position was created and filled, the DCOP was replaced and relocated to a field office, seven Senior Market Systems Specialists were replaced and four were deployed in field offices, a Senior Program Manager was created and filled to lead cross-cutting efforts, and six new Program Officers were hired for field postings.The activity streamlined its processes for reviewing partnership applications and completed revisions to its grant manual. Roles, responsibilities, deadlines, and documentation are all specified in the improved process. The process has been streamlined for efficiency and faster review and decision."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"04c94be9cb1f9a5bc62ebd10aa6c3d62","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/32025304-6f74-406f-8de2-c3265e4ad093/retrieve"},"pageCount":26,"title":"Case study 1: A survey of cattle keeping practices of the Orma tribe in eastern Kenya and levels of milk production","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The case study then goes on to consider the suitability of the survey approach in answering the different aims of the project. One aim was to determine avenues for further research. Important information was gained about the extent of trypanosomosis in the cattle and the methods that farmers were using to control the disease. This led to further investigations using participatory methods to gain more information from farmers on their knowledge of disease and to seek recommendations from them on the best options for future disease control."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Source: Bernard Sacher Data analysis is illustrated by both R and GenStat software."}]},{"head":"Background","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Trypanosomosis, a parasitic disease transmitted by the tsetse fly, is widespread throughout the humid and sub-humid areas of sub-Saharan Africa. Certain indigenous cattle breeds have evolved in these areas and have developed varying degrees of tolerance to the disease. One of these breeds is the Orma Boran cattle that belong to the Orma people."}]},{"head":"Source: Rob Hutchinson","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Source: John Rowlands"},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"The Orma people are descendants of the Oromo, who originated in Borana Province in Ethiopia and brought their Boran cattle south. These nomadic pastoralists finally settled in the tsetse infested lands of the Tana River district in Kenya."},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"Source: Rosemary Dolan Source: John Rowlands Studies at Galana Ranch, situated nearby, have shown that Orma Boran cattle do better when exposed to high tsetse challenge than improved Kenya Boran cattle that have been bred in areas of the Kenya highlands where trypanosomosis is absent. Infection and mortality rates due to trypanosomosis in the Orma Boran were approximately half of those observed in their counterparts (Dolan, 1998). However, these results were obtained under ranch conditions and little was known on how Orma Boran cattle fared under village management, especially in terms of milk production. A pilot household survey was therefore carried out among the Orma people to obtain information on their cattle keeping practices, to estimate levels of daily milk production and to obtain indicatiors of what further research was needed to combat the effects of trypanososmosis."},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"Source: Bernard Sacher"}]},{"head":"Research strategy","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"The area of the Tana Delta where the Orma people live is in a fairly remote area of Kenya."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"There is little in the way of documentation of the villages or of the households contained within them, and little was known of the sizes of either the human or the cattle population. Access is also difficult. Thus, it was impossible to develop a sampling frame from which villages and households within villages could be randomly selected."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"It was concluded therefore that a pilot survey was needed in order to explore the distribution and accessibility of villages in the region, make contact with the community and collect some basic data on cattle keeping practices, disease prevalence and milk production."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"Source: John Rowlands Source: John Rowlands As well as using a questionnaire approach opportunities would be taken to make quantitative measurements of milk offtakes in a sample of cows."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"One of the objectives of the survey was to help to determine the types of research studies that might be possible in the future. The results from this initial survey indicated that the Orma people had good knowledge of the different diseases that affected their cattle and the treatment of them. The research strategy thus developed into a more thorough investigation which used participatory methods to determine the views of the Orma people on the importance of trypanosomosis and its control. This latter study is summarised briefly at the end of this case study."}]},{"head":"Study design","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"A survey of households from various villages was planned to provide information about the Orma pastoralists and their cattle management practices. The study also aimed to gather data on levels of milk production of their cows. Twelve villages from two locations were visited during the course of the study, 48 households from different manyattas (villages) were selected and the household heads interviewed. At the same time milk offtakes were measured in selected cows in lactation at the household."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"The households were identified using purposive sampling g with the help of the chief of the village. On the day of interview, milk offtake (i.e. the amount of milk collected for human consumption apart from that consumed by the calf) for both morning and evening milking was determined using a calibrated plastic measuring jar to an accuracy of 50 ml. Milk offtakes from a total of 164 cows were collected and the respective ages of calves recorded, as reported by the owner."}]},{"head":"Study design","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The survey was conducted in the Tana Delta area itself; referred to as Bilisa, and in Assa location, a more arid region to the west, in order to investigate differences in management practices between the two regions and their impact on milk offtake."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"A series of questions were asked of the household head (Irungu, 2000); those related to family size CS1Quest1 and milk sales and milk consumption in the households CS1Quest2 are included here. As will be seen during the course of this case study the form that the questioning took proved not to be ideal. For a preliminary study such as this the range of questions was too wide. This meant that the length of the interview was a little long with the result that, as will be seen later, information was incomplete."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The objectives of the study were to undertake a preliminary household survey among Orma pastoralists in the Tana River district in south-eastern Kenya in order to collect data on:"},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"General demographic data on the Orma people Their cattle keeping practices The important disease affecting their cattle Average levels of milk production (milk offtake) in their cows Average amounts of consumption of milk in the home and of sales of milk An additional important objective in carrying out this preliminary study was to use results from the survey to determine future avenues for investigation and research."}]},{"head":"Questions to be addressed","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"The specific questions to be addressed herein relate to milk production and are:"},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"What is the general level of milk offtake in the Bilisa and Assa locations and do mean milk offtakes differ between them? How does milk offtake vary with age of calf (in other words with month of lactation) and do the patterns differ between Bilisa and Assa locations? To what extent does milk offtake meet the needs of the household both in terms of human consumption and marketing?"},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"We shall also evaluate the suitability of the study design in terms of both the questionnaire that was used and the quantitative milk recording component."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"GenStat is used within the case study. The same analysis using R is demonstrated by Nagda (2009)."},{"index":5,"size":152,"text":"In response to these questions we shall first summarise milk offtake by location and use graphical methods to explore the overall variation in milk offtake and to find out how average milk offtake differs between the two locations. By treating milk offtake as the response variable and the age of calf (synonymous with stage of lactation) as the explanatory variable, we shall use regression analysis to investigate the nature of the relationship between the two variables and the extent to which it differed between the two locations. We shall achieve this by including an additional parameter to describe location. We shall firstly use analysis of variance to fit parallel regression lines for the locations, and then fit two regression lines with separate slopes. These results will then be used together with questionnaire information on average milk consumption by members of the household to estimate surplus levels of milk production available for marketing."}]},{"head":"Source material","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The data sets used for this case study are in CS1Data1 and CS1Data2. Files CS1Doc1 and CS1Doc2 describe the variables contained in the two data files, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"The former file contains recordings of daily milk offtakes measured in 164 cows during the course of the survey."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"The latter contains details of information provided on family size, daily milk consumption in the household, milk given to friends and milk sold. Parts of the original questionnaire that provided the details contained in this file have been put together and stored in CS1Quest1 and CS1Quest2."}]},{"head":"Data management","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"The data file CS1Data1 produced from the original source data contains data on recorded milk offtake for each cow and the reported age of her calf. These offtakes were measured in cows residing in a number of households (sometimes more than one cow per household) in various villages in Bilisa and Assa locations, respectively. These locations have been coded as 1 and 2, respectively. TOTALM, the sum of morning and afternoon recordings, is also included in the file. Although easy to calculate at the time of recording, and perhaps of interest to do so, only the individual morning and afternoon values need to be entered initially into the data file. Variables that can be calculated from other variables are best done by computer. This saves unnecessary work and reduces mistakes during data collection and entry."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"The data file CS1Data2 contains a number of variables extracted and derived from the questionnaires CS1Quest1 and CS1Quest2. The data file is divided into four spreadsheets for the purpose of analysis. The second spread sheet contains the original data and an edited version (see later) is contained in the first spreadsheet. Separate work sheets are then prepared for Bilisa and Assa."}]},{"head":"Data management","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"If one compares closely the details of the questionnaire and the data extracted and stored in the data file one can see that a fair amount of work was needed to code the data in a form suitable for analysis. For example, milk consumption needed to be first transformed into litres before data entry."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"It was decided to ignore ages of members of the household, as this information proved difficult to collect, and to just enter the total amount consumed. Sour milk was not drunk and hence this column was ignored. The total number of children in the household was also calculated from the numbers given per wife."},{"index":3,"size":181,"text":"Files CS1Doc1 and CS1Doc2 describe the variables contained in CS1Data1 and CS1Data2, respectively. Documentation is an important component of any investigation. Investigators are often dilatory in documenting their data but, if this is not done carefully, then this limits the possibilities for further exploitation of the data by another researcher at a later date. The documentation files provided here describe the data but have omitted descriptions of the sources of the data -when they were collected and for what purpose. Such information will need to be included when the data are archived at the completion of a project. This pilot survey was planned to gather preliminary information over a number of households. Looking back it can now be seen that, whilst valuable information was obtained that enabled further research studies to be planned, attempts were made to collect too much detail. Indeed, it is now appreciated that it would have been better to have simplified the questionnaire and designed it in such a way that the data could have been extracted and entered directly from the questionnaire forms into the computer."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"We hope that by including this questionnaire in the form that it was used will be instructive in alerting others to the types of problems that can be encountered. One of the questions at the end of this case study is to redesign the questionnaire in a form that will provide answers to the important questions and allow easy data entry without further manipulation. This case study provides a valuable lesson into the need for careful questionnaire design in relation to the way that information is collected and handled."}]},{"head":"Exploration & description","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Milk offtake","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Descriptive and graphical methods provide a useful starting point for the analysis of the milk offtake data contained in CS1Data1. They help to reveal differences in the patterns of milk offtake between locations and the nature of associations between milk offtake and age of calf. Having converted LOCATION to a factor, general descriptive statistics can be produced by via Stats → Summary Statistics → Summaries of Groups (Tabulation). "}]},{"head":"Milk offtake","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"A box plot (produced by Graphics Boxplot and using the Tools editors to revise the title and legends) illustrates further the differences in variation in milk offtakes in Bilisa and Assa and indicates three ´ outliers ´ for Bilisa and one for Assa."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"One can pick out the four outliers in the scatter plot (Graphics → Create Graph... → 2D Scatter Plot together with use of the Tools editors). Furthermore, the distributions of the other points in the body of the figure suggest different patterns between milk offtake and calf age in the two locations. These patterns support the use of a multiple regression analysis including a term to describe different intercepts on the y-axis for the two locations."}]},{"head":"Milk consumption & marketing","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Summary statistics are included at the bottoms of the columns in CS1Data2. The range in home consumption values is from 0.25 to 80 litres with a mean of 9 litres (printed in red in the ´original´ worksheet and also summarised below). The value of 80 litres (shaded) for Household 36 is clearly wrong and has been changed to 8 litres in the´edited ´ sheet. This shows the importance of checking data before plunging into the statistical analysis. Examination of the data file shows many missing data items. This is going to make it difficult to derive some useful information."}]},{"head":"Statistical modelling","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Milk offtake","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"The first step in the analysis of the milk offtake data is to try and fit a regression equation with a term to describe a common slope for the pattern and a term to allow separate intercepts on the y-axis for the two locations. We can do this by adding a parameter for LOCATION to that for AGEC. The model can be written algebraically in the form: yi = a + bxi + Lj + ei where yi and xi are the milk offtake and the age of calf, respectively, for cow i (i =1, ..., 164), where Lj (j=1, 2) is a parameter that describes the location where the cow resides with reference to a constant a, and where ei is the residual term."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"The location parameter Li signifies that the regression lines for the two locations cross the yaxis at a + L1 and a + L2, respectively."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"With the algebraic constraint L1 + L2 = 0, this reduces to a + L1 and a − L1, respectively. With the algebraic constraint L1 = 0, this reduces to a and a + L2, respectively. GenStat uses the second constraint."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"Using CS1Data1 the model to be fitted (LOCATION+AGEC) can be done using Stats → Regression Analysis → Generalized Linear Models.... . The output describes the analysis of variance and shows evidence of a highly statistically significant association accounting for 32.4% of the variation."},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":"A table of parameter estimates follows, the constant giving the intercept on the y-axis for Bilisa (the baseline or reference location (code 1)), LOCATION 2 representing the average difference between Bilisa and Assa, and AGEC representing the regression coefficient or slope for the two parallel regression lines. The standard error (s.e.) gives the precision with which the From the parameter estimates the fitted equation can be written as: TOTALMi = 2.136(±0.112) -0.8218(±0.0971)L2 -0.0511(±0.0169)AGECi"},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"where the coefficient for L2 refers to the difference in intercepts for Assa from Bilisa. It is customary to include standard errors in parentheses. The results show that the intercept is 0.8218 litres lower for Assa than for Bilisa."},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"Thus, separate regression lines for the two locations can be written:"},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"For Bilisa: yi = 2.136 (±0.112) -0.0511(±0.0169) xi For Assa: yi = 1.314 (±0.125) -0.0511(±0.0169) xi"},{"index":9,"size":65,"text":"The constant term for Assa is determined by subtracting the value 0.8218 from the constant, namely 2.136 -0.8218 = 1.314. However, the standard error for the constant term for Assa is not so easily obtained. One way is to run GenStat again but first to reorder the LOCATION code so that level 2 is recognised as the first level, i.e. making Assa the reference location."},{"index":10,"size":16,"text":"Changing the LOCATION code can be done using the factor reordering facility (Spread Factor Reorder levels...)."},{"index":11,"size":21,"text":"The factor levels themselves do not change in the spread sheet but they are considered to occur in a different order."},{"index":12,"size":21,"text":"The parameter value for LOCATION 1 for Bilisa is now shown (the same value as before but with the sign reversed)."},{"index":13,"size":166,"text":"The constant term value of 1.314 now refers to Assa and its standard error can be seen to be the value 0.125 included in the equation on the previous page. The next step is to investigate whether non-parallel lines better represent the data. This is achieved by fitting an interaction term in the model.Here we use the Options button to allow Accumulated to be ticked (see below). This allows an accumulated analysis of variance to be included in the output which shows the sums of squares accounted for by each term as it is added to the model. The output shows that the interaction term is significant (P<0.01). The percentage variance accounted for increases from 32.4% in the previous analysis to 35.9% here. The output also shows how care must be taken in interpreting the parameter estimates. Each is corrected for the others in the model with the t-value measuring the significance of the parameter when included in addition to all other parameters in the model."},{"index":14,"size":75,"text":"The accumulated analysis of variance, on the other hand, shows the additional sum of squares accounted for as each variable is added in turn. The order in which the terms are included to the model is important. Each sum of squares is corrected for variables already included in the model but not for those to be added later. and corresponding standard errors calculated by rerunning GenStat with LOCATION codes changed back to their original order."},{"index":15,"size":38,"text":"Note that parameter estimate given for the level of a factor is the difference in value from that of the reference level. Here LOCATION 2 (namely Assa) is being used as the reference level for the LOCATION factor."},{"index":16,"size":64,"text":"The scatter plot with the two fitted regression lines is produced by clicking the Further output … button in the dialog box shown earlier, then the Graphics Fitted Model … button and finally completing the dialog box below. The graph shows how milk offtake decreases with stage of lactation of cows residing in Bilisa but not at Assa where milk offtakes remain low throughout."},{"index":17,"size":75,"text":"GenStat also produces warning messages as appropriate during the analysis. The messages shown here, which should be read in conjunction with the scatter diagram on the previous page, were produced when non-parallel lines were fitted. Message 1. The two units have standardised residuals (calculated as the deviation of an observation from its fitted value divided by the overall residual standard deviation) meaning that they fall some distance away from the fitted line and are ´outliers´."},{"index":18,"size":58,"text":"Message 2. This suggests that the assumption the y-variable has a constant variance may not be tenable. Message 3. Units with high leverage are those points that have a strong influence on the direction of the regression line. These points in this example are those that lie to the extreme right for calves aged 12 months and beyond."}]},{"head":"Milk consumption & marketing","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"A summary of the results of the questionnaire survey on how milk offtakes were utilised is given in the table. The table collects together results of calculations done within the Excel file itself. These can be seen by opening the Bilisa and Assa spreadsheets in CS1Data2 and comparing the coloured sections."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Milk offtak e (litre s pe r day) The total milk offtake values per household were calculated as:"},{"index":3,"size":146,"text":"Average no. of lactating cows (see above) x (offtake mean per cow calculated earlier from the milk production survey − see mean values below) = 11.5 x 1.843 = 21.2 litres for Billisa; = 15.4 x 1.025 = 15.6 litres for Assa. The standard errors for total milk offtake (0.6 and 1.2, respectively, in the table on the previous page) were estimated by using the residual mean square 0.3210 for milk offtake in the final analysis of variance Although family sizes were similar in Bilisa and Assa there was a large difference in recorded milk consumption in the home (an apparent 4.8 litres per day in Bilisa and 12.8 litres per day in Assa). Dividing the average quantity consumed by the average size of the family size gives about 0.3 litres per household member in Bilisa and about 0.8 litres in Assa. The difference is surprising."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"But the quantities unaccounted for in the table are:"},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"for Bilisa: 21.2 -4.8 -1.2 -2.2 = 12.8 litres for Assa: 15.6 -12.8 -1.1 -0.2 = 1.5 litres Taking into account the sizes of the standard errors, and the different ways in which the data were collected, the results for Assa look reasonable, but those for Bilisa not. One thus needs to consider carefully the quality of data collected and possible sources of error."},{"index":6,"size":113,"text":"The large proportion of households that did not provide information on quantities of milk consumed in the households in Bilisa places a question mark on the justification of using a mean from the remaining households. By dividing amounts of milk consumed per household by family size in the CS1Data2 edited spreadsheet it can be seen that there is a wide range in individual proportions and thus a poor correlation. One reason, both for this poor correlation and the lack of response in some cases, was that the head of the household often said that he could not give an answer because milking and milk management largely fell into the hands of his wives."},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":"In view of the possible inaccuracies in the collection of these data it will be unwise to publish the results shown in the table for wider circulatio n."},{"index":8,"size":47,"text":"The limited conclusions that one might draw are that households in Assa had very little milk to spare. For households in Bilisa, however, where average milk offtakes were higher, there are opportunities for marketing, but the precise amounts of milk available for this purpose are not clear."}]},{"head":"Findings, implications and lessons learned","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Regression analysis","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"There is a difference in mean milk offtake between cows sampled in Bilisia and Assa."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Milk offtake declined with age of calf (or stage of lactation) at Bilisa but not Assa."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Residual patterns in the data suggest that certain observations may have been influential in determining the fitted patterns and that there were others that possibly did not belong to the overall pattern."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"The last point has implications on the suitability of the study design that will be investigated further in the study questions. It illustrates some of the difficulties in interpreting results from small studies."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"We have also seen how by switching of the order in which the factor LOCATION is coded, in other words redefining the reference level, we can calculate standard errors for both levels."}]},{"head":"Findings, implications and lessons learned","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Survey on milk consumption & marketing","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"In retrospect there were shortcomings in the design of the questionnaire survey in relation to milk consumption and marketing. Too many questions were asked. It is likely as a result that respondents became tired and may not have understood some of the questions. The interviews were conducted in the local tribal language and there may have been some translation difficulties."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"The structure of the questionnaire could have taken better account of how the data to be collected would be stored in a computer. This resulted in additional manipulation of the data in order to get them into a form in which they could be used."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"It is important, when planning any type of survey, to be clear of the objectives and focus the questions accordingly. Thus, a pilot survey should be as simple as possible with a few questions that can be easily answered and can give the broad picture."}]},{"head":"Preliminary or ´pilot´ studies","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Another lesson to be taken from this case study is that the research process is often an iterative one built on a series of studies, one following another. Preliminary or ´pilot´ studies can often be undertaken to test an idea or investigate some fact before proceeding with the next step. In order to minimise costs the researcher will wish to use as few experimental or sampling units as possible. The danger is that if studies are too small the data will not render themselves suitable for statistical analysis and hence the results will be difficult to interpret."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"The design of preliminary investigations is as important as the design of main studies and it is necessary to ensure that sample sizes can allow conclusions to be made that can justify decisions taken for the next phase of the research. The biometrician often finds himself/herself advising on the design of pilot studies and needs to ensure that he understands the goals that the researcher has in mind and how the results from a current study will lead to the next phase of the research. Sometimes it is possible to plan a study which in itself may be too small to merit analysis on its own but, if the results look promising, the study can be replicated and the two studies analysed and reported together."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"The statistical analysis can be summarised by a simple statement as follows. One does not necessarily need to describe each step in the process of finding the appropriate model."}]},{"head":"Reporting","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Here we represent the basis of a brief report on the regression analysis of milk offtake that can be suitably conveyed to other researchers."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"We first present a suitable presentation for a summary table (Table 1). Note that no levels of significance are quoted in the table (these are quoted in the text), that the heading for the table is self explanatory (i.e. a reader can understand the contents of the table without necessarily referring to the text), and that numbers are presented in the table with a precision that is both merited by the data and makes the table easily interpretable and readable."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"The table illustrates both the use of standard deviations (to give a measure of the spread of the data) and standard errors (to give a measure of the precision with which the regression coefficients are estimated). Standard errors are more commonly reported than standard deviations, since it is usually the precision with which parameter estimates are determined that is of primary interest. "}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Milk offtake was analysed by analysis of variance fitting separate regression lines to the data from Bilisa and Assa."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"The results of the statistical analysis can then be put simply as follows:"}]},{"head":"Results","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Average milk offtake was higher in cows sampled in villages in Bilisa than in villages in Assa, a drier, more arid region (Table 1), especially during early lactation (Fig. 1). For cows in Bilisa milk offtake declined linearly by an average of 0.096 litres per month with increasing age of the cow´s calf (P<0.001). However, no trend was evident for cows in Assa where milk offtake remained low at about 1 litre per day throughout lactation. , ,"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Fig1.Association between milk offtake and age of calf in Orma Boran cows sampled in Bilisa and Assa locations in Tana River d istrict, Kenya"}]},{"head":"Participatory study","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The full report of the survey is given in Irungu (2000). One of the important preliminary findings from the survey was that the households interviewed put trypansomosis as the most important disease affecting their cattle and they appeared to be able to recognise different forms of the disease. Trypanocidal drugs provided the main method of disease control but other indigenous methods were also used."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"The researchers proposed in their report that some form of community-based method of tsetse control was needed to reduce the impact of the diseases. Before doing so, however, it was decided to investigate more thoroughly the Orma people´s knowledge of the disease and to seek their views on the way forward for improving its control. A study using participatory methods of ´matrix scoring´ and ´proportional piling´ was therefore instigated (Catley et al., 2002) in order to understand local perceptions of incidence of different diseases, their clinical signs and causes, and preferences for indigenous and modern disease control methods."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"The participatory methods involved villagers placing stones in squares traced on the ground which described the clinical signs that they associated most with a particular disease. Drawings and objects to describe the different diseases and their possible clinical signs were put on the ground in the shape of a matrix with diseases in one direction and signs in another."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"The table, which illustrates some of the of this exercise, shows five diseases (trypansomosis (in two forms as described by Orma herdsmen − gandi and buku), foot and mouth disease, pneumonia and rinderpest) and five clinical signs (weight loss, animal seeking shade, diarrhoea, coughing, reduced appetite). The villagers were asked to score the clinical signs for each disease by distributing a pile of 20 stones amongst them. The more important they felt a particular sign the more stones they put in the pile."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"The method was replicated with three groups of individuals within each of four villages. The table shows the average numbers of stones (from a total of 20) placed alongside each disease."}]},{"head":"Dise ase","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Gandi Buku Foot and mouth Pneumonia Rinderpest"},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"The table, which illustrates some of the results of this exercise, shows five diseases (trypansomosis (in two forms as described by Orma herdsmen − gandi and buku), foot and mouth disease, pneumonia and rinderpest) and five clinical signs (weight loss, animal seeking shade, diarrhoea, coughing, reduced appetite). The villagers were asked to score the clinical signs for each disease by distributing a pile of 20 stones amongst them. The more important they felt a particular sign the more stones they put in the pile."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"The method was replicated with three groups of individuals within each of four villages. The table shows the average numbers of stones (from a total of 20) placed alongside each disease."}]},{"head":"Dise ase","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Gandi Buku Foot and mouth Pneumonia Rinderpest"}]},{"head":"Participatory study","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The results of this investigation revealed potential constraints in implementing communitybased tsetse control, an idea originally considered by the researchers. Instead the villagers recommended wider use of trypanocidal drugs as the best option and requested assistance in learning how best to apply them. The proposed research strategy was thus changed and new proposals prepared to investigate existing drug use, assess levels of possible drug resistance and design participative training courses on ´better use of trypanocides´."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Participatory methods can thus provide a useful alternative to the traditional questionnaire approach for obtaining information from farmers."}]},{"head":"Study questions","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"1. Change LOCATION from a factor to a variable and rerun the regression analysis. Are there any differences in the results? Explain why. Rewrite the algebraic expression for the model given in the case study with the term representing LOCATION now taking on the form of a covariate. Plot a scatter plot of milk offtake versus location and explain why the regression coefficient, which is equivalent to the slope of the line between the mid points for the two locations, is equivalent to the mean difference in offtakes."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"2. What other factors or traits do you consider might have important effects on milk offtake? Write down a suitable statistical model that incorporates these factors. What implications do any of these factors have in study design?"},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"3. Prepare a protocol for estimating average milk offtake and average human consumption in a group of smallholder farms possessing in the range of 1-4 cows. Explain how you would record the data and what approach you would use to analyse the data. Discuss any limitations of such a study."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"4. In light of the results obtained in this Case Study redesign the part of the questionnaire given in CS1Quest1 so that it better achieves the objectives set and allows simpler and direct computer entry. Sketch out a simple computer screen to show how the data might be entered."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"5. One of the proposals resulting from the participatory study was to conduct another participatory study to quantify drug use. Using similar methods as described in the paper plan how you would find out which types of animals the farmers would select for prophylactic treatment and at what dose."},{"index":6,"size":61,"text":"6. Write in your own way a brief report of the data analysis on milk offtake and the findings of the survey on consumption and marketing for an agricultural extension worker who may not be familiar with such statistical terminology as regression lines or standard errors. Discuss the adaptations that you have made to the report given in the case study."},{"index":7,"size":69,"text":"7. Discuss the suitability of the cross-sectional approach used here for estimating milk offtake in relation to the objectives outlined earlier. Are there other types of study designs that you might recommend as being more suitable, either for this study or for any follow-up? Choose one alternative approach, describe, in general terms, how the study would be organised and discuss any advantages or disadvantages from that carried out here."},{"index":8,"size":39,"text":"8. Exclude the two high milk offtakes in early lactation. Rerun the GenStat regression analysis and compare with the previous output. Which results do you think you should present? Discuss under what circumstances it is permissible to exclude outliers."},{"index":9,"size":25,"text":"9. Exclude the two milk offtakes with the highest leverages and rerun GenStat. What do you deduce from this output? Should these points be omitted?"}]},{"head":"10.","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The general relationship between milk offtake and stage of lactation in cows is known to be curvilinear, increasing from calving to a peak value around 4 − 6 weeks and then decreasing. Include a quadratic term for total milk offtake in the model and rerun GenStat. Does the analysis suggest that a quadratic term should be included? Do you think that the type of data collected provides the best way for determining the shape of the lactation curve? If not, how would you design a study to achieve this aim?"}]},{"head":"Related reading","index":33,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" The means and medians in both locations are comparatively close indicating generally symmetric distributions. The range in milk offtake in Bilisa (LOCATION 1), however, is 5.2 litres per day compared with 1.8 litres per day in Assa (LOCATION 2). Nobservd Mean Minimum Maximum Median NobservdMeanMinimum Maximum Median LOCATION LOCATION 1 111 1.843 0.4000 5.600 1.800 11111.8430.40005.6001.800 2 53 1.025 0.4000 2.200 0.900 2531.0250.40002.2000.900 "},{"text":" summary of the results of the questionnaire survey on how milk offtakes were utilised is given in the table. The table collects together results of calculations done within the Excel file itself. These can be seen by opening the Bilisa and Assa spreadsheets in CS1Data2 and comparing the coloured sections. production survey − see mean values below) = 11.5 x 1.843 = 21.2 litres for Billisa; = 15.4 x 1.025 = 15.6 litres for Assa. Nobse rvd Me an Minim um Max imum Me dian Nobse rvdMe anMinim umMax imumMe dian LO C ATION LO C ATION 1 111 1.843 0.4000 5.600 1.800 11111.8430.40005.6001.800 2 53 1.025 0.4000 2.200 0.900 2531.0250.40002.2000.900 Nobse rvd Me an Minim um Max imum Me dian Nobse rvdMe anMinim umMax imumMe dian LO C ATION LO C ATION 1 111 1.843 0.4000 5.600 1.800 11111.8430.40005.6001.800 2 53 1.025 0.4000 2.200 0.900 2531.0250.40002.2000.900 Milk offtak e (litre s pe r day) Milk offtak e (litre s pe r day) Location Fam ily size No. of lactating Total m ilk C onsumed at Give n to Sold Unaccounte d for Location Fam ily size No. of lactatingTotal m ilkC onsumed atGive n toSoldUnaccounte d for cows offtak e hom e frie nd cowsofftak ehom efrie nd Bilisa 16.2 ± 1.0 11.5 ± 1.8 21.2 ± 0.6 4.8 ± 0.9 1.2 ± 0.2 2.4 ± 0.3 12.8 Bilisa16.2 ± 1.011.5 ± 1.821.2 ± 0.6 4.8 ± 0.91.2 ± 0.22.4 ± 0.312.8 (38) (38) (111) (24) (27) (36) (38)(38)(111)(24)(27)(36) & & Assa 15.4 ± 1.9 15.2 ± 2.5 15.6 ± 1.2 12.8 ± 2.2 1.1 ± 0.3 0.2 ± 0.2 1.5 Assa15.4 ± 1.915.2 ± 2.515.6 ± 1.2 12.8 ± 2.2 1.1 ± 0.30.2 ± 0.21.5 (9) (9) (53) (8) (5) (9) (9)(9)(53)(8)(5)(9) "},{"text":" table in the GenStat regression analysis output, dividing by the number of cows used in the analysis, and multiplying by the average number of lactating cows per household. Thus: 11.5 x (0.3210/111) = 0.6 for Bilisa 11.5 x (0.3210/111) = 0.6 for Bilisa 15.4 x (0.3210/53) = 1.2 for Assa. 15.4 x (0.3210/53) = 1.2 for Assa. *** Summary of analysis *** *** Summary of analysis *** d.f. s.s. m.s. d.f.s.s.m.s. Regression 3 30.23 10.0766 Regression330.2310.0766 Residual 160 51.37 0.3210 Residual16051.370.3210 Total 163 81.60 0.5006 Total16381.600.5006 "},{"text":"Table 1 . Mean milk offtake and regression coefficients with age of calf in Orma Boran cows sampled in Bilisa and Assa locations in Tana River district, Kenya. Location Number of cows Mean ± s.d. (litres) Regression coefficient ± s.e. (litres/calf LocationNumber of cowsMean ± s.d. (litres)Regression coefficient ± s.e. (litres/calf age in months) age in months) Bilisa 111 1.8 ± 0.06 -0.096 ± 0.022 Bilisa1111.8 ± 0.06-0.096 ± 0.022 Assa 53 1.0 ± 0.05 0.007 ± 0.025 Assa531.0 ± 0.050.007 ± 0.025 "}],"sieverID":"d2baef05-9681-4c11-86a6-b350fa19c667","abstract":"Background Research strategy Study design Objectives Questions to be addressed Source material Data management Exploration & description Statistical modelling Findings, implications and lessons learned Reporting Participatory study Study questions Related reading Acknowledgements"}
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{"metadata":{"id":"04ddc1b6ad1d6a4e7accf99ed5a8597a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2d5c2963-1145-47cf-adfc-f152fd8fc055/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Today's highlights 0830 Opening: Jimmy Smith and Peter Thorne on ILRI and the APM","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The APM will give direction and meaning through our new strategy. Of particular note is the strategic intention to bridge the divide between research and development, to assure both excellent science and excellent development outcomes."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"During the APM, a series of APM newsletters will be served with your coffee, of which this is the first issue. "}]},{"head":"Big events this week","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gine Zwart: practice to policy","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Gine Zwart is a senior policy advisor at Oxfam, The Hague, Netherlands. She is responsible for development of vision, strategy and polic and oversees the agriculture and rural development programs of the organization."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Zwart is an expert in agriculture, food and production systems and has expertise in hunger, poverty, exclusion and exploitation. She implements and oversees programs in Africa and is involved with cocoa farmers, markets, finance and poverty as well as agribusiness."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Over the last 16 years, when she has been involved with Oxfam, she has worked with projects setting up the microfinance portfolio in East and Southern Africa. Between 2002 and 2008, she set up the corporate social responsibility team within Oxfam Novib, developed a vision and strategy for Oxfam's work with private sector actors with a main focus on wine and cocoa value chains."}]},{"head":"Andrew Mude","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Best thing about his job… A combination of my very committed and dedicated team that challenges me to do an even better job every day and our partners who have opened up great opportunities for us to take our work to greater heights and have provided a great learning experience for our work."}]},{"head":"What he looks forward to every morning…","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Executing the day's agenda and returning home in the evening. "}]},{"head":"Highlights","index":6,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Welcome to the 2013 Annual Program Meeting (APM) of the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). "},{"text":" You have interesting stories, pictures, quotes or just want to be part of the DailyTail team? Find us in the DailyTail Room. See notice board maps! FAO's representative to the African Union (AU) and to the UN Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) on 1 January 2013, he will help us as we plan how to implement our new strategy. A former government minister in Mali, ambassador to China and also former head of the African Union's Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources (AU/IBAR), he is a livestock expert. He obtained an MSc in veterinary medicine from the Agricultural Academy of Ukraine and a Doctorat d'Etat ès Sciences (PhD) in Animal Production and Health from the University of Paris XII. He started his career in 1979 as head of the livestock section and veterinary services, District of Ségou, Mali, rising through the ranks to be the senior research officer of the breeding program on N'Dama cattle and deputy manager of the Breeding Centre in Mali. In 1988, he was appointed chief of the Breeding and Livestock Research Centre for the Sahel (SERZ/S), based in his home country Mali, and in 1990, he became director of the Regional Agricultural Research Centre (CRRA), Mali; from 1992 to 1994, he worked as national director of the Livestock Services and chief veterinary officer, Bamako, Mali. He joined FAO in March 2008 as regional representative for Africa after heading the AU/IBAR and rose to the position of assistant director general of the Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department. "},{"text":" 1900 APM dinner: don't forget your national dress Fri 17 May 0900 'Dotmocracy' wall! 1730: Disco Night at Zebu Brought to you by ILRI comms Help Desk ICT, flight, private transportation, emergency contacts and any other logistical support please visit the 'Help Desk' at the InfoCentre during morning/afternoon coffee breaks and lunch time. Agenda is posted at all hotspots on campus. For those who come from abroad, your airport transfer pick up time will be posted in all notice boards on campus. If you bought your own ticket, you need to confirm with AirLink (travel agent on campus). "},{"text":" for the past year…. In 2012, I got an amazing opportunity to attend the Archbishop Desmond Tutu Leadership Fellowship program together with 22 other individuals across Africa. I also got married this year! (Big congratulations from the Daily Tail team!)What he loves about his life… Happy times with my family and friends, a boating experience somewhere around the beach with friends when am on holiday.Favorite colour…I really don't have one! Sometimes it's blue, orange or even grey depending on which side of the bed I get up on! Alexandra Jorge Alexandra Jorge is the manager of the ILRI Forage Genebank that is located at the Addis Ababa campus. In her presentation today, Jorge, a plant pathologist, will be speaking about a Napier grass project that shows how partnerships and collaborations are helping the adoption of new technologies to meet demand for livestock fodder.Alexandra Jorge was born in and grew up Mozambique and has lived in many countries, including Zimbabwe and Portugal. She is a blogger and for the last 5 years has written about work, life and travel on her blog 'A candle and a laptop,' so named because she started blogging one night by candlelight (due to a power blackout "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"6011c648-a638-450d-bd2a-4ebe0e39baf0","abstract":"Knowledge Sharefair and Marketplace catch up with the rest of ILRI… prizes, learning, fun, great coffee., ILRI Genebank at 30! 1645-1900 Scientific poster session and reception in the InfoCentre. Poster authors/presenters, please be there on time! Prizes will be awarded on Thursday evening."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0509a3866a2db2856bd0a4bf948e3778","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/394406a7-55f5-4b20-ab83-ce97dd1a4e34/retrieve"},"pageCount":30,"title":"Minor Millets as a Central Element for Sustainably Enhanced Incomes, Empowerment, and Nutrition in Rural India","keywords":["neglected and underutilized species (NUS)","nutrition","holistic approach","female empowerment","resilience","participatory variety selection (PVS)","value chain"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Millets are an agronomic (as opposed to taxonomic) group of grasses that are widely grown for food and fodder. Most have relatively small seeds (compared to major cereals such as wheat and rice) and thrive in arid areas. The most widely grown is pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), while a secondary group of millets includes foxtail millet (Setaria italica), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum), finger millet (Eleusine coracana), kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum), little millet (Panicum sumatrense), and barnyard millet (Echinochloa colona) [1]. This secondary group can be thought of as the minor millets, and forms the subject of this paper."},{"index":2,"size":235,"text":"Millets have traditionally played an important role in farming and food culture in many regions of the world, including Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia [2], with India being the world's largest producer of these crops. Millets mature quickly, a valuable trait important for rain-fed farming, and require relatively few inputs compared to major cereals. They grow under a range of day lengths and in poor soil, making them an attractive crop for marginal farming environments. In addition to these agronomic advantages, millets can offer other benefits in ecological, nutritional, and socioeconomic areas. Despite these potential benefits, however, in India overall production of millets has increased over the past few decades, from 7.7 Mil tons in 1961 to 10.7 in 2012, but the area dedicated to minor millets has fallen. Finger millet declined from 2.3 million ha in 1951-1955 to 1.35 million ha in 2006-2010. Other minor millets declined even more precipitously, from 5.29 million ha to 0.97 million ha over the same period. Productivity for finger millet, in terms of yield per ha, doubled from 704 to 1471 kg ha −1 largely thanks to improved varieties more than making up for the decrease in area. The other minor millets recorded more modest gains in productivity, from 410 to 480 kg ha −1 , and total production is now less than a quarter of its 1950 value (2.177 MT in 1951-1955vs. 0.467 MT in 2006-2010) [3]."},{"index":3,"size":174,"text":"The decline in minor millets in India can be attributed to many factors; agronomic, economic, and social. The Green Revolution of the 1970s saw government promotion of rice and wheat push minor millets into ever more marginal areas. In those areas, millets have come to be regarded as crops of the poor, which they are, and thus to be avoided, an unfortunate consequence. Policy-makers have contributed to this lack of status by keeping millets largely out of the scope of both official research and development and price support agreements. Continuing neglect then hastens the loss of genetic diversity and traditional knowledge about the production, processing, and use of millets. Production is inefficient as a result of the lack of suitable higher-yielding varieties, poor quality seed, and unimproved cultivation practices. Traditional processing methods condemn the women who prepare millets to considerable daily drudgery. In addition, there is a lack of attractive recipes for adding value, a lack of awareness of the nutritional value of millets, poorly organized integration with markets, and generally unfavorable environmental policy."},{"index":4,"size":247,"text":"However, the use enhancement of millets also represents an interesting opportunity to contribute filling the yield gap in food that the world is suffering from. According to one current estimate, increasing yields to\"50% of the potential yield in all low-performing areas could increase annual production by 8.46 × 10 14 kcal, which is enough to meet the basic caloric requirements of ~850 million people\" [4]. While annual yield increases (as a percentage of current yield) in staples like rice and wheat are below 1% now and falling, we argue that directing greater research attention to nutritious cereals like millets would be a highly strategic choice, because it would be more viable and would offer greater benefits in terms of lower water requirements, adaptation to climate change, and marginal soils, along with social impact in terms of the greater self-reliance of local populations as well as more resilient and accessible food systems. With regard specifically to millets, the yield gap is largely a reflection of existing cultivation technologies that offer ample room for improvement. Seed is usually farm-saved and of poor quality because farmers lack the ability to select seed and store it well. Poverty and food security also threaten the seed supply by sometimes forcing farmers to eat their saved seed. In addition to poor seed stocks, cultivation is not optimal [5]. In many communities where women are mainly responsible for growing millets, few farmers are aware of improved cultivation technologies such as line sowing and fertilizing."},{"index":5,"size":227,"text":"Upon these considerations it was felt that millets represented an important opportunity for a multi-faceted, holistic effort to reverse the situation, with benefits to farmer status, empowerment, and income (especially for women), to conservation, to nutrition, to the environment, and, ultimately, to food and nutrition security. This represents the scope of the international Research for Development effort carried out from 2001 to 2010, the methodologies and results of which are presented in this paper. With regard to the focus on millets of such a project, it must be mentioned that this had been brought forward by a multi-stakeholder consultation that took place in India in 2001. Out of several NUS still grown in local production systems [6], millets were seen by farmers and other user groups as offering greater comparative advantages compared to other species, in view of their important nutritional profiles, income generation opportunities, and resilience to climate change. The choice of India as one of the target countries for the project was made on the basis of several considerations, including the possible impact in large marginalized agricultural production areas inhabited by poor and vulnerable people, the interest of national research programs, and the valuable crop improvement results of NARS. The work presented here refers to the first two phases of the so called \"IFAD NUS Project\", whose third phase (2011-2015) is currently still under implementation."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":298,"text":"Given the complex interactions among the factors surrounding the decline of minor millets and the changes sought, we adopted a holistic framework to address the many and varied inter-related segments of the value chain. Figure 1 describes the framework followed, indicating the main interventions along the six principal segments of the millet value chains-namely, genetic diversity, selection and cultivation, harvest, value addition, marketing, and final use. The project's interventions were designed to build complementarities across different entry points of the value chain for reinforcing the delivery of specific outputs as well as for creating the self-sustainability of activities. Our approaches were also designed to promote linkages among stakeholders who are often disconnected: e.g., bridge gaps between researchers and development agents; bring farmers and user groups working together in PVS assessments in which both yield and use-related traits for household consumption and marketing were considered equally; build the capacity of farmers and SHGs in terms production of high-quality seed, cultivation practices, grain processing and other value addition tasks, as well as capacity in marketing (including branding) and production of more attractive food for household composition; strengthen and/or build community seed banks combined with processing units (Figure 2) where local varieties could be easily processed for domestic or market use; raise awareness about the nutrition, income, and resilience benefits of millets among all stakeholders, from growers to policy makers (see outcome on policy work later in the paper). Table 1 lists methods and tools newly developed and/or deployed in the project along with major achievements resulting from their application; stakeholders involved in these activities are also mentioned to highlight the interdisciplinary and inter-sector synergy the project has been seeking throughout its implementation. Table 1. Methods, tools, and key achievements in the holistic value chain approach for minor millets in India."}]},{"head":"Relevant value chain portion of application","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Methods and tools deployed/developed","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Stakeholders involved Key achievements","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Genetic diversity By pursuing a range of activities simultaneously with a range of well-connected actors, the project was expected to improve social empowerment and income generation, to leverage the nutritional benefits of minor millets, and to contribute to the sustainable conservation of their genetic resources (for more on this approach and its rationale see Padulosi et al. [7])."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"The research reported here took place as part of a global project on neglected and underutilized species (NUS) supported by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the European Union. This project was the first United Nations-supported global effort to enhance the use and conservation of NUS [8]. The project was coordinated at the global level by Bioversity International and implemented in India by the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF), Chennai; the University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Bangaluru; UAS Dharwad; G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology (GBPUA&T), Hill Campus, Ranichauri; and the Central Food Technology Research Institute (CFTRI), Mysore. Implementation took place in 34 communities in four states (Karnataka, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and Uttarakhand) with more than 750 participating households. Figure 3 shows the areas that have been targeted by the project. "}]},{"head":"Capacity Development","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"One of the main concerns of the project was to develop human capacities for the self-sustainability of those enhanced practices the project was going to introduce. To that regard, self-help groups and farmers' clubs (informal associations of farmers created by the MSSRF since the mid-1990s) [9], played a fundamental role in the methods testing phase of the project as well as in the dissemination of results and good practices. The benefits to members of these grassroots groups went far beyond growing and using millets. Groups elect a chair and secretary and conduct regular meetings to review progress, thrift, and enterprise building, as a result setting the stage for increased self-determination and governance. Some groups started with members saving a little each day to build up group capital and establish group bank accounts, thereby becoming eligible for bank loans. As a result, small scale industries are gradually being established. Bank savings accumulated by self-help groups provide short-term loans to help members develop enterprises. The self-help and farmers' groups thus strengthen the human and social capital of those involved, promoting sustainability; their establishment was a key element in the project's exit strategy."}]},{"head":"Gender","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Another cross cutting element of the project was its focus on gender and in particular the exploration of ways to strengthen the empowerment of women whose level of marginalization in India's rural society is still very high."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"The lack of attention paid to gender during the Green Revolution is an additional factor that can be linked to its failure to improve nutrition security in India. Those responsible for promoting the Green Revolution paid little attention to female-dominated traditional agriculture and knowledge. Women, in fact, were displaced from their traditional roles in agriculture, partly as a result of mechanization [10]. In addition, as a result of their different experiences and activities, women and men have different but complementary knowledge about plants and agriculture. This gender-differentiated knowledge is of great importance for the sustainable conservation and use of agrobiodiversity [11,12]. Women select the varieties that are most useful to their household and community, assessing detailed criteria such as taste, color, size, texture, cooking time, crop yield, ease of processing and access, grain formation, and resistance to pests and insects, all factors that promote resilience and food and nutrition security [13,14]. Men, on the other hand, select varieties according to criteria associated with the male's main responsibility, income generation, giving higher priority to high yield and good market price [15]."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"Women-who are perceived as lower in status-tend to have weaker control over household resources, tighter time constraints, less access to information and health services, poorer mental health, and lower self-esteem. Furthermore, resources controlled by women are more likely than those controlled by men to be used for items that benefit their children, such as food, clothing, and health care [16]. Women in poor households of India (and elsewhere) spend most of the income under their control on basic household needs, while men are more likely to spend on personal goods such as alcohol and tobacco [17]. Women also play a key role in determining which food to keep for home consumption and which to sell at local markets [11]."},{"index":4,"size":200,"text":"At the small and marginal farm holdings and household level, women' drudgery in production and lack of postharvest processing technology are the key factors for neglect of millets. Other elements include: lower profitability of NUS in cash terms per acre of land compared to alternatives available; requirement of more female labor for weeding; drudgery in pounding and lack of processing machines for little and Italian millets; weeding difficulties in intercropping with tapioca and absence of cattle for ploughing the land (specific to Kolli Hills). Drudgery in processing is indeed a major limitation for use of millets. All millets, with the exception of finger millet, are characterized by several layers of hard seed coats, which requires high abrasive force to remove. The traditional de-cortication process is a tedious physical process using mortar and pestle, almost exclusively carried out by women. The project tackled drudgery removal as one of its key tasks and the solutions found had a very strong impact on women' empowerment, which underpinned the detailed delivery of almost all the activities, which sought to give women increased decision-making authority and increase their confidence in their decisions and opinions (see later in the text for more details on this work)."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conservation and Participatory Variety Selection","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"The decline in cultivation of minor millets has been accompanied by a loss of genetic diversity in the remaining varieties, many of which are not necessarily well adapted to the changing socioeconomic and environmental conditions in which they are being grown. To address this, concerted efforts were made to survey and collect existing varieties of minor millets and to train farmers to evaluate varieties and save high-quality seed. Effective conservation of agricultural biodiversity is vital for ensuring its sustainable use and requires ex situ and in situ methods to be sustainable over the long term [18]. Given the lack of priority from official and mainstream actors that results in crops becoming NUS, the need for sustainable conservation and use becomes even more important [19][20][21]."},{"index":2,"size":207,"text":"The project partners worked with local farmers to survey, document, and sample the genetic diversity of minor millets in Kolli Hills, Tamil Nadu (see Table 2), and Kundura, Odisha (see Table 3). Considering just little millet, the number of landraces, or farmer varieties, was almost identical in the two collecting areas. All the landraces collected were conserved in situ, i.e., locally in the community, and ex situ at the MSSRF Community Gene Bank in Chennai. In order to tackle farm conservation sustainably, the project worked to build enabling conditions for this practice across target areas and created incentives for farmers to continue maintain diversity. During its implementation period, the project worked with communities to disseminate better cultivation practices, introduce drudgery-free processing methods and tools, raise awareness of the nutritional values of landraces, boost the gastronomic appeal of local varieties through innovative recipes, and establish 15 community gene banks in 15 locations across 45 settlements over 15 years. These gene banks now help communities to conserve 21 varieties of minor millets, many of which are now used by SHGs and Growers' Federation through market-driven activities. Table 4 shows the quantity of seeds of millet crops that have been distributed to farmers by these community gene banks since 2001."},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"MSSRF has been instrumental in developing the concept of gene-seed-grain banks to address the twin problems of short-term food security and poor seed storage [22]. The gene-grain-seed bank is generally a purpose-built structure in the village that is designed to provide a safe environment for the storage of seeds. In the first place, it represents a local genebank to conserve locally important varieties. In the second, it also enables community families to store their harvest for later consumption, and to borrow from the community store rather than eat their stored seed. Finally, it is a safe place to store seeds saved specifically for the next crop cycle, and to make higher-quality seed available as a loan even to farmers who cannot afford to buy such seed."},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"A further evolution of the conservation-through use paradigm being promoted by MSSRF in Kolli Hills is the Village Millet Resource Centre (VMRC), which hosts processing units for millets as well as seed conservation stores. To date, some 15 VMRCs have been established across different \"Panchayat\" (municipalities), which serve numerous villages (settlements). Table 5 lists the established VMRCs and the crop diversity maintained in each of them."},{"index":5,"size":91,"text":"Good quality seed encompasses the notion of seed suitable for local growing conditions. To ensure that farmers had access to suitable seed, the project undertook several activities under the rubric of participatory variety selection (PVS), which is well established as offering marginal farmers good opportunities to improve the genetic basis of their crops [23,24]. Where farmers who retain strong traditional knowledge and skill take part in PVS, this adds to their involvement in and ownership of the technology. Where farmers are weak, additional training provides them with supplementary skills and empowerment."},{"index":6,"size":281,"text":"Locally available varieties as well as 6000 other accessions (landraces and/or improved varieties) obtained from ICRISAT, Pattencheru (Andhra Pradesh), the All India Coordinated Small Millet Improvement Project at the University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Bangaluru, and other institutions in India were deployed in the initial farmer participatory variety selection carried out at Kolli Hills (Tamil Nadu) and Jeypore, (Odisha) during 2002-2004. On elimination of several low yielding exotic and photosensitive accessions, the initial selection shortlisted 180 accessions. During the second selection cycle, 33 promising varieties (14 finger millet, 11 little millet, and eight foxtail millet) at Jeypore and 29 varieties (nine finger millet, nine little millet, and 11 foxtail millet) at Kolli Hills were identified by farmers as the best accessions. During the third cycle of selection, based on farmers' choice and critical agronomic data, the three highest ranking varieties in each of these millets were identified (Table 6). The strategic importance of PVS can be seen in the observation that while farmers in Kolli Hills preferred finger millet varieties with mid-early or medium maturity, the Jeypore farmers by and large preferred late maturing varieties, consistent with the different pattern and distribution of rainfall at these two locations. While confirming the value of PVS specifically for NUS, in view of their localized cultivation, these activities also helped to confirm the agronomic superiority of some of the locally-adapted farmer varieties compared to improved types, as well as the identification of some improved varieties that were superior to local varieties, thus giving the participating farmers an improved selection of varieties, regardless of the origin of those varieties [25,26]. Farmers decided which of the varieties to propagate and conserve in the village gene-grain-seed bank."},{"index":7,"size":173,"text":"A second aspect of good-quality seed, in addition to suitability for local conditions, is to ensure that farmers have access to sufficient seed that is biologically sound. The project therefore placed considerable emphasis on the production of high-quality seed as well as on training farmers in the maintenance of variety identity and safe seed storage. Training efforts for genetic purity focused on variety characterization and especially the maintenance of varieties by seed selection and roguing off-types. Training also imparted good practices for seed handling during harvest, threshing, drying, and storage. As a result of this training, the amount of high-quality seed available to farmers increased steadily during the project timeframe. For example, 291 kg of high-quality seed was produced by and distributed to participating farmers in 2007, increasing to 2.8 tons in 2008 and more than 10 tons of high-quality seed of the five minor millet species in 2009. The project also demonstrated that the availability of quality seed and improved agronomic practices helped in enhancing the productivity and production of small millets."}]},{"head":"Improving Yields","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"PVS was itself instrumental in improving yields. In addition to yield observations, pre-and post-harvest focus group discussions with the farmers unearthed some of the characteristics important to them in identifying superior varieties. For little millet, grain and fodder yields were the most important characteristics, the latter a quality sometimes overlooked by mainstream breeders. Other important characteristics included crop duration, panicle type and size, disease resistance, and drought tolerance; farmer appreciation for these qualities in the local and improved varieties was the basis of their selection. Women's participation in these group discussions was also helpful in guiding PVS with information regarding culinary aptitudes and cultural preferences [27]."},{"index":2,"size":548,"text":"In Karnataka state, for example, the varieties selected by farmers generally outperformed local varieties by a considerable margin (see Table 7 below) In Kundera, Odisha, farmers' rankings for their preferred varieties followed very closely the yields for those varieties in trial plots. Although an analysis of variance revealed no significant differences among the top 10 performing varieties, the top four all gave significantly higher yields than the best local variety (Badomania). The top five selected varieties of individual minor millet species showed similar yield increases when compared with a local check variety over multiple trial locations. For little millet the yield gain ranged from 28% to 74%, for finger millet from 4% to 50%, and for foxtail millet from 11% to 36%. In the Haveri district in Karnataka, field trials during 2008 showed a 41% increase in mean grain yield that could be attributed to the use of improved varieties [28]. A second component of efforts to increase yields was to improve agronomic practices. Farmers traditionally supply little or no fertilizer to the crop. Demonstration trials on farmers' fields indicated that supplementary doses of fertilizers or manure (including vermicompost, a value-added activity introduced to some of the communities) enhanced productivity of little millet and finger millet by around 17%. Farmers also tend to use higher seeding rates than those recommended by UAS Darwad, because this gives them a higher fodder yield. Demonstrations of lower seeding rates-10 kg ha −1 vs. 20-25 kg ha −1 -increased seed yield by almost 19% with a loss in fodder of 9%, which farmers found acceptable [28]. Line sowing and intercropping were also found to improve yields. For example, six rows of millet (little, finger, or foxtail) with two rows of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) proved to be more productive and more profitable than traditional broadcast intercropping systems. Overall, data from 198 field trials in 2003-2004 indicated that improved cultivation practices contributed to an increase of 40% to 63% in grain yield and 34% to 47% in fodder yield over traditional practices [25,29]. Kundura village took part in 48 trials in six participating communities, seven of the trials exclusively involving women farmers. Yield increases compared to traditional practices, obtained from a package of interventions including quality seed, line sowing, modest manuring, and weeding ranged from 39% to 172%. Farmers achieved up to double their previous income, notably from the addition of pigeon pea and horse gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum) as intercrops. With regard to the costs of the introduction of improved practices, the cost-benefit ratio analyses carried out by the project revealed that cost of cultivation using farmers' practices and improved practices varied across farmers and field sites. In 2004, for example, the cultivation cost of intercrop system according to farmers' practice varied from Rs. 7632/ha ($141.3 @ $1 = Rs. 54) in Kolli Hills to Rs. 18,542 ($343.4) per ha in Jeypore. The cost-benefit ratio analysis showed that the average net income from finger millet intercropped with soybean grown under improved organic methods (Rs. 13,735/ha) was substantially higher than that of similar intercrop grown under traditional organic farming practices (Rs. 7397/ha). The results from intercropped barnyard millet also followed the similar trend although the net income from improved as well as traditional organic farming methods was relatively lower than that from finger millet."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"In the Kolli Hills, where one of the factors driving the decline of minor millets was adoption of cassava (Manihot esculenta) as a cash crop, efforts were made to trial intercropping finger millet in the cassava fields. These proved highly successful, enhancing incomes by 3.2% (in concert with other elements of the package)."}]},{"head":"Post-Harvest Processing","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"An important constraint to the wider use of millets among rural families is the effort and drudgery needed to convert the harvested grain into palatable foods. Traditionally, these tasks are performed by women (see earlier in the text), who thresh the grain with their feet, use a pestle and mortar to dehusk the grain, and then a stone quern to grind the grain into flour, all tasks that require time and effort. Women spend most of the day away from home laboring in the fields, so they prefer foods that are easier and quicker to prepare than millets [30,31]."},{"index":2,"size":175,"text":"Small-scale, easy-to-use mechanical grain-processing technology would undoubtedly lower some of the barriers to making greater use of minor millets and rolling out value chains based on millets. The project team sourced local prototypes of micro-mills to de-hull and polish Italian and little millet, but these did not prove to be cost-effective. UAS, Dharwad, McGill University, Canada, and the MSSRF then developed another prototype for little millet. This prototype dehulled millet grains very effectively, recovering 90% of the seeds. The mills were subsequently manufactured in Belgaum, Karnataka, for deployment to the project communities. Mills alone, however, were not enough. They had to be embedded in a matrix of supportive activities, such as organizing self-help groups (SHGs), largely of women, to manage the mills and then training them in processing and adding value. Small-scale machinery to remove stones, which might otherwise damage the mills, was also deployed to improve post-harvest processing. There remains a need for polishing facilities to allow little millet and Italian millet to be consumed in the same way as rice, which communities prefer."},{"index":3,"size":171,"text":"Larger-scale mills have also been an important component of value-added chains. In the village of Kaudiaguda, Orissa, the local SHG contributed labor and money to construct a shed to house a larger mill. The land for the mill shed was provided free of cost by the local Panchayat [32], a clear sign of the community's tangible appreciation of the improved livelihoods brought about by the project. This mill processes grain for three villages and the SHGs based there and generates income each month for the SHG that manages its operation. Several other villages throughout the project areas have adopted similar plans to house larger mills and provide a service to SHGs in neighboring communities. One difficulty in many villages is that while they may be able to manage and use larger diesel-powered mills, they are not connected to the electricity grid and hence cannot make use of electric micro-mills to reduce drudgery for farm women. The project has made an effort to convince the government to provide electricity to these villages."},{"index":4,"size":169,"text":"At a purely personal level, whereas it took women about two hours to process sufficient millet for the daily needs of their families using traditional methods, the new micro-mills perform the same task in 5-7 min or less. The micro-mills did far more, though, than merely cut drudgery and processing time. Many women reported greater social status and self-esteem, and the reduced time and labor required to prepare minor millets opened up opportunities for them to earn extra income, strengthening their independence and financial security. Training in the production of value-added products was offered on the campuses of UAS, Bangaluru and UAS, Dharwad, usually the first time the SHG women traveled outside their villages. The training experience gave them additional confidence and skills to discern which of the value-added products are appropriate for domestic use and which for commercial development. All of these factors contributed to the empowerment of rural women; their slow transformation from housewives and farm laborers to market-based product developers and entrepreneurs has huge social implications."},{"index":5,"size":384,"text":"As noted earlier in the paper, drudgery in processing is a major limitation for use of millets. All millets, with the exception of finger millet, are characterized by several layers of hard seed coats that require high abrasive force to remove. The traditional de-cortication process is a tedious physical process using mortar and pestle, almost exclusively carried out by women. The Federation, with the technical backup of MSSRF, facilitated the establishment of hullers and pulverizers suiting different types of millets, to cater to as many households as possible. The intervention has meant a lot, especially to women, who are now able to carry out processing with less fatigue and significant saving of time, which is now used for other activities. The Federation exposed women SHG members on training courses dedicated to value-added product development, quality standards, packaging, labeling, and marketing. Training in value addition helped women enhance their skills in production of products like malt, rava, and ready-made mixes of millets that fetch additional income. The Federation recognizes women's leadership in social and legal empowerment and creates an equal platform for mobility, skills building, group and market participation, decision making, and contribution in conservation through use. Over a period of twelve years (2001-2013), the cultivation, procurement, value addition, diversification, and sale of products have generated a gross income of 30,900 USD. Interesting facts related to the Federation over its ten years of activity in Kolli Hills include: a total of 109 groups involved (16 men, 30 women, one mixed, and 62 farmers' clubs); membership of 985 males and 526 females; groups managing nine pulverizing mills and three de-husking and flour mills; organic produce collection centers and community-based value addition units each at three locations; village millet resource centers at 16 locations; community-based natural food shops at two locations and a total financial turnover of 9,229,913 Rs. The Federation (\"Kolli Hills Agro Biodiversity Conservers' Federation\", KHABCoFED), has built an asset of agricultural machineries and value addition units along with a procurement centre whose value is estimated at 53,000 USD. Additionally, a savings of 75,000 USD has been set aside, which stands as a clear testimony to the success of this collective endeavor and a proof of the strategic role that underutilized crops like millets and associated natural resources can play in the livelihoods of people."}]},{"head":"Nutrition","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Despite the gains of the Green Revolution, malnutrition remains a severe problem in India, especially among rural people but also among the newly urbanized, where the double burden of over-and under-nutrition may coexist in the same family; see, for example, Ravishankar [33]."},{"index":2,"size":159,"text":"One of the primary benefits that millets offer is better nutrition. As a group, minor millets are high in a range of micronutrients, particularly calcium, iron, and dietary fiber. While protein levels are comparable to other staples such as wheat, rice, and maize, the balance of essential amino acids is better, and so they may offer more usable protein. Millet grains are also rich in important vitamins such as thiamine, riboflavin, folic acid, and niacin. Minor millets have a low glycemic index and thus do not contribute to disorders of sugar metabolism. They also contain other phytochemicals, including antioxidants, that are associated with health benefits (for details, see Yenagi et al. [34] and Bhag Mal and Padulosi [3]). For all these reasons, millets can play an important role in food and nutrition security, and not only for the poor. In fact, M.S. Swaminathan has said that they should be referred to as nutritious millets rather than minor millets [35]."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"To promote the nutritional value of millets, the project focused on direct use among the project participants and on creating markets for millet-based products in urban centers. Micro-mills (see above) proved a key element in promoting domestic consumption as they reduced the time women needed to prepare millet dishes for their families. In the villages of Manthrodi and Timmapur (Karnataka), introduction of mills was associated with an increase in household consumption of 7% and 13%, respectively. The increase in household consumption was mirrored across all project sites, with 69% of women reporting that millet had become a staple food for consumption [28]."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"In general, people find millet-based foods very acceptable. For example, in one pilot study, 80% of people favored breakfasts made of little millet, and 62% said they ate such foods regularly. This suggests that the decline in millet consumption can be reversed."},{"index":5,"size":171,"text":"Schools were a primary target for nutrition interventions, because staving off the effects of malnutrition in young children has such great cumulative benefits in later life. Project nutritionists developed four low-cost nutritional meals from millets for the school feeding program of the government's Department of Women and Child Welfare, and millet-based products are being considered for school feeding programs in Karnataka State, which could benefit around 3.5 million children under six years old in the state. The study by Yenagi et al. [34] of millet-based dishes showed that while some millet recipes had the lowest cost per serving, they nevertheless provided the most calories and protein and were almost totally accepted by children participating in the test. Another study concluded that students fed with finger millet-based recipes were healthier, physically stronger, and studied more actively compared with a control group. Regular consumption of millets among children was associated with an incremental gain of 0.5% in height, 3.4% in body weight, 15.4% in hemoglobin level, and 37.8% in physical fitness index [36]."},{"index":6,"size":117,"text":"Similarly, promoting the use of millets in canteens, hospitals, and work places is another promising approach to improved nutrition among people who need it most. Millet research in the area of value addition has extended its scope to enter the food industry as novel foods, health foods, snacks, fermented breakfast foods, and bakery products. Thermal processing of millets has the advantage of extending the shelf life of grains with nutritional benefits. Processed millet can enter into the realm of therapeutic foods through designing health foods based on the functional properties of millets. Thermally processed millets can easily enter into the PDS system/school feeding programs/hospital catering system as ageing and thermal processing of grains enhances the nutritional benefits."},{"index":7,"size":133,"text":"Promoting the use of millets in canteens, hospitals, and work places appeared very promising also as people could better benefit from the energy contained in these crops. A study of five healthy persons under the age group of 45-50 years showed that the glycemic index among the subjects ranged from 35.20 to 57.20 in the case of little millet and 65.2-75.25 in the case of rice. These results confirmed that the slow release of glucose from millet food is quite beneficial for diabetics as the satiety value for such products would be high. According to the classification of the World Health Organization (WHO), little millet rice with a low glycemic index (47.23), as compared to rice with a high glycemic index (71.87), proved better in the management of diabetes and associated cardiovascular problems."},{"index":8,"size":120,"text":"Type 2 diabetes is a complex metabolic disorder associated with developing insulin resistance, impaired insulin signaling, beta cell dysfunction, and abnormal glucose and lipid metabolism. These metabolic disorders lead to long-term pathogenic conditions including micro-and macro-vascular complications, neuropathy, retinopathy, and nephropathy. Millet has been shown to be potentially beneficial in the management of diabetes because of its high fiber content and slow digestion; moreover, it is a good source of B vitamins and contains substantial quantities of several minerals including calcium, iron, potassium, and manganese. Millet is featured in healthy foods for its ability to decrease insulin resistance and the low risk of diabetes may be related to foods with high content of phytochemicals, high antioxidant capacity, and polyphenolic compounds."}]},{"head":"Product Development","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"The general acceptability of millet-based foods was seen as an opportunity to promote more nutritious snacks to urban populations at the same time as enhancing incomes and driving empowerment among millet farmers, thus adding to the role of millets in rural families. However, linking producers to markets is a greater challenge than both increasing yield and adding value to minor millets. Chains linking production to consumption are both fragile and dynamic. They are fragile because they are made up of many co-dependent stakeholders and many of these stakeholders-women and men-have limited time to spare from their farming and domestic work for building consortia. In India, SHGs (self-help groups) are key links in value chains but no SHG can span the entire consumption pathway. For that reason in our holistic value chain approach we needed to devote special attention to promoting networking and collaboration among partners with complementary skills, and nowhere was this more necessary than in the development and marketing of millet-based products."},{"index":2,"size":283,"text":"Food technologists of the Home Science Departments of UAS Bangaluru and UAS Dharwad developed a range of novel products including savory and sweet snacks, noodles and other forms of pasta, muffins, and cookies. Other products included a malt drink made from malted finger millet that was developed at Kolli Hills, which became very popular in neighboring towns. Marketing of millet-based products was also boosted by working with participants to create more attractive packaging and labeling and developing recognizable branding for the communities producing the products. The \"Kolli Hills\" brand of nutritious millet products was successfully launched by the MSSRF and a trademark was filed at the India Patent Office. These efforts paid off for the communities. Cost-benefit analyses showed returns varying from 130% to 215%, depending on the product and the location. Incomes of community members increased as a result. For example, three SHGs in Kolli Hills earned about 2200 USD in 2008 from the sale of millet-based products and one participating SHG in Jekinkatti, Karnataka, won a contract to supply millet for the school feeding program. Apart from contributing to enhanced income, making value-added millet-based products also generated additional employment, particularly for women, to the tune of 140-300 person days for every ton of grain processed [37]. At the intersection of school feeding programs and commercial products, a small survey by students of Rural Home Science at UAS Bangaluru revealed that more than 50 different kinds of product are on sale near schools-urban and rural-at a cost of one rupee a piece. This potential encouraged SHGs to develop more than 30 millet-based items aimed specifically at this market, including different types of fried snacks known as frioms (kachri), cookies, breads, and drinks."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"The Federation facilitated the establishment of hullers and pulverizers suiting different types of millets, to cater to as many households as possible. The intervention has meant a lot, especially to women, who are now able to carry out processing with less fatigue and significant saving of time, which is now used for other activities. The Federation contributed to develop and strengthen the skills of women SHG members in value chain activities through hands-on training courses focusing particularly on enhanced processing methods."},{"index":4,"size":125,"text":"All the efforts to promote value-added procedures in the communities have been supported by efforts to ensure that they are sustainable beyond the life of the project. For example, the manufacturer of the mills used by the communities was invited to provide basic training on mill maintenance and safety measures. In Kolli Hills, Tamil Nadu, SHGs for women and for men came together as the Kolli Hill Agrobiodiversity Conservers' Federation, with the support of the project. The Federation is now producing 11 value-added millet-based products and marketing them across Tamil Nadu state under the name of Kolli Hill Natural Foods. During 2013-2014, 7.8 tons of millet value-added products were sold by the Federation, earning an overall gross income of almost Rs. 615,000 (approx. 10,000 USD)."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"One consequence of the increase in production and marketing of value-added minor millet products is that as a small-scale industry it requires government approval for the operation of the production units. Project teams worked with rural communities to obtain the necessary certificates from the Department of Small Scale Industries, Tamil Nadu."}]},{"head":"Tourism","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":189,"text":"During focus group discussions and stakeholder meetings held by the project, tourism was identified as another interesting option worth exploring for adding value and creating incentives for millet growers. Spiritual tourism was seen as an opportunity to promote minor millet products both as part of the prasadam, or sacred offerings, at Hindu temples and in their own right to tourists and pilgrims as nutritious products. These efforts were focused around Ranichauri, Uttarakhand, where the government launched an initiative to introduce minor millets (and amaranth) for prasadam. Project partners targeted shop keepers to raise their awareness of products made by local SHGs and the economic benefits to local farming families, and this proved effective in increasing the sales of offerings made of minor millets. The temples that were the focus of these efforts have spiritually important periods each year (such as Ram Navami day at Surkunda Devi temple and Vijaya Dashami day at Rajrajeswari temple) when the flow of pilgrims to the temples is much greater, offering scope to market millet-based products and promote the nutritional benefits of those products. This is an approach that could be extended beyond Ranichauri."}]},{"head":"Policies","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":288,"text":"A central pillar in our holistic approach is represented by policies essential in supporting scaling up of best practices and pursuing wider impact beyond project's target sites. No matter how much rural farmers and their communities may come to value minor millets, these crops will not receive official support without changes in the policy environment; one of the greatest challenges is to convince decision makers that minor millets deserve a place in mainstream agricultural, nutritional, and food policies. Some of the changes required could be simple. Mills, for example, need a reliable supply of electricity at a price rural communities can afford, which may mean rebalancing subsidies on different forms of energy and fuel. Other changes, such as making millets an accepted component of school feeding programs, may need more complex, coordinated changes among many actors. Beyond school-feeding programs, there is also a role for millets in national and local government public distribution systems to support vulnerable groups of people. As a result of dialogues with senior policy makers at meetings and workshops in which the project actively contributed through the MSSRF, the Indian Government has now included millets in the public distribution system in places where these crops are produced and there is a traditional preference for them. The Food Security Act 2013 entitles priority households to 5 kg food grain per person per month and eligible households to 35 kg per household per month [38]. Between them, these categories of household cover up to 75% of the rural population and up to 50% of the urban population who could benefit from the provision of minor millets. We believe that the Indian government's Food Security Act represents a robust example that can be replicated in other countries."},{"index":2,"size":199,"text":"A second set of policy issues concerns the ways in which formal private and public sector agricultural entities consider millets. As an example, the formal seed supply sector is non-existent for minor millets, which is why one project focus was on strengthening the ability of communities to produce and distribute high-quality seeds. The scarce interest in millets (and in general in NUS) in the private sector is of high concern for the future of a well-fed planet. We argue that greater investment in nutritious local crops would help strengthen agricultural production and adaptation to unforeseen climate changes, and at the same time reinforce food and nutrition security in periods of socioeconomic uncertainty and shocks (such as those recorded in 2008). We also believe that greater awareness of consumers about diet diversity for healthier lives is a powerful element that private companies could leverage in including NUS in their market strategies, from seed production to the whole agri-food chain and strategies for distribution of millet based products to all segments of the population. Cultural relevance, new flavors, and innovation in food preparations are among the other interesting factors that would support a \"pro-NUS\" diversity-rich strategy of the private sector [6]."},{"index":3,"size":171,"text":"It would be helpful if the government and other parties concerned increased investment to develop superior varieties of minor millets and appropriate processing technologies, along with enabling policies to support their dissemination and adoption by consumers. At present, the government allocates considerable funds to support research programs on the major cereals such as rice and wheat. Diverting some of the allocated fund to millets would have additional spin-off benefits, such as contributing to the more resilient production systems that will be needed to cope with predicted changes to the climate, as well as possibly mitigating the impact on climate change of existing production systems. Farmers would respond to a government support price by increasing their plantings of millets. More resilient local production systems can also help to buffer poor people and governments against external shocks such as the commodity price spikes of 2008 [29]. Government support is also needed in order to transition away from the donor-supported efforts reported here in order to move towards greater impact beyond project pilot areas."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"The effects of minor millets on incomes and, especially, the empowerment of women cannot be overestimated. The vast majority of India's population is so poor that they cannot afford even the least expensive balanced diets [39]. Most smallholder farmers, in India as elsewhere, are net food buyers, which means that increasing their disposable income is a crucial path to better nutrition. The lessons learned through this multidisciplinary research effort amply demonstrate that currently marginalized crops, such as minor millets, can in fact contribute to the nutrition security of rural and urban poor people in India, while at the same promoting economic development and the empowerment of women and other vulnerable groups. The case of minor millets presented here is in fact just an emblematic case. India and many other countries are endowed with hundreds of nutritious crops whose research and development is still poorly addressed. Enhancing the use of these neglected crops is thus a powerful way to contribute to nutrition security and at the same time increase the development of vulnerable people."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Millet holistic value chain approach. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Opening ceremony for the value addition cum conservation units in one of the project sites of Kolli Hills in 2012 (S. Padulosi of Bioversity International and Rima Alcadi of IFAD taking part in the inauguration of the facilities). "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Project target areas (marked by red circles) across the four Indian states of Karnataka, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and Uttarakhand. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Cont. Relevant value chain portion of application Methods and tools deployed/developed Stakeholders involved Key achievements Relevant value chain portion of applicationMethods and tools deployed/developedStakeholders involvedKey achievements • Conservation ex situ and in situ (on farm), via creation/strengthening of SHGs and farmers' clubs MSSRF, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associations, custodian farmers, community gene banks Conservation of crop diversity as key asset for building resilient livelihood systems • Conservation ex situ and in situ (on farm), via creation/strengthening of SHGs and farmers' clubsMSSRF, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associations, custodian farmers, community gene banksConservation of crop diversity as key asset for building resilient livelihood systems • Organize seed/food fairs for exchange of seeds and knowledge among users (via engaging SHGs and local authorities) Communities, local leaders, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associations, value chain actors Exchange of seeds and IK among users which also helps safeguard a community's identity and food culture associated to nutritious millets • Organize seed/food fairs for exchange of seeds and knowledge among users (via engaging SHGs and local authorities)Communities, local leaders, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associations, value chain actorsExchange of seeds and IK among users which also helps safeguard a community's identity and food culture associated to nutritious millets Strengthening skills of user groups-esp. women and Strengthening skills of user groups-esp. women and vulnerable groups-in conservation practices and use vulnerable groups-in conservation practices and use MSSRF, Universities of Bangalore, enhancement of millets; training in the area of: seed collection, MSSRF, Universities of Bangalore,enhancement of millets; training in the area of: seed collection, Dharwad, and Uttarankad, PVS, quality seed production, seed bank management, Dharwad, and Uttarankad,PVS, quality seed production, seed bank management, • Train trainers on new methods and communities, SHGs, agronomic techniques, using farm tools to minimize drudgery, • Train trainers on new methods andcommunities, SHGs,agronomic techniques, using farm tools to minimize drudgery, tools in target communities farmers' clubs, use of processing equipment, value addition methods, and tools in target communitiesfarmers' clubs,use of processing equipment, value addition methods, and women's associations, product development and marketing.During 2008 alone, women's associations,product development and marketing.During 2008 alone, value chain actors 75 training days were organized and 1399 trainees including value chain actors75 training days were organized and 1399 trainees including 824 women were trained. Similar training programs were 824 women were trained. Similar training programs were conducted every year under this project at all locations. conducted every year under this project at all locations. MSSRF, Universities of Bangalore, MSSRF, Universities of Bangalore, Selection and cultivation • Participatory Variety Selection (PVS) Dharwad, and Uttarankad, communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associations, Selection of varieties (HYV or landraces) showing best yields and best traits (in terms of cultivation, processing, and food preparation) Selection and cultivation• Participatory Variety Selection (PVS)Dharwad, and Uttarankad, communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associations,Selection of varieties (HYV or landraces) showing best yields and best traits (in terms of cultivation, processing, and food preparation) value chain actors value chain actors "},{"text":"Table 1 . Cont. Relevant value chain portion of application Methods and tools deployed/developed Stakeholders involved Key achievements Relevant value chain portion of applicationMethods and tools deployed/developedStakeholders involvedKey achievements Availability of high-quality seed of selected varieties to Availability of high-quality seed of selected varieties to farmers; high-quality seed of the varieties selected through farmers; high-quality seed of the varieties selected through PVS was produced and distributed to farmers in 2007 (291 kg) PVS was produced and distributed to farmers in 2007 (291 kg) and 2008 (2.8 tons). In 2009, more than 10 tons of and 2008 (2.8 tons). In 2009, more than 10 tons of • Production of high quality seed of selected varieties MSSRF, communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associations high-quality seed of improved varieties of fiv minor millet species across all the project locations were produced and transferred to respective village seed banks to support the use • Production of high quality seed of selected varietiesMSSRF, communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associationshigh-quality seed of improved varieties of fiv minor millet species across all the project locations were produced and transferred to respective village seed banks to support the use of target species in the local communities. Among the selected of target species in the local communities. Among the selected ones 60 metric tons of quality seeds produced in the year 2003 ones 60 metric tons of quality seeds produced in the year 2003 and 2004. Among the varieties distributed: Sukshema and 2004. Among the varieties distributed: Sukshema (32 tons), HMT 100-1 (110 tons), and GPU 28 (eight tons). (32 tons), HMT 100-1 (110 tons), and GPU 28 (eight tons). 1. Enhancement of 1. Enhancement of agronomicpractices (e.g., change MSSRF, Universities of Bangalore, agronomicpractices (e.g., changeMSSRF, Universities of Bangalore, of crop distances in planting, crop rotation, introduction of Dharwad, and Uttarankad, communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, Reduction of drudgery in cultivation of millets of crop distances in planting, crop rotation, introduction ofDharwad, and Uttarankad, communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs,Reduction of drudgery in cultivation of millets mechanical weeding, crop women's associations mechanical weeding, cropwomen's associations rotation, vermicompost) rotation, vermicompost) Enhanced skills of farmers in cultivating millets. Enhanced skills of farmers in cultivating millets. Skills in using machinery, product development, andmarketing Skills in using machinery, product development, andmarketing 2. Train trainers on new methods and tools in target communities MSSRF, communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associations are the new dimensions in the lastdecade. Across sites, several families are involved in value addition and marketing of millets,with new opportunities emerging in the hills and 2. Train trainers on new methods and tools in target communitiesMSSRF, communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associationsare the new dimensions in the lastdecade. Across sites, several families are involved in value addition and marketing of millets,with new opportunities emerging in the hills and plains. New products reach the markets. Private initiatives are plains. New products reach the markets. Private initiatives are booming. booming. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Cont. Relevant Relevant "},{"text":"value chain portion of application Methods and tools deployed/developed Stakeholders involved Key achievements Reduced drudgery and grain loss in post-harvest operations. Reduced drudgery and grain loss in post-harvest operations. Finger millet crop matures in about 95-125 days depending on Finger millet crop matures in about 95-125 days depending on the variety used, the crop season, and the method of the variety used, the crop season, and the method of cultivation. Traditional harvesting method: At maturity, the cultivation. Traditional harvesting method: At maturity, the stem turns a straw color and the ears turn a brownish color. stem turns a straw color and the ears turn a brownish color. Harvest 3. Improvement of harvest improvement methods MSSRF, communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associations Plants are cut to ground level using sickles, left in the field for drying for 3-5 days, tied in bundles, and either stacked in the field itself or transported to the threshing yard and stacked Harvest3. Improvement of harvest improvement methodsMSSRF, communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associationsPlants are cut to ground level using sickles, left in the field for drying for 3-5 days, tied in bundles, and either stacked in the field itself or transported to the threshing yard and stacked there. Alternative harvesting method: cut and remove only the there. Alternative harvesting method: cut and remove only the ears from the plants, dry them thoroughly and thresh by ears from the plants, dry them thoroughly and thresh by beating with sticks or tread using a tractor or stone roller. No beating with sticks or tread using a tractor or stone roller. No effective machineryis available for harvesting and threshing effective machineryis available for harvesting and threshing operations. operations. Value addition 4. De-huller machine (specify target species and level of efficacy); species and level of efficacy) Pulverizer machine(specify target MSSRF, Universities of Bangalore and farmers' clubs, women's associations Dharwad,communities, SHGs, Reduced /elimination of drudgery in processing millets Value addition4. De-huller machine (specify target species and level of efficacy); species and level of efficacy) Pulverizer machine(specify targetMSSRF, Universities of Bangalore and farmers' clubs, women's associations Dharwad,communities, SHGs,Reduced /elimination of drudgery in processing millets Easier food preparation that eliminates drudgery and produces Easier food preparation that eliminates drudgery and produces 5. Development of enhanced food preparations and novel food recipes MSSRF, Universities of Bangalore and Dharwad,communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associations, schools, and hospitals food items more attractive to younger generations and modern lifestyles. Value-added products include: Finger Millet Malt (Ragi Malt), Thinai Payasa Mix, Samai Bajji Mix,Samai Uppuma Mix, Samai Rava Dosa, Mix Little Millet rice, Italian Millet rice, Finger Millet Flour Buns, muffins, cakes, 5. Development of enhanced food preparations and novel food recipesMSSRF, Universities of Bangalore and Dharwad,communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associations, schools, and hospitalsfood items more attractive to younger generations and modern lifestyles. Value-added products include: Finger Millet Malt (Ragi Malt), Thinai Payasa Mix, Samai Bajji Mix,Samai Uppuma Mix, Samai Rava Dosa, Mix Little Millet rice, Italian Millet rice, Finger Millet Flour Buns, muffins, cakes, biscuits,popping recipes, \"diabetic mix\" biscuits,popping recipes, \"diabetic mix\" "},{"text":"Table 1 . Cont. Relevant value chain portion of application Methods and tools deployed/developed Stakeholders involved Key achievements Relevant value chain portion of applicationMethods and tools deployed/developedStakeholders involvedKey achievements 6. Creation of SHGs to manage community-based processing centers MSSRF, communities, farmers' clubs, women's associations Enhanced capacity of communities in processing and using millets for domestic or market uses 6. Creation of SHGs to manage community-based processing centersMSSRF, communities, farmers' clubs, women's associationsEnhanced capacity of communities in processing and using millets for domestic or market uses Marketing 7. Strengthening of cooperatives for marketing products via creation/strengthening of SHGs MSSRF, communities, farmers' clubs, women's associations Enhanced capacity of communities in marketing millets,market orientation, exposure visits to different streams of markets,provision of market information through information and communication Marketing7. Strengthening of cooperatives for marketing products via creation/strengthening of SHGsMSSRF, communities, farmers' clubs, women's associationsEnhanced capacity of communities in marketing millets,market orientation, exposure visits to different streams of markets,provision of market information through information and communication 8. Train trainers/SHGs on new methods,tools and practices in target communities (incl. packaging, branding and ways to obtain Government's required certificates for marketing) MSSRF, communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associations Enhanced skills of SHGs in marketing tools and entrepreneurship for millets. Kolli Hills Natural Foods Brand; SHGs received legal certificates, Small Scale Industries certificates, Quality Control Certificates, Food Safety Standards authority of India certificates. 8. Train trainers/SHGs on new methods,tools and practices in target communities (incl. packaging, branding and ways to obtain Government's required certificates for marketing)MSSRF, communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associationsEnhanced skills of SHGs in marketing tools and entrepreneurship for millets. Kolli Hills Natural Foods Brand; SHGs received legal certificates, Small Scale Industries certificates, Quality Control Certificates, Food Safety Standards authority of India certificates. 9. Building platforms and linkages among actors of value chains (incl. with restaurants) MSSRF, communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associations. 9. Building platforms and linkages among actors of value chains (incl. with restaurants)MSSRF, communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associations. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Cont. Relevant value chain portion of application Methods and tools deployed/developed Stakeholders involved Key achievements Relevant value chain portion of applicationMethods and tools deployed/developedStakeholders involvedKey achievements Popularization of drudgery-free and more attractive food Popularization of drudgery-free and more attractive food Final use 10. Collection of traditional food recipes and dissemination of recipe books MSSRF, communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associations preparations for nutritious millets; contribution in safeguarding food culture and identity. Recorded traditional recipes, documented as monograph. Some of the recipes Final use10. Collection of traditional food recipes and dissemination of recipe booksMSSRF, communities, SHGs, farmers' clubs, women's associationspreparations for nutritious millets; contribution in safeguarding food culture and identity. Recorded traditional recipes, documented as monograph. Some of the recipes promoted as marketable products. promoted as marketable products. 11. Food festivals, public 11. Food festivals, public campaigns,involving school campaigns,involving school "},{"text":"Table 2 . Local varieties of minor millets conserved by farmers in Kolli Hills, Tamil Nadu. Species No. of Varieties Local Names SpeciesNo. of VarietiesLocal Names Little millet 8 Vellaperumsamai, Malliasamai, Sadansamai, Kattavettisamai, Karunsamai, Thirikulasamai, Perunsamai, Kottapattisamai Little millet8Vellaperumsamai, Malliasamai, Sadansamai, Kattavettisamai, Karunsamai, Thirikulasamai, Perunsamai, Kottapattisamai Italian millet 7 Perunthinai, Sentinai, Palanthinai, Killanthinai, Koranthinai, Karunthinai, Mosakkanthinai Italian millet7Perunthinai, Sentinai, Palanthinai, Killanthinai, Koranthinai, Karunthinai, Mosakkanthinai Finger millet 6 Karakelvaragu, Arisikelvaragu, Krunmulian, Kelvaragu, Sattaikelvaragu, Perunkelvaragu, Sundangi Kelvaragu Finger millet6Karakelvaragu, Arisikelvaragu, Krunmulian, Kelvaragu, Sattaikelvaragu, Perunkelvaragu, Sundangi Kelvaragu Kodo millet 1 Thirivaragu Kodo millet1Thirivaragu "},{"text":"Table 3 . Varieties of little millet conserved by farmers in Kundura, Odisha and their main features. Variety Name Main Features Variety NameMain Features Baunsha Ganthi Mandia Short duration variety Baunsha Ganthi MandiaShort duration variety Sana Mandia Short duration variety (Sana means short) Sana MandiaShort duration variety (Sana means short) Dashera Mandia Medium duration variety, which matures duringthe Dashera festival in September-October Dashera MandiaMedium duration variety, which matures duringthe Dashera festival in September-October Janha Mandia Variety preferred to intercrop with maize (Janha means maize) Janha MandiaVariety preferred to intercrop with maize (Janha means maize) Biri Mandia Variety preferred for intercrop with black gram (Biri means black gram) Biri MandiaVariety preferred for intercrop with black gram (Biri means black gram) Bada Mandia Long duration variety (Bada means long) Bada MandiaLong duration variety (Bada means long) Athangula Mandia Variety with head having eight fingers Athangula MandiaVariety with head having eight fingers Dashera Suva Another variety that matures during the Dashera festival in September-October Dashera SuvaAnother variety that matures during the Dashera festival in September-October Dashera Kala Suva Black colored version of Dashera suva Dashera Kala SuvaBlack colored version of Dashera suva "},{"text":"Table 4 . Millet seed transactions through the gene banks established by the project Kolli Hills during the period 2000-2001 to 2013-2014. Millet * 2000-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006 2006-2007 2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 Millet *2000-20012001-20022002-20032003-20042004-20052005-20062006-20072007-20082008-20092009-20102010-20112011-20122012-20132013-2014 Little Millet 900 1389 453 508 510 95 7.5 16.5 56.5 306 298 176 197 432 Little Millet9001389453508510957.516.556.5306298176197432 Italian Millet 1089 987 357 435 279 18 55 150 63 81 353 Italian Millet 108998735743527918551506381353 Finger Millet 227 240 172 112.8 519 232 246 270 562 Finger Millet227240172112.8519232246270562 Kodo Millet 24 43 5 20 10 5 10 15 Kodo Millet24435201051015 Proso Millet 27 5 11 10 7 15 35 Proso Millet275111071535 "},{"text":"Table 5 . Village Millet Resource Centers (VMRC) in the Kolli Hills, with indication of their location, gender in management, and millet crop and varieties conserved. Name of the VMRC, Settlement Panchayat Name Nearest Settlements Served by VMRC Managing SHGs/FCs Gender Name of the VMRC, SettlementPanchayat NameNearest Settlements Served by VMRCManaging SHGs/FCsGender "},{"text":"Species and Varieties of Millets Maintained inEach VMRC Little Millet Italian Millet Finger Millet Kodo Millet Proso Millet Chinnamangalam VMRC Alathur Nadu 1. Chinnamangalam 2. periyamangalam 3. Alaripatty Ilamsittu Angal suya uthavi kulu M Kattavettisamai, Perumsamai, Karumsmai Mookanthinai Perungelvaragu, Karumuliankelvaragu Nil Nil Alathur Nadu1. Chinnamangalam 2. periyamangalam 3. AlaripattyIlamsittu Angal suya uthavi kuluMKattavettisamai, Perumsamai, KarumsmaiMookanthinaiPerungelvaragu, KarumuliankelvaraguNilNil Alathur orpuram VMRC Alathur Nadu 1. Mulakkadu 2. Orpuram Orpuram womens Farmers club F Perumsamai, Kattavettisamai Mookkanthinai Sundangikelvaragu, Karakelvaragu Nil Panivaragu Alathur orpuram VMRCAlathur Nadu1. Mulakkadu 2. OrpuramOrpuram womens Farmers clubFPerumsamai, KattavettisamaiMookkanthinaiSundangikelvaragu, KarakelvaraguNilPanivaragu 1. Navakkadu 1. Navakkadu Navakkadu VMRC Bail Nadu 2. Paraivalavu 3. Thotathuvalavu 4. Panankanni Maadhammal sangam F Nil Nil Suruttaikelvaragu, Perungelvaragu Nil Nil Navakkadu VMRCBail Nadu2. Paraivalavu 3. Thotathuvalavu 4. PanankanniMaadhammal sangamFNilNilSuruttaikelvaragu, PerungelvaraguNilNil 5. Amnchikkadu 5. Amnchikkadu Karamankadu VMRC BailNadu 1. Nochikadu 2. Kalathuivalavu 3. Karamankadu 4. Pongampatty Kolli malai suttru sulal padhugappor sangam M Sadansamai, Malliasamai Peruthinai, Palanthinai Karakelvaragu Nil Nil Karamankadu VMRCBailNadu1. Nochikadu 2. Kalathuivalavu 3. Karamankadu 4. PongampattyKolli malai suttru sulal padhugappor sangamMSadansamai, MalliasamaiPeruthinai, PalanthinaiKarakelvaraguNilNil "},{"text":"Table 5 . Cont. Name of the VMRC, Settlement Panchayat Name Nearest Settlements Served by VMRC SHGs/FCs Gender Little Millet Species and Varieties of Millets Maintained in Each VMRC Italian Finger Kodo Millet Millet Millet Proso Millet Name of the VMRC, SettlementPanchayat NameNearest Settlements Served by VMRCSHGs/FCsGenderLittle MilletSpecies and Varieties of Millets Maintained in Each VMRC Italian Finger Kodo Millet Millet MilletProso Millet Sulavanthipatty VMRC Devannur nadu 1. Sulavanthi patty 2. Katakkadu Pidariyamman suya uthavi kulu F Vellaperumsamai Palanthinai, Perunthinai Arisikelvaragu, Sattaikelvaragu Nil Nil Sulavanthipatty VMRCDevannur nadu1. Sulavanthi patty 2. KatakkaduPidariyamman suya uthavi kuluFVellaperumsamaiPalanthinai, PerunthinaiArisikelvaragu, SattaikelvaraguNilNil Aripalapatty Devannur nadu 1. Aripalapatty 2. Aripalacolony Kaaliyamman sutrusoolal pathugappor sangam F Vellaperumsamai Perunthinai, Palanthinai Perungelvaragu, Suruttaikelvaragu Sattaikelvaragu, Thirivaragu Nil AripalapattyDevannur nadu1. Aripalapatty 2. AripalacolonyKaaliyamman sutrusoolal pathugappor sangamFVellaperumsamaiPerunthinai, PalanthinaiPerungelvaragu, Suruttaikelvaragu Sattaikelvaragu,ThirivaraguNil 1. Oormudipatty Adukkampatti 1. OormudipattyAdukkampatti Adukkam VMRC Sellur Nadu 2. Adukkampatty 3. kulipatty girama munnetra F Malliasamai Palanthinai, Perunthinai Perungelvaragu, Karakelvaragu Nil Nil Adukkam VMRCSellur Nadu2. Adukkampatty 3. kulipattygirama munnetraFMalliasamaiPalanthinai, PerunthinaiPerungelvaragu, KarakelvaraguNilNil 4. Veeraganur patty sangam 4. Veeraganur pattysangam 1. Vendalapadi 1. Vendalapadi Vendalapadi VMRC Sellur Nadu 2. Pinnam 3. Velarikadu Sri ranganathar suya uthavi kulu F Vellaperumsamai Perunthinai, Palanthinai Perungelvaragu, Karakelvaragu Nil Nil Vendalapadi VMRCSellur Nadu2. Pinnam 3. VelarikaduSri ranganathar suya uthavi kuluFVellaperumsamaiPerunthinai, PalanthinaiPerungelvaragu, KarakelvaraguNilNil 4. Kadamangalam 4. Kadamangalam Thuvarappallam VMRC Thiruppuli Nadu 1. Thuvarappallam, 2. Puthuppalayam, 3. Thenur colony Mazhaichaaral munnetra sangam F Vellaperumsamai, Thirigulasamai Perunthinai, Senthinai, Koranthinai Perungelvaragu, Sundangikelvaragu Thirivaragu Panivaragu Thuvarappallam VMRCThiruppuli Nadu1. Thuvarappallam, 2. Puthuppalayam, 3. Thenur colonyMazhaichaaral munnetra sangamFVellaperumsamai, ThirigulasamaiPerunthinai, Senthinai, KoranthinaiPerungelvaragu, SundangikelvaraguThirivaragu Panivaragu Puliyampatty VMRC Thirupuli Nadu 1. Puliyampatty 2. Perunkerai Puliyampatti Magalir Suyauthavikulu F Thirigulasamai, Vellaperumsamai Koranthinai, Perunthinai Sundangikelvaragi Nil Nil Puliyampatty VMRCThirupuli Nadu1. Puliyampatty 2. PerunkeraiPuliyampatti Magalir SuyauthavikuluFThirigulasamai, VellaperumsamaiKoranthinai, PerunthinaiSundangikelvaragiNilNil "},{"text":"Table 5 . Cont. Name of the VMRC, Settlement Panchayat Name Nearest Settlements Served by VMRC Managing SHGs/FCs Gender Little Millet Species and Varieties of Millets Maintained in Each VMRC Italian Finger Kodo Millet Millet Millet Proso Millet Name of the VMRC, SettlementPanchayat NameNearest Settlements Served by VMRCManaging SHGs/FCsGenderLittle MilletSpecies and Varieties of Millets Maintained in Each VMRC Italian Finger Kodo Millet Millet MilletProso Millet Padasolai VMRC Thirupuli Nadu 1. padasolai 2. Kalari 3. puthuvalavu Iyyanar porulathara munnetra sangam M Sadansamai, Vellaperumsamai Senthinai, Perunthinai Sundangikelvaragu, Perungelvaragu Nil Nil Padasolai VMRCThirupuli Nadu1. padasolai 2. Kalari 3. puthuvalavuIyyanar porulathara munnetra sangamMSadansamai, VellaperumsamaiSenthinai, PerunthinaiSundangikelvaragu, PerungelvaraguNilNil Semputhuvalavu VMRC Thirupuli Nadu 1. Semputhu 2. Naduvalavu 3. Melvalavu Kannimar Magalir Suyavudhavi kuzhu F Vellaperumsamai Senthinai, Perunthinai Perungelavaragu Nil Nil Semputhuvalavu VMRCThirupuli Nadu1. Semputhu 2. Naduvalavu 3. MelvalavuKannimar Magalir Suyavudhavi kuzhuFVellaperumsamaiSenthinai, PerunthinaiPerungelavaraguNilNil Periyakovilur VMRC Valapur Nadu 1. Periyakovilur 2. Chinnakovilur 3. Assakkadu Thayammal iyarkkai vali padhugapporsangam M Vellaperumsamai 1.sattaikelvaragu, Vellaperumsamai 1.sattaikelvaragu, Vellaperumsamai 1.sattaikelvaragu, Vellaperumsamai 1.sattaikelvaragu, Vellaperumsamai Periyakovilur VMRCValapur Nadu1. Periyakovilur 2. Chinnakovilur 3. AssakkaduThayammal iyarkkai vali padhugapporsangamMVellaperumsamai1.sattaikelvaragu, Vellaperumsamai1.sattaikelvaragu, Vellaperumsamai1.sattaikelvaragu, Vellaperumsamai1.sattaikelvaragu, Vellaperumsamai Kuchikeraipatty VMRC Valavanthinadu 1. Kuchikeraipatty 2. Solakkadu Nanbargal Suyaudhavi kuzhu M All varieties All varieties All varieties All varieties All varieties Kuchikeraipatty VMRCValavanthinadu1. Kuchikeraipatty 2. SolakkaduNanbargal Suyaudhavi kuzhuMAll varietiesAll varietiesAll varietiesAll varietiesAll varieties Thiruppuli VMRC Thiruppuli Naddu 1. Thiruppuli 2. Pannanthurai Thiruppuli Uzhavar Mandram M Thirigulasamai, Vellaperumsamai Senthinai, Palanthinai, Perunthinai Sundangikelvaragu, Perungelvaragu Nil Nil Thiruppuli VMRCThiruppuli Naddu1. Thiruppuli 2. PannanthuraiThiruppuli Uzhavar MandramMThirigulasamai, VellaperumsamaiSenthinai, Palanthinai, PerunthinaiSundangikelvaragu, PerungelvaraguNilNil "},{"text":"Table 6 . Varieties chosen through the Project's PVS activities carried out in Jeypore and Kolli Hills and key agronomic criteria used in the process. Jeypore Site Kolli Hills Site Jeypore SiteKolli Hills Site Rank Variety Selected Days to Grain Yield Fodder Grain Variety Selected Days to Grain Yield Fodder Yield Grain Rank Variety SelectedDays toGrain YieldFodderGrainVariety SelectedDays toGrain YieldFodder YieldGrain Flower kg/ha Yield kg/ha Color * Flower kg/ha kg/ha Color * Flowerkg/haYield kg/haColor *Flowerkg/hakg/haColor * Italian millet Italian millet 1 Bada Kangu (Local) 88 1149 7472 Lt Y Senthinai (Local) 61 833 4668 R 1Bada Kangu (Local)8811497472Lt YSenthinai (Local)618334668R 2 ISE-809 53 932 6639 Lt Y ISE-38 61 775 4625 Y 2ISE-809539326639Lt YISE-38617754625Y 3 ISE-1269 53 1051 5694 Lt Y TNAU-173 61 907 4458 Y 3ISE-12695310515694Lt YTNAU-173619074458Y Little millet Little millet 1 OLM-203 99 1283 3037 Lt Y IMPR-393 55 695 3375 Lt gr 1OLM-2039912833037Lt YIMPR-393556953375Lt gr 2 Kalakosla (Local) 109 1144 3759 Br Kattavetti Samai (Local) 113 715 3400 D Gr 2Kalakosla (Local)10911443759BrKattavetti Samai (Local)1137153400D Gr 3 IMPR-393 71 950 2250 Br Sukshema 64 650 3293 Gr 3IMPR-393719502250BrSukshema646503293Gr Finger millet Finger millet 1 GPU 49 82 2632 6046 Lt Br IE-2863 87 1205 4875 Lt Br 1GPU 498226326046Lt BrIE-28638712054875Lt Br 2 Athangulia 90 2429 6139 R GPU-49 64 1225 4093 Lt Br 2Athangulia9024296139RGPU-496412254093Lt Br Mandia (Local) VHC3880 57 793 3743 Pl Br Mandia (Local)VHC3880577933743Pl Br 3 IE-3093 86 1727 4694 Lt R IE-3023 87 763 2968 Pl Wh 3IE-30938617274694Lt RIE-3023877632968Pl Wh "},{"text":"Table 7 . Participatory variety selection in Karnataka state (Kollar, Haveri, and Bellary districts). Five best-performing varieties compared with a common local variety. Species Variety Grain Yield (Quintal/ha *) Increase Over Local Variety (%) SpeciesVarietyGrain Yield (Quintal/ha *)Increase Over Local Variety (%) Little millet Sukshema 10.30 73.7 Little milletSukshema10.3073.7 TNAU 98 8.88 49.7 TNAU 988.8849.7 OLM 20 8.32 40.3 OLM 208.3240.3 PRC 7.58 27.8 PRC7.5827.8 Co 2 7.58 27.8 Co 27.5827.8 Local 5.93 Local5.93 Foxtail millet HMT 100-1 15.35 36.4 Foxtail milletHMT 100-115.3536.4 Krishnadevaraya 13.73 22.0 Krishnadevaraya13.7322.0 TNAU 173 13.50 20.0 TNAU 17313.5020.0 Narasimharaya 13.15 16.9 Narasimharaya13.1516.9 RS 118 12.46 10.7 RS 11812.4610.7 Local 11.25 Local11.25 Finger millet GPU 28 20.52 49.6 Finger milletGPU 2820.5249.6 L 5 1 9.90 45.0 L 5 19.9045.0 GPU 26 16.42 19.7 GPU 2616.4219.7 MR 1 15.22 10.9 MR 115.2210.9 Indaf 9 14.30 4.2 Indaf 914.304.2 Local 13.72 Local13.72 "}],"sieverID":"683e1d1f-6ab3-49d5-90b6-4eada5f68cf6","abstract":"Minor millets comprise a group of cereal species that are genetically diverse and adapted to a range of marginal growing conditions where major cereals such as wheat, rice, and maize are relatively unsuccessful. Millets require few inputs and withstand severe biotic and abiotic stresses. They are also more nutritious than major cereals. Despite these advantages, neglect in several arenas has resulted in a steady decline in the cultivation of minor millets in India over the past few decades. As part of a United Nations global project on underutilized species, we undertook action research intended to stem the decline in cultivation and enhance the conservation and use of minor millets in 753 households spread across 34 villages in four states of India. Our aim was to improve incomes, nutritional status, and empowerment, especially for women. Overall, our holistic approach to mainstreaming species such as finger millet, little millet, foxtail millet, and barnyard millet indicates that these neglected and underutilized species can play a strategic role in improving many dimensions of livelihoods."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"054065bb1cd0f1587811c1ef99fe8e98","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f310df3c-7090-47e4-bec4-f359830b24ea/retrieve"},"pageCount":86,"title":"Fungi depend on other organisms for their food. Three modes of living can be recognised: ? Saprophytes: such as Rice Straw Mushrooms, which degrade already dead material. ? Symbionts: living together with other organisms (especially trees) in a close, mutually beneficial relationship. ? Parasites: fungi that live at the expense of other organisms","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Foreword","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"The first Agrodok on 'Small-scale mushroom cultivation', Agrodok no. 40, describes the technique of mushroom cultivation on substrates that only need heat treatment. Certain mushroom species however, like the Rice Straw Mushroom (Volvariella spp.) and the Button Mushroom (Agaricus spp.) can only be cultivated on fermented substrate or compost. Rice Straw Mushrooms are cultivated in the warmer climates of the tropical regions, whereas the growing of the Button Mushrooms predominantly takes place in more moderate climates."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"The process of composting for mushroom cultivation is more complex than the preparation of temperature treated substrates. For that reason it seemed appropriate to publish a second Agrodok that meets the demand and covers the lack of information on this specific subject. It describes the complete process of composting of agricultural wastes as well as the cultivation of the appropriate species mentioned above. Moreover, it proves to be necessary to treat the process of obtaining good quality spawn and spawn production (propagation material) in detail in a separate chapter."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Special emphasis has been put on the minimum requirements for growing conditions, mushroom houses and equipment for both species in order to avoid problems and to be cost-effective."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"Additionally, attention has been given to harvesting and post harvest handling. A high demand for processed (mostly canned) mushrooms does exist in suburban and urbanised regions. Consequently the basics of mushroom processing have been covered in a separate chapter. Whereas knowledge on marketing in the field of small-scale mushroom cultivation is still rather poor, it also seemed appropriate to add a chapter on marketing in which the importance and possibilities of the local and regional market(s) are pointed out."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"September 2007, Bram van Nieuwenhuijzen and Janna de Feijter"}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Since time immemorial people have gone into fields and woods to pick edible mushrooms. Nowadays some species of edible mushrooms can also be cultivated as cash crops."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Certain species are rather easy to grow while others demand more specific cultivation methods and temperature. In general the life cycle of a crop is rather short (varying between some weeks and a few months) When the cropping cycle has been completed the spent mushroom substrate (SMS) can be used as a soil conditioner."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Mushrooms contain a lot of proteins and minerals, several B vitamins and are regarded as a healthy food or food supplement. Moreover, due to certain chemical compounds valued for their medicinal properties, mushrooms gain more and more interest from the health food industry."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"In this Agrodok information is given on the cultivation of Button Mushroom, which is consumed worldwide, and Rice Straw Mushroom, which is much valued in Asia. The specific cultivation methods of each of these mushroom species have been described in separate chapters."