fe63671a44249d2bcb29402bb0ecf67d85937c6dad88b38d5d596dcdeeca5006

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+A seed is the part of a seed plant which can grow into a new plant. It is a reproductive structure which disperses,[1] and can survive for some time. A typical seed includes three basic parts: (1) an embryo, (2) a supply of nutrients for the embryo, and (3) a seed coat.
+
+There are many different kinds of seeds. Some plants make a lot of seeds, some make only a few. Seeds are often hard and very small, but some are larger. The coconut is as big as a child's head, but it contains more than just a seed. At the start, seeds are dormant (resting inside their coat) for a while. When the seed is ready to develop, it needs water, air and warmth but not sunlight to become a seedling.
+
+Seeds carry the food that helps the new plant begin to grow. This food store is in the endosperm, and/or in the cotyledons. Many kinds of seeds are good food for animals and people. The many kinds of grain that people grow, such as rice, wheat, and maize, are all seeds. Seeds are often inside fruits.
+
+A seed, though not active, is a tiny living thing. It contains the embryo of the future plant, which is not changing or developing: it is dormant. The common idea is that the seed "sleeps" until it gets what it needs to wake up. That is not correct. Different seeds have different habits, no doubt adapted to their habitat. There are different kinds of resting stages in seeds:[2]
+
+When a seed germinates ("wakes up"), it begins to grow into a little plant called a seedling.[2] It uses the soft fleshy material inside the seed for nutrients (food) until it is ready to make food on its own using sunlight, water and air.
+
+Most seeds germinate underground where there is no sunlight. The plant does not need the nutrients in soil for a few days or weeks, because the seed has all the things it needs to grow.[3] Later, though, it will begin to need sunlight. If there is sunlight, the plant will use it to grow healthy. If there is no light, the plant will still grow for a while, but its plastids will not mature: the chlorophyll does not turn green. If the plant does not get enough light, it will eventually die. It needs light to make food for itself when the reserve in the seed runs out.[2]
+
+Seeds have been an important development in the reproduction and spread of conifers and flowering plants. Plants such as mosses, liverworts and ferns do not have seeds, and use unprotected spores and other methods to propagate themselves. Before the upper Devonian period, land plants, like modern ferns, reproduced by sending spores into the air. The spores would land and become new plants only in favourable conditions. Spores have little food stored, and may be just single cells rather than embryos.
+
+The evolution of seeds changed the plant life cycle by freeing plants from the need for external water for sexual reproduction, and by providing protection and nutrients for the developing embryo. These functions allowed plants to expand beyond the immediate neighbourhood of water sources. They were able to exploit environments which were drier and more upland.[6]p92 This can be seen by the success of seed plants in important biological niches on land, from forests to grasslands both in hot and cold climates. The present-day seed plants are the Gymnosperms, with naked seeds, and the Angiosperms with covered seeds, usually fruits.
+
+The first true seeds are from the upper Devonian 370–354 million years ago, which is probably the theatre of their first evolutionary radiation. The earliest seed-producing trees were in the forests of the Carboniferous period.[6]p112 The seed plants steadily became one of the most important elements of nearly all ecosystems.

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+The kilogram[b] is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI). It is in widely used in science, engineering, and commerce worldwide. The kilogram is exactly the mass of one litre of water.
+
+As of May 20, 2019, the definition of the kilogram is based on the Planck constant as 6.62607015×10−34 kg⋅m2⋅s−1.[1][2]
+
+There are attempts to define the kilogram in other ways. One example specifies a number of atoms of a certain substance (at a certain temperature).
+
+One kilogram is a little more than 2.2 pounds. One tonne is one thousand kilograms. One litre of water weighs almost exactly one kilogram, at 3.98 °C (39.16 °F; 277.13 K), at sea level. This was the basis of the definition of the gram in 1795.
+
+In 1879, the piece of metal was made. It was officially chosen to be the kilogram in 1889. It was made of 90% platinum and 10% iridium.[3]  Those metals were chosen because they do not rust or corrode like most metals. It is stored in a vault at the BIPM in Sèvres, France. From 1795 to 1799, the unit of mass was not called "kilogram"  but was called "grave".
+
+The original kilogram is kept inside bell jars. Over time, dust can collect on it. Before it is measured, it is cleaned to get the original size.[3]
+
+The kilogram is a unit of mass. In normal language, measuring mass defines how heavy is something. This is not scientifically correct. Mass is an inertial property. It measures the tendency of an object to stay at a given speed when no force acts on it.
+
+Sir Isaac Newton's laws of motion contain an important formula: F = ma. F is force. m is mass. a is acceleration. An object with a mass (m) of one kilogram will accelerate (a) at one meter per second per second when acted upon by a force (F) of one newton. This about one-tenth the acceleration due to earth’s gravity.[c]
+
+The weight of matter depends on the strength of gravity. The mass of matter does not. The mass of an object is the same everywhere. Matter has invariant mass assuming it is not traveling at a relativistic speed with respect to an observer. According to Einstein’s theory of special relativity, the relativistic mass (apparent mass with respect to an observer) of an object or particle with rest mass m0 increases with its speed as M = γm0 (where γ is the Lorentz factor). This effect is vanishingly small at everyday speeds, which are by orders of magnitude less than the speed of light, but becomes noticeable at very high speeds. For example, traveling at just 10% the speed of light with respect to an observer—exceedingly fast compared to everyday speeds (about 108 million km/h or 67,000,000 mph)—increases an object’s relativistic mass just over 0.5%.
+
+As regards the kilogram, relativity’s effect upon the constancy of matter’s mass is simply an interesting scientific phenomenon that has zero effect on the definition of the kilogram and its practical realizations.</ref> Objects are "weightless" for astronauts in microgravity. However, the objects still have their mass and inertia. Astronaut must use ten times as much force to accelerate a ten-kilogram object at the same rate as a one-kilogram object.
+
+A common swing, as shown in the picture, can show the relationship of force, mass and acceleration. Someone could push an adult on the swing. The adult would accelerate slowly. They would only swing a short distance forward before the swing would change direction. If a child is sitting on the swing, then the child would swing forward faster and further.

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+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
+
+Luxembourg is a country in Western Europe; its official name is the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (Luxembourgish: Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg, French: Grand-Duché de Luxembourg, German: Großherzogtum Luxemburg). It is a small country in land area. It was one of the first countries in the European Union. It is also a member of the Benelux. The countries next to Luxembourg are Belgium, Germany, and France. In 2015, its population was 569,700, making it one of Europe's most densely populated countries.
+
+Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy lead by a constitutional monarch. Under the constitution of 1868, executive power is in the hands of the Governor and the cabinet, which consists of several other ministers.
+
+Luxembourg is divided into 3 districts, which are further divided into 12 cantons and then 116 communes. Twelve of the communes have city status, of which the city of Luxembourg is the largest.
+
+The districts are

ensimple/2248.html.txt

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+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
+
+Luxembourg is a country in Western Europe; its official name is the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (Luxembourgish: Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg, French: Grand-Duché de Luxembourg, German: Großherzogtum Luxemburg). It is a small country in land area. It was one of the first countries in the European Union. It is also a member of the Benelux. The countries next to Luxembourg are Belgium, Germany, and France. In 2015, its population was 569,700, making it one of Europe's most densely populated countries.
+
+Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy lead by a constitutional monarch. Under the constitution of 1868, executive power is in the hands of the Governor and the cabinet, which consists of several other ministers.
+
+Luxembourg is divided into 3 districts, which are further divided into 12 cantons and then 116 communes. Twelve of the communes have city status, of which the city of Luxembourg is the largest.
+
+The districts are

ensimple/2249.html.txt

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+Great Britain is an island in the northwest part of Europe. It is the biggest island on the continent, located off the northern shore of France (across the English Channel) and to the west of Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark and Norway (across the North Sea).
+
+Great Britain is not the name of a country. The island is part of the sovereign state called the United Kingdom, and contains nearly all of three of its four countries: England, Scotland, and Wales. England is the biggest part of the island and its capital city is London (which is also the capital of the United Kingdom). Scotland is to the north of England, and its capital is Edinburgh. Wales is to the west of England, and its capital is Cardiff. Wales is separated from South West England by the Bristol Channel.
+
+West of Great Britain is a smaller island called Ireland. The island of Ireland contains nearly all of the Republic of Ireland, which is a sovereign state, as well as nearly all of Northern Ireland. No part of Northern Ireland is on the island of Great Britain, but it is all part of the United Kingdom. Many people call the United Kingdom England or Great Britain, and people from other parts of the United Kingdom may not like it when people make this mistake.
+
+Together with many other smaller islands, Ireland and Great Britain form the British Isles. Because most of the island of Ireland is not British, many people find this name inaccurate and even offensive. There is no more accurate term in common use but Great Britain and Ireland is often preferred.
+
+Great Britain is the largest island of the United Kingdom. Politically, Great Britain means England, Scotland, and Wales in combination,[1] but not Northern Ireland. It does include islands such as the Isle of Wight, Anglesey, the Isles of Scilly, the Hebrides, and the island groups of Orkney and Shetland.
+
+It does not include the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands, which are self-governing dependent territories.[1][2]
+
+Great Britain is usually represented using the same flag as the United Kingdom, the union jack. However, the island does not officially have a flag of its own.
+
+The political union that joined the kingdoms of England and Scotland happened in 1707 when the Acts of Union ratified the 1706 Treaty of Union and merged the parliaments of the two nations, forming the Kingdom of Great Britain, which covered the entire island.
+
+Before this, a personal union had existed between these two countries since the 1603 Union of the Crowns under James VI of Scotland and I of England. That union was called the Kingdom of Great Britain.
+
+In 1801, Ireland joined up with Great Britain, which made one country called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Irish Free State left the United Kingdom in 1922.
+
+The national currency of Great Britain is the pound sterling.[3]
+

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+Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) became a General in the War of 1812 and was considered to be a war hero. He became the seventh President of the United States of America. He was the first Democrat[1] and is on the Twenty Dollar Bill. His nickname was "Old Hickory".
+
+As a boy Andrew Jackson was a messenger for the Continental Army. The British caught him and mistreated him.
+
+He was the first U.S. President who was not born into a rich family. He was not a rich man and did not have a college education. He moved to Tennessee and became a politician.
+
+In 1791, he fell in love with Rachel Donelson Robards. They went through a marriage ceremony. However, the marriage was not legal because she had not been granted a divorce from her first husband. Therefore, they married legally three years later. They had no children, but they adopted several. He became rich and owned a large plantation.
+
+In the 1790s Jackson was a member of the United States House of Representatives, the United States Senate, and the Supreme Court of Tennessee. In the 1800s he commanded the Tennessee Militia and fought Indians. During the War of 1812 he became a general and won the Battle of New Orleans which made him very famous. In 1823 he returned to the Senate.
+
+Andrew Jackson reorganized the Democratic Party and was its leader.
+
+In 1828, he defeated John Quincy Adams in the Presidential Election of 1828, he became President on March 4, 1829, and four years later he was re-elected to a second term as President. In 1832 South Carolina declared secession from the United States. Jackson threatened war, and then compromised.
+
+In January 1835, Jackson was almost assassinated when an unemployed painter wanted to shoot him but both his guns jammed.[2] He is the first president to have had an attempted assassination.[2]
+
+During his Presidency, he signed the Indian Removal Act which allowed the U.S. government to violently force the Native Americans to move from their land and go west. Many Native Americans were killed and the path they walked to get to the west was called the Trail of Tears.
+
+Andrew Jackson was against the national bank of the United States because he felt that banks and their banknotes were for rich and powerful people and did not serve the interests of the common man. The national bank expired during Jackson's Presidency. Jackson chose not to continue the bank.
+
+On March 4, 1837, Andrew Jackson finished his second term. After that, Vice-President Martin Van Buren was elected President and continued many of the things Jackson did. Jackson was a big influence on other Democrats during the 1800s.
+
+Jackson's legacy among historians is mixed. Some have liked him because he was against aristocrats, bankers, businessmen, the British Empire, cities, and paper money, and in favor of ordinary country people. Some have disliked him for the same reasons and because he was in favor of war and slavery, and against Indians.

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+Great Britain is an island in the northwest part of Europe. It is the biggest island on the continent, located off the northern shore of France (across the English Channel) and to the west of Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark and Norway (across the North Sea).
+
+Great Britain is not the name of a country. The island is part of the sovereign state called the United Kingdom, and contains nearly all of three of its four countries: England, Scotland, and Wales. England is the biggest part of the island and its capital city is London (which is also the capital of the United Kingdom). Scotland is to the north of England, and its capital is Edinburgh. Wales is to the west of England, and its capital is Cardiff. Wales is separated from South West England by the Bristol Channel.
+
+West of Great Britain is a smaller island called Ireland. The island of Ireland contains nearly all of the Republic of Ireland, which is a sovereign state, as well as nearly all of Northern Ireland. No part of Northern Ireland is on the island of Great Britain, but it is all part of the United Kingdom. Many people call the United Kingdom England or Great Britain, and people from other parts of the United Kingdom may not like it when people make this mistake.
+
+Together with many other smaller islands, Ireland and Great Britain form the British Isles. Because most of the island of Ireland is not British, many people find this name inaccurate and even offensive. There is no more accurate term in common use but Great Britain and Ireland is often preferred.
+
+Great Britain is the largest island of the United Kingdom. Politically, Great Britain means England, Scotland, and Wales in combination,[1] but not Northern Ireland. It does include islands such as the Isle of Wight, Anglesey, the Isles of Scilly, the Hebrides, and the island groups of Orkney and Shetland.
+
+It does not include the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands, which are self-governing dependent territories.[1][2]
+
+Great Britain is usually represented using the same flag as the United Kingdom, the union jack. However, the island does not officially have a flag of its own.
+
+The political union that joined the kingdoms of England and Scotland happened in 1707 when the Acts of Union ratified the 1706 Treaty of Union and merged the parliaments of the two nations, forming the Kingdom of Great Britain, which covered the entire island.
+
+Before this, a personal union had existed between these two countries since the 1603 Union of the Crowns under James VI of Scotland and I of England. That union was called the Kingdom of Great Britain.
+
+In 1801, Ireland joined up with Great Britain, which made one country called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Irish Free State left the United Kingdom in 1922.
+
+The national currency of Great Britain is the pound sterling.[3]
+

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+The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century that continued into the early 17th century, during which European ships traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners.
+
+They were in search of trading goods such as gold, silver and spices. In the process, Europeans met people and mapped lands previously unknown to them. Among the most famous explorers of the period were Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Pedro Álvares Cabral, John Cabot, Yermak, Juan Ponce de León, Juan Sebastian Elcano, Bartholomeu Dias, Ferdinand Magellan, Willem Barentsz, Abel Tasman, Jean Alfonse, Jacques Cartier, Samuel de Champlain, Willem Blaeu and Captain James Cook.
+
+Henry the Navigator started by paying Portuguese sailors to explore the west coast of Africa. In 1419 Joao Goncalves Zarco discovered the Madeira Islands. Later in the 15th century, Vasco da Gama reached the southwestern tip of Africa and established the city of Cape Town, a Portuguese colony. This opened the way to the Indian Ocean. In the next two centuries, the Portuguese created a great trading empire on coasts of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and India. The Portuguese Empire eventually weakened after the Dutch East India Company rose as the major power in Indian Ocean trade.
+
+In a hurry to compete with Portugal for a colonial empire, Spain sent Christopher Columbus to the opposite route of the Portuguese. Instead of going south along the west coast of Africa, Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean. He believed that he came to Asia. Later, some Spanish sailors found out that this land was a different continent than Asia. It is now called the Americas.
+
+In the 16th century, Spanish conquistadores gained the whole of what later became Latin America, except some British and French colonies in northeastern South America, and Brazil, which belonged to Portugal. The Spanish concentrated on conquest, unlike the Portuguese who focused on trading. They eventually developed a vast colonial empire, in contrast to the Portuguese who ruled a few islands and coastal cities along the Indian Ocean. When Spain and Portugal were united under King Philip II of Spain , their combined empire was the largest on earth.
+
+In 1522 the fleet of Ferdinand Magellan returned to Spain. The survivors were the first ever to sail all the way around the world.
+
+In the 17th century, political and religious wars with Britain, France, and the Netherlands weakened the Iberian Peninsula. These three nations emerged as the main winners of the wars and became major powers like Spain and Portugal. In the next two centuries, the world became a battlefield of the three nations. Britain and France held land in North America, in India and other distant places. The Dutch colonized smaller parts of the Americas, took the former Portuguese trading centers around the Indian Ocean, and conquered Indonesia. These three new great powers also had influence all around the world.
+
+Eventually, the result was a series of wars that were fought both in Europe and overseas, with Britain emerging victorious. The British took the former land of French Canada and India in the 18th century. They seized power in the Indian Ocean and defeated the Dutch navy. By 1763, the British Empire had become the second global empire after Spain. However, in 1776, thirteen colonies of British America declared independence. With help from the French, Dutch and Spanish, they defeated Britain in the American Revolution.
+
+In 1778, Captain James Cook of Britain sailed across the South Pacific Ocean looking for a mysterious continent in the Southern Hemisphere. He landed on two large islands. Then he sailed west and found a bigger piece of land. The first, was modern New Zealand; the second was Australia. Captain Cook claimed these lands for Britain. He then explored the Pacific world for another year and died in a fight with the Hawaiians.
+
+Many slaves brought from Africa were brought to the Americas which was claimed to be found by Christopher Columbus himself. In conclusion, the Portuguese were weakened after the Dutch rose in the Indian Ocean trade route. Spain gained almost all of Latin America and a massive amount of silver.
+
+When Christopher Columbus tried to find a new trade route to Asia, he thought that he could travel around the world.  Instead, he had found a New World.  Vikings had briefly visited Vinland around 1000 A.D.

