e88bed5dd09d5788cbce2e2fc775f333b9cba7c2495e0ee4349f8c3cb11af927

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+Hans Christian Andersen (2 April 1805 – 4 August 1875) was a Danish writer.
+
+Andersen was born in Odense, Denmark. His father was a shoemaker, and his mother washed clothes for customers. The family was poor. When Andersen was 11, his father died. At 14, Andersen left his mother and his home. He moved to Copenhagen.
+
+The king helped Andersen finish his education. Andersen wanted to be an actor or dancer. He did not have the talent for either. He started to write novels, plays, poems, short stories, and travel books. In 1835, he published four fairy tales that were liked by the readers. After this success, he wanted to write more fairy tales.
+
+Andersen's stories were popular all over Europe. He was invited into the homes of rich and powerful people. He fell in love with several men and women. He was in love with singer Jenny Lind. He also fell in love with ballet dancer Harald Scharff.
+
+Andersen was a happy and carefree man. He travelled all over Europe. He wanted to see the sights. He hoped travelling would make him even happier. He always carried a rope with him. He planned to use this rope as a fire escape if needed.[1] In the spring of 1872, Andersen fell off of his bed and did not recover. Soon after that, Andersen showed signs of liver cancer. He died on 4 August 1875 from complications following a fall and from liver cancer.

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+Giacomo Leopardi (Recanati June 29, 1798 – Naples June 14, 1837) was an Italian poet, essayist, philosopher, and philologist. He is considered one of the greatest poets of the 19th century. 
+Even if he lived in a secluded town in the ultra-conservative Papal States, he came in touch with the main thoughts of the Enlightenment, and, by his own literary evolution, created a remarkable, renowned and pessimist poetic work, related to the Romantic era.

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+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)
+
+Gibraltar is an Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom. This means it shares the British King or Queen and has the protection of the British Armed Forces. It is in southwest Europe on the Mediterranean Sea. About 32,000 people live there. They are called Gibraltarians.
+
+Gibraltar has always been important as a military base because this is where the Mediterranean Sea narrows to only 14 kilometres (9 miles) at the Strait of Gibraltar. This meant that whichever country controlled Gibraltar could see all ships that came into the Mediterranean Sea.
+
+Gibraltar is most famous for The Rock of Gibraltar, a 426 meter high limestone rock rising out of the sea. The rock can be seen for many miles. It is home to the Barbary Apes, a type of tail-less macaque which are the only wild monkeys in Europe.
+
+Gibraltar was named for a general who led the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. It belonged to Spain between the years 1501 and 1704, and it was captured by a group of Dutch and British marines during the War of the Spanish Succession (1704). In 1713, Spain signed the Treaty of Utrecht. This treaty ended the war and said Gibraltar would be British permanently. However, according to this treaty, if the Crown of Great Britain ever wants to leave the territory, the Crown of Spain will have a prior position in order to claim the sovereignty.
+
+Ever since then, Spain has tried to get Gibraltar back. They attacked the Rock several times in the 18th century.
+However, since the 1950s, Spain has tried get Gibraltar by diplomacy (international relations) by putting different kinds of pressure and restrictions on the people of Gibraltar.[8]
+
+Gibraltar was very important in World War II. Since it was in such a good position, it was the perfect place for the British army and navy to have its base. In World War II the people living in Gibraltar were taken to different parts of the world like Jamaica so they could be protected from the war and also leave the Rock for the soldiers. The Rock of Gibraltar was used by these soldiers, and long tunnels were made inside it. These tunnels even had a hospital and living areas for the soldiers.
+
+In 1969 Britain gave Gibraltar a new constitution. This meant that it gave the people of Gibraltar a large amount of self-government.
+
+In 2002 the people of Gibraltar were asked to vote whether they wanted Spain to share Gibraltar with the United Kingdom; almost everyone voted and 98.97% said they did not.
+
+In 2006 Gibraltar voted to approve a new constitution which gave full self-government to the people meaning they can independently create their own laws.
+
+In 2006, Spain signed a deal to stop interfering with Gibraltar telephone lines, and daily flights to Madrid started.[9]

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+The GNU Image Manipulation Program, or GIMP, is a free software picture maker.
+
+It is often used for making logos, making photographs bigger or smaller, changing colours, making many pictures part of one picture, making pictures nicer to look at, and changing file formats.
+
+GIMP is often used as a free software alternative for the most popular Adobe Photoshop, but it is not made to be an Adobe Photoshop clone. GIMPs mascot is named Wilber.
+
+GIMP was started in 1995 by Spencer Kimball and Peter Mattis and is now taken care of by a group of volunteers as part of the GNU Project. The newest version of GIMP is v.2.8 and it was available since March 2009. GIMPs license is the GNU General Public License, so GIMP is free software.
+
+GIMP can be used for opening and changing many types of file formats.  GIMPs own file format is XCF, which is the name of the building where GIMP was written.
+
+Some file formats that GIMP can be used with are bitmap, JPEG, PNG, GIF and TIFF. GIMP can also read and write path information from SVG files and GIMP can read Adobe PDF files and the raw image formats used by digital cameras, but cannot write to these formats.

ensimple/2203.html.txt

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+The GNU Image Manipulation Program, or GIMP, is a free software picture maker.
+
+It is often used for making logos, making photographs bigger or smaller, changing colours, making many pictures part of one picture, making pictures nicer to look at, and changing file formats.
+
+GIMP is often used as a free software alternative for the most popular Adobe Photoshop, but it is not made to be an Adobe Photoshop clone. GIMPs mascot is named Wilber.
+
+GIMP was started in 1995 by Spencer Kimball and Peter Mattis and is now taken care of by a group of volunteers as part of the GNU Project. The newest version of GIMP is v.2.8 and it was available since March 2009. GIMPs license is the GNU General Public License, so GIMP is free software.
+
+GIMP can be used for opening and changing many types of file formats.  GIMPs own file format is XCF, which is the name of the building where GIMP was written.
+
+Some file formats that GIMP can be used with are bitmap, JPEG, PNG, GIF and TIFF. GIMP can also read and write path information from SVG files and GIMP can read Adobe PDF files and the raw image formats used by digital cameras, but cannot write to these formats.

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+
+
+A giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) is a mammal which lives in Africa. Giraffes have an even number of toes and are the tallest land animals. Giraffes and Okapi are the family Giraffidae.
+
+Giraffes have a very long neck and long legs. Giraffes are the tallest land animals on Earth, with necks that can be up to 2-2.4 m (6.6-7.9 ft) in length.[1][2][3] Fully grown giraffes stand 4.3–5.7 m (14.1–18.7 ft) tall, with males taller than females.[4][1][2] The tallest recorded male was 5.88 m (19.3 ft) and the tallest recorded female was 5.17 m (17.0 ft) tall.[5][4] The average weight is 1,192 kg (2,628 lb) for an adult male and 828 kg (1,825 lb) for an adult female.[6] Maximum weights of 1,930 kg (4,250 lb) and having been recorded for males and females, respectively.[1][2] They have a long black tongue, up to 45 cm in length.[1][2] This they use to wrap around leaves and pull them off trees.
+
+Their fur has a light yellowish tan or off-white colour with brown or russet patches.  No two giraffes have the same pattern. The different sub-species have different coat patterns. Both male and female giraffes have small horn-like stumps on their head, which are covered with skin. The horns are called ossicones. These come from the cartilage displaced from their skull as it develops. These are fur-covered bumps on their skulls, unlike the horns of other animals.
+
+Giraffes are found in parts of Africa. They live on the savannah, which is the African grassland, or in light woodland. They do not live in thick forests where it is difficult to see predators, such as lions, approaching.The temperature is normally around 70 degrees. Most giraffes live either in East Africa or in Angola and Zambia in southwestern Africa.
+
+Giraffes eat mostly leaves from tall trees, which they can reach because of their long legs and long necks, as well as fruit. Their rough tongue allows them to eat the acacia leaves protected by thorns. They can go without water for weeks. Like all mammals, giraffes have only seven bones in their necks.
+
+Giraffes live alone or in loose groups. Young male giraffes foa single baby, which is called "calf". Giraffes give birth while standing, so the baby falls down 2 metres. Giraffe calfs are already 2 m tall and weigh 50-55 kg.[1][2] The calf stays with its mother for 1½ years. Young giraffes become mature when they are 4 years old, and they are fully grown when they are 6 years old. Giraffes can live to 25 years old, and in captivity they can live 35 years.
+
+Giraffes use their feet to kick predators away, and mature male giraffes use their head and necks to fight for dominance at mating time.
+
+There are about nine different subspecies of giraffe, with only small differences between them. When giraffes of two different sub-species breed, the young are called hybrids (mixed breeds). Of the nine sub-species of giraffe, only one, the Rothchild's, is endangered.

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+
+
+A giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) is a mammal which lives in Africa. Giraffes have an even number of toes and are the tallest land animals. Giraffes and Okapi are the family Giraffidae.
+
+Giraffes have a very long neck and long legs. Giraffes are the tallest land animals on Earth, with necks that can be up to 2-2.4 m (6.6-7.9 ft) in length.[1][2][3] Fully grown giraffes stand 4.3–5.7 m (14.1–18.7 ft) tall, with males taller than females.[4][1][2] The tallest recorded male was 5.88 m (19.3 ft) and the tallest recorded female was 5.17 m (17.0 ft) tall.[5][4] The average weight is 1,192 kg (2,628 lb) for an adult male and 828 kg (1,825 lb) for an adult female.[6] Maximum weights of 1,930 kg (4,250 lb) and having been recorded for males and females, respectively.[1][2] They have a long black tongue, up to 45 cm in length.[1][2] This they use to wrap around leaves and pull them off trees.
+
+Their fur has a light yellowish tan or off-white colour with brown or russet patches.  No two giraffes have the same pattern. The different sub-species have different coat patterns. Both male and female giraffes have small horn-like stumps on their head, which are covered with skin. The horns are called ossicones. These come from the cartilage displaced from their skull as it develops. These are fur-covered bumps on their skulls, unlike the horns of other animals.
+
+Giraffes are found in parts of Africa. They live on the savannah, which is the African grassland, or in light woodland. They do not live in thick forests where it is difficult to see predators, such as lions, approaching.The temperature is normally around 70 degrees. Most giraffes live either in East Africa or in Angola and Zambia in southwestern Africa.
+
+Giraffes eat mostly leaves from tall trees, which they can reach because of their long legs and long necks, as well as fruit. Their rough tongue allows them to eat the acacia leaves protected by thorns. They can go without water for weeks. Like all mammals, giraffes have only seven bones in their necks.
+
+Giraffes live alone or in loose groups. Young male giraffes foa single baby, which is called "calf". Giraffes give birth while standing, so the baby falls down 2 metres. Giraffe calfs are already 2 m tall and weigh 50-55 kg.[1][2] The calf stays with its mother for 1½ years. Young giraffes become mature when they are 4 years old, and they are fully grown when they are 6 years old. Giraffes can live to 25 years old, and in captivity they can live 35 years.
+
+Giraffes use their feet to kick predators away, and mature male giraffes use their head and necks to fight for dominance at mating time.
+
+There are about nine different subspecies of giraffe, with only small differences between them. When giraffes of two different sub-species breed, the young are called hybrids (mixed breeds). Of the nine sub-species of giraffe, only one, the Rothchild's, is endangered.