},{"index":5,"size":103,"text":"Before deciding to grow either one of the species mentioned above it is wise to verify the following points: ? Check the temperature range in section 2.3 to decide whether the climate conditions are appropriate for cultivation. ? Are you able to prepare the required compost? Which kinds of agricultural wastes (and in what amounts) are available for compost preparation? ? Can mushroom spawn be purchased? If not, are you then sufficiently equipped to produce your own spawn? (See chapter 4) ? Is there a demand for mushrooms in the vicinity and in the nearby markets? (See chapter 9) 2 Biology of mushrooms"}]},{"head":"Fungi","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Mushrooms (Fungi) are very different from plants. Plants can use energy from the sun directly through chlorophyll. Fungi lack this ability; they depend on other organisms for food. They absorb nutrients from the organic material in which they live. The living body of the fungus is not the fruiting body above ground, but it is the mycelium that is found under ground or inside plants or wood."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"The mycelium consists of a web of miniscule threads, which are called hyphae. When these hyphae are sexually compatible, the hyphae will fuse and start to form spores under specific conditions regarding temperature and moisture. The larger spore-producing structures (bigger than about 1 mm) are called mushrooms."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"For mushroom growers, the most practical approach to the subject of taxonomy is to rely on taxonomists. It is best to order strains from renowned spawn producers or culture collections."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"The mode of living has nothing to do with edibility: both edible and poisonous mushrooms can be found in all three groups. This Agrodok only deals with saprophytes."}]},{"head":"Saprophytes","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Saprophytic fungi need organic matter to decompose. In nature they will grow on fallen leaves, animal droppings, or stumps of dead wood. Some are specialised in breaking down the hairs of animals, while others may decompose birds' feathers. Saprophytes break down complex organic structures of plants and animals in order to feed on them."}]},{"head":"Life cycle of fungi","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Fungi multiply by producing spores or through mycelial growth."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"When a spore settles in a suitable environment, it can germinate and branch to form a mycelium. When two sexually compatible mycelia meet, they may fuse to form a secondary mycelium, which is capable of forming fruiting bodies."}]},{"head":"Mycelial growth and spawn","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"In edible mushroom cultivation no use is made of spores. Their genetic characteristics may differ from those of their parents. Moreover, it takes some time for mushroom spores to germinate, whereas other fungi such as green moulds germinate and spread much faster."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"The mushrooms we want to grow as a cash crop must be able to colonise the substrate before other fungi or bacteria do so. To achieve this, pre-grown mycelium (free of any contaminants) of the desired mushroom species is inoculated on a sterile substrate. This material is referred to as spawn. Using spawn will give the cultivated mushroom an advantage in growth over other fungi that have to grow from germinating spores."}]},{"head":"Spawn run","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The mycelium will colonise the compost and use the available nutrients. This is commonly referred to as spawn run. When some nutrients run out, or when the weather changes, the mycelium will reach a different phase: the reproductive stage. A temperature of about 25° C is optimal for the spawn run of most species. The environment can also enhance the growth of the desired mycelium: a high CO 2 concentration is favourable for mycelial growth (but not for cropping)."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"After having colonised the substrate, the mycelium is capable of producing fruiting bodies. The number and quality of the fruiting bodies will depend on the environment. Key factors to induce fruiting bodies are: ? changing temperature ? high humidity ? deficiency of a nutrient ? CO 2 concentration in the air ? light ? physical shock"},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"These factors differ from mushroom to mushroom. Most of the changes that stimulate fruiting have a negative effect on the vegetative growth of the mycelium. Changes should therefore only be made when the mycelium has completely grown through the substrate. It is actually the less favourable condition for vegetative growth that will stimulate the mycelium to fruit."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"Small primordia (initial fruiting bodies) will be formed at the beginning of the reproductive phase. Under the right conditions, these primordia will develop into fruiting bodies. Nutrients are transported from the mycelium to the fruiting bodies by a steady moisture flow."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"Water has to evaporate on the surface of the mushrooms in order to allow the flow to continue. This explains why spraying too much water on maturing mushrooms or a too high relative humidity of the air can spoil the crop."}]},{"head":"Temperature ranges of cultivated mushrooms","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Choose a species that fruits at temperatures near to your outdoor temperatures. This limits investments in climate control and reduces energy costs. As the table shows there are actually few species suited to really tropical conditions. Some mushrooms currently cultivated at temperatures around or just below 30 °C. are: Volvariella volvacea, and Agaricus bitorquis but most species prefer lower temperatures. The range at which the mycelium stays viable; the growth speed declines at both high and low ends of this range."}]},{"head":"T optimal mg :","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The optimal temperature range for spawn run. T fruiting :"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Temperature range required for fruiting."}]},{"head":"Substrate preparation techniques:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"1 fermented and pasteurised substrate 2 pasteurised substrate 3 Mushroom farms Selecting a site When selecting a site to build a mushroom farm one has to keep in mind that following points are essential: ? availability of good quality substrate ? availability of clean water ? availability of labour ? adequate transport of the product to the market."}]},{"head":"Farm layout","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Before planning the layout it is essential to decide whether compost preparation will take place at the farm. If this is the case, keep in mind that storage of basic materials as well as the composting site itself should be located as far away as possible from the growing rooms."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"It is equally important to know whether spawn will be purchased or prepared by the grower himself. In this case it is strongly advised that the spawn laboratory should not be located at the farm site at all, in order to prevent contamination spreading from one unit to another."}]},{"head":"Temperature and ventilation","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Growing rooms at a mushroom farm should provide adequate climatic conditions. In particular ventilation and temperature are essential to ensure a reasonable production. In most western countries, mushroom growers make use of mechanical climate control but this requires high financial investments and therefore will not be treated in this booklet."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"To avoid high temperatures, more moderate temperature demanding mushrooms like Agaricus spp. are grown in caves or old tunnels. Or, the farm can be built at higher and thus cooler altitudes."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"As most low-cost growing houses are constructed from bamboo, wood and plastic, a simple way of obtaining temperature reduction is by spreading wet sand on the floors underneath the shelves in the grow-ing rooms and by wetting the bamboo-leave mats on the roof and the walls of the farmhouses."}]},{"head":"Floors","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Often, low cost growing houses are built just on bare ground. It is better to have a slightly tilted, cemented or concrete floor. These floors can be cleaned well and drain-water can flow out easily. Take good care that the drainage system of each room is not connected to another room, as diseases can spread easily through the draining pipe."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"For the same reason it is wise to frequently collect waste and contaminated material and to have them destroyed immediately after collecting."}]},{"head":"Farm hygiene","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"On a mushroom farm, hygiene is of vital importance. Since chemical control of pests and diseases is not feasible in small-scale mushroom cultivation, the only preventive measure is hygiene, and to some extent disinfection. This goes for a spawn production unit, the site for substrate production, the incubation rooms as well as for the production units."}]},{"head":"Farm location","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Therefore checking a suitable site for a mushroom farm is very important. The surroundings of a farm should be clean and free from possible contamination from insects, moulds etc. This means that building a new farm close to other mushroom farms should be avoided. Insects and diseases from these farms could easily spread to the new farm."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"If possible separate the various operation units of the farm."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"The spawn laboratory should be separate from the growing site. The growing rooms ought to be separated by closed (plastic) walls to keep the different stages of cultivation apart. As a matter of fact no incubation or spawn running should take place in the same room where the mushrooms are harvested."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Debris, contaminated bags and spent mushroom substrate must be removed immediately from the rooms and from the farm itself, preferably to a place far away."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"All these measures are necessary to avoid pests such as flies and mites as well as diseases spreading from these waste dumps. If the spent mushroom substrate is to be used for gardening soil, it should be transported as soon as possible and not be stored at the mushroom farm. "}]},{"head":"Spawn production","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"The mushroom propagation material (\"seed\") is generally referred to as spawn."}]},{"head":"Availability of spawn","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The availability of good quality spawn is a limiting factor for mushroom cultivation in many developing countries. Customs' bureaucracy, high shipping costs and the difficulty to keep the spawn cooled during transport, often hinders imports. It might therefore be necessary for the mushroom grower to produce his own spawn."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"If good quality spawn of the desired mushroom species can be obtained at a reasonable price, it would be wiser to concentrate on the mushroom growing process. If this is not the case, spawn will have to be produced or multiplied by the mushroom grower."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"The complete procedure of spawn production involves preparation of the medium, filling the test tubes or Petri dishes and sterilising them, inoculation with mycelium and the process of inoculating larger containers with this culture Basically, spawn production is nothing more than putting mycelium of the desired mushroom in suitable sterilised substrates under aseptic conditions."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"In practice however producing spawn is not that simple. Suitable strains from the required mushroom species have to be maintained under strict conditions to avoid degeneration. If this is not possible, tissue culture from a fresh and healthy mushroom should be used for spawn production. In addition the total spawn production process requires very high standards of hygiene. It is for that reason that one has to make sure that the spawn production room is kept meticulously clean in order to avoid any contamination. "}]},{"head":"various steps in mushroom cultivation","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Spawn production of Agaricus spp. in particular, is rather complicated. From that point of view it is highly recommendable to buy spawn from a reliable spawn producer. Only in the case that good quality spawn is not available for a reasonable price the grower should choose to produce his own spawn."}]},{"head":"Spawn production unit","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The minimal requirements for a spawn production unit are: ? laboratory equipment such as Petri dishes, test tubes, scales, alcohol, flame ? sterilisation unit (pressure cooker, autoclave) ? sterile environment: Inoculation Box or Laminar Air Flow cabin ? incubation room This equipment is commonly available in hospitals, research stations and universities."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"The raw materials include: ? ingredients for media preparation ? pure culture or fresh mushroom of the desired mushroom species strain ? spawn containers (such as bottles or plastic bags)"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"In countries lacking mushroom production, spawn may be obtained from a renowned spawn producer, a university or a research station at the start of a project."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"For addresses of spawn producers see Useful Addresses."}]},{"head":"Clean environments","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"A clean environment is absolutely essential to spawn production. In particular whenever the containers with sterilised media need to be opened this must be done under aseptic conditions. The air carries numerous contaminants, which easily infect the sterilised media. It is therefore necessary to use special cabinets and inoculation rooms for performing the handling and the preparation of the (tissue) cultures. (For an air quality test see Appendix 2)"}]},{"head":"Inoculation rooms","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The interior of the inoculation room should consist of nonbiodegradable materials. All the surfaces should be smooth and easy to clean. Shelves should be designed in such a way that the floor beneath can be cleaned easily. Shelves are typically made of metal or Formica. UV light, to be switched on during non-working hours, will help to destroy contaminants."}]},{"head":"Inoculation cabinets","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"These simple inoculation cabinets are widely used all over the world. They can be constructed cheaply from locally available materials. The front glass pane can be opened to fill the cabinet with the sterilised media. The inside is to be disinfected by cleaning with a 10 % Clorox solution, a 2% Formalin solution or 70% ethyl alcohol."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Take care when using chemicals. Some of them are poisonous and/or irritating to nose and eyes. Cautiously follow the instructions to ensure safe use."}]},{"head":"Laminar Air Flow cabinets","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"A Laminar Air Flow system (LAF) consists of a fan, a duct, a HEPA (High Efficiency Particle Air) filter and a hood."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"In a laminar airflow contaminants can spread in only one direction. In a turbulent airflow it is possible that spores move in different directions, thus causing more contamination. The ventilators are rated by the producers according to the volume of air they can blow through materials of specified resistance. About 0.45 m/s air velocity is considered best for good laminar airflow. The fan should be regulated stepwise and have the capacity to push double the amount of required air through the filter to reach the required air velocity, in order to account for pressure losses when the filter gets loaded with particles."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"In many countries neither HEPA filters nor the specific ventilators are available and have to be imported. So keep in mind that a good inoculation cabinet is generally better than a poorly constructed and inadequately positioned LAF system."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"The filters and ventilators are the heart of any Laminar Air Flow system, but other factors have to be considered too: the operating persons, their skills and their hygiene, and the construction of the ducts and filters, to ensure that no contaminated air can be sucked in."}]},{"head":"The sterilisation process","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Grain, sawdust and compost contain large numbers of contaminants. A single grain kernel may contain millions of bacteria and fungi."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Each one of these undesired agents, which are called contaminants, is capable of spoiling substrates that have not been properly sterilised or that have greasy appearance been inoculated under unhygienic conditions."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"A heat treatment of 20 minutes at 121 °C is usually sufficient to kill all organisms. It takes quite some time for the steam to heat the inner core of substrates to this temperature, depending on the way the sterilisation / pasteurisation unit is filled and on the capacity of the burner."}]},{"head":"Pressure cookers (see figure 10)","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The cheapest option is to obtain one or more large pressure cookers. Select pressure cookers that maintain the pressure when the final temperature has been reached."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"The simplest pressure cookers blow out steam when the pressure is too high. The pressure inside will then often drop below 1 atmosphere overpressure, causing the media to boil. "}]},{"head":"Preparation of media","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Most species grow on the following media:"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) extract medium (see figure 11) Ingredients: 200g diced potato, 20 g agar powder, 20g dextrose or ordinary white sugar, 1 litre of water."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"? Wash and weigh the potatoes and cut them into small pieces. ? Boil for about 15 to 20 minutes until they are soft. ? Remove the potatoes. ? Add water to the broth to make exactly 1 litre. ? Add the dextrose and the agar. Be sure to add the right amount of sugar and agar, otherwise the medium will become either too soft or too hard. ? Stir occasionally and heat gently until the agar has melted. The agar should be hot when poured into the test tubes or bottles otherwise it will become lumpy. ? Fill about one fourth of the test tubes. ? Then seal the tubes or bottles with cotton plugs."}]},{"head":"Preparation of slants","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"After filling the test tubes or bottles with the medium (see figure 11, picture 5), they must be sterilised (see figure 11, picture 6) before they can be used. The most commonly used sterilisation units in smallscale laboratories are pressure cookers, but autoclaves can be used as well."}]},{"head":"Procedure","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"? Pour water into the pressure cooker to the level of the rack. ? Place the bottles/test tubes in the racks with a plastic covering to prevent water from wetting the cotton plugs. ? Then close the lid firmly. ? At the beginning of the process the air vent should be open in order to allow the air to escape. Some minutes will pass between the moment of boiling and steam escape. ? Close the air vent. A pressure gauge shows the pressure rise. ? Sterilise under pressure for 20-30 minutes."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"? Do not open the air vent before the pressure cooker has cooled down completely to room temperature! ? Open the pressure cooker and take out the test tubes or bottles."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"To increase the surface area, the test tubes are placed in an inclined position (e.g. on a ruler or a rolled towel) when the agar is still fluid. Take care that the agar does not touch the cotton plug, in order to prevent contamination."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Do not move or handle the test tubes until the agar has solidified to prevent that a small portion of the agar should solidify at the other side of the slant or too close to the plug. "}]},{"head":"Cultures","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The first steps in spawn production are performed on artificial media. These should contain sufficient nutrients for the mushrooms to grow, like saccharides and a solidifying agent (agar or gelatine). The mycelium grows on the surface of the medium and will later be used to inoculate larger amounts of grain substrate. Test tubes or Petri dishes (or flat whiskey bottles) are used as culture containers."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Instead of working with cultures, one could also try to purchase small amounts of good quality mother spawn to prepare the final spawn."}]},{"head":"The starter culture","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"See figure 12: 1 The starter culture (or mother culture) can be obtained from a spawn producer or laboratory or made from a fresh and healthy fruiting body. 2 More agar cultures are then made from this starter culture. 3 More test tubes are inoculated using the methods described for culture transfer (see Appendix 4 for detailed instructions). 4 These serve to inoculate larger containers (like bags or bottles) with mother spawn that can be used to inoculate the final spawn substrate."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"The mycelium will degenerate after a certain number of transfers, so it is not possible to keep on transferring the cultures on agar forever."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"To prevent the spawn culture from degenerating stick to the following rules:"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"? Never transfer from one mother culture more than eight times."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"? Neither use mother cultures on agar for longer than two years. Only in the case that the starter culture cannot be purchased from a spawn producer or a laboratory, the mother culture should be produced from tissue cultures"},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"Young and vigorous mycelium can be obtained from a young fruiting body using a scalpel, alcohol, sterilised agar slants, Petri dishes or bottles with agar, flame (non-smoking), and a clean table to work on, or preferably a Laminar Air Flow cabinet or inoculation box."},{"index":7,"size":5,"text":"? Wash the mushroom thoroughly."},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"? Dip the scalpel in alcohol, and then flame it until red-hot."},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"? Let it cool down for 10 seconds."},{"index":10,"size":113,"text":"? Now break or tear the mushroom lengthwise (do not cut it with a knife, since contaminants from the surface can stick to the blade). Do not touch the inner surface with your hands. ? Use the heated scalpel to remove a small piece (2x2 mm is sufficient) of the inner tissue. Take care that no outside surface tissue is included. ? Open the test tube/Petri dish. ? (When using test tubes: heat the mouth of the tube in the flame to kill unwanted spores). Then gently replace the tissue on the scalpel in the middle of the agar. ? Immediately replace the plug. ? Inoculate at least three cultures, but preferably more."},{"index":11,"size":32,"text":"Incubate the newly inoculated agar slants or Petri dishes at 25 °C for about ten days. Within three to four days mycelium will cover the tissue and branch out on the agar."},{"index":12,"size":41,"text":"If no growth occurs on the agar, check the following: ? Possibly the mushroom was too old. Try a fresher specimen. ? Possibly the scalpel did not cool down before taking the tissue sample, thereby overheating and thus killing the mycelium. "}]},{"head":"Mother spawn","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Mother spawn can be used to inoculate either grain spawn or a second generation of mother spawn."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"In simple laboratories, mother spawn should not be used to inoculate another generation of mother spawn because of the high risk of contamination Shake the bottles when taking them out of the autoclave or the pressure cooker. Preparation of grain spawn (see figure 14) For Agaricus spp. and Volvariella spp. only grain spawn is used. The main advantage of grain is that it is very nutritious for fungi and forms kernels easily. The kernels can easily be dispersed in the substrate. The main disadvantage is that it provides an optimal substrate for other organisms too. The chances of contamination are therefore high."}]},{"head":"Kinds of grain","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Different grains can be used such as wheat, rye, millet, rice or sorghum. First boil the grain, then drain, fill containers and sterilise."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"The moisture content of the grain, after boiling, should be around 50%. If it is higher, mycelial growth may be faster, but the danger of wet spot bacteria is also greater. If it is drier than 35% mycelial growth will be rather slow."}]},{"head":"Grain spawn formula 1","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Grain in small containers can be moistened to a higher degree than grain in 15 litre bags. For 2 litre containers, use the following recipe: 480 g rye, sorghum or wheat, 400 ml water, 2 g gypsum (45% moisture). (See Appendix 1)"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Grain spawn formula 2 Grain spawn substrate: grain 10 kg, CaCo3 147.5 g, Rice bran 1.25 g, Gypsum 0.1475g, Urea 0.5 g, Water 1.5 litres. (See Appendix 1)"}]},{"head":"Sterilisation","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Sterilise the spawn containers in an autoclave. The length of time depends on the autoclave, the way the spawn containers are packed (dense or loose) and the size of the containers. For instance, two hours for 500 g containers; three to four hours for 3-kg bags. The spawn containers should be properly cooled down before taking them out of the autoclave."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Steaming in an oil drum for at least 6 hours is usually necessary to ensure proper heating of the inner core of the substrate bags. Sterilise 4-litre bags filled with 2kg spawn substrate for at least 2 hours at 121°C."}]},{"head":"Inoculation (see figure 14, pictures 6-14)","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Once the temperature in the centre of the container has reached the optimum mycelial growth temperature, the spawn containers can be inoculated. Use at least one square of 10 x 10 mm (for 250 ml bottles) or two squares of 10 x 10 mm (for bigger bottles) from the full-grown agar of the mother culture for each bottle."}]},{"head":"Incubation","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Incubate the bottles until the mycelium has grown all over the substrate. The temperature should be close to the optimal temperature for mycelial growth. (Consult Table 1)."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Shake once (after eight days) or twice during the incubation period (or every three or four days) to distribute the mycelium evenly and to prevent kernels from sticking together."}]},{"head":"Storage","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Keep the spawn in the refrigerator and only take it out when needed."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"At temperatures above 25 °C grain spawn can spoil in one night."}]},{"head":"Storage and purity","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Good spawn shows vigorous mycelial growth and contains no other organisms. If stored too long it will become less vigorous."}]},{"head":"Preparation of the final spawn","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"In order to inoculate the compost on the shelves (or the compost in the cultivation bags on the floor) larger quantities of spawn are used; generally referred to as final spawn. In order to prepare the final spawn, plastic bags can be used as spawn containers. The procedure for final spawn is similar to that of mother spawn. Only the sizes of the containers differ. See figures 15 and 16. "}]},{"head":"Composting","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"In nature saprophytic mushrooms are able to obtain their nutrients from plant residues and dead wood. Cultivated mushrooms such as the Agaricus spp. (Button Mushrooms) and the Volvariella spp. (Rice Straw Mushrooms) can only grow on fermented or composted plant residues. The process of fermenting is called composting. Composting is necessary in order to make the dead organic materials suitable for these mushrooms to grow on."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Thus composting is essential for obtaining: ? a selective nutrient medium (i.e. a nutrient medium that is highly suitable for the mushroom mycelium we want to grow and less suitable for all kind of competing moulds). ? a homogeneous nutrient medium with a homogeneous structure and constant moisture content."}]},{"head":"Materials","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Farm waste such as wheat straw, rice straw or pressed sugar-cane (bagasse) is generally used as basic organic material for composting. Check which sources are available in the region and make sure that there is a constant supply of good quality basic materials. Good quality straw means: the straw is dry and not rotten. To ensure a good mixing the straw should not be stacked in bundles or bales, but should be cut to a size of about half a meter."}]},{"head":"Structure of the straw","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"While most wheat straw has a good structure, rice straw easily clogs up and congests when it remains too wet. Moreover, if the straw particles are too short, air will not pass through easily. For similar reasons hay from dried grasses is less suitable; as soon as the materials are wet they will form clumps and block the airflow inside the heap."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Mixing is the most important part of compost preparation. Most of the complaints about poor compost are related to poor mixing."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"In the case of bagasse, it is important that it ages in the open field before usage, so that sugar residues will leach out by rain, thus preventing harmful fungi, which feed on these sugars, from growing. "}]},{"head":"Manure","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"As a protein source, mostly straw-rich stable manure of animals is used. Usually, horse manure or chicken manure is used but the manure of other animals can also be employed. Poultry manures tend to have a higher nutrient content than horse or cow manure and is often further concentrated through drying."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"If manure is scarce or not available at all, artificial manure such as urea can be used as well. Besides manure, gypsum or chalk is added. Moreover, like in all bacteria and fungi-induced processes water is needed during composting."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Last but not least, once the materials are piled up, aeration of the heap of organic materials is an important procedure. Aeration is vital to ensure a proper decomposition and to avoid unwanted anaerobic and smelly processes. It is for this reason that the organic material should have a good structure. Neither should it be too compact when piled up."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Recipe 1 1000 kg of straw-rich stable manure or straw mixed with chicken manure, thoroughly mixed with 10 kg of chalk."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"Water is added until it leaks out of the pile."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"Recipe 2 (to be used if no manure is available) See appendix 5 1000 kg straw 10 kg urea 20 kg ammonium sulphate 8 kg potassium sulphate 25 kg calcium carbonate"}]},{"head":"Location of the compost site","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"When selecting a location for composting, one has to keep in mind that the site should not be in the proximity of houses, to avoid complaints about smell. The composting site should also be located at a certain distance from the growing rooms and the laboratory."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"If storage of basic materials and composting takes place close to growing rooms, pests and diseases can easily spread towards these growing rooms. Although it will cost more labour and effort to move the compost into the growing rooms, the result will be an improvement of farm hygiene. This extra effort for transportation is minor compared to the risks, costs and losses that come with a heavy crop infestation caused by neglecting the basic rules of farm hygiene."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Composting preferably should be done on a concrete slab. If possible the concrete slab should be constructed with a slight tilt, with a cemented basin at the bottom end to collect the water leaking from the compost."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"This run-off water (or goody water) can be reused for watering the compost."}]},{"head":"Dimensions and form of the pile","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The materials are piled up in compost heaps (see figure 17) that have standard dimensions; they do not exceed a height of 1.5 m and are straight sided. In mushroom cultivation these dimensions have proved to be most efficient and to guarantee a proper decomposition of the used materials."}]},{"head":"Roofing","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Above the concrete slab some roofing is recommendable in order to prevent that the compost heap dries out by sunlight or gets soaked by heavy rains."}]},{"head":"Composting process","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Composting is a process of decay caused by microorganisms, which results in a selective and nutrient-rich substrate suitable for the mushroom we intend to grow."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Standards that are essential for a successful compost preparation are indicated below."}]},{"head":"Watering and prewetting","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The dry organic material is piled up on a heap and wetted with water."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The heap has to be kept moist but not soaked, so that soluble nutrients will not leach away."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"This prewetting stage will take about 5-6 days and every day some more water is added. The practice of wetting should soften the outer layer of the straw by decomposing its wax layer. Some times prewetting is performed by soaking straw for a few days in a water basin."}]},{"head":"Aeration","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"After the prewetting stage the straw and manure are thoroughly mixed and stacked into a pile with a height of 1.5 meter. The inner part of the pile should not be too dense in order to enable a good aeration."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Composting is a biological process that generates heat. When composting is performed properly, temperatures may rise to 60 ˚C. A good compost pile will produce some steam."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"A simple method to check the temperature of the pile consists in putting a hand into the pile. You will be able to stand a temperature of 55 ˚C, so when the temperature is higher you are forced to quickly withdraw your hand."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"A well maintained compost pile produces hardly any bad odours, but will produce some steam."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"When a lot of vapour escapes from the compost pile and temperature exceeds 60/70 ˚C, the compost is too hot. In that case it is wise to lower the temperature by turning the heap inside out. "}]},{"head":"Mixing and Turning","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The rate of decay is accelerated by turning and mixing the pile at intervals."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Although proper mixing is extremely important, this aspect of composting is often undervalued. In order to achieve a successful composting process it is essential that the materials are thoroughly mixed before piling them up!"},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Frequent turning of the heap is required in order to ? ensure a quick and proper decomposition ? prevent the compost pile from overheating ? obtain a homogeneous structure."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"At the first turning add gypsum and also make sure that manure lumps are broken and the compost is thoroughly mixed"}]},{"head":"Basic turning schedule","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"A basic schedule includes turning the pile after 5 days and consequently another 4 times every 3 days. Make sure that during turning of the heap the outer layer of the compost will end up on the inner side of the new heap and vice versa."}]},{"head":"Moisture","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Biological processes, such as composting, need water. During the entire process the compost should be kept moist but not wet to the extent that water is leaking out. On the other hand, when the compost is too dry, water should be added to get an optimal process. In case rice straw is used, special attention should be paid to the applied amount of water, in order to prevent clumps of compost, which will block the airflow in the heap. Once the compost is ready, it is to be transported either to the shelves in the growing rooms or to fill the plastic growing bags or other containers."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"In many regions, groups of mushroom farmers jointly prepare compost at a central location. From this location the compost is then transported to the individual farms."}]},{"head":"Cultivation of Button Mushrooms (Agaricus spp.)","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Most cultivated Button Mushrooms belong to the species Agaricus bisporus. This species is rather difficult to grow under primitive circumstances. Therefore small-scale mushroom growers are advised to grow locally available Agaricus varieties."}]},{"head":"Pasteurisation or peak heating","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"Fresh compost is not immediately suitable for mushrooms. It requires further treatment. Therefore, fresh compost has to be transported to the growing house and placed on the shelves or brought into a tunnel for the next phase. This phase is called peak heating or pasteurisation. Peak heating is necessary in order to destroy unwanted organisms and microorganisms, such as flies, bacteria and green moulds. The optimal compost temperature for pasteurisation is 60 °C and should be maintained for at least 8 hours. Steam is used to heat up the rooms. A simple method to generate steam is through heating water in oil drums and leading the steam through a hose into the growing room or the tunnel. (See also appendix 6: Simple steaming systems) The pasteurisation or peak heating procedure is followed by the conditioning phase in order to prepare the substrate for spawning. Conditioning implies gradually lowering the temperature within 1 or 2 days and is necessary to get rid of the free ammonia in the compost. Spawning cannot take place at temperatures above 30 °C."}]},{"head":"Actinomycetes","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"During the period between peak heating and spawning, white fungal spots caused by Actinomycetes will develop in the compost. These fungi will not inhibit the mycelial growth of the mushrooms."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Some people appear to be allergic to Actinomycetes. These persons should not be involved in, or carry out the spawning procedure."}]},{"head":"Spawning","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"When the temperature has dropped sufficiently (preferably below 30 °C), spawn has to be added and mixed through the compost. This process is called spawning. Button Mushroom growers generally use about 6-8 litres of spawn per 1000 kg (1 tonne) of pasteurised compost. The spawn has to be mixed homogeneously through the compost layer."}]},{"head":"Mycelium growth","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"After spawning the mycelium will start to develop. The optimal temperature for mycelial growth is about 25 -27 ° C. Sufficient moisture is another important factor for mycelial growth. As a consequence the Relative Humidity should be very high (RH 95% or higher)"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"To achieve such a high RH, several measures are to be taken:"},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"The compost on the shelves or in the bags should be covered with sheets of non-printed newspaper. The paper sheets are to be sprayed regularly, as well as the walls and floors. In general, it takes 2 weeks before the compost layer will be sufficiently colonised by the mycelium. At this stage the compost is referred to as full-grown compost."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"In literature supplementation (adding high-protein nutrients to the compost) is often mentioned with regard to boosting yield levels."},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"However, if adequate cooling of the growing rooms is not feasible, supplementation will have an adverse effect on the yield. Overheated compost will not produce any mushrooms at all. As a consequence, supplementation should be performed exclusively on more sophisticated farms with cooling units."}]},{"head":"Casing","index":58,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The compost layers are now full-grown with mycelium, but they will not produce a good mushroom crop yet. Therefore, the Button Mushrooms need a layer of casing soil."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"The casing soil will provide the right bacteria and the right amount of water, stimulating the mycelium to form a good crop. Watering directly on the compost would cause rot and, consequently, no mushrooms would develop. The casing soil will also serve as a water buffer."}]},{"head":"Formula 1","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Course peat 4 parts Limestone 1 part"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Formula 2 Loamy soil and coconut fibre mixture"},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Casing soil can be made from peat. If peat is not available, a good alternative would be the use of soil without parasites, dug from at least 50 cm deep."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"The casing soil is applied on top of the full-grown compost in a layer up to 5 cm thick."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"To check the water-holding capacity of the casing soil; ? Put a layer of 5 cm thick on a frame covered with an insect screen."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"? Irrigate in the same way as in the growing room."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"? The moment water passes through the screen, the soil's water holding capacity will have been reached."}]},{"head":"Figure 21: Water holding capacity check","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Beware of spraying too much water on the casing soil, in order to prevent water from seeping through the casing soil towards the compost and causing rot!"}]},{"head":"Ruffling the casing soil","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"When the mycelium has grown well through the casing soil, the procedure of ruffling can start. Ruffling implies that the mycelium is mixed by lightly raking the casing soil layer, to get a more uniform mycelium growth. The ruffling procedure will break the mycelium in the casing soil layer, stimulating regrowth."}]},{"head":"Cooling down and formation of fruiting bodies","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"When the mycelium has a fluffy white appearance and has grown well into the upper layer of the casing soil, cooling down can start. This measure is taken in order to trigger the change from vegetative growth (mycelium) to generative growth (fruiting bodies). This climate change can be achieved by increasing the air ventilation. If possible the compost temperature should be reduced with about 5-6 ° C to approximately 20 °C, within a few days. Each strain has it own requirements. If a temperature reduction is hardly feasible, mushrooms may develop but the yields will be low. Be aware that modern Agaricus varieties require a strict cooling down."}]},{"head":"Spraying water and Relative Humidity (RH)","index":63,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"As soon as the mycelium stops growing, the mycelium threads start to form clusters and form little pinheads. Since the pinheads are very sensitive to dehydration, a high RH is required. As soon as the fruiting bodies are pea size, spraying water can start. The amount of water used depends on the speed of growth, the expected yield and the way of harvesting. By rule of thumb 1 litre of water is sprayed for each kilo of mushrooms to be harvested."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Spraying can be carried out either before or after harvesting."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Make sure, however, that the mushroom caps are dry within one hour. Otherwise bacterial blotch will develop on the mushrooms."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"This bacterial blotch is also triggered by insufficient ventilation and by weak mushrooms."}]},{"head":"Harvesting and picking","index":64,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"In general the first mushrooms can be harvested approximately 3 weeks after casing. The mushrooms are picked manually according to their required size. This size will differ according to the customer's requirements: some customers like small closed Button Mushrooms, while others prefer large open ones ('flats'). Each individual mushroom is removed from the casing soil, pulling it carefully by the cap with a light rotating movement. Depending on the mushroom size, two, three or four specimens can be picked in one hand. The sandy stumps are cut away from the stems and the mushrooms are graded and packaged according to their required quality."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Picking of the mushrooms should be done with clean hands and bruising of the caps should be avoided."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"The mushroom harvesting period will last several weeks, depending on the growing schedule and compost quality At the end of the harvesting period, the compost in the growing rooms has to be steamed again (`cooking out') in order to destroy the mycelium and more importantly to exterminate any adverse organisms."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Afterwards, the spent mushroom substrate (SMS) can be used to improve garden soil."}]},{"head":"Case description Button Mushrooms","index":65,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"In the Chiang Mai region, Northern Thailand, some farmers grow Agaricus spp. (Button Mushrooms) during the cool season."}]},{"head":"Ingredients","index":66,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"For compost preparation, rice straw is used and mixed with urea and gypsum. Rice straw is abundantly available in the region. Recipe: 100 kg rice straw 5 kg urea 2-3 kg Super phosphate."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"The rice straw is cut in pieces of about 75 cm, wetted for 2 days in concrete basins and mixed thoroughly with the other ingredients. Then the straw mixture is piled up in heaps of about 1.5 meter high using a metal frame to ensure that the compost heaps are neatly packed and straight sided."}]},{"head":"Turning and mixing","index":67,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Turning of the compost is done every 2 days. After one week the compost is ready and transported into the growing house on shelves in a layer of 15 cm thick (about 80 kg/m²)."}]},{"head":"Temperature treatment and conditioning","index":68,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"The compost is pasteurised with steam for 6 hours. After cooling down and conditioning the compost is spawned. "}]},{"head":"Spawning the substrate","index":69,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Grain spawn is purchased from distributors or is produced by the growers themselves using mother cultures purchased from laboratories. The spawn rates are variable and range from 3-7 litre per tonne of compost."}]},{"head":"Casing","index":70,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"After the spawn run is complete, a 5 cm layer of casing soil is applied, using red sandy loam and some coconut fibre."}]},{"head":"Cultivation of Rice Straw Mushrooms (Volvariella spp.)","index":71,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"In cultivation of Rice Straw Mushroom (Volvariella spp.) two methods are employed: indoor cultivation and traditional outdoor cultivation."}]},{"head":"Outdoor cultivation","index":72,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"In several Asian countries farmers grow Rice Straw Mushrooms in a corner of their fields, after harvesting the rice crops and before starting the new rice-growing season. This outdoor cultivation hardly requires any investments other than labour. However, yields are generally very low, due to pests and diseases. Therefore, this method will not be elaborated in this booklet"}]},{"head":"Indoor cultivation","index":73,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"Indoor cultivation requires investments but it will produce a more reliable yield. Loans can often be obtained from companies or micro-credit organisations, in order to start a farm. Rice Straw Mushrooms grow rather quickly, compared to other mushrooms such as e.g. Button Mushrooms. This guarantees a fast return on investments. Volvariella mainly utilises cellulose as a nutrient and therefore higher yields are obtained from substrates with high cellulose content. For that reason cotton waste usually is mixed with rice straw. Requirements for indoor cultivation: ? plastic mushroom shed with shelves or an industrial building (with water resistant and heat resistant walls) ? concrete floor for composting phase ? steam boiler ? forks for composting, filling the shelves and spawning. ? spawn ? basic materials for composting such as rice straw, cotton waste, etc and a good water supply."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Formula 1 rice straw 45% cotton waste 40% rice bran 10% lime 5%"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Formula 2 dry cotton waste 90-92% rice bran 4% limestone (pH regulator) 4-6%"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"See Appendix 5 for more substrate formulas."}]},{"head":"Substrate preparation","index":74,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The dry materials have to be moistened thoroughly, for instance by soaking them in water. Cotton waste may get completely saturated with water, thus preventing the access of air. It should therefore always be mixed with another material, such as rice straw, to ensure sufficient aeration. Use the squeeze test to determine whether the substrate materials have absorbed sufficient or excessive amounts of water."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Then form piles of at least 1.5 m 3 and cover them with plastic to avoid loss of water and energy; evaporation consumes large amounts of energy."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"The heaps should be turned once or twice within a total period of two to four days in order to prevent long-term anaerobic conditions in the heap. Add rice bran or another supplement during the last turning of the heap. Since the supplements provide easily degradable nutrients for microorganisms, the temperature of the substrate will increase. "}]},{"head":"Peak heating","index":75,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The substrate is now ready for heat treatment. Beds in the growing room are filled with a substrate layer of 10 to 15 cm thick (about 50 kg wet substrate per m 2 , i.e. approximately 15 kg of dry substrate material per m 2 ). Steam is blown into the growing room until the substrate (not the air!) has reached a temperature of 60 °C. The steam inlet is adjusted to stabilise the substrate temperature for about three to four hours."}]},{"head":"Actinomycetes","index":76,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"During the period between peak heating and spawning white fungal spots, caused by Actinomycetes, will develop in the compost. These fungi will not inhibit the mycelial growth of the mushrooms."}]},{"head":"Spawning","index":77,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Spawning occurs as soon as the temperature drops below 37 °C. Spawning rates differ among producers, depending on the vigour of the strain involved. Usually about 1% is used, with upper and lower ranges of 0.5% and 5% (w/w). Volvariella spp. grows very fast, so 1% is often sufficient."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Different spawning techniques and spawn substrate materials may be used. Some growers use a short fork to mix the spawn evenly with the substrate, while others make holes with a wooden dibble and insert peanut-sized pieces of spawn, at 12 to 15 cm intervals, at a depth of 2 to 2.5 cm."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Some people appear to be allergic to Actinomycetes. These persons should not be involved in, or carry out the spawning procedure."}]},{"head":"Spawn run","index":78,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Cover the substrate with plastic to keep the temperature high (35 °C) but not above 40 °C. Volvariella will colonise the substrate in only a few days. Remove the plastic after three days and ventilate some more after six days."}]},{"head":"Light","index":79,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Light is also needed for the formation of fruiting bodies. Use white light or make sure some daylight can reach the substrate as from three days after spawning. Just a little light is sufficient; 15 minutes of sunlight or a day/night cycle of 500 lux have been reported to be sufficient. When one can read a newspaper inside the growing room, the supply of light is sufficient."}]},{"head":"Humidity","index":80,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Spray a fine water mist to maintain optimum humidity and take care that direct watering does not damage the delicate mycelium."}]},{"head":"Harvesting and Picking","index":81,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Although this may require two or three pickings per day, the mushrooms should be picked while still young, i.e. when they are in egg stage and the cap has not ruptured the veil yet. Opened ones are difficult to sell, because they have to be consumed the same day. Be careful not to bruise the mushrooms while picking them."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"The production level is acceptable when the mushroom yield (fresh weight) equals 25% or more of the dry weight of the compost. Since straw mushrooms can be grown very quickly, a relatively high output can be reached per growing period, although their yield is significantly lower than that of other mushrooms. At the end of the harvesting period the compost in the growing rooms have to be steamed again (`cooking out') in order to destroy the mycelium and, more importantly, to exterminate any adverse organisms."}]},{"head":"Spent Mushroom Substrate","index":82,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"After cultivation the spent mushroom compost (SMS) can be used to improve garden soil. In some countries the spent compost of Button Mushrooms is used to grow a crop of Rice Straw Mushrooms. The beds with the old compost are emptied and the house is cleaned. Cotton waste is mixed with the old compost and fermented for some days. Then a heat treatment is applied. Seven to nine days after spawning, the first pinheads appear. Usually two flushes are harvested."}]},{"head":"Case description Rice Straw Mushroom cultivation","index":83,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"In the Karawang Region East of Jakarta, Indonesia, many small farmers grow Rice Straw Mushrooms on low investment small-scale farms. Rice Straw Mushrooms, Volvariella spp., are suitable for cultivation in warm climates."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Quite some villages in this predominantly rice growing region have clusters of small mushroom growers. Each grower owns one (sometimes more than one) simple mushroom growing house, made from bamboo with a plastic lining at the inside. Since the Karawang Region is actually a rice-growing region, rice straw is abundantly available but is considered an agricultural waste and just left on the field."}]},{"head":"Compost","index":84,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"The major basic material for compost production is rice straw The other ingredients are: ? chicken manure or urea ? cotton waste ? rice bran and ? gypsum."}]},{"head":"Composting process","index":85,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"After thoroughly mixing and wetting, the materials are piled on heaps with a height of about 1.5 meter. In general, the heaps have some sort of cover to protect against excessive climate conditions and prevent drying out by the sun or soaking by rain."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Temperatures in the heaps rise up to 60 C° and in general the heaps are turned every 2 days to avoid overheating of the compost. In general, the compost will be ready in 6-8 days."}]},{"head":"Filling the beds","index":86,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The compost is transferred and put in 20 cm thick layers in the shelves in the growing house. The compost layers in the shelves are covered with a thin layer of coconut fibres. Sometimes, the coconut fibres are mixed with some cottonseed waste."}]},{"head":"Growing houses","index":87,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Each growing house has 2 rows of 5 shelves high. The distances between the shelves vary, as well as the thickness of the compost layer, in order to ensure that the temperature will be the same in all layers."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"The inner side of the growing house is enclosed with plastic. The costs of a growing house are about € 150 -€ 200 for materials. "}]},{"head":"Spawning","index":88,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"After pasteurisation and cooling down of the compost, the substrate is spawned. The spawn run will take 7-10 days. Spawn is generally bought from spawn distributors, who obtain it from larger laboratories. In this region the Volvariella species used is suitable for these high (33 ˚C) temperatures."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"When the spawn run is complete, more air and light is let into the growing room to induce fructification. Harvesting will take place 2 times a day, over a period of 2-3 weeks. The yearly production of an average growing house with a surface of about 100 m 2 is approximately 200,000 kg."}]},{"head":"Marketing","index":89,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Marketing is performed by farmer groups or through middlemen. The mushrooms are sold on the various markets of Jakarta, where Rice Straw Mushrooms are in demand. The average grower will have an income of about € 1,500. In general some of these revenues are used for school fees or for medical bills."}]},{"head":"Harvesting and post harvest handling","index":90,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Edible mushrooms are a delicate product with a short shelf life. Most of the time mushrooms are marketed fresh but they can also be preserved. This chapter pays attention to: ? harvesting ? how to handle mushrooms for the fresh market ? preservation."}]},{"head":"Harvesting","index":91,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Button mushrooms as well as Rice Straw Mushrooms should be picked at the stage at which they have the highest profitability that is when the cap is still closed. When picking mushrooms, take care to gently break them from the substrate or casing soil. Avoid tearing away chunks of mycelium from the substrate/casing soil. The welldeveloped specimens have to be picked very carefully from mushroom clusters in order to leave the small ones to continue growing."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Since mushrooms can easily be damaged, it is best if handling is kept to a minimum. Immediate trimming and grading, when picking, and packaging them in the packages in which they will be sold, ensures that they are touched only once: at the moment of picking."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"After picking, mushrooms should be kept as cool as possible. If no cooling facilities are available, then put them in a shady place. When placed on a wet concrete slab and covered with a wet cloth, the boxes with picked mushrooms will keep cool for several hours. Make sure that the wet cloth does not touch the mushrooms!"}]},{"head":"Fresh market","index":92,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Under ideal conditions, mushrooms for the fresh market are cooled rapidly after harvesting and then packaged with a plastic film. The plastic film provides good protection from water loss, as long as the storage temperature is more or less constant. Repeated exposure to fluctuating temperatures should be avoided."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"When the temperature goes up, the mushrooms will lose water. When the temperature drops, water will condense inside the package and on the surface of the mushrooms. This will lead to fast wilting. Make sure that the mushrooms are cooled down before wrapping or covering them in plastic in order to avoid condensation within the package."}]},{"head":"Preservation","index":93,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Preservation of mushrooms is necessary only when harvested mushrooms cannot be sold fresh. There are many different preservation methods but for small farms many of these methods, including the commonly used canning method, are too complicated and the equipment is too expensive. Therefore, they will not be described here."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"The simplest method is cooking the mushrooms in water in order to stop growth and enzymatic processes. Take the mushrooms out of the cooking water, cool them down and package them together with the cooking liquid in plastic bags, which are to be sealed immediately afterwards. This method is used quite often for Rice Straw Mushrooms. Mushrooms treated in this way will keep for 1-2 days."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Another method is blanching the mushrooms by cooking them for 10 minutes in water at a temperature of 90˚ C (preferably 1 kg of mushrooms in 5 litres of water). Cool them down after blanching. When mushrooms appear floating on the surface they have not been blanched sufficiently. After cooling down, put the blanched mushrooms in twist-cap glass jars and fill up with a watery solution of 2% salt and 0.2 % citric acid. Heat the closed jars for about an hour. This product will keep for weeks."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"For both methods it is necessary that the procedure be performed in a clean and hygienic way in order to avoid problems of contamination and to assure good quality."}]},{"head":"Drying","index":94,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Drying has several advantages: it is easy, quick and safe and welldried mushrooms can be stored for a long time. Besides Agaricus spp. and Volvariella spp., many other cultivated and also wild mushrooms are commonly sold dried."}]},{"head":"Drying by sun","index":95,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"In tropical areas, many edible products are displayed on racks to dry in the sun. The sun warms up the products as well as the surrounding air, causing evaporation of the products' water content. Besides drying on racks, the drying procedure can be performed in simple constructions, known as sun driers. A sun dryer can function in a direct or indirect way."}]},{"head":"Direct sun dryer","index":96,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"A direct sun dryer (figure 26) is not expensive and is easy to handle. A disadvantage is that it allows hardly any control of the temperature; neither is the product protected against external influences."}]},{"head":"Indirect sun dryer","index":97,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"With an indirect sun dryer (figure 27) temperature can be controlled better. And as the product is not exposed to UV light, fading will not occur."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"During the drying process the following rules should be observed: ? The mushrooms should not touch each other. ? Air circulation is very important; put the mushrooms on a grill rack or a metal grid. ? Since the freshest mushrooms lose much water through evaporation, they should be put on the lowest tray."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Mushrooms do not have to be crisp to the touch after drying; they should still be slightly flexible. The quality of sun-dried mushrooms is generally less than that of artificially dried ones. The moisture content of sun-dried mushrooms is higher and therefore they can be kept for a shorter period than the artificially dried ones. "}]},{"head":"Packaging and storage","index":98,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"All foreign material should be removed at the end of the drying process. Dried products easily absorb water from the surrounding air because of their low water content, so packaging has to take place in a dry room."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"It is a good idea to finish drying during the warmest part of the day when the relative humidity is at its lowest. The product can be cooled in the shade and if the work is done hygienically, the cooled products can be packaged immediately."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"The packing material must be waterproof, airtight and insect-proof."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"The dried products will only remain good if stored in such a way that they are dry and protected from insects. Normal plastic bags (properly sealed) will do for some time, but are not entirely gas and waterproof."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"It is also possible to use polymer-coated cellophane bags, which are waterproof and airtight. These can be sealed with a hot iron or a sealing machine (where electricity is available). Unfortunately this kind of plastic cannot be easily obtained and is not too strong either."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"A plastic bag of thicker quality (polyethylene, 0.05 mm thick) is best. These can be closed tightly with a metal clip or with cellophane tape."},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"From a marketing point of view it is recommendable to include a sticker describing the product and a recipe."}]},{"head":"Marketing","index":99,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Marketing is a vital aspect of developing a healthy business. Marketing includes products, prices, physical distribution and promotion. Although small-scale farmers have limited possibilities to deal with these topics, the topics are often discussed vividly."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"One should know to whom and in which places one will sell one's product as soon as, or even before, building a mushroom farm, be it a simple barn or a more sophisticated construction. That means that one will have to explore in advance who the customers are and where to find them."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"For instance: ? Marketplaces ? Delivery to door ? Tourist centres and hotels ? Shops and/or supermarkets"}]},{"head":"Specific demands","index":100,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"One should realise that each customer group has specific demands with regard to products, prices and delivery."}]},{"head":"Supermarkets","index":101,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"The past few years the percentage of households that buy mushrooms at the local market and at the greengrocer's has diminished. In Western Europe and the USA, supermarkets play a predominant role as sales channels for mushrooms. Most households (90%) buy at supermarkets; a trend that is likely to develop similarly in parts of Africa and Asia. This means that presentation of the product and proper packaging become increasingly more important The process of composting. Easily accessible nutrients will be degraded by microorganisms that make the substrate more selective. Unwanted fermentation may occur if the compost is still very 'active' or if thick layers or large bags are used. In that case the temperature rise inside the substrate will become too high for the desired mycelium. Flush:"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"The sudden development of many fruiting bodies at the same time. Usually there is a resting period between flushes or breaks. Formol:"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"A 30% solution of formaldehyde used to sterilise areas. The gasses kill living microorganisms and spores. Free water:"},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"The actual water available to the microorganisms in the substrate. Water content is the absolute measure. Free water is related to the water film around each particle in the substrate and the concentration of salts in the water. Fruiting:"},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"The mycelium will form mushrooms in its reproductive stage. This is called fruiting as the mushrooms are actually the fruiting bodies of the mycelium. Germination:"},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"The spreading of hyphae from spores. Gills: the radially arranged, vertical plates below the cap of a mushroom on which spores are formed. Hyphae, hyphae: Individual cells of mycelium. Incubation:"},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"The period after inoculation (preferably at an optimum mycelial growth temperature) during which the mycelium slowly grows through the substrate Inoculation:"},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"Transferring an organism into a specific substrate. Lamellae:"},{"index":9,"size":3,"text":"See gills Lignin:"},{"index":10,"size":19,"text":"An organic substance that is difficult to degrade, which, together with cellulose, forms the basis of wood, straw, etc."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Button Mushroom (Agaricus spp.): closed button (left), mature (field) specimen (middle) and cross section (right) "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Life cycle of mushrooms in nature "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: An example of a sophisticated farmhouse unit/growing room with air lock and racks with shelves "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6: An example of a low-cost mushroom shed made from plastic with bags placed on the floor "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: From tissue culture to crop -various steps in mushroom cultivation "},{"text":"Figure 8 : Figure 8: A simple homemade inoculation cabinet showing a front glass pane that can be opened and holes (with cloth sleeves attached) for handling purposes "},{"text":"Figure 9 : Figure 9: A Laminar Air Flow system (left) and cross section of the same LAF system (right) "},{"text":"Figure 10 : Figure 10: Cross-section of a pressure cooker for use on a burner (left) and an electric pressure cooker or simple autoclave (right) "},{"text":"Figure 11 : Figure 11: Preparation of Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) extract medium (pictures 1-4). Filling (picture 5) and sterilising the slants in a pressure cooker (picture 6). "},{"text":"Figure 12 : Figure 12: Multiplication of cultures (see section 4.7) "},{"text":"Figure 13 : Figure 13: Preparation of the starter culture or mother culture from tissue "},{"text":"Figure 14 : Figure 14: (Pictures 1-5) Preparation of grain spawn in glass bottles. The mouth of the bottle is to be cleaned (3) to prevent spores from germinating. (Pictures 6 -14) Culture transfer /inoculation of the glass container with mother spawn. (Pictures 14-16). Incubation of the spawn. Magnified detail: The mycelium is growing all over the substrate in the bottle. "},{"text":"Figure 15 : Figure 15: Sterilising large spawn containers in an oil drum "},{"text":"Figure 17 : Figure 17: Stacking and turning the compost heap. Temperature in the compost heap should not exceed 55°C. to prevent loss of valuable nutrients. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 18: Checking the temperature in the compost pile "},{"text":"Figure 19 : Figure 19: Squeeze test. Squeezing a fistful of compost, only a few drops of moisture should appear between the fingers. In that case, the moisture content is approximately 60 % "},{"text":"Figure 20 : Figure 20: Steam producer made from oil drums "},{"text":"Figure 22 : Figure 22: Steaming of the growing room/compost in the beds "},{"text":"Figure 23 : Figure 23: Different stages of Volvariella spp.; from tiny button to mushroom. Full growth of the mushroom takes only three to four days "},{"text":"Figure 24 : Figure 24: Cross-section of a growing room with compost beds on shelves. The room can be steamed with the oil tank steam producer (right). "},{"text":"Figure 25 : Figure 25: Harvesting from bamboo racks "},{"text":"Figure 26 : Figure 26: Direct sun dryer and cross section of the same dryer "},{"text":"Figure 28 : Figure 28: Selling mushrooms on the marketplace "},{"text":" Put the square in the middle of the agar surface of the new test tube. Reheat the mouth of both test tubes in the flame for 3 seconds. Replace the cotton plugs. Sterilise the scalpel in the flame once more and repeat the procedure for the next transfer. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table 1 : Mushroom species/ Common name T mg T optimal mg T fruiting Techniques Mushroom species/ Common name T mgT optimal mgT fruitingTechniques Agaricus bisporus 10-32 20-28 10-20 1 Agaricus bisporus10-32 20-2810-201 Agaricus bitorquis 25-31 30 25-30 1 Agaricus bitorquis25-31 3025-301 Agaricus blazei n.d. 30 20-25 1 Agaricus blazein.d.3020-251 Volvariella Volvacea 20-40 30-35 30-32 1,2 Volvariella Volvacea20-40 30-3530-321,2 T mg : T mg : "},{"text":" This French pocketbook describes the cultivation of Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus spp, Lentinula edodes, Lepista nuda, Stropharia rugoso annulata, and discusses truffle cultivation together with host trees. The Christiaens Group is setting up turnkey projects on Mushroom Cultivation as well as on Waste Management worldwide. Within the Group there is a long experience in the fields of Building Construction, Construction of Machinery and Control Systems. Not only turnkey projects are important but also small-scale projects are given adequate attention. Training and Consultancy for mushroom growing; trains and advises mushroom growers and their employees in all aspects of mushroom cultivation. Oostweg 9, 8256 SB Biddinghuizen, The Netherlands T: + 31 (0) 321 332682, F: + 31 (0) 321 332784 E: [email protected] , W: www.gicom.nl Gicom Composting Systems constructs all features/facilities for mushroom cultivation such as compost yards, tunnels and growing houses. All climate control equipment is manufactured, delivered and installed by Gicom Composting Systems too. Apart from GCS manufacturing installations for Waste Treatment, Air Purification and Biological Drying. All machines and process control systems for these installations are manufactured as well. Box 9, 9500 AA Stadskanaal,The Netherlands. T: + 31 599 613390, F: +31 599 619510 E: [email protected] , W: www.hoving-holland.nl Hoving Holland is manufacturer of machinery and composting systems for the mushroom industry and exports to many countries. In addition they construct equipment for organic waste disposal. They are among the distinguished leading suppliers of global turnkey projects. ILEIA Centre for Information on Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture. Promotes exchange of information for small scale farmers in the South through identifying promising technologies. Information about these technologies is exchanged mainly through the LEISA Magazine. All articles accessible on-line. Contact: ILEIA, Zuidsingel 16, 3811 HA Amersfoort, The Netherlands T: +31(0)33-4673870, F: +31(0)33-4632410 E: [email protected], W: www.leisa.info Netherlands Senior Experts P.O. Box 93078, 2509 AB The Hague, The Netherlands T: (+31) (0)70 349 05 55, F: (+31) (0)70 349 05 90 E: [email protected], W: www.pum.nl PUM sends senior experts to more than 70 countries in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, Latin America and Central and Eastern Europe.Upon request, PUM's experts offer their skills and experience to businesses and organisations in places where these are most needed. In the course of their careers, PUM's advisers have gained extensive experience in nearly every conceivable field. These experts are independent and work on a voluntary basis (they receive no wages). [email protected], W: www.sceltamushrooms.com Scelta Mushrooms is responsible for the sales and marketing of (frozen) mushrooms of several partner companies to customers around the globe. Scelta has a production unit for \"added-value\" mushroom products as breaded mushroom snack or pre-fried mushrooms to be used as a component in ready-made meals. In cooperation with a partner company Scelta produces mushroom flavour products in powder and liquid form to be used by the food industry. .spore.nl Information on special plastic bags for spawn production and on international training activities. E-mail for training courses to [email protected] Mushroom Society: www.worldmushroomsociety.com The objective of the WSMBMP is to promote knowledge related to mushroom biology and mushroom products. W: www.fungitec.com, Website in English and Spanish Advisory, workshops, short courses and mushroom projects. Market and market channel Small-scale growers should focus on the local markets. Export mar-kets are far too complicated, even when they join forces and cooperate with each other. It is important to know what is happening on local markets. Three points are to be observed: ? what is the demand, ? who are the suppliers and ? what are the prices paid for the various products. With this knowledge choices can be made about the type of mush-rooms to be grown, location, transport to the markets, packaging and vides a good overall view of many aspects of mushroom production, including that of hallucinogenic Psilocybin and Agaricus. Mycelium running: how mushrooms can help save the world, by P.Stamets, Berkeley, CA:Ten Speed 2005. US$ 35 ISBN 1580085792, ISBN9781580085793. A comprehensive guide which capitalises the digestive power of my-celium and unveils new methods for growing mushrooms. Has chap-ters on nutrition, medicinal properties, log and stump culture and natu-ral culture, using easy to use and low-tech techniques, and much more. In total, 28 species are fully described. Heavily referenced and beauti-fully illustrated. La culture des champignons, J.M. Olivier e.a, 1991. ISBN 2-200-37242-6 An introduction to the larger fungi of South Central Africa, 1994 by L. Ryvarden, G.D. Piearce and A.J. Masuka. Published by Baobab, Zimbabwe. ISBN 0-908311-52-4 A guide to the most common edible and poisonous mushroom species in Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe. 200 pages, coloured pictures. Con-tains more information than Edible mushrooms of Tanzania. Mushroom Cultivation, Appropriate technology for mushroom growers, third edition, by Peter Oei, Backhuys Publishers, Leiden The Netherlands. Also available from CTA = no. 1146, 40 credit points. ISBN 90-5782-137-0 Useful addresses ASEMM African Society for Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms E: [email protected] Christiaens Group Witveldweg 104-106-108, 5961 ND Horst, The Netherlands T: + 31 77 399 9500, E: [email protected] F: +31773999561, W: www.christiaensgroup.com The Christiaens Group consists of 3 divisions: Construction, Controls and Machines. CNC Postbus 13, 6590 AA Gennep, The Netherlands T: + 31 (0) 485 51 6541, F: + 31 (0) 485 51 7823 E: [email protected], W: www.cnc.nl A large number of the Dutch mushroom growers is associated in the Coöperatieve Nederlandse Champignonkwekersvereniging U.A. Its cornerstones are the production of full-grown compost and casing soil for the cultivation of mushrooms through CNC Grondstoffen B.V. and the canning of mushrooms through Lutèce B.V. C Point P.O.Box 6035, 5960 AA Horst, The Netherlands T: +31 77 3984555, F: + 31 77 3984160 E: [email protected] , W: www.cpoint.nl Hoving Holland ISMS Secretary PO Box 11171, Centurion, Pretoria 0046, South Africa Scelta BV C Point, Gicom b.v. Heymansstraat 35, 5927 NP Venlo, The Netherlands T: +31 77 324 10 20, F: + 31 77 324 1029 E: Spore Mushroom Products / Stichting ECO Consult Gargouille 1, 4007 RE Tiel, Netherlands T: + 31 (0)6 515 42 882, F: 0344 630 225 P.O.International society for mushroom science W: www Market and market channel Small-scale growers should focus on the local markets. Export mar-kets are far too complicated, even when they join forces and cooperate with each other. It is important to know what is happening on local markets. Three points are to be observed: ? what is the demand, ? who are the suppliers and ? what are the prices paid for the various products. With this knowledge choices can be made about the type of mush-rooms to be grown, location, transport to the markets, packaging and vides a good overall view of many aspects of mushroom production, including that of hallucinogenic Psilocybin and Agaricus. Mycelium running: how mushrooms can help save the world, by P.Stamets, Berkeley, CA:Ten Speed 2005. US$ 35 ISBN 1580085792, ISBN9781580085793. A comprehensive guide which capitalises the digestive power of my-celium and unveils new methods for growing mushrooms. Has chap-ters on nutrition, medicinal properties, log and stump culture and natu-ral culture, using easy to use and low-tech techniques, and much more. In total, 28 species are fully described. Heavily referenced and beauti-fully illustrated. La culture des champignons, J.M. Olivier e.a, 1991. ISBN 2-200-37242-6 An introduction to the larger fungi of South Central Africa, 1994 by L. Ryvarden, G.D. Piearce and A.J. Masuka. Published by Baobab, Zimbabwe. ISBN 0-908311-52-4 A guide to the most common edible and poisonous mushroom species in Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe. 200 pages, coloured pictures. Con-tains more information than Edible mushrooms of Tanzania. Mushroom Cultivation, Appropriate technology for mushroom growers, third edition, by Peter Oei, Backhuys Publishers, Leiden The Netherlands. Also available from CTA = no. 1146, 40 credit points. ISBN 90-5782-137-0 Useful addresses ASEMM African Society for Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms E: [email protected] Christiaens Group Witveldweg 104-106-108, 5961 ND Horst, The Netherlands T: + 31 77 399 9500, E: [email protected] F: +31773999561, W: www.christiaensgroup.com The Christiaens Group consists of 3 divisions: Construction, Controls and Machines. CNC Postbus 13, 6590 AA Gennep, The Netherlands T: + 31 (0) 485 51 6541, F: + 31 (0) 485 51 7823 E: [email protected], W: www.cnc.nl A large number of the Dutch mushroom growers is associated in the Coöperatieve Nederlandse Champignonkwekersvereniging U.A. Its cornerstones are the production of full-grown compost and casing soil for the cultivation of mushrooms through CNC Grondstoffen B.V. and the canning of mushrooms through Lutèce B.V. C Point P.O.Box 6035, 5960 AA Horst, The Netherlands T: +31 77 3984555, F: + 31 77 3984160 E: [email protected] , W: www.cpoint.nl Hoving Holland ISMS Secretary PO Box 11171, Centurion, Pretoria 0046, South Africa Scelta BV C Point, Gicom b.v. Heymansstraat 35, 5927 NP Venlo, The Netherlands T: +31 77 324 10 20, F: + 31 77 324 1029 E: Spore Mushroom Products / Stichting ECO Consult Gargouille 1, 4007 RE Tiel, Netherlands T: + 31 (0)6 515 42 882, F: 0344 630 225 P.O.International society for mushroom science W: www presentation of the products. Who are the customers and what are they T: +27 12 665 2210; F: +27 12 665 2212 presentation of the products. Who are the customers and what are they T: +27 12 665 2210; F: +27 12 665 2212 interested in. interested in. "}],"sieverID":"c58a08c3-2fe1-4739-be9e-7e260b93004f","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"055bc387e4c7ab35feb98c61bed15161","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H042047.pdf"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Developing Procedures for Assessment of Ecological Status of Indian River Basins in the Context of Environmental Water Requirements Groundwater Situation in Urban India: Overview, Opportunities and Challenges","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Groundwater is a major source of water and is intensively exploited for private, domestic and industrial uses in many urban centers of the developing world. At the same time, the subsurface has also come to serve as the receptor for much of the urban and industrial wastewater and for solid waste disposal (World Bank 1998). Groundwater plays a fundamental role in shaping the economic and social health of many urban areas. However, no comprehensive statistics exist on the proportion of urban water supply world-wide derived from groundwater. It is estimated that more than 1 billion urban dwellers in Asia and 150 million in Latin America depend directly or indirectly upon well, spring and borehole sources (World Bank 1998a)."},{"index":2,"size":293,"text":"A number of factors determine the extent to which a city would depend upon groundwater to meet its water demand. The first set of factors can be called physical/ geographic-availability of sufficient groundwater either from natural recharge due to combination of good rainfall and receptive subsurface geology or from other sources such as canals, good aquifers that can store and transmit groundwater, availability of good quality groundwater that is not subject to constraints such as saline water intrusion. The second set of factors is determined by the ability of the urban area to cope with its water demand from external sources. This is driven by the economic scarcity rather than physical scarcity, or the latter may compound the former. In the event of physical scarcity, cities/ towns will still continue to grow with its buffer capacity. The available empirical evidence suggests that, by and large, cities have been able to obtain supplies, often at a greater cost than is necessary but without significantly compromising their ability to expand and prosper even in the most unhelpful locations (Molle and Berkoff 2006). Hence, water supply to any urban center is determined by its physical characteristics or economic and financial capacity. In the competition for water, cities generally win over agriculture (Molle and Berkoff 2006), but when it comes to competition between two cities or towns the dynamics are very different. Negotiation for water is more difficult for smaller urban centers that have lesser say on the water stored at distant reservoirs. In contrast, the larger urban areas 1 backed by population mass, financial capacity and political influence can attract surface water from distances of hundreds of kilometers. Newly developing urban centers (class-III to class-VI 2 ) also have to depend upon their local water resources."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"On the overlapping of these two sets of factors, one can arrive at the general level of dependence of urban areas on groundwater and their vulnerability at present and in the future in meeting their water demands from external sources. An accumulation of many such vulnerable urban areas within a small region or within a single river basin also implies an additional stress on water resources in the region and possible diversions of water from other uses such as irrigation or even from other regions. Therefore, one can also envisage such areas as those with high competition in the future between urban and other uses."},{"index":4,"size":159,"text":"How would such patterns of dependence and vulnerability of urban areas to groundwater emerge? One can expect that a dominant factor driving these patterns would be the hydrogeological conditions. In India, the peninsular areas with basaltic and crystalline formations, unsuitable for groundwater exploitation, would exhibit relatively greater dependence on external surface water sources than the northern urban areas over the alluvial belt. On these would be superimposed factors such as local rainfall, location within canal commands, problems of coastal salinity, proximity to reservoirs etc. The peninsular river basins, therefore, on an average would exhibit higher proportion of urban areas depending on surface water than the northern urban areas, which have good access to local groundwater supplies from rich aquifers augmented by natural and canal recharge. But, the rich alluvial aquifers of northern India, where groundwater overexploitation has already taken place by irrigators and/or urban centers, will have to tap new water sources (surface or groundwater) in the near future."},{"index":5,"size":79,"text":"This paper analyzes the impact and effect of 'supply-based' urban water management strategies and endeavors to identify, using some assumptions and hypothesis, the urban pockets or regions, which may face problems relating to groundwater and eventually become a black-hole for any imported water in the vicinity in India. Although there are two sets of factors -economical and physical -that mainly govern groundwater use in any urban area, the present study is restricted only to the physical aspects of it."},{"index":6,"size":85,"text":"1 The census of 1961 adopted a two-fold categorization to identify urban centers. First, the settlements that were given urban civic status like corporation, municipality and cantonment by state governments were identified as statutory towns. Second, three demographic criteria were applied to identify the census towns. These were (a) population size of 5,000 or more, (b) density of at least 400 persons per square kilometer, and (c) at least 75 % of the male workers to be engaged outside agriculture (Sivaramakrishnan, Kundu and Singh 2005)."}]},{"head":"Hypothesis","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"This paper seeks to enquire a causal relationship between the physical environment and urban groundwater use through a spatial analysis. It is aimed to identify cities already undergoing, or may face in the near future, the physical scarcity of groundwater for use. This physical scarcity of the cities can be determined based on the geographical factors i.e., rainfall and recharge rate, hydrogeology, water deficit or rich river basin, population size, present groundwater utilization within city and its surroundings etc. "}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"The study is based on secondary data. The main data used here for the analysis is from a recent study conducted by the National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA), Government of India, which gives the status of water supply and sewerage in more than 300 cities consisting of metropolitan areas, class-I and class-II cities across different states (NIUA 2005). In addition to this, information on urban water for many cities and towns was obtained from various individuals: NGOs' and previous IWMI's studies i.e., total urban water supply, groundwater and surface water supply etc; reports of the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), Central Water Commission (CWC) and National Commission on Integrated Water Resources Development (NCIWRD). The census of India and irrigation census have also been used as auxiliary information."}]},{"head":"About NIUA Study","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"A questionnaire-based survey of 304 cities and the urban authorities was conducted by the National Institute of Urban Affairs, Union Ministry of Urban Development (NIUA 2005) during 1999 to 2002 and the report was published in 2006. The study encompassed 22 mega-cities, 164 class-I cities and 117 class-II cities. The data collected pertains to the quantum of water supply, groundwater and surface water supply, sources of water supply, standards adopted by urban water supply, water supply duration, demand-supply and deficit etc. The data of urban centers was superimposed on GIS layers of river basins, aquifers, district groundwater situation (CGWB 2004) etc. (Figure 1)."}]},{"head":"Findings and Discussion","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Hydrogeology","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Subsurface geology beneath the urban areas plays a key role for the dependence on groundwater. The alluvium plains bestowed with water-rich aquifers and/or with high groundwater recharge either naturally owing to good rainfall or from canals, support urban centers through high groundwater potential. Urban centers situated above crystalline rock or basalt will not be able to support groundwater development, due to its subsurface storage limitations. For example, urban centers in southern peninsular India are heavily dependent upon surface water, as scope for groundwater development is limited owing to hydrogeological conditions."},{"index":2,"size":199,"text":"Out of the total water supply, the proportion of surface water (SW) in the urban centers above hard rock geology such as basalt, crystalline rocks and limestone, was 92 %, 79 %and 95 %, respectively (Table 1). These three regions cover 15 %, 30 % and 3 %, respectively of total geographical area of the country. The total available storage of groundwater bodies in hard-rock aquifers is strictly limited by their weathering characteristics and water-bearing properties. These aquifer systems (which comprise principally such formations as the weathered granitic basement complex and the Deccan Trap Basalts and occur largely outside the major irrigation canal commands) are the worst affected in terms of resource depletion (Foster and Garduño 2007). Such subsurface can barely support smaller towns (class IV to VI) with its groundwater resources. Hence, larger the city in such a region the more would be the dependence on surface water. Interestingly, basaltic hard-rock region has the highest urban population. Any additional urban growth will have to be supported by reallocating the irrigation water. This means that SW irrigation will be under constant pressure from the urban growth which and irrigation in these regions will have to improve water use efficiency."}]},{"head":"River Basins","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"River basin wise water utilization in agriculture, domestic and industrial uses as well as rural drinking water has been analyzed in Amarasinghe et al. 2005. We have used CGWB 2004 data for the analysis (Table 2). Looking at the basin-wise GW supply of the urban centers, Ganga, Brahmani-Baitarn and Indus have the highest proportion of GW supply -more than 66 %. Among sample cities, Tapi River basin has no GW supply, while, Mahi, Pennar and Sabarmati also have GW supply above 40 %. Groundwater supply also depends on the aquifer. Several river basins such as Krishna, Godavari, Cauvery and EFR2, in which major part of urban water supply comes from surface water, also have relatively high urbanization. Sabarmati and Luni have high urbanization and also high dependence on groundwater."}]},{"head":"Groundwater Dependence Versus Population of the City","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":189,"text":"The size of the city is a strong indicator of how much surface water it can import or how much it has to rely on local sources of water. Urban centers with a larger population have more negotiating power for the quantity of water needed. In India, 56 % of metropolitan, class-I and class-II cities are dependant on groundwater either fully or partially (NIUA 2005). Towns smaller than this mostly do not have access to imported water (mostly surface water from the nearby reservoirs). Hence, overall dependence on groundwater for urban water supply in India is very high. Larger urban spots (million plus cities) on the Indian map are growing rapidly. But, many small spots (class-I and class-II cities) are emerging on the map, at a rate much faster than the million plus cities (Mahmood and Kundu 2004). Day by day, the dependence of urban authorities on groundwater within the city limits and from surrounding areas has been on the rise (Londhe et al. 2004;Phansalkar et al. 2005). There has been a rise in private tubewells within the city as well as tankers supplying drinking water to urban areas."},{"index":2,"size":358,"text":"If we plot population growth with time and urban water supply of any city, it can be seen that, initially, there will be higher dependence on local water resources i.e., water bodies, tapping shallow aquifers using dug wells etc. As population grows, local water resources may no longer be able to fulfill the needs and hence, as a result, chase for declining groundwater levels increases using bore-wells and tubewells. That is where the city crosses the equilibrium (column three from left to right in Figure 2). As urban centers continue to grow, the volume and proportion of imported water increases and water supplies that were originally obtained from shallow unconfined aquifers may no longer be sufficient, because (a) the city outgrows the supply capacity of the local aquifer; (b) often quality, especially of GW deteriorates. Hence, if the local water sources are insufficient in quantity and/or quality for urban domestic use, the city needs to import water from beyond its urban limits (World Bank 1998a;World Bank 2003). Once a city manages to get assured water supply from external sources, it gradually abandons or reduces the local water resources. Eventually, city's claim for external sources becomes stronger and larger (last three columns in Figure 2). Thus, importing of water becomes inevitable for any city if it continues to grow. The time may vary from city to city depending upon the availability of local water resources in terms of quality and quantity. If this does not happen, then the city's development may get smothered. For instance, Ahmedabad had started importing water since 1980 and it has kept on increasing; Kolkatta is a classic example. Perennial Hugli River is a continuous source for groundwater recharge. Hence, theoretically, using GW for urban water supply seems to be the most practical option. According to CGWB (Rainwater Harvesting Dossiers, CSE, Undated), due to GW mining 3 Kolkatta is on a 'highway' to disaster. Total groundwater extraction is 1,123 MLD against the safe yield of 204 MLD, which has resulted in land subsidence in many parts of the city. Hence, the city is now forced to import water (SW or GW) beyond its urban limits."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Now, if we plot many urban centers, based on the population size and source of water supply, we find that larger the population size of urban centers the lesser would be the dependence on local water supplies. As towns transform into cities and mega-cities dependence on external sources of water increases."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"Figure 3 shows the hypothetical lay out of the population size of urban centers versus dependence on local water resources. Based on this hypothesis we plotted around 315 cities (based on NIUA 2005 and other individual studies) and the result is shown in Figure 4. Among higher groundwater dependent million plus cities, Jaipur fetches nearly 90 % of its total urban water supply from a groundwater reservoir that is around 100 kilometers away. Ludhiana in Punjab receives all its urban water supply from the groundwater reserves. The city, at present is sustaining on its economic capacity. District level groundwater development is 144 % (CGWB 2004). 3 GW mining -when groundwater withdrawal increases the recharge."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"Correlation between the size of city and its dependence on groundwater is indicated in Table 3. Average dependence of the urban centers on groundwater covered under NIUA 2005 study shows that it increases from 12 % to 36 % to 49 % with the decrease in city size from mega-cities (one million plus) to class I cities to class II towns."},{"index":6,"size":585,"text":"It should be noted that, these figures are for the water supplied by urban authorities and not the actual use. Proportion of informal water supply is higher in smaller towns than in the bigger cities (NIUA 2005 and personal observation during IWMI's field work). The coverage of urban water supply system was found to be 98 %, 91 % and 89 % in million plus cities, class-I and class-II, respectively. It is a commonly observed phenomenon that population not covered in the formal water supply system often depends upon groundwater i.e., individual dug-wells, borewells, tubewells, hand-pumps, tankers from peri-urban areas etc. For instance, in the year 2004, Chennai wastewater generation was three to four times the piped water production, and in May of the same year, when the Metro Water Board could not distribute piped water at all, 11,000 tankers were crisscrossing the city to provide minimum quantities of water to households and businesses. These coping strategies have obvious physical and environmental limits, as the water is supplied from a large aquifer outside the city (World Bank 2006). For larger cities, such cases are documented but for the smaller towns it is a routine. Hence, dependence on groundwater would be much higher than the plot shows. Similarly, coverage of water supply does not necessarily mean adequate water supply. According to NIUA 2005, average water supply was found to be 182 liters per capita per day (LPCD), 124 LPCD and 83 LPCD in million plus cities, class-I and class-II towns. Thus, undersupplied quantity of water is managed from the groundwater sources (Table 4). However, the overall dependence of these urban areas on groundwater for their water needs as compared with surface water sources shows wide variation across the country. Which type of cities shows greater dependence on groundwater? On a general basis, larger cities have easier access to surface water sources from lakes or from reservoirs located possibly far away from the city limits e.g., New Delhi, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Bangalore. However, this is not true for the smaller cities which have high to full dependence on groundwater resources unless they have nearby sources of surface water e.g., Anand, Kolar, Barabanki (Anand et al. 2005;Raju et al. 2004). As mentioned, these smaller towns (class-I and class-II) in India are showing maximum growth in population as compared with both million plus cities and the new smaller towns (class-IV to class-VI). The degree of vulnerability of these high-groundwater dependant cities varies with geographical and hydrologic factors, on the nature of local groundwater resources available and alternative use for that. In the regions where there is already a high level of groundwater development from irrigation, groundwater-starved cities will/are pose(ing) competition in respect of irrigation, for example northern and western Rajasthan, North Gujarat etc. High competition can impose a limit on growth on both irrigation and urban development in these areas unless there is better management of the local groundwater resources. In addition to this, many of these locations are surrounded by high industrial polluting units, which degrade the quality of groundwater apart from existing contaminants. In the context of possible interbasin transfer of waters, these high-groundwater starved urban centers would claim their strong candidature on the arriving water. There is a potential question of allocation of imported surface water between the highly groundwater exploited agricultural areas and developing urban centers. This aspect of urban dependence on groundwater and increasing need for further water is an important aspect to be kept in mind before developing water management at the basin level."}]},{"head":"Groundwater Quality and Degree of Development","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Groundwater quality can easily be deteriorated by industrial effluents, urban wastewater, overuse of pesticides by irrigators, and seawater intrusion either directly from casual disposal Notes: SW = Surface Water, GW = Groundwater or indirectly as seepage from treatment lagoons or infiltration from surface watercourses or canals. Another potential water quality threat is sedimentary formation, from which water is tapped, which varies over a wide range depending on adjacent rock types and mineral compositions of rocks. Often overexploitation of groundwater magnifies inherent salts i.e., TDS, fluorides and chlorides. Such factors greatly influence groundwater use. For example, in many cities/towns of north, central and south Gujarat (due to inherent salinity) and coastal Saurashtra (due to seawater intrusion and also inherent salinity) many households have installed water treatment plants at individual or community level for drinking water use. For those who cannot afford/manage to install have negative health impacts. (Indu, Sunderrajan and Shah 2006)."}]},{"head":"Importance of Wastewater and Storm Water in Urban Areas","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":294,"text":"According to the World Bank 1998, out of the new water any water supply project introduced in the urban areas, around 90 % subsequently becomes wastewater, which must be collected, treated and disposed of in an environmentally sound manner. It has become apparent that common wastewater handling and reuse practices (which are frequently uncontrolled and unplanned) generate high rates of infiltration to underlying aquifers, especially in sandy alluvium. Thus, for smaller towns, where reliance on groundwater is higher, incidental infiltration of wastewater often gives volumetrically the most significant quantities for local 'reuse' which is rarely planned and may not even be recognized (Foster et al. 2006). You can potentially improve wastewater quality and store it for future use or else it can also pollute aquifers used for potable water supply. For example, cities' subsurface with sandy alluvium (Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab etc.,) where the water table is very deep, on-site sewerage (dry-toilet, composting toilet, cesspool, septic tank and subsurface infiltration, soak pits/wells/ponds, treatment/recharge lagoons etc.,) or sewerage pipes with perforation can be a good option for (a) groundwater recharge and (b) reducing the cost of wastewater disposal and treatment, for example, Kolkata wetland management (KMC). On the contrary, cities in alluvium of Gangetic Basin i.e., UP, Bihar, West Bengal etc., with very shallow water levels should have good a sewerage system with ideally no leakage to avoid any GW contamination. Hence, a better sewerage system is a prerequisite for the sustainable use of GW in the cities of these regions. For cities with lined sewerage network, properly treated urban wastewater can be reused for irrigation and/or by industries as well, as it can become a very good source for aquifer recharge. Hence, wastewater, could then serve as a 'new' source of water (Biswas 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Similarly, storm water drainage arrangement in conjunction with the ground conditions and rainfall regime provides a good source of recharge. Where the subsoil infiltration capacity is adequate, the ground is the most economical receptor for urban runoff, thereby avoiding the need for costly surface drainage measures (World Bank 1998a)."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"This area has major implications in terms of future approaches to groundwater and wastewater management in many rapidly-developing urban centers (World Bank 2003). Provision of urban water supply, even if it becomes universal by 2015 as per the Millennium Development Goals, will not be sustainable by itself unless adequate arrangements are made for wastewater collection, treatment and disposal (Biswas 2006)."}]},{"head":"Urbanization and Water Management","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Urbanization in India","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"It should also be noted that, it is not only that urbanization is taking place in great magnitude in class-I cities 4 , but, the urban centers are also increasing in terms of absolute numbers. Strategically for the water sector, these towns are important for the investment point of view. Most of the class-I and class-II cities face day-to-day problems of financial crunch, low returns on investments, inadequate operating and maintenance expertise and poor civic and infrastructure facilities. Such urban authorities also need reform (World Bank 1998b). Per capita water demand for class-I cities increases dramatically by almost 1.5 times compared with other smaller class cities from 150 LPCD to 220 LPCD (NCIWRD 1999)."}]},{"head":"Urban Agglomeration","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":311,"text":"Another important stand-out in urbanization is the increasing trend of 'megalopolis' or 'suburbanism'. The cities tend to sprawl. The second cadres of the cities are coming up around the mega-cities. The reason is high prices in the urban core and traditional suburbs drive people to distant suburbs. This pattern owes largely to the preference of middle and the working classes for privacy and space, while elites crave for better living environment which encourages urban sprawl. For corporates, it is taxes that force to keep their godowns and other commercial activities outside municipal limits. In fact, the new sub-urbanism seeks not to fight market forces, but to address the problems. These are not mere bedroom communities with malls, but boast well-developed business parks, town centers and in many cases notably, large amount of well-preserved or developed natural open spaces. Majority of these sprawls are now turning into 'garden cities'. For instance, around Delhi there are peripheral cities emerging to solve all the requirements of the big cities. One key that becomes crucial in this regard is the excellent transportation, which is also argued by Faroohar 2006. Burgeoning IT hubs outside Delhi like Gurgaon, Noida and Gaziabad serve as new bedroom communities and all sit on good roads into the capital. More examples are Virar, Vashi (Navi Mumbai), Pune for Mumbai, Bopal, Vejalpur, Science city for Ahmedabad. Most of these peripheral or second cities depend heavily on groundwater. These cities are normally not covered under municipal corporations, especially for the provision of water supply and sewerage infrastructure. That is why it is very important that these second cities or urban agglomerations need to be covered under urban water supply schemes. Recent amendment in Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (GOI 2006) for inclusion of city's periurban areas, out growths and urban corridors and other peripheral areas is a step towards addressing the issue."}]},{"head":"Linkage Between Urbanization, Infrastructure Development, Tourism and Water","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"With the increase in urbanization and with better infrastructure facilities i.e., roads, electricity, communication etc., tourism activities shoot up. New trend of buying properties for the vacations and holidays in near by hill-stations, lake side etc., is emerging among urban elites. For, example, domestic tourists from Delhi visiting Mussourie, Shimla, Haridwar increase during weekends; Similarly mountains Abu and Udaipur for Ahmedabad; Lonawala, Khandala for Mumbai and Pune elites. Such tourist destinations are increasing in number. Many of such tourist towns are witnessing unexpected growth and unable to cope with water demand from their local water resources. Often tourist destinations are located in geographically adverse conditions. In spite of that, such towns can become black-holes to attract water from distant sources."}]},{"head":"Future Work and Conclusion","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Methodology for Vulnerability Analysis","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"What we have presented in this paper is the current status and potential threat of groundwater use in urban centers of India and our conceptual picture of how different geographical factors contribute to vulnerability in terms of urban groundwater. In this section, we outline a proposed procedure to evaluate this vulnerability based on various factors. This methodology utilizes data that is mostly available, but some need to be generated as well. The important factors are: (a) level of current dependence on groundwater for overall urban water use; (b) level of groundwater development in surrounding block/district; (c) average distance to external sources of water; (d) level of development of river basin; and (e) hydrogeological factors e.g., specific yield. A combination of these factors will enable us to identify the current hotspots and future attractors of excess or imported water in any river basin. Some examples follow:"},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"1. Bharuch is a class-I city in Gujarat which uses 90 % of surface water since the local groundwater is overexploited and contains a high concentration of saline. In the surrounding districts groundwater development is around 50 % (source: 2004 Groundwater statistics of CGWB), but it lies within Narmada and Mahi river basins which still have water available for supply to the city. In that case, the city is not under further high stress as far as groundwater vulnerability is concerned."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"2. Ludhiana is a metropolitan city in Punjab, which completely relies on groundwater sources. The district level groundwater development is 144 % and it lies within the Indus River basin that is almost closed and highly exploited. The groundwater in this city is highly vulnerable to further exploitation and is already suffering from severe pollution from industries."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"3. Barielly is a class-I city in Uttar Pradesh, which receives 100 % of its supplies from groundwater. The district level groundwater development is 86 % and it lies within the Ganges Basin. In this case, even though there is a high dependence on groundwater and high degree of groundwater development, perpetual recharge from canal system that contributes 40 % of the groundwater recharge in this area (source: 2004 Groundwater Statistics of CGWB), means that there is no current high vulnerability of groundwater exploitation in this town."},{"index":5,"size":233,"text":"On a macro-scale we conclude that the level of dependence on groundwater is greater for smaller sized towns, which have lesser power to demand and have lesser economic strength to pay for water sources that are located at distant places. Though, smaller towns with all the adverse conditions would eventually win over other uses for urban water supply. Rajasthan's Indira Gandhi Nahar (IGNP) Canal is a case in point. The proportion of drinking water has increased over time and will continue so. Gradually all the cities, towns as well as villages in northern and western Rajasthan are being covered by IGNP water. We also see a marked difference spatially in dependence on groundwater with the northern urban areas, which are located on rich alluvial aquifers and get good recharge from canals, highly dependant on local groundwater for their overall water usage. On the other hand, peninsular towns in hard-rock regions have lesser opportunity to develop groundwater resources. To sustain the growth they have to depend on external sources. In case of nonavailability of such external sources of water, this can impose a limit to overall growth of the urban areas. Integration of all the factors such as hydrogeological, within or outside canal command area, rainfall and recharge, population size, proximity to water bodies, urban out-growths, and utilization of wastewater would help planners in designing better and sustainable urban water supply and sanitation systems."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Location of urban centers (taken for the study) on the aquifer and basin map of India. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Hypothetical plot-population growth with time versus water supply. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Hypothetical plot -population size versus dependence on local water resources. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Groundwater dependence versus city/town's population. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Relationship between aquifer and surface water supply. Aquifers No. of Average of % of % Urban AquifersNo. ofAverage of % of% Urban sample cities SW supply in population ** sample citiesSW supply inpopulation ** urban centers urban centers Alluvium and Sandstone discourse 78 55.90 27.50 % Alluvium and Sandstone discourse7855.9027.50 % Aquifer in Hilly Areas 19 52.66 28.28 % Aquifer in Hilly Areas1952.6628.28 % Basalt 43 91.77 39.56 % Basalt4391.7739.56 % Crystalline Rocks 70 78.90 28.22 % Crystalline Rocks7078.9028.22 % Extensive Alluvium 84 25.16 21.93 % Extensive Alluvium8425.1621.93 % Limestone 2 94.89 23.70 % Limestone294.8923.70 % Overall 296 57.88 27.33 % Overall29657.8827.33 % "},{"text":"Table 2 . Basin-wise groundwater (GW) supply in a percentage. Basin No. of Ave. % of % Urban BasinNo. ofAve. % of% Urban sample cities GW supply in cities population ** sample citiesGW supply in citiespopulation ** Barak 5 11.34 Not available Barak511.34Not available Brahmani_Baitarn 3 66.67 13.73 % Brahmani_Baitarn366.6713.73 % Brahmaputra 5 21.82 14.38 % Brahmaputra521.8214.38 % Cauvery 17 7.35 38.08 % Cauvery177.3538.08 % EFR1 7 22.02 20.96 % EFR1722.0220.96 % EFR2 18 22.20 46.57 % EFR21822.2046.57 % Ganga 109 66.94 22.48 % Ganga10966.9422.48 % Godavari 18 5.37 25.66 % Godavari185.3725.66 % Indus 21 66.46 28.48 % Indus2166.4628.48 % Krishna 26 14.39 33.07 % Krishna2614.3933.07 % Luni 16 35.83 31.42 % Luni1635.8331.42 % Mahanadi 5 27.55 20.29 % Mahanadi527.5520.29 % Mahi 4 50.74 18.25 % Mahi450.7418.25 % Narmada 5 28.21 28.94 % Narmada528.2128.94 % Pennar 8 47.62 23.92 % Pennar847.6223.92 % Sabarmati 3 40.93 36.37 % Sabarmati340.9336.37 % Tapi 5 0.00 34.12 % Tapi50.0034.12 % WFR 21 19.05 47.17 % WFR2119.0547.17 % Total 296 41.10 27.33 % Total29641.1027.33 % "},{"text":"Table 3 . Percentage water drawn from surface and ground sources -1999. Source:Based on NIUA study (2005) and other individual studies Source:Based on NIUA study (2005) and other individual studies Size class of urban centers %Water drawn from Size class of urban centers%Water drawn from Surface source Ground source Surface sourceGround source Metropolitan cities 88 12 Metropolitan cities8812 Class I cities 64 36 Class I cities6436 Class II towns 52 49 Class II towns5249 Total no. of cities/towns 78 22 Total no. of cities/towns7822 Source:Based on NIUA study 2005 Source:Based on NIUA study 2005 "},{"text":"Table 4 . Share of ground and surface water source -1999 (no. of cities/towns). Size class Size class of urban of urban "}],"sieverID":"009d19fa-6d02-4ff5-86ed-23c0653b5c2e","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"059e99d3fafdcbdc20de9c607d73286f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b11e2e30-5fdb-46ff-bef3-a6726ef52fd6/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Participatory mapping of foodscapes in informal settlements in urban areas of Kenya","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Project Title: P339 -Better evidence on foodborne disease in target regions Description of the innovation: Multiple approaches -participatory geographic information system tools, including food mapping with mobile apps and high-resolution community aerial views with balloon mapping -were combined to capture and contextualize local knowledge of the foodscape. These multiple visual representations of foodscapes make local food vendors, and the risks they face, visible, and can be a useful tool for community-led priority setting and advocacy with local authorities. "}]},{"head":"New Innovation: No","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Innovation type: Social ScienceStage of innovation: Stage 2: successful piloting (PIL -end of piloting phase) Pilot study was completed in Kenya and results published. In this pilot, the resulting data on hazardous areas in relation to food spaces and infrastructure provision allowed local communities to prioritise areas for regular clean-up activities and assisted advocacy to improve these places in cooperation with local authorities.Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: ILRI -International Livestock Research InstituteNames of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage:• University of Liverpool• SDI -Slum Dwellers International • UCL -University College London • ILRI -International Livestock Research Institute • IIED -International Institute for Environment and Development Milestones: No milestones associated Sub-IDOs: • 17 -Reduced biological and chemical hazards in the food system Contributing Centers/PPA partners: • ILRI -International Livestock Research Institute "}],"sieverID":"ad50aa2f-115d-42fb-b9b8-5f9c1d33d897","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"05e918364918e82a322a2cb9697f957b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ea158bb7-a79e-454f-ac30-a49873c99d3d/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"Adoption and impacts of improved post-harvest technologies on food security and welfare of maize-farming households in Tanzania: a comparative assessment","keywords":["Sustainable intensification","Food loss mitigation","Post-harvest technologies","Impacts","Farm households"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"Smallholder farms in East and Southern Africa provide food, income, and employment to millions of rural families. For this reason, the deployment of affordable best practices and innovative arrangements to enhance income and food security through reduced wastage and prevention of food quality loss among this group of farmers is crucial. Following the renewed interest in agriculture during the last decade, governments and development agencies focused on scaling-up of investments in post-harvest food loss (PHL) reduction as a critical action point for improving food security and welfare objectives while reducing pressure on natural resources as envisioned in the sustainable development goals (UN, 2015). PHLs are exceptionally high in developing countries due to inadequate harvesting, handling, processing, and storage techniques and practices (Ali et al., 2021). Therefore, the deployment of affordable best practices and innovative arrangements to reduce PHLs is crucial. In particular, the critical points where the most significant losses occur must be addressed with proven technologies, taking into account the objectives of the various food system actors (Cattaneo et al., 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"PHLs deny farmers opportunities to increase returns on investment, weakening the capacity to secure improved livelihoods. They involve opportunity cost, resource misallocation, and wastage (Tesfaye & Tirivayi, 2018). The losses decrease food supplies and diminish the market value, nutritional content, and safety (Affognon et al., 2015). The causes of food losses at various stages of the post-production chain are varied but generally involve a complex interaction of biological, physical, and socio-economic factors. Post-harvest operations exacerbate these interactions by their tedious, labor-intensive, and time-consuming nature. In Tanzania, drying, threshing, and storage are critical points where economically significant grain PHLs occur (Abass et al., 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":280,"text":"Proper drying ensures that the grain will endure threshing and storage without spoilage. Drying is also part of the grain trading system (De Groote et al., 2021). The shelled grain should be dried to ≤ 13.5% moisture under safe conditions to avoid contaminations with fungi. Many smallholder farmers dry grain directly on the ground, which also contaminates it with soil-borne residues. The process is slow and encourages spillage and pest attacks. Grain losses equivalent to 2-9.5% occur in various African countries during drying (Hodges et al., 2014). The Africa RISING (Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation) 1 program validated and promoted the GrainPro Collapsible Dryer Case™ (CDC), a plastic sheet envelope designed for quicker and protected sun-drying. In use, the reinforced polyvinyl chloride sheet (optimized for solar energy absorption) is spread out, and the produce (cobs, pods, or the threshed grains) is placed on top. In bad weather (rains), the tarpaulin is folded to enclose the produce in a zipped envelope. This action saves labor and time needed to gather and move the produce away; the drying is continued after the rain by simply opening the envelope again. Farmers adapt the technology in several ways; some use damp-proof coating sheets available from local hardware shops, while others use canvas or stitched woven polypropylene sheets that ably protect the produce from direct contact with soil. The use of the CDC® decreased maize grain drying time by 28%, avoided loss of 32 kg/ton of grain, and reduced impurities (30%) and moldy grain (42%) (IITA, 2019). In Kenya, simple plastic sheets for grain drying lowered aflatoxin contamination by about 50% compared to direct drying on bare ground (Pretari et al., 2019)."},{"index":4,"size":147,"text":"Threshing operations facilitate grain handling, storage, and marketing. As commonly practiced in Tanzania, manual grain threshing is labor-intensive, tiresome, time-consuming, and delays processing for storage (Abass et al., 2014). Significant post-harvest losses also occur through mechanical damage and spillage. In Zimbabwe, up to 3.5% losses occurred during maize shelling, while rice threshing and winnowing operations in Madagascar and Ethiopia were associated with 8.5% and 11% losses, respectively (Hodges et al., 2014). To overcome threshing inefficiencies among smallholder maize producers, Africa RISING validated and promoted a low-cost motorized sheller (4 horsepower, capital cost $630) that completes shelling and grain winnowing work all at once. Using the sheller reduced shelling losses from 6.8% to 2.0%. Farmers who switched to this technology reduced drudgery by 58 -74% (Mutungi et al., 2022) and improved labor efficiency by 77 -90%, saving costs and freeing time to undertake other farm and household activities."},{"index":5,"size":137,"text":"Adequate storage enables households to have a consistent supply of food and increases farmer incomes by enabling them to engage in temporal arbitrage, taking advantage of seasonal price fluctuations (Kotu et al., 2019). Many rural farmers still use traditional storage techniques (Edoh Ognakossan et al., 2016). While easily accessible and cheap, the traditional techniques can fail to protect the stored produce affecting safe food provisioning in the lean season. Africa RISING validated and promoted chemical-free grain storage in hermetic containers (metal silo/plastic silo/hermetic bags). The technologies decreased storage losses by more than 85% (Abass et al., 2018;Mutungi et al., 2020), hence proved to be a valuable tool for addressing food security and income objectives among rural households (Kotu et al., 2019). Furthermore, the technology reduced the likelihood of aflatoxin accumulation 5-eightfold in Kenya (Ng'ang'a et al., 2016)."},{"index":6,"size":134,"text":"Farmers adopt new technologies when they are convinced beyond doubt that using them would better address household objectives such as food security and decent livelihoods (Kotu et al., 2019). To date, evidence on the impacts of post-harvest technologies on various sustainable intensification domains is still needed in sub-Saharan Africa (Affognon et al., 2015;Sheahan & Barrett, 2017). Thus far, the few studies available limit the scope to storage (Brander et al., 2021;Gitonga et al., 2013;Omotilewa et al., 2018;Tesfaye & Tirivayi, 2018). To the extent that economically significant PHLs occur at multiple farm-level stages, extending the grasp of farmers' decision-making processes to other post-harvest technologies is important. Broadly, mechanized shelling (MS) addresses a labor issue, while drying tarpaulins (DT) and airtight storage (AS) address product quality and quantity issues that characterize PHLs. Overlaps, however, do exist."},{"index":7,"size":219,"text":"This study aimed to investigate the differences in farmers' adoption decision behavior for MS, DT, and AS, and assess the potential contribution of the three technologies to rural households' food security and welfare in Tanzania. The study contributes to the literature in the following ways: First, we generate knowledge of farmers' decisions to adopt a suite of postharvest technologies for losses mitigation at the most critical farm-level steps. To our knowledge, not many studies have compared the adoption of multiple post-harvest technologies. Second, we estimate the technologies' food security and welfare benefits and elucidate the factors influencing the outcomes among households. Unlike previous studies, e.g., Gitonga et al. (2013) that established causality between the adoption of post-harvest technologies and welfare outcomes at the household level using methods that only correct for observed characteristics, we employ the endogenous switching regression model (ESRM) to control for both observed and unobserved characteristics. By estimating separate outcome regressions for adopters and non-adopters of each of the three post-harvest technologies using the ESRM, we explore the structural differences between the two groups. We organize the rest of the article as follows: Section 2 describes the data, sampling strategy, and outcome indicators, Section 3 the conceptual and empirical frameworks, Section 4 presents the results and discussion, whereas the last section draws conclusions and policy recommendations."},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"2 Data, sampling strategy and specification of variables"}]},{"head":"Data and sampling strategy","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":200,"text":"This study uses household survey data collected from 579 households across Tanzania's four regions of Manyara, Dodoma, Iringa, and Songwe, where Africa RISING program validated and promoted the three improved postharvest technologies (IPHTs) namely: drying tarpaulins (DT), motorized maize shellers (MS), and air-tight storage containers (AS) in 2013-2020. The survey covered 10 out of 64 intervention wards in four purposively selected districts: Babati (Manyara), Kilolo (Iringa), Kongwa (Dodoma), and Mbozi (Songwe). The wards were selected using probability proportional to size sampling (PPS) and 14 villages were selected randomly. Survey households were selected randomly from village household lists, and one adult member was interviewed using a structured questionnaire prepared for this purpose. In half of the cases, we interviewed male household members (mostly the head), and in the remaining cases, female household members (mostly the spouse or a female head) based on a prior random assignment. Enumerators received training on the theoretical and practical aspects of the IPHTs, and the use of the computer-assisted personal interviewing software (Surveybe ® , EDI Global, United Kingdom) deployed for the survey. All participants received a clear explanation of the survey objectives and were requested to give verbal consent; we interviewed only those who consented."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Apart from post-harvest related data (e.g., awareness, adoption, and cost of IPHTs) the survey collected rich household data such as age, education, and marital status of the household head, size of the household, and assets owned. The survey also collected comprehensive data on crop production, yields and marketing, and household expenditures."}]},{"head":"Outcome variables","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":206,"text":"Food security is a state in which \"all people at all times have the physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet dietary needs and food preferences for productive and healthy life (CFS, 2012). This definition reflects different dimensions, including food availability, access, utilization, and stability. Availability connotes the physical existence of food from own production, held stocks, or market. Food access requires that households have enough economic or physical resources to obtain or produce food in sufficient quantity, quality, and diversity, and concerns household resources, incomes, expenditure, markets, and food prices. Utilization in the socio-economic sense concerns aspects determined by knowledge and habits that shape decisions on what food to produce or purchase and how to prepare, allocate and consume it within the household. Stability concerns the temporal dimension of food security and visualizes a relative constancy in food availability, access, and utilization. Welfare relates to living standards or the economic and social conditions of households and is proxied by measures of consumption or income (Moratti & Natali, 2012). In measuring welfare, consumption is favored over income as individuals derive material well-being from the actual consumption of goods and services rather than receiving income per se (Citro & Michael, 1995)."