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+
+
+Allied victory
+
+and others...
+
+and others...
+
+further details...
+
+Military deaths by country[5][6]
+
+further details...
+
+Military deaths by country[5]
+
+World War I (WWI or WW1), also called the First World War, began on July 28, 1914 and lasted until November 11, 1918. The war was a global war that lasted exactly 4 years, 3 months and 14 days. Most of the fighting was in Europe, but soldiers from many other countries took part, and it changed the colonial empires of the European powers. Before World War II began in 1939, World War I was called the Great War or the World War. 135 countries took part in World War I, and  nearly 10 million people died while fighting.[7]
+
+Before the war, European countries had formed alliances with each other to protect themselves. However, by doing this they had divided themselves into two groups. When Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated on 28 June 1914, Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and declared war on them. Serbia's ally Russia then declared war on Austria-Hungary. This set off a chain of events in which the two groups of countries declared war on each other. The two sides were the Allied Powers (mainly Russia, France and the British Empire) and the Central Powers (mainly Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire).
+
+There was fighting in many different areas (fronts). The French and British fought the Germans on the Western Front in France and Belgium. Germany had tried to defeat France quickly, but were stopped in the First Battle of the Marne. After that, most of the fighting here was trench warfare. The Russians fought the Germans and Austro-Hungarians on the Eastern Front in Central and Eastern Europe. Fighting here was not trench warfare but mobile warfare. The other main areas of fighting were in the Middle East, in the Gallipoli region of Turkey and between Italy and Austria-Hungary. Fighting also took place in Africa, China, and at sea as well as in the air. World War I was the first major war where tanks, airplanes, and submarines (or U-boats) were important weapons.
+
+In 1917, the Russians had a revolution, which led to them leaving the war in March 1918. Also in 1917, the United States entered the war, though it took a year for their main army to arrive. In the gap between when the Russians left and the Americans arrived, the Germans launched a huge attack in March 1918 to try to win the war, but it was not enough. In August-November 1918, the Allied Powers won a big victory against the Germans in the Hundred Days Offensive. Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire then agreed to stop fighting. The German government collapsed and a new government agreed to end the war on 11 November.
+
+The war was ended by the signing of many different treaties, the most important being the Treaty of Versailles. It also led to the creation of the League of Nations, which was meant to prevent wars. People were shocked by the size of the war, how many people it killed and how much damage it caused. They hoped it would be the war to end all wars. Instead, it led to another, larger world war 21 years later.
+
+By 1914, trouble was on the rise in Europe. Many countries feared invasion from the other. For example, Germany was becoming increasingly powerful, and the British saw this as a threat to the British Empire. The countries formed alliances to protect themselves, but this divided them into two groups. Germany and Austria-Hungary had been allies since 1879. They had then formed the Triple Alliance with Italy in 1882. France and Russia became allies in 1894. They then joined with Britain to form the Triple Entente.
+
+In 1908, Austria-Hungary had taken over Bosnia, a region next to Serbia. Some people living in Bosnia were Serbian, and wanted the area to be part of Serbia. One of these was the Black Hand organization. They sent men to kill Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria when he visited Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. They all failed to kill him with grenades while he passed through a large crowd. But one of them, a Serbian student named Gavrilo Princip, shot him and his pregnant wife with a pistol.
+
+Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the assassination. Germany supported Austria-Hungary and promised full support should it come to war.  Austria-Hungary sent a July Ultimatum to Serbia, listing 10 very strict rules they would have to agree to. Many historians think that Austria-Hungary already wanted a war with Serbia. Serbia agreed to most of the ten rules on the list, but not all of them.  Austria-Hungary then declared war on Serbia.  This quickly led to a full-scale war.[8]  Both countries' allies became involved in the war in a matter of days.
+
+Russia joined the war on Serbia's side because the people of Serbia were Slavic, for example Russia, and the Slavic countries had agreed to help each other if they were attacked. Since Russia is a large country it had to move soldiers closer to the war, but Germany feared that Russia's soldiers would also attack Germany. Russia did not like Germany because of things Germany had done in the past to become stronger. Germany declared war on Russia, and began to carry out a plan created long before to fight a war in Europe. Because Germany is in the middle of Europe, Germany could not attack to the east towards Russia without weakening itself in the west, towards France. Germany's plan involved quickly defeating France in the west before Russia was ready to fight, and then moving her armies to the east to face Russia. Germany could not quickly invade France directly, because France had put a lot of forts on the border, so Germany invaded the neighboring country of Belgium to then invade France through the undefended French/Belgian border. Great Britain then joined the war, saying they wanted to protect Belgium. Some historians think that even if Germany had stayed out of Belgium, the British would have still joined the war to help France.
+
+Soon most of Europe became involved. The Ottoman Empire (now Turkey) joined the war on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary. It is not clear why they entered or chose to fight on their side, but they had become friendly to Germany. Although Italy was allied with German and Austria-Hungary, they had only agreed to fight if those countries were attacked first. Italy said that because Austria-Hungary had attacked Serbia first, they did not need to fight. They also did not like Austria-Hungary. Italy joined the war in 1915 on the Allied Powers' side.
+
+Germany was allied with Austria-Hungary. Russia was allied with Serbia. The German government was afraid that because Austria-Hungary had attacked Serbia, Russia would attack Austria-Hungary to help Serbia. Because of this, Germany felt it had to help Austria-Hungary by attacking Russia first, before it could attack Austria-Hungary.
+
+The problem was that Russia was also friends with France, and the Germans thought the French might attack them to help Russia. So the Germans decided that they could win the war if they attacked France first, and quickly. They could mobilize very quickly. They had a list of all the men who had to join the army, and where those men had to go, and the times of every train that would carry those men to where they would have to fight. France was doing the same thing, but could not do it as quickly. The Germans thought that if they attacked France first, they could 'knock France' out of the war before Russia could attack them.
+
+Russia had a big army, but Germany thought that it would take six weeks to mobilize and a long time before they could attack the Central Powers. That wasn't true, because the Russian Army mobilized in ten days. Also, the Russians drove deep into Austria.
+
+Britain was allied with Belgium, and became quickly involved in the war. Britain had promised to protect Belgian neutrality. Germany passed through Belgium to reach Paris before Russia could mobilize and open up a second front against them. On August 4, 1914, Britain declared war against Germany in support of Belgium. Britain had the biggest empire (it ruled over a quarter of the world). If Germany conquered France, it might take Britain and France's colonies and become the most powerful and biggest empire in the world.
+
+Britain was also worried about Germany's growing military power. Germany was developing its large army into one of the most powerful in the world. The British Army was quite small. The British Royal Navy was the largest and best in the world, and in the 19th century that was enough to keep other naval powers from attacking. Germany was a land power, and Britain was a sea power. But now the Germans were building a large navy. This was seen as a threat to Britain. However, the decision to declare war was taken under its alliance with Belgium in the Treaty of London (1839). The Government might have decided differently. No-one foresaw how long the war would last, and what the terrible costs would be.
+
+The Ottoman Empire (Turkey) went into the war because it was secretly allied to Germany and two Turkish warships manned by German Navy personnel bombarded Russian towns.
+
+Britain also fought against Turkey because the Ottoman Empire was supporting Germany. Britain did not have any animosity towards the Turks.[9] However, by fighting the Turks in the Mesopotamia region (in what is now called Iraq), in the Arabian Peninsula  and other places, Britain was able to defeat them with help from the British Indian Army.[10] Later, after the War ended, Britain was able to get some areas from the old Turkish empire which was breaking up, and to add them to the British Empire.[10]
+
+Greece went into the war because its leader supported the Allied cause. Greece and Serbia had become independent, but many Greeks still lived in lands that were once Greek but were now in the Turkish Ottoman Empire. Having recently won the Balkan Wars, the Greeks especially wanted to control other land to the north that was under Bulgarian and Turkish rule, so they declared war. Turkey killed most of the Greek army as the Greeks tried to regain parts of Turkey. Another war started when the Greeks bombed a train. Turkey swept Greece back into their own territory. From then on the Greeks never again declared war, while Turkey had one of the biggest armies in the world.
+
+Bulgaria, like Greece and Serbia, was owned by Turkey before Bulgaria broke away from Turkey. Bulgaria claimed a lot of Turkish land as belonging to Bulgaria. The Serbians and Greeks felt cheated because they felt the land belonged to Greece or Serbia. The Greeks and Serbians took back the land which angered Bulgaria and led to the country becoming allies with Turkey. They declared war on Serbia and Greece,But Bulgaria lost this war.
+
+The Russian Revolution makes Russia fight Germany and the Bolshevik at the same time. And Russia surrendered to Germany due to the fact that its fighting against the Soviets. It needed to get out of the war, pay Germany lots of German marks.
+
+Most people thought the war would be short. They thought the armies would move around quickly to attack each other and one would defeat the other without too many people getting killed. They thought the war would be about brave soldiers — they did not understand how war had changed. Only a few people, for example Lord Kitchener said that the war would take a long time.
+
+Germany's generals had decided that the best way to defeat France was to go through Belgium using a plan called the Schlieffen Plan. This was invented by the German Army Chief of Staff, Alfred Von Schlieffen. They could then attack the French army at the north side and the south side at the same time. The German Army went into Belgium on August the 4th. On the same day, Great Britain started a war on Germany, because Britain was a friend of Belgium. The British had said some time before, in 1839, that they would not let anyone control Belgium, and they kept their promise.
+
+When the Germans got to the Belgian city of Liège, the Belgians fought very hard to stop them from coming into the city. The Germans did finally push the Belgians out of the city, but it had taken longer than the German generals had planned. Then the Germans attacked the north side of the French army. The French and the British moved men up to fight the Germans. They could do this because the Belgians had fought so long at Liège. But the Germans pushed the French back at the frontiers, and the British held the Germans back at Mons, but afterwards they also fell back to join up with the retreating French army, until they were stopped at the river Marne. This was the First Battle of the Marne or  Miracle of the Marne.
+
+In the East, the Russians had attacked the Germans. The Russians pushed back the Germans, but then the Germans defeated the Russians at the Battle of Tannenberg.
+
+Trench warfare killed great numbers of soldiers.  New weapons, such as machine guns, and long-range artillery had an increased rate of fire that cut down huge numbers of soldiers during mass charges, a tactic leftover from older warfare.  The men on both sides took spades and dug holes, because they did not want to be killed. The holes joined up into trenches, until the lines of trenches went all the way from Switzerland to the North Sea. In front of the trenches, there was barbed wire that cut anyone who tried to climb over it, and land mines that blew up anyone who tried to cross.  Late in the war, poison gas was also an important weapon.
+
+The new machine guns, artillery, trenches and mines made it very difficult to attack. The generals had fought many wars without these, so they ordered their armies to attack in the old style of marching in rows- allowing the enemy to shoot them down easily. At the Battle of the Somme in 1916 60,000 British men died in a single day. It was one of the bloodiest days in the history of the British army. Late in the war the British and French invented tanks and used them to attack entrenched Germans but could not make enough of them to make a big difference. The Germans invented special Sturmabteilung tactics to infiltrate enemy positions, but they also were too little, too late.
+
+The British used whistles to communicate to other soldiers, so before they shelled the German trenches, they would sound the whistle. However, the Germans caught on to this tactic after a while, so after the shelling, when the British soldiers came to finish off the German soldiers, the Germans were ready with their machine guns, because they knew the British were coming.
+
+Airplanes were first used extensively in World War I. Airplanes were not used very much in fighting before World War I. It was the first war to use airplanes as weapons. Airplanes were first used for reconnaissance, to take pictures of enemy land and to direct artillery. Generals, military leaders, were using airplanes as an important part of their attack plans at the end of the war. World War I showed that airplanes could be important war weapons.
+
+Airplanes in World War I were made of wood and canvas, a type of rough cloth. They did not last for  a long time. They could not fly very fast at the beginning of the war. They could only fly up to 116 kilometers per hour, or 72 miles per hour. At the end of the war they could fly up to 222 kilometres per hour (138 miles per hour). But they could not fly as fast as planes today. Guns were put on planes for the first time during the war. Pilots, people who fly the plane, used the guns to shoot enemy planes. One pilot used metal sheets, pieces of metal, to armor his airplane. Other pilots began using metal sheets, too. Pilots also made their airplanes better with machine guns, guns that shoot bullets much faster. Machine guns made fighting harder and more dangerous between airplanes.
+
+Pilots had to wear certain clothes when flying an airplane in World War I because they flew high where the air is cold. The pilot's clothes kept them warm and protected them from the wind and cold. Pilots wore a leather coat to protect their bodies. They wore a padded helmet and goggles, large glasses with special lenses, to protect their head and face. They wore a scarf around their neck. The scarf kept the wind from blowing against their neck when they turned their head.
+
+The German leaders decided to use submarines. These submarines were named U-boats, from the German word Unterseeboot (meaning underwater boat). The U-boats attacked passenger ships such as RMS Lusitania carrying civilians to Great Britain. They did not follow the laws of war, because the British would be able to destroy them if they did. America was selling weapons to Germany's enemies but not to Germany, thus not being neutral. "Neutral" means a country is not involved in the war. Many American and British noncombatants were killed by the submarines.
+
+Germany also wrote a secret telegram note to Mexico in code suggesting that the two countries work together to attack the United States. This note is called the Zimmerman Telegram because Arthur Zimmerman sent it. It offered Mexico land in the southwestern United States that the United States took in previous wars. Spies from the United Kingdom found out about the note and told the United States. American people became angry and many decided that they wanted their country to enter the war against Germany. For these and other reasons, on April 6, 1917 the United States declared war against Germany and became part of the Allies.
+
+The defeat of Russia on the Eastern Front caused unrest inside the Empire.
+
+In 1917, there was a revolution in Russia. The Tsar Nicholas II had to say he would not be Tsar any more, and that the people should have power. At first it was thought that Russia would fight harder now that the Tsar was gone. However, the Russian people did not want to fight anymore, because there was not sufficient food, appropriate armament, or adequate roads to supply its army. The war had been putting burdens on them, and many of them were poor and hungry. They began to hate their new government because it would not stop the war.
+
+Then, there was the October Revolution. Two factions fought to rule over Russia. The Mensheviks lost against the Bolsheviks. The leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) a Communist who followed the ideas of Karl Marx. The new government asked the Germans for peace and signed a peace treaty called Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers in March 1918 at the city of Brest-Litovsk. The Germans and Russians stopped fighting. This gave Germany land in Eastern Europe and the Baltic Sea.
+
+After the war, the Germans had to agree to the Treaty of Versailles. Germany had to pay approximately $31.5 billion[11] in reparations. They also had to take responsibility for the war. Part of the treaty said the countries of the world should come together to make an international organization to stop wars from happening. This organization was called the League of Nations. The United States Senate did not agree with this, even though it was the idea of the US president, Woodrow Wilson. Woodrow Wilson tried to tell the American people that they should agree, but the United States never joined the League of Nations. Problems with the Treaty in Germany would later lead to the World War II.

ensimple/2253.html.txt

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+The Mezquita (Spanish for "mosque") of Cordoba is a Roman Catholic cathedral. It used to be a mosque situated in the Andalusian city of Córdoba, Spain. [1] At first the site had been used for a temple, then a Christian cathedral. Under the rule of Islam, it was built as the second-largest mosque in the world. It is perhaps the most accomplished monument of the Umayyad dynasty of Cordoba. It changed into mosque in Middle Ages. [2]After the Spanish Reconquista, it was changed back into a church, and some of the Islamic columns and arcs were replaced by a basilica in early Baroque style. Today it houses the main church of the diocese of Cordoba in Spain.
+

ensimple/2254.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+The Mezquita (Spanish for "mosque") of Cordoba is a Roman Catholic cathedral. It used to be a mosque situated in the Andalusian city of Córdoba, Spain. [1] At first the site had been used for a temple, then a Christian cathedral. Under the rule of Islam, it was built as the second-largest mosque in the world. It is perhaps the most accomplished monument of the Umayyad dynasty of Cordoba. It changed into mosque in Middle Ages. [2]After the Spanish Reconquista, it was changed back into a church, and some of the Islamic columns and arcs were replaced by a basilica in early Baroque style. Today it houses the main church of the diocese of Cordoba in Spain.
+

ensimple/2255.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+Coordinates: 40°40′37″N 117°13′55″E / 40.67693°N 117.23193°E / 40.67693; 117.23193
+
+The Great Wall of China is an ancient wall in China. The wall is made of cement, rocks, bricks, and powdered dirt. It was finished in 1878[1] and it was meant to protect the north of the empire of China from enemy attacks. It is the longest structure humans have ever built. It is about 21,196 kilometres (13,171 miles) long, 9.1 metres (30 feet) wide and 15 metres (50 feet) high. The earlier sections on the wall are made of compacted dirt and stone. Later in the Ming Dynasty they used bricks. There are 7,000 watch towers, block houses for soldiers and beacons to send smoke signals.
+
+Nineteen walls have been built that were called the Great Wall of China. The first was built in the 7th century BC. The most famous wall was built between 226–200 BC by the first Emperor of Imperial China, Qin Shai Hong, during the Qin Dynasty. Not much of this wall remains as people have been stealing from it. It was much farther north than the current wall. The current wall was built during the Ming Dynasty.[2] (Qin pronounced like Chin).
+
+The First Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, started the Qin Dynasty. The Xiongnu tribes in the north of China were his enemies. The land in some parts of China is easy to cross, so Qin Shi Huang started building the Great Wall to make it more difficult for the Xiongnu to invade China.
+
+Other dynasties in China had worked more on the wall and made it longer. The Han, Sui, Northern and Jin Dynasties all repaired, rebuilt or expanded the Great Wall. During the Ming Dynasty, major rebuilding work took place. Sections of the wall were built with bricks and stone instead of earth.
+
+Builders used materials that were nearby. Some parts of the wall were made of mud, straw, and twigs. Thousands of workers died from giant falling stones, exhaustion, disease, animal attacks, and starvation. The workers who died were buried in and under the Great Wall is a myth.[3]
+
+Rumours about astronauts being able to see the Great Wall from the moon are scientifically not proven.[4] The Great Wall has shown up in radar images taken from space, but scientists are sure it is not possible for astronauts to see the wall with a naked eye.[5] One astronaut who spoke about the visibility of the Great Wall from space was Neil Armstrong. He said that on the moon, it was very clear that the wall was not visible. However, astronaut William Pogue was able to see the wall from a Low Earth Orbit distance (300-530 km height), but only with binoculars and with lots of practice.[6]
+
+Media related to Great Wall of China at Wikimedia Commons
+

ensimple/2256.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+Coordinates: 40°40′37″N 117°13′55″E / 40.67693°N 117.23193°E / 40.67693; 117.23193
+
+The Great Wall of China is an ancient wall in China. The wall is made of cement, rocks, bricks, and powdered dirt. It was finished in 1878[1] and it was meant to protect the north of the empire of China from enemy attacks. It is the longest structure humans have ever built. It is about 21,196 kilometres (13,171 miles) long, 9.1 metres (30 feet) wide and 15 metres (50 feet) high. The earlier sections on the wall are made of compacted dirt and stone. Later in the Ming Dynasty they used bricks. There are 7,000 watch towers, block houses for soldiers and beacons to send smoke signals.
+
+Nineteen walls have been built that were called the Great Wall of China. The first was built in the 7th century BC. The most famous wall was built between 226–200 BC by the first Emperor of Imperial China, Qin Shai Hong, during the Qin Dynasty. Not much of this wall remains as people have been stealing from it. It was much farther north than the current wall. The current wall was built during the Ming Dynasty.[2] (Qin pronounced like Chin).
+
+The First Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, started the Qin Dynasty. The Xiongnu tribes in the north of China were his enemies. The land in some parts of China is easy to cross, so Qin Shi Huang started building the Great Wall to make it more difficult for the Xiongnu to invade China.
+
+Other dynasties in China had worked more on the wall and made it longer. The Han, Sui, Northern and Jin Dynasties all repaired, rebuilt or expanded the Great Wall. During the Ming Dynasty, major rebuilding work took place. Sections of the wall were built with bricks and stone instead of earth.
+
+Builders used materials that were nearby. Some parts of the wall were made of mud, straw, and twigs. Thousands of workers died from giant falling stones, exhaustion, disease, animal attacks, and starvation. The workers who died were buried in and under the Great Wall is a myth.[3]
+
+Rumours about astronauts being able to see the Great Wall from the moon are scientifically not proven.[4] The Great Wall has shown up in radar images taken from space, but scientists are sure it is not possible for astronauts to see the wall with a naked eye.[5] One astronaut who spoke about the visibility of the Great Wall from space was Neil Armstrong. He said that on the moon, it was very clear that the wall was not visible. However, astronaut William Pogue was able to see the wall from a Low Earth Orbit distance (300-530 km height), but only with binoculars and with lots of practice.[6]
+
+Media related to Great Wall of China at Wikimedia Commons
+

ensimple/2257.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+Coordinates: 40°40′37″N 117°13′55″E / 40.67693°N 117.23193°E / 40.67693; 117.23193
+
+The Great Wall of China is an ancient wall in China. The wall is made of cement, rocks, bricks, and powdered dirt. It was finished in 1878[1] and it was meant to protect the north of the empire of China from enemy attacks. It is the longest structure humans have ever built. It is about 21,196 kilometres (13,171 miles) long, 9.1 metres (30 feet) wide and 15 metres (50 feet) high. The earlier sections on the wall are made of compacted dirt and stone. Later in the Ming Dynasty they used bricks. There are 7,000 watch towers, block houses for soldiers and beacons to send smoke signals.
+
+Nineteen walls have been built that were called the Great Wall of China. The first was built in the 7th century BC. The most famous wall was built between 226–200 BC by the first Emperor of Imperial China, Qin Shai Hong, during the Qin Dynasty. Not much of this wall remains as people have been stealing from it. It was much farther north than the current wall. The current wall was built during the Ming Dynasty.[2] (Qin pronounced like Chin).
+
+The First Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, started the Qin Dynasty. The Xiongnu tribes in the north of China were his enemies. The land in some parts of China is easy to cross, so Qin Shi Huang started building the Great Wall to make it more difficult for the Xiongnu to invade China.
+
+Other dynasties in China had worked more on the wall and made it longer. The Han, Sui, Northern and Jin Dynasties all repaired, rebuilt or expanded the Great Wall. During the Ming Dynasty, major rebuilding work took place. Sections of the wall were built with bricks and stone instead of earth.
+
+Builders used materials that were nearby. Some parts of the wall were made of mud, straw, and twigs. Thousands of workers died from giant falling stones, exhaustion, disease, animal attacks, and starvation. The workers who died were buried in and under the Great Wall is a myth.[3]
+
+Rumours about astronauts being able to see the Great Wall from the moon are scientifically not proven.[4] The Great Wall has shown up in radar images taken from space, but scientists are sure it is not possible for astronauts to see the wall with a naked eye.[5] One astronaut who spoke about the visibility of the Great Wall from space was Neil Armstrong. He said that on the moon, it was very clear that the wall was not visible. However, astronaut William Pogue was able to see the wall from a Low Earth Orbit distance (300-530 km height), but only with binoculars and with lots of practice.[6]
+
+Media related to Great Wall of China at Wikimedia Commons
+

ensimple/2258.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+Coordinates: 40°40′37″N 117°13′55″E / 40.67693°N 117.23193°E / 40.67693; 117.23193
+
+The Great Wall of China is an ancient wall in China. The wall is made of cement, rocks, bricks, and powdered dirt. It was finished in 1878[1] and it was meant to protect the north of the empire of China from enemy attacks. It is the longest structure humans have ever built. It is about 21,196 kilometres (13,171 miles) long, 9.1 metres (30 feet) wide and 15 metres (50 feet) high. The earlier sections on the wall are made of compacted dirt and stone. Later in the Ming Dynasty they used bricks. There are 7,000 watch towers, block houses for soldiers and beacons to send smoke signals.
+
+Nineteen walls have been built that were called the Great Wall of China. The first was built in the 7th century BC. The most famous wall was built between 226–200 BC by the first Emperor of Imperial China, Qin Shai Hong, during the Qin Dynasty. Not much of this wall remains as people have been stealing from it. It was much farther north than the current wall. The current wall was built during the Ming Dynasty.[2] (Qin pronounced like Chin).
+
+The First Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, started the Qin Dynasty. The Xiongnu tribes in the north of China were his enemies. The land in some parts of China is easy to cross, so Qin Shi Huang started building the Great Wall to make it more difficult for the Xiongnu to invade China.
+
+Other dynasties in China had worked more on the wall and made it longer. The Han, Sui, Northern and Jin Dynasties all repaired, rebuilt or expanded the Great Wall. During the Ming Dynasty, major rebuilding work took place. Sections of the wall were built with bricks and stone instead of earth.
+
+Builders used materials that were nearby. Some parts of the wall were made of mud, straw, and twigs. Thousands of workers died from giant falling stones, exhaustion, disease, animal attacks, and starvation. The workers who died were buried in and under the Great Wall is a myth.[3]
+
+Rumours about astronauts being able to see the Great Wall from the moon are scientifically not proven.[4] The Great Wall has shown up in radar images taken from space, but scientists are sure it is not possible for astronauts to see the wall with a naked eye.[5] One astronaut who spoke about the visibility of the Great Wall from space was Neil Armstrong. He said that on the moon, it was very clear that the wall was not visible. However, astronaut William Pogue was able to see the wall from a Low Earth Orbit distance (300-530 km height), but only with binoculars and with lots of practice.[6]
+
+Media related to Great Wall of China at Wikimedia Commons
+

ensimple/2259.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+The Great Pyramid of Giza is a huge pyramid built by the Ancient Egyptians. It stands near Cairo, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain mostly intact. When it was built it was 146.5 metres (481 feet) tall. It was the tallest building in the world for over 3,800 years.  Erosion and other causes have shrunk it to 138.8 m. The pyramid was probably built for Khufu, an Egyptian pharaoh. It was perhaps built by Khufu's vizier, Hemiunu.[1] It is believed that it took about 20 years to build, and was completed around 2570 BC.
+
+When it was built, 
+Great Pyramid was covered by white stones that formed a smooth outer surface. Some of these stones  can still be seen around the base. Most of what can be seen of the pyramid now is its basic core of 2,300,000 blocks of limestone and granite. There have been many different theories to explain how the pyramid was built. Most accepted building ideas are based on the idea of moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.  Archaeologists found that the Pyramids of Giza were not built by slaves, but workers who were paid for working. Their graves were found near the pyramid in 1990.[2]
+
+There are three known rooms, or chambers, inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the rock on which the pyramid was built. This chamber was not finished. The other two chambers are higher up inside the pyramid. They are called the Queen's Chamber and the King's Chamber, but these are modern labels as we do not know how the Egyptians were going to use them.[3] The Great Pyramid has two passages, one leading up, and the other down. It is the only Egyptian pyramid to have the two passages.
+
+The Great Pyramid is part of a group of buildings, called the Giza Necropolis. This includes two mortuary temples in honour of Khufu. One is close to the pyramid and one near the Nile. There are three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives. Other buildings include an even smaller "satellite" pyramid, and a raised causeway which joins the two temples. There are other tombs, called mastaba, probably for other important people.
+

ensimple/226.html.txt

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+Andrew Johnson (December 29, 1808 – July 31, 1875) was the 16th Vice-President and 17th President of the United States and the first impeached president.
+
+Johnson was born in Raleigh, North Carolina in 1808. He was apprenticed as a tailor.[2]
+
+Before becoming Vice-President, he was a Governor and U.S. Senator from Tennessee. When Tennessee and ten other Southern slave states declared they were no longer part of the United States, he was the only member from such a state to not quit his seat in the U.S. Congress. A southern Democrat, he was elected as Abraham Lincoln's vice-president on a "National Union" ticket in 1864.
+
+He became president in 1865 after Abraham Lincoln was killed.  Congress was then run by Republicans, and after Lincoln's assassination, they wanted stricter terms than Johnson did for the Reconstruction of the Southern states that had rebelled. As a result, he vetoed 29 bills passed by Congress, and is the president to have the most vetoes overridden (15) by Congress.
+
+He was also the first President to be impeached, but was later acquitted by one vote,[3] and finished the rest of his term. The only U.S. president never to have gone to school, he was later taught to read by his wife, Eliza McCardle Johnson.  The U.S. purchased Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million (the price was 2 cents per acre) while he was president.