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+
+
+A giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) is a mammal which lives in Africa. Giraffes have an even number of toes and are the tallest land animals. Giraffes and Okapi are the family Giraffidae.
+
+Giraffes have a very long neck and long legs. Giraffes are the tallest land animals on Earth, with necks that can be up to 2-2.4 m (6.6-7.9 ft) in length.[1][2][3] Fully grown giraffes stand 4.3–5.7 m (14.1–18.7 ft) tall, with males taller than females.[4][1][2] The tallest recorded male was 5.88 m (19.3 ft) and the tallest recorded female was 5.17 m (17.0 ft) tall.[5][4] The average weight is 1,192 kg (2,628 lb) for an adult male and 828 kg (1,825 lb) for an adult female.[6] Maximum weights of 1,930 kg (4,250 lb) and having been recorded for males and females, respectively.[1][2] They have a long black tongue, up to 45 cm in length.[1][2] This they use to wrap around leaves and pull them off trees.
+
+Their fur has a light yellowish tan or off-white colour with brown or russet patches.  No two giraffes have the same pattern. The different sub-species have different coat patterns. Both male and female giraffes have small horn-like stumps on their head, which are covered with skin. The horns are called ossicones. These come from the cartilage displaced from their skull as it develops. These are fur-covered bumps on their skulls, unlike the horns of other animals.
+
+Giraffes are found in parts of Africa. They live on the savannah, which is the African grassland, or in light woodland. They do not live in thick forests where it is difficult to see predators, such as lions, approaching.The temperature is normally around 70 degrees. Most giraffes live either in East Africa or in Angola and Zambia in southwestern Africa.
+
+Giraffes eat mostly leaves from tall trees, which they can reach because of their long legs and long necks, as well as fruit. Their rough tongue allows them to eat the acacia leaves protected by thorns. They can go without water for weeks. Like all mammals, giraffes have only seven bones in their necks.
+
+Giraffes live alone or in loose groups. Young male giraffes foa single baby, which is called "calf". Giraffes give birth while standing, so the baby falls down 2 metres. Giraffe calfs are already 2 m tall and weigh 50-55 kg.[1][2] The calf stays with its mother for 1½ years. Young giraffes become mature when they are 4 years old, and they are fully grown when they are 6 years old. Giraffes can live to 25 years old, and in captivity they can live 35 years.
+
+Giraffes use their feet to kick predators away, and mature male giraffes use their head and necks to fight for dominance at mating time.
+
+There are about nine different subspecies of giraffe, with only small differences between them. When giraffes of two different sub-species breed, the young are called hybrids (mixed breeds). Of the nine sub-species of giraffe, only one, the Rothchild's, is endangered.

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+Mining is the process of digging things out of the ground.  Any material that cannot be grown must be mined.  Mining things from the ground is called extraction.  Mining can include extraction of metals and minerals, like coal, diamond, gold, silver, platinum, copper, tin and iron.  Mining can also include other things like oil and natural gas.
+
+Some mining is done by scraping away the soil (dirt) from the top of the ground.  This is called surface mining.  Some mining is done by going deep underground into a mine shaft. This is called underground mining.  Some mining, such as gold mining, is done in other ways.  Gold can be mined by searching in the bed of a river or other stream of water to remove the flakes of gold.  This is called panning or placer mining.
+
+A worker in a mine is called a miner. Underground mining is a dangerous job.  Many mines have accidents. Hundreds of miners die every year from accidents, mostly in poor countries. Safety rules and special safety equipment is used to try and protect miners from accidents.  Underground coal mining is especially dangerous because coal can give off poisonous and explosive gases.
+
+Some towns are mining towns.  People live there because they can make money as miners or by doing things for miners.  When mining stops the town may become a ghost town.

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+The Roma are an ethnic group found mainly in Europe. They are also known as Roma.  In English they are often called Gypsies. Some Roma consider "gypsy" a slur.  The Roma are a nomadic people that originally came from the northern Indian subcontinent,[1][2][3] They came from the Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab and Sindh regions.[2][3]
+
+A DNA study by Indian and Estonian researchers shows that the Roma/Romani/Gypsy and Sinti people originate from the Untouchable Dalit community of their ancestral homeland.[4] They migrated northwest into Europe via the Middle East. Today there are populations of Roma found all over Europe, although the largest populations are in Eastern Europe, and their religions are: Eastern Christianity, Catholicism and Islam. Baptism by the Christian Roma and Male Circumcision by the Muslim Roma are practised.
+
+There are various groups of Roma: the Roma of East European birth;[5] the Sinti in Germany and Manouches in France and Catalonia; the Kaló in Spain, Ciganos in Portugal and Gitans of southern France; and the Romanichals of Britain.[6]
+
+The Romani language is now an official language in many countries of Europe under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[7]
+
+The 18th-century idea about the Indian birth of the Roma is based on the likeness between Romani[8] and languages spoken in the Indian subcontinent and is now supported by genetic evidence. The origins of the Roms were not known until 1763, when a theology student named Stefan Vali met Indian medical students. He noticed that they were physically similar to the Roms he saw in Hungary. He also noticed that they were using similar words.[9]
+
+It is believed to have been around the 11th century that Roms left India to go northwest, through Persia and the Middle East. Around the 15th century, the Roma reached the Balkans. From there, they dispersed through Europe. The first arrivals were well accepted. European people thought they were Christian pilgrims. The local people of Europe were fascinated by their nomadic way of life and their new sciences. The Roms were often recruited as mercenaries, horse trainers and circus artists. Roms were crossing Europe aboard large caravans which contained their luggage.[10]
+
+Roms also left a great musical heritage. Guitars and violins are part of their traditions. They influenced a lot of musical styles in Europe, such as flamenco, rumba, jazz, etc.[10] During World War II, Roma people suffered from the Nazis' discriminative policies. Statistics show that about 500,000 Roms died in Nazi concentration camps.[11]
+
+On 8 April 1971, the Roms' nationality was legally recognised in Europe. Since this day, 8 April is the Roms national day.[12]
+
+Even though they have been recognised, they still suffer from discrimination. Some countries still apply discriminative attitudes towards Roms, especially in workplaces and schools, where they are not accepted.[12] The main reason why they are not accepted is that they kept their nomadic lifestyle, which is against the law in some countries like France. Their squatting communities irritate locals.[13] The Romani created an association in 1978 to defend their rights.[14]

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+Giuseppe Mazzini (22 June 1805 – 10 March 1872) was an Italian patriot, philosopher, Freemason and politician. His efforts helped bring about the modern Italian state in place of the several separate states, many dominated by foreign powers, that existed until the 19th century. He also helped define the modern European movement for popular democracy in a republican state.
+
+Karl Marx, on an interview by R. Landor in 1871, said that Mazzini's ideas represents "nothing better than the old idea of a middle-class republic." Marx believed, especially after the Revolutions of 1848, that this middle class point of view had become reactionary and the proletariat had nothing to do with it.

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+The Andes are a mountain range along the western coast of South America.
+
+They stretch over 7,000 km / 4,400 miles from the south of Argentina and Chile to the north of Colombia. They are also found in Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador.
+
+The Amazon river system has its sources in the eastern flanks of the Andes.
+
+The Andes are the longest exposed mountain range of the world, and the second-highest after the Himalayas. The Andes mountain range is the highest mountain range outside Asia.
+
+Aconcagua, the highest peak, rises to 6,962 m (22,841 ft) above sea level. The top of Mount Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is the point on the Earth's surface most distant from its center. Mount Chimborazo is an inactive volcano in Ecuador, which last erupted over a thousand years ago.
+
+The Andes has three sections:
+
+The northern part has two parallel ranges. They are the Cordillera Occidental (western) and the Cordillera Oriental (eastern). The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word meaning 'rope'.
+
+In Colombia, north to the border with Ecuador, the Andes split in three parallel ranges, western, central and eastern.
+
+In the north the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Snowy Mountain Range of Saint Martha) is an isolated mountain range apart from the Andes chain that runs through Colombia. Reaching an altitude of 5,700 metres above sea level just 42 km from the Caribbean coast, the Sierra Nevada is the world's highest coastal range.
+
+The western range of the eastern Cordillia Oriental is the only one which reaches Colombia .[1]
+
+The Andes range is about 200 km (124 mi) wide throughout its length, except in Bolivia where it is 640 km (398 mi) wide. The islands of the Dutch Caribbean Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, which lie in the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela, represent the submerged tops of the northern edge of the Andes range.
+
+The Andes are a Mesozoic–Tertiary orogenic belt of mountains along the Pacific Ring of Fire.
+
+The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American continental plate. South America, like North America, has been moving west since the Cretaceous period.
+
+The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the Triassic and Jurassic when Pangea begun to break up and several rifts developed. It was during the Cretaceous period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting, faulting and folding of sedimentary and metamorphic rock of the ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant and different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and weathering.
+
+The climate in the Andes differs depending on which area, the altitude, and how close it is to the sea. The southern section is rainy and cool. The central Andes are dry. The northern Andes are normally rainy and warm, with an average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) in Colombia. The climate is known to change very much in rather short distances. Rainforests exist just miles away from the snow covered peak Cotopaxi. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The snow line depends on the location. It is at between 4,500 and 4,800 m (14,800–15,800 ft) in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, going up to 4,800–5,200 m (15,800–17,060 ft) in the drier mountains of southern Peru south to northern Chile south to about 30°S, then going down to 4,500 m (14,760 ft) on Aconcagua at 32°S, 2,000 m (6,600 ft) at 40°S, 500 m (1,640 ft) at 50°S, and only 300 m (980 ft) in Tierra del Fuego at 55°S; from 50°S, many of the bigger glaciers go down to sea level.[2]
+
+The Andes of Chile and Argentina can be put in two climatic and glaciological zones; the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes.
+
+Rainforests used to hold much of the northern Andes but are now reduced, especially in the Chocó and inter-Andean valleys of Colombia. Farming, deforestation, illegal crops, and population growth has done this.
+
+A direct opposite of the humid Andean slopes are the mostly dry Andean slopes in most of western Peru, Chile and Argentina. That area, and many Interandean Valles, normally have deciduous woodland, shrub and xeric vegetation, up to the mostly lifeless Atacama Desert.
+
+About 30,000 species of vascular plants live in the Andes. About half of those are endemic to the region: it is a hotspot. The small tree Cinchona pubescens is a source of quinine used to treat malaria. It is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia. Other important crops that came from the Andes are tobacco and potatoes.
+
+The high-altitude Polylepis forests and woodlands are found in the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile. These trees are called Queñua, Yagual and other names. They grow at altitudes of 4,500 m (14,760 ft) above sea level. It is still unclear if the patchy distribution of these forests and woodlands is natural, or the result of clearing which began during the Incan time. Regardless, in modern times the clearance has had a faster pace, and the trees are now  highly endangered.  Some think as little as 10% of the original woodland is still here.[3]
+
+The Andes has a lot of wildlife. With almost 1,000 species, of which about 2/3 are endemic to the region, the Andes is the most important region in the world for amphibians.[4]
+Animal diversity in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of mammals (13% endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (1/3 endemic), more than 600 species of reptiles (45% endemic), and almost 400 species of fish (1/3 endemic).[4]
+
+The Vicuña and Guanaco can be found living in the Altiplano, while the closely related domesticated Llama and Alpaca are commonly kept by locals as pack animals and for their meat and wool. The nocturnal chinchillas, two threatened members of the rodent order, live in the Andes' alpine regions. The Andean Condor, the largest bird of its kind in the Western Hemisphere, lives throughout much of the Andes but mostly in very low numbers. Other animals found in the mostly open habitats of the high Andes are the huemul, cougar, and foxes in the genus Pseudalopex. And for birds, some species of tinamous (they are members of the genus Nothoprocta), are the Andean Goose, Giant Coot, flamingos (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes),  Lesser Rhea, Andean Flicker, Diademed Sandpiper-plover, miners, sierra-finches and diuca-finches.