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"For the present study, we considered four indicatorsmonths of food insecurity (MFI), household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS), and per capita monthly food consumption expenditure (FCE) as measures of food security. As indicator of household welfare, per capita monthly total consumption expenditure (TCE) was used. We constructed these indicators as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"• MFI gave the frequency of household food insecurity in the past year reflecting the availability and stability components. We computed MFI as the average number of months households spent an entire day without three meals due to inadequate food supplies the year preceding the survey. • HFIAS measured the degree of food insecurity by evaluating responses to a set of standard questions representative of three universal domains of food access in terms of a household's anxiety and uncertainty about (i) inadequate food supply; (ii) insufficient quality; and (iii)"},{"index":4,"size":115,"text":"insufficient food intake within a 30-day recall period during the lean period (Coates et al., 2007). HFIAS captures the behavior of being worried about access to quality, quantity, and acceptability of food (Carletto et al., 2013). We calculated the HFIAS (which takes the value of a whole number between 0 and 27) by summing up the codes for each frequency-of-occurrence of nine key food security questions in the three domains as detailed elsewhere (Coates et al., 2007). The higher the score, the more food insecurity (access) the household experienced. • FCE measured the monthly value of the food consumed by household members at home or away from home and captured improvements in household food access."},{"index":5,"size":96,"text":"The FCE was the average value of food consumed per household member from own production, purchase from the market, gifts, in-kind payments, and other sources, including restaurants, canteens, food courts, and street food. All food acquired that was not purchased was valued using the corresponding market prices. • TCE proxied income improvements and reflected households' living standards by capturing asset ownership and other non-consumption expenditures such as contributions to health, education, taxes, social security transfers, or gifts and donations. We estimated the TCE by summing up the food and non-food consumption expenditures divided by household size."}]},{"head":"Explanatory variables","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":257,"text":"The factors that are likely to affect the adoption of IPHTs include age, education, household size, landholding, and asset ownership representing the capital strength of households. The effect of age could go either way; older farmers may adopt IPHTs more readily because they have more dependents, capital, and preferential access to financial resources (Sall et al., 2000), while younger households might have longer planning horizons and therefore more willing to take risks (Adegbola & Gardebroek, 2007). Good education increases adoption through a better ability to interpret technical knowledge and allocate resources. Household size is a proxy for labor availability -studies show larger households are more likely to adopt improved agricultural technologies (Abdulai & Huffman, 2014). Gender influences adoption decisions through differential access to resources and information (Fischer et al., 2021). Other farm and system-level factors, including experience of production shocks, contact with extension, membership to a group, nearness to market, access credit, and agroclimatic conditions, also contribute to farmers decisions to adopt new technologies (Abdulai & Huffman, 2014;Alene & Manyong, 2007;Tesfaye & Tirivayi, 2018). We hypothesized that households confronted more with production shocks, e.g., crop failure will look for information on IPHTs. We considered contact with extension and social networks (i.e., group membership, and neighborhood effects) as indicators of exposure to information. At the same time, nearness to market, access to credit, and bank and mobile money ownership would encourage IPHTs adoption by providing an incentive to produce for the market and easing liquidity barriers. More wealth and off-farm income facilitate IPHTs adoption (Sall et al., 2000)."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"3 Conceptual and empirical frameworks"}]},{"head":"Conceptual framework","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":208,"text":"Post-harvest losses shrink harvest volumes and degrade the quality of harvested products. As a result, households experience a direct reduction of the safe and nutritious food available to them. In the market space, the losses connote higher food prices or lost market opportunity for households who produce and sell to earn income. Improved post-harvest technologies can yield food security and welfare gains through several pathways. Direct benefits result from reduced losses in quantity and quality that can contribute to more food availability. Thus, technologies such as improved storage increase the available food stocks, stabilize the supply, and raise the marketable surpluses, contributing directly to food access and ability of households to settle financial obligations. The storage technologies allow farmers to choose the best time to sell their product and tap into higher prices during the lean season as grain prices are always lower at harvest than later. Technologies that reduce time and labor requirements in tedious and labor-intensive operations, e.g., mechanized shelling, potentially impact food security through positive time and labor adjustments enabling households to generate more food and income from additional on-farm or off-farm activities. Such adjustments can raise household welfare through increased and diversified expenditures while enhancing ability to cope with food supply and income disruptions."}]},{"head":"Empirical framework","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":180,"text":"Given that we use cross-sectional data, estimating the impact of IPHTs on food security and welfare is not trivial. Some previous studies e.g., Becerril and Abdulai, (2010) and Gitonga et al. (2013) used propensity score-based methods such as propensity score matching (PSM) to estimate impacts of improved agricultural technologies on smallholder farmers' welfare. However, PSM only controls for observed characteristics and therefore may result in biased estimates if unobserved characteristics such as motivation, managerial capacity, and technical abilities of the farmers in understanding and using new technologies are not controlled for (Abdulai & Huffman, 2014). To account for observed and unobserved characteristics, we use the ESRM (Lee, 1978). By modeling both selection and outcome equations, ESRM controls for factors that affect the treatment (adoption/non-adoption) while disentangling the factors influencing the outcomes between the adopters and non-adopters (Besley & Case, 2000). Previous empirical studies have employed this framework to study the impacts of agricultural technologies' adoption (Abdulai & Huffman, 2014;Asfaw et al., 2012;Khonje et al., 2018;Manda et al., 2019;Shiferaw et al., 2014;Tesfaye & Tirivayi, 2018;Tufa et al., 2019;Wossen et al., 2017)."}]},{"head":"Empirical specification (a) Technology adoption decision","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":233,"text":"A household's decision to adopt an IPHT is a case of constrained optimization. The household decides to adopt the IPHT when there is a positive difference between the marginal net benefits of adopting and not adopting the technology. Let P * denote this difference so that P * > 0 corresponds to the net benefit of adopting the technology exceeding that of not adopting, and it is under this condition, the farmer decides to adopt the technology. However, P * is not observable; what is observed is P, which represents the observed behavior of the farmer regarding the adoption of the technology. Let P i be a binary variable representing a farm household's adoption status for IPHT (MS or DT or AS), which take the value of 1 for households who decide to adopt and 0 otherwise. A household's decision to adopt the stated IPHT is represented by the latent variable framework below: with where Eq. 1 represents a probit model of adoption of IPHT, α is a vector of parameters to be estimated, Z is a vector that represents characteristics (household, farm-level, systemlevel, and agroclimatic) that comprise decision determinants to adopt or not adopt the IPHT, and ε is the random error term with mean zero and variance 2 . The error term includes measurement error and factors not observed by the researcher but known to the farmer (Alene & Manyong, 2007)."}]},{"head":"(b) Impact evaluation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Conditional on the IPHT adoption decision, we can observe the actual outcomes, which are a function of improved technology use alongside observed variables such as household characteristics, farm-level factors, (1)"},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"system-level factors, agroclimatic conditions, and unobserved variables such as innate abilities and managerial capacity. The outcomes are represented by a switching regime as:"},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"where y 1i and y 2i are the outcome variables for adopters and non-adopters of IPHT, respectively; x 1i and x 2i are vectors of explanatory variables assumed to be weakly exogenous;"},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"1 and 2 are parameters to be estimated and w 1i and w 2i are error terms. The error terms in the selection Eq. ( 1) and outcome Eqs. (3a, 3b) are assumed to have a trivariate normal distribution with zero mean and covariance matrix such that:"},{"index":5,"size":103,"text":"where 2 = variance (ε), 2 w1 = variance (w 1 ), 2 w2 = variance (w 2 ), 1 = covariance (ε, w 1 ), and 2 = covariance (ε, w 2 ). Since y 1 and y 2 are not observable simultaneously, the covariance between w 1 and w 2 is not defined (Maddala, 1983). Also, since the error term of the selection function (Eq. 1) is correlated with the error terms of the outcome functions (Eqs. 3a and 3b), the expected values of w 1 and w 2 conditional on the sample selection are non-zero and can be defined as:"},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"where θ is the standard normal probability density function, ϕ is the standard normal cumulative density function. Equations ( 5) and ( 6) simplify to: 1i = (Zi ) (Zi )"},{"index":7,"size":51,"text":", respectively, where 1 and 2 are the inverse mills ratio (selectivity terms) calculated from the selection equation and are included in the outcome equations to correct for selection bias in the endogenous (regime) switching regression model by substituting Eq. ( 5) and ( 6) in (3a) and (3b) as follows:"},{"index":8,"size":22,"text":"For the ERSM to be identified, there is a need to include at least one instrumental variable (IV) in the selection model"},{"index":9,"size":231,"text":"). An IV should significantly affect the adoption of IPHT conditional on other covariates (relevance condition) and affect the outcome variables (MFI, HFIAS, FCE, TCE) only through adoption, but not directly (exclusion restriction). We used farmer's neighbor adoption decision (1 if neighbor adopted a particular IPHT and 0 otherwise) as an IV. While the selection of instrumental variables is empirically challenging, others, e.g., Adegbola and Gardebroek (2007), have stated that source of information is a vital element influencing the adoption of agricultural technologies. Such information may be transmitted through spatial relationships, especially when farmers closely rely on their friends and neighbors for improved farm practices (Tessema et al., 2016). A neighbor's adoption of IPHT is likely to be correlated with a household's adoption decision but not with food security and welfare outcomes. We checked whether our instrument correlated with the adoption status (relevance condition), and the reported results in Table 2 show that the instrument is relevant. Several previous studies used similar instruments, e.g., Abdulai and Huffman (2014) and Wossen et al. (2019). 2 The outcome equations for adopters and non-adopters of the IPHTs were estimated using ordinary least squares (OLS) regression with selectivity correction. To estimate the impacts, we compared the observed and counterfactual scenarios of expected values of the outcomes for adopters. For an adopter of a named IPHT, the expected value of the outcome variable is expressed as:"},{"index":10,"size":53,"text":"The expected values for the same farmer had he/she decided not to adopt the IPHT (counterfactual) is given as: Therefore, the impact of adoption on the outcome variables for those who adopted IPHT, i.e., the average treatment effect on the treated (ATT ), is calculated as the difference between Eqs. (8a) and (8b):"}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Descriptive statistics","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Table 1 presents the means of the primary treatment variable, i.e., IPHTs (DT, MS and AS) adoption disaggregated by districts. The variable took a value of 1 if the household reported having used the IPHTs in the season preceding the survey, otherwise, 0. On average, about 60% and 57% of the survey respondents adopted DT and MS, respectively. The adoption of DT and MS superseded AS, possibly because the former have been promoted longer than the latter in Tanzania. Mbozi district had the highest DT adoption rate (80%) while Babati district recorded the highest MS adoption (82%). Overall, Kongwa district had the lowest adoption rates across the three IPHTs."},{"index":2,"size":254,"text":"Descriptive statistics of the outcome and explanatory variables are presented in Appendix Table 4 (see Appendix). Adopters of the IPHTs had significantly fewer days of food insecurity and lower food insecurity (access) scores. They also had significantly higher food and total consumption expenditures. The adopters and non-adopters of the three technologies were distinguishable by household heads' education, ownership of bank/mobile money account, group membership, and neighbors' technology use status. Additionally, a higher proportion of the male-headed households used DT and MS than the female-headed ones. MS adopter households were also likely to be larger than the non-adopter households, possibly due to higher production linked to the availability of farm labor. Adopters of AS were more likely to have access to credit than non-adopters. In contrast, MS and DT adopters and non-adopters did not differ on credit access. DT and AS adopters were more likely to have contacted government extension than non-adopters. Contrastingly, the likelihood for such contact among MS adopters and non-adopters did not differ, suggesting a weaker public extension engagement on mechanization. Adopters of DT were likely to be located further away from the market than the non-adopters; a need for improved storability to ensure sufficient stocks and less reliance on market purchases could motivate distantly located households to use the technology. Finally, non-adopters of MS were more likely to receive private transfers than the adopters, a distinction not seen with DT and AS-this could be linked to lower agricultural production of these households as they also were distinguishable as having less farmland."}]},{"head":"Empirical results","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Determinants of the adoption of improved post-harvest technologies","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"First stage ESRM results (Table 2) show that households with larger farms were more likely to adopt all three technologies. Farm size is related to production scale. High production is more profitable due to economies of scale and is likely to incentivize demand for IPHTs. The results are consistent with other studies (Abdulai & Huffman, 2014;Gitonga et al., 2013;Manda et al., 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"Off-farm income and access to credit increased the probability of AS adoption but not MS and DT. This observation might suggest that households accessed DT and MS more affordably; the two technologies were accessed mainly through local service providers. With this option, households could negotiate payment terms (e.g., payment-in-kind) and access the technology more easily than AS (hermetic bags and silos) that required prior settlement before acquisition. In addition, having a bank account or mobile money facility increased the likelihood of adopting the three technologies. These facilities bridged farmers with credit sources hence relaxing liquidity constraints. Mobile banking is particularly attractive for its convenience as a source of soft credit and reduces transaction costs (Nan et al., 2021). In recent years, mobile telephone messaging has also become a mode of extension, enabling farmers to receive technical information and basic financial services, which might have encouraged IPHT adoption."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"Membership to a group increased the probability of adopting DT and AS. Group membership increases social networking and information flow regarding the benefits of new technologies (Abdulai & Huffman, 2014;Kassie et al., 2011). In Tanzania, farmer groups are important sources of credit and technology access. Some groups organize around the village-based community banking model. Others operate informal rotating savings and credit accounts and are platforms for farmer learning and consolidated inputs acquisition, which might encourage the adoption of technologies on a case-to-case basis (Sseguya et al., 2021)."},{"index":4,"size":176,"text":"Households that received private transfers were less likely to adopt the technologies, particularly MS. Private transfers are a component of the total household income. Households with elderly members or meagre farm resources (e.g., land) are more likely to receive such support from their nextof-kin working away from home. The elderly and poorly endowed households are less likely to engage in productive farming; hence, the transfers could only increase the budget allocation for necessities such as food (Maitra & Ray, 2003). Receiving transfers could also discourage technologies' adoption because of assured alternative food sources. Neighbors' decision to adopt IPHTs correlated positively with households' use of the three IPHTs, suggesting vital signals regarding the technologies emanated from acquaintances. Abdulai and Huffman (2014) have termed neighbors as social network nodes that help clarify aspects of modern technologies; hence doubts diminish as farmers get to know more farmers in their vicinity who have adopted. Furthermore, farmers living near each other may emulate one another due to shared experiences and space-specific characteristics, including bio-physical and socio-economic conditions (Muthoni et al., 2017)."},{"index":5,"size":168,"text":"District dummies show that households in Kilolo and Kongwa were less likely to adopt the IPHTs than those in Babati. Production potentials of the different agricultural environments may explain this observation. Babati is a relatively higher crop production zone where humid/sub-humid conditions support maize production and various crops ranging from rice and cotton the lower-lying plains to wheat and potatoes in the higher elevations. Farmers also keep livestock on a semi-intensive scale. Fairly similar (humid) agroclimatic conditions characterize Mbozi district. In contrast, Kongwa and parts of Kilolo are semi-arid zones with lower production potential -the maize-based systems in these districts integrate with lower-value crops, including drought-tolerant sorghum, millet, pigeon peas, groundnuts, and livestock on a pastoral scale. Our data also revealed wealth, dependency, and information access differences across the districts. The households in Babati were wealthier and less likely to receive transfers than those in Kilolo and Kongwa. Household members in Babati were also more likely to belong to farmer groups and receive extension services from development agencies."}]},{"head":"Determinants of food security and welfare","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"Second stage ESRM results (Eqs. 7a and 7b) are presented in Table 3 (as well as Appendix Tables 5 and 6). Due to space limitations, only the ESRM estimates for DT (Table 3) are discussed. The significant positive coefficients on the sex of household head and value of assets among DT non-adopters show that female-headed and poorer households were likely to have lower consumption expenditures (TCE and FCE) than male-headed and wealthier households. Likewise, among the non-adopters, being older and more educated contributed positively to food access (proxied by HFIAS). Households whose heads were more educated also had higher food consumption expenditures. Conversely, household wealth, age, sex, and education of household heads were not key factors in explaining food security and welfare impacts among the adopters. This observation might suggest that using the technology produced social balancing effects. In the same vein, among the adopters and non-adopters alike, larger households were likelier to experience more days of food insecurity (proxied by MFI). However, the non-adopters were further likely to experience diminished food access and lower food consumption expenditures, thus severer food insecurity."},{"index":2,"size":219,"text":"Having a large farm contributed positively to food availability and total consumption expenditure among DT adopters. The marginal impact of DT use on food security and welfare was thus greater among the larger producers, potentially due to economies of scale. Kotu et al. (2019) reported similar scale-dependency of farm-level technology benefits, specifically the profitability of AS bags and metal silos. On the contrary, having off-farm income decreased food access and total consumption expenditure among the non-adopters. According to Wozniak (1984), involvement in off-farm activities may restrict decision-making in farm activities leading to low farm productivity. Moreover, farmers engaging in off-farm income-generating activities may simply be doing so to shield against the effects of low farm production (Abdulai & Huffman, 2014). This explanation is sound considering that the non-adopters owned averagely smaller farms and were more likely to have liquidity constraints (see Fig. 1). The bank account and mobile money coefficients indicate that the two variables enhanced food availability, food access, and consumption expenditures among DT adopters and nonadopters. Among the non-adopters, these facilities might have encouraged remittances that smoothen income flows hence food availability and access through purchases in times of shortage (Nan et al., 2021). Bank/mobile money facilities potentially relaxed liquidity constraints and reduced transaction costs among the adopters, enhancing the technology's contribution to food availability and access."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"Belonging to a group contributed positively to food security and welfare among DT adopters. The negative coefficients on MFI and HFIAS suggest that this factor improved food availability and access. These impacts are attributable to network effects that simplify technology access and use. The positive coefficient of group membership on the adopters' TCE further implies that social networks expanded incomes. Other authors averred that social networks reduced costs associated with adopting new technologies and enabled farmers to market their products (Abdulai & Huffman, 2014). Longer distances to the market generally diminished food access among households. Furthermore, DT adopters located further away had lower food consumption expenditures signaling reduced purchases potentially due to better storability of their food stocks."},{"index":4,"size":138,"text":"Private transfers correlated negatively with food access among DT adopters and non-adopters. This observation is intriguing, although others (Lentz et al., 2005) have argued that receiving aid can adversely affect the recipient's behavior and discourage self-assurance investments as alternative food/ income sources exist. Contact with public extension services appeared to dampen the food access impact among DT adopters, which might mirror the scope of the extension services provided. Location fixed effects were significant determinants of food security and incomes among DT non-adopters; those in Kongwa, Kilolo, and Mbozi were more food insecure than the non-adopters in Babati. Additionally, DT non-adopters in Kilolo had significantly lower TCE. These differences across locations with different farming potentials did not occur among the adopter households. Results in Appendix Tables 5 and 6 (ESRM estimates for MS and AS) can be interpreted similarly."},{"index":5,"size":84,"text":"An interesting finding in Table 3, Appendix Tables 5, and 6 is the significance level of the coefficient estimates on the variables Mills1 and Mills2. These are the inverse mills ratios used to correct for selection bias as indicated in Eq. 5 and Eq. 6. We reject the null hypothesis of no sample selection as some of the coefficient estimates for the inverse Mills are significant, implying that there is a selectivity problem, and one should not rely on OLS which ignores this problem."}]},{"head":"Impacts of adoption on food security and welfare of households","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":359,"text":"Figure 1 shows the average effects of IPHT adoption on the various outcome variables. Unlike the mean outcome differences presented in Appendix Table 4, which may confound the impact of adoption with the influence of other characteristics, the ESR estimates reveal causal effects. The results show that DT use had significant causal effects on all outcome indicators. The technology decreased MFI by 0.31 months, representing an 18% increase in the duration of food availability. On average, adopters of DT would have spent about ten full days per year without three meals had they not used such technologies. The technology also decreased HFIAS by 0.7 units, representing a 26% gain on the food access scale. DT also significantly increased consumption: adopter households would have forfeited US$ 7.82 and US$35.96 on food and total consumption expenditures, respectively, had they chosen not to use the technology. 3 These consumption expenditure gains (food: 26%, total: 112%) could be attributable to improved grain storability and better marketable quality. More food expenditure might mean that households can access diverse foods, including commodities they did not produce. The adoption of MS had causal effects on consumption expenditures. The monthly food consumption expenditure per capita among adopters of MS increased by TZS 30,297 (US$ 13.17), and the total consumption expenditure increased by TZS 71,367 (US$ 30.03), representing 49% and 68% gains compared to the counterfactual situation. The increase in consumption expenditures is potentially the result of savings on labor costs and income generation from productive utilization of freed time. Contrary to expectation, MS had statistically insignificant impacts on MFI and HFIAS. It is important to note that the main impact pathway through which MS is expected to affect the food security and welfare outcomes is freeing up labor and labor cost savings. This collaborates the positive and significant MS impacts on food consumption and total consumption expenditure. Our results agree with Daum et al. (2020), who reported a perceived increase in financial security and income as farm mechanization's main positive socio-economic effect. With MS, households would have had more time for off-farm activities to generate extra income to buy more food and pay for various non-food expenditures."},{"index":2,"size":184,"text":"AS use had significant causal effects on all four indicators. Food insecurity (MFI) decreased by at least 11 days representing a 27% gain in the duration of food availability, while food access (HFIAS) improved by 24%. The results agree closely with others. Using propensity score matching, Gitonga et al. (2013) reported that metal silo adopters in Kenya reduced the duration of food insecurity by at least one month, Chegere et al. (2020) observed a 31% reduction in HFIAS among hermetic bag adopters in Tanzania. Our results further show significant increases in food (24%) and total (115%) consumption expenditures; the AS adopters would have lost US$ 8.26, and US$ 49.40 in food and total consumption expenditures per capita had they decided not to use the technology. Thus, AS enabled households to have a stable supply of own-produced food and higher incomes from temporal arbitrage, avoided losses, and possibly lower storage costs. Earlier investigations in the study area found the mean per capita economic impact of using AS bags to be US$ 5-14 from both arbitrage (82%) and loss abatement effects (18%) (Kotu et al., 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"Other authors (e.g. Omotilewa et al., 2018;Ricker-Gilbert & Jones, 2015) reported that effective reduction of storage losses improved productivity by incentivizing farmers to invest in yield-increasing technologies that could contribute to the increased incomes and welfare of households."},{"index":4,"size":113,"text":"Increasing incomes can change consumption patterns. Our results suggest that with the adoption of the technologies, the incomes of households increased, which likewise increased the expenditure on food while expenditure on other items increased even more. The share of household expenditure on food (FCE: TCE ratio) declined by 40%, 11%, and 51% (from 0.92 to 0.55; 0.59 to 0.52; 1.07 to 0.52) among DT, MS, and AS adopters, respectively compared to the counterfactual situation. These declines signaled reduction in households' vulnerability. Smith and Subandoro (2007) categorized households spending > 75% of their total incomes on food as being highly vulnerable and food insecure, and those spending < 50% as having low food insecurity."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and policy implications","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":217,"text":"Tanzania's Agricultural Sector Development Program II: 2017/18-2027/28 (GoT, 2017) prioritizes post-harvest management through promotion and dissemination technologies that encourage better handling and storage of food to achieve food security and improved livelihoods in line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN, 2015). This study examined the factors that influence the adoption of farm-level post-harvest technologies and their impacts on households' food security and welfare in Tanzania. The findings revealed marked differences in the adoption determinants of IPHTs. Generally, large farms, locations in higher potential zones, and neighbor's use are universal adoption drivers. These observations have implications for policy guidelines leaning towards increased productivity in farms and learning among farmers to increase adoption of the technologies for the targeted benefits. Farm size and potential are related to production scale. Since expanding farmland for food production is unsustainable, options that involve the use of more efficient technologies and management practices should be encouraged. The fact that neighbor's use encouraged the adoption of the three technologies underscores the importance of neighborhood effects. To this end, stronger integration of progressive farmers to lead promotional programs can speed up the adoption of the IPHTs. The positive influence of group membership on the adoption of DT and AS further points to the importance of strengthening farmer associations as avenues for enhancing adoption."},{"index":2,"size":250,"text":"Limited access to capital and financing options remain significant challenges to agricultural technologies' adoption among rural farmers (Balana et al., 2020). Access to credit and off-farm income were especially unique determinants for AS adoption because, unlike MS and DT, the acquisition was not open to negotiated arrangements. Engaging in off-farm employment is a strategy for stabilizing household income and supporting agricultural investments (Anang et al., 2020). Other studies have observed that policies to promote the adoption of rural technologies should include mechanisms for breaking barriers to financial services' access. Concerning formal credit, the traditional focus has been addressing supply-side factors, e.g., improving proximity to credit sources and reducing the cost of borrowing. Balana et al. (2020) have found that demand-side factors such as financial illiteracy and fear of risk (e.g., due to market failure -economic benefits are particularly key as borrowers need enhanced returns to repay) are equally responsible for low agricultural credit use in Tanzania hence polices should focus addressing demand-side constraints as well. Opportunities to increase off-farm income in the rural areas include service provision, value addition, and trade. The decision to engage in off-farm labor market is subject to individual and household characteristics such as the ability to supply off-farm labor. Given the low education levels of farmers in the present study areas, relevant policies would include human capacity development (education) for off-farm labor market participation. However, as already discussed, off-farm engagements can adversely affect decision-making in farm activities, and hence the appropriate models should be found."},{"index":3,"size":193,"text":"The three technologies positively impacted households' food security and welfare. A synthesis of the associations between the impacts and various household-and farm-level variables shows distinctive trends across adopter and non-adopter households, pointing to potential system-level impacts. With MS, impacts among adopters are driven more by productive factors: production scale (farm size) and investment support factors (access to credit and off-farm incomes). However, among the non-adopters, impacts appear to be driven by factors that simplify social support, including bank account/mobile money ownership and group membership that also expedite social transfers. The impacts of DT and AS among the adopters, unlike the non-adopters, were not driven by socio-demographic (sex, age, education, household size) and locational factors. Therefore, adopting the technologies could enhance social equity and reduce spatial disparities brought about by agroclimatic factors. Further studies should investigate system-level impacts in detail. These include the general equilibrium impacts such as how the interventions affect non-adopting farm households or the welfare of value chain actors downstream, including consumers who are not producers. Moreover, there is a need to unravel the intrahousehold distribution of the benefits, which we did not achieve in this study due to data constraints. "}]},{"head":"Appendix","index":16,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 3 Fig. 1 Endogenous switching regression treatment effects on adopters of improved post-harvest technologies. MFI: months of food insecurity; HFIAS: household food insecurity access scale; FCE: monthly food consumption expenditure per capita; TCE: monthly total consumption expenditure per capita. *** p < 0.01 "},{"text":"Table 1 Adoption of IPHTs by district DT Drying tarpaulins; MS Mechanized shelling; AS Airtight storage Variable Babati Kilolo Kongwa Mbozi All Variable BabatiKiloloKongwaMboziAll (N = 68) (N = 170) (N = 137) (N = 204) (N = 579) (N = 68)(N = 170)(N = 137)(N = 204)(N = 579) Mean Std. dev Mean Std. dev Mean Std. dev Mean Std. dev Mean Std. dev Mean Std. dev Mean Std. dev Mean Std. dev Mean Std. dev Mean Std. dev DT 0.706 0.459 0.535 0.500 0.336 0.474 0.799 0.402 0.601 0.490 DT0.706 0.4590.535 0.5000.336 0.4740.799 0.4020.601 0.490 MS 0.824 0.384 0.435 0.497 0.277 0.449 0.794 0.405 0.570 0.496 MS0.824 0.3840.435 0.4970.277 0.4490.794 0.4050.570 0.496 AS 0.441 0.500 0.488 0.501 0.080 0.273 0.373 0.485 0.345 0.476 AS0.441 0.5000.488 0.5010.080 0.2730.373 0.4850.345 0.476 "},{"text":"Table 2 Endogenous switching regression estimates of the determinants of IPHTs' adoption Robust standard errors in parentheses; * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** Robust standard errors in parentheses; * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01 p < 0.01 "},{"text":"Table 3 DT endogenous switching regression estimates for the determinants of food security and welfare Robust standard errors in parentheses; * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01 Robust standard errors in parentheses; * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01 "},{"text":"Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 4 Description of outcome and explanatory variables by the adoption of IPHTs * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01 indicate significant difference between adopters and non-adopters Variable Definition DT MS AS VariableDefinitionDTMSAS Adopters Non-adopters Adopters Non-adopters Adopters Non-adopters Adopters Non-adopters Adopters Non-adopters Adopters Non-adopters Outcome variables Outcome variables MFI Frequency of household 1.463 2.558*** 1.218 2.803*** 1.015 2.367*** MFIFrequency of household1.4632.558***1.2182.803***1.0152.367*** food insecurity (number of food insecurity (number of months) months) HFIAS Household food insecurity 2.02 3.208*** 1.730 3.506*** 1.800 2.860*** HFIASHousehold food insecurity2.023.208***1.7303.506***1.8002.860*** access scale (Number) access scale (Number) FCE Per capita monthly food con- 87 66** 94 60*** 100 67*** FCEPer capita monthly food con-8766**9460***10067*** sumption expenditure (TZS sumption expenditure (TZS '000) '000) TCE Per capita total household 156 104** 177 82*** 187 109*** TCEPer capita total household156104**17782***187109*** consumption expenditure consumption expenditure (TZS '000) (TZS '000) Independent variables Independent variables Sex Sex of the hh 1 = male; 0 0.876 0.758*** 0.870 0.775** 0.850 0.818 SexSex of the hh 1 = male; 00.8760.758***0.8700.775**0.8500.818 otherwise otherwise Age Age of the household in years 47.936 48.454 47.642 48.454 49.035 47.441 AgeAge of the household in years 47.93648.45447.64248.45449.03547.441 Education Education of hh head (formal 6.911 5.656*** 6.821 5.867*** 7.085 6.056*** EducationEducation of hh head (formal6.9115.656***6.8215.867***7.0856.056*** years) years) Household size Number of household mem- 5.796 5.489 5.909 5.361* 5.755 5.630 Household sizeNumber of household mem-5.7965.4895.9095.361*5.7555.630 bers bers Farm size Total land holding in hectares 1.966 1.507** 2.093 1.371*** 2.036 1.650** Farm sizeTotal land holding in hectares 1.9661.507**2.0931.371***2.0361.650** Off-farm income 1 if has an off-farm income 0.443 0.481 0.415 0.514 0.485 0.443 Off-farm income1 if has an off-farm income0.4430.4810.4150.5140.4850.443 activity; 0 otherwise activity; 0 otherwise Access to credit 1 if has access to credit; 0 0.141 0.108 0.133 0.121 0.250 0.063*** Access to credit1 if has access to credit; 00.1410.1080.1330.1210.2500.063*** otherwise otherwise Bank account 1 if a household member own 0.264 0.074*** 0.282 0.064*** 0.300 0.129*** Bank account1 if a household member own0.2640.074***0.2820.064***0.3000.129*** a saving account; 0 otherwise a saving account; 0 otherwise Mobile money 1 if a household member has 0.897 0.792*** 0.903 0.791*** 0.935 0.813*** Mobile money1 if a household member has0.8970.792***0.9030.791***0.9350.813*** a mobile money account; 0 a mobile money account; 0 otherwise otherwise Group membership 1 if a household member 0.454 0.191*** 0.397 0.285** 0.535 0.251*** Group membership1 if a household member0.4540.191***0.3970.285**0.5350.251*** belongs to a group; 0 oth- belongs to a group; 0 oth- erwise erwise Production shock 1 if household reported; 0 0.897 0.879 0.894 0.884 0.890 0.889 Production shock1 if household reported; 00.8970.8790.8940.8840.8900.889 otherwise otherwise Asset value Value of assets at current price 6528.126 4512.173 5028.399 6654.097 6326.630 5408.100 Asset valueValue of assets at current price6528.126 4512.1735028.399 6654.0976326.630 5408.100 (TZS '000) (TZS '000) Distance to nearest village Distance to nearest village 2.821 2.299* 2.730 2.459 2.815 2.507 Distance to nearest villageDistance to nearest village2.8212.299*2.7302.4592.8152.507 market market in kilometres marketmarket in kilometres Private transfers 1 if the household receives; 0 0.189 0.255 0.149 0.305*** 0.195 0.227 Private transfers1 if the household receives; 00.1890.2550.1490.305***0.1950.227 otherwise otherwise Contact with government 1 if had contact; 0 otherwise 0.175 0.069*** 0.146 0.117 0.170 0.114** Contact with government1 if had contact; 0 otherwise0.1750.069***0.1460.1170.1700.114** extension extension Neighbour uses technology 1 if a neighbour uses; 0 oth- 0.968 0.429*** 0.964 0.711*** 0.870 0.377** Neighbour uses technology 1 if a neighbour uses; 0 oth-0.9680.429***0.9640.711***0.8700.377** erwise erwise "},{"text":"Table 5 MS endogenous switching regression estimates for the determinants of food security and welfare Robust standard errors in parentheses; * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01 Robust standard errors in parentheses; * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01 "},{"text":"Table 6 AS endogenous switching regression estimates for the determinants of food security and welfare Robust standard errors in parentheses; * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01 Variables MFI HFIAS FCE (TZS '000) TCE (TZS '000) VariablesMFIHFIASFCE (TZS '000)TCE (TZS '000) Adopter Non-adopter Adopter Non-adopter Adopter Non-adopter Adopter Non-adopter Adopter Non-adopter Adopter Non-adopter AdopterNon-adopter AdopterNon-adopter Sex -0.197 0.790* -0.309 -0.804 2613.803 21785.477** 7735.372 35129.733* Sex-0.1970.790*-0.309-0.8042613.80321785.477**7735.37235129.733* (0.435) (0.452) (0.569) (0.663) (31357.963) (9454.760) (45265.319) (17972.756) (0.435)(0.452)(0.569)(0.663)(31357.963)(9454.760)(45265.319)(17972.756) Age -0.001 0.022 -0.001 -0.010 -126.735 7.129 2001.348 -883.608 Age-0.0010.022-0.001-0.010-126.7357.1292001.348-883.608 (0.022) (0.015) (0.018) (0.019) (631.874) (407.313) (1702.772) (567.027) (0.022)(0.015)(0.018)(0.019)(631.874)(407.313)(1702.772)(567.027) Education -0.103 -0.016 -0.104 -0.173* -776.980 1692.312 23003.907 -1607.958 Education-0.103-0.016-0.104-0.173*-776.9801692.31223003.907-1607.958 (0.104) (0.048) (0.085) (0.094) (4901.367) (1491.640) (17487.521) (3389.166) (0.104)(0.048)(0.085)(0.094)(4901.367)(1491.640)(17487.521)(3389.166) Household size 0.073 0.255** -0.021 0.191* 564.370 -1969.875 -2280.894 1567.719 Household size0.0730.255**-0.0210.191*564.370-1969.875-2280.8941567.719 (0.082) (0.082) (0.078) (0.099) (3057.854) (1506.903) (7756.343) (3904.930) (0.082)(0.082)(0.078)(0.099)(3057.854)(1506.903)(7756.343)(3904.930) Farm size 0.005 -0.211** -0.239** -0.127 2985.433 1072.088 28080.212** 13129.576* Farm size0.005-0.211**-0.239**-0.1272985.4331072.08828080.212**13129.576* (0.107) (0.097) (0.086) (0.124) (5026.657) (2208.876) (9598.489) (7546.010) (0.107)(0.097)(0.086)(0.124)(5026.657)(2208.876)(9598.489)(7546.010) Off-farm income -0.495 0.701* 0.566 1.743** -22007.993 -10540.074 22351.962 20651.977 Off-farm income-0.4950.701*0.5661.743**-22007.993-10540.07422351.96220651.977 (0.404) (0.411) (0.441) (0.531) (24465.767) (8146.680) (29646.299) (18718.611) (0.404)(0.411)(0.441)(0.531)(24465.767)(8146.680)(29646.299)(18718.611) Access to credit 0.015 0.379 -0.484 -0.186 -35368.597 -5494.206 -120388.540** 30583.500 Access to credit0.0150.379-0.484-0.186-35368.597-5494.206-120388.540**30583.500 (0.701) (0.749) (0.713) (1.084) (24027.519) (13257.694) (52676.038) (33955.644) (0.701)(0.749)(0.713)(1.084)(24027.519)(13257.694)(52676.038)(33955.644) Bank account -0.062 -1.710*** -0.482 -0.907 51199.213 26115.132* 42683.669 78429.921** Bank account-0.062-1.710***-0.482-0.90751199.21326115.132*42683.66978429.921** (0.446) (0.494) (0.472) (0.672) (31700.997) (14415.022) (71951.742) (25511.054) (0.446)(0.494)(0.472)(0.672)(31700.997)(14415.022)(71951.742)(25511.054) Mobile money account -0.674 -1.119** -0.398 -1.144* 14955.063 10913.471 6212.569 22479.012* Mobile money account-0.674-1.119**-0.398-1.144*14955.06310913.4716212.56922479.012* (0.847) (0.554) (1.080) (0.668) (26442.397) (10372.608) (34916.363) (13317.700) (0.847)(0.554)(1.080)(0.668)(26442.397)(10372.608)(34916.363)(13317.700) Group membership -0.439 -0.673 -0.309 -0.928* 39641.939** -5862.158 84936.721** -3510.791 Group membership-0.439-0.673-0.309-0.928*39641.939**-5862.15884936.721**-3510.791 (0.538) (0.487) (0.444) (0.528) (15741.039) (10909.288) (34309.228) (15838.674) (0.538)(0.487)(0.444)(0.528)(15741.039)(10909.288)(34309.228)(15838.674) Production shock 1.122** 1.560*** 0.728 1.655*** 1341.392 -46777.795* -28562.545 17737.985 Production shock1.122**1.560***0.7281.655***1341.392-46777.795*-28562.54517737.985 (0.397) (0.431) (0.550) (0.435) (34578.470) (24102.567) (42646.018) (25693.413) (0.397)(0.431)(0.550)(0.435)(34578.470)(24102.567)(42646.018)(25693.413) Value of assets -0.000 -0.000 -0.000 -0.000 0.000** 0.000 0.000** 0.000* Value of assets-0.000-0.000-0.000-0.0000.000**0.0000.000**0.000* (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)(0.000)(0.000)(0.000)(0.000)(0.000)(0.000)(0.000) Distance to nearest village -0.007 0.002 0.133* 0.136* -3716.858* -666.648 -5862.443* -1888.267 Distance to nearest village-0.0070.0020.133*0.136*-3716.858*-666.648-5862.443*-1888.267 market (0.044) (0.060) (0.068) (0.099) (2177.252) (1134.276) (3509.837) (1813.330) market(0.044)(0.060)(0.068)(0.099)(2177.252)(1134.276)(3509.837)(1813.330) Private transfers -0.144 -0.366 1.398** 1.324** 14522.821 3466.057 -53020.844 2343.728 Private transfers-0.144-0.3661.398**1.324**14522.8213466.057-53020.8442343.728 (0.476) (0.426) (0.613) (0.562) (36571.063) (8466.529) (52319.364) (13426.508) (0.476)(0.426)(0.613)(0.562)(36571.063)(8466.529)(52319.364)(13426.508) Government extension 0.819 -0.935** 1.583** 0.816 1090.401 -8192.654 -11236.675 -31572.218* Government extension0.819-0.935**1.583**0.8161090.401-8192.654-11236.675-31572.218* (0.668) (0.472) (0.619) (0.672) (17693.508) (10298.706) (27867.308) (16093.586) (0.668)(0.472)(0.619)(0.672)(17693.508)(10298.706)(27867.308)(16093.586) Mbozi 0.163 1.610** -0.769 1.006 -23400.568 -32741.022 -36563.017 -71480.336** Mbozi0.1631.610**-0.7691.006-23400.568-32741.022-36563.017-71480.336** (0.616) (0.754) (0.604) (0.743) (34919.182) (24874.514) (48546.497) (33177.510) (0.616)(0.754)(0.604)(0.743)(34919.182)(24874.514)(48546.497)(33177.510) Kilolo 0.436 1.321* -0.816 0.817 16785.480 -42140.683 51083.975 -80879.692** Kilolo0.4361.321*-0.8160.81716785.480-42140.68351083.975-80879.692** (0.727) (0.700) (0.651) (0.773) (39434.503) (28,226.778) (58575.294) (33330.601) (0.727)(0.700)(0.651)(0.773)(39434.503)(28,226.778)(58575.294)(33330.601) Kongwa 1.228 2.151** 1.311 1.304* 14742.520 1796.657 34114.547 -26414.061 Kongwa1.2282.151**1.3111.304*14742.5201796.65734114.547-26414.061 (0.995) (0.766) (1.284) (0.766) (44985.649) (23904.543) (60327.818) (33093.080) (0.995)(0.766)(1.284)(0.766)(44985.649)(23904.543)(60327.818)(33093.080) Mills1 -0.211 -0.482 -9064.296 -78626.762 Mills1-0.211-0.482-9064.296-78626.762 (0.760) (0.847) (29969.907) (48652.452) (0.760)(0.847)(29969.907)(48652.452) Mills2 -0.154 -1.102 -31680.898 -71137.694** Mills2-0.154-1.102-31680.898-71137.694** (0.780) (0.979) (21595.451) (29420.647) (0.780)(0.979)(21595.451)(29420.647) Constant 1.428 -2.172 3.355 1.082 80086.740 93799.841** -68455.183 77698.706 Constant1.428-2.1723.3551.08280086.74093799.841**-68455.18377698.706 (2.181) (1.448) (2.224) (1.684) (82789.458) (42112.670) (153090.696) (62771.281) (2.181)(1.448)(2.224)(1.684)(82789.458)(42112.670)(153090.696)(62771.281) Observations 200 378 200 378 182 309 200 Observations200378200378182309200 "}],"sieverID":"844255f6-9604-4ead-b593-9210f054b4af","abstract":"During the last decade, post-harvest losses (PHL) reduction has been topping the agenda of governments as a pathway for addressing food security, poverty, and nutrition challenges in Africa. Using survey data from 579 households, we investigated the factors that affect farmers' decisions to adopt post-harvest technologies: mechanized shelling, drying tarpaulins, and airtight storage validated for reducing PHL in Tanzania's maize-based systems, and the impacts on households' food security and welfare. Mechanized shelling addressed a labor issue, while tarpaulins and airtight storage addressed product quality and quantity concerns. The results revealed large farm sizes and location in higher production potential zones (proxies for higher production scale) and neighbors' use of the technologies as universal drivers for adoption. Access to credit and off-farm income were unique determinants for airtight storage, while group membership increased the probability of adopting drying tarpaulin and airtight storage. The technologies have positive impacts on food security and welfare: drying tarpaulins and airtight storage significantly increased food availability (18-27%), food access (24-26%), and household incomes (112-155%), whereas mechanized shelling improved food and total expenditures by 49% and 68%, respectively. The share of total household expenditure on food decreased by 42%, 11%, and 51% among tarpaulin, mechanized shelling, and airtight storage adopter households, signaling significant improvements in food security and reductions in vulnerability. The results point to the need for policy support to enhance the adoption of these technologies, knowledge sharing among farmers, and financial resources access to support investments in the technologies."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"05ea9bb077aff8f4f44ba4c1aeebcb91","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7ddee1a3-da5d-4e95-a595-704cdfb0f112/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"The management of tree genetic resources and the livelihoods of rural communities in the tropics: Non-timber forest products, smallholder agroforestry practices and tree commodity crops","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":256,"text":"The elemental role played by trees in the lives of rural people in the tropics appears obvious through the many uses made of tree products, in construction, fencing, furniture, foods, medicines, fibres, fuels and in livestock feed, and in their cultural value. Indeed, in a World Bank report published a few years ago, forests and trees-outside-forests were reported to contribute to the liveli-hoods of more than 1.6 billion people worldwide (World Bank, 2008). Just how trees contribute -and the varying level of dependency of different communities on tree products and services and how this changes over time -is, however, often not well described or adequately acknowledged in the compilation of such figures (Byron and Arnold, 1997). Partly, this reflects the ubiquity of tree products and services and the complex inter-connecting pathways by which trees influence livelihoods, which are often hard to delineate (e.g., Turner et al., 2012). It also reflects the different sourcesfrom inside and outside forests -of tree products and services. Since forest and farmland sources are assessed differently by gov-ernment forestry and agriculture departments, a proper synthesis of the overall value of tree products and services across these sources is hard to achieve (de Foresta et al., 2013). Complexities in quantification and a lack of proper appreciation of benefits help explain why the roles (and limitations) of trees in supporting local peoples' livelihoods have frequently been neglected by policy makers, and why rural development interventions concerned with managing trees in forests and farms have sometimes been poorly targeted (Belcher and Schreckenberg, 2007;World Bank, 2008)."},{"index":2,"size":202,"text":"From a genetic perspective, the value of intra-specific variation in tree species and the importance of managing this variation to support rural livelihoods have also received relatively little attention from policy makers (Dawson et al., 2009), despite the benefits that rural communities can gain when proper consideration is given (Fisher and Gordon, 2007). Tree genetic resources exist at different levels of domestication of both populations and species, while the landscapes within which they are located are themselves domesticated to a greater or lesser extent (Michon, 2005). A few forest landscapes can be considered completely natural, but generally some degree of human management has taken place (Clement, 1999;Clement and Junqueira, 2010). Indeed, some trees that provide foods valued by humans have been subject to domestication in forest environments for millennia in processes of 'co-domestication' (sensu Wiersum, 1997) of the forest and the tree. The level of domestication of the tree itself -from incipiently-to fully-domesticated (i.e., from being only unconsciously managed and selected to being dependent on humans for its continued existence; Harlan, 1975) -and of the landscape in which it is found are both crucial in understanding how rural communities currently benefit from trees, and how to optimise future value through improved management."},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"This review, which is derived from an analysis supporting the publication of FAO's recent global synthesis on the State of the World's Forest Genetic Resources (the SOW-FGR, as described by Loo et al., 2014, this special issue;FAO, 2014), provides information on what we know about the value of trees to rural communities in the context of both the level of tree domestication that has taken place and the management setting. Our review supports the SOW-FGR by providing an insight into livelihood issues that goes beyond the limited quantitative data available in the Country Reports used to compile the global synthesis (see Appendix A). We restrict our review to the tropics, where devising appropriate interventions to manage trees and tree genetic resources is important to meet international development goals of poverty alleviation and community resilience (FAO, 2010;Garrity, 2004)."},{"index":4,"size":179,"text":"We also restrict our consideration to three production categories: non-timber forest product (NTFP) harvesting (from natural, incipiently-and/or semi-domesticated forests and woodlands); agroforestry tree products (AFTPs) and services (provided by a wide range of mostly semi-domesticated local and exotic trees in smallholder-farm landscapes); and woody perennial commodity crops (which are often completely domesticated, exotic in major production centres, and grown in both smallholdings and larger plantations, though our concern here is only with the former). The boundaries between these production categories are not always easy to define, as evidenced, for example, by often subtle transitions in landscapes between forests and agroforests in a gradient of transformation and intensification (Balée, 2013;Michon, 2005;Wiersum, 1997). In fact, one category often depends upon another for supporting sustainability, as, for example, many AFTPs and tree commodity crops were once NTFPs, and often also still are (thus, the continued improvement of AFTP and tree commodity crop production may depend to a greater or lesser degree on accessing genetic resources maintained in natural stands; Hein and Gatzweiler, 2006; Mohan Jain and Priyadarshan, 2009; Simons and Leakey, 2004)."},{"index":5,"size":178,"text":"Our three production categories have received considerable attention for their roles in meeting development targets for small-scale harvesters and smallholder farmers in the tropics, both of which groups are the subject of our attention here (Belcher et al., 2005;Garrity, 2004;Millard, 2011). Our categories are, however, not fully exhaustive of the benefits received by tropical rural communities from trees, as we do not, for example, consider the value of commercial forest timber harvesting by local people (e.g., Menton et al., 2009). Nonetheless, the division into our three categories provides a useful way to structure the different benefits of trees to communities, to illustrate the issues faced in describing value and to determine appropriate interventions for improved management. Considering these different categories also demonstrates the importance of taking a wide view in determining where best to intervene for maximum impacts on livelihoods, for example, in minimising unintended consequences due to potentially negative interactions between different production systems (the same attention to interactions is important when promoting appropriate tree conservation interventions among a range of options, see Dawson et al., 2013)."},{"index":6,"size":83,"text":"In the following sections, each production category is taken in turn and information outlined in three sub-sections relating to: the benefits of production; the domestication and movement of germplasm; and the conservation issues associated with harvesting, management and/or cultivation to ensure sustainable use and benefits. Where possible, we focus on genetic resource management issues and highlight where 'conventional wisdom' on tree resource use, management and value needs to be challenged in order for pathways to more sustainable, resilient management systems to be developed."}]},{"head":"Non-timber forest product harvesting","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Benefits to rural communities","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"While there are many thousands of references in the literature to the importance of NTFPs, only a small proportion of publications proceed beyond general statements on use to quantify value in meaningful ways that support comparisons across products and sites. Despite this, some overall estimates of value have been attempted. Pimentel et al. (1997), for example, estimated very approximately that 90 billion USD worth of food and other NTFPs were harvested annually from forests and trees in developing countries. FAO's latest (2010) Global Forest Resources Assessment (GFRA) provides more recently estimated (based on 2005 figures) but lower worldwide values of 19 billion and 17 billion USD annually for non-wood forest product-and woodfuel-removals, respectively, but the country data compiled for the GFRA were acknowledged to be far from complete (one problem is that many countries, when they do report value for NTFPs, only do so for the 'top' few species of commercial importance; FAO, 2010). In the 2010 GFRA, in most tropical regions the most important use for non-wood forest products was indicated to be as food."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"A good illustration of the discrepancy between current estimates of importance comes from comparing the value for woodfuel reported for Africa (most woodfuel is harvested from naturallyregenerating rather than planted sources in the continent) in the 2010 GFRA (1.4 billion USD annually) with the World Bank's (2011) much higher estimate of the value of the charcoal industry in the sub-Sahara region (eight billion USD annually). Several reasons have been highlighted as to why it is difficult to adequately represent NTFP value, including the multiplicity of products, informal trade and bartering that occurs in unmonitored local markets, direct household provisioning without products entering markets at all, and the fact that wild-harvested resources are excluded from many large-scale rural household surveys (Angelsen et al., 2011;Shackleton et al., 2007Shackleton et al., , 2011))."},{"index":3,"size":170,"text":"Another difficulty in quantifying value is that availability of a resource does not necessarily imply use. A good case study in this regard is the (potential) value of tree NTFPs as foods (Arnold et al., 2011 and references therein). Tree foods such as fruit, nuts and leaves are often good potential sources of nutrients such as fat, fibre, protein, minerals and vitamins, and their consumption therefore appears attractive (Leakey, 1999). Long lists of edible NTFPs (Bharucha and Pretty, 2010) have been complied and many tree foods (especially fruits) have indeed been subject to some domestication (see Sections 2.2 and 3). Counter to the common perception, however, the presence of wild food species in local forest and woodland landscapes does not necessarily mean that these are consumed by humans. Termote et al. (2012) illustrated this with a survey around the city of Kisangani in the Democratic Republic of Congo, where a wide variety of wild food plants were found, but few contributed significantly to human diets (despite significant local dietary deficiencies)."},{"index":4,"size":206,"text":"When there is relatively low NTFP-food use in areas of dietary need, reasons can include the high labour costs involved in collection and processing, low yields, high phenotypic variability (with large proportions of non-preferred produce), and lack of knowledge in the community. Regarding the last point, in eastern Niger and northern Burkina Faso, respectively, for example, women prepare protein-rich condiments from the seeds of prosopis (Prosopis africana) and zanmné (Acacia macrostachya), but women in other parts of the Sahel (where the same trees are found) are not aware of these food values and do not harvest and manage woodlands for these species (Faye et al., 2011). Research suggests that knowledge on use is often higher among indigenous peoples than among immigrant communities (Kuhnlein et al., 2009;Moran, 1993), while within communities cultural perceptions on who should eat particular foods, and when, are also important (Balée, 2013;Hladik et al., 1993). The relationship between the availability of food and its consumption is therefore often complex, and simple surveys of absence/presence are not in themselves adequate for understanding diets (Webb and Kennedy, 2012). When collection costs, low yields and high proportions of non-preferred produce are factors inhibiting use, domestication can have an important role to play (Sections 2.2 and 3)."},{"index":5,"size":178,"text":"To support the NTFP sector on a proper evidence base without over-or under-stating value -as both these scenarios lead to inappropriate interventions -policy makers need to understand the caveats and subtleties involved in interpreting existing valuations (Sheil and Wunder, 2002). Fortunately, more appropriate methods for quantifying value, based on systematic reviews and meta-analyses, have been adopted in the last decade to allow more informed decision making (examples given in Table 1; Belcher et al., 2005). The data from these studies indicate that appropriate NTFP-policy support could preferentially benefit the most marginalised households in societies and women in particular because of the significant income benefits they receive from NTFPs. In a recent initiative, the Poverty Environment Network (PEN) gathered the most comprehensive comparative socio-economic data set to date on tropical forest use and poverty alleviation, with information collected from approximately 8,000 households in 24 low-income tropical nations (Angelsen et al., 2011;PEN, 2013). Completed syntheses of the PEN data have not yet been published, but preliminary analyses provide results that are consistent with those of earlier NTFP studies (Table 1)."}]},{"head":"Domestication and movement of germplasm","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"There have been many studies investigating ancient forest management practices for indigenous food plants in parts of Latin America (e.g., Levis et al., 2012;Peters, 2000) and Southeast Asia (e.g., Michon, 2005;Wiersum, 1997), but relatively few in Africa (although see, e.g., Leakey et al., 2004;Maranz and Wiesman, 2003). Ancient harvesting, managed regeneration and cultivation have, for example, led to genetic changes in many Amazonian fruit trees and palms (Clement, 1989). These include abiu (Pouteria caimito), Amazon tree grape (Pourouma cecropiifolia), araza (Eugenia stipitata), biriba (Rollinia mucosa), peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) and sapota (Quararibea cordata). In Africa, rarer reports of changes in the characteristics of fruits attributed to ancient domestications include bush mango (Irvingia gabonensis and Irvingia wombolu) and safou (Dacryodes edulis) (Leakey et al., 2004). Again, areca (Areca catechu), coconut (Cocos nucifera) and date (Phoenix dactylifera) are all palms for which changes in fruit size, in the proportion of useable product, and in the ability to be propagated, are attributed to long-past human selections (Clement, 1992), while an expand- (2005) Collection of data on bamboo from 22 countries (5 Africa, 13 Asia and the Pacific, 4 Latin America)"},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Total bamboo area was estimated to be >36 million ha, India having the largest resource. Almost a third of the bamboo area in Asia was reported as planted. Use is growing rapidly in L. America and Africa. The annual export market for bamboo is in billions of USD; volumes traded and used locally for building, furniture, food, fuel, etc., are much greater ing list of global studies on ancient domestications includes many more food trees (Clement, 2004)."},{"index":3,"size":239,"text":"In perhaps the best studied case, in Amazonia, Amerindian populations declined after European colonial contact, which resulted in the erosion of the rich tree crop genetic heritage they had established (Clement, 1999). The effects of pre-Columbian forest management remain, however, including high density aggregations of useful trees close to ancient anthropogenic 'dark earth' soils (Clement and Junqueira, 2010) and in interfluvial regions (Levis et al., 2012), with Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) being the most famous example (Shepard and Ramirez, 2011). A review of molecular genetic studies (Clement et al., 2010) suggested that current centres of genetic diversity in fruit and nut trees are generally located in the centre of the Amazon Basin along the major white water rivers where large pre-Colombian human populations developed, while the periphery of the basin has had an important role in domestication origins. This suggests that subtle differences in the focus of management programmes for conservation and genetic improvement may be required in different geographic regions of the Amazon, and indicates the importance of germplasm exchange and dispersal during ancient domestication processes. Proposed management interventions to protect such genetic resources in the future include further introduction into farmland surrounding forest, but for ancient domesticates where the evolutionary processes that have led to the development of present-day landraces are undetermined, on-farm conservation requires careful consideration of which genetic resources to include (e.g., when the origins of existing farmland introductions are unknown; Dawson et al., 2008)."}]},{"head":"Conservation and sustainable use issues","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Commercialising the wild harvest of NTFPs has been widely promoted as a conservation measure, based on the assumption that an increase in resource value is an incentive for collectors to manage forests and woodlands more sustainably (FAO, 2010). Experience shows, however, that the concept of commercialisation and conservation proceeding in tandem is often illusory (Belcher and Schreckenberg, 2007), as more beneficial livelihood outcomes are generally associated with more detrimental environmental outcomes (Kusters et al., 2006). The harvest of fruit from the argan tree (Argania spinosa), endemic to Morocco, is a good illustration of the dilemmas involved. The oil extracted from the kernels of argan fruit is one of the most expensive edible oils in the world and development agencies have widely promoted a 'win-win' scenario for rural livelihoods and argan forest health based on further commercialisation (Lybbert et al., 2011). As Lybbert et al. showed, however, while the booming oil export market has benefited the local economy, it has also contributed to forest degradation."},{"index":2,"size":238,"text":"In circumstances where NTFPs are over-harvested from the wild, a widely-advocated method to alleviate pressure on natural stands and support their more sustainable use has been the cultivation of additional product sources in farms and plantations (e.g., Lange, 1998;Strandby-Andersen et al., 2008). Although intuitive, there is surprisingly little clear evidence that this approach works, and some authors have suggested that cultivation may have a detrimental impact on forest and woodland NTFP populations (reviewed in Dawson et al., 2013), as planting can, for example, result in forest populations being degraded to 'stop-gap' supply status while cultivated stands mature (Clapp, 2001). Cultivation may also stimulate market development that unintentionally 'captures' forest as well as planted product sources (Cossalter and Pye-Smith, 2003). Gaining an understanding of the circumstances in which positive linkages can be achieved between cultivation and the conservation of forest and woodland NTFP populations is not straightforward, and the topic requires active research (Dawson et al., 2013). Measures that support productivity under cultivation, such as genetic selection and improved management, may better support wild stand conservation (through 'out-competition'). However, as already noted, this may result in poorer management of natural populations, and such a move may disadvantage the livelihoods of the very poor in communities who do not have access to land for planting and so can only harvest resources from the wild (Page, 2003). Such shifts in emphasis may detrimentally influence wider attitudes to forest use and management."},{"index":3,"size":191,"text":"In most cases of NTFP extraction, the importance of factors such as the breeding system and the effective population size of the plant involved -in supporting regeneration, the persistence of stands and the sustainability of harvesting -has not been considered (Ticktin, 2004). When some thought has been given to these issues (e.g., Alexiades and Shanley, 2005), the quoted effects of harvesting on genetic structure and the associated impacts on production and persistence are generally suppositions only, with no direct confirmatory measurements. One opportunity for understanding genetic-related impacts on NTFPs may come from building on the growing literature of the effects of logging on timber trees, although different harvesting methods, products, rates of growth and reproductive biologies mean that the ability to make generalisations is limited (see below). A number of timber species have been hypothesised to undergo dysgenic selection based on only inferior individuals not being logged, which thereby contribute disproportionately to the seed crop for the establishment of subsequent generations (Pennington et al., 1981). Reductions in genetic diversity, and changes in timber tree stand structure and density that change mating patterns, can lead to inbreeding depression (Lowe et al., 2005)."},{"index":4,"size":213,"text":"Actual data on how changes in the genetic structure of logged tree populations influence production volumes, timber quality and economic value, however, are very limited, and the importance of dysgenic selection is itself disputed (Cornelius et al., 2005). Most studies of logging impacts on the genetic structure of timber trees have involved phenotypically-neutral molecular markers to measure diversity rather than measurements of growth, seed viability, etc. (Wickneswari et al., 2014, this special issue). Such research has revealed varying effects of logging on genetic structure, with diversity significantly reduced in some cases (e.g., André et al., 2008;Carneiro et al., 2011) but not in others (e.g., Cloutier et al., 2007;Fageria and Rajora, 2013). It appears that more important than losses in genetic diversity per se are changes in gene flow and breeding behaviour (Lowe et al., 2005). Jennings et al. (2001) suggested that logging impacts on timber trees will be limited because individuals generally set seed before they are cut and many juveniles that eventually take the place of adults are not removed during logging. NTFPs that are harvested by tree cutting at maturity could be subject to similar limited effects, while the impacts of destructive harvesting before maturity will likely be greater because fewer individuals then seed and a larger cohort can be exploited."},{"index":5,"size":147,"text":"When the NTFP is the seed or the fruit, the effects of intensive harvesting on genetic structure may be high, especially if the seed/fruit are harvested by tree felling (Vásquez and Gentry, 1989). The harvest of fruit could lead to dysgenic selection (e.g., seed of the fruit of only the poor-tasting, non-collected individuals remain in stands to establish the next generation) or positive selection (e.g., seed are discarded from the fruit of superior, collected trees in locations suitable for germination and establishment) (Leakey et al., 2004). The human harvest of fruit could also lead to a reduction in number of animal seed dispersers, reducing genetic connectivity in populations and increasing the prospects for future inbreeding depression (Lowe et al., 2005). Where the NTFP is harvested non-destructively and is not the seed or fruit, impacts may depend more on harvesting impacts on forest regeneration dynamics generally (Ticktin, 2004)."},{"index":6,"size":167,"text":"Finally, sustainable NTFP management must also consider timber extraction activities in forests (Laird, 1998). First, timber and NTFPs are sometimes harvested from the same species, indicating competition or, occasionally, complementarity in harvesting (Shanley and Luz, 2003). Of the top timber species in Cameroon, for example, Laird (1998) indicated that several had important non-timber values, although most of the widely marketed NTFPs in the region were not important timbers. The magnitude of any conflict between the possible multiple uses of a species may be location-specific, complicating supportive policy development for livelihoods (Herrero-Jáuregui et al., 2013). Second, the management of forest for timber influences the availability of NTFPs produced by other species through controlling access to forest, enhancing or inhibiting regeneration, etc. (Rist et al., 2012). Third, aspects of both NTFP and timber harvesting are sometimes explicitly combined in multiple-use forest management plans, with more or less success, in which an important issue is not to neglect the contribution of NTFPs compared to timber extraction (Guariguata et al., 2010)."}]},{"head":"Smallholder agroforestry practices","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Benefits to rural communities","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Agroforestry practices involve the integration of trees with annual crop cultivation, livestock production and other farm activities (Garrity, 2004), and have been widely adopted globally, as illustrated by a geospatial analysis conducted by Zomer et al. (2009) that indicated approximately 560 million people living in farm landscapes with more than 10% tree cover. When grown on farms, tree products are often described as AFTPs to differentiate them from NTFPs and timber harvested from forests (Simons and Leakey, 2004). Gradations between natural forests, anthropogenic forests and agroforests, however, mean that there is often no clear boundary between AFTPs and NTFPs, a complicating factor in the estimation of relative contributions to livelihoods, and in devising management options tailored for different settings (Byron and Arnold, 1997)."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"One way to obtain an estimate of the value of agroforestry trees to tropical rural communities is to consider the range of species that smallholders consider important for planting and the recorded uses of these species, as illustrated in Table 2 (based on our compilation of information from the World Agroforestry Centre's Agroforestree Database, the AFTD [AFTD, 2013]). These data suggest that timber production is the most frequent function for smallholder-priority tree species, and the commercial value of timber planting in smallholdings pan-tropically is confirmed by incomplete economic data for the sector (e.g., teak [Tectona grandis; Roshetko et al., 2013] and acacia [Acacia mangium and Acacia auriculiformis; Fisher and Gordon, 2007] wood production by Indonesian and Vietnamese smallholders, respectively). After timber, our survey of the AFTD suggests medicine and then fuel are the next most important functions."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"Most tree species listed by the AFTD are indicated to have a range of possible uses in agroforestry systems. Multiple uses illustrate the flexibility in the products and services that agroforestry trees can provide, which can help support diverse livelihoods and promote production-system resilience (Garrity, 2004). The environmental services provided by agroforests in parallel (such as erosion control and shade/shelter, as listed in Table 1, as well as global services such as carbon sequestration; Roshetko et al., 2007) with their production functions can be supported by 'payments for environmental services' (PES) (Roshetko et al., 2008). Experience shows, however, that more important in determining the tree planting and retention behaviour of farmers is the products they receive directly from trees, not PES (Roshetko et al., 2007)."},{"index":4,"size":167,"text":"A recent example of the successful adoption of improved agroforestry technologies in Africa is for soil fertility replenishment (Place et al., 2011). The planting of nitrogen-fixing 'fertiliser trees' in the south of the continent to substitute for (or enhance) mineral fertiliser application has resulted in increased staple crops yields, more stable crop production in drought years and improved crop rain-use efficiency (Sileshi et al., 2008(Sileshi et al., , 2012)). A recent project in Malawi, for example, encouraged more than 180,000 farmers to plant fertiliser trees, leading to improvements in maize yields, more food secure months per year and greater dietary diversity (CIE, 2011). Further approaches to improve soil fertility in Africa include farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR) of faidherbia (Faidherbia albida) and other leguminous trees, which since 1985 in Niger alone has led to the 'regreening' of approximately 5 million hectares (Sendzimir et al., 2011). FMNR in the Sahel region has resulted in increases in sorghum and millet yields, with greater dietary diversity and improvements in household incomes"}]},{"head":"Table 2","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"The number of tree species in the Agroforestree Database (AFTD) mentioned as providing various tree functions of importance to smallholders' livelihoods, and the known geographic distribution of these species. The percentage of references to indigenous species is given in brackets. Based on the number of mentions summed across functions compared with the total number of species (650) in the database, it is evident that many tree species perform several functions. Data illustrate that smallholders are able to use a wide range of trees. a The AFTD is an open-access database that contains information on a wide range of products and services provided by trees that are of interest to farming communities in the tropics (AFTD, 2013). Data are presented on the number of species given in the database as used for a particular purpose that can be found in particular geographic regions. b The AFTD contains global data on species distributions, summarised here into regions according to <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_depen-dent_territories_by_continent> for Africa, Oceania and South America, and <www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/asia.htm> for South Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and Western Asia and the Middle East. A factor determining the greater number of total references to the African continent is the focus given in the AFTD to documenting species found there."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"also observed in some locations (Bayala et al., 2011;Place and Binam, 2013). Unlike the wide-scale planting of exotic trees in improved fallows, FMNR is based explicitly on indigenous species, which may better support biodiversity and other associated environmental services (Haglund et al., 2011)."}]},{"head":"Domestication and movement of germplasm","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":244,"text":"Although a number of successful agroforestry technologies involving tree planting have been adopted in the tropics, in only some cases has there been significant attention to the genetic quality of the material planted. Generally, relatively little attention has been given to genetic quality in soil fertility replenishment and fodder provision technologies, as well as in the provision of environmental services, despite the gains in production and service provision that could be achieved by doing so (e.g., Heering et al., 1996;Tuwei et al., 2003). A good example is presented by the case of environmental service provision. As already noted (Section 3.1), the primary reason for smallholders to cultivate trees important for service provision is the products they receive directly from doing so rather than PES. Despite this, environmental-service promotion programmes have surprisingly frequently failed to consider the quality attributes of the trees being established. A good illustration is provided by the Latin American shrub jatropha (Jatropha curcas), whose fruit can produce biodiesel that could mitigate the climate change impacts of fossil fuel use, as well as provide revenues for smallholder growers and local-community processors (Achten et al., 2008). Recent wide promotion of jatropha as a biofuel in Africa has relied on seed introduced into the continental mainland (probably hundreds of years ago) through Cape Verde (Lengkeek, 2007), despite this material being of poor performance compared to provenances sampled from the native range, thus leading to low returns (e.g., for Kenya, see Iiyama et al., 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"In contrast, for timber and food (especially fruit) trees, many of the exotic species grown by smallholders in the tropics are also grown in large-scale commercial plantations and orchards, and more attention to genetic quality has therefore been given (e.g., Fisher and Gordon, 2007;Ray, 2002). Significant work on less globally well known local timber and fruit trees species grown by tropical smallholders has also increased in recent decades. A review by Leakey et al. (2012) of more than 400 papers on 'agroforestry tree domestication', for example, assessed the progress that has been made over the last 20 years in bringing such new tree species into cultivation. Between 1993 and 2002, there was a focus on species priority-setting, assessing species potential and the development of appropriate propagation methods for selected trees. Between 2003 and 2012, more emphasis was placed on new methods for assessing genetic variation in wild tree populations, on AFTP commercialisation, and on adoption and impact issues."},{"index":3,"size":239,"text":"For the decade 2013-2022, Leakey et al. (2012) identified the scaling up of successful domestication practices (such as the participatory approach described in Appendix B) to be one of the major challenges. Impact studies are required to understand which of the tree domestication methods that have been applied to date have been most effective in benefiting tropical smallholders' incomes, food and nutritional security, and what effect different approaches have on the genetic diversity of species in the long term, and hence on the sustainability of production (see more in Section 3.3). Particular opportunities for new tree domestications were identified for Africa, where genetic diversity in a range of essentially wild fruits has been found to be large, providing the possibility for large genetic gains under cultivation (e.g., for allanblackia [Allanblackia spp.] see Jamnadass et al., 2010; for marula [Sclerocarya birrea] see Thiongo and Jaenicke, 2000). Forests are therefore important sources of germplasm for ongoing and future domestications, for AFTPs as well as for tree commodity crops (see Section 4.3), and this requires their management for the characterisation and maintenance of these resources (Jamnadass et al., 2011). A wider focus on indigenous trees rather than the exotics that are currently widely used to fulfil different production and service functions (as illustrated by the figures on exotic and indigenous tree usage proportions given in Table 2) may bring conservation benefits and be more sustainable in the long term (see Section 3.3)."}]},{"head":"Conservation and sustainable use issues","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"Agroforestry landscapes sometimes contain dozens or hundreds of tree species planted by farmers or that are remnants from forest clearance (Table 3), and tree species diversity can support crop yields and promote agricultural resilience, providing a reason to maintain diversity (Steffan-Dewenter et al., 2007). Trees in farmland can also support the conservation of natural tree stands in fragmented forest-agricultural mosaics by acting as 'steppingstones' or 'corridors' for pollen and seed dispersal that help to maintain the critical minimum population sizes needed to support persistence and, for managed forests, productivity (Bhagwat et al., 2008). Species-diverse farming systems that provide rich alternative habitat for animal pollinators can support pollination and hence seed and fruit production in neighbouring forest, including of seed and fruit that are important NTFPs (Hagen and Kraemer, 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Very high levels of tree species diversity in farmland are, however, often not sustainable, as methods of agricultural production change and as (often) exotic trees become more prevalent and replace indigenous species more important from a conservation perspective (Lengkeek et al., 2005;Sambuichi and Haridasan, 2007). On occasions, exotic trees planted in agroforestry systems invade cultivated and natural habitats, and the threat of this must be weighed carefully against the benefits of the trees' presence, which is a difficult task when the balance point varies for different sections of the human community (farmers, the non-farmer rural poor, urban dwellers, etc.; see Kull et al., 2011 for the case of Australian acacias that are widely cultivated in the tropics)."},{"index":3,"size":176,"text":"Semi-domesticated tree species in agroforestry systems frequently maintain high levels of intra-specific diversity (Dawson et al., 2013) and research on temperate trees indicates that high genetic variation helps support ecosystem functions (Whitham et al., 2006). When out-crossing indigenous trees exist only at very low densities in farmland, however, as is often the case when they are remnants from natural forest otherwise cleared for crop planting (Lengkeek et al., 2005), they are vulnerable to the absence of neighbours in the landscape to support pollination, reducing the opportunities for reproduction and potentially leading to lower seed set and inbreeding depression (Lowe et al., 2005). This is a particular concern for trees that provide fruit for human consumption, as no cross-pollination/the absence of fruit set may mean there is no reason for farmers to retain these trees in the agricultural landscape (Dawson et al., 2009). In the worst case scenario, rare, isolated trees in farm landscapes may be the 'living dead' (sensu Janzen, 1986; i.e., unable to pollinate and set seed) and will only survive for the current generation."},{"index":4,"size":228,"text":"Some have argued that further promoting tree domestication has negative impacts for the diversity of agricultural landscapes at both inter-and intra-specific levels, and this is most clearly seen if it leads to clonal tree monocultures (see Section 4.3). On the other hand, without the improvements in tree yield and quality associated with domestication, farmers may choose not to plant trees at all on their land, but to cultivate other plants that are (otherwise) more productive (Sunderland, 2011). At an intra-specific level, domestication processes always cause shifts and/or losses in underlying genetic diversity in the manipulated popula-tions (Dawson et al., 2009), but the extent and nature of these changes depends on the domestication method adopted, with some approaches more favourable for maintaining diversity (Cornelius et al., 2006). The participatory domestication approach (Appendix B, Section 3.2), which is based on bringing selected indigenous trees from local wild stands into farms, appears to provide a good balance between farm-level productivity gains and the landscape-level conservation of genetic resources (Leakey, 2010). Genetic-model analysis of a participatory domestication project with peach palm in Peru, for example, showed that the risk of genetic erosion in a regional context was low (Cornelius et al., 2006). The wide use of clonal propagation methods during participatory domestication could, however, cause longer-term challenges for intra-specific diversity, especially if substantial intervillage germplasm exchange occurs (expansion of a few clones)."}]},{"head":"Smallholder tree commodity crop production","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Benefits to rural communities","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Tree commodity crops represent something of an exception to the sparse information available on the value of other tree products (as exemplified in Sections 2 and 3), as export data are compiled widely by national governments and are further assembled by FAO's Statistics Division (FAOSTAT, 2013). Data extracted from FAOSTAT for the five most important tree commodity crops grown widely in the tropics -palm oil (derived from African oil palm, Elaeis guineensis), coffee (primarily from Coffea arabica), rubber (from Hevea brasiliensis), cocoa (from cacao, Theobroma cacao) and tea (primarily from Camellia sinensis) indicate that a large export value of more than 80 billion USD (including re-exports) was realised in 2010, which is of the same order as total annual NTFP extractions (Section 2.1)."},{"index":2,"size":189,"text":"Unfortunately, however, most countries where tree commodity crops are widely cultivated do not provide data on the proportion of production by smallholders compared to large-scale growers, so measuring the benefits received by the former group is not straightforward. One country that does provide this information is Indonesia, where in 2011 small farms were estimated to contribute 42%, 96%, 85%, 94% and 46% of the country's production area for palm oil, coffee, rubber, cocoa and tea, respectively (Government of Indonesia, 2013). Other illustrative data reported on a commodityby-commodity basis also show how important small-scale tree crop production is in tropical nations: approximately 30% of oil palmplanted land in Malaysia is managed by smallholders (Basiron, 2007), while more than 65% of all coffee produced worldwide comes from small farms (ICO, 2013). The equivalent figure for cocoa is 90% (ICCO, 2013), while more than 75% of all natural rubber produced between the years 1998 and 2003 was estimated to come from land holdings smaller than 40 hectares (INFOCOMM, 2013). Again, around 75% and 50% of tea grown in Sri Lanka and Kenya, respectively, is considered to come from small farms (INFOCOMM, 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"The above data suggest that much of the revenues from cultivating these commodities accrue to small-scale farmers. Returning to the example of Indonesia, for example, a rough calculation can be made based on estimated production volumes (Government of Indonesia, 2013) and FAOSTAT-reported producer price data. Here, in 2011, the total farm-gate value to the country's smallholders for palm oil, cocoa and coffee must have amounted to more than two billion, 1.5 billion and one billion USD, respectively, based on our calculations. Data illustrating the significant revenues received by smallholders from growing tree commodities indicate the magnitude of the challenge in managing commodities sustainably in the context of the potentially deleterious ecological impacts of their production on agricultural and forest landscapes (Section 4.3)."}]},{"head":"Domestication and movement of germplasm","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":275,"text":"The main tree commodity crops have all been subject to formal breeding, although the efforts involved have often been ad hoc Farmers indicated 17% of tree species used primarily for food, 65% of which indigenous. Excluding cacao, the 3 species (2 indigenous) with the highest across-plot occurrence were used for food. Close to urban Yaoundé, the density of food trees was higher. 22% of tree species primarily for timber, 8% for medicine based on the availability of germplasm to the breeders involved (Mohan Jain and Priyadarshan, 2009). Partly, ad hoc approaches reflect the fact that the main centres of production of tree commodities are spread across the tropics and are often outside their native ranges (see Fig. 1 for the five examples discussed in Section 4.1; UNCTAD, 2011). As such, tree commodities provide an excellent example of how the international transfer of plant genetic resources (both for breeding purposes and simply for planting by farmers) has been and will continue to be important for supporting smallholders' livelihoods (the importance of international tree germplasm exchange is more widely discussed by Koskela et al., 2014, this special issue). Much of the history of movement of tree commodity crop germplasm is fairly well documented, since transfers were frequently undertaken for commercial reasons by the European powers during their period of colonial expansion (see Mohan Jain and Priyadarshan, 2009 for information on early germplasm movements for a range of tree commodities). The natural rubber industry in Southeast Asia, for example, was first based on seedlings transferred from Brazilian Amazonia via Kew Botanic Gardens in the United Kingdom to Sri Lanka and Singapore in the 1870s (Gonçalves and Fontes, 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":162,"text":"Successful early cultivation of tree commodities in exotic locations was due in part to the escape of crops from the pests and diseases that co-evolved with them in their centres of origin (Clement, 2004). However, the founder germplasm in major production centres was often introduced before much was known about genetic variation in the crops, so was often suboptimal in performance (Mohan Jain and Priyadarshan, 2009). With the importance of the production of these commodities for smallholders, further investments in genetic improvement, in the delivery of improved cultivars, and in better farm management, have wide benefits (Mohan Jain and Priyadarshan, 2009). Highly geneticallyvariable landrace and wild stands found outside major production centres therefore have an important role to play in future tree com-modity crop development, especially with the availability and potential of modern 'genomic' breeding techniques (see, e.g., Argout et al., 2011 for cocoa's draft genome), and the conservation of these genetic resources in forest, farmland and other locations is therefore essential."}]},{"head":"Conservation and sustainable use issues","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Coffee provides an excellent example of the need for the conservation of forest stands of tree commodity crops, as only approximately 2,000 km 2 of high quality Ethiopian montane forest containing wild coffee still remains, due to forest conversion to agricultural land (Labouisse et al., 2008), while future threats also include anthropogenic climate change (Davis et al., 2012; climate change threats to tree genetic resources are explored by Alfaro et al., 2014, this special issue). Wild coffee also exemplifies some of the problems in developing a conservation strategy: in theory, the high value of cultivated coffee should provide a strong incentive to conserve wild stands in Ethiopia, but -as for other tree commodity crops -the 'disconnect' between the centre of origin of the crop and the major production centres (Brazil and Vietnam in the case of coffee, Fig. 1) causes complications because the main beneficiaries of in situ conservation are not the country that must engage in it."},{"index":2,"size":254,"text":"A starting point in supporting the in situ conservation of tree commodity crops with extant wild or semi-wild stands is to attempt to work out what the 'option value' of this material is for breeding purposes, although this is difficult because of the many unknowns concerning both the nature of the genetic resource and future breeding requirements. In any case, Hein and Gatzweiler (2006) undertook the exercise for wild coffee based on the need to improve the yields of cultivars, to protect against three major cultivated coffee diseases and to breed some cultivars with lower natural caffeine content. Their analysis, based on a 30year discounting period, indicated a net present value of wild coffee of 1.5 billion USD at a discount rate of 5%, 420 million USD at a discount rate of 10%. The generation of these figures assumed a 15year period for a successful breeding programme and a 20% adoption rate for improved cultivar planting. Another assumption is that traits for improvement would be obtained from wild stands rather than existing ex situ field gene bank accessions of coffee, which are maintained in countries such as Brazil (i.e., we do not know to what extent extant wild stands in Ethiopia contain unique genetic resources; Reichhuber and Requate, 2007). Nevertheless, although only approximations, these figures provide a strong justification for the further protection of wild Ethiopian coffee stands and the forest around them, and should support the development of a mechanism that involves growers from elsewhere in the world in supporting such an initiative."},{"index":3,"size":365,"text":"Although there have been some limited studies of molecular genetic diversity in wild coffee (e.g., Aerts et al., 2013), there are as of yet no comprehensive range-wide assessments to compare with current (and future predicted) forest cover in Ethiopia. Studies that combine comprehensive genetic assessment with current and future habitat niche modelling (Davis et al., 2012;Thomas et al., 2012), and with economic 'option value' analysis (Hein and Gatzweiler, 2006), are required for all important tree commodity crops that have extant wild and semi-wild stands, and similar approaches should also be applied to other trees providing valuable products. As well as estimating genetic diversity with (neutral) molecular markers, greater geo-spatial referencing of important functional diversity (disease resistance, quality traits, etc.) on forest maps would be useful; for example, by superimposing data from phenotypic evaluations of wild accessions undertaken in field trials and live gene banks. Finally, in the context of wider conservation efforts, significant concerns exist for commodity crop cultivation, as large-scale planting may result in the wholesale conversion of natural forests and woodlands to agricultural land, and commodity crop monocultures may displace biodiversity from farms (FAO, 2012). These concerns are most obviously illustrated by oil palm cultivation, which has led to the wide-scale loss of both forests and of agrobiodiversity (Danielsen et al., 2009;Donald, 2004). Although it has often been suggested that intensive monocultures raise productivity and therefore reduce the amount of forested land that needs to be cut for crop cultivation, there are few quantitative data to support the notion that 'land sparing' is more effective than 'land sharing' as a conservation strategy (Balmford et al., 2012;Tscharntke et al., 2012). To the extent that 'land sparing' can play a role, genetic selection of more productive cultivars of commodity crops clearly has a part to play. More important, however, is an emphasis on mixed farmland production regimes that combine tree commodities with fruit trees, staple crops and/or vegetables, etc., which maintain commodity yields and promote resilience (Clough et al., 2011). In the right circumstances, the integration of tree commodity crops with other farmland trees and in forest mosaics can increase commodity production (e.g., see the case of coffee; Ricketts et al., 2004;Priess et al., 2007)."},{"index":4,"size":134,"text":"Mixed production regimes are much more amenable for some commodities (such as coffee and cocoa; SCI, 2013) than for others (such as palm oil; Donald, 2004). One option being promoted in West Africa, for example, is to incorporate 'new' tree commodity crops such as allanblackia, a tree whose seed yields edible oil with significant potential in the global food market, with cocoa production (Jamnadass et al., 2010). When allanblackia trees have matured, farmers' incomes will be distributed more evenly through the year, as allanblackia and cocoa have different production seasons (Novella Africa, 2013). To support diverse production systems, genetic selection for commodity crop cultivars that do well under shade may be of particular importance (Mohan Jain and Priyadarshan, 2009). This may require returning to wild genetic resources still found in shaded, mixed-species forest habitats."},{"index":5,"size":98,"text":"Not only may mixed production systems be more resilient ecologically, but they may support more resilient food systems. Buying food using the income received from a single commodity crop can lead to food insecurity for farm households when payments are one-off, delayed or unpredictable in value, and as a result tree commodity crops are sometimes viewed sceptically within agricultural production-based strategies to improve nutrition (FAO, 2012). For farmers who have too little land to cultivate enough food to meet their needs, however, incomes from tree commodity crops may be the only way to obtain sufficient food (Arnold, 1990)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":367,"text":"Tree-based production systems are often promoted because of their perceived biological, economic and social resilience in the context of anthropogenic climate change and other production challenges (Alfaro et al., 2014, this special issue;Steffan-Dewenter et al., 2007;Thorlakson and Neufeldt, 2012). It should, however, be evident that the extra resilience trees can provide should not be taken for granted or over-estimated. A number of steps are needed to support the improved management of tree genetic resources for livelihoods and sustainability (Table 4). For NTFPs, a greater understanding of the genetic aspects of production (including gene flow for sustainability) is required, perhaps building on data collected from logged timber trees. For AFTPs, a stronger emphasis on the genetic quality of the trees planted by smallholders is needed, which means paying attention both to domestication and to the systems by Table 4 The value of trees and tree genetic resources: a summary of issues for three production categories. which improved germplasm is delivered to farmers (Lillesø et al., 2011). For tree commodity crops, more attention is needed on the valuation of wild and semi-wild genetic resources so that better methods for conservation that recognise value can be implemented. More work is also needed to develop cultivars that perform well in diverse farm systems. These measures fit within a much wider context of interventions and areas for research needed to improve management and enhance access to markets for tree products and services in order to support rural livelihoods. For example, more research is required to understand the economic, environmental and other trade-offs for the different sectors of rural societies when NTFPs are converted to AFTPs (or, indeed, to new commodity crops; Dawson et al., 2013;Page, 2003), and more work is needed to ensure equitable relationships between the different participants in market supply chains (Marshall et al., 2006). The further application of incentives devised by international commodity purchasers to support diverse farm production systems is also required (Millard, 2011). For appropriate policy development, a better quantification of the relative benefits received by rural communities from different tree production categories is required, supported by an appropriate typology for characterisation (de Foresta et al., 2013). We hope that this paper will help support this initiative."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"Appendix A. A review of information on livelihoods in Country Reports of the State of the World's Forest Genetic Resources (SOW-FGR) FAO's (2014) SOW-FGR (which this special edition of Forest Ecology and Management accompanies; see Loo et al., 2014, this issue) was compiled from information collected in Country Reports commissioned from 2010 onwards to support a global synthesis. The framework developed for country reporting indicated the importance of providing information on livelihood value. As part of our literature review for this paper, we determined to assess the level of quantitative data on livelihoods provided in the Country Reports. To do so, we chose 50 Reports (29 from Africa, 12 from the Asia-Pacific region and 9 from Latin America; see FAO, 2013) and present our findings here."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Our assessment indicated that 36 nations provided some data on livelihood value, but most of this was of very limited scope and did not specifically consider the value of genetic variation in supporting livelihoods. In addition, most contributions did not differentiate between forest, agroforest and other potential sources of tree products (although exceptions included China and Sri Lanka), and much data were based on old (>10 year-old) surveys, supporting a conclusion that little (up-to-date) quantitative information is available."},{"index":4,"size":168,"text":"The category of use that was most commonly quantified in Country Reports was woodfuel, generally in terms of the percentage energy-dependence of countries, but rarely in terms of the eco-nomic value that this usage translates into (which would indicate the cost of substitution by other energy sources), although, e.g., in Ethiopia, woodfuel entrepreneurs earned a reported 420 million USD per year. In Africa, reported percentages (e.g., >95% of household energy needs met be woodfuels in Malawi and Mali) indicated just how important woodfuel is as an energy source in the continent (a fact often neglected in policy discussions on 'energy futures' in Africa, which place unrealistic emphasis on 'more modern' energy sources there; Iiyama et al., 2014). For most countries included in our survey, it was evident from the interpretation of information on priority species for woodfuel production that natural rather than planted tree stands were the most important source of woodfuel. Similar percentage-dependence data were provided by a number of countries for the medicinal usage of trees."},{"index":5,"size":159,"text":"Quantitative data given in Country Reports on rural communities' employment opportunities provided by trees were limited, but of the >300,000 tree nurseries reported for China, 95% were indicated to be individually-owned, while in Cameroon 150,000 people were suggested to be 'employed' in the informal forestry sector. Again, in, e.g., Ecuador, wood carpentry and carving together were reported to employ 96,000 people, while in the Philippines >14,000 small-and medium-size enterprises manufacturing furniture were indicated. Again, economic values are not generally attached to these figures, or the level of employment (e.g., from full to perhaps relatively marginal part-time involvement). Country Reports for Tunisia and Zimbabwe, however, indicated that the sale of NTFPs contributed 35% or more of rural household incomes in some parts of those nations, while figures for parts of Ethiopia and the marginalised Chepang communities in Nepal were >25% and 18%, respectively. The Country Report for India suggested NTFPs contributed an income equivalent of 2.7 billion USD per year."},{"index":6,"size":58,"text":"Country Reports provided very little information on the value of tree commodity crops in USD or volume terms, although exceptions included Ethiopia (where >30% of coffee was reported to originate from wild and community-managed 'coffee forests') and the Solomon Islands (which indicated that cocoa and palm oil made up 8% and 14%, respectively, of total commodity export value)."}]},{"head":"Appendix B. Agroforestry tree domestication: the participatory approach","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"In the last decade, a new way of domesticating fruit and nut trees, referred to in the literature as the participatory domestication approach, has been developed as a close collaboration between scientists and farmers in Central Africa. The approach involves combining scientific advances in germplasm selection, propagation, processing, etc., with local communities' experiences to bring a range of valuable indigenous trees into cultivation (Leakey et al., 2005). Simple cloning methods such as grafting allow gains in multiple traits to be captured simultaneously, accelerate production, and provide the product uniformity required by some markets (Leakey, 2004). By supporting the domestication of a range of different trees, the approach is able to buffer production and market risks that may result from a focus on an individual species (Tchoundjeu et al., 2010). The strategy focuses initially on satisfying the domestic needs of households and then grows through producing planting material for sale to other farmers and by commercialising tree products."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"When applied in the humid forest margins of Cameroon where indigenous fruit and nuts are highly valued (Degrande et al., 2006), significant improvements in access to farm inputs, incomes, diets and rural business development have been achieved (Leakey and Asaah, 2013;Tchoundjeu et al., 2010). The approach is being extended in Central Africa through rural resource centres managed by local communities that actively encourage the involvement of women and instruct in tree propagation, farm management, etc., and provide processing facilities, business training and a venue to meet and form group associations to market tree products and obtain farm services more effectively (Asaah et al., 2011)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 Examples of systematic reviews and meta-analyses describing the importance of NTFPs for rural communities in the tropics. Reference Description of study Findings ReferenceDescription of studyFindings Vedeld et al. Review of 54 case studies (15 East Africa, 18 southern Africa, 14 Forest 'environmental income' was on average 20% of total household Vedeld et al.Review of 54 case studies (15 East Africa, 18 southern Africa, 14Forest 'environmental income' was on average 20% of total household (2004) Asia, 7 Latin America) examining rural incomes from forest products income of the population sampled. Main sources of income were woodfuel, (2004)Asia, 7 Latin America) examining rural incomes from forest productsincome of the population sampled. Main sources of income were woodfuel, in 17 countries wild foods and animal fodder, with the poorest more dependent on them. in 17 countrieswild foods and animal fodder, with the poorest more dependent on them. Cash income constituted 50% of total forest environmental income Cash income constituted 50% of total forest environmental income Ruiz-Pérez Comparison of 61 case studies (17 Africa, 21 Asia, 23 Latin America) NTFPs are important sources of income. Commercial trade drives intensified Ruiz-PérezComparison of 61 case studies (17 Africa, 21 Asia, 23 Latin America)NTFPs are important sources of income. Commercial trade drives intensified et al. (2004) of the production and trade of NTFPs from 24 countries production and household specialisation among forest-related peoples. et al. (2004)of the production and trade of NTFPs from 24 countriesproduction and household specialisation among forest-related peoples. Markets should be developed and resources sustainably managed accordingly Markets should be developed and resources sustainably managed accordingly Kusters et al. Expert opinion on a subset of 55 of the case studies of Ruiz-Pérez NTFP trade improves livelihoods, with the involvement of women having a Kusters et al.Expert opinion on a subset of 55 of the case studies of Ruiz-PérezNTFP trade improves livelihoods, with the involvement of women having a (2006) et al. (2004) (as above) positive effect on intra-household equity. However, trade sometimes (2006)et al. (2004) (as above)positive effect on intra-household equity. However, trade sometimes increased inequality between households. Inability to make financial increased inequality between households. Inability to make financial investments limits developments to increase product quality and quantity investments limits developments to increase product quality and quantity Marshall et al. Comparison of 10 different plant NTFPs harvested by 18 local Supply chains provide economic safety nets, spread income across time and Marshall et al.Comparison of 10 different plant NTFPs harvested by 18 localSupply chains provide economic safety nets, spread income across time and (2006) communities in Bolivia and Mexico can provide 'stepping-stones' to a non-poor life. Harvesting is one of the few (2006)communities in Bolivia and Mexicocan provide 'stepping-stones' to a non-poor life. Harvesting is one of the few cash-generating opportunities for many women. Shifting from subsistence to cash-generating opportunities for many women. Shifting from subsistence to commercial extraction sometimes reduces access to the poorest in society, commercial extraction sometimes reduces access to the poorest in society, due to harder-to-negotiate controls on harvesting due to harder-to-negotiate controls on harvesting Lobovikov et al. Lobovikov et al. "},{"text":"Table 3 Examples of tree-species-rich agroforests in Africa, Asia and Latin America, with information on tree uses (with particular reference to possible human food use). Reference Location Tree diversity Tree uses ReferenceLocationTree diversityTree uses Das and Das Barak Valley, Assam, India 87 Tree species identified in agroforestry Farmers indicated a mean of 8 species used as edible fruit per home Das and DasBarak Valley, Assam, India87 Tree species identified in agroforestryFarmers indicated a mean of 8 species used as edible fruit per home (2005) home gardens garden, many indigenous. Fruit trees more dominant in smaller gardens. (2005)home gardensgarden, many indigenous. Fruit trees more dominant in smaller gardens. 5 species per garden used for timber, 2 for woodfuel 5 species per garden used for timber, 2 for woodfuel Garen et al. Los Santos and Rio Hato, 99 Tree species, 75% indigenous, utilised, 35% of species valued for human food. 27 mostly exotic fruits Garen et al.Los Santos and Rio Hato,99 Tree species, 75% indigenous, utilised,35% of species valued for human food. 27 mostly exotic fruits (2011) Panama planted and/or protected on farmers' land mentioned as planted. 35% of species valued for their wood, the same (2011)Panamaplanted and/or protected on farmers' landmentioned as planted. 35% of species valued for their wood, the same proportion as living fences. >60% of species were assigned multiple uses proportion as living fences. >60% of species were assigned multiple uses Kehlenbeck Surrounding Mount Kenya, 424 Woody plant species, 306 Farmers indicated many species used for food. 7 of the 10 most frequent KehlenbeckSurrounding Mount Kenya,424 Woody plant species, 306Farmers indicated many species used for food. 7 of the 10 most frequent et al. (2011) Kenya indigenous, revealed in farm plots exotics by across-plot occurrence were cultivated, mainly for edible et al. (2011)Kenyaindigenous, revealed in farm plotsexotics by across-plot occurrence were cultivated, mainly for edible fruits/nuts. The most frequent indigenous species were used primarily fruits/nuts. The most frequent indigenous species were used primarily for timber/firewood for timber/firewood Lengkeek East of Mount Kenya, Kenya 297 Tree species, 65% indigenous, Farmers indicated that for >20% of species the fruits/nuts consumed by LengkeekEast of Mount Kenya, Kenya297 Tree species, 65% indigenous,Farmers indicated that for >20% of species the fruits/nuts consumed by (2003) revealed in smallholdings humans. The most common exotic was coffee, then timber trees (2003)revealed in smallholdingshumans. The most common exotic was coffee, then timber trees Marjokorpi and Two areas of West >120 Tree species identified in forest Farmers indicated 30% of species used for edible fruit, latex and in Marjokorpi andTwo areas of West>120 Tree species identified in forestFarmers indicated 30% of species used for edible fruit, latex and in Ruokolainen Kalimantan, Indonesia gardens, most species not planted other non-destructive ways, 50% used for timber and in other RuokolainenKalimantan, Indonesiagardens, most species not plantedother non-destructive ways, 50% used for timber and in other (2003) destructive ways. Seedlings of unused trees removed around naturally- (2003)destructive ways. Seedlings of unused trees removed around naturally- regenerating and intentionally-planted fruit/other useful trees regenerating and intentionally-planted fruit/other useful trees Philpott et al. Bukit Barisan Selatan Park, 92 and 90 trees species identified in >50% of farmers grew a total of 17 other products in addition to coffee, Philpott et al.Bukit Barisan Selatan Park,92 and 90 trees species identified in>50% of farmers grew a total of 17 other products in addition to coffee, (2008) Lampung province, Sumatra, coffee farm plots outside and inside the including spices, timber and, most commonly, indigenous and exotic (2008)Lampung province, Sumatra,coffee farm plots outside and inside theincluding spices, timber and, most commonly, indigenous and exotic Indonesia park, respectively fruits. Of these farmers, 65% grew P2 additional products. Farmers Indonesiapark, respectivelyfruits. Of these farmers, 65% grew P2 additional products. Farmers planting outside the park grew alternative products more often planting outside the park grew alternative products more often Sambuichi and Southern Bahia, Brazil 293 Tree species, 97% indigenous, Many indigenous trees used for food. Seedlings favoured for retention Sambuichi andSouthern Bahia, Brazil293 Tree species, 97% indigenous,Many indigenous trees used for food. Seedlings favoured for retention Haridasan revealed in cacao plantation plots in during weeding provide edible fruit or good wood. The most abundant Haridasanrevealed in cacao plantation plots induring weeding provide edible fruit or good wood. The most abundant (2007) forest understory exotic species were edible fruits (2007)forest understoryexotic species were edible fruits Sonwa et al. Yaoundé, Mbalmayo and 206 Mostly indigenous tree species Sonwa et al.Yaoundé, Mbalmayo and206 Mostly indigenous tree species (2007) Ebolowa sub-regions, revealed in cacao agroforestry plots (2007)Ebolowa sub-regions,revealed in cacao agroforestry plots Cameroon Cameroon "},{"text":" Average annual production figures for five tree commodity crops for key production countries (taken from UNCTAD, 2011). Units of production are: palm oil, 10 s of millions of tonnes; coffee, 10 s of millions of 60 kg bags; rubber, cocoa and tea, millions of tonnes. Figures are based on the following years: palm oil,coffee and cocoa, 2008/2009 to 2010/2011; rubber and tea, 2007 to 2009. Note that the most important production country is outside the natural range of the crop except in the case of tea (centres of origin = West Africa, including Nigeria [4th-ranked producer], for oil palm; Ethiopia [5th-ranked producer] for coffee; Brazilian Amazonia [Brazil not ranked among the top 5 producers] for rubber; western Amazonia [no origin countries among the top 5 producers] for cacao; and Asia, including China [1stranked producer] and India [2nd-ranked producer], for tea). Centre of origin countries that are top-five ranked producers are indicated in the figure by an arrow. Geographic disjunctions between production locations and commodity crop origins complicate forest conservation efforts for commodity crop progenitors (see text). 5 Palm oil Coffee Rubber Cocoa Tea 5Palm oilCoffeeRubberCocoaTea Annual production (see caption) 1 2 3 4 Annual production (see caption)1 2 3 4 0 0 Colombia Nigeria Thailand Malaysia Indonesia Others Ethiopia Colombia Indonesia Vietnam Brazil Others Vietnam India Country Malaysia Indonesia Thailand Others Cameroon Nigeria Indonesia Ghana Cote d'Ivoire Others Turkey Sri Lanka Kenya India China Others ColombiaNigeriaThailandMalaysiaIndonesiaOthersEthiopiaColombiaIndonesiaVietnamBrazilOthersVietnamIndia Country Malaysia Indonesia ThailandOthersCameroonNigeriaIndonesiaGhanaCote d'IvoireOthersTurkeySri LankaKenyaIndiaChinaOthers Fig. 1. Fig. 1. "}],"sieverID":"4f5d8f60-fe43-4d9b-a6cf-c26315491e1c","abstract":"Products and services provided by trees in forests and farmland support the needs and promote the wellbeing of hundreds of millions of people in the tropics. Value depends on managing both the diversity of tree species present in landscapes and the genetic variation within these species. The benefits from trees and their genetic resources are, however, often not well quantified because trade is frequently outside formal markets, there is a multiplicity of species and ways in which trees are used and managed, and genetic diversity within species is frequently not given proper consideration. We review here what is known about the value of trees to rural communities through considering three production categories: non-timber products harvested from trees in natural and managed forests and woodlands; the various products and services obtained from a wide range of trees planted and/or retained in smallholders' agroforestry systems; and the commercial products harvested from cultivated tree commodity crops. Where possible, we focus on the role of intra-specific genetic variation in providing support to livelihoods, and for each of the three production categories we also consider wider conservation and sustainability issues, including the linkages between categories in terms of management. Challenges to 'conventional wisdom' on tree resource use, value and management -such as in the posited links between commercialisation, cultivation and conservation -are highlighted, and constraints and opportunities to maintain and enhance value are described."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"06709c79cfae9a15e89389c39f55662e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c0e70759-c759-489d-b05c-bd366bbb65c4/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"A Targeting and Outscaling Decision Support Tool","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"The Can an AWM intervention successfully applied in one location have a reasonable chance of success at any other location?"},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"The targeting and out-scaling problem We want to out-scale agricultural water management (AWM) technologies for more farmers benefit We want to identify locations where the chances of success are high A good way to decide is through rapid assessment in the field at prospective sites But where to do the rapid assessments?"}]},{"head":"TAGMI: In Principles","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"The decision-support tool responds to this problem using nationally defined Bayesian network models to assess the likelihood of success based on an array of social, human, physical, financial and natural factors. TAGMI is interdisciplinary, capitalizing on the combined experiences of the CPWF-BDC social and natural scientists and practitioners; integrating data, GIS layers, and key stakeholders' knowledge and expertise accounting for the fact that certainty is unobtainable, but degrees of certainty are both obtainable and useful"}]},{"head":"TAGMI: In Practice","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"What can be explored? The maps convey the likelihood that Conservation Agriculture, Small-Scale Irrigation or Small Reservoirs can be successfully adopted at the district-level, in a Basin."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Who is the tool for? Non-expert users who want to know which parts of a region have social, human and natural conditions that will facilitate success of a planned AWM intervention."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"What does it tell you? Where specific AWM technologies could be adopted with success based on Bayesian model."}]},{"head":"The Web-tool Development Process","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"As the convening institution, the Stockholm Environment Institute together with partners led the development of TAGMI through a series of national and local consultations in 2011 and 2012. The Bayesian Network Model, which informs the webtool's map display output, is a combination of local, national and regional datasets with the expert input of our Basin project partners. The final engagements in the region as part of this effort will take place in August 2013."}]},{"head":"TARGETING AGW A TE R MANAGEMENT INTERVENTIONS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Screenshot of a Basin-Scale Webtool; National-scale tools are also online, providing more detailed results."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" TAGMI web-tool facilitates targeting and scaling out of different Agricultural Water Management (AWM) technological interventions in the Limpopo and the Volta River Basins. TAGMI is an output from 3-years of research-for-development as part of the CGIAR Challenge Program's Basin Development Challenges (CWPF-BDC). Researchers, practitioners and farmers have identified approaches to manage rainfall for agriculture in efficient and productive ways from field to basin scales. Yet successful targeting and scaling out of appropriate interventions remains a challenge. "}],"sieverID":"faf58a70-433a-4918-9d80-b1ad083ff4cb","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"070359880dba9f9843936ab585657a97","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://data.mel.cgiar.org/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=hdl:20.500.11766.1/FK2/CVEUES/7SGBJ1"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Table 1. Amounts and number of irrigation application on winter wheat field with total 2800 m 2 land area (2.8 ha) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 2 . Amounts and number of irrigation applications on Cotton field 2015 # irrigation Dates Total Q m 3 Q m 3 -ha #irrigationDatesTotal Q m 3Q m 3 -ha 1 First 21.09.2014 5600 2000 1First21.09.201456002000 2 Second 27.12.2014 3360 1200 2Second27.12.201433601200 3 Third 16.03.2015 4200 1500 3Third16.03.201542001500 4 Fifth 21.04.2015 3978.8 1421 4Fifth21.04.20153978.81421 5 Sixth 03.05.2015 4508 1610 5Sixth03.05.201545081610 6 Seventh 25.05.2015 5096 1820 6Seventh25.05.201550961820 26742.8 9551 26742.89551 № date water, mm saturated soil depth, mm root depth, cm m3/ha m3/2.8 ha №datewater, mm saturated soil depth, mm root depth, cm m3/ha m3/2.8 ha 1 30-Dec 154 770 1540 4312 130-Dec15477015404312 2 2-Mar 318 1590 3180 8904 22-Mar318159031808904 3 14-Jun 95 475 40 950 2660 314-Jun95475409502660 4 25-Jun 97 485 45 970 2716 425-Jun97485459702716 5 7-Jul 154 770 50 1540 4312 57-Jul1547705015404312 6 29-Jul 165 825 70 1650 4620 629-Jul1658257016504620 7 11-Aug 245 1225 70 2450 6860 711-Aug24512257024506860 1-2 leaching 472 4720 13216 1-2 leaching472472013216 3-7 irrigation 756 7560 21168 3-7 irrigation756756021168 "}],"sieverID":"12521c73-0627-4357-a157-bc09a02f86c1","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"078aa711bb7bb8edfe91e6829de5259c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/61692d8d-668c-46b2-b7b8-d295a67ca935/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"En Afrique du Sud, des services essentiels passent par le « chat »","keywords":["Jim Dempsey / Recherchiste : Cédric Jeanneret Correction : Sharon Montgomery (anglais)","Jacques Bodichon (français) / Réalisation graphique : Anita Toebosch / Traduction : Patrice Deladrier / Photo de couverture : Roel Burgler / HH / Conseillers scientifiques : Peter Ballantyne","Oumy Ndiaye","Dorothy Okello","Kevin Painting"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"en scène en 2008 au moment où Apple a lancé son App Store, un service de téléchargement en ligne d'applications -surtout logiciellesdestinées à l'iPhone."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Depuis pas mal de temps déjà, les programmeurs créaient des applications pour appareils nomades (portables et PDA), mais l'envolée exponentielle de ce marché s'est concentrée sur les deux dernières années."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Il s'ensuit que les applications sont généralement associées à des appareils haut de gamme très coûteux, les smartphones. De nombreux programmeurs s'évertuent cependant à créer des applications pour les portables à bas coût. Ces appareils faisant fureur dans les pays ACP, les applications mobiles deviennent un moyen utile et peu coûteux d'accès aux services d'information et de communication dans les zones rurales."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Les applications mobiles sont des logiciels développés pour les systèmes d'exploitation des appareils nomades. Les applications destinées aux portables bon marché utilisent soit les SMS, soit la compatibilité Java. La plupart des portables ayant une fonction SMS, les applications basées sur les SMS concernent un large public."},{"index":5,"size":90,"text":"Ces applications servent souvent à communiquer les prix du marché ou des données de livraison aux paysans, mais comme le souligne Joshua Haynes, dans notre dossier consacré à Masawa, elles requièrent un certain niveau d'éducation, surtout si l'usager veut renvoyer des messages au système. Écrire un SMS sur un portable qui ne compte que 12 touches peut s'avérer plus complexe que de taper sur un clavier et, même avec la saisie prédictive, l'usager doit orthographier correctement chaque mot. Les SMS se prêtent aussi aux erreurs et coûtent cher à l'envoi."}]},{"head":"Conseil visuel","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Tous les portables ne sont pas compatibles Java. Ceux qui le sont offrent plus de possibilités et trouvent plus d'acquéreurs quand les prix baissent. L'utilisateur a désormais l'habitude de télécharger des sonneries, ou d'utiliser des applications de « chat » pour rester en contact avec ses amis."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Développé par des programmeurs sudafricains, JamiiX surfe sur la vague du « chat » pour fournir des services d'information et de conseil. Les abonnés peuvent dialoguer directement avec des experts du pays ou d'ailleurs, aussi facilement qu'ils accosteraient leur voisin, et obtenir une réponse immédiate."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Cela ne résout pas le problème de l'illettrisme, mais les applications peuvent acheminer l'information par d'autres moyens. Le système Masawa, par exemple, utilise des petits clips d'animation pour dispenser des conseils sanitaires, mais il pourrait tout aussi bien servir à une campagne de prévention contre les nuisibles."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Le développement des applications reste problématique. La même application ne fonctionnera pas sur tous les portables compatibles Java. Les programmeurs doivent adapter le logiciel et travailler pour chaque type d'appareil, y compris d'un même fabricant. Les organisations qui veulent développer une application pour un projet doivent donc savoir si elles la destinent à un nombre limité d'appareils ou si elles sont prêtes à payer son adaptation pour chaque modèle de portable."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"Deux laboratoires régionaux d'applications mobiles regroupant des instituts de recherche, des agences de financement et des entreprises ont récemment été créés en Afrique, l'un au Kenya, l'autre en Afrique du Sud, afin de favoriser le développement des applications mobiles. Dotés d'équipements dernier cri, ces mLabs, comme on les appelle, proposeront des formations et un soutien aux programmeurs et aux entrepreneurs qui veulent développer des applications et des services mobiles pour les usagers à faible revenu."},{"index":6,"size":120,"text":"Ces initiatives, de même que celles prises par d'autres organisations et entreprises, permettront à cette nouvelle industrie de continuer de croître et de générer des revenus. La prolifération des applications, conjuguée à la baisse de prix des portables plus sophistiqués, offre de nouvelles perspectives aux communautés rurales, et une plus grande chance d'accéder à l'information et à des services essentiels. ■ A ccéder à Internet via un ordinateur reste peu évident dans de nombreux pays ACP. Les services sont souvent hors de prix et guère fiables. À l'inverse, les réseaux de mobilophonie ne cessent de s'étendre, y compris dans les zones les plus reculées, faisant du portable le sésame de l'information et des applications mobiles le bon moyen d'acheminer celle-ci."}]},{"head":"Applications pratiques","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sommaire","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Le coût prohibitif de la téléphonie oblige toutefois nombre d'habitants à faire un choix : acheter du temps de communication ou utiliser cet argent à d'autres fins. Les personnes à faible revenu n'utiliseront donc les applications que pour des choses utiles et qui correspondent à leurs besoins."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"Dans les zones rurales, on ne trouve généralement que des applications pratiques (bancaires, météo, Applications adéquates L'immense avantage de ces applications, c'est qu'elles utilisent une technologie facile à acquérir ou déjà acquise. Les portables sont en outre très pratiques : on peut les emmener partout. Personnellement, je ne peux plus me passer du mien et je suis loin d'être la seule dans ce cas. Même ceux qui possèdent un petit laptop ne l'ont pas toujours avec eux. Le portable, oui."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Notre portable nous suit donc partout et ce n'est pas demain que nous allons nous en défaire. C'est la raison pour laquelle je pense que nous allons continuer d'utiliser des applications mobiles. Ce n'est pas une passade. Ces applications sont pratiques, nous offrent des services et des informations qui changent notre vie, surtout dans les zones rurales où l'accès aux TIC demeure très limité."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"Ces applications doivent néanmoins être adaptées aux besoins de leurs utilisateurs. Elles supposent trop souvent qu'on sache lire et écrire. Pour concevoir des applications qui conviennent à la majorité de la population africaine, il faudra trouver le moyen de contourner cet obstacle. Les applications vocales pourraient apporter une solution, mais elles soulèvent un autre problème : celui de la langue. Elles se cantonnent souvent aux principales langues européennes, ce qui exclut à nouveau une large frange de la population."