ensimple/2260.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+The Great Pyramid of Giza is a huge pyramid built by the Ancient Egyptians. It stands near Cairo, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain mostly intact. When it was built it was 146.5 metres (481 feet) tall. It was the tallest building in the world for over 3,800 years.  Erosion and other causes have shrunk it to 138.8 m. The pyramid was probably built for Khufu, an Egyptian pharaoh. It was perhaps built by Khufu's vizier, Hemiunu.[1] It is believed that it took about 20 years to build, and was completed around 2570 BC.
+
+When it was built, 
+Great Pyramid was covered by white stones that formed a smooth outer surface. Some of these stones  can still be seen around the base. Most of what can be seen of the pyramid now is its basic core of 2,300,000 blocks of limestone and granite. There have been many different theories to explain how the pyramid was built. Most accepted building ideas are based on the idea of moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.  Archaeologists found that the Pyramids of Giza were not built by slaves, but workers who were paid for working. Their graves were found near the pyramid in 1990.[2]
+
+There are three known rooms, or chambers, inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the rock on which the pyramid was built. This chamber was not finished. The other two chambers are higher up inside the pyramid. They are called the Queen's Chamber and the King's Chamber, but these are modern labels as we do not know how the Egyptians were going to use them.[3] The Great Pyramid has two passages, one leading up, and the other down. It is the only Egyptian pyramid to have the two passages.
+
+The Great Pyramid is part of a group of buildings, called the Giza Necropolis. This includes two mortuary temples in honour of Khufu. One is close to the pyramid and one near the Nile. There are three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives. Other buildings include an even smaller "satellite" pyramid, and a raised causeway which joins the two temples. There are other tombs, called mastaba, probably for other important people.
+

ensimple/2261.html.txt

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+The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century that continued into the early 17th century, during which European ships traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners.
+
+They were in search of trading goods such as gold, silver and spices. In the process, Europeans met people and mapped lands previously unknown to them. Among the most famous explorers of the period were Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Pedro Álvares Cabral, John Cabot, Yermak, Juan Ponce de León, Juan Sebastian Elcano, Bartholomeu Dias, Ferdinand Magellan, Willem Barentsz, Abel Tasman, Jean Alfonse, Jacques Cartier, Samuel de Champlain, Willem Blaeu and Captain James Cook.
+
+Henry the Navigator started by paying Portuguese sailors to explore the west coast of Africa. In 1419 Joao Goncalves Zarco discovered the Madeira Islands. Later in the 15th century, Vasco da Gama reached the southwestern tip of Africa and established the city of Cape Town, a Portuguese colony. This opened the way to the Indian Ocean. In the next two centuries, the Portuguese created a great trading empire on coasts of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and India. The Portuguese Empire eventually weakened after the Dutch East India Company rose as the major power in Indian Ocean trade.
+
+In a hurry to compete with Portugal for a colonial empire, Spain sent Christopher Columbus to the opposite route of the Portuguese. Instead of going south along the west coast of Africa, Columbus sailed across the Atlantic Ocean. He believed that he came to Asia. Later, some Spanish sailors found out that this land was a different continent than Asia. It is now called the Americas.
+
+In the 16th century, Spanish conquistadores gained the whole of what later became Latin America, except some British and French colonies in northeastern South America, and Brazil, which belonged to Portugal. The Spanish concentrated on conquest, unlike the Portuguese who focused on trading. They eventually developed a vast colonial empire, in contrast to the Portuguese who ruled a few islands and coastal cities along the Indian Ocean. When Spain and Portugal were united under King Philip II of Spain , their combined empire was the largest on earth.
+
+In 1522 the fleet of Ferdinand Magellan returned to Spain. The survivors were the first ever to sail all the way around the world.
+
+In the 17th century, political and religious wars with Britain, France, and the Netherlands weakened the Iberian Peninsula. These three nations emerged as the main winners of the wars and became major powers like Spain and Portugal. In the next two centuries, the world became a battlefield of the three nations. Britain and France held land in North America, in India and other distant places. The Dutch colonized smaller parts of the Americas, took the former Portuguese trading centers around the Indian Ocean, and conquered Indonesia. These three new great powers also had influence all around the world.
+
+Eventually, the result was a series of wars that were fought both in Europe and overseas, with Britain emerging victorious. The British took the former land of French Canada and India in the 18th century. They seized power in the Indian Ocean and defeated the Dutch navy. By 1763, the British Empire had become the second global empire after Spain. However, in 1776, thirteen colonies of British America declared independence. With help from the French, Dutch and Spanish, they defeated Britain in the American Revolution.
+
+In 1778, Captain James Cook of Britain sailed across the South Pacific Ocean looking for a mysterious continent in the Southern Hemisphere. He landed on two large islands. Then he sailed west and found a bigger piece of land. The first, was modern New Zealand; the second was Australia. Captain Cook claimed these lands for Britain. He then explored the Pacific world for another year and died in a fight with the Hawaiians.
+
+Many slaves brought from Africa were brought to the Americas which was claimed to be found by Christopher Columbus himself. In conclusion, the Portuguese were weakened after the Dutch rose in the Indian Ocean trade route. Spain gained almost all of Latin America and a massive amount of silver.
+
+When Christopher Columbus tried to find a new trade route to Asia, he thought that he could travel around the world.  Instead, he had found a New World.  Vikings had briefly visited Vinland around 1000 A.D.

ensimple/2262.html.txt

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+London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, and is the largest urban area in Greater London. The River Thames travels through the city.
+
+London is the biggest city in western Europe, and the world's largest financial centre.[6][7][8]
+
+London is about 2000 years old.  London was founded by the Romans.  It was called Londinium by the Romans. London was also called Lunnainn in Scottish Gaelic,[9] Llundain in Welsh and Londain in Irish.
+
+For a long time, London was a small city. All its people lived inside the walls that were built by the Romans. This area is still called the City of London. There were many villages around the city. Gradually, more people came to live there. Then, step by step, the villages joined together into one huge city.
+
+London is one of the world's most important cities for business, finance  and politics. It is also important for culture, media, entertainment, fashion and art.
+
+The population of London is 8.63 million.[10] Most people in London are British. However, London also has many immigrants. These people come from many different countries. They speak many different languages and have different religions and cultures. There are also many people from different countries who stay in London on business. Many people visit London as tourists. They may see the famous "Sights of London". These sights include palaces, churches and museums.
+
+The Romans built the city of Londinium along the River Thames in the year AD 43  The name Londinium (and later 'London') came from the Celtic language of the Ancient Britons. In the year AD 61, the city was attacked and destroyed. Then the Romans rebuilt the city, and London became an important trading hub.
+
+After the decline of the Roman Empire, few people remained in London. This was partly because the Anglo-Saxon people of Sub-Roman Britain were primarily agricultural. Once the Romans had gone, trade with Continental Europe dwindled. In the 9th century, more people started living in London again. It became the largest city in England. However, it did not become the capital city of England until the 12th century.
+
+After the railways were built, London grew very big. Greater London has 33 London Boroughs (neighbourhoods) and a mayor. The old City of London is only a square mile in size but has its own Lord Mayor.
+
+Another famous old part of Greater London is Westminster, which was always a different city from the City of London. In Westminster is Westminster Abbey (a cathedral), The Palace of Westminster (the Houses of Parliament, with Big Ben), and 10 Downing Street (where the Prime Minister lives).
+
+London has an oceanic, or temperate climate. It is not usually very hot or cold. It is often cloudy.
+
+London has many celebrations, festivals and events.[15]
+
+London has five major business districts: the City, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark.
+
+The London Stock Exchange is the most international stock exchange and the largest in Europe.
+
+London's largest industry is finance.  This includes banks, stock exchanges, investment companies and insurance companies  The Bank of England is located in London and is the second oldest bank in the world.
+
+London has many professional services such as law firms, accountants,
+
+The British Broadcasting Company (BBC) which has many radio and TV stations is in London.
+
+Tourism is one of London's biggest industries. London is the most visited city in the world by international tourists with 18.8 million international visitors per year. Within the UK, London is home to the ten most-visited tourist attractions. Tourism employed about 350,000 full-time workers in London in 2003.  Tourists spend about £15 billion per year.
+
+A growing number of technology companies are based in London.
+
+London is a major retail centre, and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around £64.2 billion. The UK's fashion industry, centred on London, contributes tens of billions to the economy.
+
+For the 19th and much of the 20th centuries London was a major manufacturing centre (see Manufacturing in London), with over 1.5 million industrial workers in 1960. Many products were made in London including ships, electronics and cars.  Nowadays, most of these manufacturing companies are closed but some drug companies still make medicine in London.
+
+London has twin and sister city agreements with these cities:
+
+London also has a "partnership" agreement with Tokyo, Japan.
+
+The city has a huge network of transport systems including trains, metros (underground) and five main airports.
+
+The Victorians built many train systems in the mid-19th century (1850s). Their main stations are in London, and the lines go to every part of Great Britain. There were originally five major companies but the five companies became a national rail network in modern times.
+
+There are five airports, though only one is actually in London (London City Airport). There is the London end of the London–Birmingham canal, which was important to the industrial 19th century.  The most used airport is Heathrow International Airport  although it is actually outside the city.
+
+The metro or London Underground is a system of electric trains which are in London, United Kingdom. It is the oldest underground railway in the world. It started running in 1863 as the Metropolitan Railway. After the opening the system was copied in many other cities, for example New York and Madrid. Even though it is called the Underground about half of it is above the ground. The "Tube" is a slang name for the London Underground, because the tunnels for some of the lines are round tubes running through the ground. The Underground has got 274 stations and over 408 km of track. From 2006–2007 over 1 billion passengers used the underground.
+
+London Boroughs: 
+Barking and Dagenham • 
+Barnet • 
+Bexley • 
+Brent • 
+Bromley • 
+Camden • 
+Croydon • 
+Ealing • 
+Enfield • 
+Greenwich • 
+Hackney • 
+Hammersmith and Fulham • 
+Haringey • 
+Harrow • 
+Havering • 
+Hillingdon • 
+Hounslow • 
+Islington • 
+Kensington and Chelsea • 
+Kingston • 
+Lambeth • 
+Lewisham • 
+Merton • 
+Newham • 
+Redbridge • 
+Richmond • 
+Southwark • 
+Sutton • 
+Tower Hamlets • 
+Waltham Forest • 
+Wandsworth • 
+Westminster
+Sui generis:
+City of London 
+(Exclaves:
+Inner Temple • 
+Middle Temple)
+
+Amsterdam, Netherlands ·
+Athens, Greece ·
+Berlin, Germany ·
+Bratislava, Slovakia ·
+Brussels, Belgium ·
+Bucharest, Romania ·
+Budapest, Hungary ·
+Copenhagen, Denmark ·
+Dublin, Republic of Ireland ·
+Helsinki, Finland ·
+Lisbon, Portugal ·
+Ljubljana, Slovenia ·
+Luxembourg City, Luxembourg ·
+Madrid, Spain ·
+Nicosia, Cyprus1 ·
+Paris, France ·
+Prague, Czech Republic ·
+Riga, Latvia ·
+Rome, Italy ·
+Sofia, Bulgaria ·
+Stockholm, Sweden ·
+Tallinn, Estonia ·
+Valletta, Malta ·
+Vienna, Austria ·
+Vilnius, Lithuania ·
+Warsaw, Poland ·
+Zagreb, Croatia
+
+Andorra la Vella, Andorra ·
+Ankara, Turkey1 ·
+Belgrade, Serbia ·
+Bern, Switzerland ·
+Chişinău, Moldova ·
+Kyiv, Ukraine ·
+London, United Kingdom ·
+Minsk, Belarus ·
+Monaco-Ville, Monaco ·
+Moscow, Russia1 ·
+Oslo, Norway ·
+Podgorica, Montenegro ·
+Reykjavík, Iceland ·
+San Marino, San Marino ·
+Sarajevo, Bosnia Herzegovina ·
+Skopje, Republic of Macedonia ·
+Tbilisi, Georgia1 ·
+Tirana, Albania ·
+

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+
+
+The giant panda, Ailuropoda melanoleuca, is a bear.[1][2] It lives in south central China.[3]
+
+Although it belongs to the order Carnivora, the panda's diet is 99% bamboo.[4] Pandas in the wild occasionally eat other grasses, wild tubers, or even meat in the form of birds, rodents or carrion. In captivity, they may get honey, eggs, fish, yams, shrub leaves, oranges, or bananas along with specially prepared food.[5][6]
+
+The giant panda lives in a few mountain ranges in central China, mainly in Sichuan province, but also in the Shaanxi and Gansu provinces.[7]
+As a result of farming, deforestation and other development, the panda has been driven out of the lowland areas where it once lived.
+
+Giant pandas are bears. They have black and white fur. The black fur is on their ears, around their eyes, on their legs, and on their shoulders.[8]
+
+Giant pandas are about the size of an American black bear. They are about 3 feet (91 cm) tall at the shoulder when they are standing on all four legs. They are about 6 ft (180 cm) long. Males weigh up to 251 pounds (114 kg) in the wild. Females usually weigh less than 220 pounds (100 kg).[8]
+
+Wild giant pandas have lived in the mountains of central China. They live in forests of tall trees. They eat the bamboo that grows under the trees.  The weather is rainy and misty in these mountain forests. There are thick clouds almost all the time.[8]
+
+Bamboo is the main diet of panda . Ninety-nine percent of the food they eat is bamboo. They eat as much as 40 pounds (18 kg) of bamboo every day. They spend 10 to 16 hours every day looking for food and eating it.[8]
+
+Bamboo is a grass. Sometimes giant pandas eat other grasses. They also eat little rodents or musk deer babies (fawns).[3] In zoos, giant pandas eat bamboo, sugar cane, vegetables, and fruit.[8]
+
+Giant pandas get a lot of water from the bamboo they eat. They need more water though. They drink from the fresh water streams and rivers in the mountain. Melting snow high in the mountains runs into these streams and rivers.[8]
+
+There are two kinds of giant panda. They both live in China. The best known is the black and white panda. Its scientific name is Ailuropoda melanoleuca melanoleuca.
+
+The other giant panda has dark brown and light brown fur. Its skull is smaller than the other giant panda. It has larger molars. This panda lives only in the Qinling Mountains. Its scientific name is Ailuropoda melanoleuca qinlingensis.[9]
+
+Giant pandas are ready to have babies (cubs) when they are between the ages of four and eight years. They may be able to have babies until about age 20. Female pandas are ready to have a baby only once a year. This is in the springtime. There are only two to three days she is ready for a baby. Calls and scents bring the males and female pandas to each other.
+
+Female pandas may give birth to two young. Usually only one lives. Giant panda cubs may stay with their mothers for up to three years. Then they leave her for a life of their own.
+
+Today, the giant panda is a symbol for China.[10][11] It is protected by the Chinese government. Killing a giant panda is a crime.[12] The giant panda may become extinct. It will die out if the forests of bamboo continue to disappear.[13]
+
+People outside of eastern Asia did not know about the giant panda until 1869. The first "Westerner" to see a live panda was a German zoologist in 1916. In 1936, Ruth Harkness became the first Westerner to bring a live giant panda out of China. It was a cub (baby panda) named Su-Lin. The cub was taken to live at the Brookfield Zoo in Chicago.[14]
+
+In the 1970s, China began showing giant pandas in zoos in the United States and Japan as a type of diplomacy. This happened until 1984, when China changed how this was done. Starting in 1984, China would allow zoos to keep the giant pandas for 10 years, but the zoo would have to pay China up to $1,000,000 each year. Also, the zoo would have to agree that any cubs born would belong to China.[15]
+
+17 cities outside China have zoos with giant pandas.
+
+The Adelaide Zoo in Adelaide, Australia received two giant pandas in 2009.[25]
+
+The giant panda is an endangered species. It may become extinct. In 2013, it was estimated that there were less than 2,500 mature giant pandas living in the wild. Illegal hunting is no longer a problem. Hunting for pandas is a crime. The penalties are harsh if you hunt pandas.[3]
+
+The greatest threat to survival is the loss of living areas. People are ruining the areas where pandas live. They are cutting down trees. They are building farms. Groups of pandas are forced to live in small areas. They are isolated. They cannot mix other panda groups.[3]
+
+Giant pandas eat bamboo. Sometimes the bamboo dies off. At one time, pandas could move to an area where bamboo was still growing. Moving has become more and more difficult. People are living and working in panda areas. Pandas cannot move about as freely as they once did.[3]
+
+China set up the first giant panda nature reserve in 1963. Other nature reserves were also set up. There were 40 giant panda reserves in 2006.
+

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+
+
+The great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) is a species of shark.  They are world's largest living predatory fish. Mature sharks may grow up to 6.4 m (21 ft) in length and 3,324 kg (7,328 lb) in weight.[1][2][3][4] There also have been a few reports of great white sharks measuring over 8 m (26 ft).[5]  This shark reaches its sexual maturity around 15 years of age. The lifespan of great white shark may be as long as 70 years or more.[6] Great white sharks can accelerate to speeds over 56 km/h (35 mph).[7]
+
+Great white sharks have about 300 teeth, arranged in many rows.[8] The first two rows of the teeth are used for grabbing and cutting the animals they eat, while the other teeth in the last rows replace the front teeth when they are broken, worn down, or when they fall out. The teeth have the shape of a triangle with jags on the edges. Great white sharks are carnivores. Great white sharks are apex predators. They eat fish, seals, sea lions, seagulls, penguins, squid, octopuses, dolphins, small whales, crabs, shrimps, stingrays, sea turtles and other sharks.
+
+The great white shark has no natural predators other than the killer whale.[9] Some orcas have discovered they can paralyse the shark by flipping it upside-down. Then they hold the shark still with their mouth, and that suffocates it (sharks get oxygen by moving through the water).[10]
+
+The bestselling novel Jaws by Peter Benchley and the film by Steven Spielberg show the great white shark as a "ferocious human eater". In real life, humans are not the preferred food of the great white shark.[11] However, of all shark species, the great white shark has the second largest number of fatal unprovoked attacks on humans.[12]
+
+The great white shark is a shark. The great white shark is a shark and a type of cartilaginous fish belonging to a biological class known as Chondrichthyes.  These fish are jawed vertebrates with paired fins, paired nares, scales, a heart with its chambers in series, and a skeleton made of cartilage not bone.[13]  These sharks are also known as Lamniformes, which is an order of sharks commonly referred to as Mackerel Sharks.  This species of shark possess two dorsal fins, an anal fin, five gill slits and a mouth extended behind the eyes.[14]
+
+The great white shark is one of nature’s most deadly carnivores, and is distinguishable by their jaws and many sharp teeth.  The difference is the ability for both the shark’s jaws to move when ambushing their prey.  They will first bite with the lower jaw to sink its teeth in, then close the upper jaw and begin thrashing their heads repeatedly to tear off chunks of flesh [6].  They may contain as many as 3, 000 teeth at one time, sitting in five rows with the largest set in the front.  In the event a tooth is lost, another comes forward from a stash of backup teeth embedded in the shark’s jaws.[15]
+
+In addition to the teeth and jaws of great white sharks, their senses have greatly adapted to sharpen their skills as hunters.  Their sense of smell is most accurate and great whites can detect a single drop of blood in ten billion drops of water.  They possess an “ear stone” which helps the animal position itself in the water depending on the direction it is swimming.[16]  Sharks also utilize excellent vision with retinas divided into two areas for daylight and nighttime swimming, and protect them by rolling them backwards into the skull before biting.  One of their most interesting senses relates to their touch and electro-reception.  A series of pores in the shark’s nose allow them to detect electromagnetic fields and sense animal vibrations in the water, as well as accurately navigate through the open ocean.[16]
+
+The great white becomes an adult about nine years after its birth. The growth of the great white shark is about 25-30 centimetres per year and they grow to an average size of 4.5 meters. The largest can be as much as 6.4 meters in length. Their liver, a delicacy to killer whales, can weigh up to about 24 percent of its own body weight.[17]
+
+Great white sharks live in the sea. They live near the coast, in all warm waters. They occasionally make dives into the deep water of open oceans. They can be in water as shallow as three feet deep. The deepest scientists have seen a shark dive is about 1200 meters (4000 feet).  That is down into the bathypelagic zone, where there is no sunlight.[18]
+
+They may swim near:
+
+Research has shown that the sharks of northern California are genetically different to other shark populations. DNA evidence shows the population separated from other great whites about 200,000 years ago (during the Pleistocene Era). By tagging the sharks they also learned that they are generally alone, but follow the same route through the ocean, and stay in the same places. From January to July they live near Hawaii, and then move to Californian waters between August and December.[19]
+
+Sharks have been on Earth much longer than humans, which is one reason why humans are not part of their diet.[20] Most scientists think sharks do not like the way humans taste.[21]
+
+Some people think that humans are not good food for great white sharks, because the human body has a lot more bone and less muscle and fat than the shark likes.[22] Some scientists think sharks attack humans because they have mistaken the human for a seal or sea lion.  Seals and sea lions have blubber, which the shark likes.  Other scientists think sharks' senses are good enough to tell that the human is not a seal.  They think sharks do not know what the human is and bite it to learn more.[22]
+
+Usually, the shark bites the human once and then swims away for a while.  Sometimes the shark will bite off a leg or arm, but usually the bite is just a bite.  Sometimes there is no tissue loss at all (nothing bitten off).[22] Deaths in such cases are generally caused by loss of blood from the first wound. In cases where attacks have occurred and the victim has been unable to escape quickly, partial or whole consumption has occurred; lone divers are especially at risk of this.  Scientists are not sure why this is but they have some ideas.
+
+Sharks are very curious but they do not have whiskers or hands or tentacles like other animals.  To learn more about an object, a shark has to either bump into it or bite it.  Sharks' teeth and mouths are very sensitive.[22]  When sharks see a new object, for example, a surfboard, they bite it to know what kind of object it might be.[23]
+
+It is also possible that human behavior and shark behavior just don't match.  In the 1980s, John McCasker proposed the Bite and Spit hypothesis.  McCasker said that a shark will attack dangerous prey like an elephant seal by biting it once and then letting go.  The shark then swims away to wait for the prey to bleed to death before going back to eat its body.  But when a shark bites a human once, the human's friends come and help them out of the water.  Maybe the shark would finish eating the human, but it does not get the chance.  But sharks usually attack seal-sized (or human-sized) prey in one strong bite from underneath, so people are not sure if McCasker's idea is right.[22]
+
+Facts Status Description Range Habitat Biology Threats Conservation Find out more Glossary References View all
+
+Wildlife Journal Junior. (2020).Chondrichthyes - Rays, Sharks, Skates, Chimaeras. Explore the Natural World. Available from: https://nhpbs.org/wild/chondrichthyes.asp.

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+The Western Schism was a split between factions of the Roman Catholic Church between 1378 and 1417.[1]
+
+During this period, more than one claimed to be the true pope.[1]
+
+The reasons for the split were mostly political, rather than theological. The Council of Constance (1414–1418) ended the schism when they elected Martin V as the new pope.
+
+"Western Schism" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
+
+Peter Linus Anacletus (Cletus) Clement I Evaristus Alexander I Sixtus I Telesphorus Hyginus Pius I Anicetus Soter Eleuterus Victor I Zephyrinus Callixtus I Urban I Pontian Anterus Fabian Cornelius Lucius I Stephen I Sixtus II Dionysius Felix I Eutychian Caius Marcellinus Marcellus I Eusebius Miltiades Sylvester I Mark
+
+Julius I Liberius Damasus I Siricius Anastasius I Innocent I Zosimus Boniface I Celestine I Sixtus IIILeo I Hilarius Simplicius Felix III Gelasius I Anastasius II Symmachus Hormisdas  John I Felix IV Boniface II John II Agapetus I Silverius Vigilius Pelagius IJohn III Benedict I Pelagius II Gregory I Sabinian Boniface III Boniface IV Adeodatus I
+
+Boniface V Honorius I Severinus John IV Theodore I Martin I Eugene IVitalian Adeodatus II Donus Agatho Leo II Benedict II John V Conon Sergius I John VI John VII Sisinnius Constantine Gregory II Gregory IIIZachary Stephen II Paul I Stephen III Adrian I Leo III Stephen IV Paschal I Eugene II Valentine Gregory IV
+
+Sergius II Leo IV Benedict III Nicholas I Adrian II John VIII Marinus I Adrian III Stephen V Formosus Boniface VI Stephen VI Romanus Theodore II John IX Benedict IV Leo V Sergius III Anastasius III Lando John X Leo VI Stephen VII John XI Leo VII Stephen VIII Marinus II Agapetus II John XII Benedict V Leo VIII John XIII Benedict VI
+
+Benedict VII John XIV John XV Gregory V Sylvester II John XVII John XVIII Sergius IV  Benedict VIII John XIX Benedict IXa Sylvester III Benedict IXa Gregory VI Clement II Benedict IXa Damasus II Leo IX Victor II Stephen IX Nicholas II Alexander II Gregory VII Victor III Urban II Paschal II Gelasius II Callixtus II Honorius II Innocent II Celestine II Lucius II Eugene III
+
+Anastasius IV Adrian IV Alexander III Lucius III Urban III Gregory VIII Clement III Celestine III Innocent III Honorius III Gregory IX Celestine IV Innocent IV Alexander IV Urban IV Clement IV Gregory X Innocent V Adrian V John XXIb Nicholas III Martin IV Honorius IV Nicholas IV Celestine V Boniface VIII Benedict XIb Clement V John XXII Benedict XII Clement VI Innocent VI Urban V
+
+Gregory XI Urban VI Boniface IX Innocent VII Gregory XII Martin V Eugene IV Nicholas V Callixtus III Pius II Paul II Sixtus IV Innocent VIII Alexander VI Pius III Julius II Leo X Adrian VI Clement VII Paul III Julius III Marcellus II Paul IV Pius IV Pius V Gregory XIII Sixtus V Urban VII Gregory XIV Innocent IX Clement VIII Leo XI Paul V
+
+Gregory XV Urban VIII Innocent X Alexander VII Clement IX Clement X Innocent XI Alexander VIII Innocent XII Clement XI Innocent XIII Benedict XIII Clement XII Benedict XIV Clement XIII Clement XIV Pius VI Pius VII Leo XII Pius VIII Gregory XVI Pius IX Leo XIII Pius X Benedict XV Pius XI Pius XII John XXIII Paul VI John Paul I John Paul IIBenedict XVIFrancis