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+Giuseppe Verdi (born Roncole near Busseto, 9 or 10 October 1813; died Milan 27 January 1901) was an Italian composer of operas.
+
+Verdi and Richard Wagner were the greatest composers of opera in the 19th century although they were completely different from one another. When Verdi was a young man the most famous opera composers in Italy were Gaetano Donizetti and Vincenzo Bellini who wrote in the bel canto tradition. This meant that their operas had beautiful tunes which were written for singers to show off their voices, even if what they sang did not suit the story. During his long life Verdi changed opera so that it did not have to obey old-fashioned rules.
+
+The small village where Verdi was born lies in the valley of the Po River in the north of Italy. It was a poor district. His father was an innkeeper who had a small farm. The young boy must have been very talented. He was given a small harpsichord which he kept all his life. At the age of 9 he often played the organ for church services in the village when the organist was away.
+
+A few years later he composed music for the amateur orchestra in Busseto. A man called Antonio Barezzi knew many important people and he helped Verdi a lot. Later Verdi married a daughter of a friend. Barezzi sent him to Milan so that he could study, but Verdi had not been taught the piano properly and he did not get a place in the music conservatory. He had some private lessons and learned a lot about opera as well as about literature and politics. In 1839 he composed an opera: Oberto, conte di San Bonifacio, which was performed in La Scala, the world-famous opera house in Milan. It is not one of his greatest operas, but it helped him to become well-known and he was asked to write three more operas for La Scala. When his next opera was produced it was not a success: the audience did not like it and they hissed and booed. There was also tragedy in his personal life at this time: his two children and his wife all died.
+
+Verdi managed to overcome his unhappiness in 1842 when he produced his opera Nabucco. This was a great success and made him world-famous. He started to work very hard, composing two operas a year. He not only had to write the music but organize all the people to perform it. It was a huge workload. His opera Ernani (1844) was one of the best from this period. In 1847 he had another big success with Macbeth. This opera, based on Shakespeare’s famous play, is still one of the best-loved of all operas. He was becoming a success.
+
+For centuries Italy had been a collection of several countries, each with their own ruler. In the 1850s there was a lot of political unrest in the country. Verdi often wrote music for large choruses in his operas. The words of these choruses were often about fighting for freedom, and it was often thought that the songs were encouraging people to revolt. The song Va pensiero from his opera Nabucco was about the Hebrew slaves who were captive in Babylon. People chanted it in the streets with the words suitably changed. Verdi became a great national hero. Italy eventually became one country in 1861.
+
+Giuseppina Strepponi was the soprano who sang the part of Abigaille in Nabucco. Verdi fell in love with her. She had lived with another man and had three children so she felt that she was not good enough for Verdi. They eventually married in 1859. She was a great support to him until her death in 1897 although Verdi was not an easy husband to live with. He moved back to Busseto with her. He continued to travel a lot but did not let his wife come with him, leaving her behind in Busseto where she was not happy because many people there did not like her.
+
+Three more famous operas were written at this time: Rigoletto in 1851 and Il trovatore (The Troubadour) and La traviata, both in 1853. These operas have many tunes which became famous. They are full of exciting drama in which the characters are very skilfully described by the music. The music is not divided so clearly into recitative and aria like it had been for two centuries. Instead, the music is developing all the time, the arias run straight into the following music. He had a brilliant sense of drama, but he often had to fight hard to stop producers making changes to what he had written.
+
+Verdi often had trouble with the censors (the officials who decide whether the opera should be allowed to be performed). His opera Rigoletto was based on a story called Le roi s’amuse by Victor Hugo. The attempted murder of a king was not thought to be a suitable subject. Verdi had to change the king into a duke in his story and make some other changes before the opera could be performed. The story of his opera Traviata, based on a novel by Alexandre Dumas fils, was also thought to be immoral. At the first performance the audience laughed because the heroine, who is supposed to be dying of tuberculosis, then called "consumption"[1], was very fat. However, the opera soon became enormously popular.
+
+Verdi had become very famous by now, and was asked to compose for the Opéra in Paris. He had to write operas in the French style: operas with five acts and a ballet based on a serious story. None of the operas he wrote at this time for Paris belong to his best works. He was more inspired when writing for the Italian theatres. Simon Boccanegra has a complicated plot, but the characters are described beautifully by the music. Un ballo in maschera (The masked ball) was about the murder of King Gustav III of Sweden. Again the censors did not like it and he had to change the story to a setting in Boston which rather spoiled the story. In the 1860s his best works were La forza del destino (The Force of Destiny), written for St Petersburg, Don Carlos written for the Paris Opéra, and Aida for the new opera house in Cairo in Egypt. Aida is considered one of his most perfect works. The first performance was not without difficulties: Verdi was having a long argument with the conductor Mariani who refused to go to Cairo to conduct it. The argument was made worse by the newspapers who accused Verdi of taking Mariani’s girlfriend. This caused a great scandal.
+
+Verdi retired in the 1870s. He was a rich man who owned a lot of land. He gave a lot of money to charities, particularly to one charity for elderly musicians. Even in retirement he was persuaded by his publishers to write two more operas. He became fascinated by Shakespeare and he wrote Otello to a libretto by Arrigo Boito. This was a brilliant libretto and it helped him to write a great masterpiece in which every little detail of the story is beautifully described by the music. His very last opera, Falstaff (1893) is based on Shakespeare’s Merry Wives of Windsor. Verdi continued to write a few religious pieces in his old age. He died of a stroke in Milan in 1901.
+

ensimple/2211.html.txt

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+Ice is the common name for frozen water.  Other liquids, such as ammonia or methane or milk could be called ice when they freeze but they are called 'milk ice', for instance, instead of just 'ice'.  Liquid water becomes solid ice when it is very cold.  The freezing point is 0° Celsius (32° Fahrenheit or 273 kelvin).
+
+Ice is commonly made in a home refrigerator or freezer. If water is put in a freezer and left for a while, the water gets very cold and will freeze solid, creating ice. Water can be placed into a copper (or other metal) container to cause it freeze into ice faster. Metals are good conductors of heat, so water can freeze faster than in a plastic ice tray.
+
+Unlike other liquids, water expands as it freezes to become ice; so ice floats on water because ice has less density than water. This is very unusual - just about every other liquid gets more dense as it cools; water ice, however, is an important exception. Liquid water expands by about 9% as it becomes ice - it takes up more space. This is because the water molecules are actually farther apart instead of being closer together. The molecules in an ice crystal are arranged in a way that makes it less dense than liquid water.
+
+If water in plumbing freezes, it can burst the water pipe. Water in glass bottles can make them explode when it freezes.  Water freezing in rock cracks can expand enough to split hard rocks apart; this is an important geological weathering process that can wear down mountains and make rock into soil.
+
+When materials are cooled their molecules vibrate less and compact together. When most materials reach a temperature called the freezing point, the molecules form a crystalline solid - although some materials (like glass and tar) do not crystallise at all but form super stiff fluids, which seem to be solid. Only Helium will not freeze; all other substances will freeze if cold enough, but fluids like cooking oil, antifreeze, petrol (gasoline), nitrogen, etc. freeze at temperatures that most people don't experience.
+
+Salt water needs a lower temperature to freeze than pure water. The resulting ice contains much less salt than the salt water it came from. This fact has sometimes been used for desalination. Salty ice is not as strong as frozen pure water.  Similarly spreading salt on ice melts it, if it's not too cold: the salt progressively eats into the ice, forming brine which does not freeze at that temperature.
+
+Because ice floats, even large bodies of water that freeze, like some oceans, only form ice on the surface. Most lakes never freeze to the bottom. Even the coldest oceans, like the Arctic Ocean, only freeze on the top, leaving liquid ocean circulating below. Because of this the Earth's oceans are able to redistribute heat and the climate of the earth has less extremes of heat and cold than it would otherwise. If ice were to sink instead of float, the oceans would fill with ice from the bottom, would remain solid and only some of the top would thaw. A solid ocean would not circulate heat. But because ice floats on the surface the water beneath can continue to circulate and the ice on the surface stays exposed and readily melts when the temperature rises.
+
+Big bodies of ice on land are called glaciers. Antarctica has the majority of the world's ice.
+
+Climate change happens all the time.  When it is very cold it is called an ice age.  During ice ages very large areas of the earth are covered in ice, snow and glaciers. The causes of ice ages are complex, or hard to understand. Global warming is currently affecting the Earth's ice resources and its causes are also very complex.
+
+There is also 'dry ice'; it is frozen carbon dioxide. Dry ice exposed to normal air gives off carbon dioxide gas that is odorless and colorless. The gas is so cold that when it mixes with air it cools the water vapour in the air to fog, which looks like a thick white smoke. It is often used in the theatre to make fake fog or smoke.

ensimple/2212.html.txt

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+A glacier is a large body of ice and snow. It forms because the snow in an area does not all melt in summer. Each winter, more snow is added. The weight of all the snow creates pressure. This pressure turns the lower parts of the snow into ice. After this happens for many years, the glacier will start growing large. It becomes so heavy that gravity causes the ice to move. It flows downwards like water but very slowly. A glacier only moves about 50 metres (160 ft) per year. New snowfalls replace the parts that flow away.[1][2]
+
+Glaciers are the largest sources fresh water on Earth. The largest bodies of salt water are the Oceans
+
+Glaciers will only form in places that are cold enough and get enough snow over time. This can take a long time. It often takes tens or hundreds of years for a glacier to form. There are two kinds of glaciers: continental glaciers and alpine glaciers. Alpine glaciers are also called mountain glaciers.
+
+Glaciers are very important. They have a large effect on the environment. They do this because they are very large and heavy. When they move, they erode mountains and land. Also, since they froze long ago, snow crystals and air bubbles inside are kept in good condition. These can provide a large amount of information for scientists. Recently glaciers have been melting more than they did in the past. Many scientists think this is happening because global warming is changing the climate[source?].[3]
+
+Glaciers are blue in color. This is because water is very good at absorbing light. Only the strongest light, with the most energy, is able to escape. Blue is the color of light that has the most energy. Because of this, blue is the only color of light that can escape without being absorbed. The thicker the glacier is, the more blue it appears.

ensimple/2213.html.txt

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+Glaciology is a discipline of science. It is the study of glaciers. Glaciology is a branch of Earth science. The International Glaciological Society (IGS) is an organization that conducts research in glaciology.

ensimple/2214.html.txt

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+Gladiators (Latin: gladiatōrēs, "swordsmen" or "one who uses a sword," from gladius, "sword") were professional fighters in ancient Rome, who fought against each other, wild animals  and sentenced criminals, sometimes to the death, for the entertainment of the public. These fights took place in arenas in many cities from the Roman Republic period through the Roman Empire.
+
+The word comes from gladius, the Latin word for a short sword used by legionaries and some gladiators.
+
+Gladiators often are slaves and people from other countries that fought ancient Rome and lost and got captured. Some are normal people from the Roman Republic and wants to be a gladiator and give up their freedom.
+
+There were different types of gladiators in the world, such as Thracians, Mirmillones, Retiarii, and the Secutores.The gladiators were the footballers of their time.You would have been very famous and rich.
+
+The Emperor would have the final say about who would live and who would die. He would put his thumbs down to die or thumbs up to live.
+
+Gladiators fought to the death. Gladiators would have different types of weapons. Some might have a sword whereas others would use axes.
+

ensimple/2215.html.txt

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+Gladiators (Latin: gladiatōrēs, "swordsmen" or "one who uses a sword," from gladius, "sword") were professional fighters in ancient Rome, who fought against each other, wild animals  and sentenced criminals, sometimes to the death, for the entertainment of the public. These fights took place in arenas in many cities from the Roman Republic period through the Roman Empire.
+
+The word comes from gladius, the Latin word for a short sword used by legionaries and some gladiators.
+
+Gladiators often are slaves and people from other countries that fought ancient Rome and lost and got captured. Some are normal people from the Roman Republic and wants to be a gladiator and give up their freedom.
+
+There were different types of gladiators in the world, such as Thracians, Mirmillones, Retiarii, and the Secutores.The gladiators were the footballers of their time.You would have been very famous and rich.
+
+The Emperor would have the final say about who would live and who would die. He would put his thumbs down to die or thumbs up to live.
+
+Gladiators fought to the death. Gladiators would have different types of weapons. Some might have a sword whereas others would use axes.
+

ensimple/2216.html.txt

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+The acorn is the fruit of the oak tree.[1] It is a nut, and contains a single seed (rarely two seeds), enclosed in a tough, leathery shell. Acorns vary from 1 – 6 cm long and 0.8 – 4 cm broad. Acorns take between about 6 or 24 months (depending on the species) to mature.
+
+Acorns are one of the most important wildlife foods in areas where oaks grow.[2] Creatures that make acorns an important part of their diet include birds, such as jays, pigeons, some ducks and several species of woodpeckers. Small mammals that feed on acorns include mice, squirrels and several other rodents. Such large mammals as pigs, bears, and deer also consume large amounts of acorns: they may constitute up to 25% of the diet of deer in the autumn.[3] In some of the large oak forests in southwest Europe, traditionally called "dehesas", pigs are still turned loose in oak groves in the autumn, to fill and fatten themselves on acorns.
+
+Acorns contain tannins, which are toxic to some animals such as horses. The tannins can be soaked out, using water.