},{"index":5,"size":173,"text":"Bien que des milliers d'applications soient disponibles, beaucoup reste à faire pour les adapter aux besoins des populations ACP. Leur utilité dépendra de la prise en compte des langues locales, de l'illettrisme, des contenus locaux, de la facilité d'accès et d'un prix abordable. Nous n'en sommes qu'au premier pas. L'industrie des applications n'existe que depuis quelques années, mais je reste optimiste, pour avoir vu les avantages que procure cette technologie. ■ Dr Towela Nyirenda-Jere ([email protected] ) est gestionnaire de programmes pour le programme e-Africa du NEPAD ( www.nepad.org) d'information agricole...), et presque toujours dans le cadre d'un projet mené par une ONG ou une autre organisation. De nombreux projets prennent en charge le coût des services durant la phase pilote, pour montrer aux paysans tout le parti qu'ils peuvent tirer des nouvelles technologies. L'expérience révèle néanmoins qu'après la phase pilote les usagers doivent acquitter le coût total d'accès au service. Le projet prouvera sans doute l'utilité de l'application pour les usagers, mais aussi qu'en l'absence de subventions un problème de rentabilité se pose."},{"index":6,"size":65,"text":"Les projets devraient mieux préparer les usagers à la prise en charge du prix plein, les aider à inclure ce coût dans leur budget pour vérifier qu'un accès permanent se justifie. Il faut aussi améliorer la planification. Certaines organisations essaient d'obtenir quelques milliers de textos gratuits de l'opérateur ; cela peut paraître énorme, mais ce quota est vite épuisé, au bout d'un ou deux mois."},{"index":7,"size":78,"text":"Si l'application est bien conçue, facile d'emploi et répond à un besoin, l'utilisateur sera disposé à en payer le prix. Un meilleur accès aux informations agricoles profitera avant tout aux paysans. En connaissant la demande pour un produit, par exemple, afin de choisir les cultures les plus rentables et de savoir où vendre leur récolte. Mieux connaître les marchés, c'est également le moyen d'éviter la surproduction qui les met à la merci du marché et du prix proposé."},{"index":8,"size":114,"text":"Au Malawi, pour ne citer que cet exemple, les paysans ont des applications portables qui les relient à leur compte en banque de même que des systèmes de carte à puce qui transfèrent directement le produit de la vente aux enchères sur leur compte. Ils peuvent ensuite utiliser leur carte à puce et leur portable pour acheter des marchandises en magasin, sans sortir un seul billet ni transférer la moindre somme (à des fournisseurs, des personnes à charge, etc.). Le système de carte à puce a profondément changé la vie des paysans en leur permettant d'effectuer des transactions instantanées. Plus récente, l'application mobile procure des avantages supplémentaires, mais à un coût nettement plus élevé. "}]},{"head":"Perspectives","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Le défi des nouvelles technologies","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Médias adaptables","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"La plupart des applications seront créées par des développeurs locaux à partir d'un simple cahier des charges assurant leur compatibilité avec l'ensemble du système. La distribution et l'actualisation des applications sur les portables des utilisateurs sont faciles. Masawa a déjà créé quelques services d'information de base, tout en révélant le potentiel des applications destinées aux portables bon marché compatibles Java. L'application de santé, par exemple, utilise des animations pour montrer la bonne façon d'allaiter un bébé ou de mélanger des sels de réhydratation orale."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Il y a aussi une application équivalant à un panneau d'affichage à la demande. Le ministère de la Santé, une coopérative agricole ou un commerçant local peuvent, moyennant finance, afficher leur message sur ce panneau, pour annoncer une campagne de vaccination des enfants dans la région, par exemple, donner des informations sur la lutte intégrée ou encore diffuser un bulletin météo."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Il y aussi une application de comparaison des prêts de microfinance et un jeu éducatif pour les enfants. Sans oublier une application agricole, dont toutes les informations (notamment comment combattre le mildiou de la tomate) sont stockées sur le portable sans nécessiter l'envoi ni la réception de données supplémentaires."},{"index":4,"size":101,"text":"« Ces applications montrent qu'on peut fournir des informations générales, agricoles, éducatives et de santé par le biais de divers médias mobiles », dit Haynes. « Elles prouvent combien le système est souple et ouvert à divers modes d'information. » Masawa est gratuit mais, suivant la demande, on peut y inclure des applications payantes pour des services très prisés comme les résultats de foot. Le coût d'envoi et de réception des informations dépend des tarifs de l'opérateur, mais le coût du transfert des données, c'est-à-dire la façon dont les applications échangent les informations, est généralement moins cher que l'envoi d'un SMS."}]},{"head":"Évaluation serrée","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":255,"text":"« Nous allons tester le système avec nos partenaires kényans », dit Haynes. « L'équipe a déjà travaillé avec plusieurs personnes et organisations de ce pays, où de nombreux développeurs créatifs et talentueux sont prêts à ajouter des applications au système. Le prix des SMS et du transfert de données y est en outre comparativement bas. » Masawa et ses partenaires de terrain suivront de près les progrès accomplis par le site pilote, sachant par expérience combien il importe de tirer les leçons de ses erreurs. « Au départ, nous travaillerons avec le petit nombre d'applications que nous avons déjà développées, puis nous chercherons à en développer d'autres avec nos partenaires. Une fois les choses en place, nous verrons comment les gens se servent du système, comment le réseau de distribution fonctionne et comment assurer sa viabilité financière. » AgriManagr est l'une d'entre elles, conçue pour les agents qui achètent directement à la ferme. Une fois installée sur un appareil nomade, un PDA par exemple, elle permet à l'agent d'enregistrer les types de produits vendus, leur poids exact, et de consigner les montants dus. Pour réduire les erreurs de saisie manuelle, les agents ont une balance électronique qui communique le poids exact des marchandises à l'appareil via Bluetooth. Grâce à son imprimante portable, l'agent délivre ensuite un reçu au fermier. AgriManagr peut également fournir des rapports individualisés reprenant le détail précis et imprimé des transactions de chaque fermier, lequel peut s'en servir pour les échanges, les demandes de crédit et le suivi de sa productivité."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"Lorsqu'une connexion réseau est disponible, l'application envoie toutes les données au bureau de l'agent via un réseau privé virtuel (VPN) sécurisé. Le bureau peut ainsi donner la localisation des produits et un volume indicatif aux entrepôts, transporteurs et acheteurs. Tous les intervenants privés ou professionnels de la filière savent quelles marchandises sont disponibles, où et en quelle quantité. « Grâce à cette technologie », dit Parker, « un habitant de la campagne peut consulter virtuellement un expert de la ville, voire d'un autre pays. Avec le portable, il a accès à bien plus de services que dans son village. Or les personnes à faible revenu ont rarement accès à ce type de service. »"}]},{"head":"Avantage concurrentiel","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Appui rural","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Pour utiliser ce service, il faut avoir un portable capable de se connecter à Internet, ce qui est le cas de nombreux appareils bas de gamme. Près de 25 millions de Sud-africains utilisent déjà des plates-formes de chat. C'est moins cher que les SMS. En Afrique du Sud, l'envoi d'un SMS revient en moyenne à sept eurocentimes ; pour le même prix, les abonnés peuvent envoyer jusqu'à 50 000 messages avec JamiiX, parce que les messages de chat passent par Internet. Ces messages sont généralement très courts et sous forme de texte. Il y a peu de données à transférer."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Comme JamiiX utilise la toile, n'importe quel internaute peut s'enregistrer. Une organisation qui veut offrir ses services, par exemple, s'enregistre comme échange social et invite des personnes à devenir conseillers thérapeutiques."},{"index":3,"size":137,"text":"« Nous sommes en train de mettre au point une application », dit Parker, « avec laquelle des sociétés ou des associations pourront créer un centre de contact sans ordinateur. Tous les échanges se feront via des portables ou une combinaison de téléphones et d'ordinateur. » Des associations ont rapidement mué JamiiX en centre de prestations et d'information. Le numéro national d'assistance sud-africain pour le sida passe par JamiiX pour envoyer des informations vers des portables afin de toucher un plus large public. Les appels vers ce numéro sont gratuits depuis une ligne fixe, mais il n'y a que cinq millions de lignes fixes dans tout le pays, contre 36 millions de portables. Depuis qu'il utilise JamiiX, ce service parvient à traiter plus de demandes en deux heures qu'auparavant en une semaine avec un centre d'appel traditionnel."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"Le système protège en outre l'anonymat. JamiiX héberge le service, mais son personnel n'a pas accès aux données. Toutes les informations sont cryptées, et dans le cas de la ligne sida, seul le personnel autorisé est habilité à lire les messages. Les clavardages ne sont pas stockés sur le portable, pour protéger la vie privée du jeune qui n'aurait accès qu'au portable d'un parent."},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"En Ouganda, une société développe un système d'assistance pour les clients qui n'ont pas accès à Internet ou qui n'ont pas les moyens d'appeler une ligne d'assistance traditionnelle. Cette société peut mieux informer ses clients sur l'utilisation de ses produits et savoir exactement ce qu'ils veulent."}]},{"head":"Conseils agricoles","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"D'autres organisations testent JamiiX pour fournir des informations agricoles, car cette plate-forme permet aussi l'envoi massif de messages pour un coût relativement faible. Ainsi, une ONG ou une coopérative agricole peut envoyer des informations météo à ses adhérents. Ou mieux encore, des paysans peuvent appeler un centre d'information via ce service pour obtenir des conseils spécifiques auprès d'opérateurs formés, d'experts basés ailleurs, voire d'autres paysans locaux abonnés au système."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Au départ, la plate-forme relie un petit groupe de paysans qui s'associent pour informer leurs congénères, puis se mue progressivement en un réseau avec l'arrivée de nouveaux membres. On peut rapidement se renseigner auprès de paysans de pays voisins pour savoir comment ils ont affronté des situations de sécheresse ou lutté contre les nuisibles."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Les développeurs s'attendent à ce que la plate-forme serve à collecter des informations par portable. Des organisations ou des sociétés peuvent aisément préparer une enquête sur JamiiX, et l'effectuer via leur plateforme de chat préférée. Ces enquêtes "}]},{"head":"Avec le portable, on a accès à bien plus de services que ceux offerts à proximité","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"JamiiX, une application mobile de plus, mais qui marche parce qu'elle utilise un moyen de communication -le portable -déjà largement répandu. "}]},{"head":"Liens corrélés","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"JamiiX","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ressources web","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Motribe","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Deux entrepreneurs sud-africains, Nicholas Haralambous et Vincent Maher, ont fondé Motribe, une plate-forme de création de réseaux sociaux sur web mobile. Les utilisateurs peuvent créer leurs réseaux sociaux pour portables. Motribe propose des fonctions de chat, de partage de photos, de messagerie privée et de blogues mobiles. Les six premiers mois, les sites sont gratuits mais limités à 100 membres pour permettre le démarrage du réseau. Les prix de mise à niveau varient de 10 à 50 US$, en fonction des options supplémentaires offertes pour la personnalisation des sites. Il existe un niveau entreprise pour les grosses sociétés. L'application établit des rapports statistiques détaillés sur le nombre d'abonnés, de fichiers téléchargés, de messages envoyés et sur la localisation et l'âge des utilisateurs. "}]},{"head":"L'initiative Jokko","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Cette initiative sénégalaise parrainée par l'Unicef et Tostan, une organisation présente dans toute l'Afrique de l'Ouest, inventorie les services de mobilophonie en mesure de répondre aux besoins des communautés rurales et développe de nouvelles applications mobiles là où elles s'avèrent nécessaires. Grâce à l'expansion des téléphones portables, elle espère améliorer les connexions entre les femmes et leurs communautés, participer à la définition consensuelle des priorités de développement locales, faire entendre les groupes de jeunes et de marginalisés et ainsi influencer les processus décisionnels de la communauté, être une plate-forme d'échange d'informations, de diffusion des idées et d'organisation du plaidoyer, accélérer l'interaction sociale et faciliter la coopération à grande échelle."}]},{"head":"M-Agriculture Wiki","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Ce Wiki rassemble des exemples et des études de cas sur l'utilisation des téléphones portables dans l'agriculture à travers le monde. Ces dernières années, plus d'un milliard de personnes ont découvert les TIC, en grande partie grâce à l'essor des portables. Mais de nombreuses autres méthodes d'accès et d'échange d'information ont récemment fait leur apparition. Le Wiki analyse les nouveaux modèles de services et en quoi les systèmes d'informations commerciales sur portable ou le m-banking pourraient influencer d'autres services, surtout dans les zones rurales ➜ http://m4agriculture.pbworks.com/w/ page/31550866/M-Agriculture%20Wiki"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Les applications mobiles personnalisables permettent de recueillir et de diffuser des informations à peu de frais."}]},{"head":"Les facteurs de réussite d'un projet","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"TechTip","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"RapidSMS permet de gérer la communication, le recueil de données et l'appui logistique à partir de portables. Ce système qui s'adapte à toutes sortes de situations s'est révélé efficace dans l'agriculture, la santé et l'urgence. Mettre une application sur son portable n'est pas simple. Chaque fois que nous avons eu besoin d'une application dans un projet, nous avons dû avoir accès à formation à expliquer comment on configure son portable pour qu'il accepte les données. Bien que la situation s'améliore et que de nombreux réseaux se tournent vers les services de données auto-configurés, l'effet peut être dissuasif."}]},{"head":"Téléchargement","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"À votre connaissance, quelles sont les applications les plus populaires ? ➜ Les applications de réseau social, et surtout la messagerie instantanée. Certains services, comme MXit en Afrique du Sud, ont réussi à surmonter les problèmes de distribution et tournent sur des milliers de modèles. Le coût est leur atout majeur : la messagerie instantanée est nettement moins chère que les appels et les SMS."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Les applications non connectées sont également en vogue. Elles sont préinstallées sur le portable et ne nécessitent aucun transfert de données via le réseau. Qui n'utilise pas les applications de photo, de musique et de calendrier ? Bien qu'elles n'aient pas de lien évident avec le développement, elles font néanmoins franchir un cap technologique à leurs utilisateurs."}]},{"head":"Ces applications seront-elles démodées dès qu'on aura accès au web via son portable ?","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"➜ Il faudra encore un certain temps avant qu'une part significative des portables supportent une large utilisation des applications. Mais ces applications arrivent déjà dans les communautés rurales. De nombreuses opérations autrefois réservées aux télécentres peuvent désormais se faire par téléphone, pour un paramétrage et un coût de fonctionnement moindres -un portable nécessite beaucoup moins d'électricité, par exemple. Le portable peut donc être le vecteur d'une extension des services TIC de base."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Dans l'avenir, il se peut que ces services passent par le web plutôt que par une application. Mais comme de nombreuses communautés rurales ne sont pas du tout connectées à Internet, le web mobile ne leur serait d'aucune utilité car il serait impossible d'accéder aux services depuis son portable. ■ l'appareil proprement dit, pour installer ou préinstaller l'application. Ce qui veut dire rencontrer l'utilisateur ou être distributeur. Aucune de ces deux méthodes ne convient à un projet d'envergure. Sans parler de l'adaptation de l'application à différents types d'appareil, problème que peu de développeurs ont réussi à résoudre. "}]},{"head":"Quels sont les principaux problèmes liés aux applications ?","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"➜ Outre la question de la distribution et de la disponibilité d'appareils adéquats, je dirais que le prix et l'accès aux services de données sont particulièrement problématiques. Si l'application installée sur le portable doit régulièrement interroger un service distant, le coût du transfert de données dépasse les moyens du citoyen ordinaire. Et comme ce transfert se fait souvent en arrière-plan, l'utilisateur peut difficilement en contrôler le coût. C'est le problème n° 1 sur les smartphones bas de gamme qui débarquent en ce moment en Afrique. Une fois allumés, ces appareils ne cessent de télécharger des informations et d'alourdir la facture de l'utilisateur. Les opérateurs proposent néanmoins des plans tarifaires allégés pour remédier à la question."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"La plupart des réseaux de mobilophonie sont en outre sous-calibrés par rapport à une large utilisation des services de données. Nous avons consacré les premières heures de certains projets de "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"ICT Update numéro 57, décembre 2010. ICT Update est un magazine multimédia disponible à la fois sur Internet (http://ictupdate.cta.int), en version papier et sous forme d'une newsletter diffusée par courriel. Parution du prochain numéro en février 2011. Le CTA, Centre technique de coopération agricole et rurale (ACP-UE), est un institut du Groupe des États ACP et de l'UE, créé dans le cadre de l'Accord de Cotonou. Il est financé par l'UE. Postbus 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, Pays-Bas (www.cta.int) "},{"text":" « L'équipe suivra étroitement et méthodiquement le projet », dit Haynes. « Nous devons absolument voir comment les populations rurales consomment l'information, l'utilisent, l'obtiennent et dans quelle mesure elle est efficace. Nous progresserons très lentement, car nous ne voulons pas étendre le système avant d'avoir déterminé le meilleur moyen d'informer les utilisateurs. » Même en allant « lentement », l'équipe estime que son système sera disponible partout dans le monde en 2013, et que d'ici 2015 il pourrait être installé sur 10 millions de portables. Masawa est déjà une réussite : il a remporté le prix de l'entreprenariat social du concours Business plan 2010 de la Tufts University. Haynes a beau voir l'avenir du système en rose, il sait que le chemin sera parsemé d'embûches. « Il reste quelques barrières technologiques : chaque modèle de portable, y compris d'un même fabricant, requiert un logiciel spécifique. Sauf à ce que les fabricants s'emparent de la question, la seule solution consiste à écrire des logiciels adaptés à chaque portable, ou à se concentrer sur un nombre limité de modèles. » Haynes demeure réaliste quant au potentiel de Masawa et aux effets que d'autres projets d'applications nomades pourraient avoir sur la vie des populations des PED. « Peu de projets de ce type aboutissent ; on entend plus souvent parler d'échec que de réussite. La technologie est rarement en cause ; c'est plus souvent l'exécutant qui ne dispose ni du personnel ni des ressources nécessaires pour intégrer convenablement les TIC dans son projet. Je ne dis pas que Masawa est la solution qui va régler tous les problèmes, mais c'est une chance à saisir. Rappelons-nous que la technologie seule n'éradiquera pas la pauvreté, mais qu'elle peut contribuer à son éradication. » ■ Liens corrélés Projet d'alphabétisation IMAC : Information sur les Marchés Agricoles par Cellulaire Dans le cadre d'un programme d'alphabétisation, cette application d'informations agricoles par SMS aide les paysans nigériens à entretenir leur niveau de lecture et d'écriture. ➜ http://sites.tufts.edu/projectabc/ gETTy ImAgES L 'acheminement de marchandises d'une ferme reculée au marché citadin s'avère parfois compliqué. Il faut synchroniser les agendas de plusieurs intervenants pour collecter, livrer, organiser le transport et négocier les prix. Vu le nombre de transactions, l'efficacité et la transparence du système ne sont pas garanties ; on ne compte plus les déplacements inutiles et les fermiers ignorent souvent s'ils ont obtenu le meilleur prix. Chez Virtual City, une entreprise technologique de Nairobi (Kenya), plusieurs développeurs ont connu ce genre de problème dans leur parcours professionnel. C'est ce qui les a conduits à développer plus d'une douzaine d'applications mobiles pour optimiser la chaîne d'approvisionnement. "},{"text":" peuvent être relativement complexes, prévoir des réponses plus étoffées qu'un simple « oui » ou « non », et recueillir des informations directement dans les zones rurales. Pour Parker, les applications mobiles sont un instrument de rêve pour les organisations qui veulent diffuser de l'information dans les zones rurales en général et agricoles en particulier. Les services peuvent être développés à partir de la technologie existante et avec le savoir disponible sur place, sans devoir acheter d'équipements ni investir dans la création et le fonctionnement coûteux d'un centre d'appel. Des paysans aident d'autres paysans et peuvent facilement prendre contact avec des conseillers situés ailleurs dans le pays, voire à l'étranger. « JamiiX profite du manque d'information et de services destinés aux communautés rurales dans de nombreux pays », déclare Parker. « Même les services d'appui parrainés par les gouvernements ont du mal à atteindre les zones reculées. Ce service constitue une alternative peu coûteuse aux services d'information traditionnels basés sur les lignes fixes ou Internet, qui sont souvent chers dans les pays ACP. » ■ "},{"text":" entrepreneurs dans le développement de produits et de services innovants. Parmi ces ressources, citons des formations en développement d'applications mobiles pour diverses plates-formes et une application mobile dernier cri pour tester l'environnement et la connectivité de l'Internet à haut débit. Le laboratoire leur offrira aussi des services comptables, juridiques et de développement d'entreprise communs. La principale mission du laboratoire sera d'offrir aux techniciens de la mobilophonie un lieu d'incubation et de formation où ils pourront donner corps à leurs idées. Il suscitera des changements dans l'élaboration des produits et des services mobiles et sera une vitrine pour les technologies appelées à révolutionner le paysage africain de la mobilophonie. ■ Les développeurs est-africains bénéficient d'un nouveau laboratoire régional d'applications mobiles pour se former et trouver des solutions innovantes à des problèmes quotidiens. Jessica Colaço ([email protected]) est directrice de iHub, Kenya (www.ihub.co.ke) Études de cas ISmAIL TAxTA / REUTERS Les paysans se partagent les informations commerciales via des SMS et des applications vocales. par Jenny C. Aker et Isaac M. Mbiti Ce rapport décrit l'évolution de la mobilophonie en Afrique subsaharienne depuis dix ans. À partir d'exemples nigériens, ougandais et indiens, il explique en quoi cette technologie a permis d'améliorer l'efficacité des marchés agricoles des PED. Il relève cinq domaines où les portables s'avèrent économiquement profitables pour les producteurs et les consommateurs : amélioration de l'accès à l'information ; de l'efficacité des filières ; création de nouveaux emplois et génération de revenus ; maintien de réseaux sociaux pour réduire l'exposition aux risques ; amélioration des services agricoles, éducatifs, financiers et de santé. ➜ http://www.cgdev.org/files/1424175_ file_Aker_Mobile_wp211_FINAL.pdf « The Innovative Use of Mobile Applications in East Africa » par Johan Hellström, pour l'agence suédoise de développement international (Sida). Fin 2009, on comptait plus de 50 millions d'abonnés au portable en Afrique de l'Est, soit près de 40 % de la population. Le portable est devenu le moyen de diffusion d'informations et de communication interactive le plus répandu. Les progrès en ont fait l'appareil tout-en-un qui s'emporte et s'utilise partout. Internet devient nomade, du desktop au pocket, et des applications simples et innovantes ouvrent aux entreprises, associations et gouvernements de nouvelles possibilités d'action et d'interaction avec des publics cibles. ➜ http:///upgraid.files.wordpress. com/2010/06/sr2010-12_sida_hellstrom. pdf "},{"text":" ➜ http://motribe.com Mobisoko Mobisoko est une vitrine pour applications mobiles développée par des programmateurs africains. Elle veut aider les étudiants et programmateurs africains à distribuer et à faire connaître leurs applications mobiles du public. Beaucoup d'applications conçues pour les portables (surtout par des étudiants et des universités) ne sont pas distribuées faute de ressources, notamment en matière d'hébergement et de commercialisation. La plupart finissent au placard, sans jamais trouver leur public cible. Ce site web permet de trouver et de télécharger des applications mobiles, et d'héberger celles de développeurs indépendants. Mobisoko teste et analyse les applications proposées par les développeurs avant de les mettre en ligne. ➜ http://mobisoko. "},{"text":" RapidSMS est un logiciel gratuit et « open source » que l'on télécharge et paramètre. Rien à installer sur les ordinateurs ou téléphones avec lesquels le système interagit : l'utilisateur n'a besoin que d'un portable capable d'envoyer et de recevoir des SMS. Téléchargez le logiciel sur le site de RapidSMS : www.rapidsms.org ou depuis https://github.com/rapidsms/rapidsms Équipement Le système est prévu pour s'adapter aux besoins divers et variés des organisations. Il n'y a pas de paramétrage universel. Ci-dessous, l'équipement nécessaire pour un paramétrage standard. Une certaine maîtrise technique est nécessaire pour installer et personnaliser le logiciel. Serveur -avec système d'exploitation Linux (la dernière version d'Ubuntu est recommandée) -avec une alimentation électrique fiable ou branché sur une alimentation de secours -sur un hôte sécurisé -auquel vous avez accès pour installer des modems -avec une connexion Internet pour l'accès et la mise �� niveau à distance -éventuellement un vieux desktop bas de gamme Modem(s) GSM -un par réseau de mobilophonie via lequel transiteront les messages -une carte SIM par modem REMARQUE : le modem doit être compatible RapidSMS. "},{"text":" • Qualité : suivez le projet de bout en bout pour vérifier que les utilisateurs fournissent le type de données requis, et que le logiciel fonctionne comme prévu. • Appui : les participants doivent être rapidement informés en cas de défaillance. Les gestionnaires du projet doivent établir des liens avec les développeurs locaux de logiciels pour veiller à ce que la technologie fonctionne convenablement. Pour en savoir plus sur les facteurs critiques de RapidSMS et la façon d'évaluer votre projet, voyez : http://drop. io/howtorapidsms ■ Liens corrélés TechTip : publipostage de textos par ordinateur Comment configurer et utiliser le logiciel FrontlineSMS. ➜ http://ictupdate.cta.int/fr/Regulars/Techtip/Techtip-Group-text-messages-by-computer Le projet Mwana Ce projet utilise RapidSMS pour apporter des services de santé aux mères et aux nouveau-nés de Zambie. ➜ http://projectmwana.posterous.com L'initiative Jokko Utilise RapidSMS pour favoriser les prises de décision collectives dans les villages sénégalais. ➜ www.jokkoinitiative.org RoEL BURgLER / hh Dépêches Le rêve de tout musicien : enregistrer sa musique et la faire écouter au plus grand nombre. Avec des applications sociales comme MySpace et YouTube, les artistes en herbe peuvent plus facilement diffuser leur musique, mais ces applications restent inaccessibles aux millions de personnes dont le territoire n'est pas raccordé à Internet. Une publication récente, intitulée « Exploiting Mobile Technology in the African Urban Low-Income Informal Music Industry » et inspirée d'une étude de Nokia Research Africa, entend muer le téléphone portable en instrument de musique. Les auteurs-compositeurs, par exemple, pourront noter et diffuser leurs paroles par SMS, ou se servir d'un téléphone ayant des fonctions d'enregistrement de base pour sauvegarder des notes ou des bouts de chanson qu'ils pourront réécouter et améliorer. Les musiciens d'un groupe pourront partager leurs maquettes avec leurs amis via des portables équipés du Bluetooth ou de l'infrarouge. Les auteurs dressent la liste des applications musicales qui ont été développées pour les portables et qui peuvent aider les jeunes à cultiver leur talent et, qui sait, à gagner de l'argent. Ils entrevoient pour les développeurs de logiciels un marché d'applications nomades destinées aux jeunes musiciens privés d'autres moyens technologiques. Pour télécharger le rapport complet (fichier pdf) : http://mobileactive.org/files/file_uploads/ Mobile Technology for Informal Music Industry in Africa.pdf Faire de la musique sur son portable Accès égalitaire Un réseau de chercheurs de 20 pays d'Afrique, Research ICT Africa, vient de publier un rapport sur le genre et l'utilisation des TIC. Intitulé « Gender Assessment of ICT Access and Usage in Africa », son document politique s'appuie sur les données collectées auprès de particuliers et de ménages de 17 pays et de groupes spécialisés de cinq pays. D'après les auteurs, « la diffusion des TIC est très inégale : très dense dans les zones urbaines et pratiquement absente de certaines zones rurales ». Et d'ajouter : « Nous avons été surpris de constater qu'en Afrique du Sud et au Mozambique il y a plus de femmes que d'hommes qui possèdent un portable et qu'au Cameroun les femmes maîtrisent mieux Internet. Plus généralement, notre enquête confirme cependant que les femmes n'ont pas autant accès aux TIC que les hommes, surtout quand cet accès est public. » Les stratégies qui promeuvent l'accès universel aux technologies bénéficient certes aux femmes, mais les politiques devraient s'atteler aux causes premières de l'inégalité des genres. De nombreuses sociétés seraient plus égalitaires si l'on cherchait à réduire la pauvreté et à offrir à l'ensemble de la population des services de communication à un prix abordable. Pour lire le rapport complet, voyez www. researchictafrica.net/new/images/uploads/Gender_Paper_May_2010.pdf. Pour plus d'informations sur le réseau Research ICT Africa, voyez www. researchictafrica.net 14 Décembre 2010 ı ICT Update ı numéro 57 Téléphoner hors réseau Les opérateurs de téléphonie mobile invoquent souvent le coût des infrastructures pour expliquer la faible couverture des zones rurales. C'est ce qui a conduit des Australiens à développer un système, Serval Project, qui évite les réseaux traditionnels en créant un réseau composite par wifi, ainsi qu'un portable, le Batphone, qui utilise des fréquences libres. Les portables compatibles peuvent accéder au réseau via leur numéro habituel. Paul Gardner-Stephen, directeur du projet, déclare que son système permettra « aux habitants des zones reculées ou isolées ou aux ouvriers agricoles de rester en communication là où il n'y a pas de réseau ». Idem dans les zones de catastrophe, pour prévenir les amis ou la famille et mieux coordonner les secours. Outre son logiciel DNA (Distributed Numbering Architecture), le système Serval utilise un logiciel de réseau composite développé par Village Telco. Pour en savoir plus : www.servalproject.org. "},{"text":" Ceux qui n'ont pas les moyens -ou l'envie -de se payer un portable pourraient bientôt avoir accès aux réseaux de mobilophonie. Développé par Movritu, MXShare est une formule qui octroie aux abonnés des numéros utilisables depuis n'importe quel portable. Il suffit d'emprunter un appareil, puis de se connecter au système pour appeler ou envoyer un texto avec son propre numéro. Le compte de l'utilisateur est en effet « dans les nuages », c.-à-d. stocké chez l'opérateur et non sur la carte SIM du téléphone. Le système gère aussi l'activité hors ligne de l'abonné, recense les appels en absence, envoie des messages de notification à des amis ou aux opérateurs téléphoniques d'un village voisin. Celui qui partage son téléphone se voit récompensé sous la forme d'une ristourne forfaitaire, d'un pourcentage ou de l'équivalent du coût de la transaction. Movritu teste actuellement ce service dans plusieurs PED et cible essentiellement les utilisateurs à bas revenus. www.movirtu.com Un web neutre pour tous La neutralité de la toile est devenue un sujet d'actualité ces derniers mois, depuis que Google et la société de télécoms Verizon ont soumis une proposition commune pour la réglementation des services Internet aux USA. Bien que Google se dise neutre, le fait que ces deux sociétés s'intéressent à la question a de quoi inquiéter. Même Sir Tim Berners-Lee, inventeur de la toile mondiale, s'en est ému lors de la conférence Nokia World à Londres. « Des pays ou des entreprises voudraient contrôler certaines données en fonction de leurs propres objectifs. Sans neutralité, la toile n'existe plus. » Mais qu'entend-on exactement par neutralité de la toile et avec quelles répercussions pour les pays ACP ? Pour l'heure, les pages web sont fournies de la même manière à tous (ceux qui ont accès à Internet). C'est cela, la neutralité de la toile. Or certains fournisseurs d'accès, surtout de grosses entreprises de télécoms, voudraient introduire des services prioritaires qui seraient fournis plus rapidement aux sociétés et aux particuliers prêts à en payer le prix. Des fournisseurs de contenu paieraient les entreprises de télécoms pour qu'elles fournissent leurs services web plus rapidement que leurs concurrents. Un journal paierait pour que ses articles soient fournis plus rapidement aux moteurs de recherche que ceux de son rival. Les analystes craignent donc l'avènement d'un système à deux vitesses où les services payants passeraient par une toile plus rapide, tandis que le contenu des particuliers et des associations passerait par un réseau plus lent. L'utilisation de ce web plus rapide serait payante, c.-à-d. prohibitive pour les internautes plus pauvres. Bien que l'introduction d'un tel système ne soit pas pour demain, de nombreuses entreprises de télécoms en rêvent pour aprèsdemain. shillings kényan (100 US$) : prix du smartphone IDEOS Android récemment commercialisé au Kenya. pays subsahariens -Maurice et l'Afrique du Sud -sont entrés dans le top 100 des économies les plus maillées, d'après le dernier Global Information Technology Report. millions € : prix de la première phase (sud-africaine) d'un projet de l'UE visant à installer Internet à haut débit et sans fil dans les zones rurales d'Afrique. "},{"text":" t-il beaucoup d'utilisateurs d'applications mobiles dans les pays ACP ?➜ Je ne peux parler que de la situation en Afrique de l'Est et australe. En dehors de la petite élite citadine équipée de smartphones ou de portables haut de gamme, peu d'applications mobiles connaissent une large diffusion et elles sont généralement préinstallées. Certaines sont tellement prisées que d'aucuns vont jusqu'à les transférer par Bluetooth. Mais dans les pays en développement, on utilise peu les magasins d'applications en ligne, comme ceux que l'on associe aux smartphones comme iPhone. "},{"text":"➜ Le portable lui-même fonctionne souvent dans une langue étrangère au commun des mortels et plusieurs fonctionnalités nécessitent la maîtrise du langage, or cela ne semble pas être une barrière pour les utilisateurs. Plusieurs projets de développement ont utilisé des SMS en plusieurs langues, y compris vernaculaires, mais il semble que les utilisateurs réagissent mieux aux messages en anglais. Peut-être parce qu'ils considèrent le langage SMS comme du jargon d'anglais, de français, etc. Quand on parle d'applications, l'éducation ou la langue ne figure pas dans le top cinq des problèmes. Ce n'est le cas que lorsque l'application -ou ce que nous appelons une variante d'application -connaît une large distribution. "},{"text":" ODK est un ensemble d'outils permettant à une organisation de recueillir, d'agréger et de visualiser ses données sur des portables Android. ➜ http://code.google.com/p/ opendatakit/ "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"ce qui suppose Mise en commun des ressources portable est devenu la principale P our des millions de pauvres, le source d'information et un outil de Les TIC ne leur servent généralement qu'à rester en contact avec le siège. » C'est toutefois en Haïti que Haynes faut programmer le système en sorte qu'il gère les éventuelles erreurs de saisie. Un usager qui reçoit sans cesse portable est devenu la principale P our des millions de pauvres, le source d'information et un outil deLes TIC ne leur servent généralement qu'à rester en contact avec le siège. » C'est toutefois en Haïti que Haynesfaut programmer le système en sorte qu'il gère les éventuelles erreurs de saisie. Un usager qui reçoit sans cesse communication indispensable. Un outil s'est rendu compte du véritable pouvoir des réponses insolites abandonne communication indispensable. Un outils'est rendu compte du véritable pouvoirdes réponses insolites abandonne dont on est cependant loin d'avoir et des difficultés liés à l'utilisation du rapidement le service. Les SMS ne dont on est cependant loin d'avoiret des difficultés liés à l'utilisation durapidement le service. Les SMS ne exploité tout le potentiel pour les portable. Avec d'autres étudiants de permettent en outre que d'envoyer un exploité tout le potentiel pour lesportable. Avec d'autres étudiants depermettent en outre que d'envoyer un usagers à faible revenu. Dans de Fletcher, il avait développé une très petit nombre d'informations, non usagers à faible revenu. Dans deFletcher, il avait développé unetrès petit nombre d'informations, non nombreux pays ACP, plusieurs application SMS pour aider des groupes visuelles : pas de vidéo ni de petites nombreux pays ACP, plusieursapplication SMS pour aider des groupesvisuelles : pas de vidéo ni de petites opérateurs se partagent généralement d'épargne et de microfinance à gérer animations, par exemple. Le SMS opérateurs se partagent généralementd'épargne et de microfinance à géreranimations, par exemple. Le SMS le marché de la téléphonie mobile : un les comptes-épargne via un portable. s'avère en outre relativement coûteux. le marché de la téléphonie mobile : unles comptes-épargne via un portable.s'avère en outre relativement coûteux. marché fragmenté, où les besoins des « Le principal problème tenait à la Dans la plupart des pays, le prix d'envoi marché fragmenté, où les besoins des« Le principal problème tenait à laDans la plupart des pays, le prix d'envoi usagers varient. L'offre des producteurs méthode comptable, qui limitait les des SMS n'a pas baissé autant que celui usagers varient. L'offre des producteursméthode comptable, qui limitait lesdes SMS n'a pas baissé autant que celui -de portables et de services - possibilités d'épargne cumulative. Si des appels vocaux. » -de portables et de services -possibilités d'épargne cumulative. Sides appels vocaux. » correspond rarement à ces besoins, car une femme voulait augmenter son Le SMS soulève aussi des questions correspond rarement à ces besoins, carune femme voulait augmenter sonLe SMS soulève aussi des questions elle reproduit généralement ce qui épargne, le trésorier du groupe devait de vie privée. Les messages envoyés elle reproduit généralement ce quiépargne, le trésorier du groupe devaitde vie privée. Les messages envoyés existe déjà, plutôt que de proposer des calculer l'intérêt proportionnel, ce qui sont stockés dans le portable, sauf à ce existe déjà, plutôt que de proposer descalculer l'intérêt proportionnel, ce quisont stockés dans le portable, sauf à ce produits sur mesure au consommateur. est loin d'être simple. Nous avons donc que l'utilisateur sache comment les produits sur mesure au consommateur.est loin d'être simple. Nous avons doncque l'utilisateur sache comment les Les services disponibles sont développé une application pour essayer effacer. Cela peut poser des problèmes Les services disponibles sontdéveloppé une application pour essayereffacer. Cela peut poser des problèmes généralement des applications texte, de résoudre ce problème et nous avons à une femme qui signale des violences généralement des applications texte,de résoudre ce problème et nous avonsà une femme qui signale des violences peu attrayantes pour qui sait à peine vu un intérêt supplémentaire à conjugales, par exemple, ou à celui qui peu attrayantes pour qui sait à peinevu un intérêt supplémentaire àconjugales, par exemple, ou à celui qui lire et écrire. développer une application d'épargne rapporte des fraudes électorales. lire et écrire.développer une application d'épargnerapporte des fraudes électorales. STR NEw / REUTERS pratiques ; elles apportent des services Les applications mobiles sont et des informations qui peuvent changer la vie des populations Cette limite, Joshua Haynes en a fait l'expérience alors qu'il testait une application d'informations agricoles par SMS auprès de paysans nigériens. Cet ancien diplômé de la Fletcher School at Tufts University constate : « Le projet marchait bien parce qu'il s'inscrivait dans un programme d'alphabétisation ; les utilisateurs savaient donc lire et écrire. Mais il aurait été difficilement transposable à d'autres organisations, que ce soit au Niger ou ailleurs, faute de personnel technique qualifié sur le terrain. De plus en plus conscientes de ce problème, certaines ONG recrutent des spécialistes en TIC pour leur siège, mais beaucoup ne réussissent pas à intégrer le portable dans leur travail de projet. la diffusion d'informations vers les portables bon marché via des applications nomades. groupée. Les groupes disposaient alors d'un historique des épargnes et des prêts qui pouvait servir d'historique de crédit », ajoute Haynes. « Mais dès les premiers tests sur le terrain, nous nous sommes aperçu que le choix du SMS était une erreur : trop compliqué. » « Lorsqu'on crée un nouveau groupe d'épargne local avec une application SMS, il faut prévoir un SMS pour chaque nouvel épargnant, reprenant son nom et ses coordonnées. Imaginez qu'il y en ait 20 : cela prend du temps, les sources d'erreur sont multiples et il est difficile de les corriger une fois le SMS envoyé. » L'usage des applications SMS a révélé bien d'autres problèmes plus généraux. « Il ne suffit pas de savoir lire et écrire pour envoyer des SMS », dit Haynes, « encore faut-il maîtriser les fonctions, surtout si vous voulez obtenir des informations par l'envoi d'un code spécifique. Ce code doit être exact, ou il Fourniture coordonnée Les tests en Haïti et d'autres travaux ont appris à l'équipe que les applications SMS n'avaient pas le monopole des problèmes. « Nous avons constaté que de nombreuses organisations créaient des applications sectorielles, destinées à un public restreint. L'organisation de santé créait une application de santé pour ses bénéficiaires et l'organisation de microfinance une application financière pour ses clients. Un individu peut avoir besoin d'informations sanitaires ou financières, mais plus probablement des deux et de plus encore. » L'équipe a donc élaboré un système permettant de créer et de diffuser facilement des informations vers des portables bon marché. Forte de sa connaissance des applications SMS, l'équipe se concentre désormais sur des applications écrites en langage de programmation Java, Une équipe de développeurs a élaboré le système Masawa afin de favoriser la création et Avec l'aide d' STR NEw / REUTERS pratiques ; elles apportent des services Les applications mobiles sont et des informations qui peuvent changer la vie des populations Cette limite, Joshua Haynes en a fait l'expérience alors qu'il testait une application d'informations agricoles par SMS auprès de paysans nigériens. Cet ancien diplômé de la Fletcher School at Tufts University constate : « Le projet marchait bien parce qu'il s'inscrivait dans un programme d'alphabétisation ; les utilisateurs savaient donc lire et écrire. Mais il aurait été difficilement transposable à d'autres organisations, que ce soit au Niger ou ailleurs, faute de personnel technique qualifié sur le terrain. De plus en plus conscientes de ce problème, certaines ONG recrutent des spécialistes en TIC pour leur siège, mais beaucoup ne réussissent pas à intégrer le portable dans leur travail de projet. la diffusion d'informations vers les portables bon marché via des applications nomades. groupée. Les groupes disposaient alors d'un historique des épargnes et des prêts qui pouvait servir d'historique de crédit », ajoute Haynes. « Mais dès les premiers tests sur le terrain, nous nous sommes aperçu que le choix du SMS était une erreur : trop compliqué. » « Lorsqu'on crée un nouveau groupe d'épargne local avec une application SMS, il faut prévoir un SMS pour chaque nouvel épargnant, reprenant son nom et ses coordonnées. Imaginez qu'il y en ait 20 : cela prend du temps, les sources d'erreur sont multiples et il est difficile de les corriger une fois le SMS envoyé. » L'usage des applications SMS a révélé bien d'autres problèmes plus généraux. « Il ne suffit pas de savoir lire et écrire pour envoyer des SMS », dit Haynes, « encore faut-il maîtriser les fonctions, surtout si vous voulez obtenir des informations par l'envoi d'un code spécifique. Ce code doit être exact, ou il Fourniture coordonnée Les tests en Haïti et d'autres travaux ont appris à l'équipe que les applications SMS n'avaient pas le monopole des problèmes. « Nous avons constaté que de nombreuses organisations créaient des applications sectorielles, destinées à un public restreint. L'organisation de santé créait une application de santé pour ses bénéficiaires et l'organisation de microfinance une application financière pour ses clients. Un individu peut avoir besoin d'informations sanitaires ou financières, mais plus probablement des deux et de plus encore. » L'équipe a donc élaboré un système permettant de créer et de diffuser facilement des informations vers des portables bon marché. Forte de sa connaissance des applications SMS, l'équipe se concentre désormais sur des applications écrites en langage de programmation Java, Une équipe de développeurs a élaboré le système Masawa afin de favoriser la création et Avec l'aide d' "},{"text":"ONG et de développeurs locaux, Masawa sera testé au Kenya en 2011. Dossier Dossier des portables compatibles. « On compte des portables compatibles. « On compte aujourd'hui plus de deux milliards aujourd'hui plus de deux milliards d'appareils compatibles dans le d'appareils compatibles dans le monde », explique Haynes, « pour la monde », explique Haynes, « pour la plupart situés dans les PED et dont le plupart situés dans les PED et dont le coût ne cesse de baisser. La plupart des coût ne cesse de baisser. La plupart des programmeurs connaissent Java. Nous programmeurs connaissent Java. Nous voulions associer les développeurs et la voulions associer les développeurs et la technologie pour créer des applications technologie pour créer des applications nomades qui répondent aux besoins de nomades qui répondent aux besoins de la population des PED. » la population des PED. » L'équipe a créé une organisation à L'équipe a créé une organisation à but non lucratif, Masawa (dérivé du but non lucratif, Masawa (dérivé du mot arabe signifiant « égalité »), qui, mot arabe signifiant « égalité »), qui, avec l'aide d'ONG, d'organisations avec l'aide d'ONG, d'organisations d'aide internationales et d'institutions d'aide internationales et d'institutions de microfinance, s'emploie à de microfinance, s'emploie à déterminer précisément les besoins des déterminer précisément les besoins des publics cibles. Masawa contacte ensuite publics cibles. Masawa contacte ensuite des développeurs locaux pour créer les des développeurs locaux pour créer les applications correspondantes et les applications correspondantes et les fournit au travers d'un seul système. fournit au travers d'un seul système. Joshua Haynes ([email protected]) est cofondateur de « Pour l'instant, il y a peu de Joshua Haynes ([email protected]) est cofondateur de « Pour l'instant, il y a peu de Masawa (www.masawa.org) coordination entre les projets sur Masawa (www.masawa.org) coordination entre les projets sur lesquels les développeurs travaillent - lesquels les développeurs travaillent - "},{"text":"ou pourraient travailler -et les besoins du public », déclare Haynes. « Pas moyen non plus de monnayer le développement et la distribution des se déplacent pour leur activité normale, se déplacent pour leur activité normale, ils emmènent un netbook pour ils emmènent un netbook pour télécharger Masawa sur les portables télécharger Masawa sur les portables des utilisateurs. Une actualisation du des utilisateurs. Une actualisation du système et l'installation de nouvelles système et l'installation de nouvelles applications sont toujours possibles applications sont toujours possibles ultérieurement. Les utilisateurs ont ultérieurement. Les utilisateurs ont accès à toutes les applications via accès à toutes les applications via une seule et même icône sur leur une seule et même icône sur leur portable. portable. En regroupant plusieurs En regroupant plusieurs applications dans un applications dans un seul système, Masawa seul système, Masawa permet d'envoyer des permet d'envoyer des applications pour rétribuer le travail informations vers des portables situés dans applications pour rétribuer le travailinformations vers des portables situés dans des créateurs et couvrir les frais des des zones où il n'existe des créateurs et couvrir les frais desdes zones où il n'existe organisations prêtes à diffuser des aucune autre modalité organisations prêtes à diffuser desaucune autre modalité informations par ce moyen. » de téléchargement. informations par ce moyen. »de téléchargement. Avec l'aide d'ONG et d'écoles Avec l'aide d'ONG et d'écoles techniques, Masawa cherche des techniques, Masawa cherche des développeurs prêts à plancher sur son développeurs prêts à plancher sur son système. L'équipe veut les amener à système. L'équipe veut les amener à développer des applications pour les développer des applications pour les portables compatibles Java. Beaucoup portables compatibles Java. Beaucoup de développeurs travaillent aujourd'hui de développeurs travaillent aujourd'hui en Android et sur les plates-formes en Android et sur les plates-formes iPhone, parce que cela rapporte plus. iPhone, parce que cela rapporte plus. Masawa veut être une source Masawa veut être une source alternative de revenus pour les talents alternative de revenus pour les talents locaux. Les développeurs pourraient locaux. Les développeurs pourraient gagner de l'argent en créant des gagner de l'argent en créant des applications que les ONG, d'autres applications que les ONG, d'autres organisations et le public sont prêts à organisations et le public sont prêts à payer. Masawa est également un canal payer. Masawa est également un canal de distribution. de distribution. "},{"text":"Liens corrélés Nokia Growth Economy Venture Challenge ➜ www.callingallinnovators.com/ venture_challenge.aspx Marlon Parker La société kényane Virtual City, spécialisée dans les applications mobiles pour l'e-commerce, a créé plusieurs outils qui accroissent l'efficacité des filières d'approvisionnement. Une solution opportune Une solution opportune gérer ses conversations, évite au jeune gérer ses conversations, évite au jeune les délais d'attente et lui donne un les délais d'attente et lui donne un accès plus rapide aux services. accès plus rapide aux services. Autre avantage : le système Autre avantage : le système fonctionne sur la toile, c.-à-.d. « dans ensuite préparer la commande et fonctionne sur la toile, c.-à-.d. « dansensuite préparer la commande et les nuages ». Le thérapeute ne doit pas organiser la livraison. les nuages ». Le thérapeute ne doit pasorganiser la livraison. installer de logiciel sur son ordinateur Auparavant, le vendeur devait installer de logiciel sur son ordinateurAuparavant, le vendeur devait Études ou son portable. Il peut se connecter de retourner chez l'acheteur pour livrer la Études ou son portable. Il peut se connecter deretourner chez l'acheteur pour livrer la de cas n'importe où dans le monde via un marchandise. Avec l'application, les de cas n'importe où dans le monde via unmarchandise. Avec l'application, les navigateur Internet. Des psychologues vendeurs peuvent directement passer navigateur Internet. Des psychologuesvendeurs peuvent directement passer britanniques, par exemple, apportent chez le client suivant et se concentrer britanniques, par exemple, apportentchez le client suivant et se concentrer leurs connaissances d'experts à ce sur la vente. L'application accepte aussi leurs connaissances d'experts à cesur la vente. L'application accepte aussi service d'aide socio-psychologique les paiements par m-banking, ce qui service d'aide socio-psychologiqueles paiements par m-banking, ce qui pour toxicomanes. dispense les vendeurs de se promener pour toxicomanes.dispense les vendeurs de se promener avec de grosses sommes en liquide. avec de grosses sommes en liquide. Les vendeurs trouvent cette méthode Les vendeurs trouvent cette méthode de paiement plus sûre et ils apprécient le de paiement plus sûre et ils apprécient le fait que chaque vente soit enregistrée fait que chaque vente soit enregistrée instantanément et précisément, d'où un instantanément et précisément, d'où un reversement exact des commissions. Les reversement exact des commissions. Les entreprises qui utilisent cette application entreprises qui utilisent cette application ont augmenté leurs revenus car leurs ont augmenté leurs revenus car leurs vendeurs voient plus de clients et les vendeurs voient plus de clients et les transactions sont traitées plus transactions sont traitées plus rapidement. rapidement. Virtual City affine ses produits pour Virtual City affine ses produits pour répondre aux exigences de la clientèle. répondre aux exigences de la clientèle. Le prix Nokia va l'aider à trouver de Le prix Nokia va l'aider à trouver de nouveaux débouchés et à développer nouveaux débouchés et à développer d'autres applications destinées aux d'autres applications destinées aux Virtual City sait que chaque maillon de entreprises, fermiers et PME. Virtual Virtual City sait que chaque maillon deentreprises, fermiers et PME. Virtual la chaîne d'approvisionnement a son City considère qu'il faut la chaîne d'approvisionnement a sonCity considère qu'il faut utilité et des besoins particuliers dès impérativement améliorer la chaîne utilité et des besoins particuliers dèsimpérativement améliorer la chaîne lors qu'il s'agit de le rationaliser. d'approvisionnement, car plus on lors qu'il s'agit de le rationaliser.d'approvisionnement, car plus on Études de cas E n 2007, l'organisation communautaire sud-africaine Impact Direct cherchait une solution d'information alternative pour les l'époque, ceux-ci devaient souvent attendre un an avant de bénéficier d'une aide socio-psychologique. ANToNy KAmINjU/ AfRICANpICTURES toxicomanes du Cap-Occidental. À L'entreprise a donc développé plusieurs applications : Routr et Haulr pour les transporteurs, Auditr pour recueillir les données du marché, et Membr pour tenir les comptes clients. C'est toutefois l'application Mobile Distributor Solution qui a récemment mis la société sous les feux de la technique, et que nous pourrions donc nous en servir pour leur proposer des services d'assistance. » L'équipe de RLabs a développé un d'utiliser sa plate-forme de chat préférée, notamment MXit, la plus connue d'Afrique du Sud, pour système sécurisé permettant à chacun commercialise les marchandises rapidement, plus on dispose d'un avantage concurrentiel. Dans de nombreux pays, le suivi et le dénombrement précis des marchandises tout au long de leur acheminement, de la ferme au marché, sont devenus des obligations légales et connecter pour aborder leurs problèmes avec des thérapeutes professionnels ayant souvent une expérience de première main de la toxicomanie. » Multitâches JamiiX fonctionne avec la plupart des systèmes de chat ou de messagerie Études de casE n 2007, l'organisation communautaire sud-africaine Impact Direct cherchait une solution d'information alternative pour les l'époque, ceux-ci devaient souvent attendre un an avant de bénéficier d'une aide socio-psychologique. ANToNy KAmINjU/ AfRICANpICTURES toxicomanes du Cap-Occidental. ÀL'entreprise a donc développé plusieurs applications : Routr et Haulr pour les transporteurs, Auditr pour recueillir les données du marché, et Membr pour tenir les comptes clients. C'est toutefois l'application Mobile Distributor Solution qui a récemment mis la société sous les feux de la technique, et que nous pourrions donc nous en servir pour leur proposer des services d'assistance. » L'équipe de RLabs a développé un d'utiliser sa plate-forme de chat préférée, notamment MXit, la plus connue d'Afrique du Sud, pour système sécurisé permettant à chacuncommercialise les marchandises rapidement, plus on dispose d'un avantage concurrentiel. Dans de nombreux pays, le suivi et le dénombrement précis des marchandises tout au long de leur acheminement, de la ferme au marché, sont devenus des obligations légales et connecter pour aborder leurs problèmes avec des thérapeutes professionnels ayant souvent une expérience de première main de la toxicomanie. » Multitâches JamiiX fonctionne avec la plupart des systèmes de chat ou de messagerie Souhaitant intervenir plus tôt, Impact rampe, en décrochant le million de contacter les thérapeutes et leur le passage obligé vers la certification instantanée, où chacun envoie et reçoit Souhaitant intervenir plus tôt, Impactrampe, en décrochant le million de contacter les thérapeutes et leurle passage obligé vers la certification instantanée, où chacun envoie et reçoit Direct a demandé à l'entreprise sociale dollars du Growth Economy Venture demander conseil. Ces plates-formes sur des marchés profitables comme le des messages de ses « amis » connectés. Direct a demandé à l'entreprise socialedollars du Growth Economy Venture demander conseil. Ces plates-formessur des marchés profitables comme le des messages de ses « amis » connectés. Reconstructed Living Lab (RLabs) de lui Challenge de Nokia. Cette application n'utilisent pas de SMS mais transfèrent commerce équitable et le bio. Les Les étudiants participant au projet Reconstructed Living Lab (RLabs) de luiChallenge de Nokia. Cette application n'utilisent pas de SMS mais transfèrentcommerce équitable et le bio. Les Les étudiants participant au projet trouver une solution. destinée aux portables bon marché les données vers le web par GPRS, 3G applications mobiles sont un moyen d'aide socio-psychologique pour trouver une solution.destinée aux portables bon marché les données vers le web par GPRS, 3Gapplications mobiles sont un moyen d'aide socio-psychologique pour Marlon Parker, professeur compatibles Java (autour des 50 US$) ou wifi. Pour tester ce nouveau facile et efficace de satisfaire ces toxicomanes, par exemple, n'ont fait Marlon Parker, professeurcompatibles Java (autour des 50 US$) ou wifi. Pour tester ce nouveaufacile et efficace de satisfaire ces toxicomanes, par exemple, n'ont fait Les applications d'informatique à l'université de permet aux entreprises de toute taille système, baptisé JamiiX, RLabs a exigences, grâce à la téléphonie mobile, qu'ajouter ce service à leur liste de Les applicationsd'informatique à l'université depermet aux entreprises de toute taille système, baptisé JamiiX, RLabs aexigences, grâce à la téléphonie mobile, qu'ajouter ce service à leur liste de mobiles AgriManagr technologie de la péninsule du Cap, a d'automatiser leurs commandes, leurs travaillé avec dix étudiants d'une école une technologie accessible et largement contacts, comme ils auraient ajouté un mobiles AgriManagrtechnologie de la péninsule du Cap, ad'automatiser leurs commandes, leurs travaillé avec dix étudiants d'une écoleune technologie accessible et largement contacts, comme ils auraient ajouté un offrent un moyen simple et rentable d'améliorer la transparence et l'efficacité des filières connu les débuts du projet. « Nous nous sommes dit que beaucoup de Sud-Africains chattaient sur leur portable, qu'ils maîtrisaient cette ventes et leurs livraisons. Cette application peut stocker le catalogue d'une entreprise et indique les types de produits vendus, les tailles supérieure locale. « Le bouche à oreille a vite fonctionné », dit Parker, « si bien qu'au bout d'une semaine une cinquantaine maîtrisée. ■ ami sur un site de réseau social tel que Facebook. Ils ont ensuite pu utiliser leur application de chat préfér��e pour demander des conseils aux thérapeutes offrent un moyen simple et rentable d'améliorer la transparence et l'efficacité des filièresconnu les débuts du projet. « Nous nous sommes dit que beaucoup de Sud-Africains chattaient sur leur portable, qu'ils maîtrisaient cetteventes et leurs livraisons. Cette application peut stocker le catalogue d'une entreprise et indique les types de produits vendus, les tailles supérieure locale. « Le bouche à oreille a vite fonctionné », dit Parker, « si bien qu'au bout d'une semaine une cinquantainemaîtrisée. ■ ami sur un site de réseau social tel que Facebook. Ils ont ensuite pu utiliser leur application de chat préférée pour demander des conseils aux thérapeutes agricoles. et les volumes disponibles. Les de gamins utilisaient la plate-forme et obtenir rapidement une réponse. agricoles.et les volumes disponibles. Les de gamins utilisaient la plate-formeet obtenir rapidement une réponse. vendeurs qui se rendent chez le client pour obtenir une aide socio- Comme la plupart des plates-formes vendeurs qui se rendent chez le client pour obtenir une aide socio-Comme la plupart des plates-formes peuvent directement passer leur psychologique Au bout d'un mois, ils de chat, JamiiX autorise les peuvent directement passer leur psychologique Au bout d'un mois, ilsde chat, JamiiX autorise les commande au siège : l'application étaient 100 et aujourd'hui, deux ans conversations simultanées. Un commande au siège : l'application étaient 100 et aujourd'hui, deux ansconversations simultanées. Un envoie les données au système plus tard, nous aidons plus de 100 000 thérapeute peut donc ouvrir plusieurs envoie les données au système plus tard, nous aidons plus de 100 000thérapeute peut donc ouvrir plusieurs informatique de la société via le réseau sessions et conseiller plusieurs informatique de la société via le réseausessions et conseiller plusieurs de téléphonie mobile. L'entrepôt peut personnes à la fois. Le système l'aide à de téléphonie mobile. L'entrepôt peutpersonnes à la fois. Le système l'aide à "},{"text":"➜ www.jamiix.com Reconstructed Living Lab ➜ www.rlabs.org Impact Direct ➜ http://twitter.com/impactdirect MXit ➜ ww.mxit.com Situé à Pretoria, le laboratoire régional des applications mobiles d'Afrique australe propose des formations et des contacts professionnels aux créateurs d'applications mobiles. , l'une en Afrique du Sud, l'autre en Afrique de l'Est. Ce programme est une initiative conjointe d'infoDev, une organisation financée par la Banque mondiale, le ministère finlandais des Affaires étrangères et le fabricant Nokia afin de mettre les TIC au service du développement. Incubateur de talents Incubateur de talents Études de cas Inauguré début 2011, le mLab travaillera avec des entrepreneurs locaux et mettra ses ressources à la disposition des développeurs d'applications mobiles des régions concernées. Il fera de la formation, des tests, du tutorat et de l'appui dans ses Wide Web Foundation et la School of Computing and Informatics de l'université de Nairobi. Ce centre permettra aux développeurs de vérifier la viabilité économique de leurs applications et soutiendra l'innovation mobiles (mLabs)de base. Le mLab pourra se concentrer E n septembre 2010, dans le cadre du programme Creating Sustainable Businesses for the Knowledge Economy, deux organisations ont été invitées à héberger les laboratoires régionaux africains d'applications sur l'accompagnement des développeurs et des entrepreneurs dans la commercialisation de leurs applications. Pour ce faire, le mLab dispensera des T rès répandus et récemment dotés de nouvelles fonctionnalités informatiques, les téléphones portables sont devenus le substitut idéal au PC sur tout le continent. Les applications individualisées pourraient formations aux entrepreneurs pour profondément affecter le et l'entreprenariat au sein de la Études de casInauguré début 2011, le mLab travaillera avec des entrepreneurs locaux et mettra ses ressources à la disposition des développeurs d'applications mobiles des régions concernées. Il fera de la formation, des tests, du tutorat et de l'appui dans ses Wide Web Foundation et la School of Computing and Informatics de l'université de Nairobi. Ce centre permettra aux développeurs de vérifier la viabilité économique de leurs applications et soutiendra l'innovation mobiles (mLabs)de base. Le mLab pourra se concentrer E n septembre 2010, dans le cadre du programme Creating Sustainable Businesses for the Knowledge Economy, deux organisations ont été invitées à héberger les laboratoires régionaux africains d'applications sur l'accompagnement des développeurs et des entrepreneurs dans la commercialisation de leurs applications. Pour ce faire, le mLab dispensera des T rès répandus et récemment dotés de nouvelles fonctionnalités informatiques, les téléphones portables sont devenus le substitut idéal au PC sur tout le continent. Les applications individualisées pourraient formations aux entrepreneurs pour profondément affecter le et l'entreprenariat au sein de la développement économique des locaux, et fournira des services virtuels, communauté est-africaine. Les qu'ils appréhendent mieux le monde développement économique deslocaux, et fournira des services virtuels, communauté est-africaine. Lesqu'ils appréhendent mieux le monde communautés africaines les plus notamment un site web de ressources programmeurs pourront tester la des applications mobiles, les stratégies, communautés africaines les plusnotamment un site web de ressources programmeurs pourront tester lades applications mobiles, les stratégies, pauvres. Or ces applications sont rares, pour les créateurs d'applications faisabilité de leurs produits et créer des concepts et architectures mobiles qui pauvres. Or ces applications sont rares,pour les créateurs d'applications faisabilité de leurs produits et créer desconcepts et architectures mobiles qui malgré un essor sans précédent du mobiles de toute la région. modèles d'entreprise qui déboucheront marchent, le développement multi- malgré un essor sans précédent dumobiles de toute la région. modèles d'entreprise qui déboucherontmarchent, le développement multi- téléphone portable. Le développement Ces services vont accroître la sur la création de nouvelles entreprises plates-formes et les diverses téléphone portable. Le développementCes services vont accroître la sur la création de nouvelles entreprisesplates-formes et les diverses d'applications pertinentes pour les compétitivité et faciliter la vie des technologiques et de nouveaux emplois questions liées à la création d'une d'applications pertinentes pour lescompétitivité et faciliter la vie des technologiques et de nouveaux emploisquestions liées à la création d'une divers groupes d'usagers africains développeurs qui veulent créer et dans la région. entreprise. La plate-forme en ligne divers groupes d'usagers africainsdéveloppeurs qui veulent créer et dans la région.entreprise. La plate-forme en ligne suppose une connaissance approfondie commercialiser des applications et du Il servira aussi d'incubateur pour des permettra d'accéder au matériel de suppose une connaissance approfondiecommercialiser des applications et du Il servira aussi d'incubateur pour despermettra d'accéder au matériel de de la vie et des besoins locaux. contenu mobiles. Le laboratoire projets développés par des acteurs formation et de communiquer de la vie et des besoins locaux.contenu mobiles. Le laboratoire projets développés par des acteursformation et de communiquer Le marché africain de la favorisera le développement et locaux. L'un d'entre eux se nomme virtuellement avec les formateurs et les Le marché africain de lafavorisera le développement et locaux. L'un d'entre eux se nommevirtuellement avec les formateurs et les mobilophonie est celui qui croît le plus l'acquisition de compétences en Amos Gichamba : il a grandi dans une experts techniques, les entrepreneurs mobilophonie est celui qui croît le plusl'acquisition de compétences en Amos Gichamba : il a grandi dans uneexperts techniques, les entrepreneurs rapidement au monde. Le Kenya production d'applications et de contenu exploitation laitière du centre du industriels locaux, afin de profiter de rapidement au monde. Le Kenyaproduction d'applications et de contenu exploitation laitière du centre duindustriels locaux, afin de profiter de compte plus de 15 millions d'abonnés, mobiles destinés aux personnes à faible Kenya. Amos dit avoir vu les éleveurs leur expérience. compte plus de 15 millions d'abonnés,mobiles destinés aux personnes à faible Kenya. Amos dit avoir vu les éleveursleur expérience. alors que 250 000 ménages kényans à revenu. se faire exploiter par les intermédiaires Le laboratoire servira d'entrepôt pour alors que 250 000 ménages kényans àrevenu. se faire exploiter par les intermédiairesLe laboratoire servira d'entrepôt pour Les deux laboratoires peine sont raccordés à l'électricité. Le qui venaient acheter leur lait pour le les applications mobiles afin d'en Les deux laboratoirespeine sont raccordés à l'électricité. Lequi venaient acheter leur lait pour leles applications mobiles afin d'en régionaux africains d'applications mobiles vont participer au développement de cette filière sur le Kenya est confronté à une myriade de problèmes sociaux comme le chômage, la pauvreté et des manifestations de violence telles qu'on en a connu lors Tuteurs experts Le mLab d'Afrique australe couvrira tous les pays de la SADC (Communauté de développement de l'Afrique revendre à l'industrie laitière. Ces intermédiaires profitaient avant tout d'un problème d'information : l'éleveur ne savait pas à quel prix faciliter la distribution et cherchera à promouvoir l'usage des appareils nomades au service du développement. Il sera le point focal régionaux africains d'applications mobiles vont participer au développement de cette filière sur leKenya est confronté à une myriade de problèmes sociaux comme le chômage, la pauvreté et des manifestations de violence telles qu'on en a connu lorsTuteurs experts Le mLab d'Afrique australe couvrira tous les pays de la SADC (Communauté de développement de l'Afrique revendre à l'industrie laitière. Ces intermédiaires profitaient avant tout d'un problème d'information : l'éleveur ne savait pas à quel prixfaciliter la distribution et cherchera à promouvoir l'usage des appareils nomades au service du développement. Il sera le point focal continent. des dernières élections législatives. La australe). Basé à Pretoria, il travaillera vendre son lait. Il ignorait le prix payé des concepts mobiles commercialisables continent.des dernières élections législatives. Laaustrale). Basé à Pretoria, il travaillera vendre son lait. Il ignorait le prix payédes concepts mobiles commercialisables question est de savoir comment en partenariat avec d'autres institutions aux éleveurs des autres villages. N'ayant et donnera aux programmeurs question est de savoir commenten partenariat avec d'autres institutions aux éleveurs des autres villages. N'ayantet donnera aux programmeurs convertir ces problèmes en opportunités sud-africaines et des pays voisins. Les aucune idée des conditions du marché, l'occasion de travailler sur des convertir ces problèmes en opportunitéssud-africaines et des pays voisins. Les aucune idée des conditions du marché,l'occasion de travailler sur des et si les développeurs d'applications améliorations récemment apportées à il ne savait pas non plus à quel moment applications mobiles au travers de et si les développeurs d'applicationsaméliorations récemment apportées à il ne savait pas non plus à quel momentapplications mobiles au travers de peuvent apporter des solutions. la connectivité de la région devraient augmenter ou diminuer sa production. missions contractuelles. Le mLab doit peuvent apporter des solutions.la connectivité de la région devraient augmenter ou diminuer sa production.missions contractuelles. Le mLab doit Contrairement à l'usage qui en est faciliter la fourniture de services Partant de ce constat, Gichamba a servir de passerelle vers les marchés Contrairement à l'usage qui en estfaciliter la fourniture de services Partant de ce constat, Gichamba aservir de passerelle vers les marchés fait dans le monde développé, au virtuels aux développeurs et aux décidé de créer la solution locaux, régionaux et internationaux et fait dans le monde développé, auvirtuels aux développeurs et aux décidé de créer la solutionlocaux, régionaux et internationaux et Kenya, les portables remplissent des entrepreneurs. technologique idéale pour les éleveurs : faire le lien entre les entrepreneurs et Kenya, les portables remplissent desentrepreneurs. technologique idéale pour les éleveurs :faire le lien entre les entrepreneurs et missions aussi diverses que l'envoi Pour bénéficier des services du mLab, une application mobile. Il a mis au les investisseurs. missions aussi diverses que l'envoiPour bénéficier des services du mLab, une application mobile. Il a mis aules investisseurs. d'argent aux membres de la famille ou les programmeurs, concepteurs de sites point un système basé sur des SMS Ses membres pourront voir comment d'argent aux membres de la famille oules programmeurs, concepteurs de sites point un système basé sur des SMSSes membres pourront voir comment l'envoi de rapports citoyens aux et développeurs locaux doivent avec lequel les éleveurs interrogent une les usagers interagissent avec leurs l'envoi de rapports citoyens auxet développeurs locaux doivent avec lequel les éleveurs interrogent uneles usagers interagissent avec leurs médias. Les hommes d'affaires, les s'affilier. Ils auront alors accès à des base de données des marchés laitiers applications. Le laboratoire incitera les médias. Les hommes d'affaires, less'affilier. Ils auront alors accès à des base de données des marchés laitiersapplications. Le laboratoire incitera les paysans et la population du pays formations techniques, à des ateliers de locaux. La base de données leur développeurs à trouver des applications paysans et la population du paysformations techniques, à des ateliers de locaux. La base de données leurdéveloppeurs à trouver des applications trouvent sans cesse de nouveaux gestion d'entreprise et à des renvoie la réponse en 140 caractères ou qui répondent à des besoins trouvent sans cesse de nouveauxgestion d'entreprise et à des renvoie la réponse en 140 caractères ouqui répondent à des besoins usages à cet appareil que beaucoup ne équipements dernier cri pour moins. particuliers, correspondant à de usages à cet appareil que beaucoup neéquipements dernier cri pour moins.particuliers, correspondant à de considéraient que comme un simple développer, tester et calibrer les Il y a aussi d'autres applications véritables marchés, y compris pour les considéraient que comme un simpledévelopper, tester et calibrer les Il y a aussi d'autres applicationsvéritables marchés, y compris pour les outil de communication vocale, et logiciels. Ils pourront également utiliser mobiles comme M-Farm, développée personnes à faible revenu. outil de communication vocale, etlogiciels. Ils pourront également utiliser mobiles comme M-Farm, développéepersonnes à faible revenu. apportent à travers lui des solutions originales à leurs problèmes. Promouvoir le potentiel Le laboratoire régional d'Afrique de l'Est est dirigé par un consortium formé STEphANE DE SAKUTIN / ANp de Nairobi's iHub, eMobilis, World les espaces de bureau, l'accès à Internet et les ressources partagées, notamment les salles de réunion ainsi que les équipements de conférence et de vidéoconférence. Ils pourront travailler dans un environnement de développement et de test high-tech par Susan Oguya et Jamila Abass. M-Farm est un centre d'information mobile en temps réel qui envoie aux paysans les cours des marchés, des alertes météo, des données sur les fournitures agricoles et leur propose un forum d'entraide. Cette application les Les développeurs et formateurs du mlab se plaisent à souligner qu'un portable n'est pas qu'un outil d'information, mais une plate-forme informatique, un capteur, un outil d'identification, un appareil qui sait se localiser, une plate-forme de apportent à travers lui des solutions originales à leurs problèmes. Promouvoir le potentiel Le laboratoire régional d'Afrique de l'Est est dirigé par un consortium formé STEphANE DE SAKUTIN / ANp de Nairobi's iHub, eMobilis, Worldles espaces de bureau, l'accès à Internet et les ressources partagées, notamment les salles de réunion ainsi que les équipements de conférence et de vidéoconférence. Ils pourront travailler dans un environnement de développement et de test high-tech par Susan Oguya et Jamila Abass. M-Farm est un centre d'information mobile en temps réel qui envoie aux paysans les cours des marchés, des alertes météo, des données sur les fournitures agricoles et leur propose un forum d'entraide. Cette application lesLes développeurs et formateurs du mlab se plaisent à souligner qu'un portable n'est pas qu'un outil d'information, mais une plate-forme informatique, un capteur, un outil d'identification, un appareil qui sait se localiser, une plate-forme de probablement hors de prix pour une aide à partager les informations transactions, etc. Les possibilités probablement hors de prix pour une aide à partager les informationstransactions, etc. Les possibilités startup. Qu'ils soient débutants ou chevronnés, les développeurs auront accès aux équipements ; les universités commerciales via des SMS et un système de réponse vocale interactif. Le laboratoire d'applications d'Afrique de l'Est disposera de nombreuses ERIC NAThAN / ALAmy partenaires dispenseront la formation ressources pour accompagner les offertes par cette technologie sont immenses, aussi le mLab espère-t-il en exploiter certaines et concourir à l'essor de l'industrie des applications mobiles dans toute l'Afrique australe. ■ startup. Qu'ils soient débutants ou chevronnés, les développeurs auront accès aux équipements ; les universités commerciales via des SMS et un système de réponse vocale interactif. Le laboratoire d'applications d'Afrique de l'Est disposera de nombreuses ERIC NAThAN / ALAmy partenaires dispenseront la formation ressources pour accompagner lesoffertes par cette technologie sont immenses, aussi le mLab espère-t-il en exploiter certaines et concourir à l'essor de l'industrie des applications mobiles dans toute l'Afrique australe. ■ "},{"text":" com Projets Projets FrontlineSMS:Medic FrontlineSMS:Medic FrontlineSMS:Medic exploite des FrontlineSMS:Medic exploite des technologies mobiles innovantes et technologies mobiles innovantes et adaptées à l'extension des réseaux adaptées à l'extension des réseaux sanitaires dans les communautés peu sanitaires dans les communautés peu desservies. Il s'appuie sur FrontlineSMS, desservies. Il s'appuie sur FrontlineSMS, une plate-forme logicielle en open-source une plate-forme logicielle en open-source permettant l'envoi et la réception massifs permettant l'envoi et la réception massifs de SMS via un laptop, un portable équipé de SMS via un laptop, un portable équipé d'un modem ou un portable bon marché. d'un modem ou un portable bon marché. Medic élargit la plate-forme FrontlineSMS Medic élargit la plate-forme FrontlineSMS pour répondre aux besoins spécifiques des pour répondre aux besoins spécifiques des centres médicaux, mieux gérer les centres médicaux, mieux gérer les patients, leurs dossiers médicaux patients, leurs dossiers médicaux électroniques, poser des diagnostics via le électroniques, poser des diagnostics via le téléphone portable et dresser la carte des téléphone portable et dresser la carte des services de santé. Ce projet a démarré au services de santé. Ce projet a démarré au Malawi grâce au don d'un laptop, d'une Malawi grâce au don d'un laptop, d'une centaine de téléphones recyclés et d'une centaine de téléphones recyclés et d'une copie de FrontlineSMS. copie de FrontlineSMS. ➜ www.mobilesinmalawi.blogspot.com ➜ www.mobilesinmalawi.blogspot.com Open Data Kit Open Data Kit ODK est une suite d'applications nomades ODK est une suite d'applications nomades en open-source qui aide les organisations en open-source qui aide les organisations à recueillir, agréger et traiter leurs à recueillir, agréger et traiter leurs données. Chaque application est conçue données. Chaque application est conçue pour être facile d'emploi, s'adapter à des pour être facile d'emploi, s'adapter à des besoins spécifiques et permettre l'échange besoins spécifiques et permettre l'échange de données entre utilisateurs sans passer de données entre utilisateurs sans passer par des serveurs. Parmi les applications par des serveurs. Parmi les applications disponibles, citons ODK Collect, qui disponibles, citons ODK Collect, qui remplace les formulaires papier pour le remplace les formulaires papier pour le recueil des données (texte, localisation, recueil des données (texte, localisation, photos, vidéo, audio et codes-barres) et photos, vidéo, audio et codes-barres) et ODK Clinic, avec lequel les soignants ODK Clinic, avec lequel les soignants peuvent télécharger une liste peuvent télécharger une liste personnalisable de patients sur leur personnalisable de patients sur leur portable et consulter leurs dossiers. portable et consulter leurs dossiers. ➜ http://opendatakit.org ➜ http://opendatakit.org "}],"sieverID":"173feaf2-3cdb-4248-a219-02502d61dd58","abstract":"Afrique de l'Est : création locale d'applications grâce à un laboratoire Un système multiapplications pour portables bon marché au Kenya Applications mobiles Numéro 57 Décembre 2010 Un bulletin d'alerte pour l'agriculture ACP ICT http://ictupdate.cta.int Ce permis s'applique seulement à la partie des textes de cette publication. ICT Update 2 Éditorial Applications pratiques 3 Perspectives Le défi des nouvelles technologies Dr Towela Nyirenda-Jere 4 Dossier Mise en commun des ressources"}
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{"metadata":{"id":"079707d856fd80bb5ef3d8efb541feae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5a19615e-0034-4f7a-8076-e31d557bbc21/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Planificación local para la resiliencia climática: Experiencias en Honduras","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":" En Honduras se están desarrollando ejercicios de planificación local participativa para la resiliencia climática, la formulación de estos instrumentos de política se construye a diferentes escalas, como la municipal y en comunidades rurales. Durante el proceso de construcción de los planes locales, se ha encontrado que la etapa de gestión de conocimiento, es altamente relevante, por el fortalecimiento de capacidades a los actores y la orientación al enfoque de acción climática, más allá de la gestión ambiental y la gestión de desastres. En los últimos años, en Honduras se está adoptando el modelo de planificación denominado \"PDM\" (Plan de Desarrollo Municipal), incorporar el enfoque de resiliencia climática dentro del esquema del PDM sugiere ser la mejor estrategia para la adopción, implementación y escalamiento de los planes de resiliencia climática. Aún existen retos importantes durante el proceso de planificación local: la inclusividad de los actores más vulnerables dentro de las comunidades, la cultura asistencialista y cortoplacista, el acceso a información local para orientar desde la ciencia, la estrategia para el financiamiento climático sostenible, la adopción de esquemas de monitoreo acordes al contexto y el escalamiento."}]},{"head":"Contexto para la construcción de políticas locales de adaptación","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"En noviembre de 2020 impactaron en Centroamérica los huracanes Eta e Iota, dejando grandes pérdidas económicas y sociales que tardaran años en recuperarse. Previamente, el índice de riesgo climático global, de la organización German Watch, señalaba a Honduras como el país más afectado en el período 1995-2014. Esta métrica considera eventos como tormentas, inundaciones, temperaturas extremas, olas de calor y frio (Germanwacth, 2019;Kreft, Eckstein, & Melchior, 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Los siguientes años son cruciales para la adaptación y la transformación de los sistemas sociales y económicos, de cara a los grandes retos de desigualdad, pobreza, amenazas climáticas, presión en los ecosistemas naturales, etc."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"El propósito de este infonote es resumir las metodologías usadas en la construcción de Planes Locales de Adaptación a partir de las experiencias de proyectos CIAT y otros actores de desarrollo en Honduras. "}]},{"head":"Planes Municipales de Adaptación","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"En el caso de Honduras encontramos ejemplos de estos instrumentos de política finalizados o en construcción para 9 municipalidades (mapa, figura 1), la formulación suele ser coordinada por ONGs y financiados por la cooperación internacional."}]},{"head":"Figura 1. Mapa de Honduras con ubicación de municipios con Planes de Adaptación al cambio climático","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"En el caso de los planes apoyados por proyectos ejecutados por CIAT-Honduras, es utilizada la metodología propuesta en la (figura 2) que incluye mínimo 6 pasos; con la participación de un comité planificador local y una fase previa de preparación y otra fase posterior al ejercicio de formulación denominada de \"implementación y monitoreo\"."}]},{"head":"Figura 2. Pasos propuestos para la construcción participativa de Planes Municipales de Adaptación","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"La fase de preparación corresponde a la selección del municipio, acercamiento a las autoridades, presentación de propuesta de construcción del instrumento de política local, presentación de objetivo, recopilación de información secundaria del territorio, evaluación de otros instrumentos, estudios de vulnerabilidad (Duron et al 2019), identificación de otros proyectos en marcha, durante esta fase se realiza planeación de talleres, potenciales actores e identificación de participación en comité planificador, propuesta de fechas probables de los eventos participativos. Un recorrido por el territorio por parte del comité planificador en compañía de líderes locales ayudará a conocer sitios de mayor exposición, principales medios de vida, paisajes, recursos naturales, aspectos socioeconómicos, infraestructura, etc."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"Durante los primeros talleres con el comité planificador y representantes de las comunidades del territorio, el objetivo principal es la capacitación o fortalecimiento de capacidades en conceptos de gestión del riesgo a cambios del clima, cambio climático vs adaptación, causas y efectos aplicados a lo local, adaptación, mitigación, resiliencia, etc. Durante las experiencias desarrolladas por el equipo de CIAT en Honduras, se ha encontrado con frecuencia que los técnicos municipales expresan manejar los conceptos debido a capacitaciones previas o trabajo en proyectos relacionados con el sector ambiental o de gestión territorial, sin embargo, sigue siendo muy importante la igualación de saberes durante estos primeros talleres, se sugerirá más adelante robustecer este paso con el propósito de hacer una gestión del conocimiento pedagógica con tiempo suficiente y acorde al nivel de conocimiento de los actores del equipo planificador."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Los eventos históricos recordados por los habitantes, así como los registros históricos de daños y de datos climáticos son valiosos para la sensibilización desde las experiencias de las comunidades y la ilustración desde la ciencia, igualmente durante el paso de identificación de amenazas, estudios de escenarios climáticos, identificación de transformaciones históricas del territorio y mapas del municipio serán útiles para el análisis."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"Con el propósito de concretar acciones para la adaptación la metodología propone priorizar los objetos focales, es decir, los sectores dentro del municipio que presentan mayor relevancia para la población y que pueden verse más afectados por la amenaza climática. Posteriormente será necesario abordar el análisis de sensibilidad de los objetos focales y la priorización de prácticas de adaptación."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"Los instrumentos para desarrollar los talleres participativos deben buscar la inclusión, la comunicación del objetivo debe ser claro y transparente. Durante la identificación y planeación de acciones se recomienda precisar el mediano y largo plazo, la estimación global de costos de implementación y las fuentes del financiamiento climático."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"Posteriormente se espera la socialización y probablemente la aprobación por parte de las autoridades locales correspondientes. Una estrategia de gobernanza y/o un proceso de monitoreo y evaluación para la implementación del plan municipal perimirá evidenciar los resultados a futuro y los ajustes necesarios en posteriores procesos de planificación para alcanzar la resiliencia y transformación deseada. Para el caso de estos instrumentos municipales, la vinculación a estrategias de gobernanza del estado como los PDM, facilitarían la obtención de recursos estatales."}]},{"head":"Planes comunitarios de resiliencia","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"En Honduras también se encuentran registros de planificación para la adaptación a escala más local que la municipal, enfocada en comunidades rurales es también el espacio autentico para empoderar los grupos, en muchos casos, más vulnerables. De manera similar al proceso municipal, en el proceso de planificación de comunidades rurales, aquí proponemos algunos pasos metodológicos."}]},{"head":"Figura 3. Pasos propuestos para la construcción participativa de Planes comunitarios de resiliencia","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Aunque el enfoque en Centroamérica claramente se debe priorizar en la adaptación por los ya mencionados niveles de vulnerabilidad, en la mayoría de los casos las medidas priorizadas también contribuyen a la mitigación e incrementos de rentabilidad de los medios de vida, buscando la meta de hacer más resilientes los sistemas locales."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"En la fase de preparación se definen las comunidades y socializa la propuesta con los voceros o estructuras de go-bernanza local, posteriormente se socializa a toda la comunidad, aquí también se realiza la recopilación de información secundaria del territorio, planeación de talleres, potenciales actores."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"La metodología de Diagnóstico Rural Participativo es un instrumento que se recomienda usar para realizar una caracterización construida desde la comunidad, esta puede incluir su historia, la estructura organizacional, de gobernanza, aspectos biofísicos, socioeconómicos, culturales e identificación de aspiraciones y limitantes de la comunidad. Un mapa parlante ayudará a ver representado los habitantes y su espacio en el territorio."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"Durante la etapa de capacitación en conceptos de resiliencia, es importante la adecuada facilitación y el uso de herramientas pedagógicas para la gestión de conocimientos en los miembros de la comunidad, dependiendo la caracterización sociocultural, puede ser preferible narrativas presentadas de manera visual u oral, basadas en la experiencia cotidiana para transmitir los conceptos de riesgo a cambios del clima, cambio climático vs adaptación, causas y efectos aplicados a lo local, adaptación, mitigación, resiliencia, etc. Dependiendo el número de sesiones y tiempo disponible para la formulación del instrumento de planeación, el equipo facilitador podrá monitorear la adopción de conocimientos y reforzar los conceptos durante el tiempo de intervención."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"Los eventos históricos recordados por los habitantes, usualmente los de mayor edad, son valiosos en la identificación de amenazas, aquí es recomendable recorrer el territorio o haberlo hecho previamente por parte del equipo planificador en compañía de actores de la comunidad."},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"La priorización de medidas y la planificación de acciones constituye las etapas esenciales del proceso de planificación, probablemente para la implementación de algunas prácticas de adaptación se requiera solamente cambios en la manera usual de desarrollar las actividades productivas, con poca o ninguna necesidad de financiamiento, sin embargo, uno de los mayores incentivos para la comunidad es la posibilidad de concretar asistencia financiera y técnica para implementar cambios que mejoren su calidad de vida."},{"index":7,"size":133,"text":"En los casos de estudio de planificación comunitaria observados en Honduras (Tabla 1), aun no es frecuente hallar el esquema de monitoreo y evaluación que presente indicadores, fechas de cumplimiento o actores responsables, sin embargo, en este contexto rural, se reconoce que la vinculación a estructuras como las Cajas Rurales de Ahorro y Crédito, pueden ser un excelente facilitador para la implementación del plan y la operatividad de un esquema de monitoreo. A pesar de los esfuerzos por cambiar las narrativas, durante los procesos de planificación aún persisten grandes retos para la inclusión de los actores más vulnerables dentro de la comunidad, por ejemplo, acciones de equidad de género continúan siendo una necesidad, éstas acciones pueden desarrollarse más prontamente si los miembros del equipo facilitador poseen la sensibilidad y los conocimientos del tema."}]},{"head":"Conclusión y perspectivas","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":" A nivel municipal, en Honduras existen procesos de planificación municipal adoptados en los últimos años como lo es el PDM (Plan de Desarrollo Municipal), propuestas de incorporar el enfoque de resiliencia climática dentro del PDM, puede ser la mejor estrategia para la adopción e implementación de acciones climáticas a largo plazo, mejor que el modelo usual de proyectos de desarrollo implementados por organismos internacionales."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":" El desarrollo y uso de plataformas para la informar las políticas ayudan a los equipos planificadores al análisis local de impactos, amenazas y vulnerabilidades, así mismo, implementar plataformas de registro y comunicación de la planificación misma, de las acciones de resiliencia pueden ayudar a la implementación, escalamiento y monitoreo de los planes locales."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":" La mayoría de los municipios listados, en los cuales se referencia a la fecha la construcción de planes municipales, el sector de la agricultura familiar se presenta como objeto focal para la gestión de resiliencia climática, así mismo la sequía se presenta como la amenaza más recurrente."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":" Se puede estimar que, a la fecha menos del 5% de los municipios de Honduras, cuentan con instrumentos de planificación elaborados desde el territorio participativamente, con enfoque de acción climática."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":" Durante los ejercicios de planificación local, los actores reconocen las causas e impactos del problema climático, sin embargo, esperan que los mecanismos de financiamiento climático provengan principalmente de la cooperación internacional."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":" Uno de los principales factores estructurales identificados, que dificultan la planificación e implementación desde las comunidades, es el bajo nivel educativo rural, éste alimenta el siguiente factor que es la pobreza, la cultura de asistencialismo y el conformismo promovido por la narrativa religiosa. "}]},{"head":"Referencias","index":9,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"el contexto espe- cífico es relevante por la manifestación local del impacto, al igual que su capacidad adaptativa. nerabilidades y contribuciones, trabajando juntos para re- nerabilidades y contribuciones, trabajando juntos para re- solver y maximizar sinergias. También, En este análisis, delimitamos la planificación local res- solver y maximizar sinergias. También, En este análisis, delimitamos la planificación local res- pecto al territorio que abarca, es decir, ésta puede ser a pecto al territorio que abarca, es decir, ésta puede ser a escala municipal o escala municipal o Enfocado a los territorios, existen para Centroamérica, Enfocado a los territorios, existen para Centroamérica, propuestas metodológicas para la formulación de Planes propuestas metodológicas para la formulación de Planes Locales de Adaptación al Cambio Climático, algunos ca- Locales de Adaptación al Cambio Climático, algunos ca- sos encontrados son: TNC-USAID NEXOS en el altiplano sos encontrados son: TNC-USAID NEXOS en el altiplano occidental de Guatemala (The Nature Conservancy -TNC, occidental de Guatemala (The Nature Conservancy -TNC, 2016), PRASA Oxfam en Honduras (PRASA Oxfam- 2016), PRASA Oxfam en Honduras (PRASA Oxfam- Québec, 2014), DIPECHO en la Mosquitia nicaragüense Québec, 2014), DIPECHO en la Mosquitia nicaragüense (Proyecto DIPECHO VIII -Grupo de Voluntariado Civil - (Proyecto DIPECHO VIII -Grupo de Voluntariado Civil - GVC, 2013). Usualmente estas propuestas metodológicas GVC, 2013). Usualmente estas propuestas metodológicas utilizan el concepto y las experiencias de la Gestión de utilizan el concepto y las experiencias de la Gestión de Riesgos de Desastres. Riesgos de Desastres. Actualmente, en el marco de diferentes proyectos como Actualmente, en el marco de diferentes proyectos como ResCA-TNC, Tetwami-AECID y FP1 LAM del programa ResCA-TNC, Tetwami-AECID y FP1 LAM del programa CCAFS; se están desarrollado en diferentes localidades CCAFS; se están desarrollado en diferentes localidades de Honduras ejercicios de planificación local para la adap- de Honduras ejercicios de planificación local para la adap- tación y/o resiliencia climática. tación y/o resiliencia climática. De acuerdo con Soanes 2021, las efectivas soluciones de De acuerdo con Soanes 2021, las efectivas soluciones de adaptación requieren un enfoque de la sociedad en con- adaptación requieren un enfoque de la sociedad en con- junto, es decir el complejo sistema público, privado y la so- junto, es decir el complejo sistema público, privado y la so- ciedad civil con sus variados intereses, capacidades, vul- ciedad civil con sus variados intereses, capacidades, vul- "},{"text":"a escala de comunidades rurales. No obstante, consideramos los principios de la Adapta- No obstante, consideramos los principios de la Adapta- ción Basada en Comunidades, la cual, según Diesner ción Basada en Comunidades, la cual, según Diesner (Diesner Felix -Dirección de Cambio Climático, 2013) la (Diesner Felix -Dirección de Cambio Climático, 2013) la define como: \"una estrategia de adaptación en que las co- define como: \"una estrategia de adaptación en que las co- munidades son las protagonistas definitorias en los proce- munidades son las protagonistas definitorias en los proce- sos para disminuir su vulnerabilidad y aumentar su capa- sos para disminuir su vulnerabilidad y aumentar su capa- cidad adaptativa frente a los impactos reales o esperados cidad adaptativa frente a los impactos reales o esperados de la variabilidad o del cambio climático, sin desconocer de la variabilidad o del cambio climático, sin desconocer las necesidades de su entorno socio-ecosistémico, o ver las necesidades de su entorno socio-ecosistémico, o ver la comunidad desconectado de él. Se fundamenta en las la comunidad desconectado de él. Se fundamenta en las prioridades, necesidades, conocimientos y capacidades prioridades, necesidades, conocimientos y capacidades de la comunidad y su relación con su contexto local, regio- de la comunidad y su relación con su contexto local, regio- nal y nacional. Se ajusta a las características específicas nal y nacional. Se ajusta a las características específicas de las comunidades y debe ser complementada con cono- de las comunidades y debe ser complementada con cono- cimiento de fuentes externas. Se debe hacer énfasis es- cimiento de fuentes externas. Se debe hacer énfasis es- pecial en las comunidades más pobres y vulnerables y pecial en las comunidades más pobres y vulnerables y asegurar la inclusión de los enfoques diferenciales. Re- asegurar la inclusión de los enfoques diferenciales. Re- quiere un acercamiento integral que empodere a las co- quiere un acercamiento integral que empodere a las co- munidades, bajo la visión integral de una vida y un desa- munidades, bajo la visión integral de una vida y un desa- rrollo digno y sostenible\". rrollo digno y sostenible\". "},{"text":" Tabla 1. Planes Comunitarios identificados a la fecha No. Departamento Municipio Aldea/ Co-munidad Proyecto/Insti-tución No.DepartamentoMunicipioAldea/ Co-munidadProyecto/Insti-tución 1 Atlántida La Ceiba Sambo Creek OFRANEH 1AtlántidaLa CeibaSambo CreekOFRANEH 2 Cayaniní 2Cayaniní 3 4 Choluteca El Corpus El Baldo-quín El Naranjo CIAT-TNC/ResCA 3 4CholutecaEl CorpusEl Baldo-quín El NaranjoCIAT-TNC/ResCA 5 Hato Viejo 5Hato Viejo 6 Colón Santa Rosa de Aguán Santa Rosa de Aguán PNUD -COSUDE 6ColónSanta Rosa de AguánSanta Rosa de AguánPNUD -COSUDE 7 Copán Corquín Corquín CAFICO 7CopánCorquínCorquínCAFICO 8 Buenos Ai-res 8Buenos Ai-res 9 10 Intibucá San Juan San José de Cataulaca Los Naran-jos CIAT-TNC/ResCA 9 10IntibucáSan JuanSan José de Cataulaca Los Naran-josCIAT-TNC/ResCA 11 Malutena 11Malutena 12 Santo To-mas 12Santo To-mas 13 La Paz Santa Ma-ría Santa María CAFESA 13La PazSanta Ma-ríaSanta MaríaCAFESA 14 La Zona 14La Zona 15 San Antonio 15San Antonio 16 17 Lempira Santa Cruz San Isidro San Pedrito AECI-AEA-CIAT 16 17LempiraSanta CruzSan Isidro San PedritoAECI-AEA-CIAT 18 Santa Lucia 18Santa Lucia 19 Tejeras 19Tejeras 20 21 Santa Bárbara Santa Bár-bara Los Laureles San Luis de Planes GOBENEP COMMOVEL 20 21Santa BárbaraSanta Bár-baraLos Laureles San Luis de PlanesGOBENEP COMMOVEL "},{"text":" González CE, Daza P, Obando D, Durón M, González D, Ballesteros E, Le-Coq JF. 2021. Estrategia de difusión de información para la planeación territorial ante el Cambio Climático: Espacio H, plataforma virtual para el fortalecimiento de las capacidades de adaptación a nivel municipal frente al cambio climático en el Corredor Seco hondureño. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Soanes, M, Bahadur, A, Shakya, C, Smith, B, Patel, S, Rumbaitis del Rio, C, Coger, T, Dinshaw, A, Patel, S, Huq, S and Musa M, Rahman, F, Gupta, S, Dolcemascolo, G and Mann, T (2021) Principles for locally led adaptation: A call to action. IIED, London. Este documento ha sido realizado en el marco del proyecto \"Diseñar políticas de cambio climático incluyentes para sistemas alimentarios resilientes en América Central y el Caribe\" (FP1 LAM) del programa CCAFS en América Latina. Las opiniones expresadas en este documento son las de los autores y no están necesariamente respaldadas por CCAFS, CIAT o alguna de las organizaciones financiadoras. PRASA Oxfam-Québec. (2014). Manual para la PRASA Oxfam-Québec. (2014). Manual para la elaboración de un plan de acción local en adaptación elaboración de un plan de acción local en adaptación al cambio climático y reducción del riesgo de al cambio climático y reducción del riesgo de desastres. Québec. desastres. Québec. Proyecto DIPECHO VIII -Grupo de Voluntariado Civil Proyecto DIPECHO VIII -Grupo de Voluntariado Civil -GVC. (2013). Guía Metodológica para construir los -GVC. (2013). Guía Metodológica para construir los planes locales de respuesta a desastres incluyendo el planes locales de respuesta a desastres incluyendo el enfoque de adaptación al cambio climático. enfoque de adaptación al cambio climático. Nicaragua. Nicaragua. Diego Obando Bonilla ([email protected]) Investigador asociado Climate Action Honduras -CIAT The Nature Conservancy -TNC. (2016). Afrontando el cambio en el altiplano occidental de Guatemala. Guatemala: TNC. Diego Obando Bonilla ([email protected]) Investigador asociado Climate Action Honduras -CIAT The Nature Conservancy -TNC. (2016). Afrontando el cambio en el altiplano occidental de Guatemala. Guatemala: TNC. Marlon Roberto Duron ([email protected]) Investigador asociado Climate Action Honduras -CIAT Germanwacth. (2019). Global Climate Risk Index Retrieved December 17, 2019, from Germanwatch.org http://germanwatch.org/es/16046 Marlon Roberto Duron ([email protected]) Investigador asociado Climate Action Honduras -CIAT Germanwacth. (2019). Global Climate Risk Index Retrieved December 17, 2019, from Germanwatch.org http://germanwatch.org/es/16046 Oscar Amado Martinez Consultor asociado Kreft, S., Eckstein, D., & Melchior, I. (2016). Global Oscar Amado Martinez Consultor asociado Kreft, S., Eckstein, D., & Melchior, I. (2016). Global Climate Action Honduras -CIAT. Proyecto Climate Risk Index 2017: Who suffers most from Climate Action Honduras -CIAT. ProyectoClimate Risk Index 2017: Who suffers most from ResCA-TNC extreme weather events? Weather-related loss events ResCA-TNCextreme weather events? Weather-related loss events in 2015 and 1996 to 2015. Germanwatch Nord-Süd in 2015 and 1996 to 2015. Germanwatch Nord-Süd Jean-François Le Coq ([email protected]) Initiative eV. Jean-François Le Coq ([email protected])Initiative eV. PhD en agro-economía en CIRAD y Allianza PhD en agro-economía en CIRAD y Allianza Bioversity y CIAT, HdR en economía ecológica Bioversity y CIAT, HdR en economía ecológica y líder del proyecto FP1 LAM del programa y líder del proyecto FP1 LAM del programa CCAFS. CCAFS. Durón M, Obando D, Le Coq JF. 2019. Propuesta Durón M, Obando D, Le Coq JF. 2019. Propuesta Metodológica para el Análisis de Vulnerabilidad Metodológica para el Análisis de Vulnerabilidad Climática y priorización de Medidas de Adaptación Climática y priorización de Medidas de Adaptación para la formulación de Planes Municipales de para la formulación de Planes Municipales de Adaptación al Cambio Climático, Honduras. CGIAR Adaptación al Cambio Climático, Honduras. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). and Food Security (CCAFS). "}],"sieverID":"ec3ad097-fb9a-4072-8179-3b1da22ccc2e","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0805931784d8d5283aaa77eba4d927df","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/541a3a90-2c6f-478a-ab33-74e431ae6cbe/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Economics of an East Coast fever immunization trial at the Kenya Coast","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"to the farmer in this trial."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"The analysis shows that the immunized sub-groups yielded greater financial benefits, due to lower ECF mortality and higher weight gains, than the non-immunized sub-groups. Of the immunized sub-groups, the one that was sprayed with acaricide twice a week yielded the highest financial benefits. However, such intensive use of acaricides would not be recommended for widespread adoption, because acaricides are becoming increasingly more expensive and less available for smallholder farmers in many countries affected by ECF."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"These results demonstrate that immunization is financially superior to non-immunization, but that the frequency of acaricidal application after immunization for tick and other tick-borne disease control requires further on-farm research under various environmental conditions. REFERENCE Morzaria, S.P., Irvin, A.D., Wathanga, J., D'Souza, D., Katende, J., Young, A.S., Scott, J. and Gettinby, G. (1988). The effects of East Coast fever immunization and different acaricidal treatments on the productivity of beef cattle. Veterinary Record 123: 313-320."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"9ede5d2a-8e6e-436b-8943-d3aa6dfb1c1a","abstract":"This paper summarizes the results of a financial analysis of an East Coast fever (ECF) immunization trial at the Kenya Coast. The details of the trial methodology, design and bioeconomic data generated are presented by Morzaria et al. (1988) and by Morzaria elsewhere in these proceedings.Eighty beef cattle were immunized and a similar group of 80 were left unimmunized as a control. The immunized group was divided into 4 sub-groups of 20 animals each, the subgroups identified as A, B, C and D. The control group was also divided into 4 sub-groups (E, F, G and H) of 20 animals each. Sub-groups A and E were sprayed with an acaricide twice a week, B and F were sprayed once every 3 weeks, C and G had prolonged-release acaricideimpregnated ear tags inserted into each animal ear, and D and H had no tick control treatment.All groups were maintained and grazed together in an ECF-endemic area on a farm for 9 months, starting in May 1985. The bioeconomic data collected at the end of the trial included starting and ending liveweights; the numbers of surviving animals; the numbers and causes of deaths; and the quantities and costs of materials, drugs, acaricides and veterinary services used for each sub-group. Partial budgeting was used to derive gross benefits, costs that vary among subgroups, and net financial benefits per kg of starting liveweight for each subgroup. Dominance analysis was used to identify dominant and dominated subgroups. This was done first by listing the sub-groups in the order of their increasing costs that vary per kg of starting liveweight with corresponding net benefits. Any sub-group that had net benefits that were less than or equal to those of a sub-group with lower costs that vary was identified as dominated. Conversely, any sub-group with net benefits that were equivalent or greater than those of a sub-group with higher costs that vary was identified as dominant. A farmer would not choose a dominated practice over a dominant one, because the former would have higher costs and lower benefits than the latter. It is the dominant sub-groups that are candidates for recommendation to the farmer.Marginal analysis was used to calculate marginal rates of return of the dominant sub-groups and to identify the sub-group that would maximize financial benefits to the farmer."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"08a09877f77703ca97ecb92f0c4957c8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f041d494-71ee-496f-8e1f-51fb717ba296/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Are digital services the right solution for empowering smallholder farmers? A perspective enlightened by COVIDexperiences to inform smart IPM","keywords":["digital services","smallholder farmers","resilience","climate change","smart-IPM"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":193,"text":"The COVID-19 pandemic has caused disruptions to global food supply chains, especially in downstream sectors such as agriculture threatened by climate change corollaries. During the covid 19 period, many low-and middle-income countries have witnessed about a 25% fade in agri-food export. Climate change; variability, uncontrollable and potentially devastating crop pests, and disease outbreaks were among the most problems faced by the agriculture sector in Africa (Tripathi et al., 2021). The negative effect of COVID-19 created temporary restrictions on physical movement which ultimately made the communication delay in many functionaries involved in farming. Farmers were unable to get the latest information on agricultural markets, and food systems in general (IFAD et al., 2021). Fortunately, all these drawbacks accelerated development trends of digitization of the agricultural sector (Ashton-Hart, 2020;Harring et al., 2020;Romero and Ahamed, 2020;Janssens et al., 2021;Leach et al., 2021). Smartphone applications acted as an important tool for agricultural information dissemination during the pandemic (Pal and Patra, 2021;Bhuvanasri et al., 2022). In such a way, Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) enabled households to alleviate supply chain movement restrictions, including food-based ones. Particularly, ICTs helped systems become adaptive and more resilient (Kakderi et al., 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"The current evolution in ICTs has been immensely diversified and evidenced in many perspectives. For example, many agricultural information and communication technologies (Ag-ICTs) utilize robotic vehicles and drones, computers, radios, Internet services, social media, and mobile applications (Hashem et al., 2021), partly as a direct response to COVID-19 and climate change. Meanwhile, climate change has had wide-ranging effects on the environmental and socio-economic pillars of sustainability; including land and water resources, agriculture and food security (Egan et al., 2021). Indeed, global climate change patterns have changed rainfall patterns, driven up temperatures and consequently amplified water losses, and made some food crops no longer viable where they once werethese have highly challenged the peaceful survival of man and other species and inspired rapid adaptive responses including increased use of harmful synthetic pesticides, which endangers food systems' resilience (Avenyo et al., 2020;Egan et al., 2021)."},{"index":3,"size":209,"text":"Resilience is defined by Koskela et al. (2020) as a process whereby people devise means and resources to sustain their wellbeing during challenging times. From an economic system's perspective, resilience is the capacity to reduce vulnerabilities, resist shocks, and recover quickly from setbacks (Meuwissen et al., 2021;Papaioannou, 2021). Resilience then denotes a potential typically activated and observable at the times when a system is hit by stress and shocks. However, during COVID-19, resilience was greatly leveraged on ICTs through enabling; collaboration among partners, food production, and outsourcing (Meuwissen et al., 2021). For pest management as a constant threat to smallholder food production particularly in the developing world, a paradigm shift has occurred over the 60 years of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) toward the notion of Agroecological Crop Protection (ACP). ACP aims to improve ecological health, lessen the impact of climate change, and improve general plant and animal generic conditions, while enabling early detection of pests facilitated by digital platforms (Deguine et al., 2021). As such, the successful household mitigation of adverse effects from pest infestations and resilience under the trying times of climate change and COVID-19 depend on access to timely information, which the adoption of appropriate ICTs for early detection of these pests affords (Marusak et al., 2021)."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"Given the disruptions in the supply chain of crop and animal products due to COVID-19, further exacerbating the challenges faced in the agricultural sector, the threat to sustainable agricultural livelihoods and food security were eminent (Ozor et al., 2021). COVID-19 related disruptions on livelihoods included: decline in food consumption and income, increased food insecurity (Hevia and Neumeyer, 2020), sharp price spikes, migration, displacement, and decline in remittances (Guadagno, 2020). Therefore, understanding the impact of COVID-19 and how digital solutions alleviated the negative effects is important. Specifically, the study provides a holistic view of interlinkages around how digital services empowered smallholder farmers and facilitated smallholder-based food systems' resilience amidst climate change and COVID-19. The study:"},{"index":5,"size":179,"text":"1) Shows the digital services and experiences in agricultural systems during the pandemic and how these impacted smallholder farmers. Understanding the implications of COVID-19 and associated restrictions is necessary in supporting a sustainable post-pandemic recovery for farmers and farming systems. Furthermore, lessons learned from responses to COVID-19 in agriculture are central to informing climate-smart IPM policies that are based on digital solutions. Thus, secondary data was collected for the study. Descriptive research design has been followed for the study according to Ashton-Hart (2020), Ozor et al. (2021) and Bhuvanasri et al. (2022) approches. Generally, researchers went through many valid sources in detail to select secondary data (reviewed articles) used for this study. The next section of the paper presents different kind of digital services experience in agricultural during the pandemic and how these impacted smallholder farmers. Then, the second part presents the digital agriculture perspective and how this could be promoted in post COVID-19 period to achieve sustainable agriculture systems. The perspective is enlightened by COVID-19 experiences to inform climate-smart IPM pratices. Conclusion are presented in the last section."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"Case studies of experiences of household use of ICTs and digital services, before and during COVID-"},{"index":7,"size":81,"text":"In the present note, the role of digitalization during the COVID-19 pandemic is addressed. The challenges faced in harnessing digital solutions to cope with the pandemic are discussed, and lessons to be learned for policy responses are also highlighted. Ways in which digitalization can function in recovery, for inclusive and sustainable agriculture development and resilience against potential future shocks, are also explored. Moreover, it is critical to strengthen international cooperation for digitalization that works for a better future (UNCTAD Secretariat, 2022)."},{"index":8,"size":37,"text":"The economic and social impact was particularly severe in structurally weak developing countriesbecause of their higher Which refers to the tools for digitally collecting, processing, storage, retrieval, and managing and sharing electronic data (Singh et al., )."},{"index":9,"size":109,"text":"Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems frontiersin.org susceptibility to shocks and lower capacity to adjust to these schocks. Within countries, the crisis has had disproportionate consequences on the most vulnerable and disadvantaged groups-such as lowincome households, migrants, informal workers and often womenand economic sectors, such as microenterprises and small and medium-sized enterprises and tourism. The most affected countries, groups and sectors are also characterized by low levels of readiness to engage in and benefit from electronic commerce (e-commerce) and the digital economy (Ashton-Hart, 2020). Following restrictions on movement, individuals, businesses and Governments increasingly \"went digital\", amid slowing economic activity, thus, the pandemic served as a catalyser of digitalization (Ashton-Hart, 2020)."},{"index":10,"size":282,"text":"For exemple in Nigeria, the pandemic caused the country to adopt some technologies such as irrigation and air seeding technology which helped to increase crop yields to levels higher than what it was before the pandemic (Grey et al., 2020). In another perspective for instance, a farmer traditionally noticing any pest infestation in their fields would rush to seek advice from neighbors (in most cases residing in walkable distances) and subsequently implement solutions observed in the neighborhood. Such solutions typically involved using a synthetic pesticide (mimicking or borrowing from the one the neighbors used) and sourced from the village farm inputs sellers (Sarkar et al., 2021). Besides the often prohibitive expense of this for smallholders (leading to disadvantageous borrowing or no pest intervention), inability to read warning labels on synthetic pesticides exposed farmers and environments to increased harms. Furthermore, under COVID-19, farmers were faced with physical distance barriers to access technical advice from extension agents or authorized technical persons. ICTs bridged these distances and eased movement restrictions and often assisted in proper identification and description of the pests (Sarkar et al., 2021). While this supported subsequent pesticide prescription (and potentially proper guidance on where and how to use such harmful materials safely) (Saleh, 2020;Sarkar et al., 2021), information about safer, nonsynthetic pest management materials could also be accessed. Specifically, a nonsynthetic pesticide made from neem tree seeds is a safer, less expensive, and environmentally non-harmful alternative with existing digital (ICTs) support in educational videos (SAWBO, 2017). In one community in Burkina Faso, farmers who had learned of the neem seed alternative, planted the otherwise not locally available neem trees in their community, so that they could produce the safer pesticide (SAWBO, 2021)."},{"index":11,"size":147,"text":"Similarly, upon realizing the symptoms of damage from pests, farmers might rush to the nearby extension agents for field inspections and advice (if available). However, the physical movement restrictions of COVID-19 lockdowns made access to field visits very difficult, if not impossible (Deguine et al., 2021). Here again, the use of digital services gave farmers access to better information (even under restrictions on movement) so as not to rush into risky decision-making without proper technical guidance. For example, Sheahan et al. (2017) elaborated that while the use of synthetic pesticides can increase crop yields, it is also strongly associated with accidental negative effects on both environmental and human health, leading to increased social health-related costs and time lost away from farm work due to sicknesses associated with pesticide-use. In that sense, it is not clear if the gain (in crop yield) is not offset by these losses."},{"index":12,"size":96,"text":"Many smallholder farmers in Tanzania have strong international market connections, typically selling crops such as spices, yams, bananas and sugarcane to buyers from Kenya, India and Tanzania (Dar es Salaam, Pemba and Zanzibar). With the closure of international borders between Tanzania and neighboring countries and enforcement of domestic travel restrictions, market competition declined as buyers could not reach farms (Ashton-Hart, 2020). Farmers were consequently faced with limited selling options,with some forced to sell spices locally at severely reduced prices. Concern and suspicion of travelers also affected farmers' willingness to receive potential buyers (Tripathi et al., 2021)."},{"index":13,"size":258,"text":"In South Africa, smallholder farmers cultivating fresh and perishable products (such as fruits, vegetables and dairy) for local markets, struggled to sell produce due to the demand fallout and closure of local informal markets (Ashton-Hart, 2020). These farmers had to store perishable farm products on the farm in anticipation of the reopening of informal markets, which led to high postharvest losses and increased storage costs. Similarly, large-scale commercial apple farmers also incurred losses as demand and prices for apples in the export market crashed after international border restrictions (R2.5 [Rands] per kg in 2020 compared with R13 in 2016) (Ayanlade and Radeny, 2020). In addition to the price crash, such additional packaging and transport costs drastically reduced farmers' profit margins, with implications for the sustainability of future harvests (Tripathi et al., 2021). Furthermore, in South Africa, climatic challenges, followed by COVID-19, created compounded issues, planting unusually late in the season, at the end of November 2019, following the rains that arrived mid-month. Delayed planting was followed by early onset of frost, severely reducing the growing season (Ayanlade and Radeny, 2020). This required farmers to use chemical fertilizers and pesticides, livestock and short-season crop varieties, subsequently squeezing profit margins. Furthermore, lack of water for irrigating crops and pasture as major weather-related problems, alongside negative impacts from crop pests and diseases, which became worse due to lack of access to inputs (Ashton-Hart, 2020). Many smallholders and emerging farmers voiced concern for future farm productivity and resultant food shortages over the following 1-2 years due to longer-term compounded impacts of COVID-19."},{"index":14,"size":198,"text":"In west Africa, the fall armyworm (FAW) became a dangerous invasive pest, now detected in more than forty countries in sub Sahara Africa (SSA) (Guimapi et al., 2022), and documented as feeding on 353 host plants with an estimated loss of 8.3 to 20.6 million metric tons per year in twelve of Africa's maize producing countries (Houngbo et al., 2020). For pest control practitioners, deployment of curative strategies can only be effective with vigilant surveillance, monitoring, and scouting of FAW infestation levels, which ICTs both supported and enabled (Bello-Bravo et al., 2018b;Ahissou et al., 2021;Høye et al., 2021;Tepa-Yotto et al., 2021). Indeed the livelihoods of smallholder farmers are always at stake due to the devastating damage caused by pests, especially those whose damages cover a wider area in a short time like the FAW (Ahissou et al., 2021;Egan et al., 2021). Demand for many other occupations may decline through 2030, including customer service and sales positions, food service jobs, and office support roles, such as administrative assistants and bookkeepers. The disruption is likely to have the biggest impact on low-wage jobs that have served as a safety net for displaced worker in the past (Lund et al., 2021)."},{"index":15,"size":127,"text":"Although digital services may be difficult to use by lowliterate farmers at times, the Farmer Interface Application (FIA) developed by the Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and partners is one example that has shown that ICTs can be useful in pest management, especially for informing farmers on timely interventions on pesticide use (Tepa-Yotto et al., 2021). While combating invasive pests was made more difficult with restrictions imposed by COVID-19, the disruption to food systems exposed opportunities that could be exploited by connecting local production and consumption communities using ICTs. That is, the pandemic uncovered interconnected vulnerabilities linking livelihoods and food distribution as countless suppliers and vendors around the world experienced food losses because they could not market their food or hours were restricted (Blay-Palmer et al., 2021)."},{"index":16,"size":267,"text":"With ICTs, it became possible to organize farm inputs and food orders, with subsequent deliveries accompanied by electronic payments for these supplies. It must be pointed out here that traditional telephone is an ICT, which has long bridged distance gaps between farmers, markets, and extension agents. The mobile phone has radically changed what telephony can accomplish; as a COVID-19 example, extension agents could be reached by mobile phone, even when movement restrictions force them to remain out of the office and away from their landlines. Mobile phones have also, since 2015-2017, become the leading access device-type for obtaining digital information (Bello-Bravo et al., 2021). Equally, radio and television are traditional sources of ICT information (often as community members would gather around a single radio or TV). While Internet may be available through computers, radio and television information is more often supplemented or accessible via mobile phones. During COVID-19, accessibility to traditional forms of ICT (telephone, radio, television) were facilitated by mobile phones (when affordable), even in lockdowns. In general, ICTs can enable faster access to updated data from farming households, thus enabling appropriate interventions tailored to a food system's current needs. For instance, Agamile (2022) and Tortorella et al. (2022) used a High-Frequency Phone Surveys (HFPS) ICT strategy to collect household consumption data at monthly intervals during the COVID-19 lockdown, because face-to-face interviews could not be used. Agamile (2022), indicated that indeed the lockdown had induced income losses significantly, reduced access to farminputs, and increased incidences of food insecurity. These findings fostered government initiatives to support food consumption for the vulnerable communities (especially those in urban slums)."},{"index":17,"size":177,"text":"Furthermore, global border closures, production shutdown, and restricted exports resulted in inflationary tendencies for different food and non-food commodities, which affected smallholder farmers globally Quayson et al., 2020. For instance, in Ghana, cocoa smallholder farmers were the hardest hit with especially limited access to markets due to the disruption of the international cocoa supply chain. Cocoa farmers would also find it difficult to get information from extension workers on pest management and good agronomic practices, who previously delivered it physically. However, the use of digital services like drones, sensors, climatesmart agriculture services accessed by mobile phones, and other ICTs opened up possibilities for smallholder farmers to increase their households' resilience and minimize the negative impacts of pests, climate change, and COVID-19 Quayson et al., 2020. In other African countries with massive exposure to digital innovations, where market linkages were treated to COVID-19 movement restrictions, mobile phones have dramatically enhanced financial inclusions and transactions, relying on platforms such as MPESA in Kenya, MTN-MOMO in Uganda, Agrikore in Nigeria, and others (Quayson et al., 2020;Blay-Palmer et al., 2021;Agamile, 2022)."},{"index":18,"size":256,"text":"In another perspective, school closures due to COVID-19 threatened educational delays, particularly for students from lowincome households without access to virtual learning facilities or poor infrastructures for them (Ingutia, 2021). Nevertheless, ICTs facilitated and supported remote learning (Kamal, 2020), even in countries worst hit by the pandemic (e.g., India, the United States, Brazil, Russia, and Mexico). During the pandemic, the use of digital technologies for teaching and learning significantly grew in speed and scale (Kamal, 2020). For instance, Asanov et al. (2021) noted that learners were engaging in remote learning using different ICT tools mostly the Internet via phones (74%) or a computer or tablet (59%). Moreover, those who didn't have easy access to Internet or phones or computers also participated in remote learning via educational programs broadcast by television. These modalities were also possible for smallholder farmers with the use of digital solutions to access inputs, detect pests and access markets (Quayson et al., 2020;Blay-Palmer et al., 2021;Tepa-Yotto et al., 2021). Nonetheless, the speed and affordances of digitalization, and presuppositions about who has (or could have) remote access for education, has accidentally left an uncounted number of students out of the picture (Doyle, 2020; Reich and Mehta, 2020;HRW, 2021). For instance, in Botswana, local farmers were well acquainted with conventional farming techniques lacked the knowledge of contemporary farming techniques. Thus, academic institutions like the Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BUAN) through its Centre for In-service and Continuing Education (CICE), offered short courses and trained farmers on use of ICTs in agriculture (Ashton-Hart, 2020)."},{"index":19,"size":181,"text":"In business terms, COVID-19 transformed daily practices to the extent that businesses adopted ICTs as a way to stay afloat during lockdowns. Because of the disruptive nature of the pandemic, COVID-19 compelled rapid transformations in business processes and operational practices; home-delivery services skyrocketed along with the use of digital communication platforms (i.e., Zoom, WhatsApp, or MS Teams) for conducting meetings (Kamal, 2020). In places transitioning to post-COVID-19, the radical increase in use of digital technologies, and diffusion of electronic information systems became more permanent. Thus, ICTs also supported, boosted, and sometimes fostered continuity of home-based businesses during COVID-19, affording ensuring resilience in terms of sustained income flow. For instance, Saleh (2020) noted that Internet-based ICTs and social media usually were used to communicate (through mobile phones) directly with customers, receive orders, advertise products and services, do payments, and so on. This allowed businesses to manage resources effectively, make faster communication within the firm and with customers thus, in-principle increasing business productivity, decreasing physical transaction costs, advertise cheaply, deliver certain products and services more quickly, even within home-based business contexts (Saleh, 2020)."},{"index":20,"size":208,"text":"In small and medium enterprises (SMEs) contexts, which can be pivotal for providing extra income support for smallholder farming households that supply SMEs with raw materials, profitability was greatly affected by the pandemic (Zutshi et al., 2021). SME sustainability became extremely difficult, and many of them collapsed. However, some were able to adopt resilient ICT strategies (including digital services) for accessing (sometimes new) pathways for obtaining raw materials from farmers while reaching out to consumers, thus enabling some SMEs to survive despite making little to no profit (Musa and Aifuwa, 2020;Love et al., 2021;Panzone et al., 2021). These patterns are now habitual and will remain in place post-pandemic. As such, these practices and supply-chain changes are potentially accessible to smallholder producers and consumers. Indeed, rural poor farm households were tested to the extreme by COVID-19 because they were generally cut-off physically and digitally from the market structures. However, the spread of ICTs (again, especially mobile phones) opened channels to communicate, access remittances, and make business payments, transforming the challenging scenario for rural folk from hopeless to a potential for survival through money accessed via mobile phone money services for food, farm inputs (seeds and pesticides), and other necessities (e.g., medicine) (Quayson et al., 2020;Saleh, 2020;Rajkhowa and Qaim, 2022)."