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+The Western Schism was a split between factions of the Roman Catholic Church between 1378 and 1417.[1]
+
+During this period, more than one claimed to be the true pope.[1]
+
+The reasons for the split were mostly political, rather than theological. The Council of Constance (1414–1418) ended the schism when they elected Martin V as the new pope.
+
+"Western Schism" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
+
+Peter Linus Anacletus (Cletus) Clement I Evaristus Alexander I Sixtus I Telesphorus Hyginus Pius I Anicetus Soter Eleuterus Victor I Zephyrinus Callixtus I Urban I Pontian Anterus Fabian Cornelius Lucius I Stephen I Sixtus II Dionysius Felix I Eutychian Caius Marcellinus Marcellus I Eusebius Miltiades Sylvester I Mark
+
+Julius I Liberius Damasus I Siricius Anastasius I Innocent I Zosimus Boniface I Celestine I Sixtus IIILeo I Hilarius Simplicius Felix III Gelasius I Anastasius II Symmachus Hormisdas  John I Felix IV Boniface II John II Agapetus I Silverius Vigilius Pelagius IJohn III Benedict I Pelagius II Gregory I Sabinian Boniface III Boniface IV Adeodatus I
+
+Boniface V Honorius I Severinus John IV Theodore I Martin I Eugene IVitalian Adeodatus II Donus Agatho Leo II Benedict II John V Conon Sergius I John VI John VII Sisinnius Constantine Gregory II Gregory IIIZachary Stephen II Paul I Stephen III Adrian I Leo III Stephen IV Paschal I Eugene II Valentine Gregory IV
+
+Sergius II Leo IV Benedict III Nicholas I Adrian II John VIII Marinus I Adrian III Stephen V Formosus Boniface VI Stephen VI Romanus Theodore II John IX Benedict IV Leo V Sergius III Anastasius III Lando John X Leo VI Stephen VII John XI Leo VII Stephen VIII Marinus II Agapetus II John XII Benedict V Leo VIII John XIII Benedict VI
+
+Benedict VII John XIV John XV Gregory V Sylvester II John XVII John XVIII Sergius IV  Benedict VIII John XIX Benedict IXa Sylvester III Benedict IXa Gregory VI Clement II Benedict IXa Damasus II Leo IX Victor II Stephen IX Nicholas II Alexander II Gregory VII Victor III Urban II Paschal II Gelasius II Callixtus II Honorius II Innocent II Celestine II Lucius II Eugene III
+
+Anastasius IV Adrian IV Alexander III Lucius III Urban III Gregory VIII Clement III Celestine III Innocent III Honorius III Gregory IX Celestine IV Innocent IV Alexander IV Urban IV Clement IV Gregory X Innocent V Adrian V John XXIb Nicholas III Martin IV Honorius IV Nicholas IV Celestine V Boniface VIII Benedict XIb Clement V John XXII Benedict XII Clement VI Innocent VI Urban V
+
+Gregory XI Urban VI Boniface IX Innocent VII Gregory XII Martin V Eugene IV Nicholas V Callixtus III Pius II Paul II Sixtus IV Innocent VIII Alexander VI Pius III Julius II Leo X Adrian VI Clement VII Paul III Julius III Marcellus II Paul IV Pius IV Pius V Gregory XIII Sixtus V Urban VII Gregory XIV Innocent IX Clement VIII Leo XI Paul V
+
+Gregory XV Urban VIII Innocent X Alexander VII Clement IX Clement X Innocent XI Alexander VIII Innocent XII Clement XI Innocent XIII Benedict XIII Clement XII Benedict XIV Clement XIII Clement XIV Pius VI Pius VII Leo XII Pius VIII Gregory XVI Pius IX Leo XIII Pius X Benedict XV Pius XI Pius XII John XXIII Paul VI John Paul I John Paul IIBenedict XVIFrancis

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+
+
+Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite) · Assyrian
+
+Jehovah's Witness · Latter Day Saint · Unitarian · Christadelphian · Oneness Pentecostal
+
+The East-West Schism (sometimes also called Great Schism) describes how Christianity developed into two big branches in the Middle Ages. The Western part later became the Roman Catholic Church. The Eastern part is known as the Eastern Orthodox Church. During the centuries views on politics and theology developed differently in several ways. It is distinct from the earlier schism that separated Oriental Orthodoxy from the church that split in half later.
+
+During the 5th and 6th Centuries the East and West became isolated from each other due to the invasions of the Balkan peninsula.  They also had different languages. Latin was the most important language in the West. The East mainly spoke the Greek language. Because of this, talking to each other was difficult. The West came under Frankish influence (as opposed to Byzantine) in the 700s.
+
+These were just some of the issues plaguing the Eastern and Western Christians that led to the Great Schism. It seems that even after 1054 relations between the east and west were not completely unfriendly, and the common peasant was probably not immediately affected by the schism.
+
+To understand the meaning of East-West Schism, it is useful to understand the meaning of schism. In very simple words, when differences arise among one group of persons or organizations and they divide themselves into two or more groups, this is schism.
+
+The term East-West Schism describes the division which happened in Christianity. The Christian church became divided into two major groups: Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Most people accept that it happened in 1054. However, this separation was the result of differences that had begun many years before. One difference was the "filioque clause" in the Nicene Creed. This stated that the Holy Spirit came from the Father and the Son, although the original creed declared that It came from just the Father. One major reason for the division concerned the authority of the pope. The Eastern Orthodox group was of the opinion that the pope's authority over them was only honorary, and the pope had real authority only over the western Christians.
+
+However instances of open division on doctrinal questions as well as daily matters had occurred long before the Great Schism of 1054. Leading up to the schism, Pope Leo IX (1002-1054) sent forth a party led by Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida to talk through the obvious problems between the papacy and Constantinople. Michael Cerularius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, rejected the claims put forward by the papal committee. Those from the western side of the church accused Constantinople of having altered the Nicene Creed, and those from the eastern side accused the western church of altering the creed. This in turn led to Cardinal Humbert putting forward a Bull of Excommunication against Michael Cerularius on the altar of the Hagia Sophia, and the Great Schism became official.
+
+The Roman Catholic Church changed the Nicene creed. It inserted a passage that is known as the Filioque. The Creed in its original form reads
+
+In the West, the Creed was changed to read
+
+Some people said that the Holy Spirit was a creature. The filioque became a question of theological controversy since it was added to the Creed without an ecumenical council's approval.
+
+There were many bishops in the church, and in the East the Pope was considered the "first among equals", but Rome claimed that the Pope was the primary Apostolic see, being that of Peter. At first the Eastern Orthodox did not mind the Pope's claim for power over the West - as long as his power stayed in the West. But it came to pass that the Pope decided he also had power over Eastern Christendom as well and he tried to enforce his power on the eastern Patriarchates.  A letter written in 865 by Pope Nicholas claims the Pope's power extends "over all the earth, that is, over every church".  Pope Nicholas also went beyond his powers as stated in Canon 111 of the Council of Sardica (343) when he overturned a verdict and ordered a retrial on a matter concerning Photius and St. Ignatius, two Patriarchs of Constantinople. This was as a result of petitions to Rome by backers of Ignatius.  However, it should be noted that not all the Popes after Nicholas were as extreme - that is, until Pope Leo IX.  When, in 1053 Cerularius attempted friendly relations with Pope Leo IX after a disagreement, a bull (religious legal document) of excommunication (expulsion from the Church) was brought to Constantinople. Each Church excommunicated the other.
+
+Catholic: Roman Catholic · Eastern Catholic · Independent Catholic · Old Catholic
+Protestant: Lutheran · Reformed · Anabaptist · Baptist · Anglican · Methodist · Evangelical · Holiness · Pentecostal
+Eastern: Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox · Assyrian

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+The Great Lakes are five large lakes in east-central North America. They hold 21% of the world's surface fresh water.[1]
+
+The lakes are:
+
+Four of the Great Lakes are on the border between Canada and the United States of America. The other, Lake Michigan, is completely inside the United States.
+
+All together, by volume, they are the largest group of fresh water lakes in the world. No one of the Lakes is larger than Lake Baikal (Russia) or Lake Tanganyika (East Africa).[2][3]
+
+The cities of Chicago, Illinois (9.8 million people, on Lake Michigan), Toronto, Ontario (5.5 million, on Lake Ontario); Detroit, Michigan (5.3 million, on the Detroit river); Montreal, Quebec (3.9 million, on the St. Lawrence River), Cleveland, Ohio (2.9 million, on Lake Erie), Buffalo, and Ottawa (1.2 million, Ontario, on the Ottawa River) are on the shores of the Great Lakes or their rivers.
+
+Though the five lakes have separate basins, they form a single, connected body of freshwater. The lakes connect the east-central interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. Lakes Michigan, Huron and Erie are approximately equally high and ships can easily pass from one to the next. Water flows from Lake Superior and Lake Michigan into Lake Huron; then through the Detroit River into Lake Erie; then through Niagara Falls into Lake Ontario; and then through the Saint Lawrence River to the Atlantic Ocean. Water also drains from the Chicago River on the south.[Note 1]
+
+Many rivers flow through a large watershed into the lakes. The lakes have about 35,000 islands. The Great Lakes region includes the five lakes and many thousands of smaller lakes, often called inland lakes.
+
+
+
+Lake Michigan and Lake Huron hit all-time record low levels in 2013.[6]
+
+The unusual shape of the Great Lakes has created the possibility of large waves called seiche. If a storm causes a fast, strong increase in air pressure on one side of a lake, the water level on that side of the lake will drop and suddenly push up the water level on the opposite side of the lake.  A 10 foot tall wave in Chicago caused several deaths in 1954.[7]
+
+The Great Lakes are home to a variety of species of fish and other organisms. In recent years, overfishing caused a decline in lake trout. The drop in lake trout increased the alewife population. In response, the government introduced salmon as a predator to decrease the alewife population. This program was so successful that the salmon population rose rapidly, and the states surrounding Lake Michigan promoted 'salmon snagging'. This has been made illegal in all of the Great Lakes states except for a limited season in Illinois. Lake Michigan is now being stocked with several species of fish. However, several invader species such as lampreys, round goby, and zebra mussels threaten the native fish populations.
+
+Accidentally introduced species are a big problem. Since the 19th century about 160 species have invaded the Great Lakes ecosystem, causing severe economic and ecological impacts.[8] According to the Inland Seas Education Association, they deprive fish of food, cause blooms of toxic algae, and foul boats, spawning areas and drinking water intakes. On average a new invasive species enters the Great Lakes every eight months.[8]
+
+Two important infestations in the Great Lakes are the zebra mussel,  first discovered in 1988, and the quagga mussel in 1989.[source?] These molluscs are efficient filter feeders. They compete with native mussels, and also reduce available food and spawning grounds for fish.
+
+Also, the mussels hurt utility and manufacturing industries by clogging or blocking pipes. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that the economic impact of the zebra mussel will be about $5 billion over the next decade.[9] Because the quagga mussel is good at filtering plankton from the lake water, sunlight reaches deeper into the lake. This increases the growth of algae.[10]
+
+Chemicals from industrial plants run off the land into rivers and arrive in the lakes. Some of these chemicals are highly toxic, such as mercury. Contaminated water from sewer overflows also reaches the lakes, and beaches get closed because of the threat of pathogenic bacteria.[8]

ensimple/2269.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+The Great Lakes are five large lakes in east-central North America. They hold 21% of the world's surface fresh water.[1]
+
+The lakes are:
+
+Four of the Great Lakes are on the border between Canada and the United States of America. The other, Lake Michigan, is completely inside the United States.
+
+All together, by volume, they are the largest group of fresh water lakes in the world. No one of the Lakes is larger than Lake Baikal (Russia) or Lake Tanganyika (East Africa).[2][3]
+
+The cities of Chicago, Illinois (9.8 million people, on Lake Michigan), Toronto, Ontario (5.5 million, on Lake Ontario); Detroit, Michigan (5.3 million, on the Detroit river); Montreal, Quebec (3.9 million, on the St. Lawrence River), Cleveland, Ohio (2.9 million, on Lake Erie), Buffalo, and Ottawa (1.2 million, Ontario, on the Ottawa River) are on the shores of the Great Lakes or their rivers.
+
+Though the five lakes have separate basins, they form a single, connected body of freshwater. The lakes connect the east-central interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. Lakes Michigan, Huron and Erie are approximately equally high and ships can easily pass from one to the next. Water flows from Lake Superior and Lake Michigan into Lake Huron; then through the Detroit River into Lake Erie; then through Niagara Falls into Lake Ontario; and then through the Saint Lawrence River to the Atlantic Ocean. Water also drains from the Chicago River on the south.[Note 1]
+
+Many rivers flow through a large watershed into the lakes. The lakes have about 35,000 islands. The Great Lakes region includes the five lakes and many thousands of smaller lakes, often called inland lakes.
+
+
+
+Lake Michigan and Lake Huron hit all-time record low levels in 2013.[6]
+
+The unusual shape of the Great Lakes has created the possibility of large waves called seiche. If a storm causes a fast, strong increase in air pressure on one side of a lake, the water level on that side of the lake will drop and suddenly push up the water level on the opposite side of the lake.  A 10 foot tall wave in Chicago caused several deaths in 1954.[7]
+
+The Great Lakes are home to a variety of species of fish and other organisms. In recent years, overfishing caused a decline in lake trout. The drop in lake trout increased the alewife population. In response, the government introduced salmon as a predator to decrease the alewife population. This program was so successful that the salmon population rose rapidly, and the states surrounding Lake Michigan promoted 'salmon snagging'. This has been made illegal in all of the Great Lakes states except for a limited season in Illinois. Lake Michigan is now being stocked with several species of fish. However, several invader species such as lampreys, round goby, and zebra mussels threaten the native fish populations.
+
+Accidentally introduced species are a big problem. Since the 19th century about 160 species have invaded the Great Lakes ecosystem, causing severe economic and ecological impacts.[8] According to the Inland Seas Education Association, they deprive fish of food, cause blooms of toxic algae, and foul boats, spawning areas and drinking water intakes. On average a new invasive species enters the Great Lakes every eight months.[8]
+
+Two important infestations in the Great Lakes are the zebra mussel,  first discovered in 1988, and the quagga mussel in 1989.[source?] These molluscs are efficient filter feeders. They compete with native mussels, and also reduce available food and spawning grounds for fish.
+
+Also, the mussels hurt utility and manufacturing industries by clogging or blocking pipes. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that the economic impact of the zebra mussel will be about $5 billion over the next decade.[9] Because the quagga mussel is good at filtering plankton from the lake water, sunlight reaches deeper into the lake. This increases the growth of algae.[10]
+
+Chemicals from industrial plants run off the land into rivers and arrive in the lakes. Some of these chemicals are highly toxic, such as mercury. Contaminated water from sewer overflows also reaches the lakes, and beaches get closed because of the threat of pathogenic bacteria.[8]

ensimple/227.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+Andrology is the study of male health, especially male sexual organs and reproduction. 
+It is similar to the study of women's health, called gynaecology. Andrology has only been studied since the late 1960s. The first specialist journal on the subject was the German periodical Andrologie, published from 1969 onwards.[1]
+
+Men are more susceptible to heart disease than women. They also usually have a slightly shorter natural average life span. However, men get many conditions, such as osteoporosis, less than women.
+

ensimple/2270.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+The Great Lakes are five large lakes in east-central North America. They hold 21% of the world's surface fresh water.[1]
+
+The lakes are:
+
+Four of the Great Lakes are on the border between Canada and the United States of America. The other, Lake Michigan, is completely inside the United States.
+
+All together, by volume, they are the largest group of fresh water lakes in the world. No one of the Lakes is larger than Lake Baikal (Russia) or Lake Tanganyika (East Africa).[2][3]
+
+The cities of Chicago, Illinois (9.8 million people, on Lake Michigan), Toronto, Ontario (5.5 million, on Lake Ontario); Detroit, Michigan (5.3 million, on the Detroit river); Montreal, Quebec (3.9 million, on the St. Lawrence River), Cleveland, Ohio (2.9 million, on Lake Erie), Buffalo, and Ottawa (1.2 million, Ontario, on the Ottawa River) are on the shores of the Great Lakes or their rivers.
+
+Though the five lakes have separate basins, they form a single, connected body of freshwater. The lakes connect the east-central interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. Lakes Michigan, Huron and Erie are approximately equally high and ships can easily pass from one to the next. Water flows from Lake Superior and Lake Michigan into Lake Huron; then through the Detroit River into Lake Erie; then through Niagara Falls into Lake Ontario; and then through the Saint Lawrence River to the Atlantic Ocean. Water also drains from the Chicago River on the south.[Note 1]
+
+Many rivers flow through a large watershed into the lakes. The lakes have about 35,000 islands. The Great Lakes region includes the five lakes and many thousands of smaller lakes, often called inland lakes.
+
+
+
+Lake Michigan and Lake Huron hit all-time record low levels in 2013.[6]
+
+The unusual shape of the Great Lakes has created the possibility of large waves called seiche. If a storm causes a fast, strong increase in air pressure on one side of a lake, the water level on that side of the lake will drop and suddenly push up the water level on the opposite side of the lake.  A 10 foot tall wave in Chicago caused several deaths in 1954.[7]
+
+The Great Lakes are home to a variety of species of fish and other organisms. In recent years, overfishing caused a decline in lake trout. The drop in lake trout increased the alewife population. In response, the government introduced salmon as a predator to decrease the alewife population. This program was so successful that the salmon population rose rapidly, and the states surrounding Lake Michigan promoted 'salmon snagging'. This has been made illegal in all of the Great Lakes states except for a limited season in Illinois. Lake Michigan is now being stocked with several species of fish. However, several invader species such as lampreys, round goby, and zebra mussels threaten the native fish populations.
+
+Accidentally introduced species are a big problem. Since the 19th century about 160 species have invaded the Great Lakes ecosystem, causing severe economic and ecological impacts.[8] According to the Inland Seas Education Association, they deprive fish of food, cause blooms of toxic algae, and foul boats, spawning areas and drinking water intakes. On average a new invasive species enters the Great Lakes every eight months.[8]
+
+Two important infestations in the Great Lakes are the zebra mussel,  first discovered in 1988, and the quagga mussel in 1989.[source?] These molluscs are efficient filter feeders. They compete with native mussels, and also reduce available food and spawning grounds for fish.
+
+Also, the mussels hurt utility and manufacturing industries by clogging or blocking pipes. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that the economic impact of the zebra mussel will be about $5 billion over the next decade.[9] Because the quagga mussel is good at filtering plankton from the lake water, sunlight reaches deeper into the lake. This increases the growth of algae.[10]
+
+Chemicals from industrial plants run off the land into rivers and arrive in the lakes. Some of these chemicals are highly toxic, such as mercury. Contaminated water from sewer overflows also reaches the lakes, and beaches get closed because of the threat of pathogenic bacteria.[8]

ensimple/2271.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+A skyscraper is a very tall high-rise building, usually more than 152 metres (500 feet) in height.  Most skyscrapers are built in urban areas such as cities, and they are very common in the central business district (also called downtown) areas of many large cities including New York City, Chicago, London, Paris, Sydney, Beijing, Berlin, Toronto, Moscow, Hong Kong and Tokyo.
+
+Originally, the word skyscraper meant a tall sail on a sailing ship. Over time, the word's meaning has changed, and today it means a tall building. Until the nineteenth century, buildings taller than six stories tall were not common. Tall buildings made of weak materials would fall down. In addition, people did not like walking up many steps and running water could only be brought up to fifty feet (15m) high.
+
+Better technology helped make skyscrapers more common. Stronger building materials such as steel and reinforced concrete were developed, so stronger buildings could be made. Water pumps brought water up to heights above fifty feet.
+
+The first building to be considered a skyscraper, the Home Insurance Building, was built in Chicago, Illinois in the United States, and was designed by William LeBaron Jenney. The building, ten stories high, was built from 1884 to 1885. It was destroyed in 1931 because they wanted to build another building in its previous place.
+
+In the same year the Home Insurance Building was destroyed, one of the oldest and most famous skyscrapers, the Empire State Building, opened in New York City. Later in the 20th century, people started building skyscrapers in cities that did not have many tall buildings in the past. In 1973, the then-called Sears Tower in Chicago was finished and became the world's tallest building until the late 1990s. It took the record from the World Trade Center in New York City, which opened in 1970 but was destroyed in the September 11, 2001 attacks.
+
+Many taller buildings have been built since then, including Taipei 101 in Taipei. This building was the world's tallest from 2004 until 2008, when the Burj Khalifa in Dubai opened. Burj Khalifa is at this time the tallest building and man-made structure ever made, but the Jeddah Tower in Jeddah, which is still being built, will be even taller.

ensimple/2272.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+A skyscraper is a very tall high-rise building, usually more than 152 metres (500 feet) in height.  Most skyscrapers are built in urban areas such as cities, and they are very common in the central business district (also called downtown) areas of many large cities including New York City, Chicago, London, Paris, Sydney, Beijing, Berlin, Toronto, Moscow, Hong Kong and Tokyo.
+
+Originally, the word skyscraper meant a tall sail on a sailing ship. Over time, the word's meaning has changed, and today it means a tall building. Until the nineteenth century, buildings taller than six stories tall were not common. Tall buildings made of weak materials would fall down. In addition, people did not like walking up many steps and running water could only be brought up to fifty feet (15m) high.
+
+Better technology helped make skyscrapers more common. Stronger building materials such as steel and reinforced concrete were developed, so stronger buildings could be made. Water pumps brought water up to heights above fifty feet.
+
+The first building to be considered a skyscraper, the Home Insurance Building, was built in Chicago, Illinois in the United States, and was designed by William LeBaron Jenney. The building, ten stories high, was built from 1884 to 1885. It was destroyed in 1931 because they wanted to build another building in its previous place.
+
+In the same year the Home Insurance Building was destroyed, one of the oldest and most famous skyscrapers, the Empire State Building, opened in New York City. Later in the 20th century, people started building skyscrapers in cities that did not have many tall buildings in the past. In 1973, the then-called Sears Tower in Chicago was finished and became the world's tallest building until the late 1990s. It took the record from the World Trade Center in New York City, which opened in 1970 but was destroyed in the September 11, 2001 attacks.
+
+Many taller buildings have been built since then, including Taipei 101 in Taipei. This building was the world's tallest from 2004 until 2008, when the Burj Khalifa in Dubai opened. Burj Khalifa is at this time the tallest building and man-made structure ever made, but the Jeddah Tower in Jeddah, which is still being built, will be even taller.

ensimple/2273.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+Engraving is putting a design onto a hard, flat surface, by carving into it. The result may be a decorative piece in itself, as when silver, gold or steel are engraved, or may provide a printing plate of copper or another metal, for printing images on paper which are also called engravings. Engraving was an important method in history of making images on paper, both in artistic ways, such as making a decorative print, and also for printing books and magazines. It has long been replaced by photography in its commercial uses and, is nowadays much less common in printmaking, where it has been almost completely replaced by etching and other techniques.
+
+Engravers use a steel tool called a burin to cut the picture or pattern into the surface, mostly a copper plate.[1] Gravers come in a variety of shapes and sizes that give different line types when used. The burin gives us a line that is unique because of its steady appearance and smooth edges. The angle tint tool has a slightly curved tip that is commonly used in printmaking. Florentine liners are flat-bottomed tools with multiple lines on them, used to do work on larger areas. Flat gravers are used for doing work on letters, as well as most musical instrument engraving work. Round gravers are commonly used on silver as well as other hard-to-cut metals such as nickel and steel.
+
+In ancient history, the only engraving that could be made were the shallow grooves found in some jewellery after 1000 B.C.
+
+In the European Middle Ages goldsmiths used engraving to decorate metal. It is thought that they began to print impressions of their designs to record them. From this grew the engraving of copper printing plates to make artistic images on paper in Germany in the 1430s. The first and greatest period of engraving was from about 1470 to 1530, with such masters as Martin Schongauer, Albrecht Dürer, and Lucas van Leiden.
+
+Thereafter engraving tended to lose popularity to etching, which was a much easier technique for an artist to learn. By the nineteenth century, most engraving was for commercial picture-making.
+
+Before the invention of photography, engraving was used to reproduce other forms of art, for example paintings. Engravings continued to be common in newspapers and many books into the early 20th century, because they were cheap to use in printing.
+
+When two sets of parallel line hatchings crossed each other for higher density, the pattern was known as cross-hatching. Claude Mellan is well known for his technique of using lines of different thicknesses. One example is his Sudarium of Saint Veronica, an engraving of the face of Jesus from a single spiralling line that starts at the tip Jesus's nose (pictured).
+
+Because of the high level of detail that can be done by a master engraver, faking engraved designs is almost impossible, and modern banknotes are almost always engraved, as are plates for printing money, checks, bonds and other papers that should not be faked. Engraving is so fine that a normal printer can not make the detail of hand engraved images properly. In the U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing, more than one engraver will work on the same printing plate, making it nearly impossible for any person to duplicate all the engraving on almost any banknote or document.
+
+Many classic postage stamps were engraved, although the practice is now mostly confined to particular countries, or used when a more "elegant" design is desired and a limited amount of different colours is acceptable.
+
+Engraving machines such as the K500 or K6 by Hell Gravure Systems use a diamond "pen" to cut cells. Each cell creates one printing dot later in the process. A K6 can have up to 18 engraving heads each cutting 8,000 cells per second to an accuracy of 0.1 µm and below. They are of course fully computer controlled and the whole process of cylinder making is fully automatic.
+
+The engraving process with diamonds is state of the art since the 1960s.
+
+Now, laser engraving machines are being made and even today the mechanical cutting has proven its strength in economical terms and quality. More than 4,000 engravers make about 8 million printing cylinders worldwide per year.
+
+The earliest allusion to engraving in the Bible may be the reference to Judah’s seal ring. (Genesis 38:18), followed by (Exodus 39.30). Engraving was commonly done with pointed tools of iron or even with diamond points. (Jeremiah 17:1).
+
+Each of the two onyx stones on the shoulder pieces of the high priest’s ephod was engraved with the names of six different tribes of Israel, and each of the 12 precious stones that adorned his breastpiece was engraved with the name of one of the tribes. The holy sign of dedication, the shining gold plate on the high priest’s turban, was engraved with the words: “Holiness belongs to Jehovah.” Bezalel, along with Oholiab, was qualified to do this specialized engraving work as well as to train others.—Ex 35:30-35; 28:9-12; 39:6-14, 30.