ensimple/2217.html.txt

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+Glasgow (Scottish: Glaschu, Lowland Scots: Glesga) is the biggest and busiest city in Scotland. It is on the banks of the River Clyde. People from Glasgow are known as "Glaswegians" (glas-wee-jans), which is a name also used for words that are used only in Glasgow - also known as "The Glasgow Patter".
+
+The number of people living in Glasgow is 621,020 (2017 estimate) and 
+626,410 (2019 estimate). Many more people live in the areas round the city. There are 1,209,143 people living in the Greater Glasgow urban area.[6] The wider metropolitan area is home to over 1,670,000 people, about 33% of Scotland's population.[7]
+
+The number of people living inside the city proper used to be much higher. Starting in the early 1960s the old tenements were pulled down and new housing built further out (high-rise blocks were the fashion of the day). Now there is nowhere near the number of people living in Glasgow as during the famous times of the shipyards on the River Clyde. It was said to be the second biggest city in the world after London at one point in the 1800s.
+
+Many people from other countries visit Glasgow for holidays and trips; most of these people are from Europe France, America (the US and Canada) for weekend and week trips.
+
+Two airports serve the city, Glasgow International Airport and Prestwick Airport. The main railway stations in the city are Glasgow Central and Queen Street stations. They provide rail links to the rest of Scotland, to the rest of the United Kingdom and Europe.
+
+There are a number of theatres and concert halls in the city. These include the SECC (Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre), the Royal Concert hall, the King's Theatre, the Pavilion Theatre and the Theatre Royal.
+
+Glasgow has several football teams - the best known are Rangers F.C. and Celtic F.C.. Partick Thistle, Clydebank, and Queens Park F.C. also play in the city.
+
+Glasgow has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Koeppen climate classification). The weather in Glasgow is almost always changing, and it is hard to say what the entire day's weather is like. Very often, the weather is worst in the morning when it is mostly damp and sometimes misty or even foggy; the Glasgow Patter also refers to dreich weather - damp and drizzly. However, the weather mostly improves through the afternoon and more often than not the weather stays dry and at an average temperature.
+
+In summer it is popular as a base for tourists. They can stay in Glasgow and then travel to see Loch Lomond and the Western Isles. One of the oldest paddle-steamer boats is in Glasgow, and in the summer one can travel down the Clyde to visit other towns and islands.

ensimple/2218.html.txt

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+Glasnost (Russian: гла́сность) was a policy that called for increased openness in government institutions and activities in the Soviet Union. It was introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the second half of the 1980s.[1] Glasnost is often paired with Perestroika (restructuring), another reform instituted by Gorbachev at the same time. The word "glasnost" has been used in Russian at least since the end of the 18th century.[2]
+
+The word was often used by Gorbachev for policies he believed might reduce corruption at the top, and moderate the abuse of power by the Central Committee. Russian human rights activist and dissident Lyudmila Alexeyeva explained glasnost as a word that "had been in the Russian language for centuries. It was in the dictionaries and lawbooks as long as there had been dictionaries and lawbooks. It was an ordinary, hardworking, nondescript word that was used to refer to a process, any process of justice of governance, being conducted in the open".[3]
+
+Glasnost can also refer to the specific period in the history of the USSR during the 1980s when there was less censorship and greater freedom of information.

ensimple/2219.html.txt

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+An extrasolar planet (or exoplanet) is a natural planet in a planetary system outside our own solar system.
+
+In 2013, estimates of the number of terrestrial planets in the Milky Way ranged from at least 17 billion[1] to at least 144 billion.[2] The smaller estimate studied planet candidates gathered by the Kepler space observatory.[3] Among them are 461 Earth-size planets, at least four of which are in the "habitable zone" where liquid water can exist. One of the four, dubbed Kepler-69c, is a mere 1.5 times the size of the Earth and around a star like our own Sun – about as near as the current data allow to finding an "Earth 2.0".[4]
+
+Earlier work suggested that there are at least 100 billion planets of all types in our galaxy, an average of at least one per star. There are also planets that orbit brown dwarfs, and free-floating planets that orbit the galaxy directly just as the stars do. It is unclear whether either type should be called a "planet".[5][6][7]
+
+In the sixteenth century, the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, an early supporter of the Copernican theory that the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, put forward the view that the fixed stars are similar to the Sun and are likewise accompanied by planets. Bruno was burnt at the stake by the Holy Inquisition.[8]
+
+In the eighteenth century, the same possibility was mentioned by Isaac Newton in his Principia. Making a comparison to the Sun's planets, he wrote "And if the fixed stars are the centres of similar systems, they will all be constructed according to a similar design and subject to the dominion of One".[9]
+
+The first published and confirmed discovery was made in 1988.[10] It was finally confirmed in 1992.
+
+In 1992, radio astronomers announced the discovery of planets around another pulsar.[11] These pulsar planets are believed to have formed from the unusual remnants of the supernova that produced the pulsar, in a second round of planet formation. Otherwise they may be the remaining rocky cores of gas giants that survived the supernova and then decayed into their current orbits.
+
+On October 6, 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star (51 Pegasi).[12] This discovery, made at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence, started the modern era of exoplanetary discovery. Technological advances, most notably in high-resolution spectroscopy, led to the quick detection of many new exoplanets. These advances allowed astronomers to detect exoplanets indirectly by measuring their gravitational influence on the motion of their parent stars. Additional extrasolar planets were eventually detected by watching occultations when a star becomes dimmer as an orbiting planet passed in front of it.
+
+In May 2016 NASA announced the discovery of 1,284 exoplanets which brought the total number of exoplanets to over 3,000.[13]
+
+Extrasolar planets can have many different forms.
+
+
+
+The nearest star with planets is Alpha Centauri. It is 4.3 light years away. Using standard rockets, it would take tens of thousands of years to get there.[14]  The nearest star similar to our Sun is Tau Ceti. It has five planets, one of which in the habitable zone, where liquid water may exist.[15][16]
+
+Some extrasolar planets might be Earth-like. This means that they have conditions very similar to that of the Earth. Planets are ranked by a formula called the Earth similarity index or ESI for short. The ESI goes from one (most Earth-like) to zero (least Earth-like). For a planet to be habitable it should have an ESI of at least 0.8.[17] For comparison, the four solar terrestrial planets are included in this list.

ensimple/222.html.txt

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+The Andes are a mountain range along the western coast of South America.
+
+They stretch over 7,000 km / 4,400 miles from the south of Argentina and Chile to the north of Colombia. They are also found in Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador.
+
+The Amazon river system has its sources in the eastern flanks of the Andes.
+
+The Andes are the longest exposed mountain range of the world, and the second-highest after the Himalayas. The Andes mountain range is the highest mountain range outside Asia.
+
+Aconcagua, the highest peak, rises to 6,962 m (22,841 ft) above sea level. The top of Mount Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is the point on the Earth's surface most distant from its center. Mount Chimborazo is an inactive volcano in Ecuador, which last erupted over a thousand years ago.
+
+The Andes has three sections:
+
+The northern part has two parallel ranges. They are the Cordillera Occidental (western) and the Cordillera Oriental (eastern). The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word meaning 'rope'.
+
+In Colombia, north to the border with Ecuador, the Andes split in three parallel ranges, western, central and eastern.
+
+In the north the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Snowy Mountain Range of Saint Martha) is an isolated mountain range apart from the Andes chain that runs through Colombia. Reaching an altitude of 5,700 metres above sea level just 42 km from the Caribbean coast, the Sierra Nevada is the world's highest coastal range.
+
+The western range of the eastern Cordillia Oriental is the only one which reaches Colombia .[1]
+
+The Andes range is about 200 km (124 mi) wide throughout its length, except in Bolivia where it is 640 km (398 mi) wide. The islands of the Dutch Caribbean Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, which lie in the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela, represent the submerged tops of the northern edge of the Andes range.
+
+The Andes are a Mesozoic–Tertiary orogenic belt of mountains along the Pacific Ring of Fire.
+
+The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American continental plate. South America, like North America, has been moving west since the Cretaceous period.
+
+The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the Triassic and Jurassic when Pangea begun to break up and several rifts developed. It was during the Cretaceous period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting, faulting and folding of sedimentary and metamorphic rock of the ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant and different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and weathering.
+
+The climate in the Andes differs depending on which area, the altitude, and how close it is to the sea. The southern section is rainy and cool. The central Andes are dry. The northern Andes are normally rainy and warm, with an average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) in Colombia. The climate is known to change very much in rather short distances. Rainforests exist just miles away from the snow covered peak Cotopaxi. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The snow line depends on the location. It is at between 4,500 and 4,800 m (14,800–15,800 ft) in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, going up to 4,800–5,200 m (15,800–17,060 ft) in the drier mountains of southern Peru south to northern Chile south to about 30°S, then going down to 4,500 m (14,760 ft) on Aconcagua at 32°S, 2,000 m (6,600 ft) at 40°S, 500 m (1,640 ft) at 50°S, and only 300 m (980 ft) in Tierra del Fuego at 55°S; from 50°S, many of the bigger glaciers go down to sea level.[2]
+
+The Andes of Chile and Argentina can be put in two climatic and glaciological zones; the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes.
+
+Rainforests used to hold much of the northern Andes but are now reduced, especially in the Chocó and inter-Andean valleys of Colombia. Farming, deforestation, illegal crops, and population growth has done this.
+
+A direct opposite of the humid Andean slopes are the mostly dry Andean slopes in most of western Peru, Chile and Argentina. That area, and many Interandean Valles, normally have deciduous woodland, shrub and xeric vegetation, up to the mostly lifeless Atacama Desert.
+
+About 30,000 species of vascular plants live in the Andes. About half of those are endemic to the region: it is a hotspot. The small tree Cinchona pubescens is a source of quinine used to treat malaria. It is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia. Other important crops that came from the Andes are tobacco and potatoes.
+
+The high-altitude Polylepis forests and woodlands are found in the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile. These trees are called Queñua, Yagual and other names. They grow at altitudes of 4,500 m (14,760 ft) above sea level. It is still unclear if the patchy distribution of these forests and woodlands is natural, or the result of clearing which began during the Incan time. Regardless, in modern times the clearance has had a faster pace, and the trees are now  highly endangered.  Some think as little as 10% of the original woodland is still here.[3]
+
+The Andes has a lot of wildlife. With almost 1,000 species, of which about 2/3 are endemic to the region, the Andes is the most important region in the world for amphibians.[4]
+Animal diversity in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of mammals (13% endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (1/3 endemic), more than 600 species of reptiles (45% endemic), and almost 400 species of fish (1/3 endemic).[4]
+
+The Vicuña and Guanaco can be found living in the Altiplano, while the closely related domesticated Llama and Alpaca are commonly kept by locals as pack animals and for their meat and wool. The nocturnal chinchillas, two threatened members of the rodent order, live in the Andes' alpine regions. The Andean Condor, the largest bird of its kind in the Western Hemisphere, lives throughout much of the Andes but mostly in very low numbers. Other animals found in the mostly open habitats of the high Andes are the huemul, cougar, and foxes in the genus Pseudalopex. And for birds, some species of tinamous (they are members of the genus Nothoprocta), are the Andean Goose, Giant Coot, flamingos (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes),  Lesser Rhea, Andean Flicker, Diademed Sandpiper-plover, miners, sierra-finches and diuca-finches.