},{"index":21,"size":327,"text":"In more urban areas, the concept of smart-city solutions accelerated, fueling the use of smart technologies and its diverse components (including Artificial Intelligence, machine learning, blockchain, autonomous vehicles, 5G, virtual reality, big data analytics, cloud computing, and others (Høye et al., 2021;Sharifi et al., 2021). In agriculture, the contribution of nature-smart city and the defense of biodiversity have a direct positive impact on the living environment such as fighting air pollution and mitigating the effects of current climate change, but also its consequences such as drought. Therefore, it requires knowing how to control feeding in urban agriculture, new agronomic techniques, pest and diseases management using the more accessible means, the digital solutions. For instance, in Niger, the strategic plan has four main pillars, namely, e-government services, the creation of a \"Technopole\" (a city of innovation and technology), the promotion of digital technology and the Smart Villages project (Peckham et al., 2020). Moreover, in December 2020, the country launched the Smart Villages Project for Rural Growth and Digital Inclusion (PVI) to leverage digital technology to develop the agricultural sector, through establishing digital payments, e-extension services, and data platforms for farmers and ranchers (Ashton-Hart, 2020). In Angola, Smart Villages were established to provide sustainable renewable energy services to rural communities. This initiative enabled digital connectivity through ICTs where smallholder farmers could more effectively use mobile phones and other electronic gadgets in times of restrictions on human contacts such as the COVID-19 period (Ashton-Hart, 2020). Therefore, these ICT-enabled technologies and their integration with the physical infrastructure were pivotal for enabling the (during-disaster) absorption and (post-disaster) recovery capacities of different cities during COVID-19 (Sharifi et al., 2021). For example, the 5G technology greatly improved the speed, efficiency, and flexibility of the pandemic-related innovation (including supply chain management, telemedicine, self-isolation) while affording a swift implementation of broader health services (Siriwardhana et al., 2021). Extending these benefits to people living in peri-urban and non-urban areas is imperative if they are to become sustainable."},{"index":22,"size":225,"text":"In terms of food production systems, particularly for smallholder farm households, although digital services can often be very expensive for smallholder farmers and cannot feasibly be used on farm fields at large scales, ICTs have been developed to help boost green crop technologies (e.g., the use of biosensors and chemo sensors to detect chemical information in the ecological system as an alternative to the use of pesticides) (Cardim et al., 2020;Ivaskovic et al., 2021). Indeed, pro-smallholder farmers, user-friendly IPM systems have been developed to improve the management of insect pests on smallholder farmer fields (Cardim et al., 2020). These IPM digital services aim to reduce the overall use of pesticides through more precise applications as necessary. Most of these IPMbased, digital-services technologies are still not readily applicable at-scale to the majority of smallholder farmers due to long lags in producing desirable results; nonetheless, developments are underway to innovate smallholder-friendly basic pest detection systems using mobile applications like FIA, radar technologies monitoring pest migration, video equipment to observe flying insects, and thermal infrared imaging among others, for the future and are not restricted only to immediate needs (Cardim et al., 2020;Høye et al., 2021;Liu and Wang, 2021;Tepa-Yotto et al., 2021). Pending these developments, the use of digitally based educational ICTs to inform farmers about cost-effective agricultural innovations that already exist and can be implemented right now."},{"index":23,"size":108,"text":"Furthermore, deep learning technologies have been widely deployed for plant pathology but are still in the initial stages of use in agricultural entomology (Mittal et al., 2020). However, ICT-assisted deep learning-based endeavors anticipate breakthroughs for studying and monitoring pests via mobile Apps (including for detection and classification of different invasive pests like FAW) (Karar et al., 2021;Sarkar et al., 2021;Tepa-Yotto et al., 2021). Digital services aided by ICTs have already helped researchers and extension scientists to analyze data and help generate, document, and disseminate scientific evidence on pests management to farmers and other stakeholders with the aid of the Internet services (Bello-Bravo et al., 2018b;Singh et al., 2018)."}]},{"head":"Summary of perspectives regarding IPM","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"Several digital technological recommendations have been made to help smallholder farmers continuity, especially in developing nations. The feasibility of these activities may be called into rightfully so, hence there must be operational and economic feasibility. In Ghana and Nigeria, these efforts are occurring. But, operational feasibility can also be managed by nongovernmental organizations, forexaple Smart Villages or for-profit corporate partners. The forprofit partnerships may require some investments in training, yet the benefits of such training can be more reliable and inexpensive sourcing of material such as cocoa (Ashton-Hart, 2020). The benefits can also be social and environmental from better operations. The reputation and image of these larger organizations can improve if the smallholder farmers' situation improves. This investment can improve competitiveness for some basic commodity value chains. Relatedly, economic feasibility must also occur. In many cases, farmers may have access to some mobile phones and rudimentary computing capabilities. The additional costs may be the development of applications. Forexample, there are some initiatives for egovernment and digital government strategies, where governments are pushing toward e-government services (Echazarra, 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":203,"text":"The COVID-19 pandemic movement restrictions as part of the control measures put in place by several countries had implications on food security, as movement restrictions coincided with planting periods for most staple crops, thus exacerbating food insecurity (Ashton-Hart, 2020). Achieving adequate food supply required developing better policies to confront the challenge of reducing hunger post COVID-19. The lessons learned after COVID-19 crisis will be very important for particularly developing countries to rethink their strategies for sustainable economic growth, (Ayanlade and Radeny, 2020). For instance, in some African countries with massive exposure to digital innovation, mobile phones have dramatically enhanced financial transactions such as MPESA in Kenya and Agrikore in Nigeria, thus eliminated all problems associated with physical transactions, especially during the pandemic, where handling of cash posed a threat to the human life. It also eradicated acts of corruption and theft, thereby establishing a high sense of confidence and accountability in food systems operations. In Ghana, the Blockchain Technology digital solutions to connect farmers to markets through agents called purchasing clerks (PCs). These PCs work on commission and deal directly with farmers, and their transactions were monitored electronically, thus reducing the possibility of corruption and cheating against smallholder farmers (Ayanlade and Radeny, 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"With the availability of the internet and cheaper mobile devices, digital applications for communication in for instance Sub Sahara Africa (SSA) are increasing rapidly. Digital solutions are playing an increasingly important role in transforming agricultural ecosystems and value chains, and strengthening food supply systems, particularly in a post-COVID world (Ayanlade and Radeny, 2020). A digitized marketing system, for example, where buyers, sellers and consumers can communicate directly, could reduce reliance on conventional markets and provide greater adaptability in buyer-producer access. There is, therefore, a need to focus on building institutional digital capacity by, for example, providing training to extension officers and farmers in guiding the community marketing schemes and collaborating with farmer groups to use ICTs to identify, and participate fully in competitive agri-food markets (Tripathi et al., 2021)."},{"index":4,"size":100,"text":"In a labor perspective, COVID-19 did not only worsen the existing labor shortage, but also caused tremendous changes in the production processes, trade systems, and consumer behaviors. During the pandemic, Krishnan et al. (2021) identified the areas of innovation critical to building a healthier and more sustainable food system, and those areas that would be most impacted by the pandemic. Krishnan's team delved deep into pandemic economic history and focused on the structural and cyclical undercurrents sculpting the post-pandemic worlds. Among the five technological areas that they found essential post-pandemics was the food and agriculture digitization (Tsay et al., 2021)."},{"index":5,"size":367,"text":"Regarding managing pests, in much of the developing world, especially in SSA, farmer decisions to spray against pests is seasonbased or dependent on ad hoc visual evidence of pest symptoms in farm fields. This in turn results in inappropriate targeting and severe human and environmental health impacts (Sarkar et al., 2021). More disturbingly, this trend has been aggravated by climate change, which has in some instances favored proliferation of pests, thus forcing farmers to over-use chemical pesticides as a remedy to yield losses attributed to pest infestations (Zinyemba et al., 2021). The fundamental tension here is the perception that synthetic pesticides are the only (or the only effective) form of pest control. These perceptions, as is now documented, look at crop yields as the only variable, without taking account of the broader socioeconomic and environmental costs of synthetic pesticides. As such, ICT-based educational approaches are imperative for changing these perceptions, so that farmers who are faced with concerns about supporting their families and livelihoods think more broadly about the system-wide costs of synthetic pesticides and not only how much income they can expect from better safeguarded crops. That is, as farmers understand that the marginal increases of income (from using synthetic pesticides) are eaten up by increased input costs and decreased health (for themselves and their family, and any attendant healthcare costs, if they access healthcare at all). Thus it is more apparent that slightly smaller crop yields actually yield better overall livelihoods (Bello-Bravo and Pittendrigh, 2018). Under earlier versions of IPM, the use of synthetic pesticides was curtailed in farmer field schools (FFS), in which extension agents advised farmers on basic ecological principles such that farmers could ably assess necessary damage thresholds and know when to use pesticides appropriately or not (Bello-Bravo and Pittendrigh, 2018). However, FFS based on physical attendance of trainers and farmers are resource intensive, not possible during conditions like COVID-19, usually under-manned, and thus not sufficient for reaching out to all farm households. To this day, farm households continue to experience extreme shortages of access to extension agents and tools for enabling informed decision-making about available, cost-effective nonsynthetic alternatives to synthetic pesticides (Bello-Bravo and Pittendrigh, 2018;Sarkar et al., 2021;Zinyemba et al., 2021)."},{"index":6,"size":175,"text":"On the other hand, FFS lack good identification of pest organisms, especially when the pests are in their damaging stages (Zinyemba et al., 2021). A clear example is that of the fall armyworm populations proliferation in SSA, which caught maize farmers by surprise without any comparable previous experience with a pest producing similar maize damage patterns. Subsequently, maize farmers only became aware of the pest invasion after the damage was largely accomplished, and even more so when the current season's yield was destroyed (Zinyemba et al., 2021). In all of these cases unfortunately, the use of synthetic pesticide was too late to yield any suppressive impact on the pest and wound up a waste of time, money, and effort and an unnecessary load on the environment. Farmers would have had to have been aware of the destructive early stages of FAW (eggs and larvae), which illustrates the appropriate entry point for farmer sensitization and empowerment, which ICT digital services with wider reach could have accomplished (Gebreziher et al., 2021;Tepa-Yotto et al., 2021;Tansuchat et al., 2022)."},{"index":7,"size":237,"text":"Fortunately, recent innovations may enable accurate pest diagnostics especially using artificial intelligence (AI) (Høye et al., 2021;Karar et al., 2021;Liu and Wang, 2021) combined with automated monitoring tools (Cardim et al., 2020) and nano sensors (Ivaskovic et al., 2021). Farmers can access accurate information from these tools for diagnosis and identification of pest problems and their fields. These stand to be a great addition to the future IPM apparatus, when they become available and operational at farm level. In the meantime, however, smallholder farmers must be sufficiently helped against the double burden of current and new invasive pests, especially when supposedly \"innovative\" pesticides hold out ineffective and unsafe synthetic products to smallholders (Ahissou et al., 2021). Steps have already been taken to educate and empower farmers with and in digital tools for taking correct actions for pest detection and management (e.g., the FIA app documented in detecting early-stage fall armyworm using GPS technology to determine infestation locations and intervention magnitudes required) (Tepa-Yotto et al., 2021). Smallholder-farmer user-friendly apps like FIA have also been designed with a gender-inclusive mode aimed at minimizing (rather than exacerbating) gender inequalities. A focus on gender is critically necessary in SSA, where women and girls are major participants in agricultural production and yet still experience barriers to educational information (such as not being allowed to sit in the same places with men during capacitation programs and extension services delivery) (Ragasa et al., 2013)."},{"index":8,"size":368,"text":"From an international perspective, even before the pandemic, ICTs for agriculture were spreading rapidly. In recent years, ICT solutions, in that farmers and fishermen need access to up-to-date information to improve their livelihoods (IFAD et al., 2021). For instance, in 2020, as the COVID-19 pandemic progressed, people in the Pacific Islands, found that the usual food supply chains were no longer working, and digital solutions in agriculture suddenly had a new role to play (IFAD et al., 2021). Also, a joint report by Google and the International Finance Corporation (IFC) estimates that the digital economy has the potential to reach 5.2 percent of the Africa's GDP by 2025, which would contribute $180 billion to its economy (Hensher et al., 2021;Sinha et al., 2022). This would particularly benefit women, who on average earn less money than men and are more likely to engage in unpaid work. Factors such as employment discrimination, the gender pay gap, inability to make financial decisions, the need to care for children, and unpaid domestic work, as well as being excluded from the formal economy, significantly limit women's access to better pay, a gap that can be closed by digital solutions. However, as the sophistication and functionality of ICTs increase, the cost also increases, further limiting access for potential new users and the functionality available to current users (Intel, Global Development Advisors, and Globe Scan, 2012). Thus, the digital gender gap may widen as technology evolves and its cost increases (NNie et al., 2015). Some studies have shown that women, especially older women, are less likely than men to be aware of the benefits the Internet offers, and therefore more likely to think they \"don't need it\" or \"don't want it\" (Fallows, 2005). Limited education often leads a person to be suspicious of digital devices and unaware of the benefits that ICT might offer. A study based on interviews and surveys of 2,200 women and girls living in urban and peri-urban areas in Egypt, India, Mexico, and Uganda found that 25 percent of women without access to the Internet did not want to use it, and almost all felt that the Internet had nothing to offer them (Intel, Global Development Advisors, and Globe Scan, 2012)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and next steps","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":295,"text":"Generally, COVID-19 has exposed farmers to high levels of income insecurity, underlining the importance of building resilience among farming households. Agriculture extension services have a crucial role to play in this context toward enhancing agricultural productivity and ensuring food security as economies struggle to recover from the pandemic. In doing so, it is important that farming households continue playing their crucial role in agricultural systems effectively, moreso by using modern climate-smart IPM tools, alongside any othertraditional innovations already available. This can become easier if it is ICT-based relying on system-customized digital solutions, which are inclusive of everyone. With school closures, uneven access to online home schooling and economic pressure on families, progress in education, especially for girls particularly experienced an enormous setback. Similarly, women have not been able to capitalize on digitalization, as the pandemic has exposed significant existing gender digital divides. Such divide and similar ones must not continue if digital solutions must be inclusive of all farmers especially regarding adoption of climate-smart IPM (Tansuchat et al., 2022). In relation to policies, FAO noted that increasing access to and use of ICTs can benefit smallholder farmers and farming communities by: facilitating access to relevant nutrition and agricultural information; increasing access to financial services for rural communities; increasing access to insurance and other tools to better manage risk; and providing new business opportunities in rural areas. Increasing resilience to shocks is also the goal of ICTs that locate weather forecasts via SMS messages and mobile applications. For instance, the Mfarms program (which operates in Ghana, Kenya, Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Senegal, and Malawi) worked in cooperation with NASA to release an application that provides smallholder farmers with updated satellite weather data and evidence-based weather tools for agricultural productionSuch corporation can be scaled in other SSA countries."},{"index":2,"size":190,"text":"More specifically, in this article, we shed light on digital transformations necessary to build resilient post-COVID-19 smallholder-based food systemsgrounded on climate-smart IPM innovations laveraged on digital solutions. This (post-pandemic) is the best time to adopt these climate-smart IPM technologies laveraging digital solutions to benefit the bottom of the pyramid smallholder agricultural supply chains. Nevertheless, some pertinent issues need to be considered to make these transformations successful. The first concern is how to utilize existing IPM technologies and merge these with emergent ones that are incorporated with digital inclusion. Utilization must be sorted. Secondly, the roles and effectiveness of various stakeholders and institutions in the digital transformation, is not clear and this must also be harmonized, to avoid conflict among stakeholders. For example, digital inclusion can increase productivity and resilience while reducing the vulnerability of hundreds of millions of smallholder farmers, thus affecting given stakeholders, respectively (Quayson et al., 2020). Therefore, this study highlights the an unequivocal need for creating more resilient and inclusive agriculture systems that can ensure that all stakeholders benefit equally from scaled digital solutions around climate-mart IPM for pest management, and other innovations (Alvi et al., 2021)."},{"index":3,"size":295,"text":"Taking this holistic view, smart pest management approaches based on sound scientific data will necessarily be effective when correctly deployed in appropriate contexts; it is thus more likely that this will involve no use of synthetic pesticides (Egan et al., 2021). However, to effectively transition to smart-strategy IPM using nonsynthetic insect control methods (whether through pesticides or other techniques), digital technologies and genderinclusive IPM approaches (both educationally and in practice) become indispensible for integrating current and future generation populations (youths) in climate-resilient and disaster-resilient IPM practices. Existing changes that can be made to the infrastructure must also be explored for the immediate enhancement of food security. For example, certain sectors of economies not only did not experience livelihood impacts during COVID-19 (e.g., freelance, Internet-based at-home workers) but may have accumulated savings due to movement restrictions (by spending less money). This is already a form of pandemic-resilience, which demonstrates the possibility of extending \"what makes that resilience work\" to other economic sectors. For example, at-home food delivery (e.g., Door Dash, Grub Hub, and the like) vastly extended digitalization of the dining sector of the economy and made it possible to get food to people (at a fee) despite movement restrictions. An analogous service to transport smallholders' crops (safely and in accordance with any movement protocols) to digital or analog markets would be another aspect to add to a holistic approach to food security (pending any smart climate or smart agriculture innovations, however many years off they are). It is vitally important to remember these \"analog\" variants as well, since all ICTs are dependent on a stable supply of electricity; in a context where an electrical grid collapses indefinitely, no aspect of support offered by ICTs would remain. Gasolinepowered generators and solar-powered chargers are two such options."},{"index":4,"size":248,"text":"Furthermore, public financial investments must prioritize consistent plant health research other than ad hoc temporary projects that do not advance beyond pilot stages of IPM technological transfers to farmers. Africa and IPM innovators alike can learn from successful experiences and lessons gained from elsewhere, particularly taking a solid example of the useful digital innovations' experiences of the COVID-19 pandemic and traditional/indigenous practices, to develop effective, holistic, cost-effective digital-based IPM implementations with \"virtuous feedback\" loops for sustainable and diversified agriculture. This in contrasts to stagnating in \"pernicious feedback\" loops as elaborated by Mortensen and Smith (2020), which perpetuate and keep in place unworkable practices that maintain a disadvantageous status quo. To achieve these envisioned successes, a proper, functioning, and empowering policy environment is helpful (Sheahan et al., 2017;Egan et al., 2021), but successes are possible at the community and grassroots level if stable or funded policy is not available. For example, ICT-based educational curricula are available to local change agents for their educational projects regardless of national-level shortages of funding and available of extension agents (Bello-Bravo and Pittendrigh, 2018). In all of these recommendations, our primary emphasis is that whatever the future promises to hold, it is already possible and necessary, right now, to make radically innovative agricultural offerings available to smallholder farmers through ICT-enabled educational means. These means are gender nonexclusive and have a demonstrated capacity to impart learning gains regardless of participants' age, geographic isolation, educational or technological literacy levels, or socioeconomic status (Bello-Bravo et al., 2018a)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 2) Reviews how digitalization by ICTs enabled households to stay resilient by applying smart IPM services and what digital agriculture perspectives needed to be promoted in post COVID-19 period to achieve sustainable agriculture systems. 3) Relies on a perspective enlightened by COVID-19 experiences to inform climate smart-IPM practices for managing recoveries from shocks like COVID-19 and similar ones on agriculture. "}],"sieverID":"9205ad8f-bb80-45cd-81ad-5185b8eb70e8","abstract":"and Tamò M ( ) Are digital services the right solution for empowering smallholder farmers? A perspective enlightened by COVIDexperiences to inform smart IPM."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"08afa2a0ec9df8eb6a692718ad5e8b25","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d50a5431-a0e2-4a66-bdc4-3f14e4b63510/retrieve"},"pageCount":38,"title":"Tree lucerne: A tree useful for fodder and multiple products and services","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Management of tree lucerne","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":" Regularly spot weed around the seedling Protection against livestock trampling and browsing-Fencing Mulching/manure helps to retain moisture and suppress weeds Watering at early stage of the plant improves survival and growth Application of ash (termite) A cutting height of 1 m to 1.5 m provides good biomass. The plant can be harvested 2-3 times per year depending on the management. Biomass yield of tree lucerne under different cutting height and interval after nine months of establishment in Africa RISING sites."}]},{"head":"Utilization of tree lucerne","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":" Tree lucerne in well-managed farm fields can reach for the first harvest and use as animal feed within 9 months after planting. Tree lucerne can produce more than 4 -7 t ha -1 dry biomass per year under farmers' management condition and when planted at 1 m X 1 m spacing. The leaf and edible branches of tree lucerne are very good sources of nutrients for ruminant livestock, containing high amounts of crude protein and (app 20-25%), and digestible organic matter (>= 70%). The foliage of tree lucerne can be fed green or wilted and can be preserved in the form of hay and used as needed."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":" Nutritionally, tree lucerne leaf is comparable to concentrate feeds. For smallholders whose access to concentrate feeds is limited can serve as a perfect substitute Supplementation of 1 kg of dried tree lucerne leaf to a lactating dairy cow can give up to 1.2 Lts of extra milk. Supplementation 300-400 g of tree lucerne hay to a fattening sheep is adequate to achieve a daily body weight gain of 70 grams, with a significant improvement in carcass dressing percentage (from about 40% in un-supplemented animals to about 48% in supplemented ones). In addition to the foliage, seeds of tree lucerne can serve as good sources of poultry feed."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":" Pre-feeding treatments such as fresh foliage, wilted and dried foliage can have effect on palatability of tree lucerne by small ruminants and cattle. Sheep readily consumed and highly preferred the fresh tree lucerne, while cattle preferred the dried tree lucerne. Tree lucerne flower is also a preferred bee fodder to produce quality honey."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"Temesgen Alene (Africa RISING site coordinator) demonstrates mix of tree lucerne and crop residues that a farmer feeds using feed trough at Salasfa village, Basona Worena "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" Adaptable for use from 2000 to over 3000 masl of the Ethiopian highlands. It is one of the few fodder and fertilizer tree species that perform on high altitude areas and fix N that improve livestock, crop and soil productivity. Rainfall requirement is from 350-1600 mm Soil should be well drained 5. Tree lucerne action research in Africa RISING sites o Research locations-8 Africa RISING kebeles o Seedling delivery-Each farmer participating in the research received on average 50 seedlings. A total of 253 farmers participated in the research. Compatibility of farmers' planting nichesobservation A seedling size of more than 45 cm is preferable for planting It requires a minimum of 3 months in the nursery Time of planting should be in a cloudy day A planting hole of 30-40 cm deep is good not to harm tap roots It can be planted as live fence, fodder lot (block planting), SWC structures, boundary planting and intercropped with crops and vegetables. Planting space between trees can be 25 cm or more. Livestock are important components of the mixed crop-livestock systems Are considered as important pathways for rural households to escape poverty Their productivity is challenged by feed, health and breed related issues Africa RISING in the first phase included feed and forage as one of the seven research thematic areas Action research in Africa RISING sites focused mainly on fodder trees (tree lucerne), oat/vetch mixtures, sweet lupin, desho grass, faba bean/ forage intercropping, post harvest crop residue 2. Why fodder trees? Climate change adaption: Trees and shrubs tap a larger volume of soil and access water to grow under dry periods. As a result, they provide green biomass for livestock at times of nutritional stress. Feed quality: Many trees and shrubs have high feeding quality in terms of protein and contents of some minerals. Example: Ca and P are more in trees and shrubs than grass pastures at comparable stages of growth. Deficiencies of these two minerals results in reproductive problems of ruminant animals Nutrient cycling: Most trees and shrubs are deep rooted and capture nutrients deposited below grass and forage roots. Some add nutrients through N-fixation and others recycle through scavenging. Management practices: Trees and shrubs tolerate wide range of management practices such as cutting, pruning, pollarding, thinning and lopping. Longevity: Life span of most trees and shrubs is more than grasses and shrubs. This has implication on cost of establishment and management. Multiple products and services: Improved livelihoods Improved food security Enhanced environmental resilience 3. Example of potential fodder trees and shrubs in the o Research approach-8 FRGs established. Each FRG 6. Establishment of tree lucerne Ethiopian highlands consisted of 25 and more farmers • Identification of farmers who are interested to plant and Potential trees and shrubs that are under farming in the highlands include: Table 1. Local names given to tree Lucerne farmer research groups and their use tree lucerne translation in AR sites • Care should be taken to be inclusive (gender) and incomes Byproducts: firewood, stakes, bee fodder, seed Improved growth, health, reproduction Increased milk and meat production Reduced vulnerability to drought Chamaecytisus palmensis Ficus thonningii Africa RISING sites Africa RISING research Kebeles Local name for the Meaning of the local name • Sources of seed: local collection, seed suppliers such as tree lucerne FRG Lemo Jawe Adebo Milk provider Eiden seed company, Begashaw Addisu AF seed supplier Planted at farm and landscape scale to curb soil erosion and improve soil fertility Using as supplement Using as Sesbania sesban Cordia africana Calliandra calothyrsus Dombeya torrida Leucaena pallida Upper Gana Deesiso Source of milk Sinana Ilu-Sanbitu Anole Amount of seeds per kg is 45,000 More milk Salka Sokore A known local dairy cow Seeds can be stored for 4-5 years breed name Basona Goshe Bado Tekemkegn Important in many aspects • Seedling raising: private, community and government Vernonia amygdalina Cajanus cajan Hagenia abyssinica Gudo Beret Hulegeb Multi-purpose Endamehoni Tsibet Lemlem nurseries Ever green Emba Hasti Birhan Tseba The light of milk • Seedling production systems: bare rooted and container substitute for concentrate Acacia decurrens systems Albizia gummifera • Seed treatment: Seeds of tree lucerne require seed Buddleja polystachya treatment such as scarification or immersion in boiled Livestock are important components of the mixed crop-livestock systems Are considered as important pathways for rural households to escape poverty Their productivity is challenged by feed, health and breed related issues Africa RISING in the first phase included feed and forage as one of the seven research thematic areas Action research in Africa RISING sites focused mainly on fodder trees (tree lucerne), oat/vetch mixtures, sweet lupin, desho grass, faba bean/ forage intercropping, post harvest crop residue 2. Why fodder trees? Climate change adaption: Trees and shrubs tap a larger volume of soil and access water to grow under dry periods. As a result, they provide green biomass for livestock at times of nutritional stress. Feed quality: Many trees and shrubs have high feeding quality in terms of protein and contents of some minerals. Example: Ca and P are more in trees and shrubs than grass pastures at comparable stages of growth. Deficiencies of these two minerals results in reproductive problems of ruminant animals Nutrient cycling: Most trees and shrubs are deep rooted and capture nutrients deposited below grass and forage roots. Some add nutrients through N-fixation and others recycle through scavenging. Management practices: Trees and shrubs tolerate wide range of management practices such as cutting, pruning, pollarding, thinning and lopping. Longevity: Life span of most trees and shrubs is more than grasses and shrubs. This has implication on cost of establishment and management. Multiple products and services: Improved livelihoods Improved food security Enhanced environmental resilience 3. Example of potential fodder trees and shrubs in the o Research approach-8 FRGs established. Each FRG 6. Establishment of tree lucerne Ethiopian highlands consisted of 25 and more farmers • Identification of farmers who are interested to plant and Potential trees and shrubs that are under farming in the highlands include: Table 1. Local names given to tree Lucerne farmer research groups and their use tree lucerne translation in AR sites • Care should be taken to be inclusive (gender) and incomes Byproducts: firewood, stakes, bee fodder, seed Improved growth, health, reproduction Increased milk and meat production Reduced vulnerability to drought Chamaecytisus palmensis Ficus thonningii Africa RISING sites Africa RISING research Kebeles Local name for the Meaning of the local name • Sources of seed: local collection, seed suppliers such as tree lucerne FRG Lemo Jawe Adebo Milk provider Eiden seed company, Begashaw Addisu AF seed supplier Planted at farm and landscape scale to curb soil erosion and improve soil fertility Using as supplement Using as Sesbania sesban Cordia africana Calliandra calothyrsus Dombeya torrida Leucaena pallida Upper Gana Deesiso Source of milk Sinana Ilu-Sanbitu Anole Amount of seeds per kg is 45,000 More milk Salka Sokore A known local dairy cow Seeds can be stored for 4-5 years breed name Basona Goshe Bado Tekemkegn Important in many aspects • Seedling raising: private, community and government Vernonia amygdalina Cajanus cajan Hagenia abyssinica Gudo Beret Hulegeb Multi-purpose Endamehoni Tsibet Lemlem nurseries Ever green Emba Hasti Birhan Tseba The light of milk • Seedling production systems: bare rooted and container substitute for concentrate Acacia decurrens systems Albizia gummifera • Seed treatment: Seeds of tree lucerne require seed Buddleja polystachya treatment such as scarification or immersion in boiled handling (feed troughs and sheds) Planting fodder trees Erythrina brucei water for a minute handling (feed troughs and sheds) Planting fodder trees Erythrina brucei water for a minute "},{"text":"Table 2 : Mean survival, height and RCD by region Survival and growth Amhara (N=48) Oromia (N=41) Tigray (N=38) SNNPR (N=32) P value Survival and growthAmhara (N=48)Oromia (N=41)Tigray (N=38)SNNPR (N=32)P value Survival after 9 months (%) 14.81 35.21 17.89 43.56 0.000 Survival after 9 months (%) 14.8135.21 17.89 43.56 0.000 Height after 9 months (m) 0.361 1.235 0.461 0.659 0.021 Height after 9 months (m) 0.3611.235 0.461 0.659 0.021 RCD after 9 months (cm) 0.339 0.876 0.562 0.928 0.002 RCD after 9 months (cm) 0.3390.876 0.562 0.928 0.002 Correlations: survival and height correlation(r) is equal to 0.527 Correlations: survival and height correlation(r) is equal to 0.527 (p=0.000); survival and RDC, r=0.786 (p=0.000) (p=0.000); survival and RDC, r=0.786 (p=0.000) "},{"text":"Table 3 : Mean survival, height and RDC by niches Niche Niche "},{"text":" Amhara Regional Agricultrural Research Institute, Southern Agricultural Research Institute, Tigray Agricultural Research Institute, Oromia Agricultural Research Institute Federal research organizations: Ethiopian Institute for Agricultural Research, Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Institute 11. Scaling of tree lucerne 12. Conclusion 11. Scaling of tree lucerne 12. Conclusion o Seed sources Household size, access to reliable water supply, and o Seed system management factors-including fencing planted o Identification of appropriate farm types and targets seedlings to protect browsing, mulching during dry (dairy cows, fattening) periods, clean spot weeding and applying organic o Identification of the right ecologies -soils, climate, fertilizers-significantly enhanced survival and growth landscape o Capacity building schemes on establishment, of tree lucerne in the Africa RISING planting sites. o Seed sources Household size, access to reliable water supply, and o Seed system management factors-including fencing planted o Identification of appropriate farm types and targets seedlings to protect browsing, mulching during dry (dairy cows, fattening) periods, clean spot weeding and applying organic o Identification of the right ecologies -soils, climate, fertilizers-significantly enhanced survival and growth landscape o Capacity building schemes on establishment, of tree lucerne in the Africa RISING planting sites. management and utilization of the plant species management and utilization of the plant species o Partnership Offices of Agriculture: o Partnership Offices of Agriculture: Endamekoni (Tigray), Basona Worena (Amhara), Lemo (SNNRP) and Sinana (Oromia) Endamekoni (Tigray), Basona Worena (Amhara), Lemo (SNNRP) and Sinana (Oromia) "}],"sieverID":"dffc0733-55dd-4ef8-9bda-f9cc42f2892c","abstract":"Topics of the presentation 1. Introduction 2. Why fodder trees and shrubs? 3. Example of potential fodder trees and shrubs in the Ethiopian highlands 4. Distribution and growing ecology of tree lucerne 5. Tree lucerne action research in Africa RISING sites 6. Establishment of tree lucerne 7. Management of tree lucerne 8. Utilization of tree lucerne 9. Challenges of tree lucerne farming 10.Good tree lucerne farming practices 11.Scaling of tree lucerne 12.Conclusion"}
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{"metadata":{"id":"08ba1a95c80780fcf92690ed604a8b92","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ff280a9d-29e0-4fc0-9975-35c50f7a3a97/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Study #4408 Contributing Projects: • P274 -Scenario-guided policy and investment planning for food-and nutrition-secure futures under climate change","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Outcome story for communications use:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":393,"text":"A growing number of scholars are finding that the anticipation of possible futures can help imagine and set in motion the transformations that are needed to reduce emissions and make societies resilient to climate change. The government of Costa Rica has been experimenting with futuring methods since 2015 in collaboration with CCAFS, when they developed their INDC and has grown a lot in the meantime. Because although the Central American nation is known for its beaches and national parks, it also faces complex challenges in traffic and transport in the greater metropolitan area, and needs to cut back on pesticide use and other unsustainable farming techniques. During 2020, feeling committed to increase the ambition of their NDC, Costa Rica used several ways to explore the effectiveness of climate actions under a large amount of future scenarios, and what measures to take if things don´t work out as planned. The Ministry of Environment (MINAE) teamed up with two national universities, UCI and UCR, to take up the task. What resulted was a highly participatory process where qualitative and quantitative methods complemented each other, which in turn lead to an NDC with increased ambition, rooted in fundamental values of climate justice. In the middle of the pandemic, stakeholders from all ages and backgrounds were brought together in virtual workshops to talk about the future. These were facilitated by UCI, partner of CCAFS, in close collaboration with MINAE. They identified what contextual drivers in or outside Costa Rica could positively or negatively influence the countries´ability to reach climate goals; how land use would change over time; if nature and biodiversity would be integrated in society as a whole or protected exclusively in national parks; how water resources would be managed, and if countries in the region would collaborate or have conflicts. Together they made stories about the future that discussed these uncertainties, and used the scenarios to critically discuss and robust the countries´intended measures to reduce emissions and increase resilience to climate change . UCR developed an open access model to run thousands of climate, energy, land and water scenarios. This enabled the quantification of possible results of different climate measures to understand which measures are most likely to give the most results in terms of climate resilience and mitigation. The combination of these two approaches is what led to Costa Rica´s enhanced scenario guided NDC."}]},{"head":"Links to any communications materials relating to this outcome:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"• https://tinyurl.com/y232bww8 In 2015, MINAE collaborated with UCI and CCAFS to develop their Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC), presented at the COP21 in Paris. The CCAFS future scenarios methodology allowed MINAE to define a highly ambitious climate goal in participatory and qualitative manner, at a time when national experts did not trust in the quality of national climate data, and extrapolative projections of emission abatement measures were not able to show the ambitious results Costa Rica was planning for [1,2,3]."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"In 2017, MINAE and CCAFS collaborated to support the development of a sectoral agreement between MINAE and the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MAG) to generate enabling conditions that allow the transformation of productive activity into a more resilient and less carbon intensive one [4]. The National Development Plan indicated the agreement as crucial to achieve the NDC goals [5,6]."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"In 2020, CCAFS and UCI supported MINAE to design and facilitate a participatory consultation to enhance Costa Rica´s NDC [8,9]. The process consisted of 21 online workshops with all NDC sectors. More than 350 stakeholders participated from the public, private sector, civil society, NGO´s and academia, 55% women, and 26% younger than 30. Using a novel scenarios methodology Twnety-five experts of key climate change organisations were trained by UCI in the development of future scenarios to help facilitate workshops. These installed capacities will enable MINAE to organise iterative sessions every few years to anticipate futures and adjust climate measures as needed, as part of their National Ambition Cycle, developed in 2021."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Elaboration of Outcome/Impact Statement: CCAFS and the University of International Cooperation (UCI) have collaborated with the Ministry of Environment and Energy of Costa Rica (MINAE) for 5 years to support the country in the definition and achievement of ambitious climate goals. "},{"text":" [9], stakeholders developed multiple sets of future scenarios based on contextual uncertainties that could influence Costa Rica´s ability to reach climate goals. They critically discussed and tested the countriesí ntended measures for climate action in the future scenarios. Recommendations of improvement were given to robust climate measures, considering what could go wrong and what could thrive climate action in these future worlds. The final NDC document [5] was published on 28 December 2020, mentioning the future scenarios methodology used [5:p95]. ]. All workshop recordings and materials used during the process are displayed on the MINAE website [10]. The 2020 NDC emphasizes several key aspects derived from the scenario guided consultation process. "},{"text":"CGIAR system level reporting Link to Common Results Reporting Indicator of Policies : Yes Policies contribution • https://tinyurl.com/y4dchecz • https://tinyurl.com/y4dchecz • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jYcaa6Ql5uc • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jYcaa6Ql5uc • https://tinyurl.com/yxcu3z3o • https://tinyurl.com/yxcu3z3o • https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/115529 • https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/115529 • https://tinyurl.com/yxf5chx9 • https://tinyurl.com/yxf5chx9 • https://tinyurl.com/yyns5ore • https://tinyurl.com/yyns5ore • https://minae.go.cr/noticias-minae/comunicados/124-ndc • https://minae.go.cr/noticias-minae/comunicados/124-ndc • https://tinyurl.com/yycjqubn • https://tinyurl.com/yycjqubn Part II: Part II: "}],"sieverID":"6ca5b970-875f-44c5-81c6-8bd5cbdf1524","abstract":"The Ministry of Environment and Energy (MINAE) used CCAFS's future scenarios methodology to enhance the country's NDC. University for International Cooperation (UCI) designed and facilitated an online participatory consultation and over 350 stakeholders participated to develop sets of future scenarios based on contextual uncertainties that could positively or negatively influence Costa Rica´s ability to reach climate goals. These scenarios were used in all NDC sectors to discuss and improve the country's plans to reduce emissions and increase climate change resilience."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"090bd29701e5f2ecd6bf60562b7b74b3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b653745b-5ed7-405d-b3c8-39373d885655/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"The impact of participation in Diversity Field Fora on farmer management of millet and sorghum varieties in Mali","keywords":["farmer field school","sorghum","millet","landraces","participatory crop improvement","Mali Bioversity International Via dei Tre Denari, 472/a,"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Malian farmers have accumulated knowledge of millet and sorghum management that spans millennia. Pearl millet and sorghum are known to have been domesticated in multiple locations scattered across the Sahel -then savanna and now the border of the Sahara (Harlan, 1992). Archaeological evidence suggests that economies based on cattle, goats, sorghum and pearl millet were established in this region between 5,000 and 3,000 years ago (Smith, 1998)."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"Sorghum and millet are still the major crops of Mali, grown by subsistence oriented producers in an agricultural sector that is almost entirely rainfed. National average yields for both crops are less than one ton per hectare (Touré et al., 2006). For the Malian agricultural sector in general, the most binding constraint is the infertility and unsuitable structure of the soil, which in turn impedes moisture retention in zones with limited rainfall. The first devastating drought in a series occurred from 1968 to 1973. The 1982-1993 period was persistently dry and marked by another severe drought from 1982 to 1984. Although there was more rainfall during the 1994-2003 decade, conditions remained far drier than they had been from 1930 to 1965 (Anyamba and Tucker, 2005)."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"Low yields are often attributed in part to low rates of adoption of improved seed. The most recent draft Agricultural Census reports that the proportion of the area under cereals with improved seed does not exceed 10%. By contrast, 89% of the area is under industrial crops with improved seed (BCRA, 2006). Improved varieties of sorghum have been more widely adopted than improved varieties of millet (BCRA, 2006)."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"Low adoption rates have in turn been blamed on poor performance of the formal seed system. Despite an ongoing process of seed sector reform, liberalization of seed markets for sorghum and millet has not advanced as rapidly as liberalization of grain markets (Vitale and Bessler, 2006;Diakité et al., 2008). The formal seed sectors for sorghum and millet continue to be largely state run, with some participation by registered farmer cooperatives in multiplying seed. So far, commercialization of farmer-produced seed on more than a pilot scale has posed an insuperable challenge."},{"index":5,"size":158,"text":"Surpassing the performance of farmers' own millet and sorghum landraces is not easy. International and national research centers accelerated breeding efforts from 1973, but new cultivars in the dry savannas made little impact on yields (Sanders et al., 1996). Of the improved varieties that performed well on research stations during that period, few performed better than landraces on farms, for several reasons. To start with, the imported breeding material was unsuitable. Initially, an emphasis was placed on material that was successful in India but was not adapted to the high soil temperatures in the Sahel (Matlon, 1987). Local sorghum and millet varieties also have photoperiodicity, which enables plants to adjust the length of the growth cycle to synchronize with the length of the rainy season. Unfortunately, early selection programs, combined with the effects of drought, led to the gradual elimination of photoperiodism in favor of a range of varieties with short, fixed cycle lengths (Vaksmann et al., 1996)."},{"index":6,"size":132,"text":"These shortcomings have since been overcome by international and national breeding programs (Weltzien et al., 2006), but challenges remain. Attaining more than marginal changes in yield is difficult without hybrids, but while promising materials are in the pipeline, none have yet been released for either sorghum or pearl millet. The tremendous variation in climate, soils and production systems means that the degree of plant stress is not only high but also extremely variable within and among fields in close proximity. It takes time for farmers to recognize whether or not a new variety has advantages, which is one argument for farmer participation in testing and evaluation. In addition, decreasing public funds have meant that no breeding is conducted for some agro-ecologies, including that of Douentza, where part of this survey was conducted."},{"index":7,"size":241,"text":"Thus there is no consensus about whether it is lack of effective demand or supply that constrains farmer use of certified sorghum and millet seed. Because the private sector has not taken responsibility for seed distribution, and the public sector has failed to supply improved seed in reasonable quantities, some researchers have also called for strengthening the informal seed system (De Vries and Toenniessen, 2001), but knowledge about how this may be done is only beginning to emerge. Diakité et al. (2005), Bazile (2006) and Weltzien et al. (2006) recommend greater involvement of farmer and community organizations in testing and evaluating improved varieties, coupled with decentralized seed production to reduce the time lag between variety development and adoption, and to reach more remote areas. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the impact of one such participatory research effort. Diversity Field Fora, which bear some similarities to farmer field schools, have been launched in Mali on a pilot scale. Given the small scale and brief history of the Diversity Field Fora in Mali, and the statistical approach we use to address possible biases, this analysis focuses on measurable, short-term impacts. The findings shed light on the potential of the approach, but should not be understood as a comprehensive evaluation. The next section summarizes key features of the project and Diversity Field Fora, Section 3 describes the methodology used to evaluate impact, Section 4 interprets the findings, and Section 5 concludes."}]},{"head":". Project description","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Background","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"The project entitled 'Empowering Sahelian farmers to leverage their crop diversity assets for enhanced livelihood strategies' 1 was funded by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) from 2005, coordinated by Bioversity International (previously, the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, IPGRI) and implemented by a combination « Projet de renforcement des capacités des agriculteurs sahéliens pour une meilleure gestion des ressources phylogénétiques en vue d'améliorer leurs conditions de vie » of local, national and international organizations. This second phase built on an earlier IFAD-financed project, conducted from 1999 to 2002 in Mali and Zimbabwe, which focused on the development of participatory strategies for on-farm (in situ) conservation of millet, sorghum and other crops. In the interim, IFAD also funded some farmer field school activities in the village of Boumboro, which became the locus of the San/Tominian project site during the second phase."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"The goal of the second phase was to support the livelihood strategies of poor farmers in Mali by strengthening their capacity to manage their plant genetic resources. The findings of the earlier project demonstrated the importance of plant genetic resources in the livelihoods of Sahelian farmers. These farmers must be able to meet their staple food needs directly from their harvests in an exceedingly challenging growing environment -or migrate. Well-adapted, diverse local landraces supply them with a range of consumption attributes that are important for preparing local dishes and other end uses, and enable them to match their varieties to heterogeneous moisture and soil conditions and to smooth labor needs over the growing season. Genetic diversity also helps combat the risk of crop losses from biotic and abiotic stresses -the most pressing of which is the variability of rainfall and dry periods at critical points of plant growth."}]},{"head":"Diversity Field Fora","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"In the first phase of the project, several activities were identified to support the management of crop genetic resources in farming communities. The most sustained and comprehensive of these was the notion of Diversity Field Fora (Champs de Diversité, or DFF), which built on the concept of farmer field schools."},{"index":2,"size":177,"text":"Farmer field schools are an adult education method developed and widely promoted in Asia to teach integrated pest management practices to groups of farmers. While there is considerable variation in form and content, the basic approach involves teaching farmers how to solve problems, set priorities and conduct experimental research through facilitated, hands-on sessions in fields allocated by the farming community for study. Reviews of the evidence for the impacts of farmer field schools suggest that they have not translated into changes beyond local communities, that they tend to favor the more privileged farmers in those communities (Davis, 2006), and that they provide an unlikely basis for sustained, group activity (Tripp et al., 2005). Tripp et al. (2005:1718) express concern that the assessment of farmer field schools has been 'insufficient ', and Van der Berg and Jiggins (2007) explain that the methodology for evaluating their impact is still under development, and is characterized by a tension between statistical rigor, which implies a narrow focus, and comprehensiveness, which leads to a diversity of impact indicators and definitions of impact."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"In this project, experiments in enhancing knowledge of crop genetic resources were designed and conducted by villagers, with technical support from the project staff, on land distributed for that purpose by villagers. Farmers studied both modern varieties and landraces. As defined in project documents, DFF encompass a combination of educational activities, action research and training. They aim to strengthen the capacity of farmers to understand, analyze and manage their own plant genetic resources, by creating a physical space that facilitates the exchange of ideas among farmers, extension agents and researchers and stimulates farmer experimentation."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"The choice of project sites was guided by two fundamental criteria of location: they had to be in the drier savannas and in an area served by an IFAD investment program. Other criteria for village selection included considerations of feasibility, such as road access to the villages, willingness of farmers and leaders to participate in the project, social cohesion and availability of plots for experimental purposes. These criteria generate an obvious, but unavoidable, placement bias that limits the extent to which findings from this study can be generalized."},{"index":5,"size":118,"text":"The two project sites studied here are separated by at least 400 km along a northeast transect on the main road from the capital city of Bamako into the Sahara. Each is located in a unique agro-climatic zone and cluster of ethno-linguistic groups. The village of Boumboro, Commune of Mandiakuy, Cercle 2 of Tominian, Region of Segou, is situated in a semiarid, tropical climate with annual rainfall levels of 450 to 600 mm, which places it in the Sahelo-Sudanian zone. Variation in vegetative cover is linked to variation in soils, and the landscape is a mosaic of cultivated woodland savanna, heavily populated by shea nut trees (karité). Bambara and Bobo are the major ethnic groups at this site."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"The village of Petaka, Commune of Petaka, Cercle of Douentza, Region of Mopti, is located in the Sahelian agroclimatic zone, which places it within the 200 and 400 mm isohyets. The zone is composed of a series of rocky plateaus and outcroppings, interspersed with sandy plains, forest cover, cultivated areas and pasture. Villages are located on both the rocky plateaus and the plains. The major ethnic groups in this region are Dogon, Peulh and Sonrhaï."},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"Location is also related to the development of infrastructure and services, which generally declines with distance from Bamako. Boumboro is well served by a nexus of feeder roads linked to the city of San on the main tarmac road. This site is closest to Bamako and has a higher density of large weekly markets and other types of physical infrastructure. The closest town to Petaka is Douentza, which is commercially linked to a nexus of smaller-scale weekly markets that are dispersed in villages with more restricted physical infrastructure."},{"index":8,"size":2,"text":". Methods"}]},{"head":"Evaluating impacts","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The economics literature about evaluating project impacts emphasizes the importance of establishing the appropriate counterfactual. As it is often described, the problem is es-"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"In Mali, a cercle is an administrative unit in a region, followed by the categories of commune and village."},{"index":3,"size":169,"text":"sentially one of missing data: differences between those who participated in a program and those who did not are observable, but it is not possible to observe the status of project participants in the absence of the project. Consequently, differences due to the influence of the project are easily confused with pre-existing differences between participants and non-participants. The term 'selection bias' is often applied to the errors in estimation that result from this dilemma. Several types of selection bias occur. When participation is voluntary, factors that influence the likelihood of participation might also affect the outcome of participation. For example, farmers with more income, assets and access to information may be more likely to decide to participate in a project, and attain higher yields whether they participate or not. In other cases, projects or programs deliberately target certain individuals according to their characteristics, such as income. As noted in this case, projects or programs may also be placed in certain zones or sites because of agro-ecology or infrastructural characteristics."},{"index":4,"size":111,"text":"To reduce selection bias, economists have proposed a class of statistical approaches that are commonly referred to as treatment models. Ravallion (1994) categorizes methods for evaluating project impact in terms of five basic approaches. Each approach involves an attempt to construct a treatment and a control group in such a way that they differ only with respect to the program, mimicking an experimental situation. The treatment group represents participants. The control group represents the status of participants in the absence of the program, and is composed in such a way that it matches or represents the test group as closely as possible -with the exception that its members did not participate."},{"index":5,"size":227,"text":"Each of the five statistical techniques has advantages and disadvantages. With the randomized approach, individuals in each group are chosen at random. This technique eliminates statistical bias but is not always acceptable from a political or social standpoint. After selection, individuals may opt not to participate in ways that are non-random. The matching approach is employed to compose test and control groups by estimating the propensity of individuals to participate based on their characteristics. Scores are sensitive to the model used to construct them, and while individuals may be well matched on observable characteristics, they may still differ in those that have not been recorded, or in unobservable characteristics. Bias caused by differences in unobservable characteristics can be addressed through the double-difference approach, which compares treatment and control groups before and after the treatment. This technique eliminates the effects of unobservable characteristics by comparing net changes in variables between two time periods. Reflexive controls compare the same group before and after the program, but ignore changes induced by factors outside the project, which can lead to false attributions. The instrumental variable approach relies on econometric methods to separate the effects of project participation from those of other factors that influence impact. Identifying valid instrumental variables is the major challenge associated with this method. Valid instrumental variables are those that determine participation but only influence impact through participation."},{"index":6,"size":153,"text":"Only the matching and instrumental variables methods are feasible in the context of this study. An experiment could not be designed given that related project activities in Boumboro were already in the process of implementation, from 2002. The data on which the analysis is based were collected as a statistical baseline with a relatively small sample size and single-period survey because of cost constraints, which precluded either the reflexive or double difference approaches. While feasible, the matching approach is not well-suited to analyzing the impact of this project because specific socioeconomic groups were not targeted. In addition, the impact indicators we use, which are based on the management and use of crop genetic resources, are complex. Handa and Maluccio (2007) conclude that matching is more promising as an approach for evaluating easily measured outcomes, such as those related to child schooling and health, than it is for more complex outcomes, such as expenditures."}]},{"head":"Sample design","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The conceptual approach implies a sample design. The test and the control villages must be as similar as possible with respect to agro-ecology and overarching social, economic and institutional conditions. At each site, both test and control villages are located within the scope of an IFAD project. The same non-governmental organization (NGO) that is active in the test village of a site is also active in the control villages. Ethnic representation is also broadly similar."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"An additional feature of this project is that one means of addressing its goal was to introduce farmers to new cultivars (both landraces and improved varieties) and to facilitate their own experimental processes as well as their informal exchange of seed and seed-related information. Customarily, farmers at the project sites depend on their own harvests or other nearby farmers for their millet and sorghum seed (Sperling et al., 2006;Diakité et al., 2008). Seed transactions most often follow ties of kin and clan, and are shaped by social and cultural norms."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"An effective DFF would lead to dissemination of materials from the locus villages 3 to other villages where farmers have social ties. Of the two locus villages, Boumboro has the longer and more extensive history of project activities."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"Here, staff reported that surrounding villages have been influenced by the project through farmer visits to diversity fields cultivated by participants and farmer-to-farmer exchanges of information and seed. In their study of the effects of health programs designed to reduce intestinal worms in school children, Miguel and Kremer (2004) refer to such patterns as 'treatment externalities'."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"To address these externalities, we included in the treatment group nearby villages from which farmers had been"},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"The locus village is the village where the DFF were held. Test villages include these and villages indirectly affected by the DFF."},{"index":7,"size":51,"text":"invited to observe DFF conducted by farmers in Boumboro. Farmers sampled from these villages were not considered to be participants, however. At the Douentza site, all farmers in the treatment group are from the village of Petaka because DFF activities were much more recent and had not yet involved other villages."},{"index":8,"size":105,"text":"In 2006, in the test villages of Boumboro and Petaka, where DFF had been established, all farmers who were active participants were interviewed. Farmers in other influenced villages near Boumboro were sampled. These and the DFF participants constitute the 'treatment' group. Nonparticipants in both Boumboro and influenced villages were also sampled at random; these constitute the 'control' group. Other than the census of participants, farmers were selected at random until we had a sample of 150 per site, roughly split between control and treatment groups. The control groups include at least three villages per site that had not been invited to demonstrations or field days."},{"index":9,"size":60,"text":"Characteristics of households, farms, seed management, market participation and social capital were collected during 2006, along with yield information by variety. Data on variety attributes and additional yield data were elicited in 2007, when household demographic information was also reconfirmed. Among those households remaining in the sample, there were only a few with significant changes in composition (births and deaths)."},{"index":10,"size":86,"text":"Sample attrition, particularly at the San site, and missing responses on some variables, led to an operational sample size for this analysis of 131 farmers (62 treatment; 69 control) at the San site and 149 (56 treatment; 93 control) at the Douentza site, for a total of 280 farmers. Unfortunately, the San sample originally included some farmers from temporary populations who seek permission from longer established groups to resettle in the area. However, we posit that the remaining sample is representative of the more permanent population."},{"index":11,"size":44,"text":"In order to simplify the text below, 'San site' or 'San' is used to refer to the clusters of test and control villages in the Cercles of San/Tominian and the 'Douentza site' or 'Douentza' refers to the parallel clusters in the Cercle of Douentza."}]},{"head":"Impact indicators","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"Since the goal of the project is to strengthen the management of crop genetic resources, we defined impact indicators related to these resources (Table 1). Stronger management of sorghum and millet varieties is expected to enhance yields and contribute to more diverse crop genetic stocks held in farming communities. We use as indicators 1) expected yields of millet and sorghum in the presence and absence of drought, 2) two-year average yields based on farmer recall, and 3) the total count of the unique production and consumption attributes supplied by the millet and sorghum varieties held in stock at the time of the survey. In addition, we construct measures of relative deprivation based on these variables. An indicator of inequality, relative deprivation, compares the standing of participants relative to others."},{"index":2,"size":236,"text":"The first two outcome variables are yield measurements. Expected yields are calculated from triangular distributions. The triangular distribution is often used as a subjective description of a population for which there is only limited sample data, and especially in cases where the relationship between variables is known but data is scarce. Elicited in terms of only three parameters (the minimum, maximum and mode), the triangular distribution is the simplest approximation to a normal distribution and has been widely applied in analysis of farmer decision making under risk (Hardaker et al., 2004). Yields are highly variable from yearto-year in this growing environment, and expected yields have the advantage that they include the history of the farmers' experience with variety. Although these are subjective rather than objective measurements of yields (typically undertaken by weighing the harvest of the crop cut from subplots placed in the field), social scientists often argue that it is the perception of the farmer that drives his or her decisions and is thus the relevant point of reference. This project is focused heavily on farmers' perceptions and knowledge systems. Furthermore, low heritability in this production environment also means that a yield measurement taken in one field or point in time will provide limited information. The survey team also elicited yields that were based on farmers' recall of 2006 and 2007 harvests, but these were Table 1. Definition of impact indicators used in this study."}]},{"head":"Indicator of Impact Definition","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Expected yields ="},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"Where i indexes variety grown, α is the proportion of the crop area planted to the variety, δ is the probability the variety is affected by drought, and a,b, and c are the parameters of the triangular distribution (the minimum, maximum, and mode) variety yields. The superscript 1 refers to a drought year and 0 to a year without drought. See Hardaker et al. (2004). not thought to be representative. Yields in Douentza, for example, were extremely low due to locust infestation in some villages. Nonetheless, we have also included these as outcome variables."}]},{"head":"Stock of attributes","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Each farmer surveyed was asked, for each variety grown, the minimum, maximum and mode production from all plots under that variety, in years with and without drought. These were divided by plot area to obtain minimum, maximum and mode yields. To estimate the probability of drought stress, farmers were asked to report the number of years they had grown each variety and the number of years of drought stress during that period. The minimum, maximum and most frequent (mode) yields were then elicited for years with and without drought stress. Unconditional expected yields were calculated on the basis of the probabilities of each type of year and corresponding yield estimates. The average unconditional expected yield per farm was calculated by multiplying each variety's unconditional expected yield by that variety's proportion of total crop area (see equation in Table 1)."},{"index":2,"size":155,"text":"The third outcome variable, the count of unique production and consumption attributes, is a rough indicator of the perceived 'richness' of traits and uses embedded in the seed stored on the farm at the time of the survey. Farmers were asked to list all millet and sorghum varieties in stock and, for each variety, to list production characteristics and consumption uses. From farmers' responses, a common 'spanning set' of production traits and consumption uses was identified. For millet and then for sorghum, each was counted only once for all varieties stocked by each farm household. This indicator recognizes that subsistence oriented farmers manage a set of varieties to address a complex combination of needs and constraints and that, typically, no single variety meets all their needs (Bellon, 1996). Thus, researchers have hypothesized that farmers with multiple objectives, and particularly those who cannot easily achieve their objectives by trading in markets, will manage more diverse varieties."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"Other indicators are based on the concept of relative deprivation -a measure of inequality that has been applied in studies of migrant laborers (Stark and Taylor, 1989). Recently, this concept was applied in a study of hybrid banana adoption by Edmeades et al. (2008). An index was constructed for expected millet yields, expected sorghum yields, and the count of unique variety attributes. The index compares the status of each farm in the sample to all other farms at that project site, and is constructed by weighting the mean of all individuals with higher status by their sample proportion. The larger the number, the greater the relative deprivation of a farm with respect to the characteristic in question."}]},{"head":"Econometric model","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Instrumental variables regression can be used to explain variation in impact indicators among household farms while controlling for the effects of underlying observable and unobservable factors. Instrumental variables models are special cases of simultaneous regression models in which the causality of the relationship is recursive but the inter-relationship among the error terms of the two equations is explicit. In this case, participation affects outcome variables but outcome variables do not affect participation."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"The general form of the instrumental variables model is"},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"where the dependent variables include y, which measures participation, which is an endogenous regressor, and z, which measures the impacts of participation. The vector x 1 represents a set of explanatory variables that influence both participation and impacts, and the vector x 2 includes instrumental variables that explain participation only. The error terms of the equations, v and µ, have means of zero but are correlated."},{"index":4,"size":130,"text":"In this analysis, participation is a dichotomous variable (1=participation, 0 else). Angrist (1999) has shown that in models with dummy endogenous variables and nonnegative outcome variables, if the focus of the analysis is to estimate the causal effects of treatment rather than the magnitude of structural parameters, a number of simple strategies, such as two-stage least squares, can be applied. Two-stage least squares produces consistent estimators of the 'local average treatment effect' that are less sensitive to assumptions about functional form than probit or logit (Angrist and Krueger, 2001:77). To improve the efficiency of estimation when heteroskedasticity is present, the generalized method of moments is recommended. Standard diagnostic statistics include tests of a) the endogeneity of the first-stage dependent variable, b) the relevance of the instruments, and c) model identification."},{"index":5,"size":240,"text":"Explanatory variables (x 1 ) that are common to both the participation and impact equation represent components of the 'asset pentagon', as conceptualized in the project according to the basic livelihoods framework. Human capital is measured in terms of the ratio of economically active persons to the total number of persons in the farm. 4 The age limit for the numerator was arbitrarily set at 12 years of age (adulthood). The total value of livestock and material assets inventoried by the patriarch of the farm is the indicator of farm physical capital. Variables for human capital and farm physical capital were both highly correlated with total land area, suggesting that farm production is based on fairly fixed proportions of these three critical inputs (use of purchased inputs is negligible). Financial capital is represented by per capita cash income, calculated as the total annual expenditures for the farm divided by farm size. In this type of agricultural economy, where savings are in the form of land, livestock or other material assets, eliciting cash expenditure is thought to generate less bias than eliciting income. Enumerators asked the patriarch of the farm to report expenditures by category. The total number of unique associations All human capital variables were inter-correlated (age and education of the household head, number of adult women, number of adult men, number of household members with any education), and the active ratio was the least correlated with other explanatory variables."},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"to which any member of the farm belongs is used as an indicator of social capital."},{"index":7,"size":109,"text":"Other key explanatory factors are those related to treatment, site and orientation of production. The site variable represents major differences in agro-ecology, ethnicity and social structure, but also in market infrastructure. The treatment variable controls for indirect effects of the project in the locus villages and other test villages. 5 Specialization of production in one target crop rather than another is expressed in the share of target crop area allocated to millet. Target crops include millet, sorghum and cowpea. The target crop area was summed over plots where these crops were the principal or sole crop. Very few plots were planted to cowpea as the principal or sole crop."},{"index":8,"size":137,"text":"The last variable related to orientation of production is the number of markets in which household members buy or sell millet or sorghum. Since these are not commercial farming operations, no certified seed is sold in markets, and other purchased inputs are rarely used, the count of markets has no direct relationship to expected yields. In a commercial farming system, a direct relationship between variety choice (a modern variety, for example) and market involvement might be expected. Nevertheless, we hypothesize that market involvement may relate to the desire of household members to procure and test new materials in DFF, either because they sell, or because they are food-deficit, i.e. they produce less than their food requirements, or because there are unobservable factors that cause a farmer to seek information, whether in village markets or in project activities."},{"index":9,"size":67,"text":"Although it would have been preferable to estimate separate models for the direct and spillover effects of the DFF on farmers, it was not possible for the survey team to identify the individual farmers from other villages who had procured seed when visiting Boumboro. This would have required close monitoring over time by a member of the DFF, which must be built into the original research design."},{"index":10,"size":89,"text":"Instrumental variables (x 2 ) are those that affect participation but have no effect on impacts other than through participation, and are uncorrelated with the error terms of the impacts equation. These variables are 1) whether or not the patriarch has a Koranic education (instead of, or in addition to, public school attendance), and 2) the binary variable 'treatment' which controls for the indirect effects of the project. The variable 'Koranic education' is not highly correlated with any of the outcome variables (correlation coefficient range from -0.02 to 0.37)."},{"index":11,"size":110,"text":"Explanatory variables are defined in Table 2, and means and standard deviations of explanatory variables are shown in Table 3. The null hypothesis that variable means are equal between test and control villages cannot be rejected at the 0.05 level of significance, although p-values are significant at the 0.10 level for total asset value and number of markets at the San site, and millet share and number of markets at the Douentza site. Additional comparisons of sample characteristics in the project baseline document 6 indicate few statistically significant differences with respect to human, farm physical, financial and social capital between the treatment and control groups, with important differences between sites."},{"index":12,"size":56,"text":"Differences in outcome variables by treatment and control group are pronounced at the San site for all outcome variables except average millet and sorghum yields in 2005-06. At Douentza, statistically significant differences are apparent only for expected millet yields and relative deprivation with respect to millet yields. The 2005 season was an Available from the authors. "}]},{"head":"I M PA C T A S S E S S M E N T D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"outlier due to heavy locust infestation, and these farmers (primarily Dogon) are quintessential millet growers."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":". Findings"}]},{"head":"Instrumental variables regression","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"The findings of the first-stage regressions are presented in Table 4 for millet growers. 7 As expected, given the higher rates of participation at the San site and longer project involvement, location at the Douentza site reduces the chances that a farm household will include a DFF participant. Economically active human capital in the farm household bears no direct relationship to DFF participation. Farm households that are wealthier in terms of farm physical capital are more likely to participate. Greater specialization in millet than in sorghum increases the chances a farmer will participate in a DFF. This may be because millet was more widely grown at both sites, or because fewer improved millet varieties than sorghum varieties have been released at the sites -with the result that farmers are in search of new materials and means of improving their own. Social capital positively influences participation -these farm households have a propensity to engage in local associations. Similarly, participants sell or purchase the target crops in a larger number of markets"},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Probit and linear probability first-stage regressions are shown in the Appendix. They are similar with respect to statistically significant causal factors (site, total asset value, per capita cash income, markets). "}]},{"head":"I M PA C T A S S E S S M E N T D I S C U S S I O N PA P E R","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"than non-participants, other factors being held constant. The first-stage regression is the same regardless of the outcome variable, since DFF included both sorghum and millet related activities. Second-stage regression results for each impact indicator are displayed in Table 5. Taking into account underlying observable and unobservable factors that predict participation in DFF, participation influences all the outcome variables with a high degree of statistical significance except average recalled sorghum yields."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Location at the Douentza site offsets estimated yield impacts, but augments stock of attributes and further reduces relative deprivation. The pervasive harshness of this environment, combined with the social structure of the Dogon, is a strong leveler of inequality. The greater degree of selfreliance makes it important for farmers to stock the varieties with attributes that span both their consumption and production needs."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"While being wealthier enhances the likelihood of participation, it has a negative impact on yields per hectare once participation has been considered -perhaps because these factors are associated with a more extensive operation and crop area that are harder to manage as effectively. As expected, specialization in millet positively influences recalled millet yield, and negatively influences recalled sorghum yield and the total stock of attributes. Per capita cash income is statistically significant only in the recalled millet yield re-gression, and social capital is insignificant in explaining outcomes once DFF participation has been taken into account. Market participation is significant only in the expected millet yield and deprivation model."},{"index":4,"size":160,"text":"In all except the expected millet yield and attribute stock regressions, the null hypothesis of homoskedasticity was rejected and the regression was estimated with GMM (Generalized Method of Moments), so that robust standard errors are reported. The Hausman test led to rejection of the hypothesis that DFF participation is exogenous in all cases except the regressions for expected sorghum yields and the relative deprivation with respect to the stock of attributes. The Anderson canonical correlation statistic based on the first-stage regression is highly significant, supporting the relevance of the instruments. The values of the Sargan statistic (in the presence of homoskedasticity) or Hansen J statistic (in the presence of heteroskedasticity) results in failure to reject the null hypothesis for each of the outcome equations. Thus, the instruments in the first-stage regression are uncorrelated with the error term in the second-stage regression. Rejection of the null hypothesis would have indicated either a misspecification of the second-stage regression or an invalid instrument."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"Three caveats are important to remember in interpreting findings. The first is that while we assert that use of longerterm, subjective yields is more reliable than actual recent yields, it is evident that these variables measure primarily Note: In all cases except mean yields and stocks of attributes, the null hypothesis of homoskedasticity was rejected and the regression was estimated with GMM. For GMM, standard errors are robust. P-values are reported under the estimated regression coefficient."},{"index":6,"size":73,"text":"changes in perceptions. They are not highly correlated with average yields based on recall, which is to be expected given the year-to-year variability in rainfall conditions and the fact that 2005 was an outlier season at the Douentza site. In Boumboro, the project has been operational from 1999 -but not so in Petaka -where project impacts are not evident for either expected and recalled yields once other variables have been taken into account."},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"In addition, it is important to recognize that unobservable factors may explain both the decision to participate and yield expectations, which would contribute to an upward bias in estimated coefficients. Finally, the wide variation in average yields among villages, combined with the fact that most long-term participants live in Boumboro, means that the coefficient on DFF impact transmits a strong village-specific effect. 8 As recommended by Angrist, it is the significance of the coefficient (causality) rather than its magnitude that should be emphasized when interpreting the regression results."}]},{"head":"Post-estimation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Figure 1 compares the cumulative density function (cdfs) of predicted values of expected millet yields. Predicted values account for selection bias by incorporating the effects of factors that explain why DFF participants participate. As compared to the mean values shown in the regression results, the cdfs portray project impacts over the full range of predicted values. The graphs support the hypothesis that conditions are less risky for farmers in treatment villages than in control villages. For every predicted value of expected millet yields, the probability that a farm household will harvest less is lower in treatment villages than in control villages. Expected millet yields in treatment villages dominate in the first-order stochastic sense: any farm household in a treatment village, whether neutral to or averse to risk, is better off."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"The descriptive statistics shown in the Appendix suggest that while the only explanatory variable that differs between Boumboro and other treatments villages is market participation, most of the outcome variables differ significantly."},{"index":3,"size":140,"text":"Similar comparisons were made for predicted values of relative deprivation with respect to expected yields. In this case, households are worse off with higher values, which imply greater relative deprivation. A cdf lying entirely to the left for test as compared to control villages suggests that the probability of being more deprived relative to other households is always less in test villages -an improvement in status. The cdfs of relative deprivation dominate stochastically in the first-order sense for expected millet yields in treatment villages of the San site (Figure 2), but not for expected sorghum yields; at the Douentza site, they dominate for sorghum yields in the treatment villages but not for expected millet yields. For both crops at both sites, from the perspective of farmers' yield expectations, conditions are not always better in treatment villages than in control villages."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"Figures were not reported for all outcome variables because of space limitations. In the case of sorghum, while the cdfs for expected yields do not cross, they lie tangent to one another at some points. First-order stochastic dominance is also evident for the total count of attributes. For each predicted total count of attributes, the chances are smaller that a farm household in a treatment village will possess fewer attributes."}]},{"head":". Conclusions","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Despite continued progress in breeding improved sorghum and millet varieties, and the gradual process of seed sector reform, adoption rates are often considered to be relatively low in Mali -a nation whose rural population has depended on sorghum and millet for millennia. Some researchers have recommended more involvement of farmers themselves in evaluating and disseminating promising varieties. This paper has evaluated a pilot effort to involve farmers through Diversity Field Fora, which build on the concepts of farmer field schools. DFF aim to strengthen farmers' capacity to manage diverse millet and sorghum varieties, thereby improving productivity."},{"index":2,"size":245,"text":"Regression results concur with previous assessments of farmer field schools in demonstrating that participants in DFF are more likely to possess more social and farm physical capital than non-participants. Participation has a positive impact on expected sorghum and millet yields, recalled millet yields and the stock of variety attributes, enhancing participants' standing relative to other farmers at the project site with respect to these impact indicators. Farmers in treatment villages are better off in terms of expected yields and attribute stocks throughout the range of predicted values. A significantly higher probability of participation at the San site, combined with the regression and descriptive results, indicates that the impacts of DFF were principally observed at this site in the village of Boumboro, where local field staff have been continuously engaged for a much longer period of time. However, inequality with respect to millet and sorghum crop genetic resources appears to be greater at the San site than at Douentza. Two policy points with respect to DFF emerge from these findings. First, long-term commitment to fostering local leadership and capacity is likely to be a key factor in achieving impacts with this type of extension approach. The local leader at the San site has been trained on site and abroad, and has established his own NGO in surrounding communities. Second, for precisely this reason, it will be difficult to scale up impacts from one village to many without supporting, coordinated investments by national public institutions and donors."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"This analysis has focused on statistical methods that reduce bias and the measurable, immediate impacts of DFF. Although farmer selection bias associated with participation has been taken into account, the findings cannot be generalized to other communities unless these communities conform to the criteria used to select sites. A more comprehensive evaluation, which would require the application of additional analytical approaches over a longer time period and in multiple locations -is not yet justified by the amount of funds invested in DFF nationwide. As more participatory research efforts are undertaken in Mali, however, these evaluations will be crucial. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Count of unique production and consumption attributes of all millet and sorghum varieties held in stock in 2006Relative deprivation of farm household j with respect to variable Y =AD(Y j ) P(Y j ) , where AD(Y j ) is the mean of the variable Y for all farm households in the site with values higher than household j, and P(Y j ) is the proportion represented by those households. Y in this study = expected yield of millet and sorghum, and stock of attributes. SeeStark and Taylor (1989) and application byEdmeades et al. (2008). "},{"text":"Figure 1 .Figure 2 . Figure 1. Cumulative density function of predicted values of expected millet yields, in the presence and absence of drought. "},{"text":"Table 2 . Definition of explanatory variables. Explanatory variable Conceptual variable Operational variable Explanatory variableConceptual variableOperational variable Site Agroecology, Ethnicity, 0=San site SiteAgroecology, Ethnicity,0=San site Market infrastructure 1 =Douentza site Market infrastructure1 =Douentza site Treatment Experimental design 0=Control village TreatmentExperimental design0=Control village 1=Treatment village 1=Treatment village Active ratio Human capital Ratio of economically active persons (>12 years of age) to total number of Active ratioHuman capitalRatio of economically active persons (>12 years of age) to total number of persons in the production unit persons in the production unit Asset value Farm physical capital Total value of livestock and material assets (FCFA) Asset valueFarm physical capitalTotal value of livestock and material assets (FCFA) Millet share Specialization in millet vs Proportion of total crop area planted to millet Millet shareSpecialization in millet vsProportion of total crop area planted to millet other target crops other target crops Per capita income Financial capital Total expenditures per year in FCFA in production unit divided by total Per capita incomeFinancial capitalTotal expenditures per year in FCFA in production unit divided by total number of persons number of persons Association membership Social capital Total number of associations in which a members of production unit Association membershipSocial capitalTotal number of associations in which a members of production unit participates participates Markets Market participation Number of markets in which members of production unit sell or purchase MarketsMarket participationNumber of markets in which members of production unit sell or purchase millet or sorghum millet or sorghum Koranic education Instrument Whether or not the patriarch of the production unit has a Koranic Koranic educationInstrumentWhether or not the patriarch of the production unit has a Koranic education, either instead of or in addition to a public school education education, either instead of or in addition to a public school education FCFA = Franc Communauté Financière Africaine FCFA = Franc Communauté Financière Africaine "},{"text":"Table 3 . Comparison of means, explanatory and outcome variables, by site, treatment and control villages. San site Douentza site San siteDouentza site Mean (control Mean (test P-value Mean (control Mean (test P-value Mean (controlMean (testP-value Mean (controlMean (testP-value village) village) village) village) village)village)village)village) Explanatory variables Explanatory variables Active ratio 0.596 0.633 0.3896 0.5970 0.620 0.2434 Active ratio0.5960.6330.38960.59700.6200.2434 Total asset value 737700 879888 0.0928 485178 558901 0.4588 Total asset value7377008798880.09284851785589010.4588 Millet share 0.529 0.523 0.6785 0.867 0.891 0.0772 Millet share0.5290.5230.67850.8670.8910.0772 Per capita income 33892 37435 0.5098 23814 26130 0.2260 Per capita income33892374350.509823814261300.2260 Association membership 1.55 1.64 0.1326 2.26 2.07 0.3669 Association membership1.551.640.13262.262.070.3669 Markets 1.16 1.27 0.0880 2.33 2.04 0.1081 Markets1.161.270.08802.332.040.1081 Koranic education 0.318 0.258 0.4541 1.92 2.44 0.1543 Koranic education0.3180.2580.45411.922.440.1543 Outcome variables Outcome variables Expected millet yields 331 609 0.0001 107 57.3 0.001 Expected millet yields3316090.000110757.30.001 Expected sorghum yields 607 874 0.0141 194 216 0.5081 Expected sorghum yields6078740.01411942160.5081 Mean millet yield 2005-06 908 1114 0.7106 766 799 1.000 Mean millet yield 2005-0690811140.71067667991.000 Mean sorghum yield 2005-06 771 795 0.9926 241 314 0.589 Mean sorghum yield 2005-06 7717950.99262413140.589 Stock of attributes 25.8 30.0 0.0001 25.9 25.9 0.1305 Stock of attributes25.830.00.000125.925.90.1305 Relative deprivation (expected 200 364 0.0001 72.81 40.5 0.0001 Relative deprivation (expected2003640.000172.8140.50.0001 millet yields) millet yields) Relative deprivation (expected 535 433 0.0147 134 126 0.4995 Relative deprivation (expected5354330.01471341260.4995 sorghum yields) sorghum yields) Relative deprivation (stock of 18.5 11.4 0.0001 13.6 15.7 0.1665 Relative deprivation (stock of18.511.40.000113.615.70.1665 attributes) attributes) "},{"text":"Table 4 . First stage regression results, determinants of DFF participation. Standard Standard Coefficient error P value CoefficienterrorP value site -0.2126 0.0452 0.0000 site-0.21260.04520.0000 active ratio -0.0183 0.0918 0.8420 active ratio-0.01830.09180.8420 asset value 0.0000 0.0000 0.0870 asset value0.00000.00000.0870 millet share 0.2546 0.0909 0.0060 millet share0.25460.09090.0060 per capita cash income 0.0000 0.0000 0.1090 per capita cash income 0.00000.00000.1090 numassoc 0.1068 0.0242 0.0000 numassoc0.10680.02420.0000 markets 0.0739 0.0177 0.0000 markets0.07390.01770.0000 edukoran -0.0035 0.0060 0.5620 edukoran-0.00350.00600.5620 treatment 0.2701 0.0357 0.0000 treatment0.27010.03570.0000 constant -0.1664 0.1105 0.1330 constant-0.16640.11050.1330 Test statistic P value Test statistic P value F(9, 255) 12.06 0.0000 F(9, 255)12.060.0000 Centered R2 0.30 Centered R20.30 Uncentered R2 0.37 Uncentered R20.37 Root MSE 0.25 Root MSE0.25 Shea partial R2 of 0.18 Shea partial R2 of0.18 excluded instruments excluded instruments F(2, 255) of excluded 28.8 0.0000 F(2, 255) of excluded28.80.0000 instruments instruments Anderson canonical 48.9 0.0000 Anderson canonical48.90.0000 correlation coefficient correlation coefficient "},{"text":"Table 5 . Second stage regression, impact of farm household participation in DFFs on crop genetic resource management. Mean Mean Expected Mean millet sorghum Relative Relative Relative ExpectedMean milletsorghumRelativeRelativeRelative Expected sorghum yield yield Stock of deprivation deprivation deprivation ExpectedsorghumyieldyieldStock ofdeprivationdeprivationdeprivation millet yield yield (2005-06) (2005-06) attributes (millet) (sorghum) (attributes) millet yieldyield(2005-06)(2005-06)attributes(millet)(sorghum)(attributes) cd 364 543 463 321 5.76 -205 -212 -8.01 cd3645434633215.76-205-212-8.01 0.0000 0.0040 0.0040 0.1060 0.0060 0.0000 0.0020 0.0220 0.00000.00400.00400.10600.00600.00000.00200.0220 site -331 -683 -539 -409 1.61 -347 -462 -5.27 site-331-683-539-4091.61-347-462-5.27 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.1780 0.0000 0.0000 0.0010 0.00000.00000.00000.00000.17800.00000.00000.0010 active ratio -155 -162 -39.0 2.660 0.949 63.9 47.2 -0.154 active ratio-155-162-39.02.6600.94963.947.2-0.154 0.1190 0.3380 0.8680 0.9850 0.6310 0.1090 0.4020 0.9570 0.11900.33800.86800.98500.63100.10900.40200.9570 asset value -0.0000388 -0.0000558 -0.0004070 -0.0001920 0.000000253 0.0000167 0.0000179 0.000000367 asset value-0.0000388 -0.0000558 -0.0004070 -0.0001920 0.000000253 0.00001670.00001790.000000367 0.1000 0.0800 0.0000 0.0000 0.5580 0.1050 0.1000 0.4510 0.10000.08000.00000.00000.55800.10500.10000.4510 millet share -55.0 209 659 -682 -8.21 33.5 -74.1 10.2 millet share-55.0209659-682-8.2133.5-74.110.2 0.6270 0.2660 0.0040 0.0000 0.0000 0.4650 0.2230 0.0000 0.62700.26600.00400.00000.00000.46500.22300.0000 per capita cash 0.000937 -0.001096 -0.004770 -0.001720 0.0000317 -0.000414 0.000197 -0.0000810 per capita cash0.000937-0.001096-0.004770-0.0017200.0000317-0.0004140.000197-0.0000810 income income 0.4410 0.5820 0.0640 0.2570 0.1950 0.3770 0.7510 0.0250 0.44100.58200.06400.25700.19500.37700.75100.0250 numassoc 14.70 29.5000 5.80 -1.1400 -0.075 -5.47 -7.94 0.321 numassoc14.7029.50005.80-1.1400-0.075-5.47-7.940.321 0.4100 0.3270 0.9210 0.9730 0.8790 0.4620 0.4460 0.6490 0.41000.32700.92100.97300.87900.46200.44600.6490 markets -36.9 -11.1 72.3 13.6 -0.390 18.2 2.1 0.272 markets-36.9-11.172.313.6-0.39018.22.10.272 0.0110 0.6210 0.1700 0.6600 0.3780 0.0060 0.8070 0.6490 0.01100.62100.17000.66000.37800.00600.80700.6490 Hansen J statistic 1.4430 0.032 0.7010 0.594 0.908 0.988 0.154 0.958 Hansen J statistic 1.44300.0320.70100.5940.9080.9880.1540.958 or Sargan test P=0.2246 P=0.8573 P=0.4024 P=0.441 P=0.3407 P=0.3203 P=0.6950 P=0.3278 or Sargan testP=0.2246P=0.8573P=0.4024P=0.441P=0.3407P=0.3203P=0.6950P=0.3278 Uncentered R2 0.6548 0.6284 0.6902 0.7081 0.958 0.8511 0.8774 0.7848 Uncentered R20.65480.62840.69020.70810.9580.85110.87740.7848 Hausman test P= 0.00296 P=0.14226 P=0.05202 P=0.07029 P=0.05583 P=0.00013 P=0.04773 P=0.26991 Hausman testP= 0.00296 P=0.14226P=0.05202P=0.07029 P=0.05583 P=0.00013 P=0.04773 P=0.26991 "},{"text":" Appendix: Additional statistics A. Probit and ordinary least squares regressions explaining DFF participation Determinants of DFF participation, probit regression . Comparison of means of outcome and explanatory variables, locus and other treatment villages, San site Other Other Boumboro treatment P-value Boumborotreatment P-value Variable Coef. Std. Err. P>z Expected millet yields 660 529 0.3318 VariableCoef.Std. Err.P>zExpected millet yields6605290.3318 Site -1.8142 0.4309 0.0000 Expected sorghum yields 1014 673 0.0258 Site-1.81420.43090.0000Expected sorghum yields10146730.0258 Active ratio 0.0240 0.7109 0.9730 Mean millet yield 2005-06 999 791 0.0263 Active ratio0.02400.71090.9730Mean millet yield 2005-069997910.0263 Total asset value 0.0000 0.0000 0.0820 Mean sorghum yield 2005-06 822 705 0.3598 Total asset value0.00000.00000.0820Mean sorghum yield 2005-06 8227050.3598 Millet share 0.7461 0.7198 0.3000 Stock of attributes 30.74 29.46 0.032 Millet share0.74610.71980.3000Stock of attributes30.7429.460.032 Per capita cash income 0.0000 0.0000 0.1060 Relative deprivation 273 310 0.3308 Per capita cash income0.00000.00000.1060Relative deprivation2733100.3308 Association membership 0.2040 0.1726 0.2370 (expected millet yields) Association membership 0.20400.17260.2370(expected millet yields) Markets 0.5497 0.1402 0.0000 Relative deprivation 418 535 0.0258 Markets0.54970.14020.0000Relative deprivation4185350.0258 Koranic education 0.0439 0.0481 0.3610 (expected sorghum yields) Koranic education0.04390.04810.3610(expected sorghum yields) Constant Number of obs -0.6355 265 0.8339 0.4460 (stock of attributes) Relative deprivation 9.26 13.20 0.0389 Constant Number of obs-0.6355 2650.83390.4460(stock of attributes) Relative deprivation9.2613.200.0389 LR chi2(8) 37.67 Explanatory variables LR chi2(8)37.67Explanatory variables Prob > chi2 0.0000 Active ratio 0.609 0.651 0.3776 Prob > chi20.0000Active ratio0.6090.6510.3776 Pseudo R2 0.2274 Total asset value 1135337 859970 0.4561 Pseudo R20.2274Total asset value11353378599700.4561 Log likelihood -63.970473 Millet share 0.605 0.518 0.1281 Log likelihood-63.970473Millet share0.6050.5180.1281 Per capita income 36657 38035 0.8703 Per capita income36657380350.8703 Determinants of DFF participation, ordinary least squares regression Association membership Markets 1.89 2.04 1.63 1.04 0.1418 0.0001 Determinants of DFF participation, ordinary least squares regressionAssociation membership Markets1.89 2.041.63 1.040.1418 0.0001 Coef. Std. Err. P>t Koranic education 0.556 0.029 0.1203 Coef.Std. Err.P>tKoranic education0.5560.0290.1203 Site -0.2320 0.0498 0.0000 Site-0.23200.04980.0000 Active ratio 0.0387 0.1011 0.7020 Active ratio0.03870.10110.7020 Total asset value 0.0000 0.0000 0.0190 Total asset value0.00000.00000.0190 Millet share 0.1133 0.0983 0.2500 Millet share0.11330.09830.2500 Per capita cash income 0.0000 0.0000 0.0540 Per capita cash income0.00000.00000.0540 Association membership 0.0368 0.0247 0.1370 Association membership 0.03680.02470.1370 Markets 0.0783853 0.0195788 0.0000 Markets0.07838530.01957880.0000 Koranic education 0.0040264 0.0065585 0.5400 Koranic education0.00402640.00655850.5400 Constant 0.1531561 0.112754 0.1760 Constant0.15315610.1127540.1760 Number of obs 265 Number of obs265 F(8, 256) 5.26 F(8, 256)5.26 Prob > F 0 Prob > F0 R-squared 0.1412 R-squared0.1412 Adj R-squared 0.1143 Adj R-squared0.1143 Root MSE 0.2756 Root MSE0.2756 "}],"sieverID":"63a0c431-5591-46b7-b487-5c90ac0145c4","abstract":"Malian farmers have been cultivating millet and sorghum for millennia, but they are slow to adopt and develop modern varieties because it is difficult to observe the difference in yields in their fields, given the challenging local growing conditions. Farmer participatory approaches are therefore recommended. This paper applies an instrumental variables method to survey data from Mali to evaluate the impacts of Diversity Field Fora, a type of farmer field school which aims to boost millet and sorghum yields by showing farmers how to manage diverse varieties. Impact indicators are expected and recalled millet and sorghum yields, the total number of unique attributes of millet and sorghum varieties stocked as seed, and the relative deprivation of the household farm with respect to these indicators. The findings suggest the project has had results at one of two sites where it has been implemented with the same local leadership and more intensively over a longer time frame."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"09a966ffa4d0099983ee1d399042fa8d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1cbddfbb-ffe1-4065-85f3-05b15de0a1c6/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Plateformes d'Innovation et Amélioration des Productions Agricoles au Yatenga, Burkina Faso","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"L'analyse conclut à une amélioration des productions agricoles chez les bénéficiaires du projet. De plus, cette amélioration peut être attribuée à l'existence des PI. En effet, les PI ont permis un accroissement du capital social et humain chez les bénéficiaires, leur permettant ainsi de rechercher et de trouver ensemble des solutions locales adaptées à leurs problèmes."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Cette étude corrobore l'efficacité des PI dans l'accompagnement des multiples acteurs des systèmes complexes de développement agricole dans les pays du Sud, notamment en zone sahélienne comme le Nord Burkina Faso."}]},{"head":"Pictures","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"A l'issue de cette étude, l'analyse triangulée des données quantitatives et qualitatives conclut à une amélioration des productions agricoles chez les bénéficiaires du projet. De plus, cette amélioration peut être attribuée aux PI du projet Volta2."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Toutefois, le faible nombre d'enquêtes et l'absence d'un groupe de contrôle pour comparer les données entre bénéficiaires et non-bénéficiaires du projet sont problématiques. Néanmoins, la méthode de recherche mêlant analyse de données quantitatives et qualitatives constitue un premier pas pour démontrer l'impact positif de l'outil plateforme d'innovation dans l'amélioration de la productivité et de la résilience des systèmes agro-pastoraux. D'autres études doivent être menées pour confirmer que les PI sont un outil de développement efficace pour accompagner les multiples acteurs des systèmes complexes de développement agricole dans les pays du Sud, notamment en zone sahélienne."}]},{"head":"Matériel et méthodes","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"L'étude a été menée d'avril à septembre 2013 dans quatre villages de la province de Yatenga avec deux mois d'enquêtes sur le terrain, de mi-mai à mi-juillet 2013."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Des groupes de discussions ont été organisés avec des producteurs dans chacun des quatre villages du projet afin de cerner leur perception de l'impact des plateformes sur leurs activités. Puis, des enquêtes individuelles ont été menées sur la base de trois questionnaires: un auprès de 57 membres des PI, un auprès de 12 membres clés choisis parmi les 57 membres des PI et un auprès de neuf animateurs ou facilitateurs des PI. L'amélioration des productions agricoles a été évaluée en demandant aux agriculteurs leur perception de cette amélioration à partir des indicateurs clés, notamment sous forme d'échelles de Likert ."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"De nos jours, l'instabilité dans l'environnement de production comme de commercialisation des produits agricoles implique une nécessité d'adaptation et d'innovation continue par les différents acteurs impliqués. Face à cette situation, les PI agricoles apparaissent comme un excellent outil pour renforcer la capacité à perdurer des acteurs dans un système complexe et sans cesse changeant. Aussi, raisonner autour des PI permet d'améliorer la compréhension des innovations réussies."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Ce travail porte sur les PI mis en place dans le cadre du projet Volta2 dans deux pays de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (Burkina Faso et Ghana). Le projet Volta2 vise à améliorer les productions agricoles chez les bénéficiaires. L'étude a pour but de comprendre comment les PI ont permis, dans le Yatenga au Nord Burkina Faso, d'atteindre les objectifs fixés par les acteurs en termes d'amélioration de leurs productions agricoles."}]},{"head":"Résultats et Discussions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Les déclarations des membres des PI, quantifiées sur une échelle de Likert à cinq classes, font état d'une amélioration de leurs productions agricoles (Tableau 1). Pour chacune des expressions utilisées pour caractériser l'amélioration des productions agricoles, la moyenne de l'échelle de Likert est supérieure à 2,5: la majorité des personnes enquêtées attestent d'une amélioration de leurs productions agricoles. Les neuf facilitateurs des PI sont par ailleurs majoritairement d'accord que l'amélioration connue par les productions agricoles aux cours des deux dernières années sont dues à l'existence des PI au sein de la communauté (Tableau 2)."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Les PI ont été à l'origine du renforcement du capital social et humain des bénéficiaires du projet. Le capital social s'est renforcé grâce au système de réseau développé entre les membres des PI d'une part et entre ces derniers et les structures de soutien à l'agriculture d'autre part. Le Capital humain s'est renforcé grâce aux différentes formations reçues par les membres des PI et grâce aux échanges d'informations et de connaissances entre les membres des PI."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"facc49f0-550e-4008-82ee-badf6cbf295b","abstract":"Cette étude tente de mesurer les impacts des plateformes d'innovation (PI) sur l'amélioration des productions agricoles dans la province de Yatenga, au Nord du Burkina Faso. L'analyse statistique des données a utilisé le logiciel SPSS version 20 pour Windows. Les résultats sont analysés et interprétés en triangulant les données qualitatives issues des groupes de discussions avec les données quantitatives d'enquêtes individuelles."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"09b31a9fcfdc6d225a706d2cd614177a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/90f7fa94-a162-49e9-9132-bee0476e28d0/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"• Successful second round of accelerated breeding completed, with the release of 4 orange-fleshed (OFSP) and 3 purple-fleshed (PFSP) droughttolerant sweetpotato varieties in 2016. Third round will be completed in 2019."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• Early season and terminal drought have negative effects on storage root yield (Fig. 1)."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"• Thick vines offer a morphological adaption to drought which may offer an advantage for remobilization of assimilates from leaves and stems to storage roots."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"• Many widely adopted varieties are early bulking and satisfy piece meal harvesting, a desired trait given the predicted shortened seasons in Southern Africa under climate change."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"• Among the 15 drought-tolerant OFSP released in 2011, Delvia and Irene have emerged as the most widely-adapted across different agro-ecologies."},{"index":6,"size":151,"text":"• First enhanced iron (Fe) OFSP clone (MUSG15052-2) selected from Umbeluzi populations. Drought is defined as the inadequacy of available water through rainfall or irrigation to meet the crop water requirement. Drought is considered the major limitation to sweetpotato production in Southern Africa, where most agriculture is dependent on unimodal rainfall. Unimodal rainfall systems also tend to have less diverse food systems than bimodal systems found in East and Central Africa. This is reflected in the very high levels of vitamin A deficiency (69%) found among children under five years of age in Mozambique. In addition, anemia (75% of pre-school children and 52% of pregnant women) and other Fe deficiencies are widespread in Mozambique and neighboring countries in Southern Africa. Iron deficiency impairs mental development and capacity to learn in children and adolescences while reducing adults' ability to do physical labor, with increased risk of death for women during child birth."}]},{"head":"What objectives did we set?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The objectives were to (i) select and release drought tolerant genotypes as varieties from breeding trials, (ii) understand the mechanism(s) governing drought tolerance in sweetpotato to enhance selection and improve breeding efficiency (iii) improve dry matter content and other quality traits like beta-carotene, iron and zinc. Specifically, for quality traits, the selected clones were to meet 200% RDA for young children of pro-Vitamin A, 25% RDA of iron and 35% RDA of zinc under high intakes. Once sufficient progress had been made in breeding for iron (Fe), another objective to measure Fe bioavailability from a conventionally-bred, Fe-enhanced OFSP clone (MUSG15052-2) was set."}]},{"head":"Where did we work?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"For drought field trials and initial identification of the enhanced Fe clone, we worked in Mozambique at four locations: Maputo, Umbeluzi, and Chokwe in the South, cooked OFSP. This would supply 14.1% of the target 50% Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) for absorbable iron for children 1.5-4.5 years of age and 6.4% for young women of reproductive age. Levels of absorption may have been negatively affected by significant levels of polyphenols found in the roots. Iron absorption might be enhanced by increasing the vitamin C in the roots. Both are areas that will require further examination."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Where there any key challenges or lessons learned? "}]},{"head":"What did we achieve during SASHA Phase 2?","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"This joint CIP-IIAM effort successfully implemented its second round of accelerated breeding (Fig. 2). During Phase 1, 15 drought-tolerant OFSP were released in 2011. In 2016, seven additional drought tolerant varieties were released: four orange-fleshed (Alisha, Ivone, Victoria, Lawrence); three with significant amounts of purple-flesh (Bita, Caelan and Bie) 1 . Victoria, Lawrence and Bita are classified as dual purpose, with an excellent balance of storage roots for human consumption and foliage for animal feed. These types are particularly preferred in dry areas where raising livestock is an important economic activity."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"The varieties released in 2016 demonstrate a 7% average genetic gain in dry matter over the 2011 releases. Some utilize different mechanisms of drought tolerance. For example, Alisha and Ivone are early maturing, doing very well in a short growing season, thus avoiding drought."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Caelan and Bita have high vine vigor and better stomatal regulation 2 under drought conditions. Between 2011 and 2016, we saw an average increase in beta-carotene (provitamin A) by 16%; iron by 6%; and zinc by 18%."},{"index":4,"size":160,"text":"Our quality laboratory continued to be an essential part of our breeding program. During the past five years more than 66,200 samples were processed, providing data on macro-and micronutrient contents. The tissue culture lab and linked screenhouses assured the provision of quality pre-basic material to several dissemination programs. Three of those programs (Emergency relief in the South; VISTA in the Nampula and Zambézia Provinces, and Nutritious Sweetpotato for Niassa Province) coordinated the delivery of quality planting material to over 400,000 households. Delvia and Irene have emerged as the most widely-adapted across different agro-ecologies. These varieties, in addition to outcompeting dominant local varieties yield-wise, were easy to establish, have good multiplication rates and were able to sprout well after the dry season. Notably, Irene has been released in Cote d'Ivoire, Madagascar, and Kenya. Moreover, 229,263 seed generated from crossings was shared with 14 African breeding programs, Bangladesh, Brazil, India and the USA. More than one million botanical seed are in storage."},{"index":5,"size":193,"text":"On a fresh weight basis, the enhanced Fe OFSP clone, MUSG15052-2 has 12.4 µg Fe/g, <0.1 µg phytic acid/g, 14 µg ascorbic acid/g on a fresh weight basis (fwb) compared to an OFSP variety with a typically lower concentration of iron (Irene) with 6.4 µg Fe/g, <0.1 µg phytic acid/g, 46 µg ascorbic acid/g. The Fe content is stable across environments in Mozambique. Preliminary results from the iron bioavailability studies conducted in Malawi (Fig. 3) showed fractional Fe absorption from both MUSG15052-2 and Irene test meal types was 5.8%. However, fractional Fe absorption varied based on initial ferritin status of the woman. Those with low status absorbed 8.1%; those with adequate status, only 3.6%. The enhanced iron clone provided 0.09 mg absorbable iron per 100 grams of adaption to drought and offer an advantage for remobilization of assimilates. The varieties Caelan, Bita and Alisha have thick vines and do well under terminal drought conditions. Vine survival is an easy to assess critical trait in drought prone areas. Varietal survivability is judged by the ability of root to sprout after a lengthy period of storage, and subsequent growth and spread in the nursery beds."},{"index":6,"size":74,"text":"Unpredictability of drought and associated stress. The most serious challenge faced was having sufficient irrigation water at the Research Stations due to pump breakdowns or the drying up of water sources. In addition, stray cattle and goats occasionally wreaked havoc on experimental plots. Selection for drought tolerant clones requires evaluation in optimum environments in addition to the drought-prone environments. Diligent supervision and sufficient resources are essential for the maintenance of such a complex program."},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"1 For details on each variety, refer to the Sweetpotato Digital Catalogue on Sweetpotato Varieties available at www. Sweetpotatoknowledge.org."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"2 Stomata regulation is the process in the leaves to control the amount of water and solutes within them by opening and closing their guard cells."},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"3 An assimilate an organic material, such as sugar and carbohydrates. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig 1 . Fig 1. Highthroughput evaluation of drought tolerance at Umbeluzi Research Station (Credit G. Makunde) "},{"text":"Remobilization of assimilates 3 from leaves and steams to storage roots occurs as a mechanism for drought tolerance under terminal drought stress and vine survival in dry areas. Thick vines offer a morphological and Gurué in the Center. In addition, there was a site in Mansa in Northern Zambia.For the iron bioavailability study, we worked at the Laboratory of Human Nutrition, Institute of Food, Nutrition and Health, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland, Germany to assist with the design and implementation of a multiplemeal feeding trial conducted in collaboration with the College of Medicine, University of Malawi, Zomba, Malawi and International Potato Center, Maputo, Mozambique for storage root production. "},{"text":"Fig 3 . Fig 3. Participant with OFSP test meal in iron bioavailability multi-meal feeding trial in Malawi (Credit J. Low) Fig 2. Long-time collaborators Jose Ricardo (IIAM) and Maria Andrade (CIP) in front of massive crossing block (Credit J. Low) "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Early season and terminal drought have negative effects on storage root yield. Drought can occur at can occur at any time during the growth cycle. Early season drought any time during the growth cycle. Early season drought occurs soon after planting until storage root initiation occurs soon after planting until storage root initiation and can have devastating effects on yield, depending and can have devastating effects on yield, depending on its duration and intensity. Above ground, early on its duration and intensity. Above ground, early season drought affects the photosynthetic capacity of season drought affects the photosynthetic capacity of sweetpotato by reducing leaf area. Terminal or late season sweetpotato by reducing leaf area. Terminal or late season drought occurs during the mid-to-late bulking stages drought occurs during the mid-to-late bulking stages of sweetpotato. Below the ground, all roots might be of sweetpotato. Below the ground, all roots might be directed to search for diminishing water sources leading directed to search for diminishing water sources leading to formation of skinny pencil roots. Pencil roots cannot to formation of skinny pencil roots. Pencil roots cannot switch their role later to become storage roots. Meanwhile, switch their role later to become storage roots. Meanwhile, terminal drought affects the bulking process by reducing terminal drought affects the bulking process by reducing the number of photosynthesizing leaves, with cracking the number of photosynthesizing leaves, with cracking soil promoting weevil attack, with subsequent reduction soil promoting weevil attack, with subsequent reduction in root quality. in root quality. "},{"text":"Early maturity is a key drought adaptive trait. The new varieties Ivone and Alisha are early maturing. Predictive climate change models indicate shortened seasons in Southern Africa. Time of occurrence, duration and severity of drought Time of occurrence, duration and severity of drought is unpredictable in nature and not repeatable. The is unpredictable in nature and not repeatable. The interaction of drought and heat as well as other biotic interaction of drought and heat as well as other biotic stresses makes breeding for drought-prone areas stresses makes breeding for drought-prone areas complex. Weevils are associated with drought stress and complex. Weevils are associated with drought stress and significantly reduce quality of storage roots. Farmers in significantly reduce quality of storage roots. Farmers in dry areas favor early maturing varieties as they can escape dry areas favor early maturing varieties as they can escape weevil damage enabled by drought. weevil damage enabled by drought. "}],"sieverID":"1302a65c-050f-4d23-84e7-bb2697ba897d","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"09f38a576b22ca3463066b211eb04cda","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/2221/4331.pdf"},"pageCount":12,"title":"The AMR problem: demanding economies, biological margins, and co-producing alternative strategies","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":189,"text":"T he emergence, persistence and transmission of microbes that are resistant to available medicines constitute a major threat to medical practice and public health. In the main, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has been framed as a matter of people making ill-informed choices, culminating in over-and irrational use of antimicrobial medicines (Leung et al. 2011, Laxminarayan et al. 2013). The resulting surfeit of antimicrobial compounds in bodies, clinics, communities, food systems and environments produces the conditions for selection of microbes that are resistant to the currently limited set of available treatments. The paradigm is a commons problem, fanned by a mismatch between private benefit and public cost (Lee and Motzkau, 2013). The solution, if we follow this formatting of the problem, is to reduce inappropriate and so-called irrational antimicrobial uses by providing improved information, shifting the incentives that drive people to act in non-ideal ways, regulating medicine use and so changing treatment choices and behaviours. This framing is common across various health care sectors, and is becoming particularly prominent in the morally-charged food and livestock sector, where a majority of the world's antimicrobials are currently consumed (Van Boeckel et al. 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Focussing on AMR as it relates to livestock farming (and more specifically aquaculture, currently the fastest growing food production sector (FAO, 2018: 114)), we make two interrelated points in order to offer an alternative problematisation and way forward. First, for a growing group of scientists, the emergence, persistence and transmission of antimicrobial resistance may relate to a host of drivers or ecologies and are not reducible to medicine use alone. Second, drawing on our fieldwork, we describe how AMR risks, disease and disease treatments relate to social ecologies of food production. Only by understanding those ecologies and by working with key actors can we co-develop pathways to reducing the burden of AMR."},{"index":3,"size":233,"text":"We take an approach informed by a need to understand the AMR problem as an adaptive challenge (Heifetz, 1994). That is, change and experimentation are required across multiple sites in ways that are consistent with the starting conditions within those sites. And, as a means to recognise the heterogeneity of and linkages between settings, we understand the AMR problem as a matter of actor networks, or the continuous assemblage of network elements in ways that can generate change (Callon, 1986, Law, 2006). Our empirical focus is food production, and more specifically the production of shrimp and prawn in Bangladesh. Our approach is multi-sited and grounded in particular practices. We use a suite of methods as a means to elicit expertise and experiences of those most familiar with the issues at hand. Survey and qualitative interviews are combined with reflections on the competency groups (collectives of various experts including farmers, scientists and officials (Whatmore, 2009, Whatmore andLandstrom, 2011)) that we staged in order to generate participatory knowledge and heuristic models of disease and resistance risks. In the latter, we aimed to work together with farmers and other experts in order to identify key drivers of disease, treatment uses, resistance risks and adaptive changes to production. In working through these sites and methods our intention is to shift the focus for social science work on AMR and to demonstrate a situated understanding of human-microbe interactions."},{"index":4,"size":288,"text":"After setting out the background to the problem of AMR, we move to the shrimp and prawn hatcheries of southwest and southeast Bangladesh where workers and broodstock (gravid mothers) struggle against economic and biological margins (including disease) to make enough viable seed to supply the large number of mostly small scale grow-out farms in south west Bangladesh. From the hatcheries, seed are transported to various markets and on to farms where these minute crustaceans and their microbial co-travellers are added to ponds. The tens of thousands of ponds are the growing medium for shrimp, prawn, sometimes rice, often finfish, snails and others besides (including of course many micro-organisms, both beneficial and otherwise). They have also been sites of relatively recent struggles over property, labour, ecology and land use, salinisation, as well as being subject to flooding, uncertain monsoon and climate (Jalais, 2011, Islam, 2014). The produce from the myriad of ponds is collected by processors and exporters and this, coupled with the risks of small farm production on a fertile yet precarious landscape, lends this supply chain the characteristics of what Tsing (2015) has called 'salvage accumulation' (where lead firms amass capital without controlling the conditions under which commodities are produced). As is the case for the hatcheries, securing livelihood from these ponds is a matter of working the margins. We detail the relevance of these margins and this mode of accumulation in terms of the biosocial nature of disease and resistance risks (Farmer, 2004, Farmer et al. 2006, Hinchliffe et al. 2016). We introduce the term 'sociobiome' to underscore the interrelationships between social and biological processes that shape the health of a food production system and seek to demonstrate its relevance to a re-considered approach to AMR."}]},{"head":"Framing the AMR problem","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":267,"text":"Over the course of the last 70 years, the selective targeting and suppression of microbial forms of life have become mundane technologies in human and animal health care and in food production. From the modified brewing industry vats in the Midwest of the United States that were used to industrially manufacture antibiotics derived from soil bacteria in the 1940s (Landecker, 2016), to the globalised production and distribution of synthesised pharmaceutical components in India, China and elsewhere, antimicrobials are produced and consumed in mass. In human medicine, global use is in the order of 70 Billion standard units (an SU is a measure of volume based broadly on the smallest identifiable dose given to a patient) (Van Boeckel et al. 2014). In agriculture, livestock consumes around 60,000-70,000 tons of antibiotics every year (though this may be a considerable underestimate of total use). This figure likely exceeds direct human consumption, and is projected to increase significantly over the next few decades as demand for animal protein expands and livestock rearing practices intensify (Van Boeckel et al. 2015). This material history and the ramifications of a mass of antimicrobials and resistance-conferring compounds and genes contribute to a new planetary biology (Landecker, 2016). Selection pressures, the emergence of resistant microbes and the lateral transfer of mobile genetic elements within complex 'multi-species' (or post-species) populations of micro-organisms have generated shifts in the pangenome (the core and accessory genes that are available to microbial populations) (Gillings, 2017). The short to medium term results, in terms of the effectiveness of available medicines and the prognoses for human health care, are now well-known (Davies, 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":295,"text":"A key response to the emerging crisis has been to seek to reduce unnecessary uses of medicines, especially those that are deemed critical for human health. This seemingly uncontroversial attempt to sustain the efficiency of existing therapeutics is embedded in World Health Organisation-sponsored National Action Plans and research-funding calls, many of which have adopted the language of 'stewardship' (World Health Organisation, 2015). This formatting of the antibiosis problem has simultaneously drawn upon and nurtured a particular paradigm or approach to social science research and intervention. As medicine use is rendered as inefficient or irrational, and as the issue is framed as one of expert knowledge versus inexpert practices, then the 'lever' for change almost always becomes the behaviour of those demanding or administering medicines in ways that are sub-optimal. Social science is positioned as a means to account for the persistence of 'incorrect' knowledge and behaviour, and, in tandem with public health, a toolkit for raising awareness and targeting inappropriate uses. There is an accompanying tendency to focus on individual behaviours with minimal consideration of the socially and economically embedded nature of action, and to assume that models of behaviour honed in higher income settings are applicable elsewhere. In the context of a global health challenge, social science is thus rendered as a form of 'first world' expertise. The deracinated result is a colonial \"onesize-fits-all approach, framed with developed country contexts in mind\" (Kakkar et al. 2018). In essence, as antibiotic use becomes the driver or determinant of resistance and the target of intervention, other possible resistance risks, as well as the social and economic conditions of antimicrobial use (including food security, poverty alleviation, healthcare access and so on) tend to be ignored (Kakkar et al. 2018). The result can be both ineffective and wasteful."