ensimple/2274.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+A rock is a naturally occurring solid. It is made of minerals (which are crystalline), or other mineral-like substances. The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock. That means the Earth's crust is made of rock. The different minerals in the rocks make different kinds of rock.
+
+Rock is often covered by soil or water. It is beneath the oceans, lakes, and rivers of the earth, and under the polar icecaps. Petrology is the scientific study of rocks.
+
+Rocks are classified by their minerals and chemical make-up. The processes that formed them are also noted. Rocks may be igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Rock types may change in a so-called 'rock cycle'.
+
+Igneous rocks are formed when molten magma cools, either above or below the surface. They are divided into two main categories: plutonic rock and volcanic rock. Plutonic or intrusive rocks are made when magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the Earth's crust (example granite). Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface either as lava or ejecta (examples pumice and basalt).[1]
+
+Sedimentary rocks are the most common rocks on Earth. They form at or near the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rock is formed in layers which were laid down one by one on top of another. Some of the layers are thin, some are thick. Layers are made by deposition of sediment, organic matter, and chemical precipitates.
+
+Deposition is followed by squeezing of sediment under its own weight, and cementation. This process is called 'consolidation': it turns the sediment into a more or less hard substance.
+
+The approximate amounts of different kinds of sedimentary rock are:
+
+Only sedimentary rocks have fossils.
+
+Metamorphic rocks are formed by rocks coming under great pressure and high temperatures. These temperatures and pressures are found under mountains and volcanoes, especially when continental plates move together. These conditions change the make-up of the original minerals.[1]
+
+Rocks have had an impact on human life. They have been used by humans for over two million years. The mining of rocks for their metals has been one of the most important things in human advancement. Rocks are mined for building materials of all kinds.

ensimple/2275.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+Gravity, or gravitation is one of the fundamental forces of the universe.  In this article, we discuss it in three parts:
+
+Some physicists think gravity is caused by gravitons, but they are still unsure.
+
+In everyday talk, we say things fall because the Earth's gravity pulls on them. We talk as if our weight was a "given". Actually, weight changes when the pull of gravity changes. The Moon is much smaller and the pull of gravity on the Moon is about 1/6th that of Earth. So any object on the Moon weighs 1/6th of its weight on Earth. What does not change is the amount of matter in an object. That is called conservation of mass. On Earth, mass and weight are the same for most purposes, though a sensitive gravimeter can detect the difference. The difference can be very different on another world such as the Moon.
+
+From this we learn two things.
+
+The Earth has mass. Every particle of matter has mass. So the Earth pulls on every object and person, and they pull on the Earth. This pulling force is called "gravity" and it gives weight.
+
+These words mean almost the same thing in everyday use. Sometimes scientists use "gravity" for the force that pulls objects towards each other, and "gravitation" for the theory about the attraction.
+
+According to one of his students, Galileo did a famous experiment about gravity where he dropped balls from the Tower of Pisa. He later rolled balls down inclines. With these experiments, Galileo showed that gravitation accelerates all objects at the same rate regardless of weight.
+
+Johannes Kepler studied the motion of planets. In 1609 and 1616 he published his three laws governing the shape of their orbits and their speed along those orbits, but did not discover why they moved that way.
+
+In 1687, English mathematician Isaac Newton wrote the Principia. In this book, he wrote about the inverse-square law of gravitation. Newton, following an idea that had long been discussed by others, said that the closer two objects are to each other, the more gravity will affect them.
+
+Newton's laws were used later to predict the existence of the planet Neptune based on changes in the orbit of Uranus, and again to predict the existence of another planet closer to the Sun than Mercury. When this was done, it was learned that his theory was not entirely correct. These mistakes in his theory were corrected by Albert Einstein's theory of General Relativity. Newton's theory is still commonly used for many things because it is simpler and is accurate enough for many uses.
+
+Why does the Earth not fall into the Sun? The answer is simple but very important. It is because the Earth moving round the Sun is in a dynamic equilibrium. The speed of the Earth's movement creates a centrifugal force which balances the gravitational force between the Sun and the Earth. Why does the Earth continue spinning? Because there is no force to stop it.
+
+Newton's first law: "If a body is at rest it remains at rest or if it is in motion it moves at the same speed until it is acted on by an external force".[1]
+
+There is a kind of analogy between centrifugal force and gravitational force, which led to the "equivalence principle" of general relativity.[2][3]
+
+In free fall an object's motion balances out the pull of gravity on it. This includes being in orbit.
+
+The special theory of relativity describes systems where gravity is not an issue;  by contrast, gravity is the central issue of the general theory of relativity.[4]
+
+In general relativity there is no gravitational force deflecting objects from their natural, straight paths. Instead, gravity is seen as changes in the properties of space and time. In turn, this changes the straightest-possible paths that objects will naturally follow.[5] The curvature is, in turn, caused by the energy–momentum of matter. Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve.[6]
+
+For weak gravitational fields and slow speeds relative to the speed of light, the theory's predictions converge on those of Newton's law of universal gravitation.[7] Newton's equations are used to plan journeys in our Solar System.
+
+General relativity has a number of physical consequences.
+
+Gravity influences the passage of time. Light sent down into a gravity well is blueshifted, whereas light sent in the opposite direction (i.e., climbing out of the gravity well) is redshifted; collectively, these two effects are known as the gravitational frequency shift.
+
+More generally, processes close to a massive body run more slowly when compared with processes taking place farther away; this effect is known as gravitational time dilation.[8][9]
+
+General relativity predicts that the path of light is bent in a gravitational field; light passing a massive body is deflected towards that body. This effect has been confirmed by observing the light of stars or distant quasars being deflected as it passes the Sun.[10]
+
+Closely related to light deflection is the gravitational time delay (or Shapiro delay), the phenomenon that light signals take longer to move through a gravitational field than they would in the absence of that field. There have been numerous successful tests of this prediction.[11][12]
+
+A parameter called γ encodes the influence of gravity on the geometry of space.[13]
+
+Gravitational waves are ripples in the curvature of spacetime. They move as a wave, travelling outward from the source. Einstein predicted them in 1915 on the basis of his theory of general relativity.[14] In theory, gravitational waves transport energy as gravitational radiation. Sources of detectable gravitational waves might include binary star systems composed of white dwarfs, neutron stars, or black holes. In general relativity, gravitational waves cannot travel faster than the speed of light.
+
+The 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for measurements of the Hulse-Taylor binary star system. These measurements suggested gravitational waves are more than mathematical peculiarities.
+
+On February 11, 2016, the LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration teams announced that they had made the first observation of gravitational waves, originating from a pair of merging black holes using the Advanced LIGO detectors. On June 15, 2016, a second detection of gravitational waves from coalescing black holes was announced. Besides LIGO, many other gravitational-wave observatories (detectors) are under construction.

ensimple/2276.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+Gravity, or gravitation is one of the fundamental forces of the universe.  In this article, we discuss it in three parts:
+
+Some physicists think gravity is caused by gravitons, but they are still unsure.
+
+In everyday talk, we say things fall because the Earth's gravity pulls on them. We talk as if our weight was a "given". Actually, weight changes when the pull of gravity changes. The Moon is much smaller and the pull of gravity on the Moon is about 1/6th that of Earth. So any object on the Moon weighs 1/6th of its weight on Earth. What does not change is the amount of matter in an object. That is called conservation of mass. On Earth, mass and weight are the same for most purposes, though a sensitive gravimeter can detect the difference. The difference can be very different on another world such as the Moon.
+
+From this we learn two things.
+
+The Earth has mass. Every particle of matter has mass. So the Earth pulls on every object and person, and they pull on the Earth. This pulling force is called "gravity" and it gives weight.
+
+These words mean almost the same thing in everyday use. Sometimes scientists use "gravity" for the force that pulls objects towards each other, and "gravitation" for the theory about the attraction.
+
+According to one of his students, Galileo did a famous experiment about gravity where he dropped balls from the Tower of Pisa. He later rolled balls down inclines. With these experiments, Galileo showed that gravitation accelerates all objects at the same rate regardless of weight.
+
+Johannes Kepler studied the motion of planets. In 1609 and 1616 he published his three laws governing the shape of their orbits and their speed along those orbits, but did not discover why they moved that way.
+
+In 1687, English mathematician Isaac Newton wrote the Principia. In this book, he wrote about the inverse-square law of gravitation. Newton, following an idea that had long been discussed by others, said that the closer two objects are to each other, the more gravity will affect them.
+
+Newton's laws were used later to predict the existence of the planet Neptune based on changes in the orbit of Uranus, and again to predict the existence of another planet closer to the Sun than Mercury. When this was done, it was learned that his theory was not entirely correct. These mistakes in his theory were corrected by Albert Einstein's theory of General Relativity. Newton's theory is still commonly used for many things because it is simpler and is accurate enough for many uses.
+
+Why does the Earth not fall into the Sun? The answer is simple but very important. It is because the Earth moving round the Sun is in a dynamic equilibrium. The speed of the Earth's movement creates a centrifugal force which balances the gravitational force between the Sun and the Earth. Why does the Earth continue spinning? Because there is no force to stop it.
+
+Newton's first law: "If a body is at rest it remains at rest or if it is in motion it moves at the same speed until it is acted on by an external force".[1]
+
+There is a kind of analogy between centrifugal force and gravitational force, which led to the "equivalence principle" of general relativity.[2][3]
+
+In free fall an object's motion balances out the pull of gravity on it. This includes being in orbit.
+
+The special theory of relativity describes systems where gravity is not an issue;  by contrast, gravity is the central issue of the general theory of relativity.[4]
+
+In general relativity there is no gravitational force deflecting objects from their natural, straight paths. Instead, gravity is seen as changes in the properties of space and time. In turn, this changes the straightest-possible paths that objects will naturally follow.[5] The curvature is, in turn, caused by the energy–momentum of matter. Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve.[6]
+
+For weak gravitational fields and slow speeds relative to the speed of light, the theory's predictions converge on those of Newton's law of universal gravitation.[7] Newton's equations are used to plan journeys in our Solar System.
+
+General relativity has a number of physical consequences.
+
+Gravity influences the passage of time. Light sent down into a gravity well is blueshifted, whereas light sent in the opposite direction (i.e., climbing out of the gravity well) is redshifted; collectively, these two effects are known as the gravitational frequency shift.
+
+More generally, processes close to a massive body run more slowly when compared with processes taking place farther away; this effect is known as gravitational time dilation.[8][9]
+
+General relativity predicts that the path of light is bent in a gravitational field; light passing a massive body is deflected towards that body. This effect has been confirmed by observing the light of stars or distant quasars being deflected as it passes the Sun.[10]
+
+Closely related to light deflection is the gravitational time delay (or Shapiro delay), the phenomenon that light signals take longer to move through a gravitational field than they would in the absence of that field. There have been numerous successful tests of this prediction.[11][12]
+
+A parameter called γ encodes the influence of gravity on the geometry of space.[13]
+
+Gravitational waves are ripples in the curvature of spacetime. They move as a wave, travelling outward from the source. Einstein predicted them in 1915 on the basis of his theory of general relativity.[14] In theory, gravitational waves transport energy as gravitational radiation. Sources of detectable gravitational waves might include binary star systems composed of white dwarfs, neutron stars, or black holes. In general relativity, gravitational waves cannot travel faster than the speed of light.
+
+The 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for measurements of the Hulse-Taylor binary star system. These measurements suggested gravitational waves are more than mathematical peculiarities.
+
+On February 11, 2016, the LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration teams announced that they had made the first observation of gravitational waves, originating from a pair of merging black holes using the Advanced LIGO detectors. On June 15, 2016, a second detection of gravitational waves from coalescing black holes was announced. Besides LIGO, many other gravitational-wave observatories (detectors) are under construction.

ensimple/2277.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+Engraving is putting a design onto a hard, flat surface, by carving into it. The result may be a decorative piece in itself, as when silver, gold or steel are engraved, or may provide a printing plate of copper or another metal, for printing images on paper which are also called engravings. Engraving was an important method in history of making images on paper, both in artistic ways, such as making a decorative print, and also for printing books and magazines. It has long been replaced by photography in its commercial uses and, is nowadays much less common in printmaking, where it has been almost completely replaced by etching and other techniques.
+
+Engravers use a steel tool called a burin to cut the picture or pattern into the surface, mostly a copper plate.[1] Gravers come in a variety of shapes and sizes that give different line types when used. The burin gives us a line that is unique because of its steady appearance and smooth edges. The angle tint tool has a slightly curved tip that is commonly used in printmaking. Florentine liners are flat-bottomed tools with multiple lines on them, used to do work on larger areas. Flat gravers are used for doing work on letters, as well as most musical instrument engraving work. Round gravers are commonly used on silver as well as other hard-to-cut metals such as nickel and steel.
+
+In ancient history, the only engraving that could be made were the shallow grooves found in some jewellery after 1000 B.C.
+
+In the European Middle Ages goldsmiths used engraving to decorate metal. It is thought that they began to print impressions of their designs to record them. From this grew the engraving of copper printing plates to make artistic images on paper in Germany in the 1430s. The first and greatest period of engraving was from about 1470 to 1530, with such masters as Martin Schongauer, Albrecht Dürer, and Lucas van Leiden.
+
+Thereafter engraving tended to lose popularity to etching, which was a much easier technique for an artist to learn. By the nineteenth century, most engraving was for commercial picture-making.
+
+Before the invention of photography, engraving was used to reproduce other forms of art, for example paintings. Engravings continued to be common in newspapers and many books into the early 20th century, because they were cheap to use in printing.
+
+When two sets of parallel line hatchings crossed each other for higher density, the pattern was known as cross-hatching. Claude Mellan is well known for his technique of using lines of different thicknesses. One example is his Sudarium of Saint Veronica, an engraving of the face of Jesus from a single spiralling line that starts at the tip Jesus's nose (pictured).
+
+Because of the high level of detail that can be done by a master engraver, faking engraved designs is almost impossible, and modern banknotes are almost always engraved, as are plates for printing money, checks, bonds and other papers that should not be faked. Engraving is so fine that a normal printer can not make the detail of hand engraved images properly. In the U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing, more than one engraver will work on the same printing plate, making it nearly impossible for any person to duplicate all the engraving on almost any banknote or document.
+
+Many classic postage stamps were engraved, although the practice is now mostly confined to particular countries, or used when a more "elegant" design is desired and a limited amount of different colours is acceptable.
+
+Engraving machines such as the K500 or K6 by Hell Gravure Systems use a diamond "pen" to cut cells. Each cell creates one printing dot later in the process. A K6 can have up to 18 engraving heads each cutting 8,000 cells per second to an accuracy of 0.1 µm and below. They are of course fully computer controlled and the whole process of cylinder making is fully automatic.
+
+The engraving process with diamonds is state of the art since the 1960s.
+
+Now, laser engraving machines are being made and even today the mechanical cutting has proven its strength in economical terms and quality. More than 4,000 engravers make about 8 million printing cylinders worldwide per year.
+
+The earliest allusion to engraving in the Bible may be the reference to Judah’s seal ring. (Genesis 38:18), followed by (Exodus 39.30). Engraving was commonly done with pointed tools of iron or even with diamond points. (Jeremiah 17:1).
+
+Each of the two onyx stones on the shoulder pieces of the high priest’s ephod was engraved with the names of six different tribes of Israel, and each of the 12 precious stones that adorned his breastpiece was engraved with the name of one of the tribes. The holy sign of dedication, the shining gold plate on the high priest’s turban, was engraved with the words: “Holiness belongs to Jehovah.” Bezalel, along with Oholiab, was qualified to do this specialized engraving work as well as to train others.—Ex 35:30-35; 28:9-12; 39:6-14, 30.

ensimple/2278.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+Graz is a city in Austria and capital of Styria.
+
+After Vienna, Graz has the second highest number of people living in the city. In 2014 the city and surrounding areas had 605,143 people. The city has six universities.
+
+The oldest reference to Graz in historical documents is from 1128. In 1379 Graz became the capital of Inner Austria. (Inner Austria included Styria, Carinthia, Krain, Inner Istria and Trieste.) The Roman Empire used Graz as a stronghold to defend against enemies on the southeast. Two of the buildings created at that period (Glockenturm which is a clock tower, and Uhrturm which is a bell tower) have become landmarks of Graz.[3]
+
+The Historic Centre and Schloss Eggenberg is named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.[4]

ensimple/2279.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+Ancient Greek was an Indo-European language spoken in Ancient Greece from the 9th to the 4th century BC. Ancient Greek and Latin are very important languages. Although they are no longer spoken, they influenced almost all modern European languages.
+
+Greek had many different dialects.[2] Attic Greek was spoken in Athens, the largest city, and was thought to be the purest form of Greek. Later, in the educated Roman world, children were taught Greek as a second language in the same way that many people now learn English as their second language. Koine Greek was then the common language of Greeks. It used and mixed Attic Greek with several other dialects.
+
+Ancient Greek poets like Homer were written in an old dialect that was somewhat different from Attic Greek. The Iliad and the Odyssey are long poems that tell exciting stories about warfare, travel and the Greek gods. In the 5th century BC, some great plays were written by Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. The "Golden Age" of Ancient Greece then inspired the literature that has inspired and been read by people for centuries.
+
+Attic Greek is the dialect that was spoken in Athens and the rest of the region of Attica. It is the most similar dialect to later Greek since it was the standard form of the language. It is studied in Ancient Greek courses since it was the most common dialect.
+
+All languages change with time, and Greek has changed a great deal over 2500 years. Modern Greek is often said to have started in the year 1453 AD.[3]
+
+Unlike Latin, the Ancient Greek language did not split into many languages, but it is still considered to be a separate language from the Modern Greek . Pronunciation has changed extensively. For instance, beta was prounced "b" in Ancient Greek but is pronounced "v" and the called "vita" in Modern Greek. The spelling has not changed much, which gives the appearance of less change than actually happened. Also, many different vowels and diphthongs all merged into "i", the vowel sound in the English word "ski". The tonal system of Ancient Greek has disappeared, but the language only recently changed its spelling to match that change,
+
+In spite of the extensive changes, it is remarkable how much has survived intact through the centuries.[4]
+
+There is a community near Trabzon, in Turkey, that speaks a dialect that is closer to Ancient Greek than Standard Modern Greek.[5]

ensimple/228.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+Sir Andrew Barron Murray OBE (born 15 May 1987) is a British professional tennis player from Scotland, known as Andy Murray. He has been ranked as the number one British tennis player from 2006 to early 2018. He is now ranked #2 in the UK. Kyle Edmond is ranked #1 in the UK, and #17 in the ATP list (28 May 2018). From 7 November 2016 to 20 August 2017 Murray was number 1 in the world rankings. He is now ranked at 47 (28 May 2018).
+
+Murray represents Great Britain in his sporting activities and is a three-time Grand Slam tournament winner, two-time Olympic champion and Davis Cup champion.
+
+Murray was born in Glasgow. His brother is tennis player Jamie Murray.
+
+As a junior, Murray won the US Open and reached the semi finals of the French Open.[11][12] Murray turned professional in 2005.
+
+Murray was given a Wild Card to Wimbledon and the US Open in 2005, where he lost in the third round to David Nalbandian at Wimbledon;[13] and in the second round at the US Open.[14] Murray claimed his first title in 2006 at the SAP Open as he beat Lleyton Hewitt in the final.[15] He has appeared in 11 Grand Slam finals, winning three. The first time was in the 2008 US Open. The second time was in the 2010 Australian Open. Both times he lost to Roger Federer. The third time was in the 2011 Australian Open, when he lost to Novak Djokovic. The fourth time was in the 2012 Wimbledon Championships, when he lost to Roger Federer again. Murray won a gold medal in the singles of the London 2012 Summer Olympics, beating Federer in straight sets. Murray won the US Open singles later in 2012, defeating Novak Djokovic. In 2013, Murray won the Wimbledon singles, beating Djokovic 6–4, 7–5, 6–4.[16] In 2016, he won the Wimbledon singles again, beating Milos Raonic 6–4, 7–6(7–3), 7–6(7–2) in the final.[17] In August 2016, he won the gold medal in the singles at the 2016 Summer Olympics.
+
+This table shows Murray's performance in each Grand Slam tournament in singles.