ensimple/2220.html.txt

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+An extrasolar planet (or exoplanet) is a natural planet in a planetary system outside our own solar system.
+
+In 2013, estimates of the number of terrestrial planets in the Milky Way ranged from at least 17 billion[1] to at least 144 billion.[2] The smaller estimate studied planet candidates gathered by the Kepler space observatory.[3] Among them are 461 Earth-size planets, at least four of which are in the "habitable zone" where liquid water can exist. One of the four, dubbed Kepler-69c, is a mere 1.5 times the size of the Earth and around a star like our own Sun – about as near as the current data allow to finding an "Earth 2.0".[4]
+
+Earlier work suggested that there are at least 100 billion planets of all types in our galaxy, an average of at least one per star. There are also planets that orbit brown dwarfs, and free-floating planets that orbit the galaxy directly just as the stars do. It is unclear whether either type should be called a "planet".[5][6][7]
+
+In the sixteenth century, the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, an early supporter of the Copernican theory that the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, put forward the view that the fixed stars are similar to the Sun and are likewise accompanied by planets. Bruno was burnt at the stake by the Holy Inquisition.[8]
+
+In the eighteenth century, the same possibility was mentioned by Isaac Newton in his Principia. Making a comparison to the Sun's planets, he wrote "And if the fixed stars are the centres of similar systems, they will all be constructed according to a similar design and subject to the dominion of One".[9]
+
+The first published and confirmed discovery was made in 1988.[10] It was finally confirmed in 1992.
+
+In 1992, radio astronomers announced the discovery of planets around another pulsar.[11] These pulsar planets are believed to have formed from the unusual remnants of the supernova that produced the pulsar, in a second round of planet formation. Otherwise they may be the remaining rocky cores of gas giants that survived the supernova and then decayed into their current orbits.
+
+On October 6, 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star (51 Pegasi).[12] This discovery, made at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence, started the modern era of exoplanetary discovery. Technological advances, most notably in high-resolution spectroscopy, led to the quick detection of many new exoplanets. These advances allowed astronomers to detect exoplanets indirectly by measuring their gravitational influence on the motion of their parent stars. Additional extrasolar planets were eventually detected by watching occultations when a star becomes dimmer as an orbiting planet passed in front of it.
+
+In May 2016 NASA announced the discovery of 1,284 exoplanets which brought the total number of exoplanets to over 3,000.[13]
+
+Extrasolar planets can have many different forms.
+
+
+
+The nearest star with planets is Alpha Centauri. It is 4.3 light years away. Using standard rockets, it would take tens of thousands of years to get there.[14]  The nearest star similar to our Sun is Tau Ceti. It has five planets, one of which in the habitable zone, where liquid water may exist.[15][16]
+
+Some extrasolar planets might be Earth-like. This means that they have conditions very similar to that of the Earth. Planets are ranked by a formula called the Earth similarity index or ESI for short. The ESI goes from one (most Earth-like) to zero (least Earth-like). For a planet to be habitable it should have an ESI of at least 0.8.[17] For comparison, the four solar terrestrial planets are included in this list.

ensimple/2221.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+An extrasolar planet (or exoplanet) is a natural planet in a planetary system outside our own solar system.
+
+In 2013, estimates of the number of terrestrial planets in the Milky Way ranged from at least 17 billion[1] to at least 144 billion.[2] The smaller estimate studied planet candidates gathered by the Kepler space observatory.[3] Among them are 461 Earth-size planets, at least four of which are in the "habitable zone" where liquid water can exist. One of the four, dubbed Kepler-69c, is a mere 1.5 times the size of the Earth and around a star like our own Sun – about as near as the current data allow to finding an "Earth 2.0".[4]
+
+Earlier work suggested that there are at least 100 billion planets of all types in our galaxy, an average of at least one per star. There are also planets that orbit brown dwarfs, and free-floating planets that orbit the galaxy directly just as the stars do. It is unclear whether either type should be called a "planet".[5][6][7]
+
+In the sixteenth century, the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, an early supporter of the Copernican theory that the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, put forward the view that the fixed stars are similar to the Sun and are likewise accompanied by planets. Bruno was burnt at the stake by the Holy Inquisition.[8]
+
+In the eighteenth century, the same possibility was mentioned by Isaac Newton in his Principia. Making a comparison to the Sun's planets, he wrote "And if the fixed stars are the centres of similar systems, they will all be constructed according to a similar design and subject to the dominion of One".[9]
+
+The first published and confirmed discovery was made in 1988.[10] It was finally confirmed in 1992.
+
+In 1992, radio astronomers announced the discovery of planets around another pulsar.[11] These pulsar planets are believed to have formed from the unusual remnants of the supernova that produced the pulsar, in a second round of planet formation. Otherwise they may be the remaining rocky cores of gas giants that survived the supernova and then decayed into their current orbits.
+
+On October 6, 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star (51 Pegasi).[12] This discovery, made at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence, started the modern era of exoplanetary discovery. Technological advances, most notably in high-resolution spectroscopy, led to the quick detection of many new exoplanets. These advances allowed astronomers to detect exoplanets indirectly by measuring their gravitational influence on the motion of their parent stars. Additional extrasolar planets were eventually detected by watching occultations when a star becomes dimmer as an orbiting planet passed in front of it.
+
+In May 2016 NASA announced the discovery of 1,284 exoplanets which brought the total number of exoplanets to over 3,000.[13]
+
+Extrasolar planets can have many different forms.
+
+
+
+The nearest star with planets is Alpha Centauri. It is 4.3 light years away. Using standard rockets, it would take tens of thousands of years to get there.[14]  The nearest star similar to our Sun is Tau Ceti. It has five planets, one of which in the habitable zone, where liquid water may exist.[15][16]
+
+Some extrasolar planets might be Earth-like. This means that they have conditions very similar to that of the Earth. Planets are ranked by a formula called the Earth similarity index or ESI for short. The ESI goes from one (most Earth-like) to zero (least Earth-like). For a planet to be habitable it should have an ESI of at least 0.8.[17] For comparison, the four solar terrestrial planets are included in this list.

ensimple/2222.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+An extrasolar planet (or exoplanet) is a natural planet in a planetary system outside our own solar system.
+
+In 2013, estimates of the number of terrestrial planets in the Milky Way ranged from at least 17 billion[1] to at least 144 billion.[2] The smaller estimate studied planet candidates gathered by the Kepler space observatory.[3] Among them are 461 Earth-size planets, at least four of which are in the "habitable zone" where liquid water can exist. One of the four, dubbed Kepler-69c, is a mere 1.5 times the size of the Earth and around a star like our own Sun – about as near as the current data allow to finding an "Earth 2.0".[4]
+
+Earlier work suggested that there are at least 100 billion planets of all types in our galaxy, an average of at least one per star. There are also planets that orbit brown dwarfs, and free-floating planets that orbit the galaxy directly just as the stars do. It is unclear whether either type should be called a "planet".[5][6][7]
+
+In the sixteenth century, the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, an early supporter of the Copernican theory that the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, put forward the view that the fixed stars are similar to the Sun and are likewise accompanied by planets. Bruno was burnt at the stake by the Holy Inquisition.[8]
+
+In the eighteenth century, the same possibility was mentioned by Isaac Newton in his Principia. Making a comparison to the Sun's planets, he wrote "And if the fixed stars are the centres of similar systems, they will all be constructed according to a similar design and subject to the dominion of One".[9]
+
+The first published and confirmed discovery was made in 1988.[10] It was finally confirmed in 1992.
+
+In 1992, radio astronomers announced the discovery of planets around another pulsar.[11] These pulsar planets are believed to have formed from the unusual remnants of the supernova that produced the pulsar, in a second round of planet formation. Otherwise they may be the remaining rocky cores of gas giants that survived the supernova and then decayed into their current orbits.
+
+On October 6, 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star (51 Pegasi).[12] This discovery, made at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence, started the modern era of exoplanetary discovery. Technological advances, most notably in high-resolution spectroscopy, led to the quick detection of many new exoplanets. These advances allowed astronomers to detect exoplanets indirectly by measuring their gravitational influence on the motion of their parent stars. Additional extrasolar planets were eventually detected by watching occultations when a star becomes dimmer as an orbiting planet passed in front of it.
+
+In May 2016 NASA announced the discovery of 1,284 exoplanets which brought the total number of exoplanets to over 3,000.[13]
+
+Extrasolar planets can have many different forms.
+
+
+
+The nearest star with planets is Alpha Centauri. It is 4.3 light years away. Using standard rockets, it would take tens of thousands of years to get there.[14]  The nearest star similar to our Sun is Tau Ceti. It has five planets, one of which in the habitable zone, where liquid water may exist.[15][16]
+
+Some extrasolar planets might be Earth-like. This means that they have conditions very similar to that of the Earth. Planets are ranked by a formula called the Earth similarity index or ESI for short. The ESI goes from one (most Earth-like) to zero (least Earth-like). For a planet to be habitable it should have an ESI of at least 0.8.[17] For comparison, the four solar terrestrial planets are included in this list.

ensimple/2223.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+The job of white blood cells (also called leukocytes) is to fight infections and cancer. They also remove poison, waste and damaged cells from the body.[1][2]
+
+The number of white blood cells increases when a person is fighting infection or disease and decrease when a person is healthy.
+
+Lymphocytes are round white blood cells a bit bigger than a red blood cell. Their center is round and they have little cytoplasm. Part of the lymphatic system, these target specific germs or poisons using their antibodies. There are three known types of lymphocytes, called T-cells, B-cells, and natural killer cells (NK cells).
+
+B-cells make antibodies, which are little molecules that attach to viruses or bad cells. These tell other cells to destroy the viruses or bad cells, like a flag.
+
+T-cells can either help make more B-cells, or kill cells with antibodies.[1]
+
+Natural killer cells kill cells in the body that have been infected by a virus or that are part of a tumor. They are part of the innate immune system.
+
+Monocytes are reserve cells which turn into macrophages and dendritic cells, which work together in tissues to fight disease. Monocytes have a kidney bean shaped center and lots of cytoplasm. They may appear as macrophages in a non-round shape when they pass through tissue to eat germs, "junk" cells, and dead cells.
+
+The next three types of white blood cells are referred to as granulocytes since they all contain rough, grain-like particles that assist in attacking viruses and bacteria. Granulocytes are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes because of the shape of the nucleus, which has three segments.
+
+Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cells in mammals, 70% of leukocytes. They are an essential part of the immune system. They get to the site of an injury within minutes, and make up much of the content of pus. They have a short life-span of a couple of days.
+
+The nucleus, which looks like a string of beads, does not take up stain strongly. Like phagocytes, they actually eat the bacteria and dead cells. They also release a bunch of proteins which work to damage the bacteria.
+
+Basophils, or basophil granulocytes, are rare granulocytes. If you collected 1000 white blood cells, only 1–3 of them would be basophils. Their nucleus is hidden by granules which turn dark blue in color when stained. Basophils carry histamine and heparin. They appear at the sites of ectoparasite infection, or allergies. We don't know exactly how they work.[1]
+
+Eosinophils, or acidophils, are leukocytes. They are one of the immune system components which combat parasites and certain infections. As with mast cells and basophils, they part causes of allergy and asthma. Eosinophils are round cells with a lobed nucleus and granules which turn red when stained. These granules are packed with proteins that can be poured out to help destroy invaders.
+
+A test called a differential count shows how many white blood cells there are in a person's blood, and how many of each type are there.