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"The role of antimicrobial compounds as key drivers of resistance is of course well-founded on good laboratory understanding of the key molecular mechanisms through which resistance can be conferred (including cell membrane changes, intracellular modifications, extrusion processes, sensitivity reductions and sequestration of active agents) (Holmes et al. 2016). These mechanisms can be acquired by mutation or through horizontal gene transfer between strains of bacteria. Many are associated with fitness costs, so it is often assumed that resistant strains require continuous suppression of antimicrobial susceptible bacteria in order to flourish. Continuous inappropriate use of antimicrobial medicines and treatments would of course provide that selective gradient."},{"index":4,"size":149,"text":"Despite this apparent simplicity, the detailed processes though which resistance traits emerge, persist, expand and then spread are less well characterised (Bengtsson-Palme et al. 2018). In part they relate to the varied ecologies within which microbes evolve and transmit resistance to one another, and so include an array of environmental variables: for example presence of heavy metals and detergents can modulate gene transcription; biofilms (an assemblage of microorganisms embedded in an extracellular matrix that adhere to themselves and to surfaces) can harbour diverse microbial populations and act as long-term reservoirs for antimicrobial resistance genes (Taylor et al. 2011). Others have demonstrated that qualitatively different pathways to resistance, involving selection for different sets of resistance conferring genes, can occur at very low drug concentrations (Bottery et al. 2016, Wistrand-Yuen et al. 2018). The implication is that \"even weak selective pressures can cause evolution of high-level resistance\" (Wistrand-Yuen et al. 2018)."},{"index":5,"size":260,"text":"The aquatic environment is not unique but is possibly critical in respect of these environmental and microbial dynamics. The following features make these environments and aquacultural food production potentially important in terms of emergence, persistence and transmission of AMR (Taylor et al. 2011). Inland water bodies and coastal zones have high and diverse bacterial loads, and often act as sinks for treated and untreated waste, agricultural runoff and pollution. Sediments and biofilms act as media for the adsorption and maintenance of microbes and resistance conferring materials. In terms of aquacultural food production, inputs of detergents and therapeutants can modify resistance factors, while water exchange from and to surrounding environments can aid transmission. Stocking may be dense, with animals that are subject to a variety of stressors and diseases. Zooplankton and filter feeders may serve to concentrate pathogen populations and or heavy metals or other resistance factors. Finally, the mixing of the medium, its transport and its importance to human well-being (in terms of drinking, washing and other activities) make this a potentially important gateway for cross-species transmission (Cabello et al. 2016). Needless to say, an industry within which there are movements of stock, water exchanges and complex food distribution networks lends a more variegated structure to this potential set of human-animal-microbe interactions. These are all, it should be noted, social as well ecological matters. The state of a microbial environment, its dynamics and its interactions with other environments are effects of and affect economic and social lives. In our terms, they are entangled within and inseparable to ecologies of production."},{"index":6,"size":108,"text":"The point of this list is not to be comprehensive. It is to emphasise, first, that AMR will relate to, but is not straightforwardly determined by, on site use of treatments. Relatively small amounts of use, or uses elsewhere (for example in terrestrial agriculture), may have important effects on the emergence and spread of resistance within the aquatic environment. Second, the scope and importance of the kinds of social science that are relevant to the AMR problem are as such broadened from a narrow focus on governing medicine use. Alongside the social and economic drivers of disease, and disease control, are the interrelationships between people, environments and microbes."},{"index":7,"size":86,"text":"Here we would emphasise the point that people, like other actors in the resistance landscape, are embedded within relations that shape their activity levels and their ability to make significant change. Agents or actors, be they resistant bacteria or people, emerge in networks or situations (Hinchliffe et al. 2016). Only by understanding people, microbes, fish, and so on as situated beings, can we appreciate the ways in which the AMR problem arises. Similarly, only by appreciating the problem can we hope to develop appropriate ways forward."},{"index":8,"size":65,"text":"These basic tenets of a relational, or actor-network approach (Law and Hassard, 1999), require field working styles that can work with social and material complexities and identify key relations (Law, 2004). It is with those aims in mind that, following a brief note on methodology, we work through interrelated field sites as a means to distil the key relationships that contribute to the AMR problem."},{"index":9,"size":208,"text":"The multi-sited and multi-factorial nature of adaptive challenges requires a range of field approaches, drawing most obviously on multi-sited approaches to field working and ethnography (Marcus, 1995). But beyond the close and situated work of ethnography, an adaptive challenge requires field breadth. Our methods therefore included longer interviews and field observations at hatcheries, on farms and in supply shops, a structured survey of hatcheries (n = 26) and shrimp and prawn farms (n = 320) and the formation of competency groups to map key pathways and relations that contribute to disease and resistance risks within the sector. For the purposes of this paper, analysis of the field materials generated was largely qualitative, drawing out broad trends and characteristics from the surveys rather than reporting on the quantitative analysis undertaken elsewhere in the project. In that sense we have not focused on statistically significant causal relationships between variables within our data. Rather, the approach has been to develop accounts of practice through, for example, descriptive statistical representations of survey results and narrating themes that emerged across our entire data corpus. The latter developed from close reading of field and interview notes with farming and other experts and discussion within the research team concerning how best to interpret field results."},{"index":10,"size":104,"text":"Economic and biological margins at the hatcheries Just south of Cox's Bazar, on the coastline of the Bay of Bengal, and far to the south of the sediment rich flood plains that characterise much of Bangladesh's land area, there are around 60 tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) hatcheries, most of which were built in the 1980s and 1990s with substantial support from development banks. Some of them lie dormant, but 30 or so currently attempt to produce postlarvae (hereafter PL). These hair-like juvenile shrimps are destined for grow out ponds, most of which are located in southwest Bangladesh, roughly 700 km away (see Fig. 1)."},{"index":11,"size":99,"text":"The hatcheries are in Cox's Bazar for several reasons. To successfully culture enough PL they need plentiful supplies of clear and clean water. Unlike the turbid river waters to the north and west, the coastal waters here are more suitable for nurturing broodstock, their larvae and the juvenile shrimps that can be sold on to farms. The hatcheries were also set up to supply the nearby intensive shrimp industry that was established in the 1980s. The capital-intensive industry was part of a so-called blue revolution, a key component, after garments, for export-led development of the Bangladeshi economy (Islam, 2014)."},{"index":12,"size":146,"text":"A disease called White Spot devastated most of the more intensively stocked farms in the area in the 1990s, leaving the hatcheries with a logistical and economic problem. The main market for PL was now located at the other end of the country and made up of a large number (85,000) of predominantly small holder farms spread over an area of 143,000 hectares (figures derived from Belton et al. 2011, p. 25). Economically, the hatcheries not only faced an issue of potential over supply and depressed prices once the intensive farms had failed, they also faced transport costs, packaging and preservation challenges, and a market made up of small farmers whose ability to pay high prices for their seed was limited. As a result, economic margins (the relation between cash flow and capital invested) became tighter, and some of the hatcheries struggled to stay in business."},{"index":13,"size":215,"text":"The 81 freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) hatcheries, closer to the farmers in the southwest of Bangladesh, faced different problems. Most were currently struggling to produce at all, and technicians complained of disease and the failure of their tried and tested methods. A majority had given up and were not even attempting to produce in 2017 (the year we initially visited). For those that managed to produce a crop, the unit price at market would be high. But the high likelihood of failure meant that even potentially favourable economic margins were seldom enough to stay in business. Unless a hatchery had extraneous funds, for example from an aid organisation or NGO, or was cross-subsidised by another business (some hatchery owners have flourishing poultry operations), then disease challenges meant that much of the invested capital was likely to lie dormant. Mothballed capital is testimony to the (in this case failing) interrelations between an economic landscape of tight or uncertain margins and a world of biological margins (see Fig. 2). In crude terms we can define biological margins as a relation between throughput (in this case reproduction and survival of postlarvae to market) and the attempted adjustments to living processes in order to raise productivity. In the following we will describe some key critical points in this process."},{"index":14,"size":108,"text":"Hatcheries operate by taking broodstock and inducing them to reproduce. The latter involves providing favourable spawning conditions and in some cases inflicting physical changes like eye stalk ablation in order to stimulate ovary development and/or increased egg production. The resulting eggs, and then larvae, are disinfected, cultivated and carefully nurtured through a series of life stages (nauplius, protozoea, mysis and postlarvae stages). Taking a largely solitary animal with a high reproduction to survival ratio and inducing enough seed to make the process economically viable is clearly far from straightforward. Temperature, water quality, aeration, light, feed and so on must be regulated throughout, and disease threats kept at bay."},{"index":15,"size":188,"text":"In this process, hatcheries face a number of issues. First, there is a problem with broodstock. For all but one of the hatcheries in Bangladesh, broodstock is 'wild caught', purchased by hatchery technicians at port or market, having been fished in the Bay of Bengal (for tiger shrimp) or in rivers (for prawn). A common complaint in the hatcheries was that sourcing high quality broodstock was becoming increasingly difficult, with high prices and frequent disease problems. Iqbal et al. (2011) and Debnath et al. (2014) have confirmed disease prevalence in wild caught shrimp broodstock-reaching 90% occurrence of white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) in pre-Monsoon May-June catches. Market practices may contribute to this disease problem. Broodstock prices are normally set daily depending on catch size, and have not in the past allowed for differentiation in terms of origin (and by extension likely disease carriage). As a result there is little incentive for trawler crews to venture into deeper waters, where infection rates are likely to be lower, or indeed reduce disease risk through separating stock and managing animal stresses as they are landed and transported (Debnath et al. 2015)."},{"index":16,"size":111,"text":"Second, any attempt to test broodstock for disease and then secure tested individuals in disease-free conditions faces difficulties in terms of diagnostic capacity and tight economic margins. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) testing for 12 registered production diseases is constrained by laboratory capacity (with a single independent NGO-and now Department of Fisheriesrun laboratory in Cox's Bazar). The costs associated with producing certified PL from these tested broodstock may also be difficult to implement. Hatcheries have been encouraged to adopt a 'one mother one tank' system as a means to reduce cross contamination, but the costs of doing so are only worthwhile if there is sufficient value added to the resulting certified product."},{"index":17,"size":185,"text":"Third, even with sufficient testing, diseases and complications relating to environmental and microbiological challenges within the hatcheries are likely to remain a problem. There are emerging and re-emerging pathogens that will not be on the test-list. There are also diseases that relate to the interaction of several microorganisms and environmental stressors that will not be regarded as pathogens in isolation, but nevertheless may affect production. Shifts in environmental parameters can exert stresses on animals, increase susceptibility to disease and pose considerable challenges to production. For example, hatchery technicians reported increasingly frequent problems with input water quality. Elaborate systems of seawater filtration exist in many of the shrimp hatcheries but maintaining the conditions necessary for larval development is challenging when temperature, pH, salinity, and other parameters can alter relatively quickly. For the prawn hatcheries, filtration systems are less developed, so technicians rely on sourcing good quality freshwater. The latter has become more difficult in recent years, and tankers must be sent further afield at added cost, a problem that is put down to rapid land use change, upstream damming, the vagaries of the monsoon and pollution."},{"index":18,"size":205,"text":"Disease and antimicrobial use in hatcheries. The interrelationships between biological margins (a struggle to achieve reproduction and throughput) and economic margins (pinched as they are by supply imbalance and logistical costs, as well as marketing difficulties) result in an environment in which, despite private and public investments, antimicrobials continue to be an important disease management tool. Both shrimp and prawn hatcheries described a wide range of disease problems, and, significantly in our survey, all but one reported the regular and frequent use of antimicrobials. Usage included those compounds currently approved for aquaculture like Oxytetracycline-a broad-spectrum antibiotic-but also those that are on the WHO essential medicine list including Ciprofloxacin-a secondgeneration Fluoroquinolone that is inexpensive but associated with high levels of resistance-and Erythromycin. Hatchery technicians also stated that they continue to rely on treatments that have been banned since 2003 in food production including Furazolidone-a nitrofuran used to remove slime from PL but a known carcinogen-and Chloramphenicol-again a suspected Fig. 1 Map of SW Bangladesh, salinity conditions affect production types (with more saline areas cultivating shrimp, and fresher conditions prawn). Survey farms were located in the shaded areas carcinogen and used by some hatcheries as a prophylactic or upon signs of necrosis (Jakiul Islam et al. 2014)."},{"index":19,"size":311,"text":"In all, 23 antimicrobial products were in use in hatcheries, with some reporting using 80 Kg per production cycle. There are a number of reasons for this range of products. First, treatments were used for a variety of purposes. Some were applied to infected broodstock, some to treat live feed (artemia) for suspected Vibrio infections and others to treat developing larvae as they exhibited growth delay or other signs of disease. Second, technicians tended to adopt and use treatments on a trial and error basis, aiming to see a production cycle through to completion or rescuing a cohort from collapse once disease signs (like spiral swimming or lack of development) were observed. Formal diagnoses of disease prior to treatment were rare, and technicians relied on their experience, on advice from farm supply shops or from colleagues in other hatcheries (sometimes through formal and informal consortia, sometimes through tea meetings in supply shop front rooms) in order to match observed signs to disease and treatment. Third, technicians complained that the treatments themselves were often ineffective and therefore a range of products was needed. There were suspicions that many of the available products were substandard (and a risk that the more that they were discouraged from buying medicines through formal channels the more that there will be reliance on poorer quality sources). Technicians mentioned imports, adulteration and poor batch quality as potential problems. Moreover, few if any of the products had been devised with aquaculture in mind. They complained that medicines were initially devised for terrestrial animals or, at best, finfish, and re-packaged for the invertebrate market. Even standard products were therefore likely to behave imperfectly in the shrimp and prawn hatchery environment. Finally, there was talk of more frequent incidence of resistance, with technicians informally cycling treatments to reduce the likelihood of resistance or switching treatments once the animals failed to respond."},{"index":20,"size":190,"text":"The point of this list is not to cast blame or sanction on hatcheries. Respondents in the hatcheries and supply shops were aware of regulations, the lack of effectiveness of these treatments and their possible drawbacks. For example, probiotic products have become popular in the shrimp hatcheries, but their effectiveness is reduced or even negated if antimicrobial products are used. There was also a suspicion that antibiotic applications can reduce growth and metamorphosis rates in the larval stages. Antimicrobial use was not therefore something that those working in hatcheries took lightly. Nevertheless, even after various interventions in terms of regulatory policy, biosecurity improvements, investment in water filtration and so on, the combined effects of poor quality broodstock, limited diagnostic capacity and persistent and frequent disease problems meant that most hatcheries continued to rely on antimicrobial treatments in order to produce viable PL. The pressure to deliver product at a certain price point meant that these treatments remained an essential if reluctantly applied crutch for the industry. As a result, there was potential dissemination of resistance conferring microbes to the tens of thousands of ponds that stock PL from these hatcheries."},{"index":21,"size":145,"text":"One hatchery in Cox's Bazar stood out as using no antibiotics, producing SPF (specific pathogen free) PL. This hatchery, which has been in production for only a few years, used domestic tiger shrimp broodstock, bred from a stock-line imported from Hawaii. Producing PL from certified pathogen-free broodstock in carefully controlled conditions allowed this hatchery to market its PL differently, 'guaranteeing' it to be free from key production diseases. The selling price was high (up to 6 times the price of conventional, untested PL). At first blush this looks like an answer to some of the problems encountered elsewhere-a technical solution to the challenge of disease and reliance on antimicrobial treatments. But to understand the remaining challenges we need to shift site and move to the farms where the PL, after a journey of anything from 14 hours to several days, is added to grow-out ponds."}]},{"head":"Farming on the margins","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":380,"text":"There is normally money to be made in shrimp and prawn farming. In the last few decades it has been a high value product, one that relatively few people in rural Bangladesh can afford to purchase, but one that has tended to generate sizable foreign exchange and a valuable cash crop. In 2016-17, Bangladesh exported 40,000 mt of high value shellfish (shrimp and prawn) earning US$450 M in export earnings-though these figures were closer to 48,000 mt and US$550 M in 2013-14 (Bangladesh Department of Fisheries, 2017). The estimated 180,000 shrimp and prawn farms sell their produce to depots and/ or wholesalers at market, or to faria (market intermediaries who link farms to supplies and sales). Depots then sell to processing factories, many of which are operating well below capacity. The market process is close to what Tsing (2015, p. 63) describes as \"salvage accumulation\", where lead firms (in this case processors) \"amass capital without controlling the conditions under which commodities are produced.\" The importance of this \"pericapitalist\" process is that farms are simultaneously both inside and outside what is conventionally called capitalism. For example, ponds are to some extent outside conventional schemes of formal regulation and accountability. They constitute part of what Kakkar et al. (2018) refer to as the \"invisible cohorts\" of backyard and smallholder farms producing 70% of the world's food. The style of pond, the management processes adopted, the treatments used, the ways in which aquaculture is combined with other livelihood activitiesall make for a highly variable landscape of production, while the system of sales and collection renders individual farms as largely invisible to processors and retailers. Even so, the ponds are subject to market pressures and international competition. The latter has grown in the last few years largely as a result of expansion in Pacific whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) aquaculture in other Asian countries. L. vannemei, which is not currently sanctioned for introduction into Bangladesh, has proved attractive to producers elsewhere owing to its relative disease resistance, the availability of SPF broodstock and ease of culture. The competition has left Bangladeshi farmers with an issue-as increased global production and falling prices are communicated along the intricate supply chain, farmers are starting to find it more and more difficult to make a profit from their ponds."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"Almost all ponds that culture shrimp and/ or prawn in Bangladesh can be classed as extensive or improved extensive using the scheme in Table 1. Most use flooded rice fields (called gher) to culture tiger shrimp and/or prawn in open systems (see Fig. 3). In our survey, ponds varied in size, ranging from small homestead ponds of around 0.1 ha (or roughly 10 by 10 m) to the larger gher in the more saline districts (which tend to be 1 ha in size but can be much larger). Ponds tended to be relatively shallow (around 1 m-1.50 m depth), often with a canal or ditch (for water storage) and may be used for a variety of food growing purposes (with salt-resistant aman and boro paddy rice polyculture a common feature)."},{"index":3,"size":145,"text":"These extensive and improved extensive, open system, farms are arguably more susceptible to disease transmission than closed system alternatives. In our sample of 320 farms, 84% reported production diseases, and average mortality (the ratio of PL introduced to the system to the numbers harvested) for the sampled farms was calculated at 82% for shrimp and 62% for prawn. Key aims for the sector include improving productivity and produce quality, reducing the burden of disease and so minimising antimicrobial uses in an increasingly competitive global market. Favoured Department of Fisheries and NGO-led interventions include encouraging farmers to use high quality, preferably SPF, PL from the hatcheries (in order to reduce the risk of introduced disease) (Rahman et al. 2018). In the previous section we discussed the difficulties associated with producing quality seed. We now discuss the difficulties and possible paradoxes of implementing these changes on farms."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"Seed, feed, and risk. Tested and SPF seed on farms promises reduced disease risk, increased food security, and improved rural livelihoods, all without the requirement for unsustainable use of antimicrobial or other treatments. However, just as there are difficulties associated with producing the required seed, there is a need to understand the biosocial situations of farmers and ponds in order to appreciate the nature of the AMR challenge."},{"index":5,"size":177,"text":"Disease was a common issue for most farmers, with nearly 85% of farmers reporting a range of diseases in shrimp and prawn in 2017. In contrast to the hatcheries, and despite the high value of the crop, farmers reported very low and in the majority of cases no antibiotic use in their ponds. This may be an artefact of response bias, and in part a reflection of some degree of uncertainty about what various treatments contained. However, low to zero use is consistent with other research (Rico et al. 2013, Ali et al. 2016), with our interviews with supply shop owners and more broadly with the experience of the wider research team in Bangladesh. Antibiotics are certainly freely available, and a viable option for some of the smaller ponds, but at present their use tends to be only as a last resort. As we stated earlier, even small quantities of antibiotics may be significant in terms of resistance risk, but for most farms resistance issues are more probably linked to drivers other than on farm antibiotic use."},{"index":6,"size":81,"text":"On the farms, adapting to disease and disease risks involved two main strategies. First, farmers used their pond and surrounding banks to culture other crops. Spreading risk through polyculture has been encouraged by NGOs and the Ministry for Table 1 Definitions of aquaculture management practices (Source: Jahan et al. 2015, p. 23) NB we have adopted the term improved extensive rather than semi-intensive in order to mirror the terms used in the field and reflect practice in shrimp and prawn cultivation"}]},{"head":"Farming system","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Characteristics Extensive"},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"• depend mainly on the natural productivity of the waterbody for fish growth • minimal or occasional use of low-quality supplemental feeds such as farm by-products, including rice bran, rice products and mustard oil cake • irregular use of fertiliser, particularly organic fertiliser (e.g., cow dung)"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• low level of control over stock management • low stocking density (below 15,000 fingerlings/ha)"},{"index":4,"size":135,"text":"• low level of fish productivity (below 3 t/ha) Semi-intensive/improved extensive • fish nutrition derived from both natural feeds produced in the pond (phytoplankton and zooplankton) and external inputs of supplemental feed such as homemade feed and commercially produced pelleted feed Fisheries in Bangladesh as beneficial for both rural livelihoods and for environmental sustainability. Concurrent or alternate crops of paddy rice and the culturing of various finfish help to provide income and nutrition should the shrimp or prawn crop fail. Almost all of the ponds we visited and surveyed cultivated more than one crop. The effect in terms of productivity can be impressive. For example, finfish production raised the productivity of ponds from an average of 200-300 KgHa −1 for shrimp and or prawn, to over 1100 KgHa −1 once finfish were taken into account."},{"index":5,"size":285,"text":"Second, farmers have developed practical production methods in a system where disease is common. Most of the farms we surveyed (89%) practised multi-stocking, adding PL to a pond at regular intervals throughout the stocking season (from February to August), as frequently as every two weeks, over several months. On the face of it, this is a risky practice, increasing the probability that diseases will be introduced to the pond through contaminated PL and or pond equipment. In comparison, single stocking 'all in all out' practice would reduce disease transmission risks, allow farmers to optimise stocking densities, improve pond sediment and water management (disinfecting between stocking events) and reduce the incidence of cannibalistic predation (older shrimp and prawn tend to feed on juveniles). Yet, despite these extra risks, multi-stocking provides a number of advantages for farmers. In terms of farm finances, it spreads costs and income over longer periods. PL purchase was the largest single running cost for a farm, accounting for on average 45% of farmers' total costs. Regularly buying small amounts of seed enabled farmers to manage their outgoings but also take advantage of falling prices once the key periods of demand and short supply had passed. The result was a reduced reliance on credit (or dadon, where farmers effectively pledge a portion of their harvest in exchange for seed). As others have shown, the credit system in Bangladesh whereby farmers enter into debt bondage effectively results in farmers bearing the greatest production risks (Barmon et al. 2011). Avoiding debt by spreading costs may be a key means to reduce those risks. Regular stocking also allowed farmers to generate income over a longer period and take advantage of any seasonal changes in market prices."},{"index":6,"size":266,"text":"Multi-stocking can also, and at first sight paradoxically, make disease risk more manageable. An 'all in all out' system clearly has advantages in terms of biosecurity, but it comes with increased financial exposure to disease risk when the sum total of a farmer's investment can be lost in a single disease event. Multistocking means that farmers could gradually manage the pond stock and adjust stocking depending on the health status of the ponds. During our fieldwork (2017-2018), farmers spoke of a previously unknown disease or syndrome that tended to affect shrimp just before they reached harvest weight (between 20-35 g). This disease was of particular concern because several months' feed and labour were effectively embodied in the affected stock. If all the stock was derived from one stocking event then it is easy to see how farmers can see this is as a catastrophic risk. Multi-stocking may not change this outcome, but, given the rapid changes that can occur in pond conditions (changing salinity, pH, depth and so on, particularly after the onset of the monsoon), a staggered approach to stocking may increase the chances of producing some kind of harvest. In contrast, a single stocked pond can drive treatment decisions. If the farmer risks losing all their income in a single disease event then they may be more likely to use antimicrobial treatments. When economic and biological margins are at the limit, and a salvage accumulation supply chain militates against traceability, farmers may feel that there is little choice but to attempt to rescue their cash crop through use of antimicrobial or other available treatments."},{"index":7,"size":190,"text":"Finally, multi-stocking is also driven by an undersupply of certified seed and farmers' experience of the relative differences between hatchery conditions and those of the ponds. When we asked farmers about their preferred source of PL (for example whether they preferred the SPF variety or, as some reported, they preferred to use wild caught PL or were happy with untested), the response was generally that, in practice, they tended to buy what was available and affordable. Even when farmers managed to procure tested or disease-free seed, the presence of other seed, finfish stocks (often from wild seed or catches), the conditions of the pond, its salinity, temperature, pH, microbiome, and so on were likely to depart significantly from hatchery conditions and the transport medium (shrimp PL are transported in units of 1000, in a saline medium in plastic bags). Most PL are introduced straight into ponds with no acclimatisation, and the sudden change in environmental parameters can affect morbidity and mortality. Farmers complained that hatchery PL was often weak after transportation. The resulting high mortality meant that restocking became necessary once the survival rate had been gauged by the farmer."},{"index":8,"size":144,"text":"Clearly, seed quality is but one, albeit important, contributor to disease risk. The ways in which farmers managed their ponds in light of seed supply problems and through their adjustments of risks may well offset any promised gains in productivity. As tested and SPF seed can cost up to 6 times the lowest prices for untested PL and with wild seed often preferred for its relative resilience, the rationale for switching to higher end seed was less than clear to some farmers. In adaptive change terms, it is evident that any technical adjustments to seed quality (testing and SPF) need to consider the ways in which farmers secure livelihood from their farms. In the final section, we outline a process through which farmers and other relevant experts were involved in a process of re-framing the issues and developing ways of meeting these adaptive challenges."},{"index":9,"size":118,"text":"Challenging the disease and AMR model: competency groups and AMR One approach to managing disease and AMR risks is to seek to alter farmer behaviour in order that it conforms to a pre-existing model (reducing disease transmission risks as a means to lower future demand for antimicrobial treatments). From what we have said so far, this might profitably involve changing farm practices and educating farmers on the risks of inappropriate antibiotic use. The difficulty from the perspective of compliance with technical changes is that some of these practices are strongly embedded in social ecologies of food production, in what we have characterised as a form of pericapitalist salvage accumulation where farming practices are adapted to frequent disease challenges."},{"index":10,"size":221,"text":"An alternative approach is to work together with farmers and other relevant spokespeople, using collective expertise and experience, in order to generate greater understanding of on farm practices and processes, resulting disease and AMR risks and to identify possible pathways to change. To build on the interview and survey materials generated in the project, we hosted workshops, where farmers were invited alongside others in the sector (supply shop owners, exporters, government officials from the Department of Fisheries) to produce a model of pond processes, including disease and AMR drivers. We ran a process where around 40 farmers, of mixed gender, age, location and background (including some finfish farmers) joined other participants to constitute a competency group (Whatmore, 2009), initially working in smaller mixed groups over 2 days, to populate diagrams with key inputs and conditions that made their ponds work. They followed this by superimposing pathways and stressors that they associated with disease risks (like for example the addition of infected PL, or sudden changes in water depth). Groups then discussed and annotated the emerging diagrams with potential drivers of AMR (including antimicrobial uses, but also commercial and locally produced feed, pesticides and pollution) and its transmission. A composite model of 10 groups' work was generated and discussed by participants in order to make sure it represented their discussions Figs. 4-6."},{"index":11,"size":133,"text":"The result was, predictably, a complex picture of numerous material flows and pressures (from temperature and salinity fluctuations to the role of banks and credit) (Fig. 6). Some parsimony for the emerging 'model' was attempted in terms of participants ranking key processes (and a later stage, not reported here, whereby survey data was used to corroborate key relations) -but the objective here was not the development of a formal process model in what is a heterogeneous and open system. Instead the competency groups generated new questions and issues that required interrogation and testing. In Leach and Scoones' (2013, p. 11) terms, participatory modelling draws \"attention to the importance of diverse forms of knowledge and perspective\" that are sometimes lost from conventional modelling approaches. It is these other knowledges that we draw out here."},{"index":12,"size":212,"text":"Two examples allow us to illustrate the issues, the first relates to disease management and the second to AMR. First, we are used to the idea that disease is a multifactorial issue, an interrelation of pathogen, host and environment that is modulated by social situations (Farmer, 2004, Hinchliffe et al. 2016). Likewise, the interaction of an assemblage of microbes can it seems 'tip' a relatively healthy microbiome into a 'pathobiome', an assemblage of microorganisms and physical pond parameters interacting to produce disease outbreaks (Vayssier-Taussat et al. 2014, Stentiford et al. 2017). We have already suggested that many farmers were implicitly aware of this openness and lack of determinacy, in ways that may explain some reluctance to change the way they face disease risks. Moreover, in highlighting the roles of the availability of money, lack of profit and supply chain arrangements on farmer practices and choices, the groups effectively raised social drivers of risk and disease. Groups could therefore start to explore how the alteration of a risk profile through access to affordable finance would in turn modulate the pond's pathobiome. In other words, we could start to talk sensibly of the sociobiome, which we can define as the assemblage of accumulation and other activities that interact to produce or modulate pond health."},{"index":13,"size":261,"text":"Second, the participatory modellers' expansive diagrams of pond processes opened up the breadth of potential AMR risks. While this mirrors the scientific literature on the multiple drivers of resistance (see earlier), it is generated from a different knowledge baseone rooted in an appreciation of the social and ecological processes that condition a pond. As farmers described their ponds in relation to flows of materials, environmental relations, and stressors, a range of possible sources of antimicrobial compounds became apparent. Competency groups highlighted the use of antimicrobials in hatcheries as a possible source of resistant bacteria. They suspected feeds, particularly commercial pellets, contained antimicrobial compounds. Farmers complained that feed was often of poor quality and would quickly degrade in the hot and humid environment. Companies were increasingly claiming longer shelf-life and enhanced results from using their feeds, something that was likely to signal the off-label addition of antimicrobial compounds into the feed. Some talked of the hard-sell applied by commercial feed and pharmaceutical companies who were keen to push products, including antimicrobials, at farmers and supply shops. Other 'organic' feeds were also thought likely to pose AMR risks. Waste from poultry farms, where antibiotics are used in large quantities, were used to fertilise ponds. The role of detergents and pesticides as potential contributors to resistance were also included in the participatory exercises. Finally, the models highlighted the openness of ponds, with inundation (during monsoon and cyclones), as well as outflow from neighbouring farms, from hospitals and both agricultural and industrial land uses, likely to affect the pathways and potentials of resistance conferring materials."},{"index":14,"size":134,"text":"This appreciation of the openness of ponds to a variety of influences was an important conditioner of farmers' willingness or capacity to adopt technical changes, especially when these involved added costs or made risks less manageable. Farmers were well aware that good seed and good feed would improve their chances of making a profit in an increasingly difficult market. But they also knew that there was no easy fix to disease and resistance risks. If disease did not enter the pond through PL then it would just as likely transmit via predators or emerge as water temperature and salinity fluctuated in the lead up to and following the monsoon. Open systems were open to disease. Similarly, resistance risks could relate to the broader environment and to the operations of feed and farm supply companies."},{"index":15,"size":161,"text":"A final point was that as farmers started to speak, often passionately, about their land, their ponds and the role they have played in Bangladesh's recent history, a different logic emerged from these diagrams. Diagrams shifted from being solely a representation of the multiple hazards that farms faced, to signifying interconnectivity and the strength that came from working with rather than against the landscape. Farmers communicated an attachment to homestead, to farming, to the broader landscape, and an ability to work with the multifaceted aspects of farming in Bangladesh. There was pride in both contributing to Bangladesh's recent economic successes and in Fig. 4 Farmer group mapping out the components of a pond system Fig. 5 Group discussing the composite model making farming a success in a challenging environment. Some spoke of the need to maintain the rich ecology of Bangladesh and to farm in ways that met the needs of the population at the same time as protecting their landscape."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"So what to do with a problem like AMR? Our general, as well as specific answer is that a form of stewardship rooted in a reductionist or 'lite', as well as first world model of social science can prove ineffective in addressing the drivers and pressures that shape the emergence, persistence and transmission of resistance. So, instead of limiting social science to individualised or behavioural interventions, it is necessary to embed all actors, from microbes to people, to markets, within their webs of associations. Once we re-embed hatcheries, ponds, shrimp, farmers, resistomes and pathobiomes in their social ecologies of food production, in salvage accumulation supply chains, in managing risk profiles and economic, as well as biological margins, then the AMR problem is re-framed. In hatcheries, we detailed how, despite the efforts of technicians and others, economic and biological margins result in a continuing reliance on antimicrobials. Where investment is made to reduce this need, the issue becomes the extent to which disease-free seed can be translated to what Kakkar et al. (2018) refer to as an 'invisible cohorts' of pericapitalist small-holders and farmers."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"On the farms, we demonstrated how attempts to secure production without medicalization by improving seed and biosecurity requires an appreciation of how farmers operate and manage in the face frequent disease events. Multi-stocking may contribute to high incidence of disease and poor overall productivity figures. Yet these practices also allow farmers to reduce their exposure to risk of failure. In this sense it may offer the best practicable means of securing an income and reducing the need for antimicrobial treatments. Higher biosecurity associated with single stocking may, paradoxically, increase the pressure to use more treatments. Clearly, better quality seed is to be welcomed, but for the majority of small farmers in Bangladesh, it needs to be made available across the production period at affordable prices in order that any benefits are not masked or undone as farmers top up stock with lower quality PL."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"In developing competency groups and working with farmers to model their farms we highlighted the openness and multifaceted nature of farming, diagramming an array of resistance and disease risks. This appreciation of the multifaceted nature of disease and AMR, and the strategies for farming within that social ecology, underlined the importance of working with, rather than ignoring, farmer experience and expertise (Hinchliffe et al. 2018). Disease management would clearly need to incorporate the expertise and management practices of farmers, while investigations of resistance risks would need to range beyond current antimicrobial uses. The suspicion that commercial, as well as organic feed and fertiliser inputs, pollution, and other elements of the aqueous environment might drive the emergence, transmission and persistence of resistance would require further investigation."},{"index":4,"size":309,"text":"An alternative to an eviscerated or disembedded understanding of social and economic practice is to encourage those with experience and expertise to articulate the issues. This is what we would understand by the significance of engagement and ownership (World Health Organisation, 2005), locally generated evidence (Wellcome Trust, 2016) and a situated analysis of disease, as well as drivers of AMR risks (Hinchliffe et al. 2016, Kakkar et al. 2018). In re-framing the AMR problem, it becomes incumbent on social scientists to develop approaches that allow us to appreciate how 'the social' gets under the skin, into the water, into cells, and formats a resistome or microbiome. Once we have grasped the interrelations between markets, accumulation and the strategies that people, animals and microbes have for living within those conditions, we can start to assess the potential of strategies for reducing the AMR risks in a sustainable fashion. This will involve a clearer understanding of the ways in which antimicrobials become embedded within particular configurations or social ecologies of food production. So, a pursuit of pathogen-free farming, for example, may paradoxically generate the socio-economic conditions for more rather than less antibiotics by altering the ways in which farmers face disease risks. An approach that foregrounds the multifactorial drivers of disease and resistance, the pathobiome and the sociobiome in our terms, involves generating meaningful competency groupings, developing ownership of the issue and a collective specification of where the real gains are to be had. By re-framing the AMR issue as an adaptive challenge, there is an opportunity to question approaches that continue anti-biosis by other means, and instead foster the different kinds of relationships that people have with their microbial and wider environments. Rather than see microbial surplus as a weakness, and without wanting to romanticise or underplay the costs of diseases, improved food production is predicated on these microbial relations."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"World Health Organisation (2005) Policy perspectives on medicines No.10: containing antimicrobial resistance. Geneva, Switzerland World Health Organisation (2015) Global Action Plan on AMR. Geneva, Switzerland"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 2 Fig. 2 A mothballed prawn hatchery in Bagerhat, SW Bangladesh "},{"text":" Fig. 3 Typical 'ghers' in SW Bangladesh -flooded and embanked rice fields used for the cultivation of shrimp "},{"text":"Fig. Fig. The aquaculture pond system output -an open system with multiple pathways and drivers of disease and resistance risk "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"b392b0c6-2acc-4084-925b-deac98538008","abstract":"Widespread antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a threat to public and animal health, and has consequences for the structure and sustainability of food production. The problem is often framed as one of inappropriate antimicrobial use, which drives emergence and selection of resistant microbes. The answer to this framing of the problem is to lower disease incidence and transmission rates, regulate antimicrobial uses and to educate prescribers and users of medicines. In this paper we argue that this seemingly straightforward programme of action is beset by at least two difficulties. First, in many parts of the world, disease dynamics and antimicrobial uses are embedded within biosocially demanding settings. Second, antibiotic use is one among many possible drivers of resistance. We focus on the aquatic environment and aquacultural food production where resistance drivers may relate to a variety of processes. Using interviews, survey data, and participatory modelling exercises with competency groups in Bangladesh's shrimp and prawn aquaculture sector, we demonstrate the need to understand economic and biological drivers of disease, farmer adaptations to disease risks and the potential paradox of pursuing pathogen-free food production as a means to reduce AMR risks. We argue that the AMR problem needs to be framed as an adaptive rather than technical challenge, and involves ownership, change and experimentation across a range of relevant sites."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0a0be6cb3956d67c046bac5a0248e526","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1b1a6f8b-35de-475c-ac00-7aed729e0ee7/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Biophysical potential of crop residues for biochar carbon sequestration, and co-benefits, in Uganda","keywords":["biomass pyrolysis","climate change mitigation","low carbon energy","natural resource management","prospective modeling","scenario analysis","soil carbon","tropical agro-ecosystem"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":283,"text":"Biochar by definition is the organic end product of a pyrolysis process (i.e., thermal decomposition in a low oxygen atmosphere), which is intended specifically for soil amendment. Microbial decomposition of biochar is slow and dependent on the biomass feedstock and pyrolysis temperature; consequently, adding biochar to soil can lock carbon (C) away for several years to centuries (Wang et al. 2016). In experiments with maize-soybean rotations in Kenya, amended with acacia wood char at a rate of 28 kg C/ha, results suggested that 60% of the carbon remained in the top 20 cm soil over a decade, with part of the loss attributable to erosion (Katterer et al. 2019). Other studies with biochar, made from various types of residues, have demonstrated similar or lower rates of carbon retention in soils under intensive crop production (H€ aring et al. 2017(H€ aring et al. , de la Rosa et al. 2018)). In another Kenyan study, the input of charcoal led to a 27% decrease in carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions from maize croplands that had been converted to agriculture several decades prior, and was argued to be a result of enhanced stabilization of plant-derived C (Kimetu and Lehmann 2010). Generally, it is suggested that the inherent stability of pyrogenic organic matter negates its requirement for protection from aggregates and/or clay minerals to be stable, implying that biochar can accumulate higher concentrations of C before a saturation point is reached, in contrast to manure or straw (Smith 2016). Moreover, the addition of pyrolyzed carbon to soil also does not appear to induce significant microbial immobilization of nitrogen (N) in contrast to \"raw\" carbon, which has massive implications for maintaining crop yields (Hood-Nowotny et al. 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":199,"text":"In sub-tropical and tropical agroecosystems, metaanalysis has shown that biochar addition to soils can increase crop yields, on average, by 25%, in stark contrast to temperate regions where observed responses are negligible or slightly negative (Jeffery et al. 2017). This was clearly demonstrated by persistent grain yield increases of maize-soybean rotations in Kenya over 10 yr, without and with minimal inorganic fertilizer input to cereal phases, following a single application of charcoal at the start of the experiment; where mean yield responses amounted to between 0.9-1.3 and 0.3-0.8 Mg/ha for the maize and soybean crop, respectively (Katterer et al. 2019). Responses of grain and residue yields from crops to soil biochar amendment are generally found to decrease with increasing rates of input, and applications as little as 0.5 Mg DM/ha (DM, dry mass) have shown significant positive effects on crop productivity (Liu et al. 2013). The observed gains in crop production likely result from the multiple beneficial impacts of biochar amendment on soil properties, such as the exchange capacity, aggregation, and hydraulic conductivity (Liang et al. 2006, Blanco-Canqui 2017), as well as the poor nutritional status of farmland soils that were studied; which is a widespread phenomenon across SSA."},{"index":3,"size":159,"text":"When organic material is pyrolyzed in a gasifier system and is carbonized, it releases heat and synthetic combustible gases, which can contribute to effectively reducing wood consumption and GHG emissions per unit energy compared to biomass incineration systems (Sanford and Burney 2015). The advantage of pyrolysisbased technologies is that they allow substitution of wood-based fuels with crop residues of low energy density, e.g., straw, chaff, husks, shell, or pruning from crops. Multiple biomass gasification appliances are on the market for households and businesses, offering direct energy savings or income generation. As a rule, the more heat and synthetic gas that is drawn from a feedstock, the less char remains, and the ratios are mainly determined by pyrolysis temperatures, airflows, and feedstock types. Utilization of renewable biomass from crop residues for gasifier energy appliances in unison with soil biochar C sequestration could readily mitigate GHG emissions in farming systems of SSA, while increasing access to energy for households and businesses."},{"index":4,"size":200,"text":"Large numbers of farmers in SSA depend on biomass resources for agriculture and energy, which makes the prospective for biomass gasification systems and biochar amendment to soils very different as compared to those in fully developed economies, which have been previously investigated (e.g., Bach et al. 2016, Amundson andBiardeau 2018). The additional income that could be earned by generating power from waste biomass, as well as increasing crop yields through applications of biochar in farming systems of SSA, could create ample incentives to sequester C in soils for climate mitigation. How much of GHG emissions could be offset via biochar inputs to soils is hotly debated, and relies on the availability of biomass wastes, pyrolytic conditions, and decomposition rates (Schlesinger and Amundson 2018). Residues from staple food crops are an obvious and promising choice for bioenergy and biochar production from a sustainability perspective. Because farmers utilize agricultural wastes for a variety of purposes, like animal fodder, soil surface cover, and construction, not all of it is realistically available for biochar. Therefore, it is critical that we factor in the allocation of biomass resources to estimate how much can be diverted to biochar C sequestration and other benefits in farming systems."},{"index":5,"size":124,"text":"This study assesses the biophysical potential to sequester C in soils via biochar derived from by-product residues of maize, sorghum, rice, millet and groundnut crops in smallholder farming enterprises of eastern Uganda, separately quantifying straw and non-straw fractions (i.e., shanks, chaff, and shells). In so doing, a model-based framework was compiled to determine the amount of C that could be sequestered in soils through biochar made from crop biomass wastes under varying scenarios of competition and decomposition, at both farmer field as well as national production scale. We also derive information about the corresponding rates of biochar amendment to farmlands and quantities of synthetic gas that can be generated for investigating the viability of implementing the technology in agricultural and energy systems of Uganda."}]},{"head":"METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Description study area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Research activities took place over an area of approximately 250 km² in the Lake Kyoga basin situated in eastern Uganda; between 0°45 0 N and 1°05 0 N, and 33°47 0 E and 34°05 0 E (Fig. 1). Altitudes in the study area range from 910 to 1220 m above sea level and the climate is sub-humid, with bimodal precipitation of 900-500 mm and mean annual temperature of 32.5°C. The topography of the landscape is undulating, and pronounced gradients in soil properties are found between individual farmer fields (Appendix S1: Table S1), which may lead to substantial variation of attainable crop yields. Production of cereal and legume crops is the main economic activity in the study area, generating approximately 3% of all maize, millet, sorghum, rice, and groundnut in the country (Fig. 1). Agro-ecological conditions, rates of crop productivity and typologies of farming systems in the study area are representative for other mid-altitude highland regions in the country."}]},{"head":"Characterization of cropping systems and residue allocation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":267,"text":"Farmer associations operating within the study area were contacted at the start of the research project, and they delegated 27 female and 33 male members to attend a 1-d workshop. Discussions with six member focus groups and individual surveys of all 60 farmers were held to identify the major staple crops being grown (Table 1), and select the five crops that were studied. The focus group discussions also led to distinguishing four major classes of biomass usage; fodder, construction, mulching (i.e., soil cover or incorporation), and cooking fuel. Individual surveys were taken during home visits and included semi-structured questions about (1) household composition, education, and sources of income; (2) total area of land and livestock owned by the household; (3) crops cultivated and fertilizer investments over the past three years; and (4) whether or not they allocate individual crop residues to the four major usages. Information provided by farmers was verified by research staff at the homestead after completing surveys. The proportion of respondents that did not indicate using a residue for animal fodder, soil surface cover, or construction was factored in to determine the mean availability of feedstock for biochar at current. Usage of crop residues as cooking fuel was not considered to compete with biochar production since gasifier systems fulfill both purposes. Farmers who did not indicate any of the predetermined residue uses, confirmed that they burned or dumped the residues instead. In parallel to the diverse usage census, we included two notional scenarios of competitive usages, i.e., low, 20% of straw and non-straw diverted; and high, 80% of straw and 50% of non-straw diverted. "}]},{"head":"KEY","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sampling of crops","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":328,"text":"Crop height, stand density, and yield components were measured from 12 farmer fields distributed across the study area to represent the range of soil properties and input management. This sampling was carried out when crops had reached full maturity, taking place from May to July 2016 and 2017. In the first season, sampling was incomplete because part of farmers harvested prematurely due to severe drought (Appendix S1: Table S1). Measurements for groundnut, millet, and rice crops were taken from four quadrats of 1 m 2 for each farmer field, while, for maize and sorghum, two quadrats of 4 m 2 were assessed per field. Within each quadrat, the plant density (PD) was determined, and the height (H) measured for four plants for maize and sorghum, and six plants for millet, rice, and groundnuts. Measurements of plant height were taken from the soil surface up to the base of the tassel for maize, the base of the panicle for millet, sorghum, and rice, and the last terminal leaf for groundnut. The total fresh mass of straw and panicles or pods of rice, millet, and groundnut were determined for each quadrat, and representative subsamples taken for assessing water content. For maize and sorghum crops, biomass samples were collected from four plants in each quadrat, and the fresh mass of its straw and cobs or panicles was measured. All biomass samples were oven-dried at 60°C until reaching steady dry mass (DM). Subsequently, the grain of crops was separated from shanks, chaff (i.e., husks and panicle axis) or pods, and the dry mass of individual fractions was measured. The productivity of grain and residues from rice, millet, and groundnut was computed for individual quadrats in farmer fields by multiplying the total fresh mass with the ratio of the dry to fresh mass of the subsample. The productivity of maize and sorghum, on the other hand, was calculated by multiplying the average mass of one plant from the subsample with the plant count."}]},{"head":"Allometric modelling of crop residue yield","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":181,"text":"Relationships of the total productivity of straw and non-straw biomass with grain yields of crops, as well as plant height and density (Appendix S1: Table S2), were modeled based on linear mixed effect regressions. Data from individual sampling quadrats were used in developing and testing these prospective quantification models, with the random intercepts of models consisting of specific farmer fields. Sets of data were split into two parts by randomly dividing farmer fields, using one half for generating the models and the other to predict total productivity of crop residues. Measured and predicted residue yields from crops were plotted against each other for cross-validating the reliability of allometric models. Residual normal distribution and homoscedasticity of mixed effect models were ascertained by plotting residuals against quantiles and fitted values. The total production of straw and non-straw residues produced by the five studied crops for the whole of Uganda have been calculated using the allometric models based on grain yield drawn from national statistics from 2016 predictions (FAOSTAT 2018). Minimum and maximum values of total residue production were derived from the cross-validated models."}]},{"head":"Conversion of biomass to biochar and fixed carbon","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"Information about the mass conversion of crop residues to biochar and the proportion of fixed carbon in biochar from different types of pyrolysis systems was retrieved from publications of Thomson index journals (Appendix S1: Table S3). These calculations were standardized among crop residues by using the conversion rates and fixed carbon contents recorded at a temperature of 500°C, which falls within the optimal range of pyrolysis conditions. If there were multiple reports of conversion factors for a particular crop residue in literature, we calculated and applied a mean of those values. There was a paucity of peer-reviewed information for chaff from sorghum, and instead, the biochar yield and fixed carbon of its straw was used, whereas conversion factors for chaff and straw of millet were substituted by those from rice. Biochar yields were computed by multiplying the amounts of available crop residues with the proportional mass conversion of biomass to biochar. And, these were further multiplied with the percentage fixed carbon in biochars to calculate the amount of C that is being generated."}]},{"head":"Biochar C sequestration in soil","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The accumulation of C in croplands, achieved through annual biochar inputs from residues of major cropping systems over a period of 50 yr, was simulated by a kinetic model including a labile and stable pool with constant rates of mineralization (Foereid et al. 2011). The amount of biochar C that can be locked in soils under a particular scenario is described by the following equation: "},{"index":2,"size":255,"text":"where BCS is the amount of biochar carbon in soil at time t (Mg C/ha), iBC is the input of biochar carbon at time t (Mg CÁha À1 Áyr À1 ), f is the ratio of labile C in biochar, labBC and recBC are the labile and recalcitrant pool of biochar C in the soil at time t (Mg C/ha), k 1 is the fraction of the labile carbon pool that is mineralized (per year), and k 2 is the fraction of stable carbon pool that is mineralized (per year). Orthogonal crosses with maximum and minimum values of each factor were constructed, based on information outlined in this paper, to demonstrate the limits and variance in the potential for locking away C in soils through biochar. The labile carbon fraction of biochar was, respectively, taken as 3-8%, and with a decomposition rate of 90% per year, whereas loss of C from the stable pool was taken as 2-6% per year. Annual inputs of biochar from crop residues, as well as the labile to stable ratio and decomposition rates, under each of the scenarios were kept constant over time, which possibly leads to conservative estimates. This C balance model does not explicitly account for erosive loss of biochar from soils and hence may overestimate the amounts of C retained at a specific farmer fields. Notwithstanding, the upper limit of coefficient k 2 that was used in simulations has been derived from an experiment where lateral transport contributed to the disappearance of biochar (Katterer et al. 2019)."}]},{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Yields and usages of crop residues in farming systems of eastern Uganda"},{"index":2,"size":233,"text":"The five studied crops are an intrinsic part of bimodal cropping systems in mid-altitude regions of Uganda, and of major importance to food production. Grain yields of the crops are generally one-half or less of reported attainable yields (Fig. 2), which is typical for agroecosystems in SSA, owing to limited access to agricultural inputs and low soil fertility (Sanchez 2010). Straw total biomass yields for maize and sorghum were significantly higher than those of other crops by 0.84-2.47 Mg DM/ha, on average. Rice and millet generated a significant larger amount of straw compared to groundnut, with mean yields amounting to 1.10-1.35 Mg DM/ha more. The quantity of shanks from the maize cobs and chaff from sorghum panicles, in turn, was significantly higher than the yield of non-straw residues from the other crops by 0.32-0.90 Mg DM/ha, on average. Mean productivity of shells by groundnut was significantly higher compared to the quantity of chaff generated by rice and millet, respectively, yielding 0.31-0.35 Mg DM/ha more. Mean straw yields of the five crops in each of the farmer fields and growing seasons varied by 18-28%, whereas the productivity of non-straw residues had a relative standard deviation of 25-38%. These findings demonstrate there can be substantial differences in the total productivity of the staple crop biomass waste at the level of individual farm enterprises, and therefore differences in their availability for biochar and potential C sequestration."},{"index":3,"size":184,"text":"The proportion of farmers that reported using straw residues for animal fodder, building material, and mulching ranged from 61% for maize crops to 8% for groundnut crops, while amounting to 12% for rice husks, 5% for groundnut shells, and zero for maize shanks and sorghum and millet chaff (Table 2). Among the interviewed, 92-98% said their household relied on straw and shanks of maize as fuel for cooking energy using conventional incineration-based stoves, and 10% indicated using sorghum straw or groundnut shells as fuel. Based on these measured usages, straw and chaff from sorghum, on average, provided the largest amount of available biomass among the studied crops, between 1.1-1.8 Mg DM/ha more than residues from maize, rice, and millet (Fig. 2). In its turn, the amount of available maize straw and shanks was significantly greater than that of residues from rice and millet. The availability of residues from groundnut for biochar was the lowest of all crops, this because straw biomass (with C:N ratio <20) does not make an appropriate feedstock for pyrolysis feedstock as it is better directly incorporated into soils or composted."},{"index":4,"size":155,"text":"These findings indicate that substantial amounts of biomass wastes from staple foods are left unused in the studied farming systems and, thus, potentially available for biochar. The apparently low usage of residues is a consequence of the low number of small livestock owned by farmers (Appendix S1: Table S4); this is illustrated by the mounds of rice husks piling around the mills, which could theoretically be fed to poultry or swine. Admittedly, the limited usage of residues for mulching soils in the studied farming systems is ascribed to the low adoption rates of conservation agriculture in Africa (Corbeels et al. 2014). Many farmers in Uganda, and SSA, still incinerate crop residues in the field, easing land cultivation and utilizing the ashes as fertilizer or liming agent. Pyrolyzing biomass wastes from staple crops using gasifier energy appliances that generate biochar can offer a more profitable alternative over incineration for farmers in Level 1 and 2 economies."}]},{"head":"Forecasting of crop residue yields","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":365,"text":"Cross-validation of residue yield predictions based on grain yields demonstrated moderate to good agreement with measured values for each crop across large yield ranges despite the relatively small sample size (Fig. 3). The mean errors on quantifying straw yields based on that of grain amounted to 0.53-0.79 Mg DM/ha for the five crops. For sorghum and rice, the models tend to overestimate measured values at low levels of straw productivity, but otherwise, errors were evenly distributed in this study. Mean errors on non-straw yields quantified based on grain productivity amounted to 0.08-0.23 Mg DM/ha for the five crops. For millet chaff, the model tends to underestimate measured values at high levels of productivity, but otherwise, errors were again evenly distributed in this study. These results demonstrate that the amounts of individual residues produced by the five crops can be reliably forecasted through linear mixed-effect modeling of economic grain yields. Moreover, errors on the prospective quantification of crop biomass wastes stand to be reduced if larger sample sizes are taken than in this study. Applications of our residue forecasting models based on food production data notably extend from quadrat sampling to farmer fields, as well as upscaling of national agricultural statistics. Cross-validation of residue yield predictions according to the density and height of crop stands exhibited poor agreement with actual values for all investigated (Appendix S1: Fig. S1), with mean errors being up to 2.4 times greater than for models based on grain yields. Deviances of residuals for prospective quantification of straw productivity using plant height and density amounted to 0.67-1.31 Mg DM/ha for all investigated crops, whereas errors on non-straw yields measured 0.12-0.36 Mg DM/ha. For sorghum straw, and all residue fractions of rice and millet, these allometric models gravely under-or overestimated actual values, whereas errors on quantifying other crop residues were evenly distributed across the sampled productivity ranges. The poor goodness of fit achieved by this approach can be ascribed to interactive effects of genetic, agricultural, and environmental factors on relationships between plant density and crop growth (Friedman 2016). Forecasting crop residue yields through this approach may be improved by taking larger sample sizes and including more covariates in the models that influence relationships."}]},{"head":"Potential C sequestration in soils with crop residue biochar","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Accumulation of biochar C in soils, simulated based on average yields of crop residues measured in farmer fields, exhibited notable differences between the investigated cropping systems and degrees of competitive resource FIG. 3. Models for prospective quantification of crop biomass yields using grain productivity records. Each plot is showing the goodness of fit between measured and predicted productivity of crop residues. Different symbols display the two subsets of data used for either model development or validation. RSE, residual standard error."},{"index":2,"size":284,"text":"Xxxxx 2019 usage (Fig. 4). Apparent rates of C build-up in farmlands are exponentially diminishing because mineralization coefficients for biochar amendments made over time have been kept constant in this study. Recycling of crop residues as biochar for 50 yr, sequestered an average of 6-27 Mg C/ha in the various cropping systems and scenarios of competitive usage, with a deviation of 4-20 Mg C/ha between simulations with low and high biochar decomposition factors. Based on the allocation of residues measured by the census, maize-groundnut and sorghumgroundnut rotations and rice paddies could sustain biochar C sequestration rates in soils of 0.60-0.97 MgÁha À1 Áyr À1 for 3-23 yr. Residues from millet-groundnut rotations, under the measured availability for biochar, could increase soil C stocks by 0.50-0.60 MgÁha À1 Áyr À1 for 3-8 yr. When competitive usage of crop residues is high, i.e., 80% for straw and 50% for non-straw biomass, the potential rates of biochar C sequestration in each of the four cropping systems are between 0.20 and 0.43 MgÁha À1 Áyr À1 for a period of 2-25 yr. If competitive usage of biomass wastes is low, i.e., 20% for straw and non-straw residues, then maize-groundnut and sorghumgroundnut rotations and rice paddies could sustain biochar C sequestration rates of 0.6-1.15 MgÁha À1 Áyr À1 for a period of 8-31 yr. Biochar derived from residues of millet-groundnut rotations could increase soil C stocks by 0.50-0.67 MgÁha À1 Áyr À1 for 4-14 yr when resource competition is low. These particular findings illustrate that recycling staple crop residues as biochar in eastern Uganda could substantially contribute to sequestering C in soils, and may even exceed the ambitious target set by the \"4 per mille\" strategy (Minasny et al. 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":260,"text":"National-scale production of straw and non-straw residues by the five crops in Uganda, forecasted based on economic grain yield statistics, could generate a total of 0.8-1.0 Tg biochar C annually, under levels of competitive usages measured by the census (Table 3). If there is high competitive usage of residues, then ~0.3 Tg biochar C could be produced countrywide each year, whereas 1.1-1.3 Tg biochar C could be produced if allocation of biomass to fodder, construction, and mulching is low. The total amount of C that could potentially be added to Ugandan soils through biochar from the five crops investigated is, respectively, equal to 0.5-2% of the global per capita footprint of fossil fuel and cement GHG emissions recorded in 2014, or 19-77% of the actual carbon footprint in Uganda (World Bank 2018). At global scale, it is estimated that approximately 2% of anthropogenic GHG emissions could be abated through biochar C sequestration in soils under maximum realistic scenarios (Griscom et al. 2017). The mitigation potential of biochar from unused residues of maize, sorghum, rice, millet and groundnut in Uganda alone, is remarkably close to this value demonstrating the potential of this simple climate solution. Widespread cultivation of the five investigated crops as staple food and bimodal cropping seasons in the country are making it possible to achieve such high rates of soil C sequestration with their biomass residues. Our assessment consequently indicates that circular production and soil amendment of biochar derived from unused crop residues and general biomass wastes may represent an effective strategy for offsetting GHG emissions in Uganda."}]},{"head":"Co-benefits for agriculture and energy","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":281,"text":"Average measured biomass yields from rotations of maize, sorghum or millet with groundnut lead to potential soil biochar amendments of 0.74-2.1 Mg DMÁha À1 Áyr À1 , and 0.80-2.7 Mg DMÁha À1 Áyr À1 for rice paddies, under the various competitive use scenarios. Comparable application rates have been shown to result in immediate gains in crop productivity since input of biochar generally exhibits high efficacy at low rates (Liu et al. 2013). Moreover, long-lasting increases of crop yields that are demonstrated in tropical agroecosystems permit the gradual building up of stocks in soils when availability of residues is low, as is the case for majority of farmers in SSA. The national-scale production of biomass wastes from the five crops in Uganda forecasted based on grain yield statistics illustrates this is a viable transformation pathway leading to soil biochar application and fulfills the remit of sustainable agricultural FIG. 4. Simulated C sequestration in soils of major cropping systems that receive \"circular\" amendment of biochar from residues. Envelope curves illustrate different scenarios of competitive usage for crop residues; i.e., low, 20% of straw and non-straw diverted; measured, allocation indicated by census; and high, 80% of straw and 50% of non-straw diverted. The boundaries of polygons are set by decomposition factors of biochar in peer-reviewed literature, i.e., upper, f = 3%, k 2 = 2% per year; lower, f = 8%, k 2 = 6% per year (f is the ratio of labile C in biochar and k 2 is the fraction of the stable carbon pool that is mineralized every year). Diagonal lines show a constant increase in soil C stocks of 0.6 MgÁha À1 Áyr À1 , the \"4 per mille\" target."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Article e01984; page 8 DRIES ROOBROECK ET AL. Ecological Applications Vol. 0, No. 0 intensification. Increasing the productivity of crops through soil biochar amendment would make more biomass resources available to farmers further improving the fertility of croplands and sequestering C. However, recommendations about effective biochar dosages and coapplication of inputs under heterogeneous conditions in Uganda need to be developed further for optimization."},{"index":3,"size":239,"text":"In addition to generating biochar, the gasification of residues from crops also produces synthesized combustible gasses and heat that can power various energy appliances of rural households and enterprises. Based on average biomass availability in the study area under low to high competitive usage, and gross calorific values of residues from literature ranging between 12.6 and 17.7 MJ/kg, we calculate that the potential energy yield from croplands under rotation of maize, sorghum or millet with groundnut and mono-crop rice is amounting to 10-51 GJÁha À1 Áyr À1 , at a modest conversion efficiency of 50%. Recent surveys in rural households of East Africa suggest mean annual rates of firewood consumption of 440-640 kg per capita (Jung andHuxham 2018, Stoppok et al. 2018). Assuming a gross calorific value of 18.5 MJ/kg for wood biomass, our assessment shows that 0.2-1.2 ha of land is needed to acquire sufficient residues from the one of the four investigated cropping systems to substitute the firewood requirement of one person. At a national scale, the potential energy yield from residues of maize, sorghum, rice, millet and groundnut crops under the scenarios of low to high competitive usage, amounts to 12-49 PJ/yr, going by the above gross calorific values and again 50% conversion efficiency. Based on a gross energy balance, this means that available biomass wastes in Uganda from just the five investigated crops could replace wood fuels consumed by 1.0-6.3 million people in rural communities."},{"index":4,"size":159,"text":"This novel assessment reveals that substantial contributions to mitigating GHG emissions can be made by sequestering C through soil biochar amendments from residues in cereal-legume food systems of eastern Uganda, and elsewhere in the country, despite biomass usage for other purposes. Findings from our study also demonstrate major benefits for agricultural and energy production by diverting available biomass wastes from the investigated staple crops to gasification appliances. The framework we developed for prospective quantification of residue availabilities based their relationships with grain yield and census of competitive usage can be applied elsewhere, if robustly validated and could underpin carbon economy based development specifically in Level 1 economic areas, characterized by high levels of subsistence farming and biomass fuel use. With the help of these tools, it is possible to make a rapid assessment of the biophysical potential of crop residues for amending biochar to soils and generating energy at the level of individual farmer fields up to national scale."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIG. 1 . FIG.1. Map of Uganda showing the total grain production levels of maize, sorghum, rice, millet, and groundnut for individual districts, and the location of our study area. "},{"text":"FIG. 2 . FIG. 2. Biomass productivity and flows of residues for staple crops measured in farming systems of eastern Uganda. On the left of each Sankey diagram is yields of straw and non-straw fractions, and on the right is the allocation of biomass from crops and availability for biochar determined through the household census. The slices in bar chart reflect the proportion of residues going to a particular usage. At the bottom of each graph are the potential rates of biochar and C amendment to soils that were quantified based on mean conversion factors from peer-reviewed literature. Values are means and standard deviations from sampling quadrats. DM, dry mass. "},{"text":" "},{"text":"TABLE 1 . Overview of food crops grown by farmers in the study area. Note: Percentages are based on the census of 60 individuals. Crop Respondents (%) CropRespondents (%) Cassava 100 Cassava100 Maize 97 Maize97 Bean 82 Bean82 Groundnut 82 Groundnut82 Sorghum 74 Sorghum74 Sweet potato 70 Sweet potato70 Soybean 60 Soybean60 Millet 57 Millet57 Banana 49 Banana49 Rice 40 Rice40 Cowpea 22 Cowpea22 Simsim 18 Simsim18 Cotton 5 Cotton5 "},{"text":"TABLE 2 . Allocation of crop residues to major types of use purposes by farmers in the study area. Usage (respondents %) Available for Usage (respondents %)Available for Crop and residue AF CN MI CF biochar † (biomass %) Crop and residueAFCNMICFbiochar † (biomass %) Maize Maize Straw 38 3 20 92 39 Straw383209239 Shank 0 0 0 98 100 Shank00098100 Sorghum Sorghum Straw 13 27 0 10 60 Straw132701060 Chaff 0 0 0 0 100 Chaff0000100 Rice Rice Straw 13 30 5 0 52 Straw13305052 Husk 12 0 0 0 88 Husk1200088 Millet Millet Straw 5 30 8 0 57 Straw5308057 Chaff 0 0 0 0 100 Chaff0000100 Groundnut Groundnut Straw 5 0 3 0 0 Straw50300 Shell 0 0 5 10 95 Shell0051095 "}],"sieverID":"5de0ef44-812a-43f8-b6d2-d81d004b47a1","abstract":"Increasing organic matter/carbon contents of soils is one option proposed to offset climate change inducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, under the auspices of the UNFCC Paris Agreement. One of the complementary practices to sequester carbon in soils on decadal time scales is amending it with biochar, a carbon rich byproduct of biomass gasification. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), there is a widespread and close interplay of agrarian-based economies and the use of biomass for fuel, which makes the co-benefits of biochar production for agriculture and energy supply explicitly different from the rest of the world. To date, the quantities of residues available from staple crops for biochar production, and their potential for carbon sequestration in farming systems of SSA have not been comprehensively investigated. We assessed the productivity and usage of biomass waste from maize, sorghum, rice, millet, and groundnut crops; specifically quantifying straw, shanks, chaff, and shells, based on measurements from multiple farmer fields and household surveys in eastern Uganda. Moreover, allometric models were tested, using grain productivity, plant height, and density as predictors. These models enable rapid and low-cost assessment of the potential availability of feedstocks at various spatial scales: individual cropland, farm enterprise, region, and country. Ultimately, we modeled the carbon balance in soils of major cropping systems when amended with biochar from biomass residues, and up-scaled this for basic scenario analysis. This interdisciplinary approach showcases that there is significant biophysical potential for soil carbon sequestration in farming systems of Uganda through amendment of biochar derived from unused residues of cereals and legume crops. Furthermore, information about these biomass waste flows is used for estimating the rates of biochar input that could be made to farmlands, as well as the amounts of energy that could be produced with gasifier appliances."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0a29668eadc1c99bc42620395893e538","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3fce0148-b9d9-40b8-907a-f8e3eae779db/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Agronomic performance of local and introduced plantains, dessert, cooking and beer bananas (Musa spp.) across different altitude and soil conditions in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":240,"text":"Plantain (Musa AAB), as well as other cooking banana (Musa ABB), East Africa highland banana (Musa AAA-EA) and dessert banana (Musa AAA, AA), constitute the sixth most important global food commodity (FAOSTAT, 2015). They are an excellent food source and in some countries of the world (e.g. in parts of East and Central Africa) they are the principal components of the diet. The all year round fruiting habit of banana puts the crop in a superior position in bridging the 'hunger gap' between annual crop harvests (INIBAP, 1996); therefore, contributing significantly to food and income security of people engaged in its production and trade, particularly, in developing countries. Moreover, banana is considered an important food, because of its chemical composition and high content of vitamins and minerals, particularly potassium (Silva et al., 2002). The pseudostems and leaves are commonly used as mulch in plantations, livestock feed and as wrapping material (Karamura, 1993). Dried leaf bases are extensively used as roofing material for houses, to weave ropes for tethering goats and sheep, and for mattress making (Karamura, 1993;Kamira et al., 2015). In Eastern and Central Africa, banana is commonly grown by small-scale farmers (Bagamba et al., 1999) whose farm size ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 ha. In East and Central Africa banana is mainly cultivated in association with other crops (Nyabyenda, 2006) and its importance is exemplified by the large proportion of land allocated to the crop (Bagamba et al., 1999)."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"A wide variety of Musa genome groups are cultivated worldwide (Pollefeys et al., 2004). This diversity manifests itself in the cultivars that are grown, the way they are prepared, eaten and marketed, and in the systems in which they are produced. Relatively few banana cultivars have moved from the center of origin in Southeast Asia, with the result that the diversity of these plants declines from Asia to Africa to America (Simmonds, 1995). The Great Lakes region covering parts of Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Kenya and Democratic Republic of Congo (DR Congo) is regarded as a secondary centre of diversity for bananas and plantains (Simmonds, 1966). This region is also the largest producer and consumer of bananas in Africa (Smales, 2006), with annual per capita consumption reaching 250 kg, the highest in the world (FAO, 1985)."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"The three major genomic groups under cultivation worldwide are AAA, AAB, and ABB (Simmonds, 1995). Most of the commercial cultivars are triploids and belong to the AAA dessert group. The cultivars grown vary with altitude. For instance, at lower elevations in the Eastern DR Congo and Congo basin, below 1,200 metres above sea level (masl), AAB plantains are mainly cultivated (Dheda et al., 2011;Ocimati et al., 2013). In contrast, in the mid to high altitude regions of Eastern DR Congo (1,200 to 2,000 masl) the East African highland banana types (AAA-EA) predominate (Ocimati et al., 2013)."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"However, above 2,000 masl, the majority of Musa cultivars do not perform well due to the low temperature (Turner et al., 2007;Sikyolo et al. 2013)."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"Banana production in Central Africa is mainly hampered by pests, including nematodes and weevils, as well as diseases (e.g. Xanthomonas wilt of banana [XW], banana bunchy top disease and Fusarium wilt), lack of resistant cultivars, poor soil fertility, and plantation management (Gold et al., 1994;INIBAP, 2003;Speijer et al., 1999;van Asten et al., 2011)."},{"index":6,"size":154,"text":"All the important nematode species that feed on bananas are root parasites which cause lesions, thereby reducing water and nutrient uptake to the upper parts of the plant and also paving the way for other pathogenic micro-organisms (Coyne et al., 2003) to infect plants. Nematodes are found on all varieties of bananas but variation in susceptibility has been observed (Gowen, 1995;Speijer, 1996;Speijer et al., 1999;Kamira et al., 2013). Banana weevils are especially important at the low altitude areas. Weevil larvae primarily destroy the rhizome tissue by tunneling through it as they feed (Gold et al., 2001). Severe weevil damage in the corm leads to a reduction in plant growth and bunch size, and to possible corm snapping due to wind or the weight of the plant (Gold et al., 1994). The weevil has been implicated in the decline and disappearance of highland banana from traditional growing zones in East Africa (Gold et al., 1999)."},{"index":7,"size":126,"text":"Banana Xanthomonas wilt is a devastating disease caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum. It was first officially reported in 1968 in Ethiopia (Yirgou and Bradbury, 1974), where it remained confined until 2001 when the disease appeared in both Central Uganda and the North Kivu province of the DR Congo and all banana cultivars planted in these areas are susceptible to XW (Tushemereirwe et al., 2004;Ndungo et al., 2006). Black leaf streak (BLS), the most important foliar disease in banana, caused by an airborne fungus called Mycosphaerella fijiensis Morelet, reduces functional leaf area and thus can cause yield losses of 30 to 50% (Mobambo et al., 1996;Ploetz, 2004). The majority of exotic bananas, together with all the East African highland bananas, are susceptible to BLS."},{"index":8,"size":83,"text":"One pillar of the Consortium for Improving Agriculturebased Livelihoods in Central Africa (CIALCA)'s intervention strategy in banana-based systems is the introduction of new high yielding, pest and disease resistant Musa cultivars that are highly acceptable to consumers (CIALCA, 2008). Increasing the diversity of Musa germplasm forms an integral part of technology packages intended to overcome a number of biotic and abiotic challenges that hamper banana production in central Africa, a region where few exotic Musa cultivars have been introduced over the past decades."},{"index":9,"size":100,"text":"In this study, the agronomic performance of introduced (exotic landraces and hybrids) plantain, green cooking, dessert and beer cultivars was evaluated against plantains, green cooking and beer landrace cultivars in three sites across South Kivu and four sites across North Kivu in the eastern DR Congo. The introduced cultivars were selected for a range of attributes that include one or more of the following: tolerance to pests and diseases, large bunch size, short to intermediate growth cycle, and ability to serve multiple purposes. Of particular interest was the association between agronomic features of cultivars with the altitude and soil conditions."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Musa germplasm experiments were established in 2007 in different agro-ecological zones with contrasting altitude, soil fertility and rainfall across the Kivu provinces of eastern DR Congo (Tables 1 and 2). These included four sites in North Kivu (Butembo, Maboya, Mavivi and Mutwanga) and three sites in South Kivu (Kamanyola, INERA-Mulungu and Mushweshwe)."},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"Exotic plantain cultivars ('FHIA21', 'Obubit', 'T6'), green cooking ('NARITA 2' (previously 'NSH20'), 'NARITA 4' (previously 'NSH22'), 'Mpologoma'), dessert ('FHIA03'), and a beer cultivar (NARITA 27 (previously 'NSH42')) were planted and evaluated against the local plantain ('Musheba'), local green cooking ('Barhabeshya', 'Matooke', 'Mukingiro', 'Vulambya', 'Mbwazirume'), local beer ('Ndundu', 'Nshika') and dessert ('Gros Michel', 'Dwarf Cavendish', 'Giant Cavendish') cultivars (Table 3). The term 'exotic' is used in this text to refer to plantain and banana hybrids and landraces introduced from regions other than the study locations. The cultivars differ in their growth characteristics, tolerance or resistance to the various Musa pests and diseases (Table 3). The exotic materials from the Bioversity International Transit Centre (ITC) in Leuven, Belgium were multiplied at the Agrobiotech tissue culture lab in Bujumbura, Burundi, while the IITA/NARO hybrids were multiplied at the Phytolabu lab in Bujumbura."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Sword suckers of the local cultivars that served as checks were obtained from the Institut National pour l'Étude et la Recherche Agronomiques (INERA) Mulungu, South Kivu Musa germplasm collection (Table 3), while the highland cooking banana 'Mplologoma' was obtained from Rwanda. Sucker planting material was pared and a 30 cm section of the pseudostem was left on the corm."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"Suckers were planted with a small portion (15 cm) of the pseudostem sticking out of the ground. Hardening of tissue culture (TC) plantlets was done at the INERA Mulungu research station in South Kivu, DR Congo. Three month old TC-derived plantlets (on average 30 cm high) were transported to the various sites in South and North Kivu for subsequent planting."},{"index":5,"size":190,"text":"Fifteen plants of each cultivar (in three replicates of five plants) were planted at each experimental site. Plants were spaced at 3 × 2 m, providing a density of 1,667 plants/ha. The size of the planting hole was 60 × 60 × 60 cm and 10 kg of decomposed cow manure was applied in each planting hole at planting. Weeding was carried out at three-monthly intervals, while de-suckering and de-leafing of dead leaves was practiced on a case-by-case basis. Three plants were kept per mat (that is, parent, first ratoon and second ratoon). Mulching was carried out at the beginning of each dry season. Where necessary, forked wooden sticks were used to support mature plants with heavy bunches to prevent toppling. The geographical coordinates of each experimental site were recorded using a GARMIN Global Positioning System (GPS) unit (Table 1). In addition, composite soil samples (0 to 30 cm soil layer) were collected at each location to determine soil physical and chemical characteristics (Table 2). Rainfall data (Table 1) were derived from radar images and were provided by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture's Climate Change, Agriculture, Food Security programme."},{"index":6,"size":189,"text":"Banana growth and yield data were collected and averaged over three cropping cycles (that is,plant crop cycle, 1st ratoon and 2nd ratoon). Data collected during each cycle comprised plant performance indicators at flowering (plant height, pseudostem circumference at soil level and at one metre above soil level and number of functional leaves) and at harvest (bunch weight, number of fruits per bunch, average number of fruits per hand, number of hands per bunch, average fruit length of the second lowest hand) and number of days from planting to flowering and from planting to harvest. Plant height was measured from soil level to the point where the leaf petioles of the youngest two leaves intersect, while the total number of functional leaves was determined by counting all the existing green leaves on a plant. The functional leaves had at least 50% green leaf lamina surface area. Mature bunches were harvested when the fingers of the second lowest hand had attained a round shape (Nguthi et al., 1999). Bunch weight was measured with a spring balance. Average annual production was calculated using the formula described by Gaidashova et al. (2008) as:"},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"Average annual production = Bunch weight/number of days to harvest × 365 × plant density ha -1 where 365 is the number of days in a year."},{"index":8,"size":135,"text":"Statistical analysis was carried out using Statistics Analysis System (SAS) (SAS Institute Inc., 2008). The General Linear Model procedure was used to analyze the data and the Tukey's student range test was used for multiple comparisons. Averages for various growth and yield traits were computed across the three cropping cycles. Soil, weather and plant growth and yield attributes across the cultivars were subjected to a principal component analysis (PCA) using GenStat statistical software (GenStat, 2008) to determine the most important variables that influenced bunch yield (kg), time to flowering (days), time from flowering to harvest (days) and production (t ha -1 year -1 ). To further our understanding of the effect of altitude, association plots between altitude and bunch weight, time from planting to flowering, time from flowering to harvest, and total production were developed."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Yield across banana use groups and sites was affected by a combination of factors that included soil characteristics, altitude and plant attributes (Tables 1 and 4, Figures 1 to 5)."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Significant variations (P < 0.05) in agronomic performance within plantain cultivars (AAB and AAAB genomes), green cooking (AAA-EA), dessert (AAA and AABB) and beer (AAA-EA and other AAA) banana cultivars was observed within and across sites for plant height, pseudostem girth, number of leaves, crop cycle duration and all yield parameters (Tables 5 to 9)."}]},{"head":"The effect of altitude, soil and plant characteristics on plant performance and yield","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"A principle components analysis to determine the contribution of altitude, soil and plant characteristics on plant performance and yield revealed that soil characteristics had the highest contribution to the variation in banana yields (Table 4) across sites. The first, second and third PCs had eigenvalues > 1 and contributed 35, 28 and 18%, respectively to the total variation in the data set while combined together they accounted for 81% of the total variation. PC 1 was mainly influenced by organic matter and soil macro-nutrient content, that is, phosphorus, potassium and nitrogen levels. PC 2 was mainly influenced by soil pH, calcium and magnesium. PC 3 was explained by the yield attribute, the number of hands on a bunch and the growth characteristics (that is, plant girth and height) of the banana cultivars. Altitude (PC 2) contrasted with soil fertility content, pH and the banana growth and yield attributes (Table 4)."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"The principal component plot for bunch weight separated each location, with Mulungu showing the strongest positive association with K, N, OM and P concentrations in the soil and bunch weight. In soils with lower concentrations of K, N, P and OM, the association between bunch weight and Ca, Mg and pH became more apparent. Altitude had a negative association with bunch weight, particularly when N, K, P and OM concentrations are low. Within each site there is a slope of the plots towards the upper left section of the graph (Figure 1). This may reflect the consistent effect of soil fertility across the range of genotypes at each site."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"The principal component plot for time from planting to bunch emergence divides the sites into five groups. Mulungu has a high association between time from planting to bunch emergence and soil N, P, K, and OM concentrations. Mavivi falls low on the PC1 axis with expected low concentrations of N, P, K and OM, but with large plants, and these features are associated with an increased time from planting to bunch emergence and low suckering. Maboya had a strong association with soil pH, Ca and Mg. The fourth group of sites straddles the PC1 axis close to the origin, but is spread along the PC2 axis. Here at moderate fertility the stronger associations between plant size (girth and height) and time from planting to bunch emergence appear."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"Altitude did not significantly influence the time from planting to bunch emergence, while it influenced bunchweight and production (Figures 2 and 3). Since higher altitudes are associated with cooler temperatures that slow the development of bananas, one would expect an association between altitude and time from planting to Race 1 and 2 [1, 2] , black leaf streak (BLS) [1,2] ; susceptible to nematodes [2] , large bunch size [2] ; moderately resistant to BBTD [3] ."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"x 8] , BLS and nematodes [5,8] , resistant to Foc (all Races) [6,8] x susceptible to banana weevils [4,5,8] , BLS and nematodes [8] x"},{"index":6,"size":229,"text":"x x Mpologoma (AAA-EA) Landrace Rwanda + Large bunch size and very palatable [4] ; susceptible to banana weevils [5,8] ; BLS and nematodes; resistant to Foc (all Races) [6,8] x x x x x FHIA03 (AABB) Hybrid FHIA and ITC, Leuven, Belgium Short production cycle, large bunch size [2,7] ; susceptible but tolerant to Foc Race 4 [2,3,10,11] ; resistant to BLS [3,11,12], partially resistant to nematodes [3,11 ] x Susceptible to banana weevils, BLS and nematodes [5,8] ; resistant to Foc (all Races) [5,6,8] x x x Nshikazi (AAA-EA) Landrace Local Susceptible to banana weevils, BLS and nematodes [5,8] ; resistant to Foc (all Races) [5 6,8] x x x 'X' denotes included at the experimental site; '*ITC': Bioversity International Transit Centre, K.U. Leuven, Belgium; #: A, B, C, D, E, F and G, respectively denote Mulungu, Mushweshwe, Kamanyola, Maboya, Mavivi, Mutwanga and Butembo; + : Suckers were used for planting materials obtained locally and from Rwanda. Citations: 1 = Castillo ( 2002 bunch emergence to be present in the PCA. A plot of the time from planting to bunch emergence against altitude (using data from Tables 5, 7, 8 and 9) resulted in variable data and the linear regression gave an R 2 of 0.045, indicating no association. However, when a polynomial line was fitted to the data the R 2 increased to 0.29 (Figure 4)."},{"index":7,"size":54,"text":"To further evaluate the association between altitude and development, altitude was plotted against the time from bunch emergence to harvest. As expected, and in line with for example Sikyolo et al. (2013), an increased fruit filling phase was observed with increasing altitude (Figure 5), with an R 2 of 0.30 for a polynomial function."},{"index":8,"size":30,"text":"The fruit filling phase is likely to be largely free of the effect of early or late suckering that is likely to influence the data on planting to bunch emergence."}]},{"head":"Performance of exotic and local plantain cultivars","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The cultivar 'T6' had the highest mean plant height (316 cm) and girth (75 cm), while 'FHIA21' had the smallest plant height (287 cm) and girth (69 cm) across the sites. Altitude did not have a consistent effect on plant height or girth. In general, the cultivar 'Musheba' had the highest mean number of functional leaves (8.8 leaves), while the In bold are the scores that contribute most to the variation within the PC."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"least were noted in 'Obubit' (Table 5). The highest number of functional leaves was recorded at Kamanyola, that has lowest altitude (900 masl), although no consistent trend was observed with increasing altitude."},{"index":3,"size":299,"text":"Generally the cultivars took longer to mature at the high altitude sites. For example the fastest developing plantain cultivar was 'T6' recorded at the low altitude site at Mavivi (1066 masl; flowering at 373 days and harvested at 502 days) followed by 'Musheba' at Kamanyola (900 masl; 546 days to harvest). 'Obubit' and 'FHIA21', respectively had the longest time to flowering at the high and mid altitude sites at Mulungu (1707 masl; 580 days) and Mushweshwe (1528 m; 579 days). The mid altitude sites of Maboya (1412 masl) and Mushweshwe, characterized by high erosion and poorer soils (Table 2), generally recorded long crop cycles. For example, 'T6' and 'FHIA21' took the longest time from planting to harvest at Maboya (727days) and Mushweshwe (741days), respectively (Table 5). 'Musheba' (36.6 kg), 'T6' (34.3 kg) and 'Obubit' (33.2 kg) had the heaviest bunch weights at the low altitude Mavivi (1066 masl) site, followed by 'Musheba' (32.1 kg) at the low altitude Mutwanga (1111 masl) site (Table 5). The bunch weights of the local cultivar 'Musheba' and the exotic cultivars 'T6' and 'Obubit' at these low altitudes did not differ significantly at P<0.05. These cultivars generally outperformed 'FHIA21' at low altitudes (Mutwanga, Mavivi and Kamanyola), whereas 'FHIA21' outperformed them at the mid to high altitude sites at Butembo (1815 masl), Maboya, Mulungu and Mushweshwe (Table 5). Similar trends to those in the bunch weight were observed in the other bunch attributes, that is, number of hands per bunch, number of fingers/fruits per bunch and finger length (Table 5). Across all the plantain cultivars, except 'FHIA 21' for which altitude was positively correlated with plant height (R 2 = 0.35) and bunch weight (R 2 = 0.74), low correlations (-0.01 to 0.29) were observed between altitude and all growth and yield attributes (Table 6)."}]},{"head":"Performance of local/regional and hybrid green cooking banana cultivars","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Among the green cooking cultivars, 'Barhabeshya' (359 cm) recorded the highest plant height, though 'Mukingiro' (415 cm) and 'NARITA 2' (408 cm) had above average heights at Butembo (1815 masl) and Mavivi (1066 m), respectively. 'Matooke' (231 cm) was the shortest cultivar (Table 7). Plant height generally increased with increasing altitude across all the cultivars evaluated except for 'Mpologoma' (Table 6). However, significant increases in plant height were only observed in 'Barhabeshya' (R 2 =0.96) and 'Mbwazirume' (R 2 =0.67). The largest mean pseudostem girth at soil level was recorded for 'Barhabeshya' (83 cm) followed by 'Mbwazirume' (82 cm) and the least in 'Matooke' (71 cm) (Table 7). Except for 'Mbwazirume' (R 2 =0.86), plant girth generally increased with altitude (Table 6)."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"On average, the introduced cultivar 'Mpologoma' (11.3 leaves) had the highest mean number of functional leaves at flowering followed by 'Barhabeshya' (11.0 leaves) and the least in'Mukingiro' (6.4 leaves)."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Mushweshwe (mid altitude) followed by Kamanyola (low) generally had the highest number of leaves (Table 7). Apart from 'Matooke' whose leaves increased with altitude (R 2 =0.42) and 'NARITA 4' whose number of leaves profoundly declined with altitude (R 2 =-0.33), leaves in other cultivars were not significantly impacted impacted by the changes in altitude (Table 6).Generally the time to harvest increased with altitude except for 'Mpologoma' (Tables 6 and 7)."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"The lowest time to maturity was generally recorded at the lowest altitude site in Kamanyola (900 m) for the cooking cultivars. 'Mpologoma', an 7). 'NARITA 4' took generally longer to mature at the mid to high altitudes compared with the low altitudes (Table 7)."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"The local cultivar 'Barhabeshya' at 33 kg bunch weight had the heaviest bunch. Generally bunch weight, number of hands and fingers per bunch, and finger length were higher at the low altitude sites (Table 7) and declined with increasing altitude. The bunch weights of 'Barhabeshya' (R 2 = 0.99) and 'Mbwazirume' (R 2 = 0.74) were most strongly correlated with altitude while 'Matooke' (R²= 0.09) and 'NARITA 4' (R²= 0.15) showed no linear association (Table 6)."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"The heaviest bunches averaging 39 kg were recorded in 'NARITA 4' at Mavivi. Similarly 'NARITA 4' bore the highest mean number of hands per bunch (12.3) and fruits per bunch (234), and had longer fruits (22.6 cm) at this site (Table 7). High bunch weights were also obtained from 'NARITA 2' at both Mutwanga (37.3 kg) and Mavivi (35.8 kg)."},{"index":7,"size":47,"text":"At Kamanyola (900 m), the lowest altitude site, 'Barhabeshya' equally had a good bunch weight of 37.2 kg and number of hands (10.3) per bunch. 'Matooke' and 'NARITA 2' had the poorest performance at Maboya, yielding mean bunch weights of 17.3 and 17.0 kg, respectively (Table 7)."}]},{"head":"Performance of local and hybrid dessert banana cultivars","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"'Gros Michel' (374 cm), followed by 'Giant Cavendish' (349 cm) were the tallest, with the shortest plants (193 cm) observed in the 'Dwarf Cavendish' cultivar (Table 6). Plant height declined with increasing altitude across all cultivars. 'FHIA03' had the largest mean girth (90 cm) at soil level compared with other dessert banana types (Table 6). Girth declined with altitude only in FHIA03.The number of functionalleaves at flowering varied between 11.8 leaves in 'Gros Michel'and 8.5 in 'Giant Cavendish'. There was no significant correlation between the number of functional leaves and altitude in 'Giant Cavendish', 'Dwarf Cavendish', 'FHIA03' or 'Gros Michel'."},{"index":2,"size":204,"text":"Crop cycle duration generally increased with altitude across the cultivars (R 2 = 0.38 to 0.99). For example, the shortest times to flowering of 390, 410 and 435 days were recorded for 'Gros Michel', 'Giant Cavendish' and 'Dwarf Cavendish', respectively at the lowest altitude site of Kamanyola (900 m). 'FHIA03' was the best performing cultivar in terms of time to flowering and maturity at the higher altitude sites (Table 6). 'FHIA03' (30 kg) and 'Gros Michel' (29 kg), respectively had the heaviest bunch weights, with the lightest in 'Giant Cavendish'. The heaviest bunches were recorded at the low altitude sites of Mavivi, Kamanyola and Mutwanga. Except in 'Gros Michel', where bunch weight significantly (R 2 =0.88) increased with altitude, bunch weight in the other three cultivars showed no significant correlation with altitude (Tables 8 and 9). 7). Plant height significantly increased with increasing altitude in 'Ndundu' (R 2 = 0.7) and 'Nshika' (R 2 = 0.9) while not significantly (R 2 = 0.01 to 0.2) for 'Yangambi Km5'and 'NARITA 27'. The pseudostem girth in 'Nshika' significantly (R 2 = 0.64) declined with the altitude whereas the other cultivars were not affected. The number of functional leaves in 'Yangambi Km5' was not correlated with altitude."},{"index":3,"size":165,"text":"The banana beer cultivar 'Ndundu' (AAA-EA) took the shortest time to flower (417 days) and to reach harvest (535 days), while 'Nshika', with 531 and 653 days to flowering and harvest respectively, took the longest time (Table 7). The time to harvest generally increased with increasing altitude across the cultivars. 'Nshika' (R 2 = 0.98) followed by 'Yangambi Km 5' (R 2 = 0.83) were more sensitive to the changes in altitude while 'NARITA 27' (R 2 = 0.18) was least sensitive. 'NARITA 27' yielded the heaviest bunches (30 kg), and greatest number of hands and fingers and the longest finger length. In contrast, the lightest bunch weight was recorded in 'Yangambi Km5' (21 kg). It was noticed that bunch weight significantly increased with increasing altitude in 'Ndundu' (R 2 = 0.89), while it declined for 'Nshika' (R 2 = 0.56). Yields in other cultivars, 'Yangambi Km5' (R 2 = 0.12) and 'NHS42' (R 2 = 0.01) (Table 8) were not significantly associated with altitude."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":758,"text":"The different banana cultivars (exotic and local, Table 3) generally responded differently across the three South Kivu sites and four North Kivu sites in eastern DR Congo. The PC results suggest that both soil factors, especially the level of soil pH, OM, N, P, K, Ca and Mg in the soil and altitude influenced bunch attributes and thus yield of the cultivars. Yield generally increased with increase in OM, N, P, K, Ca and pH. High OM, N, P, K and Ca have been reported to be vital for the growth of the banana plant. A high Ca and OM is reported to improve the availability of P that is easily fixed in the soil under low pH conditions (Pessarakli, 1999). It is thus not surprising that increasing pH was also observed to improve bunch yields. In addition to making P available to the banana plant, higher pH also improves the growth of banana roots, thus improving nutrient and water uptake by plants (Pessarakli, 1999). Altitude was observed to have a negative association with bunch weight, particularly when N, K, P and OM concentrations are low. This could be attributed to the fact that most assimilates go towards sucker development at the high altitudes (Sikyolo et al., 2013;Turner et al., 2016). The relationship between altitude and time from planting to flowering had a non-linear relationship, with the time from planting to flowering observed to decline at high altitudes. It is understood that PCA uses linear regressions and the curvilinear response may appear as misleading. The planting to bunch emergence data are the means for three crop cycles and will be influenced by the effect of altitude on the time when the ratoon crop began to grow. High altitudes cause bananas to produce suckers at an earlier stage of development compared with plants grown at lower elevations (Sikyolo et al., 2013;Turner et al., 2016). Thus the time from planting to bunch emergence (flowering) when averaged over a number of crop cycles is likely to be different from the data obtained for that cultivar and location for the plant crop. The plant crop data may more accurately show a relationship between altitude and time from planting to bunch emergence than data combined for three crop cycles. For example, time from planting to flowering has been shown to increase with altitude in the plant crop (Sikyolo et al., 2013). This is further strengthened by the fact that the fruit filling phase increases linearly with altitude, that is, is largely free of the effect of early or late suckering that is likely to influence the data on planting to bunch emergence.The performance of the plantain cultivars was influenced by both the altitude and the prevailing soil conditions. Plantains have been reported to grow best at lower elevations (<1200 masl) (Sebasigari, 1985). However, a few plantain cultivars are also found at higher elevations in eastern DR Congo. Vitousek et al. (1994) reported increased rates of soil mineralization along a decreasing elevation gradient which was most strongly associated with altitude, influencing banana production. Despite the ability of plantains to grow in a wide range of soils, optimum nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus are needed to satisfy plant requirements for profitable production (Zake et al., 2000). The introduced plantain cultivars 'T6' and 'Obubit' had good yields comparable to 'Musheba', the local check, at the low altitude sites in this study. These cultivars in addition to having heavier bunches, had shorter production cycles. A shorter crop cycle gives a higher annual yield (Gaidashova et al., 2008) and this is one of the traits desired by farmers. In contrast, 'FHIA21' was better adapted to the mid and high altitude sites, outperforming the local check 'Musheba' and the other introduced plantain cultivars. Plantain cultivars 'Obubit' and 'T6' can therefore be promoted with a good level of acceptance in the low altitude areas whereas 'FHIA21' can be promoted at the high altitude sites among the communities in eastern DR Congo. 'FHIA 21', 'Obubit' and 'Musheba' also yielded acceptable bunch sizes of above 25 kg at Butembo (1815 masl); and 28 kg at Mutwanga (1049 masl) (Tables 1 and 4). These mean bunch weight are slightly higher than plantain yields of 24 kg per bunch previously reported in Mutwanga (Ndungo Vigheri, personal communication, 2011). Butembo and Mutwanga have a favourable microclimate with excellent volcanic-derived soils with high potassium concentration (Table 2). Optimum potassium is especially vital for vigorous growth of banana as it increases uptake of other essential elements such as nitrogen and phosphorus (Twyford and Walmsley, 1973;Bolanos et al., 2003)."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"All the green cooking cultivars examined were outperformed by 'Barhabeshya' the local check. Other cooking cultivars with relatively good yield were the local cultivars 'Mukingiro' and 'Matooke' and the introduced cultivar 'NARITA 2'. Yield of the cooking cultivars was influenced by the interaction between the soils and altitude. For example, a high correlation was observed between altitude and bunch weight in 'Barhabesha' and 'Mbwazirume' (Table 8). 'NARITA 4' only performed well at the low altitude site of Mavivi that has good soil physical characteristics and abundant and well distributed rainfall."},{"index":3,"size":170,"text":"The performance of the dessert cultivars was influenced by changes in altitude, soil conditions and genotype. For example, the number of functional leaves increased with increasing altitude in the 'Cavendish' types, while it declined in 'Gros Michel' and 'FHIA03'. These cultivars generally performed poorly at Maboya, with characteristic poor soils. This is consistent with Bolanos et al. (2003) who observed that sufficient soil nutrients are essential in obtaining higher total fruit weight and consequently heavy bunches. The introduced hybrid 'FHIA03' significantly outperformed the other cultivars in bunch weight. Dela Cruz et al. (2008) described 'FHIA03' as a cultivar that can be grown in diverse soil types, tolerant to prolonged drought, and grows well between 0 and 1,500 m. The intermediate height of 'FHIA03' plants and robust pseudostem are desirable traits in the hilly areas where plants are prone to toppling or pseudostem breakage due to wind. Bunch weights in 'Gros Michel' increased with altitude, suggesting that it could establish well at these high altitudes with reduced pest and disease problems."},{"index":4,"size":173,"text":"The beer cultivar 'Ndundu' was more vigorous, despite the introduced cultivar 'NARITA 27' having the best bunch yields and an intermediate crop cycle length. 'NARITA 27' also had several hands and long fingers, in addition to not being significantly impacted by the changes in altitude. These attributes make the cultivar ideal for all the evaluated altitudes. 'Nshika' was the best performing local cultivar for the low altitude sites. It had yields matching that of 'NARITA 27' at the low altitude sites. 'Nshika' has been reported as a productive banana cultivar (Dowiya et al., 2009) occupying over 68% of the landscape (Ocimati et al., 2013) across South Kivu. However, the yield of 'Nshika' was observed to decline with increasing altitude, suggesting it is better adapted to the low altitude sites. 'Ndundu' was more adapted to the high altitude sites (with yields matching that of 'NARITA 27' and 'Nshika' at low altitudes). This beer cultivar could thus be selectively promoted at the high altitude sites. Furthermore, 'Nshika' and 'Ndundu' benefit from their shorter production cycles."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"The results of this study indicate that the tested cultivars are all excellent in terms of yield, even though altitude and soils differently influenced their performance. For instance, at the Mavivi site, all plantains yielded bunch weights ranging from 33.2 kg ('Obubit') to 36.6 kg ('Musheba'). Beer cultivar 'Nshika' is more adapted to low altitudes while 'Ndundu' is adapted to the high altitude sites. In Mutwanga, all dessert cultivars yielded heavy bunches averaging between 27.4 kg ('Dwarf Cavendish') to 41.9 kg ('FHIA03'). 'Musheba' (plantain), 'Barhabesha' (green cooking), 'FHIA03' (dessert) and 'NARITA 27' (beer) were not significantly impacted by altitude. These variations in cultivar adaptability can be exploited by selectively promoting cultivars in specific agro-ecologies/ niches (as influenced by altitude and soils) to which they are more adapted."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"Cultivar attributes such as height, pseudostem girth and leaf production can also be exploited. For example, 'FHIA21' (plantain), 'Matooke' (cooking), 'Dwarf Cavendish' (dessert) and 'NARITA 27' (beer) have short heights, a desirable trait for easy harvesting and areas prone to strong winds. 'Musheba' (plantain), 'Mpologoma' (cooking), 'FHIA03' (dessert) and 'Ndundu' (beer) have the shortest cropping cycles -an important criteria for farmers in selecting cultivars to grow. Furthermore, in comparison with other cultivars, it was noticed that plantains yielded relatively heavy bunches averaging 17.4 kg to 23.4 kg in Maboya, despite this being the site with the lowest soil fertility."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" ); 2 = Vezina and Van den Bergh (2016); 8 = Vezina (2016); 3 = dela Cruz et al. (2008); 4 = Ocan et al. (2008); 5 = Gold et al. (1999); 6 = Molina et al. (2010); 7 = Daniells (2000); 9 = Tushemereirwe et al. (2015); 10 = Ndungo (1997); 11= FHIA factsheet; 12= Krauss et al. (1999). "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Plot of principal component 1 and 2 for banana yields (A) and time from planting to flowering (B) for 19 different banana cultivars, across 7 different sites in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Variation in bunch weight (kg) with altitude across 19 cultivars, three crop production cycles and 7 experimental sites in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Variation in production (t/ha/y) with altitude across 19 cultivars, three crop production cycles and 7 experimental sites in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Variation in time from planting to flowering (days) with altitude across 19 cultivars, three crop production cycles and 7 experimental sites in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Variation in time from planting to flowering (days) with altitude across 19 cultivars, three crop production cycles and 7 experimental sites in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Site location, altitude and annual rainfall. Region Site Latitude Longitude Altitude ( RegionSiteLatitudeLongitudeAltitude ( "},{"text":"masl)* Annual rainfall (mm) Kamanyola S 2.72 E 29.01000 900 1293 KamanyolaS 2.72E 29.010009001293 South Kivu Mulungu S 2.3345 E 28.79197 1707 1043 South KivuMulunguS 2.3345E 28.7919717071043 Mushweshwe S 2.31161 E 28.89186 1528 1043 MushweshweS 2.31161E 28.8918615281043 Butembo N 0.11786 E 29.25869 1815 1058 ButemboN 0.11786E 29.2586918151058 North Kivu Maboya Mavivi N 0.25019 N 0.56903 E 29.32986 E 29.47894 1412 1066 1275 1389 North KivuMaboya MaviviN 0.25019 N 0.56903E 29.32986 E 29.478941412 10661275 1389 Mutwanga N 0.32942 E 29.73389 1111 1004 MutwangaN 0.32942E 29.7338911111004 *masl: Metres above sea level. *masl: Metres above sea level. "},{"text":"Table 2 . Soil characteristics of the sites. Region Site Om (%) pH N (%) ( P RegionSiteOm (%)pHN (%)(P "},{"text":"mg/kg) Ca (cmolc/kg) Mg (cmolc/kg) K (cmolc/kg) Soil texture Kamanyola 5.3 6.3 0.24 3.4 7.37 1.63 0.24 Sandy clay Kamanyola5.36.30.243.47.371.630.24Sandy clay South Kivu Mulungu 7.2 6.2 0.32 118.9 6.16 1.08 0.83 Heavy clay South KivuMulungu7.26.20.32118.96.161.080.83Heavy clay Mushweshwe 4.8 5.5 0.22 12.4 1.40 0.42 0.46 Mushweshwe4.85.50.2212.41.400.420.46 Butembo 4.8 5.9 0.25 28.1 2.72 0.75 0.49 Sandy clay Butembo4.85.90.2528.12.720.750.49Sandy clay North Kivu Maboya Mavivi 6.0 3.6 5.0 6.5 0.30 0.20 6.1 4.4 0.81 3.98 0.18 0.51 0.09 0.16 Clay Sandy loam North KivuMaboya Mavivi6.0 3.65.0 6.50.30 0.206.1 4.40.81 3.980.18 0.510.09 0.16Clay Sandy loam Mutwanga 5.0 6.0 0.26 30.0 3.90 1.05 0.26 - Mutwanga5.06.00.2630.03.901.050.26- "},{"text":"Table 3 . Cultivar use, genome group, type, origin and presence across experimental sites in South and North Kivu, Eastern DR Congo. Origin of Cultivar characteristics South Kivu North Kivu Origin ofCultivar characteristicsSouth KivuNorth Kivu Use Cultivar (genome group) Type planting material and tolerance/ resistance to pests and diseases A B C D E F G UseCultivar (genome group) Typeplanting materialand tolerance/ resistance to pests and diseasesA B C D E F G Resistant to Fusarium (Foc) Resistant to Fusarium (Foc) FHIA21 (AAAB) Hybrid (French type plantain) FHIA and ITC*, Leuven, Belgium FHIA21 (AAAB)Hybrid (French type plantain)FHIA and ITC*, Leuven, Belgium Plantain Plantain "},{"text":"Table 3 . Contd. Burundi (TC Moderately resistant to BBTD but Burundi (TCModerately resistant to BBTD but Giant Cavendish (AAA) Landrace lab, Agrobiotech) susceptible to sigatoka diseases, and Foc Race 4 [3] x x x x x x x Giant Cavendish (AAA) Landracelab, Agrobiotech)susceptible to sigatoka diseases, and Foc Race 4 [3]x x x x x x x Burundi (TC Short stature, moderately Burundi (TCShort stature, moderately Dwarf Cavendish (AAA) Landrace lab, Agrobiotech) resistant to BBTD, susceptible to BLS and Foc Race 4 [3] x x x x x x x Dwarf Cavendish (AAA) Landracelab, Agrobiotech)resistant to BBTD, susceptible to BLS and Foc Race 4 [3]x x x x x x x Dessert Gros Michel (AAA) Landrace Local Very palatable; moderately resistant to BBTD and nematodes, susceptible to Foc Race 1 [3] DessertGros Michel (AAA)LandraceLocalVery palatable; moderately resistant to BBTD and nematodes, susceptible to Foc Race 1 [3] "},{"text":"Table 4 . Principle component (PC) scores for eleven variables that influenced the yield of 19 banana cultivars in multilocational trials across 7 different sites in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo during 2007-2011. Variable Variable "},{"text":"Table 5 . Plant performance traits of plantain (Musa AAB genome group) cultivars at flowering and harvesting stages, averaged per site. Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different at P<0.05. Plant performance traits at flowering Crop cycle duration (days) Plant performance traits at harvest Plant performance traits at floweringCrop cycle duration (days)Plant performance traits at harvest Genotype Site (Altitude) Height (cm) Girth at base (cm) Functional leaves at bunch emergence Time to flowering Time to harvest N° hands N° fingers Finger length (cm) Bunch weight (kg) Production (Tonnes.ha -1 per year) GenotypeSite (Altitude)Height (cm)Girth at base (cm)Functional leaves at bunch emergenceTime to floweringTime to harvestN° handsN° fingersFinger length (cm)Bunch weight (kg)Production (Tonnes.ha -1 per year) Kamanyola (900 m) 279 fg 74 efg 10 cb 476 ebdc 611 bdc 7 ij 83 kj 19 m 17 hi 16 o Kamanyola (900 m)279 fg74 efg10 cb476 ebdc611 bdc7 ij83 kj19 m17 hi16 o Mutwanga (1111 m) 230 i 60 mkl 6 i − − 9 gefcd 136 fcebd 24 fe 22 fcegd − Mutwanga (1111 m)230 i60 mkl6 i−−9 gefcd136 fcebd24 fe22 fcegd− FHIA21 Maboya (1412 m) 238 hi 54 m 8 gfh − − 9 gefcd 136 cebd 27 ba 23 fcebd − FHIA21Maboya (1412 m)238 hi54 m8 gfh−−9 gefcd136 cebd27 ba23 fcebd− (AAAB) Mushweshwe (1527 m) 304 fe 66 jik 9 cd 579 a 741 a 8 gefijh 111 fiegjh 19 mlk 21 fhegd 17 m (AAAB)Mushweshwe (1527 m)304 fe66 jik9 cd579 a741 a8 gefijh111 fiegjh19 mlk21 fhegd17 m Mulungu (1707 m) 318 dec 75 efd 7.6 gf 479 ebdc 648 bdac 7 ijh 149 cbd 21 ijk 25 cebd 23 e Mulungu (1707 m)318 dec75 efd7.6 gf479 ebdc648 bdac7 ijh149 cbd21 ijk25 cebd23 e Butembo (1815 m) 301 fe 87b a 8.7 ed − − 10a 158 b 29 a 27 b − Butembo (1815 m)301 fe87b a8.7 ed−−10a158 b29 a27 b− Mean - 278.1 69.4 8.2 529.3 694.4 8.5 128.9 23.2 22.5 18.9 Mean-278.169.48.2529.3694.48.5128.923.222.518.9 Kamanyola (900 m) 339 bdac 82 bcd 13 a 432 edf 546 de 8 gijh − 21 iljk 24 cebd 27 d Kamanyola (900 m)339 bdac82 bcd13 a432 edf546 de8 gijh−21 iljk24 cebd27 d Mavivi (1066 m) 306 fe 79 ecd 7 gih − − 10 a 200 a 25 fecd 37 a − Mavivi (1066 m)306 fe79 ecd7 gih−−10 a200 a25 fecd37 a− Musheba (AAB) Mutwanga (1111 m) Maboya (1412 m) Mushweshwe (1527 m) 314 dec 228 i 330 bdec 75 ef 58 ml 65 jikl 9e d 6 ih 11 b − 583 a 439 edfc − 689 ba 571 dec 9 bcd 7 ij 7 ij 136 fcebd 126 fcegd 77 k 25 fecd 18 m 23 fgh 32 a 17 hgi 19 fhgi − 15 q 20 j Musheba (AAB)Mutwanga (1111 m) Maboya (1412 m) Mushweshwe (1527 m)314 dec 228 i 330 bdec75 ef 58 ml 65 jikl9e d 6 ih 11 b− 583 a 439 edfc− 689 ba 571 dec9 bcd 7 ij 7 ij136 fcebd 126 fcegd 77 k25 fecd 18 m 23 fgh32 a 17 hgi 19 fhgi− 15 q 20 j Mulungu (1707 m) 352 ba 76 efd 9 ed 406 ef 606 bdc 8 gijh 92 ikjh 22 ijh 22 fcegd 22 g Mulungu (1707 m)352 ba76 efd9 ed406 ef606 bdc8 gijh92 ikjh22 ijh22 fcegd22 g Butembo (1815 m) 324 bdec 71 ihfg 8 gf − − 10 ba 153 cb 25 fed 26 cb − Butembo (1815 m)324 bdec71 ihfg8 gf−−10 ba153 cb25 fed26 cb− Mean - 313.1 72.1 8.8 464.8 603.3 8.6 130.6 22.7 25.3 21 Mean-313.172.18.8464.8603.38.6130.622.725.321 Mavivi (1066 m) 303 fe 75 ef 7 gfh 530 bac 634 bdac 9 ecd 146 cbd 26 becd 33 a 32 b Mavivi (1066 m)303 fe75 ef7 gfh530 bac634 bdac9 ecd146 cbd26 becd33 a32 b Mutwanga (1111 m) 319 dec 70 ihfg 7 gfh 517 bdac 655 bac 9 efcd 123 fcegdh 26 becd 22 fcegd 21 i Mutwanga (1111 m)319 dec70 ihfg7 gfh517 bdac655 bac9 efcd123 fcegdh26 becd22 fcegd21 i Obubit (AAB) Maboya (1412 m) Mushweshwe (1528 m) 252 hgi 344 bac 62 jkl 67 jihk 7 gih 11 b − 593 a − 707 ba 8 gfijh 8 gefcdh 109 fiegjh 93 ikjh 25 fe 22i gh 21 fheg 19 fhegi − 17 n Obubit (AAB)Maboya (1412 m) Mushweshwe (1528 m)252 hgi 344 bac62 jkl 67 jihk7 gih 11 b− 593 a− 707 ba8 gfijh 8 gefcdh109 fiegjh 93 ikjh25 fe 22i gh21 fheg 19 fhegi− 17 n Mulungu (1707 m) 300 fe 74 ehfg 7 gfh 580 a 700 ba 8 gijh 98 ikgjh 20m ljk 18 hgi 16 p Mulungu (1707 m)300 fe74 ehfg7 gfh580 a700 ba8 gijh98 ikgjh20m ljk18 hgi16 p Butembo (1815 m) 310 de 71 ihfg 8 gf 501 ebdac 697 ba 9 ecd 138 cebd 25 fed 26 cbd 23 f Butembo (1815 m)310 de71 ihfg8 gf501 ebdac697 ba9 ecd138 cebd25 fed26 cbd23 f Mean - 304.7 69.6 7.8 544.2 679 8.5 117.8 23.7 23.3 21.5 Mean-304.769.67.8544.26798.5117.823.723.321.5 Kamanyola (900 m) 277 fg 85 bc 9 ed − − 7 j − 19 ml 23 fcebd − Kamanyola (900 m)277 fg85 bc9 ed−−7 j−19 ml23 fcebd− Mavivi (1066 m) 362 a 93 a 8 ef 373 f 502 e 9 bc 151 cb 26 bcd 34 a 42 a Mavivi (1066 m)362 a93 a8 ef373 f502 e9 bc151 cb26 bcd34 a42 a T6 (AAB) Mutwanga (1111 m) Maboya (1412 m) 341 bdac 261 hg 80 ecd 65 jikl 8 gf 7 gih 483 ebdc 590 a 616 bdc 727 a 8 gefidh 9 gefcd 131 fcebd 117 fiegdh 27 bc 24 feg 28 b 21 fhegd 27 c 18 l T6 (AAB)Mutwanga (1111 m) Maboya (1412 m)341 bdac 261 hg80 ecd 65 jikl8 gf 7 gih483 ebdc 590 a616 bdc 727 a8 gefidh 9 gefcd131 fcebd 117 fiegdh27 bc 24 feg28 b 21 fhegd27 c 18 l Mushweshwe (1528 m) 343 bac 70 ihfg 11 b − − 8 gefcd 89 ikj 21 ij 15 i − Mushweshwe (1528 m)343 bac70 ihfg11 b−−8 gefcd89 ikj21 ij15 i− Mulungu (1707 m) 319d ec 68 jihfg 8 gf 543 ba 677 bac 8 gijh 105 fikgjh 19 mlk 20 fheg 18 k Mulungu (1707 m)319d ec68 jihfg8 gf543 ba677 bac8 gijh105 fikgjh19 mlk20 fheg18 k "},{"text":"Table 5 . Contd. Butembo (1815 m) 313d ec 67 jihkg 8 gf 480 ebdc 668 bac 9 ecd 134 fcebd 24 feg 24 fcebd 21 h Butembo (1815 m)313d ec67 jihkg8 gf480 ebdc668 bac9 ecd134 fcebd24 feg24 fcebd21 h Mean - 316.4 75.4 8.1 493.7 638.1 8.4 121.3 22.9 23.6 25.2 Mean-316.475.48.1493.7638.18.4121.322.923.625.2 "},{"text":"Table 6 . Correlation coefficient between altitude and different banana growth and yield attributes. Cultivar group Cultivar Plant Height Number of functional leaves at flowering Time to harvest Bunch weight Cultivar groupCultivarPlant HeightNumber of functional leaves at floweringTime to harvestBunch weight 'YangambiKm5' 0.02 0.11 0.83 0.12 'YangambiKm5'0.020.110.830.12 Beer 'Ndundu' NARITA 27 0.92 0.17 0.98 -0.01 0.48 0.18 0.89 -0.01 Beer'Ndundu' NARITA 270.92 0.170.98 -0.010.48 0.180.89 -0.01 'Nshika' 0.71 -0.26 0.98 -0.56 'Nshika'0.71-0.260.98-0.56 FHIA21 0.35 -0.01 -0.01 0.74 FHIA210.35-0.01-0.010.74 Plantain 'Obubit' 'Musheba' 0.01 0.01 0.03 -0.12 0.02 0.02 -0.22 -0.21 Plantain'Obubit' 'Musheba'0.01 0.010.03 -0.120.02 0.02-0.22 -0.21 T6 0.01 -0.01 0.01 -0.29 T60.01-0.010.01-0.29 'Barhabeshya' 0.96 -0.12 0.38 -0.99 'Barhabeshya'0.96-0.120.38-0.99 'Mukingiro' 0.34 0.01 1.00 -0.43 'Mukingiro'0.340.011.00-0.43 'Matooke' 0.32 0.42 1.00 -0.04 'Matooke'0.320.421.00-0.04 Cooking NARITA 2 0.05 0.06 0.15 -0.15 CookingNARITA 20.050.060.15-0.15 NARITA 4 0.18 -0.33 0.35 -0.38 NARITA 40.18-0.330.35-0.38 'Mbwazirume' -0.12 -0.12 -0.04 -0.74 'Mbwazirume'-0.12-0.12-0.04-0.74 'Mpologoma' -0.33 - - - 'Mpologoma'-0.33--- 'Giant Cavendish' 0.25 0.06 0.39 -0.32 'Giant Cavendish'0.250.060.39-0.32 Dessert 'Gros Michel' 'Dwarf Cavendish' 0.95 0.13 -0.07 0.09 0.99 0.43 0.88 -0.16 Dessert'Gros Michel' 'Dwarf Cavendish'0.95 0.13-0.07 0.090.99 0.430.88 -0.16 FHIA03 0.43 -0.01 0.38 -0.21 FHIA030.43-0.010.38-0.21 '-' Denotes negative correlation coefficient (R 2 ). '-' Denotes negative correlation coefficient (R 2 ). "},{"text":"Table 7 . Plant performance traits of cooking (Musa AAA-EA genome group) cultivars at flowering and harvesting stages, averaged per site. Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different at P<0.05. Plant performance traits at flowering Crop cycle (days) Plant performance traits at harvest Plant performance traits at floweringCrop cycle (days)Plant performance traits at harvest Genotype Site (Altitude) Height (cm) Girth at base (cm) Functional leaves Time to flowering Time to harvest N° hands N° fingers Finger length Bunch weight (Kg) Production (tons ha -1 per year) GenotypeSite (Altitude)Height (cm)Girth at base (cm)Functional leavesTime to floweringTime to harvestN° handsN° fingersFinger lengthBunch weight (Kg)Production (tons ha -1 per year) Kamanyola (900 m) 290 kgijh 83 bc 11 bc 453 ih 589 gf 10 cb − 20 hfg 37b a 39 a Kamanyola (900 m)290 kgijh83 bc11 bc453 ih589 gf10 cb−20 hfg37b a39 a Barhabeshya (AAA-EA) Mushweshwe (1528 m) 393 ba 78 dce 12 ba 452 h 579 hgf 9 ghikj 129 hi 22 bcd 32 edc 33 e Barhabeshya (AAA-EA)Mushweshwe (1528 m)393 ba78 dce12 ba452 h579 hgf9 ghikj129 hi22 bcd32 edc33 e Mulungu (1707 m) 394 ba 90 a 10 ed 577 bdac 702 ba 9 ghfde 164 de 21 efd 30 ed 26 i Mulungu (1707 m)394 ba90 a10 ed577 bdac702 ba9 ghfde164 de21 efd30 ed26 i Means - 359 83 11 494 623 10 146.8 21 33 33 Means-359831149462310146.8213333 Mavivi (1066 m) 238 lnm 76 gdfe 6 mnl − − 10 gcfde 152 hfgde 22 bcd 34 bdc − Mavivi (1066 m)238 lnm76 gdfe6 mnl−−10 gcfde152 hfgde22 bcd34 bdc− Matooke (AAA-EA) Mutwanga (1111 m) Maboya (1412 m) 215 nm 196 n 66 ij 61 j 7j kl 6 mnl 546 dec 611 a 677 bac 703 ba 9 ghfie 8 ikj 193 cb 141 hfg 23 bc 18 hij 24 jgifh 17 m 22 p 15 r Matooke (AAA-EA)Mutwanga (1111 m) Maboya (1412 m)215 nm 196 n66 ij 61 j7j kl 6 mnl546 dec 611 a677 bac 703 ba9 ghfie 8 ikj193 cb 141 hfg23 bc 18 hij24 jgifh 17 m22 p 15 r Butembo (1815 m) 273 klij 83 bc 8 jki − − 9 ghfie 155 fgde 21 ecd 28 ef − Butembo (1815 m)273 klij83 bc8 jki−−9 ghfie155 fgde21 ecd28 ef− Means - 231 71 7 578 690 9 160 21 26 18 Means-2317175786909160212618 Kamanyola (900 m) 306 fgijh 90 a 10 ef 476 hg 584 hgf 8 ikj − 17 l 25 gfh 26 h Kamanyola (900 m)306 fgijh90 a10 ef476 hg584 hgf8 ikj−17 l25 gfh26 h Mbwazirume (AAA-EA) Mushweshwe (1528 m) 348 fbdec 77 gdfce 11 bc − − 9 ghfikj 134 hgi 18 kij 23 jgikh − Mbwazirume (AAA-EA)Mushweshwe (1528 m)348 fbdec77 gdfce11 bc−−9 ghfikj134 hgi18 kij23 jgikh− Mulungu (1707 m) 331 fgdeh 79 dc 8 jhi 551 bdec 657 bdc 8 hikj 139 hfg 17 kl 24 jgih 22 q Mulungu (1707 m)331 fgdeh79 dc8 jhi551 bdec657 bdc8 hikj139 hfg17 kl24 jgih22 q Means - 328 82 10 513 620 9 136 17 24 − Means-328821051362091361724− Mpologoma (AAA-EA) Mushweshwe (1528 m) Mulungu (1707 m) 304 fgijh 296 gijh 72 gfh 76 gdfe 12 a 10 ecd 406 j 409 j 545h i 528 i 8 ikj 8 lk 118 ji 141 hfg 18 kjl 17 kl 22 jgikh 21 jlikh 25 l 25 m Mpologoma (AAA-EA)Mushweshwe (1528 m) Mulungu (1707 m)304 fgijh 296 gijh72 gfh 76 gdfe12 a 10 ecd406 j 409 j545h i 528 i8 ikj 8 lk118 ji 141 hfg18 kjl 17 kl22 jgikh 21 jlikh25 l 25 m Means - 300 74 11 408 536 8 130 17 22 25 Means-30074114085368130172225 Mavivi (1066 m) 314 fgieh 77 gdfce 6 n 522 fe 645 edc 10 cfde 207 b 24 ba 35 bac 33 d Mavivi (1066 m)314 fgieh77 gdfce6 n522 fe645 edc10 cfde207 b24 ba35 bac33 d Mukingiro (AAA-EA) Mutwanga (1111 m) Maboya (1412 m) 337 fgdec 263k lijm 83 bc 68 ih 8 jki 6 mn 589 bac − 695 ba − 9 ghfiej 7 m 193 cb 103 j 22 ecd 19 hig 35 bc 19l km 30 g − Mukingiro (AAA-EA)Mutwanga (1111 m) Maboya (1412 m)337 fgdec 263k lijm83 bc 68 ih8 jki 6 mn589 bac −695 ba −9 ghfiej 7 m193 cb 103 j22 ecd 19 hig35 bc 19l km30 g − Butembo (1815 m) 415 a 88 ba 7m lk − − 9 ghfie 149 hfge 21 ecd 26 gf − Butembo (1815 m)415 a88 ba7m lk−−9 ghfie149 hfge21 ecd26 gf− Means - 332 79 6 556 670 9 163 22 29 32 Means-3327965566709163222932 Kamanyola (900 m) 267 klij 72 gfhe 8 jhi 441 ihj 548 hgi 8 ml − 11 n 21 jlik 23 n Kamanyola (900 m)267 klij72 gfhe8 jhi441 ihj548 hgi8 ml−11 n21 jlik23 n Mavivi (1066 m) 408 a 79 dc 7 jkl 486 fhg 671 bac 11 b 202 b 23 bc 36 ba 33 f Mavivi (1066 m)408 a79 dc7 jkl486 fhg671 bac11 b202 b23 bc36 ba33 f NARITA 2 (AAA-EA) Mutwanga (1111 m) 386 bac 79 dc 8 ghi 474 hg 616 edf 10 cb 212 b 25 a 37 ba 37 b NARITA 2 (AAA-EA)Mutwanga (1111 m)386 bac79 dc8 ghi474 hg616 edf10 cb212 b25 a37 ba37 b Maboya (1412 m) 291 kgijh 65 ij 6 mnl − − 9 ikj 141 hfg 19 hig 17 lm − Maboya (1412 m)291 kgijh65 ij6 mnl−−9 ikj141 hfg19 hig17 lm− Mushweshwe (1528 m) 357 bdec 68 ih 11 bcd 534 de 696 ba 10 cfde 164 de 19 hifg 25 gfh 22 o Mushweshwe (1528 m)357 bdec68 ih11 bcd534 de696 ba10 cfde164 de19 hifg25 gfh22 o "},{"text":"Table 7 . Contd. Mulungu (1707 m) 358 bdec 79 dc 9 gf 446 ihj 606 ef 10 cfde 158 fde 17 kjl 25 gigh 25 k Mulungu (1707 m)358 bdec79 dc9 gf446 ihj606 ef10 cfde158 fde17 kjl25 gigh25 k Butembo (1815 m) 376 bdac 77 dfce 7 jk − − 10 cd 168 de 20 efg 22 jgikh − Butembo (1815 m)376 bdac77 dfce7 jk−−10 cd168 de20 efg22 jgikh− Means - 349 74 8 476 627 10 174 19 26 28 Means-34974847662710174192628 Kamanyola (900 m) 258 kljm 79 dc 11 bc 421 ij 534 i 8.3 lkj − 14 m 22 jgikh 26 j Kamanyola (900 m)258 kljm79 dc11 bc421 ij534 i8.3 lkj−14 m22 jgikh26 j Mavivi (1066 m) 331 fgdeh 78 dc 8 jki 556 bdec 688 bac 12 a 234 a 23 bc 39 a 34 c Mavivi (1066 m)331 fgdeh78 dc8 jki556 bdec688 bac12 a234 a23 bc39 a34 c NARITA 4 (AAA-EA) Maboya (1412 m) 241 klnm 62 j 7 jkl − − 9 ghikj 173 cd 20 hfg 20 jlkm − NARITA 4 (AAA-EA)Maboya (1412 m)241 klnm62 j7 jkl−−9 ghikj173 cd20 hfg20 jlkm− Mulungu (1707 m) 284 klijh 71 gh 9 gh 516 feg 673 bac 9 ghikj 98 j 13 n 12 n 11 s Mulungu (1707 m)284 klijh71 gh9 gh516 feg673 bac9 ghikj98 j13 n12 n11 s Butembo (1815 m) 375 bdac 78 dc 7 jk − − 10 cde 171 cde 19 hifg 20 jlkm − Butembo (1815 m)375 bdac78 dc7 jk−−10 cde171 cde19 hifg20 jlkm− Means - 298 74 8 498 631 10 169 18 23 24 Means-29874849863110169182324 introduced cultivar, took the shortest time to reach introduced cultivar, took the shortest time to reach shooting and harvesting at Mushweshwe (406 and shooting and harvesting at Mushweshwe (406 and 545 days) and Mulungu (410 and 528 days). In 545 days) and Mulungu (410 and 528 days). In contrast, the longest time to maturity was contrast, the longest time to maturity was recorded in 'NARITA 4' (716 days) at recorded in 'NARITA 4' (716 days) at Mushweshwe (Table Mushweshwe (Table "},{"text":"Table 8 . Plant performance traits of dessert cultivars (Musa AAA genome group) at flowering and harvesting stages, averaged per sites. Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different at P<0.05. Plant performance traits at flowering Crop cycle (days) Plant performance traits at harvest Plant performance traits at floweringCrop cycle (days)Plant performance traits at harvest Genotype Site (Altitude) Height Girth at Functional Time to Time to N° N° Finger Bunch Production (tons GenotypeSite (Altitude)HeightGirth atFunctionalTime toTime toN°N°FingerBunchProduction (tons (cm) base (cm) leaves flowering harvest hands fingers length weight ha -1 per year) (cm)base (cm)leavesfloweringharvesthandsfingerslengthweightha -1 per year) Kamanyola (900 m) 269 f 77 hji 10 ed 410 g 513 c 8 ih − 19 g 24 ih 29 g Kamanyola (900 m)269 f77 hji10 ed410 g513 c8 ih−19 g24 ih29 g Mavivi (1066 m) 402 a 90 c 6 i − − 10 bdac 217 a 24 ba 29 dfe − Mavivi (1066 m)402 a90 c6 i−−10 bdac217 a24 ba29 dfe− Giant Cavendish (AAA) Mutwanga (1111 m) Maboya (1412 m) Mushweshwe (1528 m) 345 d 304 e 354 dc 76 jki 69 lm 71 lk 8 gh 6 i 11 c 598 a 585 bac 515 edc 741 a 717 a 681 a 9 f 7 ij 7i hj 149 gdfce 112 gfh 108 gh 24 a 19 g 17 hji 32 dc 13 l 19 k 26 i 11 o 17 m Giant Cavendish (AAA)Mutwanga (1111 m) Maboya (1412 m) Mushweshwe (1528 m)345 d 304 e 354 dc76 jki 69 lm 71 lk8 gh 6 i 11 c598 a 585 bac 515 edc741 a 717 a 681 a9 f 7 ij 7i hj149 gdfce 112 gfh 108 gh24 a 19 g 17 hji32 dc 13 l 19 k26 i 11 o 17 m Mulungu (1707 m) 391 ba 86 dfce 10 ed − − 8 gh 119 gfhe 18 hg 19 jk − Mulungu (1707 m)391 ba86 dfce10 ed−−8 gh119 gfhe18 hg19 jk− Butembo (1815 m) 381 b 81 hfg 8 gh − − 9 gf 141 gdfce 21 de 22 ji − Butembo (1815 m)381 b81 hfg8 gh−−9 gf141 gdfce21 de22 ji− Mean - 349 79 9 527 663 8 141 20 23 21 Mean-3497995276638141202321 Kamanyola (900 m) 169 j 77 hji 11 c 435 fg 557 cb 9 gf 136 gdfce 19 g 31 dc 33 b Kamanyola (900 m)169 j77 hji11 c435 fg557 cb9 gf136 gdfce19 g31 dc33 b Mavivi (1066 m) 213 h 79 hgi 6 i − − 10 ebdac 209 ba 23 bc 31 dc − Mavivi (1066 m)213 h79 hgi6 i−−10 ebdac209 ba23 bc31 dc− Dwarf Cavendish (AAA) Mutwanga (1111 m) Maboya (1412 m) Mushweshwe (1528 m) 191 i 158 j 192 i 74 ljk 66 m 77 hji 8 gh 7 i 13 b 568 bac 590 ba 523 bdc 687 a 723 a 703 a 10 ed 9 f 10 ebdc 168 c 149 dfce 175 bc 22 dc 17 hi 17 ji 27 gfe 15 l 25 gh 24 j 12 n 22 l Dwarf Cavendish (AAA)Mutwanga (1111 m) Maboya (1412 m) Mushweshwe (1528 m)191 i 158 j 192 i74 ljk 66 m 77 hji8 gh 7 i 13 b568 bac 590 ba 523 bdc687 a 723 a 703 a10 ed 9 f 10 ebdc168 c 149 dfce 175 bc22 dc 17 hi 17 ji27 gfe 15 l 25 gh24 j 12 n 22 l Mulungu (1707 m) 237 g 88 dc 12 c 492 fed 669 a 11 a 174 bc 16 j 26 gfh 24 k Mulungu (1707 m)237 g88 dc12 c492 fed669 a11 a174 bc16 j26 gfh24 k Butembo (1815 m) 194 i 80 hgi 9 ef − − 10 bac 214 a 21 fe 26 gfh − Butembo (1815 m)194 i80 hgi9 ef−−10 bac214 a21 fe26 gfh− Mean - 193 77 9 522 668 10 175 19 26 23 Mean-19377952266810175192623 Kamanyola (900 m) 252 gf 96 b 14 a 419 g 536 cb 8 gf 112 gfh 20 f 30 dce 34 a Kamanyola (900 m)252 gf96 b14 a419 g536 cb8 gf112 gfh20 f30 dce34 a Mavivi (1066 m) 357 dc 113 a 9 gf − − 10 e 177 bc 23 bc 38 b − Mavivi (1066 m)357 dc113 a9 gf−−10 e177 bc23 bc38 b− Mutwanga (1111 m) 265 f 79 hjgi 8 gh − − 10 ebdac 162 dc 24 ba 42 a − Mutwanga (1111 m)265 f79 hjgi8 gh−−10 ebdac162 dc24 ba42 a− FHIA03 (AABB) Maboya (1412 m) 270 f 74 ljk 7 h − − 7 j 94 h 18 hg 15 l − FHIA03 (AABB)Maboya (1412 m)270 f74 ljk7 h−−7 j94 h18 hg15 l− Mushweshwe (1528 m) 347 d 89 dc 14 a 449 feg 599 b 10 ed 143 gdfce 18 hgi 32 c 32 c Mushweshwe (1528 m)347 d89 dc14 a449 feg599 b10 ed143 gdfce18 hgi32 c32 c Mulungu (1707 m) 347 d 83 fge 11 d 404 g 559 cb 8 gf 127 gdfhe 18 hgi 28 gfe 30 d Mulungu (1707 m)347 d83 fge11 d404 g559 cb8 gf127 gdfhe18 hgi28 gfe30 d Butembo (1815 m) 373 bc 98 b 10 e − − 9 f 161 dc 21 fe 26 gfh − Butembo (1815 m)373 bc98 b10 e−−9 f161 dc21 fe26 gfh− Mean - 316 90 10 424 565 9 139 20 30 32 Mean-31690104245659139203032 Kamanyola (900 m) 316 e 84d fge 12 c 390 g 496 c 8 ih 125 gdfhe 21 de 24 ih 30 e Kamanyola (900 m)316 e84d fge12 c390 g496 c8 ih125 gdfhe21 de24 ih30 e Gros Michel (AAA) Mushweshwe (1528 m) 405 a 88 dce 14 ba 493 fed 667 a 10 edc 138 gdfce 22 dc 32 c 29 f Gros Michel (AAA)Mushweshwe (1528 m)405 a88 dce14 ba493 fed667 a10 edc138 gdfce22 dc32 c29 f Mulungu (1707 m) 403 a 90 c 10 ed 520 bedc 701 a 11 ba 157 dce 19 g 31 dc 27 h Mulungu (1707 m)403 a90 c10 ed520 bedc701 a11 ba157 dce19 g31 dc27 h Mean - 374 87 12 468 622 9 140 21 29 28 Mean-37487124686229140212928 "},{"text":"Table 9 . Plant performance traits of beer (Musa AAA-EA genome group) cultivars at flowering and harvesting stages, averaged per site. Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different at P<0.05. Plant performance traits at flowering Crop cycle (days) Plant performance traits at harvest Plant performance traits at floweringCrop cycle (days)Plant performance traits at harvest Genotype Site (Altitude) Height Girth at Functional Time to Time to N° N° Finger Bunch Production (tons GenotypeSite (Altitude)HeightGirth atFunctionalTime toTime toN°N°FingerBunchProduction (tons (cm) base (cm) leaves flowering harvest hands fingers length weight (Kg) ha -1 per year) (cm)base (cm)leavesfloweringharvesthandsfingerslengthweight (Kg)ha -1 per year) Yangambi Km5 (AAA) Mavivi (1066 m) Mutwanga (1111 m) Maboya (1412 m) Butembo (1815 m) 293 dfe 305 dce 261 g 311 dc 66 fg 68 fg 65 g 68 fg 5 j 8 edf 6 hi 7 egf 502 fdec 419 hig 485 fdeg 540 bdac 613 bdc 579 ed 627 bdc 671 ba 9 fed 10 ced 9 feg 11 b 136 gh 238 ba 174 dfe 182 dce 16 feg 15 fg 17 fe 19 c 18 gf 26 dce 13 h 28 dc 18 n 27 f 12 p 25 i Yangambi Km5 (AAA)Mavivi (1066 m) Mutwanga (1111 m) Maboya (1412 m) Butembo (1815 m)293 dfe 305 dce 261 g 311 dc66 fg 68 fg 65 g 68 fg5 j 8 edf 6 hi 7 egf502 fdec 419 hig 485 fdeg 540 bdac613 bdc 579 ed 627 bdc 671 ba9 fed 10 ced 9 feg 11 b136 gh 238 ba 174 dfe 182 dce16 feg 15 fg 17 fe 19 c18 gf 26 dce 13 h 28 dc18 n 27 f 12 p 25 i Mean - 293 67 7 487 623 10 182 17 21 21 Mean-29367748762310182172121 Ndundu (AAA-EA) Kamanyola (900 m) Mushweshwe (1528 m) Mulungu (1707 m) 306 dce 362 a 357 a 78 dc 77 dc 87 a 11 bc 12 a 10 c 380 i 470 feg 402 hi 480 f 593 edc 530 ef 7 h 9 fg 10 ced − 157 gfe 169 gfe 18 de 17 e 15 g 21 f 26 de 31 dc 27 g 26 h 35 b Ndundu (AAA-EA)Kamanyola (900 m) Mushweshwe (1528 m) Mulungu (1707 m)306 dce 362 a 357 a78 dc 77 dc 87 a11 bc 12 a 10 c380 i 470 feg 402 hi480 f 593 edc 530 ef7 h 9 fg 10 ced− 157 gfe 169 gfe18 de 17 e 15 g21 f 26 de 31 dc27 g 26 h 35 b Mean - 342 81 11 417 535 9 133 17 26 30 Mean-34281114175359133172630 Kamanyola (900 m) 226 h 44 h 8 ed 436 fhig 534 ef 6 i − 17 e 15 gh 17 o Kamanyola (900 m)226 h44 h8 ed436 fhig534 ef6 i−17 e15 gh17 o Mavivi (1066 m) 314 dc 85 ba 7 hgf 471 feg 610 bdc 12 a 263 a 23 a 47 a 46 a Mavivi (1066 m)314 dc85 ba7 hgf471 feg610 bdc12 a263 a23 a47 a46 a NARITA 27 (AAA-EA) Mutwanga (1111 m) Maboya (1412 m) Mushweshwe (1528 m) 304 dce 269 gf 282 gfe 75 de 68 fg 67 fg 7 egf 6 hgi 10 c 512 bdec − 566 bac 661 bac − 721 a 10 cb 10 cbd 10 ced 213 bc 212 bc 181 dce 24 a 22 b 19 c 36 b 27 dce 28 dc 33 d − 24 k NARITA 27 (AAA-EA)Mutwanga (1111 m) Maboya (1412 m) Mushweshwe (1528 m)304 dce 269 gf 282 gfe75 de 68 fg 67 fg7 egf 6 hgi 10 c512 bdec − 566 bac661 bac − 721 a10 cb 10 cbd 10 ced213 bc 212 bc 181 dce24 a 22 b 19 c36 b 27 dce 28 dc33 d − 24 k Mulungu (1707 m) 288 dfe 66 fg 7 hgf 573 ba 700 a 10 cd 167 gfe 19 dc 27 dc 24 j Mulungu (1707 m)288 dfe66 fg7 hgf573 ba700 a10 cd167 gfe19 dc27 dc24 j Butembo (1815 m) 312 dc 71 fe 6 ji 438 fhig 577 ed 10 cbd 204 dc 21 b 28 dc 29 e Butembo (1815 m)312 dc71 fe6 ji438 fhig577 ed10 cbd204 dc21 b28 dc29 e Mean - 271 68 7 499 634 10 207 21 30 29 Mean-27168749963410207213029 Nshika (AAA-EA) Kamanyola (900 m) Mushweshwe (1528 m) Mulungu (1707 m) 292 dfe 341 ba 323 bc 81 bc 71 fe 75 de 11 bac 12 ba 9 d 452 fheg 558 bac 583 a 556 ed 704 a 714 a 10 cd 8 g 9 fg − 121 h 141 gfh 16 feg 16 feg 16 feg 31 c 22 fe 27 dce 34 c 19 m 23 l Nshika (AAA-EA)Kamanyola (900 m) Mushweshwe (1528 m) Mulungu (1707 m)292 dfe 341 ba 323 bc81 bc 71 fe 75 de11 bac 12 ba 9 d452 fheg 558 bac 583 a556 ed 704 a 714 a10 cd 8 g 9 fg− 121 h 141 gfh16 feg 16 feg 16 feg31 c 22 fe 27 dce34 c 19 m 23 l Mean - 319 76 10 531 658 9 131 17 27 25 Mean-31976105316589131172725 Performance characteristics of beer cultivars functional leaves at flowering (11), while Performance characteristics of beer cultivarsfunctional leaves at flowering (11), while across sites 'Yangambi Km5' and 'NARITA 27' were the least across sites'Yangambi Km5' and 'NARITA 27' were the least vigorous (Table vigorous (Table 'Ndundu' was generally the most robust cultivar in 'Ndundu' was generally the most robust cultivar in the vegetative stage. It had the greatest plant the vegetative stage. It had the greatest plant height (341 cm), girth (81 cm) and number of height (341 cm), girth (81 cm) and number of "}],"sieverID":"aefa46f3-45df-4c53-8d02-55aa4e41240f","abstract":"Musa species were evaluated across seven agro-ecologies in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Generally, all the cultivars performed well. Mean bunch yields varied between 11 and 42 kg across different use groups and agro-ecologies. Introduced cultivars had higher or comparable yields to the local cultivars across agro-ecologies. The exotic beer cultivar 'NARIAT 27' generally outperformed other beer types. The green cooking exotic types 'NARITA 4' and 'NARITA 2' produced bunches of up to 37 and 39 kg, respectively at altitudes of 1066 and 1111 m, though having smaller bunches of 21 to 25 kg, at 900 and 1707 m in comparison to the local type 'Barhabeshya' (30 to 37 kg). Yields were mainly influenced by soil factors and altitude. Yields generally increased with increase in OM, N, P, K, Ca, and pH. Altitude had a non-linear relationship with the time from planting to flowering, with the time from planting to flowering declining at higher altitudes. In contrast, the fruit filling phase increased linearly with altitude. Bunch weights of most cultivars declined with increasing altitude; particularly, when N, K, P and OM concentrations were low; possibly because most assimilates go towards sucker development at the high altitudes. For example, bunch weights of 'Barhabeshya', 'Mbwazirume' and 'Nshika' strongly declined (R 2 = -0.56-0.99) with increasing altitude. 'Ndundu', 'FHIA21' and 'Gros Michel' thrived well at high altitude sites. Such variations in cultivar adaptability plus cultivar attributes, e.g. height can be exploited by selectively promoting cultivars in specific agro-ecologies/niches."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0a6bcd23c8507d3d994dfa375bab45c7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7c162b4b-0624-4a91-8bbb-b48a8b3bba8d/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Estimating the costs of animal trypanosomiasis in Africa","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"The Gambia Zimbabwe Controlling trypanosomiasis by reducing tsetse populations ILRAD research updates A new system for identifying RNAbinding proteins in trypanosomes Mitochondrial RNA editing may help regulate trypanosome energy production Maternally derived immunity in calves to East Coast fever"}]},{"head":"Estimating the costs of animal trypanosomiasis in Africa","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"By collecting data from sites across Africa where trypanosomiasis is endemic, then building computer models and geographical information systems to analyse the data scientists at ILRAD are making a rational and systematic appraisal of the economic cost of this important disease of domestic livestock. The results of this project will give decision makers a reliable continentwide picture of the disease costs and the tools needed to apply the most appropriate and sustainable methods for controlling trypanosomiasis."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"TRYPANOSOMIASIS is a debilitating and commonly fatal disease of domestic cattle and small ruminants. It occurs in tropical and subtropical regions and is caused by infection with the protozoan trypanosome parasite. In subSaharan Africa, the disease is spread mainly by the bite of trypanosomeinfected tsetse flies. Trypanosomiasis is considered the most important infectious disease holding back the development of livestock production in much of Africa."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Programs to control tsetse fly populations and animal trypanosomiasis have cost farmers, governments and aid agencies large sums of money throughout this century."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"Total current annual costs of the disease, including both production losses and control costs, are estimated to be more than US$500 million. A comprehensive quantification of the economic importance of African trypanosomiasis, however, has never been attempted, mainly due to a paucity of reliable data on such important factors as the distribution and numbers of human, animal and insect vector populations; insufficient knowledge of the effects of the disease on livestock production; and the difficulty in quantifying the values of livestock and their products in pastoral and mixed crop/livestock subsistence production systems."},{"index":5,"size":142,"text":"In spite of its acknowledged importance, therefore, the extent of the trypanosomiasis problem has usually been expressed in crude estimations of the size of the land area infested by tsetse and/or the proportions of livestock populations at risk from the disease. It is generally reported, for example, that tsetse flies occur in 37 countries and across ten million square kilometers of tropical Africa. In seven million sq. km of this tsetse belt, the raising of livestock is believed to be limited or excluded entirely by the presence of trypanosomiasis. Donor agents, African policy makers and disease control workers have long needed more accurate estimations of the costs of trypanosomiasis and the economics of alternative control strategies employed under different livestock production systems so as to better judge the degree of the disease problems in given areas and to apply optimal control strategies."},{"index":6,"size":124,"text":"For several years, members of ILRAD's Socioeconomics and Environmental Impact Program have been developing the tools needed to quantify rationally and systematically the economic costs of African animal trypanosomiasis and to assess the economics of alternative control strategies. These tools include spreadsheet and simulation computer models as well as geographical information systems for analysing large amounts of spatial data, such as climatic and vegetation data obtained from across the continent. Program members are also collecting data on important livestock production and disease impact variables from selected production systems and regions where trypanosomiasis is endemic. These data will be extrapolated to similar production systems and agroecological regions for the purpose of developing an aggregate picture of the economic cost of the disease on the continent."},{"index":7,"size":110,"text":"THIS REPORT summarizes estimations made by ILRAD scientists collaborating with other scientists in Africa and with economists in the UK of the costs of trypanosomiasis in two contrasting countries-The Gambia, located in the semiarid lowlands of western Africa, and Zimbabwe, in the more temperate highlands of southern Africa. Subsequently, similar studies will be conducted at sites in other selected countries. These data, obtained from different major livestock production systems and agro ecological zones, will be put into computer models and analysed to provide more reliable quantitative assessments of trypanosomiasis costs. Such information will help policy makers choose the most costeffective, appropriate and sustainable control measures for specific areas and circumstances."},{"index":8,"size":79,"text":"DIRECT LOSSES caused by trypanosomiasis are due to the presence of the disease in livestock populations; they include production and reproduction losses resulting from mortality, morbidity and infertility and the costs of implementing and running trypanosomiasis control operations. Indirect losses are due to the risk of the disease; they include the exclusion of ruminant livestock production from tsetseinfested areas, reduced livestock production levels due to restricted grazing, and reduced crop production due to exclusion or limitation of draught power."},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"Three types of information are needed to quantify direct losses in given areas:"},{"index":10,"size":93,"text":"1. the livestock production system employed, including the breed, type and number of animals at risk from trypanosomiasis; the milk, meat, manure and draught output of the livestock; and the prices of these livestock products; 2. the impact of trypanosomiasis, including estimates of the prevalence and incidence of infections and disease and their effect on key livestock production parameters, such as mortality, fertility, milk yield and draught power; and 3. the degree of human population pressure for access to land, which influences the type and intensity of land use following successful trypanosomiasis control."},{"index":11,"size":73,"text":"This information is put into computer models to predict production losses due to the disease and the costs and benefits of controlling it using different methods in different areas. The models also take into account livestock herd dynamics, such as population changes due to births, deaths, purchases and disposals. Production losses are estimated in terms of the value of decreased outputs of milk, draught power, manure, herd growth, and offtake or animal disposal."},{"index":12,"size":54,"text":"A large number of assumptions must be made for this type of model calculation, necessitating that the results be regarded as estimates only. Nevertheless, the results clearly indicate the orders of magnitude involved and the composition of the costs of trypanosomiasis in the countries studied. In this estimate, local market prices were used throughout."}]},{"head":"THE GAMBIA","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"The Gambia has high densities of human and livestock populations. Most Gambian cattle are N'Dama, a 'trypanotolerant' African breed, which is usually able to tolerate moderate challenge by trypanosome infection with no clinical ill effects. A study conducted by ILRAD and national scientists indicated that about 117,000 Gambian N'Dama cattle (37% of the national herd) are at risk from trypanosomiasis. The high livestock densities and high level of draught power imply that indirect benefits from changes in grazing patterns or a shift towards draught power are unlikely if the disease incidence is reduced."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"The cost of trypanosomiasis in The Gambia was calculated to be US$5.6 million (based on the 1991 exchange rate of l US$ = 14.7 Dl) over a period of 20 years, expressed in present value terms. This amounts to an average of $279,000 per year or $1.30 per head of cattle at risk. Virtually all the costs of the disease (99.9%) were attributed to production losses, with the remaining tiny component being the cost of about 1,000 chemotherapeutic treatments administered to livestock annually. The main production loss (42%) was in decreased milk yield. The other production losses were due to decreases in draught power (26%), herd growth (18%), offtake (10%) and manure (5%)."}]},{"head":"ZIMBABWE","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Unlike The Gambia and most countries in Africa, Zimbabwe has sharply demarcated land use zones. Farming areas are divided into large and smallscale commercial areas and communal grazing areas; nonfarming rural areas are divided into forest reserves, national parks and safari areas."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Trypanosomiasis is controlled mainly by controlling populations of the tsetse fly vector. These have been eradicated from a total of 48,000 sq. km, leaving only a small proportion of the country (20,000 to 25,000 sq. km) tsetse infested, within which human population densities are fairly low, unlike those in The Gambia."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"The areas suitable for tsetse habitation extend from the Zambezi River on the northern border and from the eastern border well into the central highland plateau, where the commercial farming areas are located. It is estimated that, due to extensive tsetse control, only 4% of Zimbabwe's cattle population (in 1991, 241,000 of a total of 6.1 million) are at risk annually from trypanosomiasis. (Following the 1991/92 drought, the cattle population is estimated to have fallen to 5.1 million). Most of these cattle are located in communal grazing areas in the north and northeast."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"As in The Gambia, it is unlikely that improved control of trypanosomiasis will lead to major changes in land use in Zimbabwe because of the strict adherence already given to land use categories and the successful restriction of tsetse infestation mainly to non farming border regions."},{"index":5,"size":117,"text":"The success of tsetse control in Zimbabwe has reduced the incidence of trypanosomiasis to very low levels (about 800 clinical cases a year). The national costs of this control, on the other hand, are relatively high: the (undiscounted) 1991 expenditure of the Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Control Branch of the Department of Veterinary Services in Zimbabwe was US$4.9 million (based on the exchange rate at the time of 1 US$ = Z$3.04). Tsetse control protects the interior of the country from reinfestation. In addition to employing insecticideimpregnated tsetse targets, Zimbabwe uses deltamethrin cattle dips in some areas to maintain tsetse control and to reinforce the country's tsetse barriers. (See the following article for discussion of these control techniques.)"},{"index":6,"size":99,"text":"ILRAD's study estimates the direct economic cost of trypanosomiasis in Zimbabwe, when discounted at 10% over 20 years, to be $37 million, which is an average of $1.8 million per year, or $7.60 per head of cattle at risk. (The undiscounted annual cost averages $4.3 million at the 1991 exchange rate.) Most of this is the cost of disease control (about 98%). Of the direct cost of trypanosomiasis in Zimbabwe, 68% constitutes the cost of controlling tsetse populations with targets, 27% the cost of dipping and pouron deltamethrin applications, and 3% the cost of treating infected cattle with trypanocides."},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"The remaining 2% of the cost of trypanosomiasis is due to production losses. Zimbabwe's minor production losses contrast markedly with those in The Gambia, where most of the disease costs are due to production losses. The most notable feature of the Zimbabwean production losses is the overwhelming importance of draught power, estimated to constitute 61 % of the total, making this the dominant output of the country's communal (traditional) livestock production. This is followed by losses in milk yield (14%), herd growth (14%), manure (6%) and offtake (5%)."},{"index":8,"size":125,"text":"THESE TWO COUNTRIES, the first in which ILRAD has estimated economic costs of trypanosomiasis, clearly are strongly contrasting examples of livestock production systems and the economic impacts of trypanosomiasis in Africa. The cost of the disease per head of cattle at risk is six times higher in Zimbabwe than it is in The Gambia. This is due to the fact that Zimbabwe's commercial farming areas are subject to strong tsetse invasion pressure, requiring the government to spend relatively large sums of money to protect these areas from reinvasion by the fly. The Gambia, in contrast, with its low level of tsetse infestation throughout most of the country and its almost entirely trypanotolerant cattle population, has a low disease cost per head of cattle at risk."},{"index":9,"size":64,"text":"In neither country are major changes in land use or production methods anticipated as a result of any reduction in trypanosomiasis risk due to future more effective disease control. However, in many countries with more widespread tsetse infestations, notably those in coastal and central Africa, reducing the risk of trypanosomiasis by employing more effective control methods may well increase both livestock and crop production."},{"index":10,"size":88,"text":"SIMILAR COLLABORATIVE studies on the impact of trypanosomiasis and its control are planned at sites in Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire and Zambia. The data collected will be used to establish a continental picture of disease costs. The data will also be used in further work to compare the costeffectiveness in different livestock production systems of employing alternative control methods, such as aerial and ground spraying with insecticides and deployment of targets, traps and screens to control tsetse populations, chemotherapy to prevent and control the disease, and possible future vaccines."},{"index":11,"size":64,"text":"ILRAD is collecting this information in collaboration with Africa's national agricultural research systems. The analytical models developed will be transferred to the national institutions, which may then refine the models and further tailor them to circumstances in their own countries. With these new tools in hand, national scientists will be better able to generate critically important information for determining optimal strategies for trypanosomiasis control."}]},{"head":"Controlling trypanosomiasis by reducing tsetse populations","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"A MAJOR LONGTERM objective of scientists at ILRAD is to develop immunological or other novel methods to improve control of African animal trypanosomiasis and in this way improve the health of domestic livestock and accelerate agricultural development. ILRAD's strategic research is aimed at enhancing the immune responses of infected animals, locating genes controlling disease resistance, determining weaknesses in the physiology of trypanosome parasites that may be attacked without further harming the infected animal, and developing advanced diagnostic reagents and methods for the purpose of distinguishing closely related parasite populations, diagnosing trypanosome infections and screening parasite populations for resistance to trypanocidal drugs."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"At other institutions, research to improve control of trypanosomiasis is directed at developing better ways of controlling the tsetse fly vector of animal trypanosomiasis in Africa. There has recently been renewed interest in methods used to reduce tsetse numbers or to eradicate populations. This is due in part to improvements in tsetse control techniques and in part to increasing reports of the development of parasite resistance to the few available drugs that prevent and cure trypanosomiasis. For the foreseeable future, tsetse control is likely to remain an important part of trypanosomiasis control. Indeed, it may still be required in an integrated approach to disease control when novel methods-developed using techniques of molecular biology-are available to reduce parasite infections or the development of disease."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"FOLLOWING the African rinderpest pandemic of 1895, tsetse disappeared throughout most of the Limpopo and Zambezi basins. This near eradication of the fly showed that the vector could be controlled by eliminating the wild hosts of tsetse. Bush clearing was widely used as a tsetse control method in Tanganyika and other countries and can also be effective. Both of these early methods, however, involve the destruction of valuable resources."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"In 1914, Glossina palpalis, a riverine species of tsetse fly, was eradicated from the Island of Principe, in the Gulf of Guinea, by killing the flies using 'sticky traps'-wooden boards coated with sticky material-that plantation workers carried on their backs as they worked in the fields. From the 1920s through the 1940s, R.H. Harris attempted to control another species, G. pallidipes, in Zululand using traps made out of wood and hessian that enticed flies into a cage from which they could not escape. Despite the eventual deployment of 26,000 Harris traps in this area, however, trypanosomiasis continued to cause heavy cattle mortality. Trapping was eventually abandoned in favour of spraying infested areas with insecticides."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"Both ground and aerial insecticide spraying have been used successfully against tsetse. In the 1950s, control workers began to use DDT and dieldrin to reduce fly populations by spraying these residual insecticides directly onto tree trunks and low branches where tsetse are likely to rest during the hottest and brightest hours of the day."},{"index":6,"size":92,"text":"The insecticide control method most widely used until recently, especially in southern Africa, was sequential aerial spraying of infested areas with ultralowvolume endosulphan, an organochlorine compound with low residual effects. The aim was to kill all adult flies with the first spray and then all new flies emerging from puparia in four or five subsequent sprays. Where a high level of expertise is available, this strategy may be effective against fly species that inhabit open country, such as G. morsitans; helicopters are more useful than fixedwing aircraft for spraying against riverine species."},{"index":7,"size":97,"text":"Although insecticides have been used to eradicate tsetse flies in areas marginally suitable for the fly, most attempts to apply this approach in more suitable tsetse habitats have failed, largely because flies from neighbouring areas have reinvaded the target area soon after the spraying. Furthermore, the high running costs and expertise needed for these control methods make them problematical in most African countries. Current opinion holds that aerial spraying should be used only to eradicate an isolated tsetse population or to interrupt parasite transmission during a human sleeping sickness epidemic while longer term control measures are implemented."},{"index":8,"size":114,"text":"SERIOUS INTEREST in the use of traps was revived in the 1970s with the development of cloth traps and the discovery that particular colours and odours attract tsetse flies. A biconical shape was the first of many new trap designs employing blue or black cloth. Use of animal host odours to attract tsetse, such as acetone, various phenols found in cow urine, and octenol, increases the efficiency of traps by up to 30 times. Recent efforts have concentrated on retaining the efficiency of the traps while reducing their cost and simplifying their design so that they can be constructed, deployed and maintained by local communities with minimal help from outside experts or government agents."},{"index":9,"size":109,"text":"The reason tsetse populations may be reduced to low levels by trapping is because of their low reproductive rate. Female tsetse produce only a few larva in a lifetime of two or three months. (Other insects, in contrast, lay a few hundred or thousand eggs in a lifetime.) With a pupal and preadult period of about six weeks, the maximum possible growth rate of a tsetse population is about 2% a day. Killing more than 2% of a fly population each day will thus eventually eradicate it. Researchers have shown that trapping 4% of adult females each day will reduce an isolated tsetse population by 99% in six months."},{"index":10,"size":202,"text":"Tsetse traps, targets and pouron insecticides are therefore used to impose a small but steady mortality on a fly population sufficient to keep fly numbers down to an acceptably low level. While eradication may be both feasible and desirable in some places, tsetse populations are highly resilient and will often recover from very low numbers once control measures are relaxed. Furthermore, barriers against reinvasion of cleared areas need to be about eight to ten kilometres wide to be effective, Demands for cheap and simple tsetse control methods have driven much of the effort behind modem trap design. In some situations, targets are more effective against tsetse than traps. Targets are sheets of cloth, usually black or blue and sometimes with netting attached, that are impregnated with insecticide, usually deltamethrin. They are baited with the same odours used with traps. Flies that make contact with or land on the cloth target pick up a lethal dose of insecticide. Targets are simpler and cheaper to employ than traps and can kill flies of some species more effectively. However, like most traps, targets require imported insecticides and, because they do not catch flies, they cannot be used to monitor the progress of a control operation."},{"index":11,"size":98,"text":"Another approach is to turn cattle into mobile targets. The animals are dipped or sprayed with insecticide or the compound is poured on them. This method was first tried with limited success in the 1940s using DDT. Development of special formulations of synthetic pyrethroids used to impregnate traps and targets has revived interest in pouron insecticides. These are now easy to apply and remain on animal skin for at least two weeks. The effectiveness of this strategy depends on cattle density, grazing patterns and fly distributions. The strategy works best where livestock are the main host of tsetse."},{"index":12,"size":129,"text":"ALTHOUGH TRAPS, targets and pouron insecticides have advantages over ground spraying with DDT or dieldrin or aerial spraying with endosulphan, these methods are not a panacea. The economics and feasibility of employing various control methods must be compared for any given tsetseinfested area. For example, in remote areas it may prove difficult to make and maintain tracks through dense bush to reach traps and targets. Theft of trap and target materials has been a major problem in many operations where local communities have not been involved in control operations, and supervision and maintenance accounts for much of the cost incurred using these control methods. Attempts are being made to develop disposable targets that require no maintenance. Impregnated initially with 0.6% deltamethrin, they should remain effective for about one year."},{"index":13,"size":85,"text":"Many African countries continue to rely on use of trypanocidal drugs to control trypanosomiasis. The development in some parasite populations of resistance to these drugs, however, indicates that planners should carefully consider the range of animal disease control options now available, paying particular attention to their likely social and economic consequences as well as to the ecological circumstances of the targetted area. Traps and targets probably provide the best control method for most places. On commercial ranches, pouron methods are also likely to be attractive."},{"index":14,"size":54,"text":"Where the overall strategy is control rather than eradication, the use of trypanotolerant cattle breeds, which tolerate infection with trypanosomes, will still be advantageous and chemotherapy can be used to treat the few cases that occur. (Reducing the number of chemotherapeutic treatments given greatly reduces the risk of drug resistance developing in parasite populations.)"},{"index":15,"size":60,"text":"In many circumstances, using combinations of tsetse control and chemotherapy is more effective than employing either method alone. In an area of southern Ethiopia, for example, where high levels of trypanosome resistance to several drugs were found, staff members of ILRAD, ILCA and the Ethiopian Government introduced experimental tsetse control to complement chemotherapeutic treatment and this has had beneficial effects."},{"index":16,"size":46,"text":"When immunological methods of controlling the parasite or the development of disease are found, these should be integrated into an overall control strategy rather than replace existing control methods. Epidemiological studies are being conducted jointly by ILRAD and ILCA scientists to explore such integrated control methods."},{"index":17,"size":64,"text":"This article is based on a report by ILRAD scientist Stephen Leak and a paper published in Parasitology Today (Vol. 7, No. 10, Oct. 1991, pp. 287-291) The Editor thanks ILRAD staff members Ross Gray, Brian Perry and Clive Wells, and Brian Williams, of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, for their comments on and substantial editing of drafts of these articles."}]},{"head":"ILRAD research updates","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"A new system for identifying RNAbinding proteins in trypanosomes THE GENES of trypanosome parasites that control their proliferation, the establishment of infection and parasite/host interactions are being examined at ILRAD in studies aimed at developing better ways of controlling trypanosome infections in domestic livestock."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"When a gene is 'expressed', a single strand of the normally doublestranded DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is copied, or transcribed, into a single strand of RNA (ribonucleic acid). If the gene encodes a protein, the RNA-termed messenger RNA (mRNA)-directs the machinery of the cell to translate the genetic code carried by the mRNA to produce the desired protein."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"It is the control of this gene expression that determines the fate of cells, that is, whether they will proliferate or undergo changes to differentiate into different cell types. Current evidence suggests that posttranscriptional control of nuclear gene expression (control exerted after the generation of the mRNA transcript) is important in trypanosomes. Such control requires direct interaction between proteins and mRNA transcripts."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"ILRAD scientists have developed a novel method for identifying and purifying the proteins involved in this interaction. The method is being refined for studies of the control of gene expression during trypanosome proliferation and differentiation in an infection. Many different proteins interact either directly or via other proteins with RNA."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"To identify which proteins make direct contact with RNA, ILRAD scientists used ultraviolet light to crosslink specific RNAbinding proteins to RNA transcripts in living trypanosomes. The crosslinking may be done on intact trypanosomes or trypanosome components. The major advance ILRAD made in this technique is development of a system for detecting and isolating the crosslinked proteinRNA complexes."},{"index":6,"size":125,"text":"Following crosslinking, the complexes are resolved on gel matrices and transferred to a nitrocellulose filter by use of an electric field. The complexes are then detected on the filter by hybridization with specific radioactive gene probes and subsequent exposure of the filter to an xray film. Exposure of the hybridized filter to xray film discloses a series of bands containing the complexes. The fixed proteinRNA complexes are purified by cutting out the region of the filter to which the gene probe hybridized. The excised piece of filter containing the RNAprotein complex is then made soluble and used to immunize laboratory animals to raise specific antisera, which are then used to study the function of the RNA binding proteins in the regulation of trypanosome gene expression."},{"index":7,"size":131,"text":"Results of using this technique are revealing surprises regarding how trypanosomes control the expression of their genes and about complex biological pathways that are subject to different levels of control. For example, the genes whose products help regulate other genes have themselves been shown to be regulated through African trypanosomes, which cause human and animal trypanosomiasis, and related protozoan parasites, such as American trypanosomes, the cause of human Chagas' disease, and Leishmania, the cause of human leishmaniasis, are alike in possessing a unique structure, known as the kinetoplast, within the mitochondrion. This structure contains the largest extranuclear amount of organellar DNA found in any cell. In addition to mitochondrial DNA, which is found in most nucleated cells, the kinetoplast contains a large network of small, circular DNA molecules, known as minicircles."},{"index":8,"size":25,"text":"The recently discovered function of kinetoplast DNA is to help 'edit' mitochondrial RNA to produce genetic codes that will be transcribed into functional mitochondrial proteins."},{"index":9,"size":55,"text":"In this process, known as mitochondrial RNA editing, parts of kinetoplast DNA minicircles are transcribed into 'guide' RNA molecules, which participate in the editing process. Because mitochondrial RNA synthesis and subsequent editing use up large amounts of cellular energy, scientists have been interested to learn what possible advantages this proteinmaking strategy gives to the parasites."},{"index":10,"size":89,"text":"Mitochondrial RNA editing was compared between two related trypanosome species: Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanosoma brucei. A surprising diversity was found between these mitochondrial DNA sequences. However, the edited mitochondrial RNA molecules transcribed from those DNA sequences were very similar in both species. Even more surprising, the proteins produced in these species by that translation were essentially identical. These results suggest that one reason the energyexpensive RNA editing process has been retained during evolution is to preserve essential protein sequences in the face of substantial gene divergence among parasite species."},{"index":11,"size":92,"text":"Developmental control of RNA editing during the life cycle of T. congolense was examined because ILRAD has successfully propagated all life cycle forms of this parasite in laboratory cultures. Results of these studies show that the patterns of editing differ in each stage of the parasite's cycle. Energy production patterns also differ among the life cycle stages, which suggests that RNA editing may be associated with or help control forms of energy production. Related collaborative studies focus on developmental control of protein phosphorylation and the synthesis of enzymes employed in energy production."},{"index":12,"size":36,"text":"The knowledge being obtained by the Seattle and Nairobi laboratories may disclose novel parasite processes that may be targets for immunological or chemotherapeutic interventions that will kill the parasites without harming their animal and human hosts."}]},{"head":"Maternally derived immunity in calves to East Coast fever","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Theileriosis, commonly known in East Africa as East Coast fever (ECF), is a cattle disease caused by the Theileria parva parasite, which is transmitted by the brown ear tick as it takes a blood meal from an animal."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"As early as the 1950s, researchers at the East African Veterinary Research Organization, Muguga, reported the existence of an age resistance to T. parva challenge in zebu calves born in areas where ECF was endemic. Although it has since been reported that maternal antibodies to T. parva may be transferred to calves in colostrum, the specific factors that protect calves from ECF have not yet been identified."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Two experiments were designed to test whether antibodies against T. parva sporozoite forms, produced in cows after repeated tick challenge in the field, may be transferred to their calves via colostrum, and whether these maternal antibodies are the factors that protect the calves from ECF."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"In the first experiment, immune zebu cows from an ECFendemic area and carriers of T. parva were shown to transfer antisporozoite antibodies to their calves via colostrum. Serum and colostral antibodies from these dams neutralized sporozoite infectivity in vitro. In addition, a degree of protection against sporozoite challenge was demonstrated in these calves."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"In the second experiment, Boran cows from an ECFfree farm were immunized against T. parva by the infectionandtreatment method and then repeatedly infected with T. parva by application of infective ticks to boost their levels of sporozoite antibodies. Serological results of calves born of immunized dams indicated good uptake of colostral antischizont antibodies. However, sporozoite antibodies in colostrum and calf serum were low and no evidence of protection was demonstrated when the calves were challenged with sporozoites."},{"index":6,"size":45,"text":"These findings suggest that calves born to Boran dams that have been immunized against T. parva by the infectionandtreatment method are not protected against ECF and that maternal antibodies are unlikely to interfere with the active development of immunity in calves by T. parva infection."},{"index":7,"size":57,"text":"An important fact disclosed by this study is that antibody titres to sporozoite and schizont antigens are much higher in zebu cows naturally infected with T. parva and then challenged with infective ticks than in Boran cows immunized with a sporozoite stabilate in the infectionandtreatment method and subsequently repeatedly boosted before calving by challenge with infective ticks."},{"index":8,"size":36,"text":"The degree of protection demonstrated in zebu calves and associated with immune colostrum from their dams suggests that zebu born in endemic areas of immune cows may acquire some protective immunity against ECF from their dams."},{"index":9,"size":163,"text":"Of practical importance, these results demonstrate that calves born of dams immunized by infection and treatment may be immunized 21 to 30 days after birth without interference by colostral antibodies. Further research is needed to develop immunization methods to stimulate production of highquality sporozoite antibodies and to determine the protective capacity of such antibodies in vivo against experimental T. parva challenge. ILRAD was founded in 1973 to conduct research into better ways of controlling livestock diseases. The current primary goal of the Laboratory is to develop safe, effective and economical methods to control the most important parasitic diseases constraining animal production in Africa: trypanosomiasis, transmitted to animals by the bite of a tsetse fly, and tickborne diseases, particularly East Coast fever. An international staff of about 50 scientists conducts basic research, much of it aimed of the development of vaccines, in the fields of biochemistry, cell biology, electron microscopy, epidemiology, genetics, immunology, molecular biology, pathology; parasitology and the socioeconomics of animal disease control."},{"index":10,"size":105,"text":"ILRAD is one of 18 international agricultural research centres sponsored by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The secretariat of the CGIAR is located in the World Bank headquarters, in Washington, D.C. The CGIAR is an informal umbrella organization of 40 national governments, international organizations and private foundations that together provide about US$250 million annually to the 18 centres of research, training and advisory services. The CGIAR aims to help farmers in developing countries increase their production of staple food crops, livestock, fish and trees in ways that improve the nutrition and wellbeing of low income peoples and the management of natural resources."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" To control the tsetse vectors of human sleeping sickness, pyramidal traps have been used in the Congo, Lancien traps in Uganda and biconical and Vavoua traps in Côte d'Ivoire. In southwestern Kenya, an 'NGU' trap was used successfully for several years to control two species of savannah flies, G. pallidipes and G. longipennis, vectors of animal trypanosomiasis. Biconical traps have also been used in work of the African Trypanotolerant Livestock Network (cosponsored by the International Livestock Centre for Africa, in Addis Ababa, and ILRAD), to monitor International Livestock Centre for Africa, in Addis Ababa, and ILRAD), to monitor tsetse populations at sites in Cote d'Ivoire, Ethiopia, Gabon, The Gambia, Kenya, Togo tsetse populations at sites in Cote d'Ivoire, Ethiopia, Gabon, The Gambia, Kenya, Togo and Zaire, as well as in an experimental animal trypanosomiasis control program in and Zaire, as well as in an experimental animal trypanosomiasis control program in Cote d'Ivoire. Cote d'Ivoire. "},{"text":" UK) based at the International Trypanotolerance Centre, in Banjul, The Gambia. Contributions were also made by the joint ILRAD /ILCA team of the African Trypanotolerance Livestock Network. Dr. John Barrett, of the Natural Resources Institute, UK, provided data and advice on estimating the costs of trypanosomiasis in Zimbabwe. "},{"text":" cytoplasmic RNA binding proteins that are differentially expressed in different life cycle stages of the parasite. Mitochondrial RNA editing may help regulate trypanosome Mitochondrial RNA editing may help regulate trypanosome energy production energy production SCIENTISTS AT THE Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, in Washington State, SCIENTISTS AT THE Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, in Washington State, USA, and colleagues at ILRAD have been collaborating in research on mitochondrial USA, and colleagues at ILRAD have been collaborating in research on mitochondrial nucleic acid function in African trypanosomes. nucleic acid function in African trypanosomes. "},{"text":" Reports is published quarterly by the International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD), in Nairobi, Kenya. The newsletter is written and produced inhouse using a personal computer and laser printer and printed in Nairobi by Majestic Printing Works. It has a circulation of 3,500 English and 500 French readers and is available free upon request. Material in the Reports may be reproduced without prior permission, but we ask that credit be given and that two copies of the reprint be sent to ILRAD's Science Writer, Susan MacMillan.Telephone: 254 (2) 632311. Telefax: 254 (2) 631499. Telex: 22040 ILRAD. Electronic mail: (BT Tymnet) C61017. Simeon Mining, Simeon Mining, Summary of a Ph.D. thesis abstract submitted in 1992 to the Faculty of Veterinary Summary of a Ph.D. thesis abstract submitted in 1992 to the Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Sciences, University of Liverpool, UK. University of Liverpool, UK. "}],"sieverID":"453492e6-bf18-4c5c-af7d-4bd72248f3d5","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0a6cd97e4acc3bc083421d62179bcec3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9f36e004-0648-4f32-bf81-c5fc7635b8c8/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative aims to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agroecologies and socio-economic settings."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Through action research and development partnerships, the Initiative will improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weather-induced shocks, provide a more stable income and significant benefits in welfare, and enhance social justice and inclusion for 13 million people by 2030."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Activities will be implemented in six focus countries globally representing diverse mixed farming systems as follows: Ghana (cereal-root crop mixed), Ethiopia (highland mixed), Malawi: (maize mixed), Bangladesh (rice mixed), Nepal (highland mixed), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (upland intensive mixed/ highland extensive mixed). "}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The Reflection and Review, Work Package (WP) 3 Workshop took place on July 7, 2023, at the ILRI Campus in Addis Ababa. The event was attended by thirty-five stakeholders, including NARS researchers, policymakers, government and extension officers, university representatives, SI-MFS staff and consultants, and delegates from Ethiopian farmer organizations."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"The MFS team aimed to ensure that their current research and interventions of ICARDA were in harmony with local interests and would aid in the creation of sustainable and robust farming systems in Ethiopia. This engagement was pivotal in grasping the requirements and viewpoints of local farmers, researchers, policymakers, and other key participants in Ethiopia's agricultural sector. The understanding gained was essential for developing customized interventions that effectively address the distinct challenges and opportunities inherent in each farming system. The presenters used case studies and real-life examples to illustrate the key concepts and engage the participants. The session was interactive; participants could ask questions and share their perspectives. This information helped to set the stage for the reflection and review process and provided a common understanding for workshop participants."}]},{"head":"The objectives were:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• To facilitate the interaction between the SI-MFS Work Package 3 Lead, Aymen Frija, and stakeholders in Ethiopia."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• To gain a deeper understanding of the farming systems in Ethiopia that are of particular interest to the SI-MFS Initiative."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"• To reflect on and review the activities of SI-MFS Work Package 3 and the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) in Ethiopia."}]},{"head":"Workshop Sessions","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The Workshop for Reflection and Review consisted of five sessions, which featured an icebreaker activity, oral presentations to set the scene for the workshop, oral presentations, and poster tours of ICARDA MFS activities in Ethiopia, a training presentation on Systems Approach, and group work on System Mapping, Sketching & Readiness for sustainable intensification and integration across components."}]},{"head":"Session 1: Icebreaker activity","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The \"pair up\" activity facilitated participants in acquainting themselves with one another and fostering connections. It entailed forming pairs with a different person for three rounds, each lasting five minutes, guided by distinct questions. During these sessions, participants introduced themselves and discussed what they take pride in regarding their work. This inquiry prompted them to contemplate their accomplishments and strengths in sustainable intensification and mixed farming systems."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Furthermore, participants recounted a successful experience in mixed farming systems, including the elements that contributed to this success. This part of the activity emphasized exemplary cases of sustainable intensification in mixed farming, pinpointing key factors of success that could be useful for future projects."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Lastly, participants expressed their expectations from the meeting, allowing them to ponder over their objectives for the workshop and pinpoint mutual interests or concerns. This question was designed to help participants clarify their goals and aspirations for the event."}]},{"head":"Session 2: Scene setting","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Scene-setting focused on the overview of the MFS initiative and involved a presentation by Aymen Frija (MFS WP 3 Lead; Fig. 1), in providing context and background information on the initiative, the theory of change for WP 3, and the plan of outputs for 2023. The overview of the initiative introduced the initiative's overall goals, objectives, and strategies. This included a discussion of the challenges facing smallholder farmers in Ethiopia and the need for sustainable intensification and diversified farming systems to improve livelihoods, food security, and environmental sustainability."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"The Theory of Change (ToC) presentation focused on the specific goals, outcomes, and activities of WW to promote sustainable intensification and diversification of mixed farming systems in Vietnam. The ToC outlined the key assumptions, risks, and strategies for achieving the desired outcomes and the indicators and targets for measuring progress."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"The presenters used case studies and real-life examples to illustrate the key concepts and engage the participants. The session was interactive; participants could ask questions and share their perspectives. This information helped to set the stage for the reflection and review process and provided a common understanding for all workshop participants. "}]},{"head":"Session 3: Oral presentations and poster tours of ICARDA MFS activities in Ethiopia","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"To foster collaboration and teamwork, the facilitators employed interactive methods such as group exercises, poster walkthroughs and oral presentations in this session. These approaches enabled attendees to actively engage with the posters on display, facilitating discussions and exchange of ideas among them. Additionally, the session incorporated a question-and-answer segment, giving the participants a chance to inquire and seek clarifications on the research work."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"In Muluken Zeleke's oral presentation (Fig. 2), four distinct Sustainable Intensification (SI) initiatives were highlighted. These encompassed: 1) sheep fattening as a means for economic upliftment of youth and women via better feeding methods; 2) advancement of food-feed characteristics and value chain assessment for barley in animal husbandry; 3) improving sheep fattening processes using community radio; and 4) promoting feed mechanization led by youth for balanced diets and commercialization in sustainable livestock management. Dina Nijjar's presentation on participatory action research aimed at transforming gender norms and empowering women and youth in Ethiopia's mixed barleylivestock systems. This presentation offered valuable perspectives on the obstacles encountered by women and youth in these farming systems, as well as the methods employed to tackle these issues through participatory research and empowerment efforts."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Yetsedaw Ayenew presented the participatory co-design of MFS with evidencebased, validated SI innovation packages in North Shewa, Amhara Region. The methodologies of selecting six types of bread wheat and desi chickpea, as chosen by farmers were highlighted. "}]},{"head":"Session 4: The System Approach","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"The presentation by Aymen offered a comprehensive summary of essential ideas and definitions connected to systems thinking for creating scenarios in agricultural systems. The presentation (Fig. 3) described a five-step iterative protocol for creating scenarios in agricultural systems which offer a systematic framework to develop scenarios that aid in understanding and planning for the future of agriculture. The protocol begins with problem framing, identifying key challenges and issues in the agricultural system. It then moves to scenario design, generating various plausible future scenarios based on driving forces and uncertainties. The next step involves scenario quantification, evaluating the performance of each scenario using specific indicators, and scenario evaluation, comparing and analysing the quantified scenarios to identify strengths, weaknesses, and trade-offs. The final step is scenario implementation, utilizing the selected scenarios to inform decision-making and policy development. The iterative nature of the protocol ensures its adaptability as new information emerges. Overall, this protocol provides a structured approach, enabling informed decision-making and future planning for agricultural systems."},{"index":2,"size":202,"text":"During the presentation, Aymen discussed a socio-technical innovation called 'multistakeholder knowledge hubs' as an example (Fig. 4). He emphasized the practical protocols involved in implementing knowledge and scaling hubs. He highlighted the benefits of these hubs, such as their ability to engage project beneficiaries and facilitate a self-sustaining scaling process effectively. He also mentioned the 'fourwheels approach' of partnership for scaling innovations. According to Aymen, integrating agricultural innovation with knowledge hubs would promote learning and instill confidence in stakeholders regarding the innovation. Additionally, this approach would facilitate the dissemination of innovations to a broader network of partners who can further contribute to scaling the technology. After presenting the key concepts, Aymen facilitated an activity where participants could put these ideas into practice. The task required splitting participants into smaller teams to create a system diagram for a particular farming system in Ethiopia. The objective was to produce diagrams highlighting the various elements of the system, illustrating the flow of resources and information among these elements, and pinpointing the feedback mechanisms influencing system behaviour. The purpose of this exercise was to help participants understand how different parts of the farming system are interconnected and to pinpoint areas where interventions could lead to improvements."}]},{"head":"Session 5: Groupwork","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"The Groupwork Sketch System activity was conducted by splitting participants into two groups from the two different ICARDA intervention locations, Basona Worena and Doyogen, in Ethiopia. The task for each group was to draw a system diagram representing a particular farming system at their respective site. The purpose of this task was to monitor how the system functions in relation to MFS activities and pinpoint areas that could be enhanced. To steer this activity, facilitators handed out instructions that outlined a methodical way to create the system diagram. These instructions aided the participants in recognizing various elements of the farming system, understanding how resources and information circulate among these elements, and identifying the feedback loops that influence the behavior of the system."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"The guidelines included the following steps: ▪ Determine the elements of the agricultural system, which may encompass aspects such as crops, livestock, soil, water, labor, markets, and other pertinent factors. ▪ Ascertain the dynamics of resource and information exchange among these elements. This involves tracking the movement of nutrients from soil to crops, the distribution of water from irrigation systems to crops, the allocation of labor from farmers to livestock, and the transmission of market intelligence from buyers to farmers. ▪ Identify the feedback mechanisms that influence the system's behavior. This includes recognizing positive feedback mechanisms that amplify certain behaviors or outcomes, like increased livestock production leading to more manure for soil fertility, and negative feedback mechanisms that mitigate or regulate certain behaviors or outcomes, such as soil degradation caused by overgrazing."}]},{"head":"Phase 1: Mapping the system","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"Basona Worena (Fig. 5) and Doyogena groups mapped the existing mixed farming system during the group work, aiming to understand its different components, drivers, and dynamics. Initially, they outlined the primary and secondary crops, livestock, households, and other economic units involved in the system. Subsequently, they grouped the key system processes, identifying the components' relationships and representing the system's essential actions and flows. The groups sketched how these processes are managed, controlled, and interconnected by mapping the drivers, inputs, and outputs. Special attention was given to key structural variables and variables that could be utilized to depict typologies, providing valuable insights into the functioning of the farming system. Participants, after examining the system diagrams, pinpointed regions where strategic actions could enhance the system's performance. These actions may involve initiatives to boost soil quality, strengthen crop-livestock synergy, advance market connectivity, and augment water management, among other areas."}]},{"head":"Phase 3: Identifying Specific Challenges and SIAF Indicators","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"The application of the Sustainable Intensification Assessment Framework (SIAF) offers a robust methodology for evaluating the current state of the farming system, envisioning desired transformations, and strategically identifying entry points and innovations for sustainable intensification. Through a systematic and integrated approach, this step ensures a comprehensive and context-specific assessment, laying the foundation for impactful interventions in agricultural sustainability."}]},{"head":"During","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Step 3 of the group work, a thorough examination of specific challenges and SIAF indicators was conducted to assess the current state of the farming system and explore its potential for transformation. SIAF indicators, encompassing various dimensions, were employed to evaluate the system's performance. These indicators were further divided into sub-indicators, including productivity (crop yield, animal production, production variability), economic aspects (profitability, profit variability, labor requirements), environmental factors (biodiversity, water quality, soil quality), human considerations (nutrition, food security, health), and social aspects (gender equity, social cohesion, collective action)."},{"index":2,"size":178,"text":"The assessment was conducted under Business as Usual (BAU) conditions and normative scenarios, envisioning potential transformations through Sustainable Intensification (SI). The indicators were evaluated on a scale of 0 to 5, enabling a nuanced understanding of the system's current state (BAU scenario) and the potential future state (Normative Scenario). This process helped participants identify the current qualification levels of SIAF indicators within the BAU system and envision target scores for a more performance-oriented and sustainable farming system, (Fig. 7). The entry points for SI were determined based on the frequency and importance of these relationships, offering valuable clues for subsequent actions. Components consistently appearing in critical relationships were deemed key entry points for sustainable intensification, suggesting that interventions in these areas would yield substantial benefits. The desired changes identified in these tables served as guiding principles for selecting core innovations, ensuring alignment with the overarching goal of sustainable intensification. By strategically identifying entry points and core innovations, the group aimed to pave the way for transformative changes that would enhance the sustainability and productivity of the farming systems."}]},{"head":"Phase 5: Linkages with WP3 and System Readiness (SR) Insights","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"The group exercise yielded valuable insights that held particular significance for Work Package 3 (WP3) and the assessment of System Readiness (SR) in general. In"},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"Step 5 of the Sustainable Intensification Assessment Framework (SIAF), the focus shifted towards establishing meaningful connections with WP3 and leveraging the insights gained from System Readiness to enhance the overall effectiveness of the assessment process. This step provided crucial inputs for WP3, aiding in developing or validating farming typologies. The detailed analysis of relationships, key innovations, and entry points conducted in Step 4 generated valuable data and information that can help identify specific gaps and knowledge requirements in system research. The findings and insights derived from the SIAF exercise formed a solid foundation for informed discussions and dialogues with system researchers, policymakers, and organizations involved in farming systems. By establishing linkages with WP3 and leveraging the System Readiness insights, the group aimed to foster collaboration and exchange of knowledge, ultimately contributing to the advancement of sustainable intensification efforts. This integration of findings and collaboration across different domains ensured a holistic approach to address the challenges farming systems face, encouraging effective decision-making and policy formulation."}]},{"head":"Lessons Learnt","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The session on discussions/lessons Learnt/emerging Issues involved participants engaging in a reflective and interactive dialogue, focusing on new challenges and acquired insights, and exploring future directions for the MFS initiative in Ethiopia."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"They pinpointed three key issues to be addressed by the MFS team, chiefly concerning the difficulties smallholder farmers face, including climate change, soil degradation, and market accessibility. Moreover, participants explored critical questions for MFS teams advancing the initiative, concerning its overarching objectives and tactics. These considerations included strategies for sustaining interventions, scaling successful practices, and ensuring the engagement and empowerment of women and youth."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"The discussion also covered possible strategies for the MFS initiative's progression in Ethiopia, involving collaboration with various local stakeholders, continuous research and monitoring, and interaction with policymakers and key decision-makers."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The Reflection and Review Workshop for the SI-MFS Work Package 3 served as an inclusive and dynamic forum where attendees exchanged their insights, gained knowledge from one another, and explored possible directions for advancing Ethiopia's sustainable intensification and mixed farming systems. The agenda encompassed a range of topics, including an introduction to the study sites, discussions on current initiatives, an emphasis on systems thinking, and collaborative group activities."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"The presentation and group work on the System Approach, along with the Sketching System exercise, enabled participants to gain a more profound comprehension of the intricacies inherent in farming systems. This process also aided in pinpointing potential sectors for intervention and enhancement. Through the exchange of their perspectives and experiences, the participants played a pivotal role in steering the initiative's future course, thereby ensuring its continued beneficial influence on smallholder farmers within Ethiopia."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"Consent Statement: \"Personal information including Name, Business Title, Email, Phones, Images and GPS points included in this report have been authorized in writing or verbally by the data subject\" J. Wamatu "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1 Workshop Sessions ........................................................................................................................ 2 Session 1: Icebreaker activity .......................................................................................................................... 2 Session 2: Scene setting .................................................................................................................................... 2 Session 3: Oral presentations and poster tours of ICARDA MFS activities in Ethiopia ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 3 Session 4: The System Approach ................................................................................................................ 4 Session 5: Groupwork ..........................................................................................................................................6 Phase 1: Mapping the system ....................................................................................................................6 Phase 2: Assessing System Readiness for Sustainable Intensification and Integration across Components.............................................................................................................. 7 Phase 3: Identifying Specific Challenges and SIAF Indicators ............................................. 8 Phase 4: Identifying Entry Points and Core Innovations .........................................................9 Phase 5: Linkages with WP3 and System Readiness (SR) Insights ................................. 10 3. Lessons Learnt ............................................................................................................................ 11 4. Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 12 Appendix .......................................................................................................................................... 13 ANNEX I: The agenda of the workshop.................................................................................................. 13 ANNEX 2: The list of participants ............................................................................................................... 15 "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Dr Aymen Frija, Presenting on overview of SI-MFS. Photo Credit: Apollo Habtamu. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Muluken Zeleke presenting on status of SI-MFS activities. Photo Credit: Apollo Habtamu. "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Dr. Aymen Frija presenting the protocol to derive scenarios applied to an agricultural system. Photo Credit: Apollo Habtamu. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Knowledge hub for testing, piloting, learning, and scaling about key system transformative technologies (source: Frija & Idoudi, 2020). "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: System Sketches on farming system design and functionality. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. System interconnection and key innovations in Basona Worena district. "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. System readiness for sustainable intensification and integration across systems components Basona Worena district "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"76b30650-1c4a-4ab2-8b21-d968744e4a42","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0a93705aa9594ec39be6c55f2156eedf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/88f8a5af-cbec-44c6-b8d0-a866291a2357/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Characterization of cucumber mosaic virus isolated from yam (Dioscorea spp.) in West Africa","keywords":["Yam viruses","cucumber mosaic virus","sequence analysis"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Yam (Dioscorea spp.) is one the most important food crops cultivated in the West African yam zone comprising Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Benin and Togo, which account for over 92% of global yam production (FAO, 2012). Yam is a food security crop in West Africa because it can be stored better (3 to 4 months) than most tropical fresh produce thus millions of people in this region depend on it for food. Despite global efforts to increase yam production through research and extension programs, world yam production has been fluctuating since 2007 (FAO,2012). The damaging effects of diseases and pests are a major contributing factor to this production *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Abbreviations: YMV, Yam mosaic virus; YMMV, yam mild mosaic virus; DBV, Dioscorea bacilliform viruses; CMV, cucumber mosaic virus; EDTA, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; ORF, open reading frame; ELISA, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay; SDS-PAGE, sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; IC-RT-PCR, immunocapture-reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction; BLAST, Basic Alignment Search Tool; TAV, Tomato aspermy virus fluctuations."},{"index":3,"size":177,"text":"Diseases caused by viruses contribute directly to tuber yield losses by reducing the photosynthetic efficiency of infected plants through the leaf discoloration symptoms they induce. Viruses belonging to the Potyvirus, Badnavirus, Cucumovirus, Comovirus, Potexvirus and Macluravirus genera have been reported to infect yam in different parts of the world (Kenyon et al., 2001). However, the more commonly encountered yam viruses in West Africa are yam mosaic virus (YMV), genus Potyvirus, yam mild mosaic virus (YMMV), genus Potyvirus and several species of Dioscorea bacilliform viruses (DBV), genus Badna viruses (Kenyon et al., 2001). Until 2008, global report of cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) infection in yam was restricted to three countries, Guadeloupe (Migliori and Cadilhac, 1976), Côte d'Ivoire (Fauquet andThouvenel, 1987), andNigeria (Hughes et al., 1997). Field studies conducted in 2004 and 2005 to document the occurrence and distribution of viruses infecting yam in Ghana Togo and Benin revealed CMV infection in yam in all three countries (Eni et al., 2008), indicating a 50% increase in the number of countries worldwide where CMV infection in yam have been reported."},{"index":4,"size":182,"text":"Cucumber mosaic virus is an isometric single-stranded positive-sense tripartite RNA virus belonging to the genus Cucumovirus, family Bromoviridae. It infects over 1000 plant species worldwide causing viral epidemics in several economically important crops (Palukaitis and Garcia-Arenal, 2003). Although several strains of CMV are identified based on host range and pathogenicity, two main subgroups, subgroup I and subgroup II, have emerged on the basis of serological relationships, peptide mapping of the coat protein, nucleic acid hybridization and nucleotide sequence identity (Palukaitis et al., 1992). Subgroup I was further divided into subgroup IA and subgroup IB on the basis of phylogeny estimations with full CP open reading frame (ORF), as well as rearrangements in the 5' nontranslated region of RNA 3 (Roossinck et al., 1999). CMV is efficiently transmitted in a nonpersistent manner by many aphid species and mechanically transmissible to a wide range of test plant species of which cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), Nicotiana glutinosa L., N. benthamiana L. and Chenopodium quinoa Willd. are diagnostically most useful. This paper reports the characterization of a strain of CMV isolated from yam in West Africa."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Virus source","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Yam leaves from Benin infected with CMV from our previous studies was used for this work."}]},{"head":"Preliminary transmission studies","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Due to the compositional complexities such as mucilaginous substances contained in yam leaves, the virus was mechanically transmitted from yam to diagnostic test plants. For sap inoculation, desi-desiccated CMV infected yam leaves (dried with anhydrous calcium chloride for preservation and transportation from field and subsequently stored at 4°C) were crushed in inoculation buffer (0.1 M phosphate buffer pH 7.7, containing 10 mM ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) and 1 mM L-cysteine) at a ratio of 1: 5 w/v. The sap obtained was gently rubbed unto carborundum-dusted (600 mesh) upper surface of fully expanded cotyledons and young leaves of C. sativus and N. glutinosa respectively. The inoculated plants were monitored daily, in an insect-proof screen house, for symptom development."}]},{"head":"Virus propagation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Based on superior relative virus titre, determined by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (data not shown), C. sativus was selected for virus purification. Sap inoculation of 100 C. sativus plantlets was done as previously described and young symptomatic leaves were harvested and used for virus isolation."}]},{"head":"Virus purification","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":211,"text":"Virus purification followed the method described by Roossinck and White (1998). Freshly harvested symptomatic C. sativus leaves were homogenised in a mixture of buffer A (0.5 M sodium citrate, pH 7.0, 5 mM EDTA, 0.5% (v/v) thioglycolic acid) and cold chloroform (1ml/gram of leaf tissue). The homogenate was centrifuged at 15,000 g for 10 min. The aqueous phase was filtered through cheese cloth, then under-laid with 10 ml of cushion I (0.5 M sodium citrate, pH 7.0, 5 mM EDTA, and 10% (w/v) sucrose) and centrifuged at 212,000 g for 1.5 h in a Beckman L5-50B ultracentrifuge. The resulting pellets were re-suspended in appropriate volume of buffer B (5 mM sodium borate, pH 9.0, 5 mM EDTA, and 2% (v/v) triton X-100), allowed to stir for 2 h at 4°C and centrifuged at 7500 g for 10 min. The supernatant was under-laid with 5 ml of cushion II (5 mM sodium borate, pH 9.0, 5 mM EDTA, and 10% (w/v) sucrose) and centrifuged again for 212,000 g for 1.5 h. The final pellets were re-suspended in appropriate volume of buffer C (5 mM sodium borate, pH 9.0, 5 mM EDTA). The purified virus preparation was stored in buffer C at -20°C before use. All the centrifugation steps were done at 4°C."}]},{"head":"Molecular weight determination","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"To determine the molecular weight of the virus coat protein, the coat protein subunits of the purified virus preparation was disrupted by addition of an equal volume of denaturation reagent (0.5% SDS, 0.1% 2-mercaptoethanol and 0.02% bromophenol blue) to the purified virus preparation and boiling the mixture for 3 min in a water bath. The mixture was then subjected to a discontinuous sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) using the protocol described by Laemmli (1970). A 12.5% resolving gel and a 4% stacking gel were used."}]},{"head":"Immunocapture-reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (IC-RT-PCR)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"With the aim of amplifying the 3' end of the coat protein gene and C-terminal noncoding region of RNA 3 of CMV, IC-RT-PCR was carried out on the desiccated yam leaves. The polyclonal antibody produced from the purified virus preparation (Eni et al., 2010) and the CMV specific primers, 5' GCC GTA AGC TGG ATG GAC AA 3' and 5' TAT GAT AAG AAG CTT GTT TCG CG 3' designed by Wylie et al. (1993) were used for IC-RT-PCR."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"For immunocapture, PCR tubes (200 µl; ABgene, Ebsom, UK) were coated with 100 µl of an appropriate dilution of CMV polyclonal antibody. The tubes were incubated at 37°C for 2 h and washed three times using phosphate-buffered saline (pH 7.4) containing 0.05 % (v/v) Tween-20 (PBS-T). During the washing step, the tubes were incubated at room temperature for 3 min between washes. The antibody-coated tubes were blotted dry and 200 µl of sap prepared by grinding the yam leaves in grinding buffer (phosphate buffered saline containing 0.05% (v/v) Tween-20 (PBS-T), 0.5 mM polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP-40) and 79.4 mM Na 2 SO 3 ] was added to each tube. After an overnight incubation at 4°C, the tubes were washed again as previously described using PBS-T and then rinsed once with distilled water. RT-PCR was performed as described by Wylie et al. (1993) using the M-MLV reverse transcriptase and Taq DNA polymerase from Promega (Promega, USA)."}]},{"head":"Cloning and sequencing","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Following gel analysis and confirmation of the presence of the expected amplicon, one of the IC-RT-PCR products was cloned into pCR2.1 (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) following the manufacturer's instruction and transformed into Escherichia coli. Plasmid DNA was purified from positive recombinant clones using the QIAprep spin miniprep kit (Qiagen GmbH, Hilden, Germany) and three independent clones were sequenced from both orientations."}]},{"head":"Sequence analysis","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"Sequence similarity search of the GenBank database was done using the Basic Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) program. The sequence of the 199 3' amino acid of the CMV coat protein gene was translated from the consensus nucleotide sequence using the EMBOSS Transeq program (Rice et al., 2000). Both the nucleotide and amino acid sequences were then aligned with selected sequences of CMV subgroups IA, 1B and II strains using the CLUSTALW2 program (Larkin et al., 2007). Phylogenetic analysis was done on MEGA 5.1 (Tamura et al., 2011) and trees were created using the neighbour-joining method (Saitou and Nei, 1987). The robustness of the trees was determined by bootstrap using 1,000 replicates. Tomato aspermy virus (TAV) was used as a reference out-group member of the genus Cucumovirus for rooting the phylogenetic tree. Nucleotide sequence alignments and phylogenetic analysis was done using both the 3' coat protein and the Cterminal noncoding region of the yam strain and corresponding sequences of selected CMV strains whereas only the 3' coat protein amino acid sequences were used for amino acid alignments and phylogenetic analysis."}]},{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Preliminary transmission studies and virus propagation","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Sap inoculation resulted in successful transmission of the virus from yam to C. sativus and N. glutinosa. Severe systemic mosaic was induced on emerging C. sativus leaves while systemic chlorosis, necrotic lesions and leaf distortion was observed on N. glutinosa. Both the plants and the leaves of C. sativus and N. glutinosa were stunted compared to un-inoculated and mock inoculated controls. Symptomatic C. sativus (Figure 1) were harvested for virus purification."},{"index":2,"size":265,"text":"C. sativus was used as a propagative host for CMV in this study, because mucilaginous substances contained in in yam leaves interfere with virus purification (Thouvenel and Fauquet, 1979). Similar to most CMV strains, the yam strain induced systemic infection on C. sativus (Raj et al., 2002;Verma et al., 2006) and N. glutinosa (Ali et al., 2012;Divéki et al., 2004). However other studies revealed that some CMV strains failed to induce either local or systemic symptoms on N. glutinosa (Raj et al., 2002;Afreen et al., 2009). This variation in the biological response of N. glutinosa to CMV is however not restricted to any of the subgroups as some subgroup II strains induced systemic symptoms (Verma et al., 2006), while others did not (Raj et al., 2002;Afreen et al., 2009). This indicates that the use of symptomatology for identification and strain differentiation of CMV isolates may result in erroneous conclusions. The necrotic lesions observed on the leaf tip of infected N. glutinosa may represent a form of hypersensitive response by the infected plants. Necrotic local lesions which are visible signs of mass cell death (necrosis) are a typical symptom associated with plant hypersensitivity response, elicited by a broad spectrum of pathogens, including viruses (Goldbach et al., 2003). This form of response is aimed at preventing further spread of a pathogen by limiting cell to cell movement through programmed cell death (Heath 2000). The Ns strain of CMV characteristically induces necrotic lesions on several Nicotiana spp. and this attribute had been linked to a single amino acid (aa 461) of the 1a protein (Divéki et al., 2004)."}]},{"head":"Coat protein molecular weight","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"The molecular weight of the purified CMV coat protein was estimated from the known molecular weight of the proteins contained in the low range protein molecular weight marker used. A single clear protein band of about 29 KDa was observed on SDS-PAGE for the purified CMV preparation (Figure 2). The estimated 29 kDa coat protein size obtained from the purified yam strain of CMV in this study differs from the 24, 25 or 26 kDa previously reported for CMV coat protein (Dubey and Singh, (2010); Raj et al., 2002). This difference may be due to incomeplete denaturation of the coat protein (Caillet-Boudin, and Lemay, 1986) or due to variation in the gel concentration used (Van Regenmortel et al., 1972). However, polyclonal antibodies produced using this purified virus preparation detected CMV in reference CMV isolates at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Ibadan, and also detected CMV in infected yam leaves from Nigeria, Ghana, Togo and Benin (Eni et al., 2010)."}]},{"head":"IC-RT-PCR, cloning and sequencing","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":297,"text":"The expected IC-RT-PCR amplicon of approximately 500 bp was observed on agarose gel and the amplicon was successfully cloned into pCR2.1. Analysis of the consensus sequence obtained after sequencing, revealed close similarities with sequences of other CMV strains from the genebank (Table 1). The yam strain of CMV (accession number: EU274471) had 78 to 79, 93 to 98 and 98 to 99% nucleotide homology with members of the subgroups II, IB and IA, respectively, at the 3' coat protein and C-terminal noncoding region sequenced in this study. Multiple nucleotide sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis revealed very high homologies between the yam strain and other subgroup I strains and confirmed the placement of yam isolate in subgroup I (Figure 3). Multiple sequence alignment further revealed a near perfect homology between the nucleotide sequence of the yam strain and the nucleotide sequences of most subgroup IA strains except for a single unique variation at position 346 where adenine was substituted with a cytosine in the yam strain (Figure 3). The presence of the 15 nucleotide deletions, dispersed between positions 365 and 474 of the subgroup IA strains, further confirms the placement of the yam isolate of CMV in subgroup IA and distinguishes it from subgroup IB strains. Contrary to the subgroup IA strains, two of these 15 deletions were absent in the subgroup IB strains in positions 374 and 375. Finally, the absence of the characteristic EcoR1 restriction site, 5' GAATTC 3', located between nucleotide 330-335 of the subgroup II strains, conclusively differentiates the yam strain from the members of the subgroup II strain (Figure 3). This clear differentiation of the three major CMV subgroups based on the 3' coat protein and C-terminal noncoding region analysed in this study, is clearly reflected in the resulting phylogenetic tree (Figure 4a)."},{"index":2,"size":391,"text":"Analysis of the 199 deduced amino acid sequence of the 3' end of the coat protein gene of RNA 3 revealed that the yam strain of CMV had 99 to 100% homology with subgroups IA and IB strains in this region and formed a Table 1. Nucleotide (nt) and amino acid (aa) identities of the 3' end of the coat protein gene and C-terminal noncoding region of RNA 3 of cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) yam strain (EU274471) with corresponding sequences of selected strains of CMV subgroup IA, 1B, II and Tomato aspermy virus (TAV). single subgroup I clade (Table 1, Figure 4b). Eight of the nine subgroup IA strains used for comparison, had 100% identity with the yam strain in the 199 amino acids of the 3' end of the coat protein gene except the C strain (D00462) where the tyrosine present at the 69 th position in all the CMV strains used in this study was substituted with valine (Figure 5). Similarly, four of the five subgroup IB strains also had single amino acid substitutions at various points and had 99% amino acid identity with the yam strain, except the Tfn strain (Y16926), which had a 100% aa identity (Figure 5). 13 non-sequential aa substitutions along the 199 aa of the 3' end of the coat protein gene analysed, clearly distinguishes the subgroup II strains. All the five subgroup II strains used for comparison had 89% amino acid homology with the yam strain and clustered separately in a distinct clade (Table 1, Figure 4b and 5). The variation in the phylogenetic trees obtained from the nucleotide and amino acid sequences is of course due to the redundancy of the genetic code but may also be due to the fact that only the 3' coat protein coding region was translated and analysed whereas both the 3' coat protein coding region and the C terminal noncoding nucleotide sequences were analysed. Although the previous grouping of CMV strains into subgroups IA, IB and II was based on the phylogeny estimations with full CP open reading frame and rearrangements in the 5' non-translated region of RNA 3 (Roossinck et al., 1999), we found that the partial 3' coat protein coding region and the C terminal noncoding nucleotide sequences analysed in this study also sufficiently divided CMV strains into the same three subgroups (Figure 4a)."}]},{"head":"Accession","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"Given the crucial position of West Africa in global yam production, the very important role of yam as food in West Africa, and the viral epidemics associated with CMV infection worldwide, the issue of CMV infection in yam in West Africa must be closely monitored. Furthermore, bearing in mind that the virus disease dynamics and the resulting economic effect of a virus disease would vary from place to place, it is very important to conduct yam yield loss assessment studies to determine the actual economic importance of CMV infection to yam production in West Africa. This is particularly important noting that the CMV strain isolated from yam in this study was conclusively categorized as a subgroup IA strain, and previous studies have shown that subgroup I strains are more virulent than the subgroup II strains (Wahyuni et al., 1992;Zhang et al., 1994). It is also necessary to determine if other CMV subgroups infect yam in West Africa. The ability to distinguish between CMV strains of subgroups I and II on the basis of presence or absence of an EcoRI restriction site in PCR amplicon would be a simple alternative to sequencing, particularly when testing large field samples. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. (A) Systemic mosaic on Cucumis sativus leaf inoculated with the yam strain of cucumber mosaic virus. (B) Healthy un-inoculated leaf. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. An SDS-PAGE gel showing coat protein band from purified preparation of the yam strain of cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) and sigma low range protein molecular weight marker. "},{"text":"Figure 3 .Figure 4 . Figure 3. A section of the nucleotide sequence alignment of the 3' end of the coat protein gene and C-terminal noncoding region of RNA 3 of the yam strain of cucumber mosaic virus and corresponding sequences of 18 selected CMV strains of subgroups IA, IB and II. Tomato aspermy virus is defined as an out-group. The EcoR1 recognition site present only in the subgroup II strains is indicated. -, indicates nucleotide deletions. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure5. Multiple sequence alignment of the 199 amino acid sequences of the 3' end of the coat protein gene of the yam strain of cucumber mosaic virus and corresponding sequences of 18 selected strains of subgroups IA, IB and II. Tomato aspermy virus is defined as an out-group. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"bb748bc4-866d-4820-8c4d-3f5d2212ab60","abstract":"Millions of people in the West African sub-region depend on yam for food and income. In 2008, cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), one of the most economically important plant viruses was detected in yam fields in Ghana, Benin and Togo, three of the five topmost yam producing countries in the world. Some strains of CMV are reportedly more virulent than others thus the need to characterise the strain isolated from yam. Sap inoculation of the yam strain induced systemic mosaic on Cucumis sativus and systemic chlorosis, necrotic lesions and leaf distortion on Nicotiana glutinosa. Sequence analysis of the 3' end of the coat protein gene and C-terminal noncoding region revealed 98 to 99, 93 to 98 and 78 to 79% nucleotide homology with members of the subgroups IA, IB and II, respectively. This analysis further revealed the absence of the EcoR1 restriction site characteristic of subgroup II strains and the presence of 15 nucleotide deletions dispersed along the C-terminal noncoding region of subgroup IA strains. At the amino acid level, the virus had 99 to 100% homology with subgroup I strains and 89% homology with subgroup II strains. Phylogenetic analysis of the amino acid confirms that the yam strain of CMV belongs to subgroup I while nucleotide sequence phylogeny confirms its placement in subgroup IA."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0ad524a2ea6ef6bcb4f483fab49073d9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/78bff2d2-798c-4219-9f6d-d3166457f793/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"The Ontologies Community of Practice: A CGIAR Initiative for Big Data in Agrifood Systems","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"The increasing application to agrifood research data of the FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable) principles 1 has led to the research community's growing interest in using ontologies. FAIR principles indeed recommend that data must be described with commonly used, controlled vocabularies structured in thesauri and semantically rich ontologies. An ontology is a representation of a domain of knowledge where key concepts, as well as the relationships between those concepts, are defined. 2 By providing standardized definitions for the terms used by scientists along with defined logical relationships among these terms, ontologies compile information about the content of a dataset that can be explicitly used by computers. 3 Each concept has a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) that uniquely identifies it as a web resource accessible by anyone for data labeling, to efficiently support consistent use of ontology terms within and across disciplines and domains. Therefore, annotating data with quality and widely used ontologies increases the findability, interoperability, and reusability of data."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Despite the existence of robust ontologies in the Life Sciences, no agreed set of quality ontologies covering all agrifood research disciplines exists, because it is not easy to identify which ones are representative of community standards, what best practices exist for using ontologies, and how we can collectively fill domain gaps. 4 Within this scenario data managers often create their own customized controlled vocabularies, which fragment the global semantic framework and keep data in silos."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"In 2013, the Interest Group on Agricultural Data (IGAD) (https://www.rd-alliance.org/groups/agriculture-data-interestgroup-igad.html) was created within the Research Data Alliance to facilitate discussions on all aspects of agricultural information management. IGAD's Wheat Data Interoperability Working Group published guidelines recommending a set of standards and ontologies applicable to genetic, genomic, and phenotypic data (http://datastandards.wheatis.org) for wheat, 5 while its Agrisemantics Working Group conducted a scoping study from which it produced list of global recommendations for the development maintenance, and use of semantic resources in agriculture (https://rd-alliance.org/group/agrisemantics-wg/ outcomes/39-hints-facilitate-use-semantics-data-agriculture-andnutrition). IGAD does not directly engage in ontology development related to agriculture."},{"index":4,"size":238,"text":"The CGIAR (https://www.cgiar.org/), the world's largest global agricultural innovation network dedicated to reducing poverty, enhancing food security, and improving natural resources, launched the Platform for Big Data in Agriculture (https:// bigdata.cgiar.org/) in 2017. The aim is to increase the impact of agricultural research and development by turning FAIR data into a powerful tool for discovery, while integrating principles of responsible and ethical data use. Through the Platform on Big Data, CGIAR's primary objective is to annotate multidisciplinary research data with the appropriate ontologies for publishing on the GARDIAN platform (https://gardian.bigdata.cgiar. org/), CGIAR's metadata repository, and stimulate the ontology content gap filling rather than developing complete new ontologies. 6 The Ontologies Community of Practice (CoP) was created to harness in-house and external expertise in the development of ontologies and support the five other CGIAR Platform CoPs (Agronomy Data Crop Modeling, Geospatial Data, Livestock Data, and Socio-Economic Data) toward finding adequate ontologies for data description. The Ontologies CoP, hereafter referred to as ''The CoP,'' was also developed as a means to include data generated by the latest technologies (e.g., remote sensors) and expand beyond crops to encompass data on fisheries and aquaculture, livestock, socio-economics, water management, and agroecology (agroecology includes social, economic, and environmental aspects of the food production systems http://www.fao.org/agroecology/knowledge/ definitions/en/). The Ontologies CoP's thematic working groups currently develop ontologies, such as the Crop Ontology (CO) (http://www.cropontology.org), the Agronomy Ontology (ArgO) (https://bigdata.cgiar.org/resources/agronomy-ontology/), and the Socio-Economic Ontology (SEOnt) (https://github.com/ AgriculturalSemantics/SEOnt)."},{"index":5,"size":142,"text":"The CoP provides the ideal forum for co-learning and knowledge exchange on ontologies and for guiding consistent data annotation, as well as the deployment of quality ontologies in databases and repositories. The CoP stimulates exchanges between domain experts and experts in ontology design, knowledge modeling, ontology-driven applications, and semantic web technologies. While IGAD and the Ontologies CoP have members in common, only the Ontologies CoP aims to directly contribute to ontology development to ensure the quality of data mobilized by the CGIAR Platform for Big Data in Agriculture, its partners, as well as new players within the domains it covers. It includes researchers, modelers, information specialists, data managers, and ontology experts from the CGIAR research network, academia, and the private sector, thus creating a critical mass of expertise to tackle the major issues related to semantics for FAIR data in agrifood science."},{"index":6,"size":78,"text":"Currently, the Ontologies CoP newsletter has 353 subscribers and a LinkedIn group ''CGIAR Big Data-Ontologies CoP'' (https://www. linkedin.com/groups/13707155/) with 144 active members: 35 from universities, 61 from public research institutes, and 48 from the private sector. We regularly organize webinars, which are recorded to build a public channel of online reference videos (https://www. youtube.com/c/OntologiesInAgriculture) and to which we have 118 subscribers. The CoP webpage (https://bigdata.cgiar.org/ communities-of-practice/ontologies/) provides access to its objectives and yearly workplan developed with members' input."},{"index":7,"size":83,"text":"In this paper we provide information on the ontology products that were developed by the CoP members, as well as the necessary perspectives to extend and cover all relevant domains for research on agriculture and food systems. We explain how the CoP supports and fosters the proper use of quality ontologies, the submission of missing terms by users, and collaboratively explore solutions to solving the complexity of data annotation. Finally, we stress the importance of partnering with industry in agriculture and food systems."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"The Ontologies CoP members play a direct role in ontology development and filling content gaps by compiling controlled vocabularies and requesting or mapping new terms to existing ontologies. Collaborative development of ontologies is a slow process but is a guarantee for quality and adoption. Currently, four thematic ontology working groups have been created for Agronomy, Fish and Fisheries, Plant phenotypes, and Socio-Economy. The CoP has begun to explore the use of new technologies in machine learning to create or improve ontologies and, in return, provides quality ontologies to support text mining. However, the use of artificial intelligence in the development of ontologies lags behind, largely due to the breadth and heterogeneous sets of expertise involved in quality assessment of the results."}]},{"head":"Development of Ontologies for Agrifood Research Data","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"CGIAR currently has eight agrifood research programs (https:// www.cgiar.org/research/research-portfolio/) focused on crop breeding, aimed at producing innovative technologies, such as improved crop varieties and advisory services to farmers. Producing FAIR data on plant genotypes and phenotypes, their environment, field management practices, and socio-economy is crucial to provide support information for the development and use of these technologies."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"For several years, CGIAR and its partners have contributed to ontology development for plant phenotype studies and field management practices. The ontologies developed by the CoP provide validated concepts and formatted variables for direct integration in the design of field or lab books, thus supporting data aggregation into multidisciplinary platforms or use by analytical and modeling tools. The CoP provides wider communication and a formal framework for this work, stimulating new members' contributions, as in the case of PepsiCo Inc. and NIAB (a UK crop science organization) to the Oat Ontology development (https://www.cropontology.org/ontology/ CO_350/Oat; https://bigdata.cgiar.org/blog-post/agriculturalontologies-in-use-new-crops-and-traits-in-the-crop-ontology/) or interactions with other CoPs, such as the Data-driven Agronomy and the Socio-Economic Data (SED) CoPs."}]},{"head":"Ontologies for Plant Traits and Agronomy Data","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":294,"text":"Crop breeding relies on collecting data on the desired traits for a new crop variety by testing it in multiple locations and diverse environments, linking phenotypes to genotypes, and drawing conclusions from meta-analyses. In addition, information produced by agronomic trials for field management practices applied by farmers is key to understanding how the significant differences in the practices underpin the performance of the variety. The quality and consistency of data collected during field trials are improved by the use of electronic field books and require the use of ontologies validated by end users. 7,8 In 2008, CGIAR initiated the development of the CO (http:// www.cropontology.org) in response to the need of breeding data management systems and field books to have access to valid lists of defined breeders' traits and variables. Currently, the CO comprises 4,235 traits and 6,151 variables for 31 plant species. By providing descriptions of agronomic, morphological, physiological, quality, and stress traits along with a standard for composing the variables, the CO enables digital capture and aggregation of crop trait data, as well as comparison across projects and locations. 7 The CO was integrated into the Planteome's ontology project funded by the National Science Foundation, US (IOS:1340112 award; http://planteome.org) and was successfully adopted by the CGIAR Integrated Breeding Platform (https://www.integratedbreeding.net/) and by the Boyce Thompson Institute's Breedbase (https://breedbase. org/), both of which are comprehensive breeding management systems and analysis software, and by national databases, such as GnpIS (https://urgi.versailles.inra.fr/Tools/GnpIS) 9 in France, or international projects, such as Emphasis (European Plant Phenotyping Infrastructures; https://emphasis.plantphenotyping.eu/). Both the Minimum Information About a Plant Phenotype Experiment (https://www.miappe.org/) metadata schema (MIAPPE), 10,11 and the Breeding Application Programming Interface (BrAPI) (https://brapi.org/), 12 which enable the extraction of genotype and phenotype data across databases are compliant with the CO format."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"At the time CGIAR launched the CO, the Plant Trait Ontology (TO) 13 did not include traits and definitions required for breeding data on the CGIAR mandate crops. To remediate this situation and create the necessary upper-level connection between the species-specific ontologies, CO trait terms were mapped to terms, thus enabling searches of annotated data across species, using a single trait term. 14,15 As a result, Planteome Release 3.0 includes ten species-specific trait ontologies developed by the CO for the crops: cassava (Manihot esculenta), maize (Zea mays), pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan), rice (Oryza sativa), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), soybean (Glycine max), wheat (Triticum aestivum), lentil (Lens culinaris), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), and yam (Dioscorea sp.). These mappings can be automatically created but still require manual curation, making them difficult to maintain considering that ontologies evolve over time. 15 Planteome is developing a Plant Stress Ontology (https://github.com/Planteome/plant-stress-ontology) that will require support from the Ontologies CoP for content validation particularly on the described pest and disease symptoms."},{"index":3,"size":358,"text":"In 2014, CGIAR began developing the AgrO to support the new Agronomy Field Information System (AgroFIMS) (https://apps. cipotato.org/hidapagrofims/), 8 which enables scientists to create their electronic field book. AgrO describes agronomic practices and techniques, and integrates variables used in agronomic experiments by agronomists of the Data-driven Agronomy CoP and by the International Consortium for Agricultural Systems Applications. Applying the principles of the Open Biological and Biomedical Ontology (OBO) Foundry, 16 AgrO directly integrates terms and their original URIs taken from existing ontologies such as the Environmental Ontology (ENVO) and the Chemical Ontology (ChEBI). For example, the definition of ''tillage process'' in AgrO uses the ''soil'' concept from ENVO in addition to AgrO's novel concept ''tillage implement.'' Missing terms or knowledge relevant to the agronomy domain were directly proposed to the ontologies. For instance, urea is a widely used fertilizer in agriculture, but the urea concept in ChEBI was not defined as having a fertilizer role. So, the missing link was requested by AgrO and added to ChEBI. More information about AgrO content can be found on the CGIAR Platform for Big Data in Agriculture Website (https://bigdata.cgiar.org/resources/agronomy-ontology/). Socio-economic Data: Starting with Agricultural Household Surveys CGIAR and its partners perform a large number of agricultural household surveys yielding important data and statistics on the socio-economic status, production and food systems, and environment of smallholders in the developing world. The SED CoP (https://bigdata.cgiar.org/communities-of-practice/ socio-economic-data/) created the ''100Q Working Group'' that developed 100 core questions to be included in household surveys to collect consistent information on key socio-economic indicators. The set of questions consists of the following sections: household composition and characteristics, farm characteristics, land availability and use, livestock availability and use, income and assets, gender, food security and dietary diversity, and other aspects. 17 The Ontologies and SED CoPs are working together to identify concepts from the survey questions and results which will be used to form the new SEOnt. SEOnt will provide concepts and variables to the survey forms to annotate the data collected with the 100 questions, while taking into account the sensitive nature of the personal information. The first draft of SEOnt is available on GitHub (https:// github.com/AgriculturalSemantics/SEOnt)."},{"index":4,"size":171,"text":"The use of ontologies in making data interoperable is also enhanced when metadata schemas are adopted, such as the metadata schema being developed by the SED CoP, which relies heavily on the work of the Ontologies CoP. Expanding CoP Products to New Domains Relevant to Agriculture and Food Systems CGIAR research also aims to improve the sustainability, productivity, and resilience of fish agrifood systems and collects fish-related datasets, which include fish health, diseases, breeding, genetics, and catch data, among others. Harmonizing fish data annotation with an ontology will enable easier data aggregation and analysis. One available ontology, FISHO (https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FISHO), 18 focuses on ichthyology, diversity, and adaptation. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations initiated several fisheries ontologies, but the ontologies available remained drafts. 19 Therefore in May 2019, CGIAR and relevant partners formed the Fish Ontology Working Group to compile, update, and contribute fishery terms to existing ontologies. The working group plans to collaborate with the other animal science partners toward developing and adopting animal ontologies within CGIAR."},{"index":5,"size":104,"text":"To enable the interoperability of data along the agricultural value chain, the Ontologies CoP members plan to foster a collaboration with the Food Ontology (https://foodon.org/) consortium, which aims at building a comprehensive global farm-to-fork ontology 20 by contributing concepts on tropical and subtropical production systems and food products. A specific value chain ontology will be developed indicating the actors and their roles in the chain. The CoP could use the terminology compiled by CGIAR's Research Program on Policies Institutions, and Markets for the Value Chains platform (http://tools4valuechains. org) as a source of concepts and invite social scientists and economists to contribute to this work."},{"index":6,"size":69,"text":"Finally, CGIAR needs to demonstrate in a meaningful way the contribution of its research to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Integrating objectives, targets, and processes of the CGIAR Strategic Research Framework into the SDG Interface Ontology (SDGiO) (https://github.com/SDG-InterfaceOntology/ sdgio), which is developed with the support of the United Nations Environment Program, will provide a new set of concepts to annotate data about agrifood innovations and their impact on stakeholders."},{"index":7,"size":121,"text":"Identifying Criteria for the Adoption of Quality Ontologies by the Agrifood Research Community In general, an increasing number of controlled vocabularies, structured taxonomies, and semantically rich ontologies are developed ex novo in an ad hoc manner to support research projects, often without drawing on concepts and definitions from existing ontologies. For example, the thematic repository AgroPortal (http://agroportal.lirmm.fr/), 21 developed by the Laboratoire d'Informatique de Robotique et de Microe ´lectronique de Montpellier, currently compiles 121 ontologies and thesauri only for plants, agriculture, food, and biodiversity. This situation has led to a growing number of incompatible domain-specific ontologies impeding desirable data integration and interoperability. Consequently, scientists and data managers require guidance to unambiguously select the proper ontology terms in order to annotate data."},{"index":8,"size":131,"text":"Taking a step closer toward identifying and agreeing upon the criteria that make an ontology a quality resource for data annotation, the Ontologies CoP organized a webinar with an Expert Panel (https://www.youtube.com/c/OntologiesInAgriculture) involving Christopher J. Mungall (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory) and Pier Luigi Buttigieg (Alfred Wegener Institute), who are both members of the OBO Foundry editorial board (http://www.obofoundry.org/docs/Membership.html), Pankaj Jaiswal, leader of the Planteome project (Oregon State University), and Alexandra Lafargue, Knowledge Manager (Syngenta). A list of 17 key criteria, inspired by the OBO Foundry principles (http://www.obofoundry.org/principles/fp-000-summary.html), was proposed by the Expert Panel (Table 1). CGIAR data managers and ontology curators were asked to rank the criteria to understand which were the most important to non-expert users and should therefore be documented as a priority to guide the selection for annotation."},{"index":9,"size":125,"text":"The five top-ranking criteria selected were: (1) the domainspecific coverage of the ontology; (2) the ontology must be widely used in annotation and data capture (to reduce the cost of external data integration, which is routine work for data scientists and so was ranked higher by data managers and curators than by the Expert Panel); (3) indicators used for quality assurance should be available; (4) ontology maintenance is centralized, while contributions and access are distributed among users; and lastly (5) the existence of sustainable funding to support the ontology, funding being a real challenge and clearly of primary importance in securing the human resources necessary to manage the ontology. These five criteria are all part of the OBO Foundry principles of ontology design and format."},{"index":10,"size":115,"text":"There are several ontologies applicable to agrifood science, which comply with many of the above quality criteria, available for modeling crops, livestock, and other animal species (Table 2). The most used ontologies for plants, 22,,23 aside from the Gene Ontology (GO), are the: Plant Ontology, 24,,25 TO, CO, 7 Plant Experimental Conditions Ontology 13, -all included in the Planteome project (http://planteome.org/)-as well as the ENVO, 26,,27 AgrO, 8 and NCBI Taxon Ontology 28 (Table 2). The Sequence Ontology (SO) 29 and the Unit Ontology (UO) 30 are also widely used. Under the guidance of the Ontologies CoP several of these ontologies have been adopted within CGIAR, thus progressively increasing the quality of the data annotation."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Improving User Experience in Selecting and Submitting Ontology Terms Used in Data Annotation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Because of the urgency to release data generated annually that support agricultural research questions and technological innovation, best practices for quality data annotation are not always systematically applied. The CoP plays a key role in providing guidance and interacting with teams developing solutions that can facilitate the annotation process. Developing or completing ontologies, as well as recommending annotation support tools, are tasks for the well-defined Ontologies CoP of the CGIAR Platform for Big Data in Agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Figure 1 illustrates the current user's generic experience for selecting ontology terms for data annotation and submitting new concepts."}]},{"head":"Manual Ontology Term Searches","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"In general, when annotating datasets, scientists and data managers first need to manually check if relevant ontology terms exist (Figure 1, step 1). They also need to be familiar with the terms used in the original files because, for example, crop traits are included in a variety of nomenclatures, often decided by different groups of scientists without any coordination."},{"index":2,"size":145,"text":"To illustrate step 1, we provide a specific example of data annotation for the evaluation and adoption by farmers of floodtolerant rice varieties in Bangladesh. 34 Submergence tolerance is a target trait for rice breeders because flooding is a major abiotic stress causing important yield losses in rice production areas in South and South-East Asia, 35 and some parts of Africa. 36 This annotation exercise was performed by a scientist using survey data collected by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) with the support of the Ontologies CoP experts (Havard Dataverse: https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset. xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/26165). It was simplified for this paper by only selecting a sample of key concepts that could annotate data files at the level of their metadata and their variables (Table 3). We did not include all concepts or the finer annotation of the value, describing measurements or observation methods and scales or units."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"Users who are familiar with the domain-specific ontologies can perform a search directly on the relevant ontology website where they can visualize, browse, and download the ontology, and access direct term submission forms or templates, when available. If the user does not know any domain-specific ontology, consulting the quality ontology selection criteria recommended by the CoP on its web page is always good practice. Then a term search using ontology look-up services of the main registries (e.g., European Bioinformatics Institute [EBI] Ontology Lookup Service [OLS], Planteome, AgroPortal, Ontobee) will provide access to a large range of ontologies (Figure 1, step 1). These registries automatically synchronize their content using the Application Program Interfaces (APIs) of the ontologies' websites or of the open-source ontology project management tools."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"In the example of flood-tolerant rice varieties, a search in the OLS returns the term response to flooding from GO that can annotate the presence of the Sub1 gene conferring the tolerance. The term identifier is GO:0009413 and is included in the URI. If the searched-for term is not found, looking for synonyms, such as submergence will help. For annotating the phenotypic evaluation results, the user can select submergence tolerance in the CO (CO_320:0000067) or TO (TO:0000286) as both ontologies are mapped. The CO will provide the rice-specific variables used to measure the effect of submergence."},{"index":5,"size":180,"text":"The challenge lies in reading through the results of matching terms and checking for the most appropriate one. To see if the term fully corresponds to the search, users must check both the metadata of the term (e,g., definition, synonyms, context of use, note, evidence) and the ontology (e.g., domain, authority, curation, usage), and possibly linked terms. For example, a note in GO indicates that response to flooding (GO:0009413), which refers to short-term immersion should not be confused with response to deep water (GO:0030912), which refers to standing in water throughout an organism's life cycle. Hybrid approaches involving both quality ontologies and largely used thesauri may offer a solution to data managers. Thesauri have a simpler semantic structure than ontologies, called a Knowledge Organization System, that use broader narrower relationships between concepts. The most popular thesauri in Agriculture are: AGROVOC (http://agrovoc. uniroma2.it/agrovoc/agrovoc/en/) maintained by FAO, the Center for Agriculture and Biosciences International Thesaurus (https://www.cabi.org/), and the US National Agricultural Library Thesaurus (https://agclass.nal.usda.gov/). For the rice data annotation example, the concept of lowland as a landform was only found in AGROVOC."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"Once the term is identified, users can easily copy the URI and paste it in their file, ideally at the variable value level to increase the interoperability potential of the data."},{"index":7,"size":95,"text":"Table 3 summarizes the results of a manual ontology term search using the EBI OLS. It shows only the key concepts that could be used to annotate the rice datasets relevant to the evaluation of flood-tolerant varieties. Datasets annotated with these ontological terms could then be retrieved through a query, such as: ''Rice varieties that are flood-tolerant and can grow in Bangladesh in rain-fed lowlands subject to recurrent devastating flooding.'' For example, annotated datasets on the rice strains with Sub1 gene disseminated in Bangladesh should systematically appear in a result list of such a search."},{"index":8,"size":65,"text":"Although over time users will gain experience and confidence in the term selection and insertion of URIs in their files, such a manual process remains laborious and time consuming, often discouraging scientists and data managers from finding adequate terms. Consequently, they will limit their annotations to a strict minimum, such as a few keywords in metadata, which is insufficient for the interoperability of the data."},{"index":9,"size":121,"text":"In an Ontologies CoP survey, members identified the development of an online hub of ontologies recommended for agriculture, food, and environment research domains as a necessary resource to improve their annotations. Indeed, repositories, such as GARDIAN, and data discovery platforms, such as GEMS (the platform of the AgroInformatics Consortium; https://agroinformatics.org), combine multidisciplinary data from biophysical studies to socio-economic surveys, which implies the use of several domain-specific ontologies to fully describe the data. 23 Therefore scientists and data managers need direct access to the set of quality ontologies recommended for the specific domain to upload their data and metadata in such repositories. The ideal solution does not yet exist, but ontology look-up services and ontology registries will be a part of it."},{"index":10,"size":75,"text":"The OLS (https://www.ebi.ac.uk/ols/index), developed and hosted by the EBI, is the closest tool to this requirement as it provides a simple search function for finding specific concepts across 251 ontologies comprising over 6.1 million URIs representing concepts. The OLS API enables any database to access this wealth of ontologies. If users can restrict their term search to a single ontology, there is, however, no option for filtering the ones most used by agrifood domain experts."},{"index":11,"size":66,"text":"AgroPortal provides a complementary solution focused on agronomy that, aside from quality ontologies, includes draft and specific community ontologies, therefore acting as an ontology project discovery tool. AgroPortal offers a set of ontology descriptive metadata and statistics on the ontology files downloaded and should add information on all the criteria listed in this paper that would guide users toward quality and popular ontologies for agricultural data."},{"index":12,"size":40,"text":"To support such a work, the Ontologies CoP facilitates dialogue with the ontologies registries and promotes the use of ontology look-up services to users and to multidisciplinary data platforms, so that they can permanently access updated content from the ontologies."}]},{"head":"Automation of Ontology Term Selection and Data Annotation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"Ontology-driven data annotation tools enable the automation of the manual annotation process (Figure 1, step 2). The CoP members have identified and are testing COPO (collaborative open plant omics) (https://copo-project.org/), a promising tool currently being developed by the Earlham Institute, which provides metadata and ontology annotation capabilities, thus offering a platform for researchers to publish their research assets. 37 COPO uses the EBI OLS to perform real-time look-up of ontology concepts when a user enters a term. The COPO tool goes further than simply adding keywords to metadata by supporting the tagging of column headings of data files where values of variables are stored thus increasing the interoperability of the data. When further developed, COPO could fully describe the file's values drawing on terms from several ontologies."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"A feature that the CoP members proposed was for COPO to preferentially indicate, at the top of the list, the ontologies and the terms that were most used in previous data annotations."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"The CoP will continue conveying the members' needs to the developers of data annotation tools to ensure that they are fit for purpose and that developers understand users' priorities and requirements for ontology concept selection."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"Many agricultural databases enabling the production of electronic field books for homogeneous quality data collection provide direct assistance with ontology term selection and data annotation through an ontology manager (Figure 1, step 3). Users simply need to select the ontology terms and variables directly in the database when designing their field books. Data will then be automatically labeled at the collection stage and up-loaded back into the database along with their annotation. Any project database can automatically download and synchronize the versions of the ontologies through their APIs."}]},{"head":"Submitting New Ontology Terms","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"If a term appears to be missing, users should contact the curation team of the domain-relevant ontology to confirm the gap (Figure 1, step 4). Sending questions to the CoP members via the CoP LinkedIn Group or website is good practice. For example, partners, such as GrainGenes (https://wheat.pw. usda.gov/GG3/), University of Cornell, US, and URGI (https://urgi.versailles.inra.fr/), and INRAe, France, holding specific projects' wheat traits and variables, developed their lists of traits and variables using the Trait Dictionary template of the CO and their integration into the CIMMYT wheat ontology is being performed under the supervision of the wheat ontology curator."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"To maintain ontologies and consistent versioning, the CoP recommends using open-source tools for project management with version control systems that enable the management of released versions and can offer a publicly available tracker of issues posted by ontology curators and users. In general, an issue tracker enables subscribers of the open project management tool to directly insert their comments and suggestions, which will result in an email alert to all subscribers. For an ontologies project management tool, such as the Planteome GitHub (https://github.com/Planteome), any issue opened by a contributor will alert the ontology curators about new term submission or modification requests. Alternative options for submitting a term are the templates and forms proposed in the ontologies' websites. In this way, the new concepts are submitted to an established ontology and are correctly placed in the semantic graph by the ontology curator after its metadata is checked (synonyms, definition, context of use, reference) and is added with an URI."