ensimple/2280.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+Ancient Greece was a large area in the northeast of the Mediterranean Sea, where people spoke the Greek language. It was much bigger than the nation of Greece we know today. It was the civilization of Greece, from the archaic period of the 8th/6th centuries BC to 146 BC. The period ended with the Roman conquest of Greece in the Battle of Corinth.
+
+For most of this time, the Greeks did not have a single government or ruler. There were a number of city states, each with its own constitution. Athens, Sparta and Corinth are examples of city-states. Some had kings, and some, like Athens, had a form of democracy.  As time went on, the most-powerful cities collected other cities into groups known as "leagues". This applied to many of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, most of which had close ties to one or another of the large three cities.
+
+In the middle of this period, there was Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Athenian leadership successfully repelled the threat of Persian invasion in the Greco-Persian Wars. The Athenian golden age ends with the defeat of Athens at the hands of Sparta in the Peloponnesian War in 345Bc
+
+In the last, Hellenistic, period, Greece was unified by the conquests of Alexander the Great. The city-states continued, under the overall influence of Macedonia.
+
+Greek culture had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe. In this way, classical Greece was part of the foundation of Western civilization. Greek was also the language, and partly the culture, of the Byzantine Empire.
+
+The history of Greece went through these stages:[2]
+
+In the 8th century B.C., the Greeks learned how to read and write a second time. They had lost literacy at the end of the Mycenaean culture, as the Mediterranean world fell into the Dark Ages. The Greek Dark Ages (~1100 BC–750 BC), or Bronze Age collapse, is a period in the history of Ancient Greece and Anatolia from which there are no written records, and few archaeological remains.
+
+The Greeks learned about the alphabet from another ancient people, the Phoenicians. They made some adjustments to it. In particular, the Greeks introduced regular letters for vowels, which was necessary for their language. Their alphabet was, in turn, copied by the Romans, and much of the world now uses the Roman alphabet.
+
+Ancient Greece had one language and culture, but was not unified until 337 BC, when Macedonia defeated Athens and Thebes. That marked the end of the Classic period, and the start of the Hellenistic period. Even then, the conquered cities were merely joined to Philip II of Macedon's Corinthian League; they were not occupied, and ruled themselves.
+
+Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred more-or-less independent city states. This was different from other societies, which were tribal, or kingdoms ruling over relatively large territories.
+
+Undoubtedly the geography of Greece—divided and sub-divided by hills, mountains and rivers—contributed to the nature of ancient Greece. On the one hand, the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were 'one people'; they had the same religion, same basic culture, and same language. Yet each city-state or "polis" was independent; unification was something rarely discussed by the ancient Greeks. Even when, during the second Persian invasion of Greece, a group of city-states allied themselves to defend Greece, most poleis remained neutral, and after the Persian defeat, the allies quickly returned to infighting.[3]
+
+The major features of the Ancient Greek political system were:
+
+Later, in the Classical period, the leagues were fewer and larger, and dominated by one city (particularly Athens, Sparta and Thebes). Often cities would be compelled to join under threat of war (or as part of a peace treaty). After Philip II of Macedon 'conquered' the heartlands of ancient Greece, he did not attempt to annex the territory, or unify it into a new province. However, he did force most of the cities to join his own Corinthian League.
+
+Some cities were democratic, some were aristocratic, and some were monarchies. Some had many revolutions in which one kind of government replaced another. One famous Greek kingdom is Macedon, which became briefly the largest empire the world had seen at the time by conquering the Persian empire (including ancient Egypt) and reaching into modern-day India. Other famous kingdoms are Epirus and Thessaly.
+
+Monarchies in ancient Greece were not absolute because there was usually a council of older citizens (the senate, or in Macedonia the congress) who gave advice to the King. These men were not elected or chosen in a lottery like they were in the democratic city-states.
+
+Citizens that could participate in government in Ancient Greece were usually men who were free-born in that city. Women, slaves and (usually) residents born elsewhere, did not have the right to vote. Details differed between cities. Athens is an example: The residents of Athens were of three groups: citizens, metics (resident aliens) and slaves.[4] Citizens were residents whose forebears had been Athenians for three generations. Male citizens had the rights of free men and could be chosen to fulfill any official state position. "Of the estimated 150,000 residents of the city state of Attica, only about one fifth held the privilege of citizenship".[5] Women who were citizens in Athens could not participate in political offices, but in Sparta they could.
+
+The number of Greeks grew and soon they could not grow enough food for all the people. When this happened, a city would send people off to start a new city, known as a colony.
+
+Because the terrain was rough, most travel was by sea. For this reason, many new cities were established along the coastline. First new cities were started in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and later along the Black Sea, in Cyprus, in southern Italy, in Sicily, and around what today is Benghazi in Libya. They even started a city, Naucratis, on the river Nile in Egypt. The cities of today, Syracuse, Naples, Marseille and Istanbul started as the Greek cities Syracusa, Neapolis, Massilia and Byzantium.
+
+By the 6th century BC some cities became much more important than the others. They were Corinth, Thebes, Sparta, and Athens.
+
+The Spartans were very well disciplined soldiers. They defeated the people who lived near them and those people had to farm the land for the Spartans. These "helots" had to give the Spartans part of the food they grew and so the Spartans did not have to work. Instead, they learned how to be better soldiers. There were not many Spartans but there were many helots. Spartan military strength controlled the helots. The Spartans had two hereditary kings who led them in war. At home they were also ruled by a group of old men called the Gerousia (the senate).
+
+Athens became a democracy in 510 BC. The men came to a place in the center of the city and decided what to do. It was the first place in the world where the people decided what their country should do. They would talk and then vote on what to do at the Boule (the parliament). But the women did not vote. Athens  had slaves. These slaves were owned by their masters and could be sold to someone else. The Athenian slaves were less free than the Spartan helots. Every year, Athenian citizens elected eight generals who led them in war.
+
+In 499 BC, the Greek cities in Anatolia rebelled. They did not want Persia to rule them anymore. Athens sent 20 ships to fight the Persians on the sea. The Greeks in Anatolia were defeated. The Persian King, Darius decided to punish Athens. He sent soldiers and ships to fight Athens.
+
+Athens asked for help from Sparta. Sparta wanted to help but could not; they had a religious festival at that time. Athens sent her soldiers against the Persian soldiers: at the Battle of Marathon (490 BC) they defeated the Persians. Then the help from Sparta came.
+
+At the Battle of Thermopylae The Spartans were led by Leonidas, and resisted the huge Persian army. After a couple of days, a traitor called Ephialtes led the Persians around the pass behind the Greek army. Realising that defeat was inevitable, Leonidas released many of his men. Those who stayed knew it would be a fight to the death. Leonides kept elite hoplites (foot soldiers) who had living sons at home.[6] There were also allied Thespians and Thebans who volunteered to stay.
+
+On the third day, Leonidas led his 300 Spartan hoplites and their allies against Xerxes and his mighty army. The Spartan-led forces fought this Persian force to their deaths in order to block the pass long enough to keep Xerxes and his army occupied while the rest of the Greek army escaped.
+
+After Thermopylae many Greeks wanted to go south to the Peloponnese. Because the Isthmus of Corinth, the way into the Peloponnese, is very narrow, many wanted to fight the Persians there.
+
+Athens was north of Corinth and she had a navy. Athens' leader Themistocles wanted to fight the Persians by the island of Salamis. Xerxes decided to send his fleet against the Greek fleet before the Greek ships could go to the Peloponnese. The Greek fleet defeated the Persians at the Battle of Salamis. Xerxes then went home with many of his soldiers but a Persian army stayed in Greece. This army was defeated at the Battle of Platea in 479 BC.
+
+After the Persians were defeated at Platea, the Spartans did very little.  However, Persia was still dangerous.  Athens asked the Greek cities on the islands in the Aegean and in Anatolia to join her. These cities agreed because they were afraid of Persia. These cities formed the Delian League and Athens was their leader. Many of the cities of the Delian League  had to pay Athens tribute money.  Athens used the money to build many ships and the Parthenon.  Sparta was still strong on land, but Athens was stronger on the sea. Several times there was war between Athens and Sparta. Then Athens decided to send many ships to Sicily to fight against the city Syracuse.  Sparta sent help to Syracuse, and Athens was defeated. None of the Athenian ships came back.
+
+Now Sparta wanted to build ships to fight Athens. It took a long time for Sparta to defeat Athens, but then at the Battle of Aegospotami the Spartans destroyed most of Athens's ships. The Athenians used a highly advanced type of ship known as Triremes. These highly advanced battle craft had sophisticated combat systems, and were propelled by oarsmen. On the front of the Trireme was a large bronze ram. The oarsmen would row the Trireme at an enemy boat very fast, and ram a hole into its hull. This was the most effective way for the trireme to destroy other boats. Sometimes, the soldiers (called hoplites) on the trireme would board the enemy ship and keep it for their own. Nevertheless, the Athenian fleet of Triremes was destroyed in a battle in 405 BC. Athens surrendered the following year and the war was over.
+
+Men, if not working, fighting or discussing politics, could, at festival times, go to Ancient Greek theatre to watch dramas, comedies or tragedies. These often involved politics and the gods of Greek mythology. Women were not allowed to perform in the theatre; male actors played female roles.
+
+Women did domestic work, such as spinning, weaving, cleaning and cooking. They were not involved in public life or politics. Women from rich families however, had slaves to carry out domestic work for them.
+
+The famous Olympic games were held at Olympia every four years. They were for men only, and women were not allowed to attend, even as spectators. The sports included running, javelin throwing, discus throwing and wrestling. The Games were unusual, because the athletes could come from any Greek city.
+
+Another competition, the Heraean Games, was held for women. It was also held at Olympus at a different time from the men's event.[7]
+
+The rules for girls in Sparta were different from other cities. They were trained in the same events as boys, because Spartans believed that strong women would produce strong babies who would become future warriors. Their girl athletes were unmarried and competed nude or wearing short dresses. Boys were allowed to watch the athletes, in the hopes of creating marriages and offspring.
+
+Later, in the Classical period, girls could compete in the same festivals as males.[8]

ensimple/2281.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+Ancient Greece was a large area in the northeast of the Mediterranean Sea, where people spoke the Greek language. It was much bigger than the nation of Greece we know today. It was the civilization of Greece, from the archaic period of the 8th/6th centuries BC to 146 BC. The period ended with the Roman conquest of Greece in the Battle of Corinth.
+
+For most of this time, the Greeks did not have a single government or ruler. There were a number of city states, each with its own constitution. Athens, Sparta and Corinth are examples of city-states. Some had kings, and some, like Athens, had a form of democracy.  As time went on, the most-powerful cities collected other cities into groups known as "leagues". This applied to many of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, most of which had close ties to one or another of the large three cities.
+
+In the middle of this period, there was Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Athenian leadership successfully repelled the threat of Persian invasion in the Greco-Persian Wars. The Athenian golden age ends with the defeat of Athens at the hands of Sparta in the Peloponnesian War in 345Bc
+
+In the last, Hellenistic, period, Greece was unified by the conquests of Alexander the Great. The city-states continued, under the overall influence of Macedonia.
+
+Greek culture had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe. In this way, classical Greece was part of the foundation of Western civilization. Greek was also the language, and partly the culture, of the Byzantine Empire.
+
+The history of Greece went through these stages:[2]
+
+In the 8th century B.C., the Greeks learned how to read and write a second time. They had lost literacy at the end of the Mycenaean culture, as the Mediterranean world fell into the Dark Ages. The Greek Dark Ages (~1100 BC–750 BC), or Bronze Age collapse, is a period in the history of Ancient Greece and Anatolia from which there are no written records, and few archaeological remains.
+
+The Greeks learned about the alphabet from another ancient people, the Phoenicians. They made some adjustments to it. In particular, the Greeks introduced regular letters for vowels, which was necessary for their language. Their alphabet was, in turn, copied by the Romans, and much of the world now uses the Roman alphabet.
+
+Ancient Greece had one language and culture, but was not unified until 337 BC, when Macedonia defeated Athens and Thebes. That marked the end of the Classic period, and the start of the Hellenistic period. Even then, the conquered cities were merely joined to Philip II of Macedon's Corinthian League; they were not occupied, and ruled themselves.
+
+Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred more-or-less independent city states. This was different from other societies, which were tribal, or kingdoms ruling over relatively large territories.
+
+Undoubtedly the geography of Greece—divided and sub-divided by hills, mountains and rivers—contributed to the nature of ancient Greece. On the one hand, the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were 'one people'; they had the same religion, same basic culture, and same language. Yet each city-state or "polis" was independent; unification was something rarely discussed by the ancient Greeks. Even when, during the second Persian invasion of Greece, a group of city-states allied themselves to defend Greece, most poleis remained neutral, and after the Persian defeat, the allies quickly returned to infighting.[3]
+
+The major features of the Ancient Greek political system were:
+
+Later, in the Classical period, the leagues were fewer and larger, and dominated by one city (particularly Athens, Sparta and Thebes). Often cities would be compelled to join under threat of war (or as part of a peace treaty). After Philip II of Macedon 'conquered' the heartlands of ancient Greece, he did not attempt to annex the territory, or unify it into a new province. However, he did force most of the cities to join his own Corinthian League.
+
+Some cities were democratic, some were aristocratic, and some were monarchies. Some had many revolutions in which one kind of government replaced another. One famous Greek kingdom is Macedon, which became briefly the largest empire the world had seen at the time by conquering the Persian empire (including ancient Egypt) and reaching into modern-day India. Other famous kingdoms are Epirus and Thessaly.
+
+Monarchies in ancient Greece were not absolute because there was usually a council of older citizens (the senate, or in Macedonia the congress) who gave advice to the King. These men were not elected or chosen in a lottery like they were in the democratic city-states.
+
+Citizens that could participate in government in Ancient Greece were usually men who were free-born in that city. Women, slaves and (usually) residents born elsewhere, did not have the right to vote. Details differed between cities. Athens is an example: The residents of Athens were of three groups: citizens, metics (resident aliens) and slaves.[4] Citizens were residents whose forebears had been Athenians for three generations. Male citizens had the rights of free men and could be chosen to fulfill any official state position. "Of the estimated 150,000 residents of the city state of Attica, only about one fifth held the privilege of citizenship".[5] Women who were citizens in Athens could not participate in political offices, but in Sparta they could.
+
+The number of Greeks grew and soon they could not grow enough food for all the people. When this happened, a city would send people off to start a new city, known as a colony.
+
+Because the terrain was rough, most travel was by sea. For this reason, many new cities were established along the coastline. First new cities were started in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and later along the Black Sea, in Cyprus, in southern Italy, in Sicily, and around what today is Benghazi in Libya. They even started a city, Naucratis, on the river Nile in Egypt. The cities of today, Syracuse, Naples, Marseille and Istanbul started as the Greek cities Syracusa, Neapolis, Massilia and Byzantium.
+
+By the 6th century BC some cities became much more important than the others. They were Corinth, Thebes, Sparta, and Athens.
+
+The Spartans were very well disciplined soldiers. They defeated the people who lived near them and those people had to farm the land for the Spartans. These "helots" had to give the Spartans part of the food they grew and so the Spartans did not have to work. Instead, they learned how to be better soldiers. There were not many Spartans but there were many helots. Spartan military strength controlled the helots. The Spartans had two hereditary kings who led them in war. At home they were also ruled by a group of old men called the Gerousia (the senate).
+
+Athens became a democracy in 510 BC. The men came to a place in the center of the city and decided what to do. It was the first place in the world where the people decided what their country should do. They would talk and then vote on what to do at the Boule (the parliament). But the women did not vote. Athens  had slaves. These slaves were owned by their masters and could be sold to someone else. The Athenian slaves were less free than the Spartan helots. Every year, Athenian citizens elected eight generals who led them in war.
+
+In 499 BC, the Greek cities in Anatolia rebelled. They did not want Persia to rule them anymore. Athens sent 20 ships to fight the Persians on the sea. The Greeks in Anatolia were defeated. The Persian King, Darius decided to punish Athens. He sent soldiers and ships to fight Athens.
+
+Athens asked for help from Sparta. Sparta wanted to help but could not; they had a religious festival at that time. Athens sent her soldiers against the Persian soldiers: at the Battle of Marathon (490 BC) they defeated the Persians. Then the help from Sparta came.
+
+At the Battle of Thermopylae The Spartans were led by Leonidas, and resisted the huge Persian army. After a couple of days, a traitor called Ephialtes led the Persians around the pass behind the Greek army. Realising that defeat was inevitable, Leonidas released many of his men. Those who stayed knew it would be a fight to the death. Leonides kept elite hoplites (foot soldiers) who had living sons at home.[6] There were also allied Thespians and Thebans who volunteered to stay.
+
+On the third day, Leonidas led his 300 Spartan hoplites and their allies against Xerxes and his mighty army. The Spartan-led forces fought this Persian force to their deaths in order to block the pass long enough to keep Xerxes and his army occupied while the rest of the Greek army escaped.
+
+After Thermopylae many Greeks wanted to go south to the Peloponnese. Because the Isthmus of Corinth, the way into the Peloponnese, is very narrow, many wanted to fight the Persians there.
+
+Athens was north of Corinth and she had a navy. Athens' leader Themistocles wanted to fight the Persians by the island of Salamis. Xerxes decided to send his fleet against the Greek fleet before the Greek ships could go to the Peloponnese. The Greek fleet defeated the Persians at the Battle of Salamis. Xerxes then went home with many of his soldiers but a Persian army stayed in Greece. This army was defeated at the Battle of Platea in 479 BC.
+
+After the Persians were defeated at Platea, the Spartans did very little.  However, Persia was still dangerous.  Athens asked the Greek cities on the islands in the Aegean and in Anatolia to join her. These cities agreed because they were afraid of Persia. These cities formed the Delian League and Athens was their leader. Many of the cities of the Delian League  had to pay Athens tribute money.  Athens used the money to build many ships and the Parthenon.  Sparta was still strong on land, but Athens was stronger on the sea. Several times there was war between Athens and Sparta. Then Athens decided to send many ships to Sicily to fight against the city Syracuse.  Sparta sent help to Syracuse, and Athens was defeated. None of the Athenian ships came back.
+
+Now Sparta wanted to build ships to fight Athens. It took a long time for Sparta to defeat Athens, but then at the Battle of Aegospotami the Spartans destroyed most of Athens's ships. The Athenians used a highly advanced type of ship known as Triremes. These highly advanced battle craft had sophisticated combat systems, and were propelled by oarsmen. On the front of the Trireme was a large bronze ram. The oarsmen would row the Trireme at an enemy boat very fast, and ram a hole into its hull. This was the most effective way for the trireme to destroy other boats. Sometimes, the soldiers (called hoplites) on the trireme would board the enemy ship and keep it for their own. Nevertheless, the Athenian fleet of Triremes was destroyed in a battle in 405 BC. Athens surrendered the following year and the war was over.
+
+Men, if not working, fighting or discussing politics, could, at festival times, go to Ancient Greek theatre to watch dramas, comedies or tragedies. These often involved politics and the gods of Greek mythology. Women were not allowed to perform in the theatre; male actors played female roles.
+
+Women did domestic work, such as spinning, weaving, cleaning and cooking. They were not involved in public life or politics. Women from rich families however, had slaves to carry out domestic work for them.
+
+The famous Olympic games were held at Olympia every four years. They were for men only, and women were not allowed to attend, even as spectators. The sports included running, javelin throwing, discus throwing and wrestling. The Games were unusual, because the athletes could come from any Greek city.
+
+Another competition, the Heraean Games, was held for women. It was also held at Olympus at a different time from the men's event.[7]
+
+The rules for girls in Sparta were different from other cities. They were trained in the same events as boys, because Spartans believed that strong women would produce strong babies who would become future warriors. Their girl athletes were unmarried and competed nude or wearing short dresses. Boys were allowed to watch the athletes, in the hopes of creating marriages and offspring.
+
+Later, in the Classical period, girls could compete in the same festivals as males.[8]

ensimple/2282.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+Ancient Greece was a large area in the northeast of the Mediterranean Sea, where people spoke the Greek language. It was much bigger than the nation of Greece we know today. It was the civilization of Greece, from the archaic period of the 8th/6th centuries BC to 146 BC. The period ended with the Roman conquest of Greece in the Battle of Corinth.
+
+For most of this time, the Greeks did not have a single government or ruler. There were a number of city states, each with its own constitution. Athens, Sparta and Corinth are examples of city-states. Some had kings, and some, like Athens, had a form of democracy.  As time went on, the most-powerful cities collected other cities into groups known as "leagues". This applied to many of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, most of which had close ties to one or another of the large three cities.
+
+In the middle of this period, there was Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Athenian leadership successfully repelled the threat of Persian invasion in the Greco-Persian Wars. The Athenian golden age ends with the defeat of Athens at the hands of Sparta in the Peloponnesian War in 345Bc
+
+In the last, Hellenistic, period, Greece was unified by the conquests of Alexander the Great. The city-states continued, under the overall influence of Macedonia.
+
+Greek culture had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe. In this way, classical Greece was part of the foundation of Western civilization. Greek was also the language, and partly the culture, of the Byzantine Empire.
+
+The history of Greece went through these stages:[2]
+
+In the 8th century B.C., the Greeks learned how to read and write a second time. They had lost literacy at the end of the Mycenaean culture, as the Mediterranean world fell into the Dark Ages. The Greek Dark Ages (~1100 BC–750 BC), or Bronze Age collapse, is a period in the history of Ancient Greece and Anatolia from which there are no written records, and few archaeological remains.
+
+The Greeks learned about the alphabet from another ancient people, the Phoenicians. They made some adjustments to it. In particular, the Greeks introduced regular letters for vowels, which was necessary for their language. Their alphabet was, in turn, copied by the Romans, and much of the world now uses the Roman alphabet.
+
+Ancient Greece had one language and culture, but was not unified until 337 BC, when Macedonia defeated Athens and Thebes. That marked the end of the Classic period, and the start of the Hellenistic period. Even then, the conquered cities were merely joined to Philip II of Macedon's Corinthian League; they were not occupied, and ruled themselves.
+
+Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred more-or-less independent city states. This was different from other societies, which were tribal, or kingdoms ruling over relatively large territories.
+
+Undoubtedly the geography of Greece—divided and sub-divided by hills, mountains and rivers—contributed to the nature of ancient Greece. On the one hand, the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were 'one people'; they had the same religion, same basic culture, and same language. Yet each city-state or "polis" was independent; unification was something rarely discussed by the ancient Greeks. Even when, during the second Persian invasion of Greece, a group of city-states allied themselves to defend Greece, most poleis remained neutral, and after the Persian defeat, the allies quickly returned to infighting.[3]
+
+The major features of the Ancient Greek political system were:
+
+Later, in the Classical period, the leagues were fewer and larger, and dominated by one city (particularly Athens, Sparta and Thebes). Often cities would be compelled to join under threat of war (or as part of a peace treaty). After Philip II of Macedon 'conquered' the heartlands of ancient Greece, he did not attempt to annex the territory, or unify it into a new province. However, he did force most of the cities to join his own Corinthian League.
+
+Some cities were democratic, some were aristocratic, and some were monarchies. Some had many revolutions in which one kind of government replaced another. One famous Greek kingdom is Macedon, which became briefly the largest empire the world had seen at the time by conquering the Persian empire (including ancient Egypt) and reaching into modern-day India. Other famous kingdoms are Epirus and Thessaly.
+
+Monarchies in ancient Greece were not absolute because there was usually a council of older citizens (the senate, or in Macedonia the congress) who gave advice to the King. These men were not elected or chosen in a lottery like they were in the democratic city-states.
+
+Citizens that could participate in government in Ancient Greece were usually men who were free-born in that city. Women, slaves and (usually) residents born elsewhere, did not have the right to vote. Details differed between cities. Athens is an example: The residents of Athens were of three groups: citizens, metics (resident aliens) and slaves.[4] Citizens were residents whose forebears had been Athenians for three generations. Male citizens had the rights of free men and could be chosen to fulfill any official state position. "Of the estimated 150,000 residents of the city state of Attica, only about one fifth held the privilege of citizenship".[5] Women who were citizens in Athens could not participate in political offices, but in Sparta they could.
+
+The number of Greeks grew and soon they could not grow enough food for all the people. When this happened, a city would send people off to start a new city, known as a colony.
+
+Because the terrain was rough, most travel was by sea. For this reason, many new cities were established along the coastline. First new cities were started in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and later along the Black Sea, in Cyprus, in southern Italy, in Sicily, and around what today is Benghazi in Libya. They even started a city, Naucratis, on the river Nile in Egypt. The cities of today, Syracuse, Naples, Marseille and Istanbul started as the Greek cities Syracusa, Neapolis, Massilia and Byzantium.
+
+By the 6th century BC some cities became much more important than the others. They were Corinth, Thebes, Sparta, and Athens.
+
+The Spartans were very well disciplined soldiers. They defeated the people who lived near them and those people had to farm the land for the Spartans. These "helots" had to give the Spartans part of the food they grew and so the Spartans did not have to work. Instead, they learned how to be better soldiers. There were not many Spartans but there were many helots. Spartan military strength controlled the helots. The Spartans had two hereditary kings who led them in war. At home they were also ruled by a group of old men called the Gerousia (the senate).
+
+Athens became a democracy in 510 BC. The men came to a place in the center of the city and decided what to do. It was the first place in the world where the people decided what their country should do. They would talk and then vote on what to do at the Boule (the parliament). But the women did not vote. Athens  had slaves. These slaves were owned by their masters and could be sold to someone else. The Athenian slaves were less free than the Spartan helots. Every year, Athenian citizens elected eight generals who led them in war.
+
+In 499 BC, the Greek cities in Anatolia rebelled. They did not want Persia to rule them anymore. Athens sent 20 ships to fight the Persians on the sea. The Greeks in Anatolia were defeated. The Persian King, Darius decided to punish Athens. He sent soldiers and ships to fight Athens.
+
+Athens asked for help from Sparta. Sparta wanted to help but could not; they had a religious festival at that time. Athens sent her soldiers against the Persian soldiers: at the Battle of Marathon (490 BC) they defeated the Persians. Then the help from Sparta came.
+
+At the Battle of Thermopylae The Spartans were led by Leonidas, and resisted the huge Persian army. After a couple of days, a traitor called Ephialtes led the Persians around the pass behind the Greek army. Realising that defeat was inevitable, Leonidas released many of his men. Those who stayed knew it would be a fight to the death. Leonides kept elite hoplites (foot soldiers) who had living sons at home.[6] There were also allied Thespians and Thebans who volunteered to stay.
+
+On the third day, Leonidas led his 300 Spartan hoplites and their allies against Xerxes and his mighty army. The Spartan-led forces fought this Persian force to their deaths in order to block the pass long enough to keep Xerxes and his army occupied while the rest of the Greek army escaped.
+
+After Thermopylae many Greeks wanted to go south to the Peloponnese. Because the Isthmus of Corinth, the way into the Peloponnese, is very narrow, many wanted to fight the Persians there.
+
+Athens was north of Corinth and she had a navy. Athens' leader Themistocles wanted to fight the Persians by the island of Salamis. Xerxes decided to send his fleet against the Greek fleet before the Greek ships could go to the Peloponnese. The Greek fleet defeated the Persians at the Battle of Salamis. Xerxes then went home with many of his soldiers but a Persian army stayed in Greece. This army was defeated at the Battle of Platea in 479 BC.
+
+After the Persians were defeated at Platea, the Spartans did very little.  However, Persia was still dangerous.  Athens asked the Greek cities on the islands in the Aegean and in Anatolia to join her. These cities agreed because they were afraid of Persia. These cities formed the Delian League and Athens was their leader. Many of the cities of the Delian League  had to pay Athens tribute money.  Athens used the money to build many ships and the Parthenon.  Sparta was still strong on land, but Athens was stronger on the sea. Several times there was war between Athens and Sparta. Then Athens decided to send many ships to Sicily to fight against the city Syracuse.  Sparta sent help to Syracuse, and Athens was defeated. None of the Athenian ships came back.
+
+Now Sparta wanted to build ships to fight Athens. It took a long time for Sparta to defeat Athens, but then at the Battle of Aegospotami the Spartans destroyed most of Athens's ships. The Athenians used a highly advanced type of ship known as Triremes. These highly advanced battle craft had sophisticated combat systems, and were propelled by oarsmen. On the front of the Trireme was a large bronze ram. The oarsmen would row the Trireme at an enemy boat very fast, and ram a hole into its hull. This was the most effective way for the trireme to destroy other boats. Sometimes, the soldiers (called hoplites) on the trireme would board the enemy ship and keep it for their own. Nevertheless, the Athenian fleet of Triremes was destroyed in a battle in 405 BC. Athens surrendered the following year and the war was over.
+
+Men, if not working, fighting or discussing politics, could, at festival times, go to Ancient Greek theatre to watch dramas, comedies or tragedies. These often involved politics and the gods of Greek mythology. Women were not allowed to perform in the theatre; male actors played female roles.
+
+Women did domestic work, such as spinning, weaving, cleaning and cooking. They were not involved in public life or politics. Women from rich families however, had slaves to carry out domestic work for them.
+
+The famous Olympic games were held at Olympia every four years. They were for men only, and women were not allowed to attend, even as spectators. The sports included running, javelin throwing, discus throwing and wrestling. The Games were unusual, because the athletes could come from any Greek city.
+
+Another competition, the Heraean Games, was held for women. It was also held at Olympus at a different time from the men's event.[7]
+
+The rules for girls in Sparta were different from other cities. They were trained in the same events as boys, because Spartans believed that strong women would produce strong babies who would become future warriors. Their girl athletes were unmarried and competed nude or wearing short dresses. Boys were allowed to watch the athletes, in the hopes of creating marriages and offspring.
+
+Later, in the Classical period, girls could compete in the same festivals as males.[8]