ensimple/2224.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+Red blood cells (also known as RBCs, red blood corpuscles or erythrocytes) are cells in the blood which transport oxygen.[1][2] In women, there are about 4.8 million red blood cells per microliter of blood. In men, there are 5.4 million red blood cells per microliter of blood.[3] Red blood cells are red because they have hemoglobin in them.
+
+The most important function of red blood cells is the transport of oxygen (O2) to the tissues. The hemoglobin absorbs oxygen in the lungs. Then it travels through blood vessels and brings oxygen to all other cells via the heart. The blood cells go through the lungs (to collect oxygen), through the heart (to give all cells oxygen). They go back to the heart to be re-pumped to the lungs (to again collect oxygen), so the blood in your body travels in a double circuit, going through your heart twice before it completes one full circulation of the body.
+
+Red blood cells are doughnut-shaped, but without the hole. This shape is called a bi-concave disc. However, hereditary diseases such as sickle-cell disease can cause them to change shapes and stop blood flow in capillaries and veins. Plasma is got from whole blood. To prevent clotting, an anticoagulant (such as citrate) is added to the blood immediately after it is taken.
+
+Mammalian RBCs are unique in that they have no cell nucleus in their mature form. These cells have nuclei during development, but push them out as they mature. This gives more space for haemoglobin. Mammalian RBCs also lose all other cellular organelles such as their mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum. All other vertebrates have nucleated red blood cells.
+
+As a result of not having mitochondria, the cells use none of the oxygen they carry. Instead they produce the energy carrier ATP. Because they lack nuclei and organelles, mature red blood cells do not contain DNA and cannot synthesize any RNA. They cannot divide, and have limited repair capabilities.[4] This also makes sure no virus can target mammalian red blood cells.[5]
+
+Carbon dioxide (CO2) is carried in blood in three different ways. The exact percentages vary depending whether it is arterial or venous blood.

ensimple/2225.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+Red blood cells (also known as RBCs, red blood corpuscles or erythrocytes) are cells in the blood which transport oxygen.[1][2] In women, there are about 4.8 million red blood cells per microliter of blood. In men, there are 5.4 million red blood cells per microliter of blood.[3] Red blood cells are red because they have hemoglobin in them.
+
+The most important function of red blood cells is the transport of oxygen (O2) to the tissues. The hemoglobin absorbs oxygen in the lungs. Then it travels through blood vessels and brings oxygen to all other cells via the heart. The blood cells go through the lungs (to collect oxygen), through the heart (to give all cells oxygen). They go back to the heart to be re-pumped to the lungs (to again collect oxygen), so the blood in your body travels in a double circuit, going through your heart twice before it completes one full circulation of the body.
+
+Red blood cells are doughnut-shaped, but without the hole. This shape is called a bi-concave disc. However, hereditary diseases such as sickle-cell disease can cause them to change shapes and stop blood flow in capillaries and veins. Plasma is got from whole blood. To prevent clotting, an anticoagulant (such as citrate) is added to the blood immediately after it is taken.
+
+Mammalian RBCs are unique in that they have no cell nucleus in their mature form. These cells have nuclei during development, but push them out as they mature. This gives more space for haemoglobin. Mammalian RBCs also lose all other cellular organelles such as their mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum. All other vertebrates have nucleated red blood cells.
+
+As a result of not having mitochondria, the cells use none of the oxygen they carry. Instead they produce the energy carrier ATP. Because they lack nuclei and organelles, mature red blood cells do not contain DNA and cannot synthesize any RNA. They cannot divide, and have limited repair capabilities.[4] This also makes sure no virus can target mammalian red blood cells.[5]
+
+Carbon dioxide (CO2) is carried in blood in three different ways. The exact percentages vary depending whether it is arterial or venous blood.

ensimple/2226.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+The job of white blood cells (also called leukocytes) is to fight infections and cancer. They also remove poison, waste and damaged cells from the body.[1][2]
+
+The number of white blood cells increases when a person is fighting infection or disease and decrease when a person is healthy.
+
+Lymphocytes are round white blood cells a bit bigger than a red blood cell. Their center is round and they have little cytoplasm. Part of the lymphatic system, these target specific germs or poisons using their antibodies. There are three known types of lymphocytes, called T-cells, B-cells, and natural killer cells (NK cells).
+
+B-cells make antibodies, which are little molecules that attach to viruses or bad cells. These tell other cells to destroy the viruses or bad cells, like a flag.
+
+T-cells can either help make more B-cells, or kill cells with antibodies.[1]
+
+Natural killer cells kill cells in the body that have been infected by a virus or that are part of a tumor. They are part of the innate immune system.
+
+Monocytes are reserve cells which turn into macrophages and dendritic cells, which work together in tissues to fight disease. Monocytes have a kidney bean shaped center and lots of cytoplasm. They may appear as macrophages in a non-round shape when they pass through tissue to eat germs, "junk" cells, and dead cells.
+
+The next three types of white blood cells are referred to as granulocytes since they all contain rough, grain-like particles that assist in attacking viruses and bacteria. Granulocytes are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes because of the shape of the nucleus, which has three segments.
+
+Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cells in mammals, 70% of leukocytes. They are an essential part of the immune system. They get to the site of an injury within minutes, and make up much of the content of pus. They have a short life-span of a couple of days.
+
+The nucleus, which looks like a string of beads, does not take up stain strongly. Like phagocytes, they actually eat the bacteria and dead cells. They also release a bunch of proteins which work to damage the bacteria.
+
+Basophils, or basophil granulocytes, are rare granulocytes. If you collected 1000 white blood cells, only 1–3 of them would be basophils. Their nucleus is hidden by granules which turn dark blue in color when stained. Basophils carry histamine and heparin. They appear at the sites of ectoparasite infection, or allergies. We don't know exactly how they work.[1]
+
+Eosinophils, or acidophils, are leukocytes. They are one of the immune system components which combat parasites and certain infections. As with mast cells and basophils, they part causes of allergy and asthma. Eosinophils are round cells with a lobed nucleus and granules which turn red when stained. These granules are packed with proteins that can be poured out to help destroy invaders.
+
+A test called a differential count shows how many white blood cells there are in a person's blood, and how many of each type are there.

ensimple/2227.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+Red blood cells (also known as RBCs, red blood corpuscles or erythrocytes) are cells in the blood which transport oxygen.[1][2] In women, there are about 4.8 million red blood cells per microliter of blood. In men, there are 5.4 million red blood cells per microliter of blood.[3] Red blood cells are red because they have hemoglobin in them.
+
+The most important function of red blood cells is the transport of oxygen (O2) to the tissues. The hemoglobin absorbs oxygen in the lungs. Then it travels through blood vessels and brings oxygen to all other cells via the heart. The blood cells go through the lungs (to collect oxygen), through the heart (to give all cells oxygen). They go back to the heart to be re-pumped to the lungs (to again collect oxygen), so the blood in your body travels in a double circuit, going through your heart twice before it completes one full circulation of the body.
+
+Red blood cells are doughnut-shaped, but without the hole. This shape is called a bi-concave disc. However, hereditary diseases such as sickle-cell disease can cause them to change shapes and stop blood flow in capillaries and veins. Plasma is got from whole blood. To prevent clotting, an anticoagulant (such as citrate) is added to the blood immediately after it is taken.
+
+Mammalian RBCs are unique in that they have no cell nucleus in their mature form. These cells have nuclei during development, but push them out as they mature. This gives more space for haemoglobin. Mammalian RBCs also lose all other cellular organelles such as their mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum. All other vertebrates have nucleated red blood cells.
+
+As a result of not having mitochondria, the cells use none of the oxygen they carry. Instead they produce the energy carrier ATP. Because they lack nuclei and organelles, mature red blood cells do not contain DNA and cannot synthesize any RNA. They cannot divide, and have limited repair capabilities.[4] This also makes sure no virus can target mammalian red blood cells.[5]
+
+Carbon dioxide (CO2) is carried in blood in three different ways. The exact percentages vary depending whether it is arterial or venous blood.

ensimple/2228.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+Carbohydrates are chemical compounds that contain only oxygen, hydrogen and carbon. They are made up of joined-up sugars. Sugars have the general formula Cm(H2O)n, and are also known as saccharides.
+
+Certain carbohydrates are an important storage and transport form of energy in most organisms, including plants and animals.
+
+There are four types of carbohydrates, named by the number of sugar molecules they contain.
+
+Carbohydrates are the most common source of energy for the human body. Protein builds tissue and cells in the body. Carbohydrates are very good for energy, but, if a person eats more than needed, the extra is changed into fat.
+
+If necessary, humans can live without eating carbohydrates because the human body can change proteins into carbohydrates. People of some cultures eat food with very little carbohydrates, but they still remain healthy.
+
+Research in the United States and Canada have shown that people get about 40% to 60% of their energy from carbohydrates. However, studies suggest that some people get at least 55% to 75% of energy from carbohydrates.[1] It may depend on the amount of physical work done by people: the harder the work, the more energy they need. The other need for energy is body temperature. Living in a cold climate means a person needs more energy.
+
+Some foods have high levels of carbohydrates including bread, pasta, potatoes, cereals, rice etc.

ensimple/2229.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+Carbohydrates are chemical compounds that contain only oxygen, hydrogen and carbon. They are made up of joined-up sugars. Sugars have the general formula Cm(H2O)n, and are also known as saccharides.
+
+Certain carbohydrates are an important storage and transport form of energy in most organisms, including plants and animals.
+
+There are four types of carbohydrates, named by the number of sugar molecules they contain.
+
+Carbohydrates are the most common source of energy for the human body. Protein builds tissue and cells in the body. Carbohydrates are very good for energy, but, if a person eats more than needed, the extra is changed into fat.
+
+If necessary, humans can live without eating carbohydrates because the human body can change proteins into carbohydrates. People of some cultures eat food with very little carbohydrates, but they still remain healthy.
+
+Research in the United States and Canada have shown that people get about 40% to 60% of their energy from carbohydrates. However, studies suggest that some people get at least 55% to 75% of energy from carbohydrates.[1] It may depend on the amount of physical work done by people: the harder the work, the more energy they need. The other need for energy is body temperature. Living in a cold climate means a person needs more energy.
+
+Some foods have high levels of carbohydrates including bread, pasta, potatoes, cereals, rice etc.