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"In the rice data annotation example, the terms weeding application date and fertilizer cost were not found by the scientist. The gaps were confirmed by the respective curators of AgrO and SEOnt and the term weeding application date was then submitted by the scientist to the AgrO's GitHub issue tracker while fertilizer cost was submitted to SEOnt's tracker. The term weeding time was added into AgrO and will be included in the next ontology release."},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"In fact, annotation tools, such as COPO should include a feature enabling users to directly submit their missing terms to adequate ontologies' issue trackers, in a similar way that the Breedbases from BTI propose to use an online crop trait term submission form that directly creates an issue in the Planteome's open ontology management tool and alert the curators. This is an important feature that simplifies ontology term submission, requiring no specific technical knowledge on the use of an issue tracker."}]},{"head":"Upload of Annotated Files into Repositories and Databases","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Once the data file is described with appropriate metadata and ontologies, files can be uploaded into data repositories or a graph database (Figure 1, step 5). Data repositories archive datasets with their metadata and annotations for long-term storage and access. COPO allows the annotated data to be directly deposited in a range of repositories, including DSpace (https:// duraspace.org/dspace/), CKAN (https://ckan.org/), and Dataverse (https://dataverse.org/), which are used by CGIAR."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"If the URIs of the selected ontology terms are ideally present for each variable, the file can be uploaded into a database, such as a graph database. A graph database has no predefined structure constraining the data and is based on a graph that represents the semantic relationships between data, showing how each individual entity connects with or is related to the other (https://neo4j.com/developer/graph-database/), so semantic queries will use the ontological relationships to discover annotated data. To be efficient, the graph requires a quality and fine ontology annotation of the measured or observed variables."}]},{"head":"Collaboration with the Agrifood Industry","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"For over 10 years, the agrifood industry has shown a strong interest in using ontologies and semantic web technologies to improve their data science activities (e.g., genomics data integration, data curation and annotation, responsible and ethical data management). The agrifood industry has progressed in the adoption of semantic tools and quality improvement of their data annotations faster than the public sector. Some success stories in industry and recurring challenges have been reported (https://f1000research.com/slides/5-348). 38 The rise in digitalized farming has created several open challenges related to the application of ontologies and semantic web technologies. The Ontologies CoP provide an adequate space for discussing the most prominent concerns about best practices and data reusability in this sector. In particular knowledge graphs are part of the new data science portfolio of advanced structures enabling data analysis in modern Research and Development. The industry sector largely uses the ontologies developed by the public sector and is progressively increasing its contribution to this collective effort."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The development of an Ontologies CoP for research on agrifood systems was necessary to harness the scattered ontology expertise and secure the quality, usability, and sustainability of a comprehensive set of semantic resources for agrifood science. CGIAR's Platform for Big Data in Agriculture realized the impor-tance of ontologies to support FAIR data and knowledge sharing, investing financially in the creation of the Ontologies CoP."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"The CoP members engage regularly across relevant networks to support the curation of data for biological, food and agronomic research, and socio-economics. They also play an advocacy role in sensitizing new donors, public institutions, and the agrifood industry to the importance of providing long-term financial support to this collaborative data curation effort, which contributes to breaking data silos and supporting the growing use of digital tools in agrifood systems. Long-term sustainable access to quality ontologies will increase the research community's confidence in using them and will improve the FAIR status of the data across research and development projects, in turn increasing their discoverability and value for re-use, and thus contributing to the return on investment for their collection and storage."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"For any sector, including the agrifood industry, the development and maintenance of quality ontologies should go handin-hand with effective and responsible data governance, including data stewards, data owners, and a solid data policy. Information technology infrastructure (servers, connectivity, and underlying software) plays a crucial role in organizing the actual data structures in the form of ontologies, taxonomies, and controlled vocabularies. Therefore, sufficient resources should be allocated to developing those components when building a sustainable data management system."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"The next set of priority ontologies to be developed for CGIAR's Platform for Big Data in Agriculture will be related to livestock, fisheries and aquaculture, water management, food systems, and value chains. To create the semantic framework that will support the evidence of CGIAR's and partners' contributions to the SDGs, the CoP will continue integrating concepts on agriculture and food systems into the SDGiO."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"Based on emerging needs, the CoP will also create additional thematic working groups, for example to collaborate with the Geospatial Data CoP for the harmonization of data generated by remote sensors, such as drones. The CoP will stimulate collaboration on the development of knowledge graphs in agriculture that support graph databases, a domain in which the agrifood industry has made rapid progress."}]},{"head":"EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Resource Availability Lead Contact Elizabeth","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Arnaud, [email protected], https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6020-5919."}]},{"head":"Materials Availability","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"This study did not generate any physical material. Data and Code Availability All data held in the form of draft and final ontologies produced by the Ontologies CoP are accessible online on public repositories managing versioning-mainly in GitHub repositories. Final versions of the ontologies are published with a cc-by license."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Use of the CoP's Products and Tools for Data Annotation "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Table 1 . Criteria Established by CoP Experts to Characterize the Quality of Ontologies for Data Annotation Criteria Classified by the Expert Panel Criteria Classified by the Expert Panel 1 Adhere to the OBO Foundry guidelines 1Adhere to the OBO Foundry guidelines 2 Represent a unique non-overlapping knowledge domain 2Represent a unique non-overlapping knowledge domain (also known as orthogonality) (also known as orthogonality) 3 Willingness to express and integrate multiple, evidence- 3Willingness to express and integrate multiple, evidence- based classification systems in the chosen domain based classification systems in the chosen domain 4 Logically structured with a well-defined scope 4Logically structured with a well-defined scope 5 May contain relationships and dependencies to other 5May contain relationships and dependencies to other reference ontologies reference ontologies 6 Represent accurate science supported by evidence 6Represent accurate science supported by evidence 7 Open source and Creative Commons CC-BY or CC- 7Open source and Creative Commons CC-BY or CC- 0 license (https://creativecommons.org/) 0 license (https://creativecommons.org/) 8 Must be widely used in annotation and data capture 8Must be widely used in annotation and data capture 9 Support both inter-and intra-specific needs with species 9Support both inter-and intra-specific needs with species agnostic (core) and specific (extensions) resources that agnostic (core) and specific (extensions) resources that work together work together 10 Sustainable funding sources 10Sustainable funding sources 11 Human resources to manage (i.e., curators, editors, and 11Human resources to manage (i.e., curators, editors, and developers) developers) 12 Established ontology management system, including roles 12Established ontology management system, including roles and responsibility and responsibility 13 Must be designed to answer both the computing and 13Must be designed to answer both the computing and community needs community needs 14 Must explicitly identify the communities of reference 14Must explicitly identify the communities of reference 15 Centralized maintenance of the validated content, and 15Centralized maintenance of the validated content, and distributed contribution and access distributed contribution and access 16 Ontology quality assurance by experts in the field of 16Ontology quality assurance by experts in the field of knowledge knowledge 17 Reducing reliance on internal processes and data 17Reducing reliance on internal processes and data stewardship networks stewardship networks "},{"text":"Table 2 . Widely Used Ontologies in Agricultural Science Ontology Domain and URL OntologyDomain and URL "},{"text":"Table 3 . Continued is mapped to a TO term so annotations using one or another are valid. CO will provide the format the variables measuring in the field the effect of the flood on the rice varieties. Selected Ontology Selected Ontology Dataset Terms Terms Definition Source Ontologies URI for Data Annotation Dataset TermsTermsDefinitionSource OntologiesURI for Data Annotation Socio- Farmers' income Household A demographic parameter NCI thesaurus in http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/ Socio-Farmers' incomeHouseholdA demographic parameterNCI thesaurus inhttp://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/ economy income indicating the amount of Socio-economic NCIT_C70811 economyincomeindicating the amount ofSocio-economicNCIT_C70811 Agricultural earnings made by a family ontology http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/ Agriculturalearnings made by a familyontologyhttp://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/ income Quantified household Socio-Economic SURVO_00000200 incomeQuantified householdSocio-EconomicSURVO_00000200 income using the sales Ontology income using the salesOntology information of agricultural information of agricultural products. This is gross products. This is gross income income Fertilizer costs Term not found Fertilizer costsTerm not found Annotation performed by Dr. Berta Miro, IRRI with the support of the CoP ontology experts. Annotation performed by Dr. Berta Miro, IRRI with the support of the CoP ontology experts. "}],"sieverID":"111b80e5-e63a-49bc-9e68-b407d4c29f37","abstract":"Highlights d FAIR agricultural data must use ontologies that are popular in the knowledge domain d CGIAR Ontologies Community of Practice holds expertise for agricultural data annotation d The Community selects innovative solutions to assist the data annotation with ontologies d The Community develops multidisciplinary open-source ontologies for agricultural data Authors"}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0b2afca09426f9e3003d61ec442ac905","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a02bcbef-040d-498b-b796-2bd31eb0dac8/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Genomic Tools for Sweetpotato Improvement Project (GT4SP)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"What objectives did we set?","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The GT4SP project established a multidisciplinary team of breeders, molecular geneticists, quantitative geneticists, bioinformatics specialists and database management/internet technology experts to achieve these goals: Where and with whom did we work? • We developed genomic and genetic resources for sweetpotato improvement, including genome sequencing and annotation of two diploid relatives, to be used as reference genomes for cultivated sweetpotato."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"• We developed a sequence-based single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping platform, with supporting bioinformatics and analytical tools to facilitate marker-assisted breeding. We additionally developed a database for data storage, analysis and sharing."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• We carried out multi-location phenotyping of populations and marker-trait association, quantitative trait loci (QTL), and causal gene validation studies, as well as genomic selection trials."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"• We enhanced capacity for genomic-assisted breeding in African sweetpotato research programs through workshops, webinars, short and long-term training opportunities. What did we achieve?"},{"index":5,"size":297,"text":"1. We published two high quality diploid reference genomes https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-06983-8, that are annotated and available to the sweetpotato breeding community at http://sweetpotato.plantbiology.msu.edu/. 2. We optimized a sequence-based SNP genotyping platform for sweetpotato that enables high quality genotype calls for hexaploid sweetpotato, as described in https://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6111789/pdf/fpls-09-01166.pdf. 3. We developed an integrated database for sweetpotato breeding that is available for research teams upon registration and incorporates analytical programs to enhance faster analyses and decision making by breeders https:// sweetpotatobase.org/. 4. We developed new linkage mapping methods that have increased our understanding of the inheritance of parental alleles in progeny using high density multi-locus data https:// www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/689638v1.full. 5. We developed new methods for analyzing the genomic regions responsible for traits of interest in our breeding programs https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/622951v1. 6. We have generated and analyzed transcriptome sequencing data that allows us to identify candidate genes for important abiotic and biotic stresses https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ full/10.1002/pld3.92. 7. Applying the new genomic tools and combining different data sets, we have started to dissect the genetic basis of important traits in sweetpotato breeding for SSA. 8. We generated ≥ 30 genomic, transcriptomic and phenomic data sets that are still being analyzed to answer some of the most important questions towards genomics-assisted breeding in sweetpotato. 9. We supervised three PhD students -two at NC State and one at WACCI -and supported another from Makerere University contributing to the development of nextgeneration breeders. 10.We supported six sweetpotato breeders from SSA to participate in the African Biosciences Challenge Fund and hosted them for short-term and long-term periods at the Bioscience east and central Africa (BecA) hub in Kenya, to introduce them to genomics-assisted breeding. 11.Last, we joined hands and became part of a very vibrant sweetpotato SpeedBreeders and genomics community of practice supported by the SASHA and GT4SP projects."},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"Were there any key challenges or lessons learned?"},{"index":7,"size":142,"text":"Many of the achievements listed above represent sweetpotato firsts. While we have learned much during the GT4SP project, there is still much to do if we are to realize the goal of genomic-assisted breeding in sweetpotato. While we believe the GT4SP project has succeeded in developing the core genetic and genomic resources required to conduct next generation breeding, we have yet to fully implement these tools in our breeding programs to further demonstrate their potential. The reality is that this technology is still quite new to sweetpotato and working in the data-intensive world of genomics will require significant coordination and, in some cases, totally new skill sets for our breeders. Thus, the learning process is complex, time-consuming and expensive. But we share a common vision and our team members are eager to work together to bring sweetpotato breeding to a higher level."}]},{"head":"What's next?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"We are convinced that sweetpotatoes can contribute significantly to the alleviation of poverty and hunger in rural poor households in SSA, and that plant breeding has a significant role for sweetpotato improvement. Not only can sweetpotato address the needs of only of the poorest of the poor--it can contribute to economic empowerment in small-to medium-sized and even larger farms through the development of improved varieties and seed systems and the increased production and sale of sweetpotatoes, either as typical food items in the marketplace, or via the development of a wide range of value-added products using sweetpotatoes as a key ingredient. New cultivars will undoubtedly play an important role in this upward trending crop that continues to increase in popularity and importance around the globe. We are currently working on a follow-on project in collaboration with the BMGF and USAID, and we are always interested in working with new partners in the future."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 1. Develop genomic and genetic resources for sweetpotato improvement, including genome sequencing and annotation of two diploid lines (Ipomoea trifida and I. triloba), for use as reference genomes for cultivated sweetpotato, I. batatas; 2. Deploy a sequence-based SNP genotyping platform, with supporting bioinformatics and an analytical tools/interface environment, to facilitate sweetpotato breeding; 3. Carry-out multi-location phenotyping and marker-trait association, QTL and causal gene validation studies, and genomic selection trials, for population improvement research in Ghana, Uganda, Peru and the USA; 4. Conduct traditional and web-based training capacity development efforts to incorporate genomics assisted breeding tools in sweetpotato breeding programs in Africa; and 5. Embrace good project management and communication processes to ensure project success and dissemination of newly-developed resources to the wider scientific communities. "},{"text":"Fig 1 . Fig 1. GT4SP team visiting one of the GT4SP trials in Uganda "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"5ac61f5d-b018-4f0a-b6b8-8554b66b1a7f","abstract":"What was the problem?Sweetpotato is grown mainly in small plots by women and is often characterized as a poor person's food crop. Orange-fleshed sweetpotato delivering nutritional benefits to pregnant women and under five children has been introduced in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) by the Sweetpotato Action for Security and Health in Africa (SASHA) project. One of the principal challenges faced by breeding sweetpotato breeders, is the obligate out-crossing and polyploidy nature of the crop -sweetpotato actually has 6 copies of its genome present in its nucleus -making the prediction and stacking of useful traits exceptionally difficult. Currently, there is an explosion of interest in sweetpotato and polyploid genomics. However, the critical issue of how to interpret the molecular data remains problematic, starting with the assignment of marker dosage, a.k.a. \"genotype calling\" and the development of new quantitative genetic algorithms to predict phenotypic performance in different environments. In addition, data collection from breeding trials has used paper-based excel forms followed by double data entry into a relational database. Although well established, this method is timeconsuming and error-prone. Therefore, new data collection tools and processing methods have to be developed to facilitate crop improvement."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0bc791e6fc4698a9ab0483b4a8e2553c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9dcc91de-f9b0-4323-a90c-9167edf2b09a/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "},{"text":"Target Product Profiles (TPP) -tropical forage breeding Interspecific Urochloa Latin America Interspecific Urochloa Africa Main countries Honduras, Venezuela, Mexico, Colombia, Nicaragua, Brazil Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Mali Main countriesHonduras, Venezuela, Mexico, Colombia, Nicaragua, BrazilKenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Mali Hectares (min.) 4,947,087 465,756 Hectares (min.)4,947,087465,756 Soil type acid and low fertility Soil typeacid and low fertility System grazing & cut-and-carry Systemgrazing & cut-and-carry "},{"text":"Essential traits yield "},{"text":"® Commercial Urochloa hybrids on the market 0.1% 0.8% 0.1%0.8% 37.9% 0.5% South America 37.9%0.5%South America 1.3% North & Central America, Caribbean 1.3%North & Central America, Caribbean Total market share Americas by 2021: 59.4% Asia Africa Total market share Americas by 2021:59.4%Asia Africa Australia/Oceania Australia/Oceania Europe Europe "},{"text":"97.3% Where is Urochloa hybrid seed being sold? 2001-2021 Market share of different Urochloa hybrids 2001-2021 (ha, cumulative, seeds) 1000 1200 400 600 800 85% Year of release Urochloa hybrid 2001 Mulato 2005 Mulato II 2011 Cayman 2015 Cobra 2016 Mestizo Blend 2018 Camello Blend 2021 30.0% 40.0% 50.0% 60.0% 80.0% 90.0% 70.0% 1000 1200 400 600 80085%Year of release Urochloa hybrid 2001 Mulato 2005 Mulato II 2011 Cayman 2015 Cobra 2016 Mestizo Blend 2018 Camello Blend 202130.0% 40.0% 50.0% 60.0% 80.0% 90.0% 70.0% 200 9.8% 0.8% 2.5% 1.9% 10.0% 20.0% 2009.8%0.8%2.5%1.9%10.0% 20.0% 0 0.0% 00.0% Mulato/Mulato II Cayman Cobra Mestizo Blend Camello Blend Mulato/Mulato IICaymanCobraMestizo BlendCamello Blend "}],"sieverID":"a411941f-0b75-45ff-a2a3-9f440167bef2","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0cc9f3952f567ec976a4b69b75722dfd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/70162ba7-c777-4029-983a-a6a64ba23fe2/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"El método Seguimiento y Evaluación Participativa (SEP) fue desarrollado y probado en varios países de América Latina y África (Probst, 2002. Kaaria et al. 2002). Luego fue adaptado y validado en la zona andina para incorporar la perspectiva de los pequeños agricultores en el seguimiento y evaluación de proyectos donde ellos son los benefi ciarios (Njuki et al. 2004)."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"El SEP fortalece las organizaciones campesinas, haciendo posible fi jar objetivos específi cos en un proyecto, planifi car actividades para lograr estos objetivos y dar seguimiento a las actividades para asegurar su buen desempeño. Está diseñado para ser usado por grupos de productores y por tomadores de decisión en instituciones. Puede aplicarse en la agricultura, la industria, servicios en general, salud, educación y otros campos."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Este método puede ser adaptado según el contexto, pero debe conservar los siguientes principios:"},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• La participación de los benefi ciarios en todo el proceso de evaluación."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"• El respeto a las costumbres, las tradiciones y al conocimiento local."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"• Con base en la experiencia y en el análisis, las acciones del proyecto se ajustan sobre la marcha."},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"• Dar voz y voto a los benefi ciarios del proyecto."},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"• Facilitar el aprendizaje, el cambio y la acción; en lugar de prescribir, juzgar o castigar."},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"• Las decisiones se toman en forma concertada."},{"index":10,"size":6,"text":"• Registrar y sistematizar la información."},{"index":11,"size":62,"text":"El SEP requiere conocer el contexto donde se implementa e identifi car las prácticas locales de seguimiento y evaluación. En la teoría, esto permitirá una mejor integración del SEP con los participantes. En la práctica, los hábitos locales de seguimiento y evaluación suelen ser sencillos. Por ejemplo, los benefi ciarios hablan informalmente con sus vecinos o responden las preguntas de evaluadores formales."},{"index":12,"size":39,"text":"Este método requiere de un facilitador, de una institución externa, que se encarga de establecer el sistema y de fortalecer las capacidades en los actores, hasta conformar el comité SEP, que continuará los siguientes ciclos de seguimiento y evaluación."},{"index":13,"size":81,"text":"La iniciativa de desarrollo (ID) es un proyecto ejecutado por una institución local. Esta institución demanda el SEP y recibe capacitación del oferente. El técnico capacitado es el facilitador quien inicia el SEP con la comunidad, capacitándola. Una vez analizado y creado el SEP, la comunidad, con el apoyo del facilitador, nombra el comité SEP que continuará con las actividades de seguimiento y evaluación. Los formatos con caritas son la herramienta en donde se registra la información de los benefi ciarios."}]},{"head":"El protocolo del SEP incluye los siguientes pasos:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Descripción del método SEP Juan Fernández 4 • Vivian Polar 5 • Carlos A. Quirós 6 • Jacqueline Ashby 7"}]},{"head":"Cuadro 1. Protocolo del SEP","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"El SEP permite mejorar los fl ujos de información entre los ejecutores y los benefi ciarios del proyecto, asegurando el éxito del proyecto. Los datos del SEP permiten a los benefi ciarios interactuar con los proveedores de servicios para ajustar y reorientar el proyecto, asegurando un mejor desempeño."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"El SEP debe ser específi co para cada contexto. Antes de implementarlo hay que conocer en detalle el contexto donde será usado. Se deben describir los sistemas de seguimiento y evaluación explícitos o implícitos que existen, al interior y fuera de los grupos locales organizados. Esta información es obtenida a través de reuniones con grupos focales e informantes clave."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"En un taller inicial con los participantes, se defi nen los términos \"seguimiento, \" \"evaluación\" y \"participación\"."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"Defi nido en forma participativa, partiendo de una lluvia de ideas, y logrando fi nalmente los objetivos específi cos."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"A partir de los objetivos específi cos se identifi can los indicadores, que son señales que permiten saber si se ha cumplido o no con los objetivos planteados."},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"Con base en los objetivos específi cos, se defi nen las actividades clave, con fechas y responsables, tomando en cuenta la disponibilidad de tiempo, capacidad y fortalezas de los actores."},{"index":7,"size":24,"text":"Se escribe un listado cronológico de actividades. Se elaboran los formatos de seguimiento y evaluación, que deben ser sencillos y manejables para los agricultores."},{"index":8,"size":58,"text":"Un comité con representantes de los diferentes estratos sociales de los grupos locales asegura la equidad y la inclusión. Los miembros deben ser elegidos según la costumbre local y respetando las estructuras de los grupos locales organizados. El comité facilita la evaluación de las actividades con los formatos construidos, registra la información y la presenta ante la comunidad. "}]},{"head":"Vías de impacto del SEP","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"El equipo de Evaluación de Alcances e Impacto de Cambio Andino, junto con los oferentes y los demandantes del método, construyó las vías de impacto del SEP, las cuales parten de tres componentes, en una cadena de causa y efecto (Figura 1)."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Productos del SEP: son los resultados tangibles de la intervención inicial del método que están bajo el control directo del facilitador (experto en el método) que contribuirán a generar los alcances e impactos. Los productos son:"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"1. Los grupos sociales locales (GSL) fortalecidos en sus capacidades de usar el SEP."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"2. Un sistema SEP elaborado por los participantes para usar en su proyecto."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"3. Los promotores locales fortalecidos en sus capacidades de usar el SEP."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"Alcances: lo que resulta del uso de los productos del SEP, por ejemplo:"},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"1. El sistema SEP está en uso, los datos e información se levantan participativamente, se llevan registros de ello (seguimiento) y se consolidan adecuadamente (evaluación)."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"2. El SEP está generando información útil para los GSL y para la iniciativa de desarrollo, quienes reaccionan consecuentemente."},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"Durante el proceso se espera que el SEP genere alcances adicionales como:"},{"index":10,"size":16,"text":"• La iniciativa de desarrollo toma en cuenta los resultados del SEP y reconduce sus acciones."},{"index":11,"size":20,"text":"• El SEP es una regla de juego que plantean permanentemente los grupos sociales locales a las iniciativas de desarrollo."},{"index":12,"size":17,"text":"• Las iniciativas de desarrollo han asimilado el SEP como regla de juego de sus propias acciones."},{"index":13,"size":21,"text":"Referidos al aumento en el capital social existen dos alcances esperados: Figura 1. Modelo lógico de vías de impacto del SEP"},{"index":14,"size":14,"text":"• Los líderes locales consolidan el uso del SEP en la iniciativa de desarrollo."},{"index":15,"size":4,"text":"También se espera que:"},{"index":16,"size":13,"text":"• El grupo social local use el SEP en otras iniciativas de desarrollo."},{"index":17,"size":15,"text":"• El GSL tenga voz y voto sobre las acciones de otras iniciativas de desarrollo."},{"index":18,"size":16,"text":"• Esta iniciativa de desarrollo, y otras, sean más exitosas como resultado de usar el SEP."},{"index":19,"size":25,"text":"Impactos: se espera que a largo plazo hayan mejorado los medios de vida de los grupos sociales locales y de la comunidad, de manera sostenible."},{"index":20,"size":12,"text":"En la siguiente sección se presentan cuatro casos del uso del SEP. "}]},{"head":"REFERENCIAS","index":5,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Informe anual. Participatory Research Approaches for Reducing Poverty and Natural Resource Degradation. Cali, Colombia. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). 56 p. Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation: A Promising Concept in Participatory Research? Lessons from Two Case Studies in Honduras. Kommunikation und Beratung Nº 49. Weikersheim, Alemania: Margraf Verlag. "}],"sieverID":"3afeb409-b406-4d5f-aeb9-c69dc0d49c50","abstract":""}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0d7cac79d529b0e61a6496ae930c12b7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/887/WF-3717.pdf"},"pageCount":16,"title":"Small-scale aquaculture, development and poverty: a reassessment","keywords":["poverty","food security","land ownership","value chain","non-farm employment"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"of the activity, and encourage reconsideration of conventional characterizations of SSA and its implications for human development."},{"index":2,"size":151,"text":"The following section of the paper gives a brief summary of the arguments advanced in favour of extending support to SSA and an overview of six of the main features identified in previous work on SSA. The third section briefly describes four Asian pond-based fish culture systems, all of which display at least some features generally understood to be indicative of SSA. These are: carp polyculture in homestead ponds in Bangladesh; Nile tilapia culture in Central Thailand; Pangasius catfish culture in Mymensingh district, Bangladesh; and Pangasius catfish culture in the Mekong Delta, Viet Nam. In the fourth section, selected empirical data derived from studies of these systems are presented with reference to each of the six features of SSA identified in section three. The final section of the paper then offers some interpretations of the role of inland Asian aquaculture in alleviating poverty, providing food security and contributing toward socioeconomic development."},{"index":3,"size":160,"text":"cONVENtIONAl PERSPEctIVES ON SMAll-ScAlE AquAcultuRE Small-scale forms of aquaculture have received considerable attention and institutional support over the years as a means of alleviating rural poverty, improving household food security, and contributing to socioeconomic development more generally. In its most basic form, the logic for believing that SSA can accomplish these goals proceeds as follows: Aquaculture is an activity which produces food-fish and can generate cash incomes. Small-scale farmers are generally poor. Therefore, if small-scale farmers are able to adopt fish culture or to increase the technical efficiency of existing fish production, concurrent increases in levels of income and fish consumption should result and, consequently, their poverty and food insecurity should be reduced. In addition, the poor may also benefit from aquaculture through employment on the farms of better-off households or companies and in value chain activities such as seed supply and fish harvesting (Edwards, 1999). Because this argument has such a coherent logical structure, it is rarely ever questioned."},{"index":4,"size":130,"text":"Various authors have attempted to define SSA or have written about its characteristics. These include: the relative poverty of those who practice it; its subsistence or semisubsistence nature; its potential as a means of agricultural diversification; family ownership and operation of production; a reliance on predominantly family labour; it's potential contribution to food security and logically, given the name, utilization of small areas of land and/or water. These features and their sources are summarized in Table 1. Some of the authors listed in the table, e.g. Martinez-Espinoza (1995) and Edwards et al. (2002), use the alternative descriptor 'rural aquaculture', but there is much overlap between the two categories and all the authors listed have a shared interest in the potential of aquaculture of this type to generate positive development outcomes."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"Most recently, an FAO workshop (Bondad-Reantaso and Prein, 2010) reworked Martinez-Espinoza's original typology (1995), concluding that SSA is a continuum TABLE1 characteristics of small-scale aquaculture characteristic Source"},{"index":6,"size":216,"text":"Relative poverty of practising households Edwards et al., 2002;Edwards, 2000;Martinez-Espinoza, 1995;Friend and Funge-Smith, 2002 Subsistence or semi-subsistence activity Martinez-Espinoza, 1995;Prein, 2002;Edwards and Demaine, 1997 Potential means of agricultural diversification Martinez-Espinoza, 1995;Friend and Funge-Smith, 2002;Prein, 2002 Contributes to food security Prein, 2002;Ahmed and Lorica, 2002;FAO, 2003 Family ownership and operation of production or reliance on predominantly family labour De Silva and Davy, 2010; Subasinghe and Phillips, 2008 Utilization of small areas of land and/or water Subasinghe and Phillips, 2008;Bondad-Reantaso and Prein, 2010 from, 'Type 1' systems 'involving limited investment in assets, some small investment in operational costs, including largely family labour and in which aquaculture is just one of several enterprises', to 'Type 2' systems 'in which aquaculture is the principal source of livelihood, in which the operator has invested substantial livelihood assets in terms of time, labour, infrastructure and capital' (Bondad-Reantaso and Prein, 2010). This is indicative of a recent shift under which the definition of 'small scale' has broadened to include a range of systems displaying features not previously consistent with the traditional view of what constituted rural aquaculture. De Silva and Davy's (2010) definition of SSA as 'family owned, managed and operated' also reflects this change in emphasis as it is broad enough to include nearly all operations except those owned by corporate agribusiness."}]},{"head":"PONd-BASEd AquAcultuRE IN SOutH ANd SOutHEASt ASIA: FOuR cASE StudIES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"This section briefly describes salient technical, financial and social dimensions of the four fish culture systems listed above, all of which have features which appear qualify them as either Type 1 or Type 2 SSA."}]},{"head":"Homestead pond carp polyculture in Bangladesh","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":408,"text":"Extensive fish culture is a traditional activity in Bangladesh. Ponds were originally constructed close to homesteads for multiple purposes including drinking, bathing and other domestic uses, irrigation, watering livestock and providing earth to elevate houses above the level of flood waters. Declining availability of wild fish coincided with increasing availability of hatchery produced seed, improving transport links and market access, and promotional efforts by a number of institutions and projects during the 1980s and 1990s. These factors have contributed to a general increase in the numbers of such ponds brought under fish culture, and their deliberate management for this purpose. The uptake of improved management strategies such as regular application of feeds and fertilizers and the stocking of fish species in complementary combinations and at optimal densities and sizes remains somewhat patchy however, with producers adopting a variety of strategies depending to their knowledge, resources and inclinations. Belton et al. (2012) report the median area of ponds devoted to homestead carp culture in Mymensingh to be 0.08ha. Table 2, which contains data on fish ponds from various areas of Bangladesh indicates similar findings. Ponds of this size can be adequately managed by the owner in approximately an hour or less each day, as a result of which, homestead carp culture generates no primary on-farm employment. Operating costs are comprised mainly of fingerlings and, if improved management techniques are used, small quantities of inorganic fertilizers and 'raw' feeds, most commonly rice bran and mustard oil cake purchased from off-farm. Rent is rarely incurred since ponds are normally borrow pits dug on homestead land and pond construction costs are therefore usually also incidental. Table 3 provides approximate budgets for homestead carp culture in Mymensingh. Rice cultivation usually represents the most important livelihood activity of rural households producing carp in homestead ponds (see Table 2). The activity is normally practiced for either partially or completely subsistence purposes (as opposed to being entirely commercially oriented), and therefore usually contributes only a minor, albeit potentially important, portion of household income among those who practice it. Carps produced in these systems which are not consumed at home are sold primarily through local auction markets. Despite the fact that quantities produced by individual households are small, aggregate production is very substantial because of the large numbers of producers involved. Total recorded carp production in Bangladesh in 2008 was 696 053 tonnes (FAOstat, 2010), of which a large portion would have originated from homestead pond systems."}]},{"head":"tilapia culture in central thailand","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":369,"text":"Nile tilapia was introduced to Thailand in 1965 and has since become the most important cultured fish species, accounting for 41 percent of total freshwater aquaculture production in 2007 (DOF, 2009). A large portion of this takes place in ponds located in the provinces of Central Thailand, where a suitable agroecology, good market access and a ready supply of low cost agro-industrial byproducts for use as feeds and fertilizers make for ideal culture conditions (Belton and Little, 2008). Virtually all tilapia producers in Central Thailand have a very strong commercial orientation. Management regimes are extremely diverse, but production systems falling under the semi-intensive umbrella dominate output, accounting for perhaps 75-80 percent of tilapia produced. These are managed as polycultures in which tilapia comprise the greatest percentage of stocked fish, and are fertilized, normally with pig or chicken manure. Supplementary feeds including a diverse range of cheap food processing byproducts and wastes, are widely used, but intensified production using manufactured feeds including pig pellets and formulated fish feeds for part of the growout cycle in conjunction with greenwater have emerged in the last decade in response to increasing demand for large live tilapia which command a higher value than small dead ones (Table 4). Farms span a range of sizes which reflect the resources and aims of their owners, from operations around 1ha to much larger enterprises of over 100 ha. Farms in the order of around 2-3 ha are most commonplace, with a pond area of approximately 3ha being the minimum required to maintain a reasonable standard of living for a household if fish culture represents its main source of income. The labour effort required to manage farms at the smaller end of the spectrum is quite low, being in the order of several hours per day. Larger farms employ permanent workers, often families of Burmese migrants who live on site, but overall primary employment intensity is low. Most of the fish produced is destined for urban and peri-urban markets in the Greater Bangkok Metropolitan Area. These are now quite diversified, with small (300-400 g) dead tilapia with providing cheap food for lowincome-bracket consumers, and larger fish selling to a somewhat different set of customers (Belton et al., 2009). "}]},{"head":"Pangasius catfish culture in Mymensingh district, Bangladesh","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":216,"text":"Commercial production of non-native Pangasius catfish (Pangasianodon hypothalamus) began in Mymensingh in 1993, and has expanded rapidly, with estimated annual production reaching 300 000 tonnes in 2008 (Belton et al., 2011b). This has caused the fish's value to decline to a present level approximately 40-50 percent lower than that typically obtained by the traditionally popular Indian major carps, and makes it the cheapest widely available fish species in Bangladesh (Little et al., 2009). Pangasius are cultured intensively using artificial diets comprised of sinking pelleted feed, manufactured either in commercial feed mills or by farmers themselves using purchased machinery. Carps are also stocked in Pangasius ponds to exploit algal blooms which occur in the nutrient rich water, and account for around 15 percent of the total weight of fish harvested, thereby insulating production of the main crop of catfish against downward fluctuations in market value. Yields of Pangasius range from 15-65 tonnes/ha depending on the stocking density and length of growout cycle, which may be strategically adjusted by farmers in line with available operating capital, averaging 36.9 t/ha (Ali et al., 2012) . Carps are harvested regularly during the course of grading Pangasius and are sold in local auction markets from which they are distributed both locally and throughout the country to urban centres such as Dhaka."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"Regular harvest of carps in this manner by netting teams provides a source of operating capital with which farm owners may purchase additional Pangasius feed. Pangasius farms create approximately two permanent on-farm jobs per hectare, and generate a great deal of additional work in ancillary activities such as pond harvesting, soil cutting and transport of feed by trishaw (three wheeled cycles). One study in a village with just 17 Pangasius farms reported the main source of income of one third of household heads to be associated with Pangasius culture in some way (Belton et al., 2012). Mean pond area is 1.37 ha, although farms up to 30 ha in size exist. Fish culture almost always represents the first or second most important income stream for Pangasius farm operators, with agricultural activities often absent from, or comprising a minor component of, livelihood portfolios. The high input demands of Pangasius culture are reflected in average per hectare production costs of USD 23 790 (Haque, 2009). Per hectare net profits are USD 8 025 (see Table 5). "}]},{"head":"Pangasius catfish culture in the Mekong delta, Viet Nam","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":524,"text":"Pangasius catfish have been farmed in the Mekong Delta since the 1960's. Pond-based production, of which more than 90 percent is for export (Loc et al., 2009), has expanded dramatically since 2003, and has become a significant source of export earnings for Vietnam. Production now approaches the total global output of farmed Atlantic salmon, with an estimated 1.2 million tonnes with an export value of approximately USD 1.45 billion recorded for 2008 (Dung, 2008). The industry reportedly supports the livelihoods (directly and indirectly) of 105 535 individuals and provides an additional 116 000 jobs in the processing sector (Lam et al., 2009). It is of particular economic importance to the Mekong Delta Region due to its geographical concentration there. Primary employment intensity generated by Vietnamese Pangasius farms is approximately 2.75 jobs per hectare. Extremely high per unit area yields of Pangasius can be obtained due to its ability to breath air, coupled to production in deep ponds (≈4m) located close to major branches of the Mekong River which allow for water exchange of around 20-30 percent daily. The average yield per crop from farms located in inland provinces of the Mekong Delta is 369.7 tonnes/ha (Sinh and Hien, 2009). If market conditions favour the production of two crops in a year it is therefore entirely feasible for a single farmer to produce well in excess of 600 tonnes of catfish per annum from a single hectare of ponds (Wilkinson, 2008). Achieving such high productivity depends upon the use of massive quantities of fish feeds, and results in operating costs of approximately USD250 000/crop/ha -1 (see Table 4). Margins are very slim, but the scale of investment is so great that it is still possible to achieve net returns averaging ≈ USD45 500/crop/ha -1 . Large losses are frequently incurred however as a result of very low per unit margins. The mean size of Pangasius farms in the Mekong Delta is variously reported at between 1 ha and 2.67 ha (Sinh and Hein, 2009;Lam et al., 2009) but covers a huge range from <0.1ha to 50 ha or more. Data from the Department for Agriculture and Rural Development of An Giang Province published in Loc et al. (2010) suggest that very small farms predominate, with 94 percent sized less than 0.5 ha, 3 percent sized 0.5 -1 ha, and only 3 percent of more than 1 ha. However, many of these very small farms (less than 0.1ha) produce largely or partly for domestic markets and are subject to somewhat different production economics than the exportled operations, and farms of less than 0.5 ha cumulatively contribute just 10.3 percent of total output (Loc et al., 2010). Loc et al. (2010) also showed a 61 percent reduction in the number of farms under 0.1 ha in size between 2006 and 2008, and a 247 percent increase in those over 2 ha for the same period in An Giang Province (2010), and recent evidence suggests that the industry is undergoing a major period of consolidation in which small producers are increasingly switching to production of other species or being forced to abandon aquaculture altogether (Kheim et al., 2010)."}]},{"head":"dO tHE cASE StudY SYStEMS MAtcH tHE cHARActERIStIcS OF SSA?","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"This section addresses each of the features identified in the second section of the paper as characteristic of SSA in turn, with reference to features of each of the production systems described above."}]},{"head":"Relative poverty of practising households","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Carp polyculture in homestead ponds has been widely promoted by development agencies in Bangladesh as a means of providing food and income to the rural poor. However, close to 60 percent of population is functionally landless (defined as owning <0.2 ha land). As a result, many of the poorest households own insufficient land to construct even very small ponds. This tendency is indicated in Figure 1 which details homestead pond ownership for all the households in a single village, disaggregated by wellbeing status. This shows clearly that a majority of those in higher wellbeing groups own homestead ponds, as compared to only a small proportion of those in the more populous low-income groups. Thus, for the most part, conventional pond based aquaculture practiced on even this very small scale cannot be generally be considered the preserve of the \"poorest of the poor\"."},{"index":2,"size":334,"text":"Given that the poor in Bangladesh have difficulty in participating in even very low input homestead pond based aquaculture, they have even fewer options for direct participation as producers in Pangasius aquaculture due to the larger areas of ponds and much higher input costs involved. This is clear when one considers that the average cash equivalent net annual income from 1ha of double cropped rice would be in the order of just USD 400, as compared to per hectare operating costs of USD23 790 per crop of Pangasius. Data from one study of a village in Mymensingh shows that no households considered 'poorest', and less than 10 percent of those considered 'poor' practice Pangasius culture, whereas more than 80 percent of those in the 'better-off' and 'medium' categories do so (Ali et al., 2012; see Figure 2). In Vietnam, extreme stocking densities and associated levels of feed use mean that operating costs per ha are in the region of USD 250 000. These costs are clearly sufficient to preclude direct participation in Pangasius aquaculture by any poor households. This has led Mantingh and Dung (2008) to state that, 'Pangasius farmers cannot be considered as poor smallholders'. The range of management options employed by tilapia farmers in Central Thailand is much more varied, ranging from small low-input ditch/dyke systems integrated with fruit production or horticulture and directly-integrated livestock/fish operations, to intensified monoculture practiced on a very large scale. General standards of living are higher than in either Bangladesh or Viet Nam, as is the availability of agricultural land. Thus there is some scope for households in relatively low income brackets to engage in fish culture, for instance for elderly former crop farmers who find it easier to manage ponds of around a hectare than to continue with more labour intensive forms of agriculture. Larger and more intensive tilapia culture tends to be practiced by moderately well-off households, although in some cases these have been able to expand from a small initial base by reinvesting profits."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"All these cases tend to suggest that, contrary to one of the key assumptions in the SSA literature, in many instances only those who are at least relatively moderately well off stand a reasonable chance of participating in conventional pond based aquaculture as producers. However, for those who do participate, the benefits may be substantial. Even the lowest intensity forms of Thai tilapia culture provide average per unit area incomes approximately twice as high as those possible from rice cultivation, and Pangasius culture in Bangladesh and Vietnam generates net incomes approximately 20 times and 100 times greater than those possible from paddy."},{"index":4,"size":264,"text":"A subsistence or semi-subsistence activity Tilapia culture in Central Thailand and Pangasius culture in Bangladesh and Viet Nam are practiced for entirely commercial purposes, with the majority of product destined for urban and international markets in the two first and final cases respectively. In contrast, production of carp in homestead ponds in Bangladesh may range from completely subsistence to largely commercial, but the household consumption of around one quarter to one half of the fish produced is probably most common (Table 3). Contributions to household incomes of this type of aquaculture are generally rather limited, amounting to less than 15 percent of the total (Table 3). Even these relatively small sums may play an important role in smoothing seasonal cash shortages associated with rice cultivation however, and can act as a form of insurance for moderately well resourced families that may reduce the likelihood of their slipping into transient poverty (Belton et al, 2012). Subsistence consumption of fish is also attractive to relatively comfortably off households in rural Bangladesh who often prefer to consume a large portion of the fish they produce for reasons of convenience and taste. This suggests that production for entirely subsistence purposes is not necessarily indicative of aquaculture practiced by the very poor as some accounts propose (e.g. Martinez-Espinoza, 1995). In fact, some evidence from Bangladesh suggests that the very poorest adopters of very small scale forms of aquaculture such as tilapia seed production in rice fields are more likely sell the fish they produce in order to generate cash incomes with which to purchase more essential items (Haque, 2007)."}]},{"head":"A potential means of agricultural diversification","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"A very substantial majority of homestead carp pond operators in rural areas of Bangladesh practice rice cultivation as their primary livelihood activity. For these households, the addition of aquaculture as a new activity offers a means of agricultural diversification which has the potential to increase resilience to seasonal pressures (e.g. through sales of fish to cover part of the costs of irrigated rice cultivation) and, perhaps, to other less predictable forms of stress such as the illness of a family member. Graduation from semi-subsistence homestead pond based aquaculture to more commercial forms practiced on a larger scale is relatively rare however due both to constraints (most importantly limited land and capital), and disincentives to intensification (the limited opportunity costs and risk associated with low-input homestead pond aquaculture and complementary role that this plays in rice dominated livelihood portfolios) (Belton et al., 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":315,"text":"For the farmers operating each of the three other production systems discussed here, engaging in aquaculture typically represents a form of 'upgrading' in which a lower value livelihood activity is exchanged for a more profitable one, rather than a form of horizontal diversification. Contrary to what might be expected, the case studies show that many fish producers did not practice any form of agricultural activity prior to entering into aquaculture. Figure 3 suggests the relatively low importance of agriculture in the livelihood portfolios of Pangasius farmers in Bangladesh. A similar pattern also exists in Vietnam, where only 37 percent of Pangasius farmers surveyed by Belton et al. (2011c) had engaged in any kind of aquaculture or agriculture prior to starting catfish culture; the substantial majority of market entrants being engaged in either entrepreneurial activities or managerial positions before hand. For many of these, aquaculture represented an opportunity to expand a portfolio of business activities. In Central Thailand, shifting from rice cultivation or other types of agriculture into tilapia culture was a common pathway, but even here close to 40 percent of all market entrants had non-agrarian livelihoods before taking up fish culture, with some opting to do so as a lifestyle choice in preference to office work, or following unemployment during the financial crisis of the late 1990s. This suggests that commercial forms of aquaculture are often either entered into as entrepreneurial business opportunities, or as a form of upgrading in which one activity is deliberately exchanged for another, rather than as a means of diversifying a limited on-farm resource base. It is noteworthy that aquaculture usually occupies an important place in producer livelihood portfolios for all three of these commercial fish culture systems. Pangasius culture in Bangladesh is indicative of this tendency, representing the primary income generating activity for 54 percent of producers, and the second most important activity for 38 percent (Figure 3)."}]},{"head":"contributes to food security","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"The homestead carp culture practiced in Bangladesh produces only limited marketable surpluses of fish per producing household, estimated at between 0 and 116 kg for a typical household depending on management and consumption strategies employed (see Table 2). Despite this, aggregate production is extremely large due to the huge number of borrow pits brought under fish culture. Fish produced in these systems is typically marketed locally however, possibly in part due to difficulties associated with assembling the large quantities of product required to cost-effectively export to distant urban markets from so many dispersed producers with small individual amounts of fish. Furthermore, with the exception of silver carp, the large major carps which dominate homestead polycultures are highly priced relative to other cultured fish species (although as Table 6 shows, species of wild origin now tend to be even more expensive due to diminishing supplies). This suggests that the observation of Lewis (1997) that under most circumstances the carp species produced in homestead ponds are too expensive for poor consumers to afford remains valid."},{"index":2,"size":214,"text":"In each of the three other case studies presented here virtually 100 percent of output is produced for commercial purposes, and farms are often located in highly concentrated geographical clusters. Figure 5 indicates a downward trend in the real value of tilapia in Thailand in almost every year in which production increased. This has resulted in declining real farmgate values and retail prices, greater production efficiencies on the part of producers (Belton and Little, 2008), and rising consumer demand because demand for fish is highly price elastic (Dey et al., 2008). As a result, fish such as small dead tilapia in Thailand and Pangasius in Bangladesh are now among the cheapest and most widely available products nationally (Table 6), and are destined primarily for urban markets where they provide 'fuel' for workers in the productive sectors which make major contributions to GDP growth and may therefore contribute indirectly to the livelihoods and wellbeing of families of urban migrants from rural areas who receive remittances. At the same time, Vietnamese Pangasius has become the cheapest internationally traded whitefish, and has now diversified beyond traditional European and American markets to supply, among others, Latin America, the Middle-East, and the former Eastern Bloc countries, with the result that it thus now arguably contributes to global food security."}]},{"head":"Family ownership and operation of production and reliance on family labour","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"Homestead carp culture in Bangladesh, is almost by definition, exclusively family owned and operated. The vast majority of tilapia farms in Central Thailand are also family managed, though Belton (2006) reports that it is quite common for tilapia farm owners in some in land-constrained areas close to Bangkok to construct ponds on large parcels of rented land in more distant Central Region provinces and to install live-in labourers to take care of day-to-day management activities. Ownership and management oversight by household members is also the predominant pattern for Pangasius producers in Vietnam and Bangladesh. Large operations belonging to absentee investors occur in both countries however, particularly in Viet Nam where there is a clear tendency towards greater levels of absentee ownership on larger farms, as indicated in Table 7. There is also an increasing trend toward the establishment of vertically integrated catfish farms by seafood processing companies. Although the majority of farms are owner operated, current trends suggest that large corporately owned or professionally managed farms are on the increase in Vietnam, whilst the smallest purely family operated farms are in sharp decline (Kheim et al., 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"With the exception of harvesting, all the labour inputs into homestead carp ponds in Bangladesh are provided by household members. This is also true of smaller Thai tilapia farms, with only those farms sized 15 ha or more typically needing to employ permanent hired labour. The management intensive nature of the Pangasius culture practised in Bangladesh and Vietnam means that operations of 0.5 ha typically employ at least one permanent worker to supplement the labour of the farm owner, while larger farms employ considerably more, generating approximately 730 and 1000 man days of labour per hectare per year respectively, with family labour deployed less frequently as farm size increases."}]},{"head":"utilization of small areas of land","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":209,"text":"The size of homestead ponds used for carp aquaculture in Bangladesh is typically less than 0.1ha. Whilst this is certainly small in absolute terms, it must be remembered that well over half of the population possesses landholdings of 0.2 ha or less. As a result, even owners of ponds in this size class tend to possess larger total landholdings than the average for the communities where they reside. There is a great deal more variability in the areas devoted to Thai tilapia, and Vietnamese and Bangladeshi Pangasius culture, making mean farm sizes potentially misleading, and median area is a more reliable indicator of what is typical. Table 8 shows both the mean and median size of Central Thai tilapia farms and Bangladeshi Pangasius farms to be considerably larger than average agricultural landholdings in the areas where they take place. Vietnam is the exception in this regard. Productivity varies very widely between the four systems, from less than one tonne per hectare for extensive homestead carp polyculture, to around 7 tonnes/ha/yr -1 for Thai tilapia, and up to a possible maximum of 700 tonnes/ ha/yr -1 for Vietnamese Pangasius. This makes physical area a poor indicator of the scale of investment and level of production if it is considered alone."}]},{"head":"dIScuSSION: tOWARd A clEARER uNdERStANdING OF ASIAN AquAcultuRE","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"The four case studies presented above give an indication of the diversity of Asian inland aquaculture, both within and between systems and in relation to a variety of technical and economic characteristics. Despite this diversity, a number of general lessons may be drawn with respect to the degree of fit between characterizations of SSA outlined in the second section of the paper, and the empirical descriptions provided in the third and fourth sections."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"One important observation arising from the four case studies is that direct entry into conventional pond-based aquaculture as producers is rarely feasible for the poor. Fish culture does not therefore usually offer a means for people to escape poverty, but rather way in which already moderately well-off or wealthy households are able to accumulate additional wealth, to maintain their position in the face of seasonal stresses, or to enhance levels of well-being conceived of in terms of satisfaction as well as in purely monetary or calorific terms. This is not to suggest that engaging in aquaculture cannot have a transformative effect on a household's socioeconomic status and security, but rather that it is most likely to leverage significant improvements for those who start from a better than average asset base."},{"index":3,"size":215,"text":"Given that this is the case, far greater potential for the poor to benefit from aquaculture is to be found by providing services or gaining employment in associated value chains. It should be noted however that direct primary employment opportunities generated by aquaculture (i.e. on-farm labour) are generally somewhat limited. Whilst this feature makes aquaculture particularly attractive to adopters it also means that on-farm employment generation is cumulatively quite low; the entire Vietnamese Pangasius industry generating probably less than 20 000 paid farm jobs. Multiple employment opportunities are created elsewhere in the value chains of highly commercial forms of aquaculture such as the three described in this paper however, especially where farms have been established in dense geographical clusters. Figure 6 presents data on the poorest (Class 6) and second poorest (Class 5) groups of inhabitants of a village in Mymensingh in which only 17 households farm Pangasius. There is almost no participation in catfish culture as farm operators among members of Classes 5 and 6, and quite limited employment on catfish farms. However, approximately one third of all members of the poorest (and most populous) group in the community (Class 6), and 20 percent of those in Class 5 derive a significant portion of their income by providing ancillary services to Pangasius farm owners."},{"index":4,"size":433,"text":"The size of fish culture operations documented in the four case studies that inform this paper is highly variable but, where aquaculture represents a major livelihood strategy, landholdings devoted to the activity are often larger than average agricultural landholdings. Per unit area productivity and operating costs of ponds under different systems of management also span a wide spectrum. These factors indicate that farm or pond area is a poor analog for scale of production if considered in isolation from contextual factors. The case studies presented here also show that entrants into commercial aquaculture come from a variety of backgrounds including both agriculture and the non-farm sectors, and that it is usually adopted as means to upgrade existing livelihood activities, or is a form of entrepreneurial investment. Contrary to what might be expected, the expansion and intensification of low intensity or semisubsistence forms aquaculture by households already devoting small areas of land to the activity is not one of the main routes by which commercially oriented fish farmers enter into production. Management oversight of farm operation by the farm owner and/or family members is common for all the systems described in this paper, and in many instances labour will be provided by the farming family or some of its members. However Pangasius farms of 0.5ha or more in both Bangladesh and Vietnam typically also employ hired workers; in part due to the fact that households wealthy enough to participate in this form of aquaculture can also afford to educate their children to a level where higher status forms of off-farm employment become available. It should also be noted that absentee ownership is common on larger farms for each of the three commercial systems described here. These commercial systems all produce large volumes of relatively affordable fish in areas that are well connected to urban and, in the Vietnamese case, international markets. Fish produced in these systems therefore contributes to food security at the national level. In contrast, homestead pond aquaculture in Bangladesh (which is in many respects the quintessential 'small-scale' production system) is dominated by higher value carp species. Because both consumers and producers of these species tend to be relatively better-off the impacts on wider food security may actually be somewhat limited despite very high aggregate production volumes. It is also ironic that the latter system has received substantial donor support and promotion on the basis of its theoretical capacity to alleviate poverty, whereas development of the three commercial production systems described here has occurred with limited external assistance but appears to bring a range of more significant and wider reaching societal benefits."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" FIGURE 1 distribution by wellbeing group of households with access to a homestead pond in a Mymensingh village (n=252) "},{"text":" FIGURE 3Primary and secondary occupations of Pangasius farmers in two villages inMymensingh, Bangladesh (n=90) "},{"text":"FIGURE 4 FIGURE 4Previous occupations of tilapia producers in central thailand "},{"text":"FIGURE 5 FIGURE 5Year on year change in thai tilapia production and inflation adjusted price/kg(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000) "},{"text":"FIGURE 6 FIGURE 6Occupation of household heads from the two poorest well-being groups in a Mymensingh village "},{"text":"TABLE 2 characteristics of homestead carp culture in Bangladesh Average pond size (ha) Aquaculture as a % of income Fish consumed at home (%) Source Source "},{"text":"TABLE 3 Approximate budgets for homestead pond carp culture, Phulpur upazila, Mymensingh Item Extensive Improved-extensive Semi-intensive ItemExtensiveImproved-extensiveSemi-intensive Extrapolated yield (kg/ha) 527 1860 2890 Extrapolated yield (kg/ha)52718602890 Actual yield (kg/household) 42 149 231 Actual yield (kg/household)42149231 Per unit farmgate value ($/kg) 1.44 1.44 1.44 Per unit farmgate value ($/kg)1.441.441.44 Operating costs ($/household) 58 163 216 Operating costs ($/household)58163216 Actual cash equivalent gross income ($/household) 66 215 337 Actual cash equivalent gross income ($/household)66215337 Net cash income ($/household) 0 52 121 Net cash income ($/household)052121 Net fish consumption (kg/household) 42 75 116 Net fish consumption (kg/household)4275116 "},{"text":"TABLE 4 Partial budgets for semi-intensive and intensified pond-based tilapia culture in central thailand Item Item "},{"text":"TABLE 5 comparative partial budgets of Pangasius culture in Bangladesh and Vietnam Vietnam Bangladesh VietnamBangladesh "},{"text":"TABLE 6 Origin and average price of farmed and wild fish species from 15 markets across Bangladesh Source* Species Average price Source*SpeciesAverage price (uSd/kg) (uSd/kg) Wild Walking catfish 3.76 WildWalking catfish3.76 Wild Stinging catfish 3.24 WildStinging catfish3.24 Wild Climbing perch 2.85 WildClimbing perch2.85 Wild Striped snakehead 1.77 WildStriped snakehead1.77 Farm Rohu 1.73 FarmRohu1.73 Wild Mystus tengara 1.65 WildMystus tengara1.65 Farm Catla 1.58 FarmCatla1.58 Wild Indigenous barbs 1.19 WildIndigenous barbs1.19 Wild Spotted snakehead 1.19 WildSpotted snakehead1.19 Farm Mrigal 1.18 FarmMrigal1.18 Farm Tilapia 1.01 FarmTilapia1.01 Farm Silver carp 0.92 FarmSilver carp0.92 Farm Pangasius 0.85 FarmPangasius0.85 "},{"text":"TABLE 7 System of Vietnamese Pangasius farm management by size of farm (n=33) System of farm management Farm size Self-managed Absentee owner Operated by company Farm sizeSelf-managedAbsentee ownerOperated by company (%) (%) (%) (%)(%)(%) <1ha 79 14 7 <1ha79147 1-3ha 50 50 0 1-3ha50500 >3ha 0 71 29 >3ha07129 "},{"text":"TABLE 8 Areas under agriculture and aquaculture in three case study locations Species and location Mean agricultural landholding (ha) Mean fish farm area (ha) Median fish farm area (ha) Fish farm area range (ha) Tilapia, Central Thailand 3.8 21 6.2 0.2-160 Tilapia, Central Thailand3.8216.20.2-160 Pangasius, Mymensingh 0.6 3.7 1 1.2 0.1-50 Pangasius, Mymensingh0.63.7 11.20.1-50 Pangasius, Mekong Delta 1.2 1 - <0.1-50 Pangasius, Mekong Delta1.21-<0.1-50 "}],"sieverID":"74c52dbe-74dd-4938-9b85-08ed4fabec4b","abstract":"The potential of small-scale aquaculture (SSA) to contribute to development goals including poverty reduction and improved food security has been widely discussed. These accounts emphasize the following characteristics of SSA: the relative poverty of practising households; the subsistence or semi-subsistence nature of the activity; its role as a means of agricultural diversification; its contribution to food security; family ownership and operation of production or reliance on predominantly family labour; and utilization of small areas of land and/or water. This paper presents case studies of four systems of Asian aquaculture, all of which possess more than one of the commonly identified characteristics of SSA. Analysis of these cases suggests that conventional representations SSA have overemphasizsed certain characteristics with respect to its potential to meet development goals. At the same time, these accounts have tended to overlook other positive contributions that aquaculture can make to development, particularly through employment generation in associated value chains."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0d801a69d219b7ecf4c7e83045ec2700","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ca7661eb-0d7b-4169-b73d-4eae42ccf570/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"The banana industry in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru faces a looming threat -Fusarium Tropical Race 4","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"| BRIEF","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Production","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru play important roles in global banana production and trade. In 2021, Colombia produced 2.4 million tons of bananas, Ecuador produced 6.6 million tons, and Peru produced 2.3 million tons (FAO, 2022). Ecuador is the largest exporter of bananas in the world, while Colombia is the fourth, and Peru is the nineteenth largest exporter in the world (Workman, 2023)."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Although these countries are neighbors, there are key differences in the types of bananas grown and their banana production systems and value chains. In Ecuador, most bananas are the Cavendish variety, which is a type of sweet banana that is popular worldwide. In Colombia and Peru, however, a wider variety of bananas are produced, including the Gros Michel, Valery, and Lady Finger varieties."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"In Ecuador and Colombia, bananas are primarily grown in conventional or traditional production systems using agrochemicals, while in Peru organic production is gaining momentum. Peru produces organic bananas for international markets and produces both organic and conventional bananas. However, smallholder farmers play an important role in banana production in all three countries."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"In 2021, Ecuador exported over USD3.5 billion worth of bananas, which is equivalent to 24.1% of the total value of banana exports worldwide, while Colombia exported bananas worth USD1 billion (7% of the total value of banana exports worldwide) and Peru exported bananas worth over USD147.3 million (which is about 1% of the total value of banana exports worldwide) (Workman, 2023). "}]},{"head":"Export of bananas","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Climate and food security","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Climate is a factor that influences where bananas are produced within these countries: Ecuador's production is concentrated on the coast, while in Colombia and Peru bananas are produced in both coastal and inland regions."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Regarding food security, bananas and/or plantains are the most widely consumed fruit in all three countries (FAOSTAT, 2022)."}]},{"head":"Fusarium Tropical Race 4","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Banana production in these three countries and in South America overall is threatened by the arrival of TR4. This devastating disease completely decimates banana plants and is easily spread from farm-to-farm. It affects plantains as well. If it is detected on a farm, farmers must abandon any type of farming in their fields for at least 10 years."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"TR4 was first detected in Taiwan in 1967 after it was likely introduced from infected plants originating from Indonesia (Maymon et al., 2020). More than 50 years later, it spread to Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela. To prevent the spread of this disease, governments from Latin America and the Caribbean have taken measures to control its spread."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"In Colombia and Peru, these measures have focused on containing and avoiding the spread of TR4 within their countries since the disease was first detected in Colombia and Peru in 2019 and 2021, respectively. These measures include:"},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"• establishing quarantine areas,"},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• developing monitoring systems to detect the disease in new areas,"},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"• delivering biosecurity kits to banana producers,"},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"• providing training for actors involved in the banana value chain, and"},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"• working with the private sector to develop new banana varieties that are resistant to TR4."},{"index":9,"size":28,"text":"In contrast, Ecuador is so far free from TR4, so the measures taken there are focused on preventing the entry of TR4 through monitoring, disinfection, and training strategies."},{"index":10,"size":42,"text":"All three countries recognize the importance of protecting their valuable banana sectors from TR4 and are taking proactive actions to mitigate the risks associated with this destructive disease, safeguard their banana production, and maintain their significant contributions to the global banana trade. "}]},{"head":"Citation","index":6,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Álvarez D; Mosquera L; Ritter T; Mockshell J; Dita M. 2023. The banana industry in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru faces a looming threat -Fusarium Tropical Race 4. Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). Cali, Colombia. 4 p. "},{"text":" "},{"text":" "}],"sieverID":"54e07176-bcbb-49fb-a013-ee5164a163ed","abstract":"The banana industry in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru plays an important role in global production and trade, yet it is threatened by the arrival of a devastating disease, Fusarium Tropical Race 4 (TR4). Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru are significant players in global banana production and trade, with each country making valuable contributions to the industry. Ecuador stands out as the largest exporter of bananas worldwide, while Colombia and Peru are also important for providing bananas to the world. These countries exhibit variations in their banana production systems, value chains, and the types of bananas grown. A brief synopsis of these differences is provided here, while more detailed findings are provided in individual country profiles for Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru."}
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{"metadata":{"id":"0dc9f83e47fd446a18599aabf2d4b55f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/29092aef-43d9-4d66-9cd1-cd516295a406/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"3-Nitrooxypropanol substantially decreased enteric methane emissions of dairy cows fed true protein-or urea-containing diets","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Methane (CH 4 ) 2 is a potent greenhouse gas 28 times stronger than carbon dioxide at trapping heat within a 100-year timeframe. Because CH 4 s life-time in the atmosphere is considerably shorter than carbon dioxide's, mitigation of anthropogenic CH 4 emissions is strategic for short-term amelioration of global warming (Saunois et al., 2016;Beauchemin et al., 2020). Enteric CH 4 from rumen fermentation is the most important source of anthropogenic emissions of CH 4 (E.P. A., 2012;Hristov et al., 2013). Methane emissions from ruminants are also an energy loss for ruminants, ranging between 2 and 12% of ingested gross energy (GE) (Johnson and Johnson, 1995). Thus, because of both environmental and animal production reasons, there is much interest in decreasing CH 4 emissions from ruminants."},{"index":2,"size":178,"text":"A second environmental issue associated to ruminant production is the release of excess nitrogen (N) to the environment. Rapid digestion of dietary protein and deamination of amino acids (AA) in the rumen, and intraruminal N recycling, can surpass the capacity of rumen microbes to incorporate ammonium (NH 4 þ ) into the synthesis of amino acids (AA), and excess NH 4 þ is absorbed through the rumen wall. Although part of the absorbed NH 4 þ is recycled back to the rumen as urea, most excess N is eliminated as urea in urine (Firkins, 1996;Wallace et al., 1997;Bach et al., 2005). In the soil, urea is rapidly hydrolyzed to NH 4 þ , contaminating groundwater and producing nitrous oxide, a very potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential 298 times greater than carbon dioxide in a 100-year scale (Eckard et al., 2010;Hristov et al., 2013). Elimination of excess N to the environment is particularly relevant in temperate regions such as southern Chile, where forages can have a high content of rumen degradable protein (Valderrama and Anrique, 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Maximizing the incorporation of NH 4 þ into the synthesis of microbial AA in the rumen decreases the absorption of NH 4 þ through the rumen wall while increasing the supply of AA available for absorption at the small intestine (Wallace et al., 1997;Hartinger et al., 2018). At non-limiting NH 4 þ concentration, incorporation of NH 4 þ into carbon chains by the mixed rumen microbiota is predominantly catalyzed by low-affinity NAD(P)H-dependent dehydrogenases. Oxidative deamination, as the reverse reaction, necessitates the oxidized co-factors, NAD þ or NADP þ , to act as electron acceptors (Wallace et al., 1997;Pengpeng and Tan, 2013)."},{"index":4,"size":274,"text":"Inhibiting methanogenesis in vitro increased the NADH/NAD þ ratio and decreased deamination (Hino and Russell, 1985). It has been proposed that the incomplete recovery of metabolic hydrogen observed when rumen methanogenesis is inhibited is partly explained by the incorporation of NH 4 þ into carbon chains to synthesize microbial AA (Ungerfeld et al., 2007;Ungerfeld, 2015). More recent findings have confirmed that inhibiting methanogenesis stimulated the incorporation of NH 4 þ into microbial AA biosynthesis in rumen cultures grown on starch as the energy and carbon source, but not when grown on cellulose (Ungerfeld et al., 2019(Ungerfeld et al., , 2020)). Urea is hydrolyzed in the rumen to NH 4 þ and can be supplemented to ruminant diets as a cheap source of non-protein N (Schwab and Broderick, 2017;Hailemariam et al., 2021). When rumen microbes are instead supplemented true protein as N source, they decrease the synthesis of AA from NH 4 þ and increase the proportion of microbial protein synthesized from direct incorporation of preformed AA (Atasoglu et al., 1999). We hypothesized that inhibiting methanogenesis would increase the synthesis of microbial AA from NH 4 þ with a diet containing urea as non-protein N but not with a plant protein-supplemented diet. 3-Nitrooxypropanol (3-NOP) is a small molecule consistently proven to be effective at inhibiting rumen methanogenesis (Dijkstra et al., 2018) in long term experiments (Hristov et al., 2015), with an established mechanism of action (Duin et al., 2016). The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of supplementing 3-NOP to dairy cows on CH 4 production, rumen fermentation, and N metabolism with a urea-containing diet in comparison to a plant protein-based diet."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The experiment was conducted at Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIA), Centro Regional de Investigaci on Remehue (40 31 0 S; 73 03 0 W; 65 m above sea level) in Osorno, Chile, in October-November 2018. Cows were cared for in accordance to the requirements of the Chilean Law 20380 of animal protection, in accordance with the European Union Directive 2010/63/EU for animal experiments, and with the approval of the INIA ethics committee for animal care and use (Approval 02/2016 from June 2016). All animals remained healthy throughout the study."}]},{"head":"Animals and experimental design","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Eight ruminally-cannulated Holstein Friesian cows with an initial body mass of 456 AE 50.2 kg (mean AE SD) and 64.0 AE 6.1 d (mean AE SD) in milk were used in the study. Two different N sources (Plant protein or Urea) were evaluated under functional rumen methanogenesis conditions, and with rumen methanogenesis inhibited by 3-NOP supplementation."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Each cow remained with the same N source for the entire experiment, which lasted 32 d."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"The study had two experimental periods. In the first period (Control period), all 8 cows received the 3-NOP carrier, composed by SiO 2 and propylene glycol, as a placebo without 3-NOP (Hristov et al., 2015). In the second period (methanogenesis inhibition, or 3-NOP period), all eight cows received 3-NOP with its carrier at 100 mg/kg of total feed DM (Table 1). This design allowed animals to act as their own controls and to rule out carry over effects of 3-NOP (Martinez-Fernandez et al., 2018)."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"A pre-experimental period of 18 d for adaptation to the diets preceded the Control period. Both experimental periods included a 10d subperiod of adaptation to the placebo or 3-NOP, followed by a 6d measurements and sampling subperiod. The relatively short adaptation subperiod to methanogenesis inhibition by 3-NOP intended to decrease the difference in days in milk between the measurement and sampling subperiods of the Control and the 3-NOP periods to reduce confounding the effect of methanogenesis inhibition with differences in days in milk. Adaptation periods of 8 (Mitsumori et al., 2012) or 10 d (Lopes et al., 2016;Martinez-Fernandez et al., 2016) to small molecule inhibitors of methanogenesis have been successfully used in previous studies."},{"index":5,"size":196,"text":"Table 1. Ingredient composition of diets formulated for dairy cows fed a plant protein only (Plant protein) or a urea-containing (Urea) diet, supplemented a placebo (Control period) or the methanogenesis inhibitor 3-nitrooxypropanol (3-NOP period). Cows were divided into two blocks of four cows each based on body mass, milk production and days in milk, and two cows of each block were randomly assigned to the Plant protein or the Urea diets. The diets were based on grass silage bales (about 500 kg DM), flaked corn, a mineral and vitamin premix, and rapeseed meal (Plant protein diet) or rapeseed meal and urea (Urea diet; Table 1). Silage was produced from a native grassland chiefly composed of Holcus lanatus, Lolium multiflorum, Poa spp, and Anthoxanthum odoratum. Diets were formulated to meet requirements for maintenance and milk production of cows by using The Spartan Ration Evaluator/Balancer for Dairy Cattle (2010), with a target content of net energy for lactation of 6.67 MJ/kg dry matter (DM), and a target content of 16% DM crude protein (CP), based on the proximate composition of composite samples of silage bales, flaked corn and rapeseed meal obtained previously to the beginning of the study."}]},{"head":"Feeding and management","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"During the adaptation subperiods, each diet was fed to the corresponding four cows in one pen. During the measurement and sampling subperiod, cows were kept in individual tie stalls fitted with rubber mattresses and fed individually. Cows had continuous access to water throughout the experiment and were milked twice daily (5:30 and 16:00 h)."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"The concentrate fraction of each diet (the mixture of flaked corn, rapeseed meal, urea if applicable, minerals and vitamins premix, and the placebo or the formulated 3-NOP additive; from this point on, the \"concentrate mixture\") was weekly premixed in a cement type mixer. The as-fed proportions of concentrate mixture and silage were calculated based on the DM content of the silage bales analyzed prior to the experiment, and the concentrate mixture and the grass silage were then manually mixed at each individual cow's feeder. The diets were offered to cows once daily in the morning, allowing for 10% feed refusals (as-fed basis) based on their intake from the previous day to ensure ad libitum feed intake."}]},{"head":"Feeds, feces and urine sampling","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"All silage bales were sampled and analyzed for DM and CP before the experiment. In the measurement and sampling subperiods, silage offered and feed refusals of each individual cow were weighed and sampled every day. Daily samples of the concentrate mixture were composited per diet and per period on an equal mass basis. All samples of silage, concentrate mixture and refusals were kept frozen until analyzed."},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"On days 4-6 of the measurement and sampling subperiod, total collection of feces and urine was conducted as by Muñoz et al. (2019). Feces were collected in stainless steel trays (100  120  20 cm) lined with plastic placed behind each cow. Urine was collected in 25-L plastic containers via a flexible hose and funnel which was attached using Velcro to patches glued around the cow's vulva and rump. To minimize losses of N as ammonia, urine was acidified during collection with sulfuric acid (35% v/v) to maintain pH < 3.0 (Stevens et al., 2009). Total daily fecal and urinary outputs were weighed. Samples of 5% of total daily excretion (feces by mass and urine by volume) were obtained after thorough mixing and composited per cow per period. Samples of feces and urine were kept at -20 C until chemical analyses."}]},{"head":"Milk production and composition","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Individual milk yields were recorded at each milking. Composite daily milk samples, obtained by mixing proportional volumes of the morning and afternoon milking, were collected on days 4-6 of the measurement and sampling subperiods, mixed with bronopol, and stored at 4 C until analysis."}]},{"head":"Methane measurements","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Individual measurements of CH 4 emissions were conducted by using the sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6 ) tracer gas technique (Muñoz et al., 2019). Cows were dosed orally with calibrated permeation tubes (supplied by National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand) previously incubated at 39 C for 7.5 wk and weighed twice weekly to calculate their rates of SF 6 release (5.74 AE 0.081, 5.49-6.05 mg/d; mean AE SD, range). Boluses were paired by release rate and one bolus of each pair was randomly assigned to one cow per block and diet and placed into the rumen 1 wk before the beginning of the first measurement and sampling subperiod."},{"index":2,"size":179,"text":"On the first day of each measurement and sampling subperiod, cows were fitted with a head collar with a sampling line placed above the animal's nostrils, which had a filter and a calibrated (~0.30 mL/min) flow-restriction capillary tube connected to an air-evacuated V-shaped PVC canister (2.5 L) suspended above the metabolism stalls. Canisters had initial and final gas pressures of 1,104 AE 342 and 37,227 AE 2823 (mean AE SD) Pa, respectively. Canisters collected subsamples of exhaled and eructed gases for 24 h and were changed daily. Background concentration of CH 4 and SF 6 in the barn were determined using four sets of sampling equipment of the same design of those used on cows, which were evenly distributed along the stalls at about 1.5 m above the floor and mid-way between adjacent cows. Once removed, canisters had their remaining pressure determined and were then over-pressurized with gaseous nitrogen to 121,423 AE 404 Pa. Gases inside the canisters were allowed to mix for at least 1 h prior to transferring four subsamples to pre-evacuated vials for gas composition determination."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Methane measurements were recorded every 24 h for 6 d during the entire sampling and measurement subperiods. Background concentrations were averaged daily to give a single estimate for each period. Ratios of background gas concentrations to gas concentrations in the samples were <10%."}]},{"head":"Rumen sampling","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"On days 5 and 6 of the measurement and sampling subperiods, 200-mL samples of rumen contents were taken approximately 30 min before feeding, and at 1, 3, 6, 12 and 18 h post-feeding. Rumen contents were strained to separate solids and fluid, and rumen pH (ExStik ® pH Meter, Extech Instruments, Boston, U.S.) and reducing potential (Eh, Oakton ® pH 700 m, Singapore, equipped with a Schott Instruments BlueLine 31 Rx Ag/AgCl ORP electrode) were immediately measured in the fluid fraction. Triplicate 1-mL aliquots were preserved with 0.2 mL 20% (m/v) meta-phosphoric acid for determination of volatile fatty acids (VFA) concentration and with 0.2 mL 1% (v/v) sulfuric acid for subsequent analysis of NH 4 þ concentration. Rumen fluid samples were kept frozen at -20 C until analyzed."}]},{"head":"In situ incubations","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"On day 2 of each measurement and sampling subperiod, and immediately after the morning feeding, seven nylon bags for in situ incubation were placed in the rumen of each animal: three bags, each containing 10 g DM of cotton lint (94.9% DM, and 99.9% organic matter (OM), 0.5% CP and 97% neutral detergent fiber (NDF), on a DM basis), three bags each containing 30 g DM ryegrass hay previously ground through a 2 mm sieve (88.4% DM, and 94.0% OM, 6.3% CP and 68.0% NDF, on a DM basis), and one bag left empty as a blank. The exact weight of each bag and substrate were recorded. The seven bags were attached to the inner side of the cannula stopper by a 60-cm cord. One bag with each substrate remained in the rumen for 12, 24 or 48 h of incubation, whereas the blank was removed at 48 h of incubation. Once removed, bags were gently rinsed with tap water and frozen at -20 C until processed."}]},{"head":"Analyses","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Samples of silage, concentrate mixture, refusals and feces were thoroughly homogenized, oven-dried at 60 C for 48 h, ground through a 1 mm sieve, and analyzed for DM, total ash and CP (AOAC, 2005). Neutral detergent fiber content was assayed with a heat stable amylase and expressed inclusive of residual ash (Mertens, 2002). Acid detergent fiber (ADF) content was determined and expressed inclusive of residual ash (AOAC, 2005). Gross energy of silage, concentrate mixture, refusals, feces, urine and milk, was determined by oxygen bomb calorimetry (Bateman, 1970)."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"In situ bags were thawed and thoroughly washed under cold tap water until the water running off was clear, after which they were freezedried, weighed, and the content of the bags was homogenized. Residues of incubated hay and cotton balls were analyzed for DM content (AOAC, 2005). Residues of incubated ryegrass hay were also analyzed for NDF content (Mertens, 2002). Cotton balls 48 h incubation residues were analyzed for total N (AOAC, 2005), individual AA (except for Tyr, Trp, Cys, Asn and Gln) (White et al., 1986), and long chain fatty acids (AOAC, 2005)."},{"index":3,"size":196,"text":"Gas samples were analyzed for CH 4 and SF 6 concentration by using a GC (Perkin Elmer Clarus 600, Perkin Elmer, Waltham, USA). Methane was analyzed with a Carboxen 1010 plot column (15 m  0.32 mm ID, Supelco, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, U.S.) and a flame ionization detector operating at 250 C. Sulfur hexafluoride was analyzed with an Elite-GC GS Molesieve column (30 m  0.53 mm ID  50-μm film thickness, PerkinElmer, Waltham, U.S.) and an electron capture detector operated at 300 C. Ratio of SF 6 to CH 4 in gas samples was equal to 2.04 AE 1.12 (mean AE SD) ppt/ppm. Volatile fatty acids concentration was determined in a GC (Perkin Elmer Clarus 580, Perkin Elmer, Waltham, US) equipped with an Elite-FFAP (PerkinElmer, Shelton, CT, USA) capillary column and a flame ionization detector (Ungerfeld et al., 2019). Rumen NH 4 þ concentration was determined according to Kaplan (1969). Urine samples were analyzed for purine derivatives (allantoin and uric acid) by HPLC (Vlassa et al., 2009) and total N (AOAC, 2005). Milk samples were analyzed for fat, protein, lactose, urea and somatic cell counts using infrared spectroscopy (IS, MilkoScan 4000, Foss Electric, Hillerød, Denmark)."}]},{"head":"Calculations","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":217,"text":"Composition of the diet ingested was calculated by subtracting the amount of each dietary fraction refused from its amount offered. Ingestion of digestible energy (DE) was calculated as ingestion of GE minus GE output in feces. Ingestion of metabolizable energy (ME) was calculated as ingestion of DE minus GE losses in CH 4 and urine (McDonald et al., 2010). Feed content of DE and ME was calculated as ingestion of DE and ME, respectively, divided by DM intake (DMI). Energy-corrected milk production (ECM) was calculated according to Tyrrell and Reid (1965). Calculation of CH 4 production per animal considered background concentrations of CH 4 and SF 6 (Muñoz et al., 2019). Methane production was averaged to obtain one average value per cow and period for the statistical analysis. Methane yield was calculated as the quotient between CH 4 production and DMI. The cotton balls substrate incubated in situ was devoid of N, AA and long chain fatty acids, therefore, N, AA and long chain fatty acids present in the 48 h incubation residues are assumed to be entirely microbial. Microbial N production was calculated from purine derivatives excretion in urine according to IAEA (1997). The Eh values recorded for rumen fluid were corrected to the Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) by adding 197 mV (Sawyer et al., 1995)."}]},{"head":"Statistical analyses","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Nutrient intake and digestibility, milk production and composition, CH 4 emissions, energy and N utilization efficiency, and microbial production of N, AA and long chain fatty acids in cotton balls incubated in situ in the rumen, were analyzed with the following linear mixed model:"},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"With N source being Plant protein or Urea, and Period being Control or 3-NOP administration (with the 3-NOP administration effect being confounded with unintended dietary changes; see 3. Results and 4. Discussion)."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"When interactions were significant (P < 0.05), treatment means were compared by using Tukey's honestly significant difference contrasts."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"In situ digestibility of cotton balls and ryegrass hay was analyzed as a function of:"},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"Rumen variables were analyzed with Time after feeding as the repeated measures variable with an asymptotic unbounded variancecovariance structure. Digestible OM intake (DOMI) was included as a covariable to adjust the effects of N source, Period, Time after feeding and their interactions for changes in diet fermentability:"},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"When interactions with Time after feeding were significant (P < 0.05), treatment means were compared within each time point."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"Rumen Eh was regressed as a function of rumen pH and the experimental treatments, as follows:"},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"Non-significant (P > 0.05) interactions were removed, and the reduced model was re-fitted."},{"index":9,"size":28,"text":"In all statistical analyses, significance was declared at P < 0.05 and tendencies at 0.05 P < 0.10. All statistical analyses were conducted using JMP ® (JMP, 2016)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Composition of diet offered and ingested","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"There was high variation among and within silage bales in DM and CP content, especially in the 3-NOP period (Supplementary Figures 1 and 2). Samples from bales which were analyzed prior to the experiment and used to formulate the diets had lower DM content than the actual silage offered in the cowsfeeders in the 3-NOP period. This resulted in greater proportion of silage in the diet DM offered in the 3-NOP period. Lower quality of silages offered in the 3-NOP period resulted in diets offered in the 3-NOP period containing more DM, NDF and ADF than in the Control period (Supplementary Table 1). Crude protein content in the diet ingested was lower in the 3-NOP period with the urea-containing diet. With both N sources and in both periods, CP was considerably lower than the 16% DM basis targeted (Table 2). The same as the diet offered, the diet ingested was also higher in NDF and ADF in the 3-NOP period with both diets, and lower in CP in the 3-NOP period with the Urea diet."}]},{"head":"Intake and digestibility","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"There were no effects of N source on nutrients intake (P ! 0.77; Table 3). Dry matter, OM, CP, NDF and GE intake were greater in the Control than in the 3-NOP period (P 0.015). There was an interaction (P ¼ 0.017) between N source and Period on CP intake, with a 38% lower CP intake in the 3-NOP period than in the Control period with the Urea diet (P < 0.05)."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"Apparent digestibility of NDF (P < 0.001; Table 3), ADF (P < 0.001) and GE (P ¼ 0.002) were greater in the 3-NOP period. Apparent digestibility of CP was greater in the 3-NOP period with the Plant protein diet (P < 0.05; interaction N source  Period P ¼ 0.015). Intake of apparently digestible DM, OM, NDF, and GE were greater in the Control period (P 0.024; Supplementary Table 2), and intake of apparently digestible CP was 33% greater in the Control period with the Urea diet (P < 0.05; interaction N source  Period P ¼ 0.004). Intake of digestible ADF was greater in the 3-NOP period (P ¼ 0.003)."}]},{"head":"Milk production and composition","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"There were no effects of N source on milk production and composition (P ! 0.16; Table 4). Production of milk (P ¼ 0.034), milk fat (P ¼ 0.025), lactose (P ¼ 0.036) and milk GE (P ¼ 0.002) were lower, and production of milk protein tended (P ¼ 0.095) to be lower, in the 3-NOP period compared to the Control period. There were no effects of Period on milk composition, although milk GE content tended to be higher in the Control period (P ¼ 0.069). There were no effects of N source or Period on milk urea N or somatic cell count (P ! 0.25)."}]},{"head":"Methane production","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":219,"text":"Out of 96 (8 cows  6 d  2 periods) CH 4 measurements, two were eliminated because of capillary tube leakage (as evidenced by atmospheric pressure of the canister at the end of the collection period) and another four measurements were eliminated because their SF 6 /CH 4 ratios were greater or lesser than the 97.5 or 2.5 percentiles, respectively, of the SF 6 /CH 4 ratio distribution. Due to this, CH 4 production results from one cow from the Urea diet were removed because of insufficient days of measurement in the Control period. Results of a second cow from the Plant protein diet were also removed because of supra-physiological CH 4 production in the Control period (average CH 4 production of 664 g/ d). Methane yield tended (P ¼ 0.067) to be greater, and Y m was greater (P ¼ 0.002), with the Urea, than with the Plant protein diet. Methane production (À62.1%; P < 0.001; Table 5), CH 4 yield (À53.5%; P < 0.001), CH 4 production per kilogram of digested OM (À53.9%; P < 0.001), CH 4 emissions intensity (À59.1%; P < 0.001), CH 4 emissions intensity on an ECM basis (À48.7%; P < 0.001), and the proportion of ingested GE lost as CH 4 (À50.8%; P < 0.001), all decreased in the 3-NOP period."}]},{"head":"Energy balance","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"There were no effects of N source on energy balance variables (P ! 0.32; Supplementary Table 3). Digestible energy intake was lower in the 3-NOP period (P ¼ 0.024), whereas there was no effect of Period on ME intake (P ¼ 0.25). Nitrogen source and Period interacted on dietary content of DE (P ¼ 0.029) and ME (P ¼ 0.040), which was higher in the 3-NOP period with the Urea diet (P < 0.05)."}]},{"head":"Nitrogen balance","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Both in the Control and 3-NOP periods, the Plant protein and the Urea diets resulted in negative N balance (Table 6); all individual animals were Table 4. Milk production and composition of dairy cows fed a plant protein only (Plant protein) or a urea-containing (Urea) diet (n ¼ 4), supplemented a placebo (Control period) or the methanogenesis inhibitor 3-nitrooxypropanol (3-NOP period). , 1997)."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"in negative N balance in both periods as well (result not shown). Nitrogen output in feces (P < 0.001) and manure (P ¼ 0.002) was greater in the Control period, whilst there were no effects of N source (P ¼ 0.50) or Period (P ¼ 0.21) on N output in urine or on retained N (P ! 0.53). More N was eliminated in urine as a proportion of N intake in the 3-NOP period (P ¼ 0.013). There was no effects of N source or Period on microbial N production estimated through purine derivatives excretion (P ! 0.35)."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"The proportion of ingested N secreted in milk was higher in the 3-NOP period (P < 0.05) with the Urea diet (interaction P ¼ 0.047)."}]},{"head":"In situ incubations","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Apparent in situ DM disappearance from cotton balls at 12, 24 and 48 h incubation was greater in the 3-NOP period with both diets (P < 0.001; Supplementary Figure 3). There was no effect of the N source (P ¼ 0.79) or Period (P ¼ 0.13) on DM disappearance of ryegrass hay (Supplementary Figure 4). There was greater NDF disappearance of ryegrass hay in the 3-NOP period (P ¼ 0.018), with no effect of N source (P ¼ 0.78; Supplementary Figure 5)."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"In situ microbial N and total microbial AA, Ser, Gly, His, Arg, Tre, Ala, Pro, Val and Met in cotton balls were lower in the 3-NOP period (P 0.046; Supplementary Table 4). There were no effects of N source or Period on total microbial long chain fatty acids in cotton balls (P ! 0.13; Supplementary Table 5). Microbial C18:1 and total monounsaturated long chain fatty acids were greater with the Plant protein diet (P 0.016). Microbial C14:0 and total polyunsaturated long chain fatty acids were greater in the Control period (P 0.029)."}]},{"head":"Rumen variables","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Rumen pH after feeding was higher in the 3-NOP period (interaction Period  Time after feeding P < 0.001; Figure 1). Rumen Eh was higher in the 3-NOP period before feeding and 1 h after feeding (P < 0.05; interaction Period  Time after feeding P ¼ 0.002; Supplementary Figure 6). There was a negative quadratic relationship between rumen Eh and pH (Supplementary Figure 7)."},{"index":2,"size":281,"text":"Total VFA concentration in the Control period was higher 3 and at 12 h after feeding with the Plant protein diet and Urea diets, respectively, and before feeding with the Urea diet in the 3-NOP period (interaction N source  Period  Time P ¼ 0.010; Figure 2). Acetate molar percentage was lower in the 3-NOP period before feeding and at 1, 6 and 12 h after feeding (interaction Period  Time after feeding P ¼ 0.012; Figure 3). Propionate molar percentage was greater in the 3-NOP period with the Urea diet (P < 0.001) with no differences with the Plant protein diet (P ¼ 0.19; interaction N source  Period P ¼ 0.025; Figure 4). Butyrate molar percentage was greater in the 3-NOP period (P ¼ 0.005; Figure 5). Molar percentages of branched-chain volatile fatty acids were greater in the 3-NOP period at various time points (P < 0.05; interaction Period  Time after feeding P 0.004; Supplementary Figures 8 and 9). There were no effects of Period on valerate molar percentage (Supplementary Figure 10). Caproate molar percentage was greater in the Control period at 1, 3, 6 and 12 h after feeding (P < 0.05; interaction Period  Time after feeding P < 0.001; Supplementary Figure 11). The acetate to propionate molar ratio was lower in the 3-NOP period (P ¼ 0.005; Supplementary Figure 12). Rumen concentration of NH 4 þ was lower in the 3-NOP period 1 h after feeding with the Plant protein diet (P < 0.05), and at 1, 3 and 6 h after feeding with the Urea diet (P < 0.05; interaction N source  Period  Time after feeding P < 0.001; Figure 6)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":227,"text":"The high variation among silage bales used in the study resulted in the diets offered in the 3-NOP period being of lower quality compared to the Control period. Therefore, the effect of 3-NOP supplementation is confounded with dietary changes. This problem imposes a limitation at interpreting 3-NOP effects, and we thus opted to refer to \"3-NOP period\" rather than \"3-NOP treatment\" in this study. Moreover, diets were Ndeficient with both N sources and in both periods. Low CP content resulted in negative N balance in all animals in both periods, which Figure 1. Daily evolution of rumen pH of dairy cows fed a plant protein only or a urea-containing diet, in the Control period or in the 3-NOP supplementation period. Circles correspond to the Plant protein diet and triangles to the Urea diet. Blue symbols and blue curves correspond to the Control period and red symbols and red curves correspond to the 3-NOP period. Significance of fixed effects: N source (N), P ¼ 0.36; Period (Pd), P ¼ 0.040; Time after feeding (T), P < 0.001; N  Pd, P ¼ 0.088; N  T, P < 0.001; Pd  T, P < 0.001; N  Pd  T, P ¼ 0.31; Day, P ¼ 0.032; digestible organic matter intake, P ¼ 0.71. Asterisks (*) indicate significant differences (P < 0.05) between periods at specific time points."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"Figure 2. Total VFA concentration in the rumen of dairy cows fed a plant protein only or a urea-containing diet, in the Control period or in the 3-NOP supplementation period. Circles correspond to the Plant protein diet and triangles to the Urea diet. Blue symbols and blue curves correspond to the Control period and red symbols and red curves correspond to the 3-NOP period. Significance of fixed effects: N source (N), P ¼ 0.58; Period (Pd), P ¼ 0.70; Time after feeding (T), P < 0.001; N  Pd, P ¼ 0.44; N  T, P ¼ 0.10; Pd  T, P < 0.001; N  Pd  T, P ¼ 0.010; Day, P ¼ 0.024; digestible organic matter intake, P ¼ 0.72. Asterisks (*) indicate significant differences (P < 0.05) between periods at specific time points. makes difficult evaluating the effects of 3-NOP on N metabolism in this study."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"A meta-analysis of five experiments in which 3-NOP was supplemented to dairy cattle reported a mean decrease of 29.6% daily CH 4 production with the average dose of 81 mg/kg DM (Dijkstra et al., 2018). The greater effect of 3-NOP on CH 4 production in our study might have been partly related to the somewhat greater dose of 100 mg/kg DM we used, although the higher content of NDF of our diets in the 3-NOP period compared to the average of the diets in the meta-analysis by Dijkstra et al. (2018) would have played in the opposite direction, according to the findings of those authors."},{"index":4,"size":140,"text":"Figure 3. Daily evolution of acetate molar percentage in the rumen of dairy cows fed a plant protein only or a urea-containing diet, in the Control period or in the 3-NOP supplementation period. Circles correspond to the Plant protein diet and triangles to the Urea diet. Blue symbols and blue curves correspond to the Control period and red symbols and red curves correspond to the 3-NOP period. Significance of fixed effects: N source (N), P ¼ 0.60; Period (Pd), P ¼ 0.001; Time after feeding (T), P < 0.001; N  Pd, P ¼ 0.009; N  T, P ¼ 0.61; Pd  T, P ¼ 0.012; N  Pd  T, P ¼ 0.85; Day, P ¼ 0.64; digestible organic matter intake, P ¼ 0.32. Asterisks (*) indicate significant differences (P < 0.05) between periods at specific time points."},{"index":5,"size":140,"text":"Figure 4. Daily evolution of propionate molar percentage in the rumen of dairy cows fed a plant protein only or a urea-containing diet, in the Control period or in the 3-NOP supplementation period. Circles correspond to the Plant protein diet and triangles to the Urea diet. Blue symbols and blue curves correspond to the Control period and red symbols and red curves correspond to the 3-NOP period. Significance of fixed effects: N source (N), P ¼ 0.071; Period (Pd), P ¼ 0.034; Time after feeding (T), P < 0.001; N  Pd, P ¼ 0.025; N  T, P ¼ 0.080; Pd  T, P ¼ 0.076; N  Pd  T, P ¼ 0.63; Day, P ¼ 0.79; digestible organic matter intake, P ¼ 0.16. Asterisks (*) indicate significant differences (P < 0.05) between periods at specific time points."}]},{"head":"5.","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":263,"text":"Daily evolution of butyrate molar percentage in the rumen of dairy cows fed a plant protein only or a urea-containing diet, in the Control period or in the 3-NOP supplementation period. Circles correspond to the Plant protein diet and triangles to the Urea diet. Blue symbols and blue curves correspond to the Control period and red symbols and red curves correspond to the 3-NOP period. Significance of fixed effects: N source (N), P ¼ 0.25; Period (Pd), P ¼ 0.005; Time after feeding (T), P < 0.001; N  Pd, P ¼ 0.083; N  T, P < 0.001; Pd  T, P ¼ 0.080; N  Pd  T, P ¼ 0.22; Day, P ¼ 0.82; digestible organic matter intake, P ¼ 0.009. Figure 6. Daily evolution of ammonium concentration in the rumen of dairy cows fed a plant protein only or a urea-containing diet, in the Control period or in the 3-NOP supplementation period. Circles correspond to the Plant protein diet and triangles to the Urea diet. Blue symbols and blue curves correspond to the Control period and red symbols and red curves correspond to the 3-NOP period. Significance of fixed effects: N source (N), P < 0.001; Period (Pd), P ¼ 0.004; Time after feeding (T), P < 0.001; N  Pd, P ¼ 0.003; N  T, P < 0.001; Pd  T, P < 0.001; N  Pd  T, P < 0.001; Day, P ¼ 0.54; digestible organic matter intake, P ¼ 0.79. Asterisks (*) indicate significant differences (P < 0.05) between periods at specific time points."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Interestingly, all diets in the meta-analysis by Dijkstra et al. (2018) were sufficient in N, with a CP content ranging between 16.1 and 19.6% DM basis; it is possible that in our study the inhibition of methanogenesis by 3-NOP was amplified by N deficiency, an aspect that would have to be confirmed by future studies."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"The SF 6 technique in ruminally-cannulated animals can induce biases in the estimation of CH 4 production due to gas leaking through the rumen cannula (Beauchemin et al., 2012), however, the decrease in CH 4 in the 3-NOP period was considerably greater than the biases in CH 4 production reported by those authors, and cows remained with the same cannula and under the same management scheme throughout the experiment, as their own controls. It is therefore not thought that our conclusions with regards to the effects of 3-NOP on the extent of methanogenesis inhibition were influenced by the use of cannulated animals."},{"index":4,"size":219,"text":"Roughages result in greater CH 4 yield and Y m compared to concentrates (Johnson and Johnson, 1995;Beauchemin et al., 2020). Based on the model by Niu et al. (2018), the increase in dietary NDF content that occurred in the 3-NOP period would have been expected to increase CH 4 yield by 12%; instead, CH 4 yield decreased by 54% (Figure 7), demonstrating that the observed effects on methanogenesis were due to 3-NOP supplementation rather than to the unintended changes in diet composition. Also, roughages are fermented in the rumen to higher acetate to propionate molar ratio compared to concentrates (Janssen, 2010). In the present study, however, even though the diet contained higher NDF in the 3-NOP period, the rumen fermentation profile was lower in acetate and higher in propionate in the 3-NOP than in the Control period. A decrease in the rumen acetate to propionate ratio as a consequence of 3-NOP administration has been observed in several studies (Jayanegara et al, 2018). It is of much interest that supplementation with 3-NOP could overcome the greater CH 4 production potential and rumen fermentation characteristics of the lower quality diet offered in the 3-NOP period. It is also of much interest that the decrease of CH 4 emissions exerted by 3-NOP was similar with a plant protein-based and a urea-supplemented diet."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"We hypothesized that part of the metabolic hydrogen spared from methanogenesis would be redirected towards the incorporation of NH 4 þ into the synthesis of microbial AA. In agreement with our hypothesis, the post-feeding NH 4"},{"index":6,"size":221,"text":"þ peak was substantially lower in the 3-NOP period irrespectively of the N source. With the Urea diet, considerably greater ingestion of total and digestible CP in the Control period contributes to explain the lower NH 4 þ peak after feeding in the 3-NOP period; however, with the Plant protein diet, ingestion of digestible CP was similar in both periods, and yet the 1 h post-feeding NH 4 þ concentration was 55% lower in the 3-NOP period also with the Plant protein diet. Lower rumen NH 4 þ concentration as a result of 3-NOP supplementation agrees with the meta-analyses by Jayanegara et al. (2018) and Kim et al. (2020). However, the moderation observed in the post-feeding NH 4 þ peak in the 3-NOP period contrasts with the lack of effects of 3-NOP supplementation on microbial N production, the increase in the proportion of ingested N excreted in urine in the 3-NOP period, and the lower total microbial N and AA in cotton balls incubated in situ in the 3-NOP period. Also, increased molar percentage (and also concentration; results not shown) of branched-chain VFA, which are fermentation products of branched chain AA (Allison, 1978), in the 3-NOP period, does not suggest an increase in the amination of branched-chain VFA, or an inhibition in the deamination of branched-chain AA, in the 3-NOP period."},{"index":7,"size":311,"text":"Lower fermentability of the diets fed in the 3-NOP period may have limited microbial protein synthesis (Firkins et al., 2007;Hartinger et al., 2018;Firkins and Mackie, 2020), in agreement with the lack of response in AA synthesis to methanogenesis inhibition observed in rumen mixed cultures growing in cellulose, in contrast to those growing on starch (Ungerfeld et al., 2020). Furthermore, all diets were N-limited, as evidenced by the overall negative N balance. Hence, a response in the incorporation of NH 4 þ into AA synthesis and thus microbial protein production, could have also been limited by rumen NH 4 þ concentration, which was below the minimal range of 5 to 11 mM (Schwab and Broderick, 2017) during much of the day in all periods and diets. Unfortunately, the unintended differences between diets in energy and N, and the deficiencies in dietary N and rumen NH 4 þ , do not allow to conclude on whether inhibiting methanogenesis with 3-NOP might have stimulated the incorporation of NH 4 þ into microbial AA synthesis. Whilst the observed effects of 3-NOP on rumen NH 4 þ post-feeding concentration are of much interest, they need to be confirmed with further experiments with balanced diets covering animal and microbial requirements of energy and N. Another aspect to consider when interpreting the lack of response to 3-NOP of microbial protein production, and the lower production of microbial N and AA in cotton balls incubated in situ in the 3-NOP period, is the unknown adaptation time needed to evaluate the hypothesized effects of inhibiting methanogenesis on rumen N metabolism. While the shortened 10-d adaptation period to 3-NOP was sufficient for observing a strong decrease in CH 4 production, it is possible that changes in nonarchaeal microbial populations with noticeable influence on amination and deamination could take longer to occur, and may require a longer adaptation period to be detected."},{"index":8,"size":86,"text":"There has been speculation that an increase in microbial long chain fatty acids synthesis can contribute to explain for unaccounted reducing equivalents when methanogenesis is inhibited in rumen fermentation (Ungerfeld, 2015). In the present study, a response in long chain fatty acids in cellulose incubated in situ was not confirmed, although direct incorporation of long chain fatty acids by microbes colonizing cotton balls cannot be discarded. Whether this result may change balancing the diets offered or with different in situ incubated substrates remains to be investigated."},{"index":9,"size":79,"text":"The differences between periods in milk production cannot be ascribed to 3-NOP supplementation considering the diet composition differences in energy, and the overall N deficiency in both periods and with both N sources. Higher dietary fiber content in the 3-NOP period resulted in lower feed intake likely because of lower rumen outflow rates (Allen, 2014). Likewise, greater fiber digestibility in the 3-NOP period was likely the result of lower feed intake increasing rumen retention times (Illius and Allen, 1994)."},{"index":10,"size":188,"text":"All combinations of N sources and periods resulted in milk fat depression. Milk fat depression can be caused by excess dietary fermentable carbohydrates and low physically effective fiber, or by excess dietary supplementation of unsaturated fatty acids (Harvatine , 2009;Dewanckele et al., 2020). Because diets were not supplemented with fats or oils, and the rapeseed meal supplement used was solvent-extracted, it seems likely that in this study milk fat depression resulted from the relatively high dietary content of concentrates, which constituted about half of the dietary DM. Previous in vitro rumen fermentation studies had reported decreases in Eh as a consequence of the inhibition of methanogenesis, or lack of effects in some studies and treatments (Sauer and Teather, 1987;Soliva et al., 2011;Ungerfeld et al., 2019Ungerfeld et al., , 2020)). Therefore, higher Eh in the 3-NOP period before and right after feeding was unexpected. The present results also contrast with the meta-analysis by Huang et al. (2018), in which diets lower in concentrates and higher in NDF were associated with lower Eh, although they concur with the negative relationship between pH and Eh reported by Huang et al. (2018)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Unintended changes in diet composition between the Control and 3-NOP periods, as well as severe limitations in rumen NH 4 þ concentration and negative N balance in all animals in both experimental periods preclude us from unequivocally concluding about the effects of inhibiting methanogenesis with 3-NOP on the incorporation of NH 4 þ into microbial AA and protein synthesis. Observations of the effects of 3-NOP on rumen ammonium are of interest and deserve further study with isoenergetic and isonitrogenous diets matching animal and microorganisms nutrient requirements. Under N limitation, supplementation with 3-NOP was very effective at decreasing CH 4 emissions with both a plant protein diet and a diet containing urea, with diets higher in fiber and presumably more methanogenic than the diets fed in the Control period."}]},{"head":"Declarations","index":25,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Methane yield estimated from dietary NDF content according to Niu et al. (2018), and CH 4 yield actually measured, in the Control and 3-NOP periods. "},{"text":"F "},{"text":"Table 2 . Proximate composition of diets ingested by dairy cows fed a plant protein only (Plant protein) or a urea-containing (Urea) diet (n ¼ 4), supplemented a placebo (Control period) or the methanogenesis inhibitor 3-nitrooxypropanol (3-NOP period). N source Plant Protein Urea SEM 1 N source Period N source  Period N sourcePlant ProteinUreaSEM 1N sourcePeriodN source  Period Period Control 3-NOP Control 3-NOP P ¼ P ¼ P ¼ PeriodControl3-NOPControl3-NOPP ¼P ¼P ¼ %DM 40.8 43.0 41.5 42.7 1.21 0.88 0.16 0.68 %DM40.843.041.542.71.210.880.160.68 OM (%DM) 95.4 95.7 95.2 95.7 0.095 0.35 0.005 0.23 OM (%DM)95.495.795.295.70.0950.350.0050.23 CP (%DM) 11.9 b 11.6 b 13.3 a 10.4 c 0.41 0.018 <0.001 <0.001 CP (%DM)11.9 b11.6 b13.3 a10.4 c0.410.018<0.001<0.001 NDF (%DM) 28.2 41.7 28.3 40.1 0.49 0.023 <0.001 0.069 NDF (%DM)28.241.728.340.10.490.023<0.0010.069 ADF (%DM) 18.5 23.7 18.3 22.8 0.50 0.27 <0.001 0.54 ADF (%DM)18.523.718.322.80.500.27<0.0010.54 GE (MJ/kg DM) 19.6 a 19.0 b 18.4 c 18.4 c 0.043 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 GE (MJ/kg DM)19.6 a19.0 b18.4 c18.4 c0.043<0.001<0.001<0.001 1 Standard error of the mean; 2 Unlike superscripts on the same row indicate significantly (P < 0.05; Tukey HSD) different treatment means when the interaction N source 1 Standard error of the mean; 2 Unlike superscripts on the same row indicate significantly (P < 0.05; Tukey HSD) different treatment means when the interaction N source by Period is significant (P < 0.05). by Period is significant (P < 0.05). "},{"text":"Table 3 . Intake N source Plant Protein Urea SEM 1 N source Period N source  Period N sourcePlant ProteinUreaSEM 1N sourcePeriodN source  Period Period Control 3-NOP Control 3-NOP P ¼ P ¼ P ¼ PeriodControl3-NOPControl3-NOPP ¼P ¼P ¼ Total intake (kg/d or MJ/d) Total intake (kg/d or MJ/d) DM 17.6 14.9 18.6 14.6 1.58 0.89 0.003 0.39 DM17.614.918.614.61.580.890.0030.39 OM 16.8 14.2 17.7 13.9 1.51 0.89 0.004 0.42 OM16.814.217.713.91.510.890.0040.42 CP 2.09 ab 2 1.74 ab 2.46 a 1.52 b 0.19 0.77 <0.001 0.017 CP2.09 ab 21.74 ab2.46 a1.52 b0.190.77<0.0010.017 NDF 4.98 6.21 5.26 5.82 0.53 0.95 0.015 0.26 NDF4.986.215.265.820.530.950.0150.26 ADF 3.26 3.55 3.41 3.32 0.35 0.93 0.63 0.37 ADF3.263.553.413.320.350.930.630.37 GE 344 283 342 267 29.9 0.83 0.003 0.66 GE34428334226729.90.830.0030.66 Digestibility (%) Digestibility (%) DM 67.0 68.3 69.8 70.7 1.00 0.066 0.24 0.87 DM67.068.369.870.71.000.0660.240.87 OM 70.0 70.9 72.3 73.0 0.95 0.090 0.37 0.95 OM70.070.972.373.00.950.0900.370.95 CP 42.4 b 54.3 a 50.4 a 53.8 a 2.54 0.047 <0.001 0.015 CP42.4 b54.3 a50.4 a53.8 a2.540.047<0.0010.015 NDF 27.8 54.4 35.0 56.0 3.07 0.26 <0.001 0.30 NDF27.854.435.056.03.070.26<0.0010.30 ADF 15.1 44.9 25.1 48.1 3.70 0.15 <0.001 0.35 ADF15.144.925.148.13.700.15<0.0010.35 GE 68.5 71.3 67.7 75.3 1.39 0.32 0.002 0.063 GE68.571.367.775.31.390.320.0020.063 "},{"text":"Table 5 . Methane emissions of dairy cows fed a plant protein only (Plant protein) or a urea-containing (Urea) diet (n ¼ 4), supplemented a placebo (Control period) or the methanogenesis inhibitor 3-nitrooxypropanol (3-NOP period). N source Plant Protein Urea SEM 1 N source P ¼ Period N source  Period N sourcePlant ProteinUreaSEM 1N source P ¼PeriodN source  Period Period Control 3-NOP Control 3-NOP P ¼ P ¼ PeriodControl3-NOPControl3-NOPP ¼P ¼ Milk (kg/d) 22.0 19.5 22.0 19.5 2.34 0.99 0.034 0.99 Milk (kg/d)22.019.522.019.52.340.990.0340.99 Fat (g/kg) 27.8 27.5 30.1 29.9 1.31 0.16 0.81 0.96 Fat (g/kg)27.827.530.129.91.310.160.810.96 Protein (g/kg) 31.9 32.6 33.6 33.4 0.87 0.29 0.67 0.45 Protein (g/kg)31.932.633.633.40.870.290.670.45 Lactose (g/kg) 53.9 52.9 52.7 53.1 0.74 0.60 0.42 0.10 Lactose (g/kg)53.952.952.753.10.740.600.420.10 Milk gross energy (MJ/kg) 2.57 2.50 2.73 2.32 0.15 0.98 0.069 0.17 Milk gross energy (MJ/kg)2.572.502.732.320.150.980.0690.17 Fat (kg/d) 0.607 0.530 0.663 0.575 0.0634 0.57 0.025 0.85 Fat (kg/d)0.6070.5300.6630.5750.06340.570.0250.85 Protein (kg/d) 0.701 0.637 0.737 0.647 0.0769 0.83 0.095 0.75 Protein (kg/d)0.7010.6370.7370.6470.07690.830.0950.75 Lactose (kg/d) 1.182 1.031 1.160 1.032 0.127 0.96 0.036 0.83 Lactose (kg/d)1.1821.0311.1601.0320.1270.960.0360.83 Gross energy in milk (MJ/d) 56.8 46.5 61.5 41.3 6.28 0.98 0.002 0.15 Gross energy in milk (MJ/d)56.846.561.541.36.280.980.0020.15 Milk urea nitrogen (mg/dL) 20.5 23.9 26.0 25.3 2.08 0.26 0.25 0.092 Milk urea nitrogen (mg/dL)20.523.926.025.32.080.260.250.092 Log 10 SCC 2 6.42 6.37 6.35 6.27 6.07 0.56 0.43 0.84 Log 10 SCC 26.426.376.356.276.070.560.430.84 1 Standard error of the mean; 2 Log-transformed (base 10) somatic cell count. 1 Standard error of the mean; 2 Log-transformed (base 10) somatic cell count. N source Plant Protein Urea SEM 1 N source Period N source  Period N sourcePlant ProteinUreaSEM 1N sourcePeriodN source  Period Period Control 3-NOP Control 3-NOP P ¼ P ¼ P ¼ PeriodControl3-NOPControl3-NOPP ¼P ¼P ¼ Measurement days (d/cow) [mean, (range)] 6 (6-6) 5.33 (5-6) 5.67 (5-6) 6 (6-6) - - - - Measurement days (d/cow) [mean, (range)]6 (6-6)5.33 (5-6)5.67 (5-6)6 (6-6)---- CH 4 (g/d) 2 458 214 564 190 66.4 0.65 <0.001 0.13 CH 4 (g/d) 245821456419066.40.65<0.0010.13 CH 4 (g/d) 3 389 160 476 167 30.5 0.28 <0.001 0.14 CH 4 (g/d) 338916047616730.50.28<0.0010.14 CH 4 yield (g/kg DMI) 3 21.5 10.1 23.9 11.0 0.56 0.067 <0.001 0.18 CH 4 yield (g/kg DMI) 321.510.123.911.00.560.067<0.0010.18 CH 4 (g/kg digestible OM intake) 3 32.6 15.1 34.7 15.9 1.59 0.89 <0.001 0.49 CH 4 (g/kg digestible OM intake) 332.615.134.715.91.590.89<0.0010.49 Y M (MJ CH 4 /100 MJ GE intake) 3 6.10 2.97 7.20 3.57 0.23 0.002 <0.001 0.13 Y M (MJ CH 4 /100 MJ GE intake) 36.102.977.203.570.230.002<0.0010.13 CH 4 emissions intensity (g/kg milk) 3 17.9 7.63 21.4 8.43 0.91 0.12 <0.001 0.13 CH 4 emissions intensity (g/kg milk) 317.97.6321.48.430.910.12<0.0010.13 CH 4 emissions ECM 4 intensity (g/kg ECM) 3 21.6 10.6 23.3 12.4 1.31 0.33 <0.001 0.93 CH 4 emissions ECM 4 intensity (g/kg ECM) 321.610.623.312.41.310.33<0.0010.93 "},{"text":"Table 6 . Nitrogen balance of dairy cows fed a plant protein only (Plant protein) or a urea-containing (Urea) diet (n ¼ 4), supplemented a placebo (Control period) or the methanogenesis inhibitor 3-nitrooxypropanol (3-NOP period). N source Plant Protein Urea SEM 1 N source Period N source  Period N sourcePlant ProteinUreaSEM 1N sourcePeriodN source  Period Period Control 3-NOP Control 3-NOP P ¼ P ¼ P ¼ PeriodControl3-NOPControl3-NOPP ¼P ¼P ¼ N ingested (g/d) 334 ab2 278 ab 394 a 247 b 31.0 0.77 <0.001 0.017 N ingested (g/d)334 ab2278 ab394 a247 b31.00.77<0.0010.017 N in feces (g/d) 194 128 197 113 19.2 0.83 <0.001 0.36 N in feces (g/d)19412819711319.20.83<0.0010.36 N in urine (g/d) 114 115 135 113 10.8 0.50 0.21 0.18 N in urine (g/d)11411513511310.80.500.210.18 N in manure 3 (g/d) 307 242 332 226 28.6 0.92 0.002 0.25 N in manure 3 (g/d)30724233222628.60.920.0020.25 N in milk (g/d) 112 94.7 118 94.1 11.7 0.85 0.014 0.57 N in milk (g/d)11294.711894.111.70.850.0140.57 Retained N (g/d) -84.8 -59.0 -55.9 -72.5 11.1 0.53 0.68 0.094 Retained N (g/d)-84.8-59.0-55.9-72.511.10.530.680.094 N in feces/N ingested (g/g) 0.576 a 0.457 b 0.496 b 0.454 b 0.0138 0.032 <0.001 0.020 N in feces/N ingested (g/g)0.576 a0.457 b0.496 b0.454 b0.01380.032<0.0010.020 N in urine/N ingested (g/g) 0.345 0.427 0.342 0.461 0.0321 0.68 0.013 0.55 N in urine/N ingested (g/g)0.3450.4270.3420.4610.03210.680.0130.55 N in feces/N in urine (g/g) 1.69 1.13 1.46 1.00 0.099 0.21 <0.001 0.36 N in feces/N in urine (g/g)1.691.131.461.000.0990.21<0.0010.36 N in manure 3 /N ingested (g/g) 0.921 0.885 0.837 0.915 0.0353 0.43 0.61 0.19 N in manure 3 /N ingested (g/g)0.9210.8850.8370.9150.03530.430.610.19 N in milk/N ingested (g/g) 0.331 ab 0.335 ab 0.302 b 0.387 a 0.0211 0.66 0.034 0.047 N in milk/N ingested (g/g)0.331 ab0.335 ab0.302 b0.387 a0.02110.660.0340.047 Microbial N production 4 (g/d) 153 136 145 141 19.7 0.95 0.35 0.52 Microbial N production 4 (g/d)15313614514119.70.950.350.52 "}],"sieverID":"8217e374-d08a-4573-9b21-d40de70796b7","abstract":"Methane is a potent but short-lived greenhouse gas targeted for short-term amelioration of climate change, with enteric methane emitted by ruminants being the most important anthropogenic source of methane. Ruminant production also releases nitrogen to the environment, resulting in groundwater pollution and emissions of greenhouse gas nitrous oxide. We hypothesized that inhibiting rumen methanogenesis in dairy cows with chemical inhibitor 3-nitrooxypropanol (3-NOP) would redirect metabolic hydrogen towards synthesis of microbial amino acids. Our objective was to investigate the effects of 3-NOP on methane emissions, rumen fermentation and nitrogen metabolism of dairy cows fed true protein or urea as nitrogen sources. Eight ruminally-cannulated cows were fed a plant protein or a urea-containing diet during a Control experimental period followed by a methanogenesis inhibition period with 3-NOP supplementation. All diets were unintentionally deficient in nitrogen, and diets supplemented with 3-NOP had higher fiber than diets fed in the Control period. Higher dietary fiber content in the 3-NOP period would be expected to cause higher methane emissions; however, methane emissions adjusted by dry matter and digested organic matter intake were 54% lower with 3-NOP supplementation. Also, despite of the more fibrous diet, 3-NOP shifted rumen fermentation from acetate to propionate. The post-feeding rumen ammonium peak was substantially lower in the 3-NOP period, although that did not translate into greater rumen microbial protein production nor lesser nitrogen excretion in urine. Presumably, because all diets resulted in low rumen ammonium, and intake of digestible organic matter was lower in the 3-NOP period compared to the Control period, the synthesis of microbial amino acids was limited by nitrogen and energy, precluding the evaluation of our hypothesis. Supplementation with 3-NOP was highly effective at decreasing methane emissions with a lower quality diet, both with true protein and urea as nitrogen sources."}
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