ensimple/2283.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+Ancient Greece was a large area in the northeast of the Mediterranean Sea, where people spoke the Greek language. It was much bigger than the nation of Greece we know today. It was the civilization of Greece, from the archaic period of the 8th/6th centuries BC to 146 BC. The period ended with the Roman conquest of Greece in the Battle of Corinth.
+
+For most of this time, the Greeks did not have a single government or ruler. There were a number of city states, each with its own constitution. Athens, Sparta and Corinth are examples of city-states. Some had kings, and some, like Athens, had a form of democracy.  As time went on, the most-powerful cities collected other cities into groups known as "leagues". This applied to many of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, most of which had close ties to one or another of the large three cities.
+
+In the middle of this period, there was Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Athenian leadership successfully repelled the threat of Persian invasion in the Greco-Persian Wars. The Athenian golden age ends with the defeat of Athens at the hands of Sparta in the Peloponnesian War in 345Bc
+
+In the last, Hellenistic, period, Greece was unified by the conquests of Alexander the Great. The city-states continued, under the overall influence of Macedonia.
+
+Greek culture had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe. In this way, classical Greece was part of the foundation of Western civilization. Greek was also the language, and partly the culture, of the Byzantine Empire.
+
+The history of Greece went through these stages:[2]
+
+In the 8th century B.C., the Greeks learned how to read and write a second time. They had lost literacy at the end of the Mycenaean culture, as the Mediterranean world fell into the Dark Ages. The Greek Dark Ages (~1100 BC–750 BC), or Bronze Age collapse, is a period in the history of Ancient Greece and Anatolia from which there are no written records, and few archaeological remains.
+
+The Greeks learned about the alphabet from another ancient people, the Phoenicians. They made some adjustments to it. In particular, the Greeks introduced regular letters for vowels, which was necessary for their language. Their alphabet was, in turn, copied by the Romans, and much of the world now uses the Roman alphabet.
+
+Ancient Greece had one language and culture, but was not unified until 337 BC, when Macedonia defeated Athens and Thebes. That marked the end of the Classic period, and the start of the Hellenistic period. Even then, the conquered cities were merely joined to Philip II of Macedon's Corinthian League; they were not occupied, and ruled themselves.
+
+Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred more-or-less independent city states. This was different from other societies, which were tribal, or kingdoms ruling over relatively large territories.
+
+Undoubtedly the geography of Greece—divided and sub-divided by hills, mountains and rivers—contributed to the nature of ancient Greece. On the one hand, the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were 'one people'; they had the same religion, same basic culture, and same language. Yet each city-state or "polis" was independent; unification was something rarely discussed by the ancient Greeks. Even when, during the second Persian invasion of Greece, a group of city-states allied themselves to defend Greece, most poleis remained neutral, and after the Persian defeat, the allies quickly returned to infighting.[3]
+
+The major features of the Ancient Greek political system were:
+
+Later, in the Classical period, the leagues were fewer and larger, and dominated by one city (particularly Athens, Sparta and Thebes). Often cities would be compelled to join under threat of war (or as part of a peace treaty). After Philip II of Macedon 'conquered' the heartlands of ancient Greece, he did not attempt to annex the territory, or unify it into a new province. However, he did force most of the cities to join his own Corinthian League.
+
+Some cities were democratic, some were aristocratic, and some were monarchies. Some had many revolutions in which one kind of government replaced another. One famous Greek kingdom is Macedon, which became briefly the largest empire the world had seen at the time by conquering the Persian empire (including ancient Egypt) and reaching into modern-day India. Other famous kingdoms are Epirus and Thessaly.
+
+Monarchies in ancient Greece were not absolute because there was usually a council of older citizens (the senate, or in Macedonia the congress) who gave advice to the King. These men were not elected or chosen in a lottery like they were in the democratic city-states.
+
+Citizens that could participate in government in Ancient Greece were usually men who were free-born in that city. Women, slaves and (usually) residents born elsewhere, did not have the right to vote. Details differed between cities. Athens is an example: The residents of Athens were of three groups: citizens, metics (resident aliens) and slaves.[4] Citizens were residents whose forebears had been Athenians for three generations. Male citizens had the rights of free men and could be chosen to fulfill any official state position. "Of the estimated 150,000 residents of the city state of Attica, only about one fifth held the privilege of citizenship".[5] Women who were citizens in Athens could not participate in political offices, but in Sparta they could.
+
+The number of Greeks grew and soon they could not grow enough food for all the people. When this happened, a city would send people off to start a new city, known as a colony.
+
+Because the terrain was rough, most travel was by sea. For this reason, many new cities were established along the coastline. First new cities were started in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and later along the Black Sea, in Cyprus, in southern Italy, in Sicily, and around what today is Benghazi in Libya. They even started a city, Naucratis, on the river Nile in Egypt. The cities of today, Syracuse, Naples, Marseille and Istanbul started as the Greek cities Syracusa, Neapolis, Massilia and Byzantium.
+
+By the 6th century BC some cities became much more important than the others. They were Corinth, Thebes, Sparta, and Athens.
+
+The Spartans were very well disciplined soldiers. They defeated the people who lived near them and those people had to farm the land for the Spartans. These "helots" had to give the Spartans part of the food they grew and so the Spartans did not have to work. Instead, they learned how to be better soldiers. There were not many Spartans but there were many helots. Spartan military strength controlled the helots. The Spartans had two hereditary kings who led them in war. At home they were also ruled by a group of old men called the Gerousia (the senate).
+
+Athens became a democracy in 510 BC. The men came to a place in the center of the city and decided what to do. It was the first place in the world where the people decided what their country should do. They would talk and then vote on what to do at the Boule (the parliament). But the women did not vote. Athens  had slaves. These slaves were owned by their masters and could be sold to someone else. The Athenian slaves were less free than the Spartan helots. Every year, Athenian citizens elected eight generals who led them in war.
+
+In 499 BC, the Greek cities in Anatolia rebelled. They did not want Persia to rule them anymore. Athens sent 20 ships to fight the Persians on the sea. The Greeks in Anatolia were defeated. The Persian King, Darius decided to punish Athens. He sent soldiers and ships to fight Athens.
+
+Athens asked for help from Sparta. Sparta wanted to help but could not; they had a religious festival at that time. Athens sent her soldiers against the Persian soldiers: at the Battle of Marathon (490 BC) they defeated the Persians. Then the help from Sparta came.
+
+At the Battle of Thermopylae The Spartans were led by Leonidas, and resisted the huge Persian army. After a couple of days, a traitor called Ephialtes led the Persians around the pass behind the Greek army. Realising that defeat was inevitable, Leonidas released many of his men. Those who stayed knew it would be a fight to the death. Leonides kept elite hoplites (foot soldiers) who had living sons at home.[6] There were also allied Thespians and Thebans who volunteered to stay.
+
+On the third day, Leonidas led his 300 Spartan hoplites and their allies against Xerxes and his mighty army. The Spartan-led forces fought this Persian force to their deaths in order to block the pass long enough to keep Xerxes and his army occupied while the rest of the Greek army escaped.
+
+After Thermopylae many Greeks wanted to go south to the Peloponnese. Because the Isthmus of Corinth, the way into the Peloponnese, is very narrow, many wanted to fight the Persians there.
+
+Athens was north of Corinth and she had a navy. Athens' leader Themistocles wanted to fight the Persians by the island of Salamis. Xerxes decided to send his fleet against the Greek fleet before the Greek ships could go to the Peloponnese. The Greek fleet defeated the Persians at the Battle of Salamis. Xerxes then went home with many of his soldiers but a Persian army stayed in Greece. This army was defeated at the Battle of Platea in 479 BC.
+
+After the Persians were defeated at Platea, the Spartans did very little.  However, Persia was still dangerous.  Athens asked the Greek cities on the islands in the Aegean and in Anatolia to join her. These cities agreed because they were afraid of Persia. These cities formed the Delian League and Athens was their leader. Many of the cities of the Delian League  had to pay Athens tribute money.  Athens used the money to build many ships and the Parthenon.  Sparta was still strong on land, but Athens was stronger on the sea. Several times there was war between Athens and Sparta. Then Athens decided to send many ships to Sicily to fight against the city Syracuse.  Sparta sent help to Syracuse, and Athens was defeated. None of the Athenian ships came back.
+
+Now Sparta wanted to build ships to fight Athens. It took a long time for Sparta to defeat Athens, but then at the Battle of Aegospotami the Spartans destroyed most of Athens's ships. The Athenians used a highly advanced type of ship known as Triremes. These highly advanced battle craft had sophisticated combat systems, and were propelled by oarsmen. On the front of the Trireme was a large bronze ram. The oarsmen would row the Trireme at an enemy boat very fast, and ram a hole into its hull. This was the most effective way for the trireme to destroy other boats. Sometimes, the soldiers (called hoplites) on the trireme would board the enemy ship and keep it for their own. Nevertheless, the Athenian fleet of Triremes was destroyed in a battle in 405 BC. Athens surrendered the following year and the war was over.
+
+Men, if not working, fighting or discussing politics, could, at festival times, go to Ancient Greek theatre to watch dramas, comedies or tragedies. These often involved politics and the gods of Greek mythology. Women were not allowed to perform in the theatre; male actors played female roles.
+
+Women did domestic work, such as spinning, weaving, cleaning and cooking. They were not involved in public life or politics. Women from rich families however, had slaves to carry out domestic work for them.
+
+The famous Olympic games were held at Olympia every four years. They were for men only, and women were not allowed to attend, even as spectators. The sports included running, javelin throwing, discus throwing and wrestling. The Games were unusual, because the athletes could come from any Greek city.
+
+Another competition, the Heraean Games, was held for women. It was also held at Olympus at a different time from the men's event.[7]
+
+The rules for girls in Sparta were different from other cities. They were trained in the same events as boys, because Spartans believed that strong women would produce strong babies who would become future warriors. Their girl athletes were unmarried and competed nude or wearing short dresses. Boys were allowed to watch the athletes, in the hopes of creating marriages and offspring.
+
+Later, in the Classical period, girls could compete in the same festivals as males.[8]

ensimple/2284.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
+
+Greece (Greek: Ελλάδα [eˈlaða] or Ελλάς [eˈlas]), officially the Hellenic Republic (Greek: Ελληνική Δημοκρατία [eliniˈkʲi ðimokraˈtia]),[8] (historically known as Hellas) (Greek: Ελλάς), is a country in Southeastern Europe. Its capital city is Athens.
+
+It borders Albania, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea is to the East and South of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea is to the West. Both are part of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea and have many islands. 80% of the country is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak.
+
+Ancient Greece created democracy, philosophy, science and mathematics, drama and theater and the Olympic Games.
+
+Greece is a parliamentary republic, in which the leader of the party with more seats in the parliament is the Prime Minister. The country has a President, but his powers are ceremonial. He is the head of state, not head of government, much like how Kings and Queens operate in constitutional monarchies and is elected by Parliament and not the people. Its economy is the highest in the Balkans region, though facing financial difficulties due to a Greek government-debt crisis.
+
+The official language spoken in Greece is Greek, spoken by 99% of the population and 90% of the population identifies as Christian Orthodox. Many Greeks also understand English, French and German, which are taught in schools. Greece was a founding member of the United Nations, joined NATO in 1952, became a member of the European Union in 1981 and adopted the Euro in 2001. Due to the large tourism industry, powerful shipping sector and its geostrategic importance, it is classified as a middle power.
+
+Greece's history is one of the richest in the world. The Greeks were one of the most advanced civilizations. Greece is famous for its many philosophers, like Plato and Aristotle, and kings like Alexander the Great and Leonidas. Greece is said to be the birthplace of Democracy, because city-states like Athens, now the capital of Greece, were the first to elect their leaders and not have kings. During the years of Alexander the Great, a huge Macedonian empire was created that stretched from modern-day Greece to Egypt and Iran, until the borders of India.  Because of the significant role that Greek culture played during that time, it is called the Hellenistic period (or Greek-dominated period).  During that time, the Greek language became the 'lingua franca' of the Middle East, which means the language that people who do not speak the same language use to communicate, like English is used today as an international language.
+
+Greece was then ruled by the Roman Empire, and many argue that Rome conquered Greece with its army, but Greece conquered Rome with its culture. The Roman Empire after the conquest of Greece became a civilization known as the Greco-Roman (or Greek-Roman) civilization.  When the Roman Empire collapsed, the Greeks emerged as the ruling class of the Byzantine Empire, and the Greek language became the official language of the empire, which included all the territories around the eastern Mediterranean Sea.  It was then occupied by the Ottoman Empire for a period of 400 years. Some areas of Greece, like the second-largest city in the country, Thessaloniki, were occupied for 500 years and became part of Greece in the early 20th century.
+
+The Greek War of Independence began in 1821 and Greece was an independent country (a republic) in 1828.  In 1832 Greece was made a kingdom by the United Kingdom and Russia, under the German Wittelsbach dynasty.
+
+In 1912, Greece took part in the Balkan Wars, where it gained many of the territories that make up the country now, such as Greek Macedonia and the islands of the Aegean Sea. Greece fought in both World War I and World War II in the side of allies. During World War I, Greece was divided into two countries, the State of Thessaloniki in the north and the State of Athens in the south.  Both countries claimed to be the legitimate government of Greece, but the State of Thessaloniki received support from the Allies.  The country was reunited in 1917, when the King abdicated.  In 1920 Greece expanded again, and briefly reached its maximum size.  The territories that the country had gained in Turkey were given back to Turkey in the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, but Greece kept Western Thrace.  The king returned in 1935, and Greece was under a fascist dictatorship from 1936 until 1941, friendly to the Allies, when it was invaded by Nazi Germany.
+
+In 1940, Greece was invaded by Italy, but defeated the invasion. This was the first victory of an Allied country against an Axis power. After this, Hitler decided to attack Greece sooner than he had planned. Germany invaded on 6 April 1940 and captured Greece's second-largest city of Thessaloniki on 9 April, while Athens was captured on 27 April. Most fighting ended with the Battle of Crete. Greece suffered major damages in the war.
+
+Between 1946 and 1949, the Greeks fought a civil war. The fighting was between the communists and the people who supported the king, who also had support from the United Kingdom and the United States. The war left the country devastated and the people very poor.
+
+In 1967 the military took control of the country and restricted democracy. Free elections were then held again 7 years later, and the Greeks voted to send the king away and declared a republic in 1974. Greece became a member of the European Union in 1981. Greece had seen rapid growth in the 1990s, but some of the country's economic statistics were modified to appear more correct than they were, as the government had lied with the help of banks from the United States. In 2004, Greece hosted the Olympic Games for a second time. Since 2009, Greece has been in an economic crisis, which is also becoming a political crisis.
+
+Greece is not a federal state like the United States, but a unitary state like the United Kingdom.  It  is ruled by a parliament, called the Hellenic Parliament (or Greek Parliament in Simple English), which has 300 members. It is a parliamentary republic, which means that, unlike in the United States, the President has very few powers. The person in charge of the government of Greece is the Prime Minister.
+
+Greece was a kingdom for most of its history as an independent nation. It officially became the Third Hellenic Republic (or Third Republic of Greece in Simple English) in 1975, when the monarchy was abolished by a popular vote.
+
+Greece was under a military dictatorship between 1966 and 1975.  Demonstrations by the students of the universities across Greece took place in 1973, but were suppressed by the regime, which forcibly stopped the protests.  The dictatorship collapsed after the invasion of Cyprus, and handed over power to Constantine Karamanlis.
+
+There are many political parties in Greece, but only seven are in the Greek parliament.  Until 2015, only two political parties formed governments, the PASOK party (which is social democratic) and New Democracy (ND, which is conservative).  The government ousted in the 2015 election was led by PASOK, DIMAR AND ND. Other parties include the Communist party, the left-wing SYRIZA party, the nationalist party and others. SYRIZA, led by Alexis Tsipras, won the 2015 parliamentary election held on January 25 of that year, and entered into a coalition government with the small right-wing party Greek Independents.
+
+The divisions of Greece are called 'Peripheries'. As of January 2011, there are 13 peripheries in Greece.[9] Peripheries are subdivided into 'peripheral units', and previously they were known as 'prefecture', but prefectures were abolished in 2011.[9] The most populated peripheries in Greece are Attica, where the capital city of Greece, Athens, is, and Central Macedonia, where Greece's second-largest city, Thessaloniki, is. All the peripheries, and their capital cities, are:
+
+1. Attica — Athens
+2. Central Greece — Lamia
+3. Central Macedonia — Thessaloniki
+4. Crete — Heraklion
+5. East Macedonia and Thrace — Komotini
+6. Epirus — Ioannina
+7. Ionian Islands — Corfu
+
+8. North Aegean — Mytilene
+9. Peloponnese — Tripoli
+10. South Aegean — Ermoupoli
+11. Thessaly — Larissa
+12. West Greece — Patras
+13. West Macedonia — Kozani
+
+Greece is a small country compared to other countries such as the United States, Spain , Italy, and the United Kingdom. The population of Greece is estimated to be over 10 million. Most of the people in Greece are Greeks, and they form 94% of the population of the country.[10] There are also many Albanians in Greece, and they make up 4% of the population.[10] Other nationalities make up for another 2% of the country.[10]
+
+The Greek government recognizes only one minority in the country, the Turkish one in the region of Thrace. The dispute between Greece and the Republic of Macedonia has resulted in the refusal of Greece to acknowledge the existence of a Macedonian minority. The 2001 population census showed only 747 citizens of the Republic of Macedonia in Greece.[10] The Republic of Macedonia says that there are a maximum of 300,000 ethnic Macedonians in Greece, but Greece says that if there is a minority in the country, it would not be more than 30,000 people, in the northern part of the country, near the border with the Republic of Macedonia. This is also supported by international organizations.[11]
+
+The Greek flag was officially adopted in 1828 as a civil and state ensign (a flag for use only on boats and ships) and as a national flag when flown outside of Greece, for example on embassies. A different flag (white cross on a blue field) was used as a land flag within Greece from 1828 until 1969 and from 1975 to 1978. In 1978 the current flag became national flag and the older land flag was abolished.
+
+There are many theories about the origin of the color of the flag. One says that the blue represents the color of the sea and the white represents the waves, and others include white for the waves and blue for the sky and white for purity and breakaway from tyranny and blue for Greece. There are nine stripes on the flag, which according to the legend represent the nine syllables in the phrase “Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος’’ which means “freedom or death.’’ The cross stands for Christianity.
+
+Greece is a capitalist country, like the United States and France. Greece has the largest number of trading ships (a 'merchant navy') in the world. Tourism is also a major source of income for Greece. In the 20th century Greece had its own currency but now uses the Euro as most other European Community countries do.
+
+Greece has adopted some welfare state policies, such as public healthcare and free education, like many other European countries. Greece, however, has not collected enough taxes to pay for them. The pension system is especially expensive.
+
+This is putting Greece in a very difficult situation when the country has accumulated a debt of about €350 billion, or debt by 170 per-cent of the country's total GDP.[12][13]  Greece also has a trade deficit, meaning that it buys more things than it sells.  The country is cutting costs and asking for loans in order to avoid bankruptcy.
+
+About 30 million tourists visit Greece each year. That is more than the country’s entire population. To serve the many tourists, Greece has many international airports. Tourism also makes up more than 20% of the Greek GDP.[14]