ensimple/223.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+The Andes are a mountain range along the western coast of South America.
+
+They stretch over 7,000 km / 4,400 miles from the south of Argentina and Chile to the north of Colombia. They are also found in Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador.
+
+The Amazon river system has its sources in the eastern flanks of the Andes.
+
+The Andes are the longest exposed mountain range of the world, and the second-highest after the Himalayas. The Andes mountain range is the highest mountain range outside Asia.
+
+Aconcagua, the highest peak, rises to 6,962 m (22,841 ft) above sea level. The top of Mount Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is the point on the Earth's surface most distant from its center. Mount Chimborazo is an inactive volcano in Ecuador, which last erupted over a thousand years ago.
+
+The Andes has three sections:
+
+The northern part has two parallel ranges. They are the Cordillera Occidental (western) and the Cordillera Oriental (eastern). The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word meaning 'rope'.
+
+In Colombia, north to the border with Ecuador, the Andes split in three parallel ranges, western, central and eastern.
+
+In the north the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Snowy Mountain Range of Saint Martha) is an isolated mountain range apart from the Andes chain that runs through Colombia. Reaching an altitude of 5,700 metres above sea level just 42 km from the Caribbean coast, the Sierra Nevada is the world's highest coastal range.
+
+The western range of the eastern Cordillia Oriental is the only one which reaches Colombia .[1]
+
+The Andes range is about 200 km (124 mi) wide throughout its length, except in Bolivia where it is 640 km (398 mi) wide. The islands of the Dutch Caribbean Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, which lie in the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela, represent the submerged tops of the northern edge of the Andes range.
+
+The Andes are a Mesozoic–Tertiary orogenic belt of mountains along the Pacific Ring of Fire.
+
+The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American continental plate. South America, like North America, has been moving west since the Cretaceous period.
+
+The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the Triassic and Jurassic when Pangea begun to break up and several rifts developed. It was during the Cretaceous period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting, faulting and folding of sedimentary and metamorphic rock of the ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant and different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and weathering.
+
+The climate in the Andes differs depending on which area, the altitude, and how close it is to the sea. The southern section is rainy and cool. The central Andes are dry. The northern Andes are normally rainy and warm, with an average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) in Colombia. The climate is known to change very much in rather short distances. Rainforests exist just miles away from the snow covered peak Cotopaxi. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The snow line depends on the location. It is at between 4,500 and 4,800 m (14,800–15,800 ft) in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, going up to 4,800–5,200 m (15,800–17,060 ft) in the drier mountains of southern Peru south to northern Chile south to about 30°S, then going down to 4,500 m (14,760 ft) on Aconcagua at 32°S, 2,000 m (6,600 ft) at 40°S, 500 m (1,640 ft) at 50°S, and only 300 m (980 ft) in Tierra del Fuego at 55°S; from 50°S, many of the bigger glaciers go down to sea level.[2]
+
+The Andes of Chile and Argentina can be put in two climatic and glaciological zones; the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes.
+
+Rainforests used to hold much of the northern Andes but are now reduced, especially in the Chocó and inter-Andean valleys of Colombia. Farming, deforestation, illegal crops, and population growth has done this.
+
+A direct opposite of the humid Andean slopes are the mostly dry Andean slopes in most of western Peru, Chile and Argentina. That area, and many Interandean Valles, normally have deciduous woodland, shrub and xeric vegetation, up to the mostly lifeless Atacama Desert.
+
+About 30,000 species of vascular plants live in the Andes. About half of those are endemic to the region: it is a hotspot. The small tree Cinchona pubescens is a source of quinine used to treat malaria. It is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia. Other important crops that came from the Andes are tobacco and potatoes.
+
+The high-altitude Polylepis forests and woodlands are found in the Andes of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile. These trees are called Queñua, Yagual and other names. They grow at altitudes of 4,500 m (14,760 ft) above sea level. It is still unclear if the patchy distribution of these forests and woodlands is natural, or the result of clearing which began during the Incan time. Regardless, in modern times the clearance has had a faster pace, and the trees are now  highly endangered.  Some think as little as 10% of the original woodland is still here.[3]
+
+The Andes has a lot of wildlife. With almost 1,000 species, of which about 2/3 are endemic to the region, the Andes is the most important region in the world for amphibians.[4]
+Animal diversity in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of mammals (13% endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (1/3 endemic), more than 600 species of reptiles (45% endemic), and almost 400 species of fish (1/3 endemic).[4]
+
+The Vicuña and Guanaco can be found living in the Altiplano, while the closely related domesticated Llama and Alpaca are commonly kept by locals as pack animals and for their meat and wool. The nocturnal chinchillas, two threatened members of the rodent order, live in the Andes' alpine regions. The Andean Condor, the largest bird of its kind in the Western Hemisphere, lives throughout much of the Andes but mostly in very low numbers. Other animals found in the mostly open habitats of the high Andes are the huemul, cougar, and foxes in the genus Pseudalopex. And for birds, some species of tinamous (they are members of the genus Nothoprocta), are the Andean Goose, Giant Coot, flamingos (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes),  Lesser Rhea, Andean Flicker, Diademed Sandpiper-plover, miners, sierra-finches and diuca-finches.

ensimple/2230.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this name.

ensimple/2231.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+Gmail is a free e-mail service that is run by Google. It can be accessed on the web, by POP3, or by IMAP. Some of the competitors to Gmail are Yahoo! Mail, Hotmail/Windows Live Mail, and Inbox.Com. The space given to any Gmail member is increased a small amount every second, and as of July 26, 2012, Google provides each account with about 10272 MB of space.
+
+Google Apps is a service from Google that was created in February 2006 as Gmail for your domain. It is to allow system administrators of a company or organisation to create email accounts for their own domain.
+
+In the United Kingdom (UK), the trademark "Gmail" was owned by another company before Gmail by Google was started. Thus, the United Kingdom uses a domain of "googlemail.com" for their users, and the logo has the words of "Google Mail" instead of the normal "Gmail".
+
+In September 2009 Google began to change the branding of UK accounts back to Gmail following the resolution of the trademark dispute.[1]

ensimple/2232.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+The Gulf of Mexico is a round sea, called a gulf. Land in North America is around much of it. The United States of America, Mexico, and Cuba are the countries around it. The Straits of Florida connect to the Atlantic Ocean, and the Yucatán Channel connects to the Caribbean Sea.
+
+Petroleum is found near the north and west coast of this gulf. Many hurricanes hit this area, for example, Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita hurt many of the oil wells in 2005 in the United States. There is also a big fishing industry in the gulf.

ensimple/2233.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+Google is a multinational corporation from the United States of America. It is known for creating and running one of the largest search engines on the World Wide Web (WWW). Every day more than a billion people use it. Google's headquarters (known as the "Googleplex") is in Mountain View, California, part of the Silicon Valley. The current motto of Google is "Do the right thing".
+
+Ever since the 2 September 2015, Google is owned by a new holding company called Alphabet Inc, which has taken over some of Google's other projects, such as its driverless cars. It is a public company that trades on the NASDAQ under the tickers GOOG and GOOGL.
+
+Google's search engine can find pictures, videos, news, Usenet newsgroups, and things to buy online. By June 2004, Google had 4.28 billion web pages on its database, 880 million pictures and 845 million Usenet messages — six billion things.[9] Google's American website has an Alexa rank of 1, meaning it is the most widely visited website in the world. It is so widely known that people sometimes use the word "google" as a verb that means "to search for something on Google"; but because more than half of people on the web use it, "google" has been used to mean "to search the web".
+
+Larry Page and Sergey Brin, two students at Stanford University, USA, started BackRub in early 1996. They made it into a company, Google Inc., on September 7, 1998 at a friend's garage in Menlo Park, California. In February 1999, the company moved to 165 University Ave., Palo Alto, California, and then moved to another place called the Googleplex.[10][11]
+
+In September 2001, Google's rating system (PageRank, for saying which information is more helpful) got a U.S. Patent. The patent was to Stanford University, with Lawrence (Larry) Page as the inventor (the person who first had the idea).
+
+Google makes a percentage of its money through America Online and InterActiveCorp. It has a special group known as the Partner Solutions Organization (PSO) which helps make contracts, helps making accounts better, and gives engineering help.
+
+Google makes money by advertising. People or companies who want people to buy their product, service, or ideas give Google money, and Google shows an advertisement to people Google thinks will click on the advertisement. Google only gets money when people click on the link, so it tries to know as much about people as possible to only show the advertisement to the "right people". It does this with Google Analytics, which sends data back to Google whenever someone visits a web site. From this and other data, Google makes a profile about the person, and then uses this profile to figure out which advertisements to show.
+
+The name "Google" is a misspelling of the word googol.[12][13] Milton Sirotta, nephew of U.S. mathematician Edward Kasner, made this word in 1938, for the number 1 followed by one hundred zeroes (10100). Google uses this word because the company wants to make lots of stuff on the Web easy to find and use. Andy Bechtolsheim thought of the name.
+
+The name for Google's main office, the "Googleplex," is a play on a different, even bigger number, the "googolplex", which is 1 followed by one googol of zeroes 1010100
+
+Notes

ensimple/2234.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+Google is a multinational corporation from the United States of America. It is known for creating and running one of the largest search engines on the World Wide Web (WWW). Every day more than a billion people use it. Google's headquarters (known as the "Googleplex") is in Mountain View, California, part of the Silicon Valley. The current motto of Google is "Do the right thing".
+
+Ever since the 2 September 2015, Google is owned by a new holding company called Alphabet Inc, which has taken over some of Google's other projects, such as its driverless cars. It is a public company that trades on the NASDAQ under the tickers GOOG and GOOGL.
+
+Google's search engine can find pictures, videos, news, Usenet newsgroups, and things to buy online. By June 2004, Google had 4.28 billion web pages on its database, 880 million pictures and 845 million Usenet messages — six billion things.[9] Google's American website has an Alexa rank of 1, meaning it is the most widely visited website in the world. It is so widely known that people sometimes use the word "google" as a verb that means "to search for something on Google"; but because more than half of people on the web use it, "google" has been used to mean "to search the web".
+
+Larry Page and Sergey Brin, two students at Stanford University, USA, started BackRub in early 1996. They made it into a company, Google Inc., on September 7, 1998 at a friend's garage in Menlo Park, California. In February 1999, the company moved to 165 University Ave., Palo Alto, California, and then moved to another place called the Googleplex.[10][11]
+
+In September 2001, Google's rating system (PageRank, for saying which information is more helpful) got a U.S. Patent. The patent was to Stanford University, with Lawrence (Larry) Page as the inventor (the person who first had the idea).
+
+Google makes a percentage of its money through America Online and InterActiveCorp. It has a special group known as the Partner Solutions Organization (PSO) which helps make contracts, helps making accounts better, and gives engineering help.
+
+Google makes money by advertising. People or companies who want people to buy their product, service, or ideas give Google money, and Google shows an advertisement to people Google thinks will click on the advertisement. Google only gets money when people click on the link, so it tries to know as much about people as possible to only show the advertisement to the "right people". It does this with Google Analytics, which sends data back to Google whenever someone visits a web site. From this and other data, Google makes a profile about the person, and then uses this profile to figure out which advertisements to show.
+
+The name "Google" is a misspelling of the word googol.[12][13] Milton Sirotta, nephew of U.S. mathematician Edward Kasner, made this word in 1938, for the number 1 followed by one hundred zeroes (10100). Google uses this word because the company wants to make lots of stuff on the Web easy to find and use. Andy Bechtolsheim thought of the name.
+
+The name for Google's main office, the "Googleplex," is a play on a different, even bigger number, the "googolplex", which is 1 followed by one googol of zeroes 1010100
+
+Notes

ensimple/2235.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+Google Maps is a mapping website from Google, and also the name for the technology that it works on.  It provides satellite pictures and road maps for anywhere in the world.
+
+Google Maps also shows the locations of many places and businesses (called points of interest). It can provide street addresses, phone numbers, and URLs to their websites. It can generate directions between different places using many ways of transport, such as by car, bike, public transport, and even by air, and show traffic traffic congestion. Maps can be embedded on other websites via the Google Maps Application programming interface. It has a feature called Google Street View, which provides photos of streets in some places so one can see what it is like if they were standing in that area of the Earth in real life.
+
+Google Maps was started on February 8, 2005, and uses JavaScript, XML and AJAX. Its website works in almost any web browser or through mobile applications on platforms like iOS and Android. Google has a "Local Guides" program where anybody can write reviews and upload photos or videos of places, as well as make changes to the maps (such as adding new places or removing closed places). This is much like how a person can contribute to Google Translate or to Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation websites.
+