ensimple/2285.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
+
+Greece (Greek: Ελλάδα [eˈlaða] or Ελλάς [eˈlas]), officially the Hellenic Republic (Greek: Ελληνική Δημοκρατία [eliniˈkʲi ðimokraˈtia]),[8] (historically known as Hellas) (Greek: Ελλάς), is a country in Southeastern Europe. Its capital city is Athens.
+
+It borders Albania, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea is to the East and South of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea is to the West. Both are part of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea and have many islands. 80% of the country is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak.
+
+Ancient Greece created democracy, philosophy, science and mathematics, drama and theater and the Olympic Games.
+
+Greece is a parliamentary republic, in which the leader of the party with more seats in the parliament is the Prime Minister. The country has a President, but his powers are ceremonial. He is the head of state, not head of government, much like how Kings and Queens operate in constitutional monarchies and is elected by Parliament and not the people. Its economy is the highest in the Balkans region, though facing financial difficulties due to a Greek government-debt crisis.
+
+The official language spoken in Greece is Greek, spoken by 99% of the population and 90% of the population identifies as Christian Orthodox. Many Greeks also understand English, French and German, which are taught in schools. Greece was a founding member of the United Nations, joined NATO in 1952, became a member of the European Union in 1981 and adopted the Euro in 2001. Due to the large tourism industry, powerful shipping sector and its geostrategic importance, it is classified as a middle power.
+
+Greece's history is one of the richest in the world. The Greeks were one of the most advanced civilizations. Greece is famous for its many philosophers, like Plato and Aristotle, and kings like Alexander the Great and Leonidas. Greece is said to be the birthplace of Democracy, because city-states like Athens, now the capital of Greece, were the first to elect their leaders and not have kings. During the years of Alexander the Great, a huge Macedonian empire was created that stretched from modern-day Greece to Egypt and Iran, until the borders of India.  Because of the significant role that Greek culture played during that time, it is called the Hellenistic period (or Greek-dominated period).  During that time, the Greek language became the 'lingua franca' of the Middle East, which means the language that people who do not speak the same language use to communicate, like English is used today as an international language.
+
+Greece was then ruled by the Roman Empire, and many argue that Rome conquered Greece with its army, but Greece conquered Rome with its culture. The Roman Empire after the conquest of Greece became a civilization known as the Greco-Roman (or Greek-Roman) civilization.  When the Roman Empire collapsed, the Greeks emerged as the ruling class of the Byzantine Empire, and the Greek language became the official language of the empire, which included all the territories around the eastern Mediterranean Sea.  It was then occupied by the Ottoman Empire for a period of 400 years. Some areas of Greece, like the second-largest city in the country, Thessaloniki, were occupied for 500 years and became part of Greece in the early 20th century.
+
+The Greek War of Independence began in 1821 and Greece was an independent country (a republic) in 1828.  In 1832 Greece was made a kingdom by the United Kingdom and Russia, under the German Wittelsbach dynasty.
+
+In 1912, Greece took part in the Balkan Wars, where it gained many of the territories that make up the country now, such as Greek Macedonia and the islands of the Aegean Sea. Greece fought in both World War I and World War II in the side of allies. During World War I, Greece was divided into two countries, the State of Thessaloniki in the north and the State of Athens in the south.  Both countries claimed to be the legitimate government of Greece, but the State of Thessaloniki received support from the Allies.  The country was reunited in 1917, when the King abdicated.  In 1920 Greece expanded again, and briefly reached its maximum size.  The territories that the country had gained in Turkey were given back to Turkey in the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, but Greece kept Western Thrace.  The king returned in 1935, and Greece was under a fascist dictatorship from 1936 until 1941, friendly to the Allies, when it was invaded by Nazi Germany.
+
+In 1940, Greece was invaded by Italy, but defeated the invasion. This was the first victory of an Allied country against an Axis power. After this, Hitler decided to attack Greece sooner than he had planned. Germany invaded on 6 April 1940 and captured Greece's second-largest city of Thessaloniki on 9 April, while Athens was captured on 27 April. Most fighting ended with the Battle of Crete. Greece suffered major damages in the war.
+
+Between 1946 and 1949, the Greeks fought a civil war. The fighting was between the communists and the people who supported the king, who also had support from the United Kingdom and the United States. The war left the country devastated and the people very poor.
+
+In 1967 the military took control of the country and restricted democracy. Free elections were then held again 7 years later, and the Greeks voted to send the king away and declared a republic in 1974. Greece became a member of the European Union in 1981. Greece had seen rapid growth in the 1990s, but some of the country's economic statistics were modified to appear more correct than they were, as the government had lied with the help of banks from the United States. In 2004, Greece hosted the Olympic Games for a second time. Since 2009, Greece has been in an economic crisis, which is also becoming a political crisis.
+
+Greece is not a federal state like the United States, but a unitary state like the United Kingdom.  It  is ruled by a parliament, called the Hellenic Parliament (or Greek Parliament in Simple English), which has 300 members. It is a parliamentary republic, which means that, unlike in the United States, the President has very few powers. The person in charge of the government of Greece is the Prime Minister.
+
+Greece was a kingdom for most of its history as an independent nation. It officially became the Third Hellenic Republic (or Third Republic of Greece in Simple English) in 1975, when the monarchy was abolished by a popular vote.
+
+Greece was under a military dictatorship between 1966 and 1975.  Demonstrations by the students of the universities across Greece took place in 1973, but were suppressed by the regime, which forcibly stopped the protests.  The dictatorship collapsed after the invasion of Cyprus, and handed over power to Constantine Karamanlis.
+
+There are many political parties in Greece, but only seven are in the Greek parliament.  Until 2015, only two political parties formed governments, the PASOK party (which is social democratic) and New Democracy (ND, which is conservative).  The government ousted in the 2015 election was led by PASOK, DIMAR AND ND. Other parties include the Communist party, the left-wing SYRIZA party, the nationalist party and others. SYRIZA, led by Alexis Tsipras, won the 2015 parliamentary election held on January 25 of that year, and entered into a coalition government with the small right-wing party Greek Independents.
+
+The divisions of Greece are called 'Peripheries'. As of January 2011, there are 13 peripheries in Greece.[9] Peripheries are subdivided into 'peripheral units', and previously they were known as 'prefecture', but prefectures were abolished in 2011.[9] The most populated peripheries in Greece are Attica, where the capital city of Greece, Athens, is, and Central Macedonia, where Greece's second-largest city, Thessaloniki, is. All the peripheries, and their capital cities, are:
+
+1. Attica — Athens
+2. Central Greece — Lamia
+3. Central Macedonia — Thessaloniki
+4. Crete — Heraklion
+5. East Macedonia and Thrace — Komotini
+6. Epirus — Ioannina
+7. Ionian Islands — Corfu
+
+8. North Aegean — Mytilene
+9. Peloponnese — Tripoli
+10. South Aegean — Ermoupoli
+11. Thessaly — Larissa
+12. West Greece — Patras
+13. West Macedonia — Kozani
+
+Greece is a small country compared to other countries such as the United States, Spain , Italy, and the United Kingdom. The population of Greece is estimated to be over 10 million. Most of the people in Greece are Greeks, and they form 94% of the population of the country.[10] There are also many Albanians in Greece, and they make up 4% of the population.[10] Other nationalities make up for another 2% of the country.[10]
+
+The Greek government recognizes only one minority in the country, the Turkish one in the region of Thrace. The dispute between Greece and the Republic of Macedonia has resulted in the refusal of Greece to acknowledge the existence of a Macedonian minority. The 2001 population census showed only 747 citizens of the Republic of Macedonia in Greece.[10] The Republic of Macedonia says that there are a maximum of 300,000 ethnic Macedonians in Greece, but Greece says that if there is a minority in the country, it would not be more than 30,000 people, in the northern part of the country, near the border with the Republic of Macedonia. This is also supported by international organizations.[11]
+
+The Greek flag was officially adopted in 1828 as a civil and state ensign (a flag for use only on boats and ships) and as a national flag when flown outside of Greece, for example on embassies. A different flag (white cross on a blue field) was used as a land flag within Greece from 1828 until 1969 and from 1975 to 1978. In 1978 the current flag became national flag and the older land flag was abolished.
+
+There are many theories about the origin of the color of the flag. One says that the blue represents the color of the sea and the white represents the waves, and others include white for the waves and blue for the sky and white for purity and breakaway from tyranny and blue for Greece. There are nine stripes on the flag, which according to the legend represent the nine syllables in the phrase “Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος’’ which means “freedom or death.’’ The cross stands for Christianity.
+
+Greece is a capitalist country, like the United States and France. Greece has the largest number of trading ships (a 'merchant navy') in the world. Tourism is also a major source of income for Greece. In the 20th century Greece had its own currency but now uses the Euro as most other European Community countries do.
+
+Greece has adopted some welfare state policies, such as public healthcare and free education, like many other European countries. Greece, however, has not collected enough taxes to pay for them. The pension system is especially expensive.
+
+This is putting Greece in a very difficult situation when the country has accumulated a debt of about €350 billion, or debt by 170 per-cent of the country's total GDP.[12][13]  Greece also has a trade deficit, meaning that it buys more things than it sells.  The country is cutting costs and asking for loans in order to avoid bankruptcy.
+
+About 30 million tourists visit Greece each year. That is more than the country’s entire population. To serve the many tourists, Greece has many international airports. Tourism also makes up more than 20% of the Greek GDP.[14]

ensimple/2286.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+Ancient Greek was an Indo-European language spoken in Ancient Greece from the 9th to the 4th century BC. Ancient Greek and Latin are very important languages. Although they are no longer spoken, they influenced almost all modern European languages.
+
+Greek had many different dialects.[2] Attic Greek was spoken in Athens, the largest city, and was thought to be the purest form of Greek. Later, in the educated Roman world, children were taught Greek as a second language in the same way that many people now learn English as their second language. Koine Greek was then the common language of Greeks. It used and mixed Attic Greek with several other dialects.
+
+Ancient Greek poets like Homer were written in an old dialect that was somewhat different from Attic Greek. The Iliad and the Odyssey are long poems that tell exciting stories about warfare, travel and the Greek gods. In the 5th century BC, some great plays were written by Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. The "Golden Age" of Ancient Greece then inspired the literature that has inspired and been read by people for centuries.
+
+Attic Greek is the dialect that was spoken in Athens and the rest of the region of Attica. It is the most similar dialect to later Greek since it was the standard form of the language. It is studied in Ancient Greek courses since it was the most common dialect.
+
+All languages change with time, and Greek has changed a great deal over 2500 years. Modern Greek is often said to have started in the year 1453 AD.[3]
+
+Unlike Latin, the Ancient Greek language did not split into many languages, but it is still considered to be a separate language from the Modern Greek . Pronunciation has changed extensively. For instance, beta was prounced "b" in Ancient Greek but is pronounced "v" and the called "vita" in Modern Greek. The spelling has not changed much, which gives the appearance of less change than actually happened. Also, many different vowels and diphthongs all merged into "i", the vowel sound in the English word "ski". The tonal system of Ancient Greek has disappeared, but the language only recently changed its spelling to match that change,
+
+In spite of the extensive changes, it is remarkable how much has survived intact through the centuries.[4]
+
+There is a community near Trabzon, in Turkey, that speaks a dialect that is closer to Ancient Greek than Standard Modern Greek.[5]

ensimple/2287.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+Ancient Greek was an Indo-European language spoken in Ancient Greece from the 9th to the 4th century BC. Ancient Greek and Latin are very important languages. Although they are no longer spoken, they influenced almost all modern European languages.
+
+Greek had many different dialects.[2] Attic Greek was spoken in Athens, the largest city, and was thought to be the purest form of Greek. Later, in the educated Roman world, children were taught Greek as a second language in the same way that many people now learn English as their second language. Koine Greek was then the common language of Greeks. It used and mixed Attic Greek with several other dialects.
+
+Ancient Greek poets like Homer were written in an old dialect that was somewhat different from Attic Greek. The Iliad and the Odyssey are long poems that tell exciting stories about warfare, travel and the Greek gods. In the 5th century BC, some great plays were written by Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. The "Golden Age" of Ancient Greece then inspired the literature that has inspired and been read by people for centuries.
+
+Attic Greek is the dialect that was spoken in Athens and the rest of the region of Attica. It is the most similar dialect to later Greek since it was the standard form of the language. It is studied in Ancient Greek courses since it was the most common dialect.
+
+All languages change with time, and Greek has changed a great deal over 2500 years. Modern Greek is often said to have started in the year 1453 AD.[3]
+
+Unlike Latin, the Ancient Greek language did not split into many languages, but it is still considered to be a separate language from the Modern Greek . Pronunciation has changed extensively. For instance, beta was prounced "b" in Ancient Greek but is pronounced "v" and the called "vita" in Modern Greek. The spelling has not changed much, which gives the appearance of less change than actually happened. Also, many different vowels and diphthongs all merged into "i", the vowel sound in the English word "ski". The tonal system of Ancient Greek has disappeared, but the language only recently changed its spelling to match that change,
+
+In spite of the extensive changes, it is remarkable how much has survived intact through the centuries.[4]
+
+There is a community near Trabzon, in Turkey, that speaks a dialect that is closer to Ancient Greek than Standard Modern Greek.[5]

ensimple/2288.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
+
+Greece (Greek: Ελλάδα [eˈlaða] or Ελλάς [eˈlas]), officially the Hellenic Republic (Greek: Ελληνική Δημοκρατία [eliniˈkʲi ðimokraˈtia]),[8] (historically known as Hellas) (Greek: Ελλάς), is a country in Southeastern Europe. Its capital city is Athens.
+
+It borders Albania, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea is to the East and South of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea is to the West. Both are part of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea and have many islands. 80% of the country is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak.
+
+Ancient Greece created democracy, philosophy, science and mathematics, drama and theater and the Olympic Games.
+
+Greece is a parliamentary republic, in which the leader of the party with more seats in the parliament is the Prime Minister. The country has a President, but his powers are ceremonial. He is the head of state, not head of government, much like how Kings and Queens operate in constitutional monarchies and is elected by Parliament and not the people. Its economy is the highest in the Balkans region, though facing financial difficulties due to a Greek government-debt crisis.
+
+The official language spoken in Greece is Greek, spoken by 99% of the population and 90% of the population identifies as Christian Orthodox. Many Greeks also understand English, French and German, which are taught in schools. Greece was a founding member of the United Nations, joined NATO in 1952, became a member of the European Union in 1981 and adopted the Euro in 2001. Due to the large tourism industry, powerful shipping sector and its geostrategic importance, it is classified as a middle power.
+
+Greece's history is one of the richest in the world. The Greeks were one of the most advanced civilizations. Greece is famous for its many philosophers, like Plato and Aristotle, and kings like Alexander the Great and Leonidas. Greece is said to be the birthplace of Democracy, because city-states like Athens, now the capital of Greece, were the first to elect their leaders and not have kings. During the years of Alexander the Great, a huge Macedonian empire was created that stretched from modern-day Greece to Egypt and Iran, until the borders of India.  Because of the significant role that Greek culture played during that time, it is called the Hellenistic period (or Greek-dominated period).  During that time, the Greek language became the 'lingua franca' of the Middle East, which means the language that people who do not speak the same language use to communicate, like English is used today as an international language.
+
+Greece was then ruled by the Roman Empire, and many argue that Rome conquered Greece with its army, but Greece conquered Rome with its culture. The Roman Empire after the conquest of Greece became a civilization known as the Greco-Roman (or Greek-Roman) civilization.  When the Roman Empire collapsed, the Greeks emerged as the ruling class of the Byzantine Empire, and the Greek language became the official language of the empire, which included all the territories around the eastern Mediterranean Sea.  It was then occupied by the Ottoman Empire for a period of 400 years. Some areas of Greece, like the second-largest city in the country, Thessaloniki, were occupied for 500 years and became part of Greece in the early 20th century.
+
+The Greek War of Independence began in 1821 and Greece was an independent country (a republic) in 1828.  In 1832 Greece was made a kingdom by the United Kingdom and Russia, under the German Wittelsbach dynasty.
+
+In 1912, Greece took part in the Balkan Wars, where it gained many of the territories that make up the country now, such as Greek Macedonia and the islands of the Aegean Sea. Greece fought in both World War I and World War II in the side of allies. During World War I, Greece was divided into two countries, the State of Thessaloniki in the north and the State of Athens in the south.  Both countries claimed to be the legitimate government of Greece, but the State of Thessaloniki received support from the Allies.  The country was reunited in 1917, when the King abdicated.  In 1920 Greece expanded again, and briefly reached its maximum size.  The territories that the country had gained in Turkey were given back to Turkey in the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, but Greece kept Western Thrace.  The king returned in 1935, and Greece was under a fascist dictatorship from 1936 until 1941, friendly to the Allies, when it was invaded by Nazi Germany.
+
+In 1940, Greece was invaded by Italy, but defeated the invasion. This was the first victory of an Allied country against an Axis power. After this, Hitler decided to attack Greece sooner than he had planned. Germany invaded on 6 April 1940 and captured Greece's second-largest city of Thessaloniki on 9 April, while Athens was captured on 27 April. Most fighting ended with the Battle of Crete. Greece suffered major damages in the war.
+
+Between 1946 and 1949, the Greeks fought a civil war. The fighting was between the communists and the people who supported the king, who also had support from the United Kingdom and the United States. The war left the country devastated and the people very poor.
+
+In 1967 the military took control of the country and restricted democracy. Free elections were then held again 7 years later, and the Greeks voted to send the king away and declared a republic in 1974. Greece became a member of the European Union in 1981. Greece had seen rapid growth in the 1990s, but some of the country's economic statistics were modified to appear more correct than they were, as the government had lied with the help of banks from the United States. In 2004, Greece hosted the Olympic Games for a second time. Since 2009, Greece has been in an economic crisis, which is also becoming a political crisis.
+
+Greece is not a federal state like the United States, but a unitary state like the United Kingdom.  It  is ruled by a parliament, called the Hellenic Parliament (or Greek Parliament in Simple English), which has 300 members. It is a parliamentary republic, which means that, unlike in the United States, the President has very few powers. The person in charge of the government of Greece is the Prime Minister.
+
+Greece was a kingdom for most of its history as an independent nation. It officially became the Third Hellenic Republic (or Third Republic of Greece in Simple English) in 1975, when the monarchy was abolished by a popular vote.
+
+Greece was under a military dictatorship between 1966 and 1975.  Demonstrations by the students of the universities across Greece took place in 1973, but were suppressed by the regime, which forcibly stopped the protests.  The dictatorship collapsed after the invasion of Cyprus, and handed over power to Constantine Karamanlis.
+
+There are many political parties in Greece, but only seven are in the Greek parliament.  Until 2015, only two political parties formed governments, the PASOK party (which is social democratic) and New Democracy (ND, which is conservative).  The government ousted in the 2015 election was led by PASOK, DIMAR AND ND. Other parties include the Communist party, the left-wing SYRIZA party, the nationalist party and others. SYRIZA, led by Alexis Tsipras, won the 2015 parliamentary election held on January 25 of that year, and entered into a coalition government with the small right-wing party Greek Independents.
+
+The divisions of Greece are called 'Peripheries'. As of January 2011, there are 13 peripheries in Greece.[9] Peripheries are subdivided into 'peripheral units', and previously they were known as 'prefecture', but prefectures were abolished in 2011.[9] The most populated peripheries in Greece are Attica, where the capital city of Greece, Athens, is, and Central Macedonia, where Greece's second-largest city, Thessaloniki, is. All the peripheries, and their capital cities, are:
+
+1. Attica — Athens
+2. Central Greece — Lamia
+3. Central Macedonia — Thessaloniki
+4. Crete — Heraklion
+5. East Macedonia and Thrace — Komotini
+6. Epirus — Ioannina
+7. Ionian Islands — Corfu
+
+8. North Aegean — Mytilene
+9. Peloponnese — Tripoli
+10. South Aegean — Ermoupoli
+11. Thessaly — Larissa
+12. West Greece — Patras
+13. West Macedonia — Kozani
+
+Greece is a small country compared to other countries such as the United States, Spain , Italy, and the United Kingdom. The population of Greece is estimated to be over 10 million. Most of the people in Greece are Greeks, and they form 94% of the population of the country.[10] There are also many Albanians in Greece, and they make up 4% of the population.[10] Other nationalities make up for another 2% of the country.[10]
+
+The Greek government recognizes only one minority in the country, the Turkish one in the region of Thrace. The dispute between Greece and the Republic of Macedonia has resulted in the refusal of Greece to acknowledge the existence of a Macedonian minority. The 2001 population census showed only 747 citizens of the Republic of Macedonia in Greece.[10] The Republic of Macedonia says that there are a maximum of 300,000 ethnic Macedonians in Greece, but Greece says that if there is a minority in the country, it would not be more than 30,000 people, in the northern part of the country, near the border with the Republic of Macedonia. This is also supported by international organizations.[11]
+
+The Greek flag was officially adopted in 1828 as a civil and state ensign (a flag for use only on boats and ships) and as a national flag when flown outside of Greece, for example on embassies. A different flag (white cross on a blue field) was used as a land flag within Greece from 1828 until 1969 and from 1975 to 1978. In 1978 the current flag became national flag and the older land flag was abolished.
+
+There are many theories about the origin of the color of the flag. One says that the blue represents the color of the sea and the white represents the waves, and others include white for the waves and blue for the sky and white for purity and breakaway from tyranny and blue for Greece. There are nine stripes on the flag, which according to the legend represent the nine syllables in the phrase “Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος’’ which means “freedom or death.’’ The cross stands for Christianity.
+
+Greece is a capitalist country, like the United States and France. Greece has the largest number of trading ships (a 'merchant navy') in the world. Tourism is also a major source of income for Greece. In the 20th century Greece had its own currency but now uses the Euro as most other European Community countries do.
+
+Greece has adopted some welfare state policies, such as public healthcare and free education, like many other European countries. Greece, however, has not collected enough taxes to pay for them. The pension system is especially expensive.
+
+This is putting Greece in a very difficult situation when the country has accumulated a debt of about €350 billion, or debt by 170 per-cent of the country's total GDP.[12][13]  Greece also has a trade deficit, meaning that it buys more things than it sells.  The country is cutting costs and asking for loans in order to avoid bankruptcy.
+
+About 30 million tourists visit Greece each year. That is more than the country’s entire population. To serve the many tourists, Greece has many international airports. Tourism also makes up more than 20% of the Greek GDP.[14]

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+Green Lantern is the name of several fictional superheroes that appear in comic books published by DC Comics. The first was Alan Scott and was created by writer Bill Finger and artist Martin Nodell in All-American Comics #16 in July 1940.
+
+The most famous is Hal Jordan and was created by John Broome and Gil Kane in Showcase #22 in October 1959.
+
+Each Green Lantern wears a power ring that allows the Green Lantern to control the physical world by strength of will.
+
+Alan Scott was the Golden Age Green Lantern and his ring was powered by magic.
+
+All of the Green Lanterns since then have worn rings that were not magic, but advanced technology. The Guardians of the Universe created the power rings and granted them to worthy candidates throughout the galaxy. These individuals make up the Green Lantern Corps, an intergalactic police force.
+
+His archenemy is Sinestro.
+
+Alan Scott was a young engineer when he found a metal lantern that glowed with a magical green flame. The flame told Alan how to build a ring. Alan used the power of the ring to fight crime. Alan was a founding member of the Justice Society of America.
+
+Alan Scott's power ring had to be recharged every 24 hours and did not work on wood.
+
+Hal Jordan was an airplane test pilot. Jordan was given his power ring by a dying alien named Abin Sur, whose spaceship had crashed on Earth. Jordan was a founding member of the Justice League of America and also a member of the Green Lantern Corps.
+
+At First Hal Jordan's power ring didn't work on anything yellow.
+
+Hal Jordan's hometown Coast City was destroyed in the early 1990s and he went insane. Jordan destroyed the Green Lantern Corps and renamed himself Parallax. Jordan later died, sacrificing himself to reignite a dying Sun only to return from the grave as the Spectre, the divine Spirit of God's Vengeance.
+
+Hal Jordan was later brought back to life and he once again became a Green Lantern. He also made an oath to recharge the power ring:
+"In brightest day, in blackest night
+No evil shall escape my sight,
+Let those who worship evil's might,
+Beware my power...Green lantern's light!"
+
+Guy Gardner
+
+Guy Gardner was the second choice of Abin Sur and the backup to Hal Jordan.
+
+John Stewart
+
+John Stewart, an architect, was chosen by the Guardians to replace Guy Gardner as the backup Green Lantern for Hal Jordan.
+
+Kyle Rayner
+
+Kyle Rayner, a freelance artist, was given the last power ring, and restored the Guardians and Corps after Jordan destroyed them as Parallax. Later Kyle became Ion, the manifestation of willpower, for a short time.

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+Andy Warhol (Andrew Warhol, Jr.; August 6, 1928 – February 22, 1987)[1] was one of the most famous American artists of the latter half of the 20th century. Many people think that Warhol is the "bellwether of the art market".[2]
+
+Warhol was born Andrew Warhola, Jr. in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on August 6, 1928. He graduated from the Carnegie Institute of Technology before moving to New York. His first big break was in August 1949 when he was asked to illustrate an article in Glamour Magazine. He dropped the 'a' from the end of his name when the credits read "Drawings by Andrew Warhol". Warhol was also famous for painting Campbells' and Watties' soup cans. He painted about 300 different paintings. .[3] He originally worked as a commercial artist. He designed things like advertisements and window displays for stores. He soon became famous as an artist in the Pop Art movement, in which everyday objects and media images were used. One of his most famous paintings is his colourful portrait of American movie star, Marilyn Monroe. After she died he was deeply moved, and wanted to create some sort of memorial.
+
+In 1968, Warhol was shot by Valerie Solanas. He was known for his The Factory studio in New York City where most of his work was created.
+
+In 1987, Warhol was in a hospital in New York City after an operation on his gallbladder. He died in his sleep from a sudden post-operative cardiac arrhythmia, aged 58.[4] His family sued the hospital for inadequate care, saying that the arrhythmia was caused by improper care and water poisoning.