ensimple/2236.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,127 @@
+
+
+Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev [1] (sometimes spelled Gorbachov) (born 2 March 1931) is a former Soviet politician.
+
+He was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1985-91), Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union (head of state) (1988-91) and the first (and last) president of the Soviet Union (1990-dissolved 1991). Gorbachev is known for forming a friendship with President of the United States Ronald Reagan. Both of them would help end the Cold War.
+
+Gorbachev was born in Privolnoye, Stavropol Krai, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union.
+
+His attempts at reform and partnership with Ronald Reagan led to the end of the Cold War. His main intent was to improve the economy of the USSR. To do this, he set in motion two major reforms:
+
+Indirectly, this may have helped cause the end of the power of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), and the break-up of the Soviet Union into smaller countries. However, it should be noted that the need to modernise the economy, and to conduct government  less ruthlessly than Stalin, was agreed by the previous two leaders. They, Andropov and Chernenko, were elderly and died before real changes could be put in place.
+
+In 1990, Gorbachev created the office of President of the Soviet Union. It was to be based on the systems in France and the United States. The office merged office of General Secretary and head of state. The President was to be elected by the Soviet People but its only holder was Gorbachev who wasn't elected. Gorbachev saw the office mainly as a position for himself to remain influential in Soviet politics. His main goal was to keep the Soviet Union together, controlled by Moscow.
+
+After the August coup in 1991 Gorbachev resigned as leader of the Communist Party and held onto the Soviet presidency. When Union republics began to turn away from the Soviet system, Gorbachev's power was dramatically reduced. By late 1991 he had almost no influence outside of Moscow. When Russia, Ukraine and Byelorussia became independent, Gorbachev was basically a President of a country that only existed on paper. He resigned on December 25, 1991.
+
+Gorbachev studied law at Lomonosov Moscow State University where he also met his future wife Raisa Gorbachova. Raisa studied sociology. After retiring from politics in 1991, Gorbachev started The Gorbachev Foundation, which is currently headed by his daughter Irina. In 2004, he traveled to the United States to represent Russia at Ronald Reagan's funeral.
+
+He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990.[2] He won a Grammy Award in 2004 with Bill Clinton and Sophia Loren for Best Spoken Word Album for Children for their recording of Sergei Prokofiev's Peter and the Wolf.[3]
+
+Media related to Mikhail Gorbachev at Wikimedia Commons
+
+Dunant / Passy (1901) ·
+Ducommun / Gobat (1902) ·
+Cremer (1903) ·
+IDI (1904) ·
+Suttner (1905) ·
+Roosevelt (1906) ·
+Moneta / Renault (1907) ·
+Arnoldson / Bajer (1908) ·
+Beernaert / Estournelles de Constant (1909) ·
+IPB (1910) ·
+Asser / Fried (1911) ·
+Root (1912) ·
+La Fontaine (1913) ·
+International Committee of the Red Cross (1917) ·
+Wilson (1919) ·
+Bourgeois (1920) ·
+Branting / Lange (1921) ·
+Nansen (1922) ·
+Chamberlain / Dawes (1925)
+
+Briand / Stresemann (1926) ·
+Buisson / Quidde (1927) ·
+Kellogg (1929) ·
+Söderblom (1930) ·
+Addams / Butler (1931) ·
+Angell (1933) ·
+Henderson (1934) ·
+Ossietzky (1935) ·
+Lamas (1936) ·
+Cecil (1937) ·
+Nansen Office (1938) ·
+International Committee of the Red Cross (1944) ·
+Hull (1945) ·
+Balch / Mott (1946) ·
+QPSW / AFSC (1947) ·
+Boyd Orr (1949) ·
+Bunche (1950)
+
+Jouhaux (1951) ·
+Schweitzer (1952) ·
+Marshall (1953) ·
+UNHCR (1954) ·
+Pearson (1957) ·
+Pire (1958) ·
+Noel‑Baker (1959) ·
+Lutuli (1960) ·
+Hammarskjöld (1961) ·
+Pauling (1962) ·
+International Committee of the Red Cross / League of Red Cross Societies (1963) ·
+King (1964) ·
+UNICEF (1965) ·
+Cassin (1968) ·
+ILO (1969) ·
+Borlaug (1970) ·
+Brandt (1971) ·
+Kissinger / Le (1973) ·
+MacBride / Sato (1974) ·
+Sakharov (1975)
+
+B.Williams / Corrigan (1976) ·
+AI (1977) ·
+Sadat / Begin (1978) ·
+Mother Teresa (1979) ·
+Esquivel (1980) ·
+UNHCR (1981) ·
+Myrdal / García Robles (1982) ·
+Wałęsa (1983) ·
+Tutu (1984) ·
+IPPNW (1985) ·
+Wiesel (1986) ·
+Arias (1987) ·
+UN Peacekeeping Forces (1988) ·
+Dalai Lama (1989) ·
+Gorbachev (1990) ·
+Suu Kyi (1991) ·
+Menchú (1992) ·
+Mandela / de Klerk (1993) ·
+Arafat / Peres / Rabin (1994) ·
+Pugwash Conferences / Rotblat (1995) ·
+Belo / Ramos-Horta (1996) ·
+ICBL / J.Williams (1997) ·
+Hume / Trimble (1998) ·
+Médecins Sans Frontières (1999) ·
+Kim (2000)
+
+UN / Annan (2001) ·
+Carter (2002) ·
+Ebadi	(2003) ·
+Maathai (2004) ·
+IAEA / ElBaradei (2005) ·
+Yunus / Grameen Bank (2006) ·
+Gore / IPCC (2007) ·
+Ahtisaari (2008) ·
+Obama (2009) ·
+Xiaobo (2010) ·
+Sirleaf / Gbowee / Karman (2011) ·
+EU (2012) ·
+Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (2013) ·
+Yousafzai / Satyarthi (2014) ·
+Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet (2015) ·
+Juan Manuel Santos (2016) ·
+International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (2017) ·
+Mukwege / Murad (2018) ·
+Ahmed (2019)
+

ensimple/2237.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+
+
+A fox is a small mammalian carnivore. They hunt and eat live prey, mostly rabbits and rodents (squirrels and mice). They may also eat grasshoppers, birds' eggs, and even fruit and berries. Sometimes they eat carrion.[1] Foxes are the smallest members of the dog family Canidae.
+
+Twelve species belong to the Vulpes genus of monophyletic "true foxes". There are about another 25 living or extinct species which are sometimes called foxes.
+
+The fox has pointed ears, narrow snout, and a bushy tail.
+
+Foxes are swift and agile runners which live in family groups. A female fox is called a vixen, and a male is called a dog. Foxes' tails are multi-purpose organs. Their bushy tail helps them keep warm while they are sleeping in cold weather.[2] It is also part of the animal's food store for wintertime.[3] Foxes' plump, bushy tail is easily seen, and is used for sending signals to its family members.[4] The tail is also used for balance while running.[4]
+
+Foxes are found on all continents (except Antarctica), mostly living in forest, shrubland, and desert regions. They were not native to Australia, but were introduced in some way. In the United Kingdom, it was a common sport for people to hunt foxes with horses and dogs. This is now banned.
+
+The informal term 'true fox' refers to members of the Vulpes genus.
+
+There are 12 species of Vulpus. They are:
+
+The arctic fox is included in this genus as Vulpes lagopus. There is genetic evidence that shows it is probably a true fox.[6][7]
+
+Some species of true fox are extinct. Fossils have been found of:

ensimple/2238.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+Taste is one of the five senses. It is the sensation that a human or animal experiences on the tongue when eating. Usually, there are the tastes of sweet, sour, bitter, spicy, and salty.
+
+Many common foods are bitter, like coffee, bitter melon, olives and citrus peel. The taste buds on the back of your tongue are the ones that can taste bitter foods the most.
+
+Bitterness is of interest to those who study evolution, as well as various health researchers.[1][2] Many naturally bitter compounds are toxic. The ability to detect bitter-tasting, toxic compounds at low thresholds may have a protective function, but some test have not confirmed this.[3] Plant leaves often contain toxic compounds, and among leaf-eating primates there is a tendency to prefer immature leaves. Young leaves tend to be higher in protein and lower in fiber and poisons than mature leaves.[4] Amongst humans, various food processing techniques are used worldwide to detoxify otherwise inedible foods and make them palatable.[5]
+
+Animals which eat a lot of bitter plant material, such as browsers do have ways of dealing with it.  They produce tannin-binding proteins, which other animals do not.  Tannins are bitter compounds common in material from trees and bushes, though not grass.
+
+Saltiness is felt when there is sodium in the food.  A common spice that is salty is common salt, sodium chloride.
+
+Savouriness (or savoriness) is the taste of savoury foods. It is also called by the Japanese word Umami (旨味, うまみ), and comes from umai, which means 'yummy'. This taste was known for a long time, but only became an official scientific term in 1985.[6]
+
+To taste savoriness, your tongue has special parts that detect amino acids that are in foods like meats and cheeses.[7]
+
+Sourness is tasted when acids are on your tongue. Many foods have acid in them and are sour, like lemons and vinegar.
+
+Sweetness is a taste felt when sugars are in the food. Most people consider sweetness to be a pleasant taste.
+
+This sensation is not a special sense of taste because it does not have specific taste buds. It is a complex sensation.
+
+Substances such as ethanol and capsaicin cause a burning sensation called chemesthesis, piquance, spiciness, hotness, or prickliness. Two main sources of  this sensation are capsaicin from chili peppers and piperine from black pepper.
+
+Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly giving the sensation of "hot". Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye (cornea) or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to such chemicals.
+
+The tongue can also feel other sensations not generally included in the basic tastes. These are largely detected by the somatosensory system.
+
+Also, it is known that smell and sight contribute to the overall sensation of eating and drinking. The temperature of food makes a difference to its appreciation.
+
+The strange coolness of spearmint, menthol and camphor is caused by their molecules triggering a sensory system which normally works to sense low temperatures.
+
+There is still much to learn about the taste system. Consider, for example, the tastes of ginger and horseradish.

ensimple/2239.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+Taste is one of the five senses. It is the sensation that a human or animal experiences on the tongue when eating. Usually, there are the tastes of sweet, sour, bitter, spicy, and salty.
+
+Many common foods are bitter, like coffee, bitter melon, olives and citrus peel. The taste buds on the back of your tongue are the ones that can taste bitter foods the most.
+
+Bitterness is of interest to those who study evolution, as well as various health researchers.[1][2] Many naturally bitter compounds are toxic. The ability to detect bitter-tasting, toxic compounds at low thresholds may have a protective function, but some test have not confirmed this.[3] Plant leaves often contain toxic compounds, and among leaf-eating primates there is a tendency to prefer immature leaves. Young leaves tend to be higher in protein and lower in fiber and poisons than mature leaves.[4] Amongst humans, various food processing techniques are used worldwide to detoxify otherwise inedible foods and make them palatable.[5]
+
+Animals which eat a lot of bitter plant material, such as browsers do have ways of dealing with it.  They produce tannin-binding proteins, which other animals do not.  Tannins are bitter compounds common in material from trees and bushes, though not grass.
+
+Saltiness is felt when there is sodium in the food.  A common spice that is salty is common salt, sodium chloride.
+
+Savouriness (or savoriness) is the taste of savoury foods. It is also called by the Japanese word Umami (旨味, うまみ), and comes from umai, which means 'yummy'. This taste was known for a long time, but only became an official scientific term in 1985.[6]
+
+To taste savoriness, your tongue has special parts that detect amino acids that are in foods like meats and cheeses.[7]
+
+Sourness is tasted when acids are on your tongue. Many foods have acid in them and are sour, like lemons and vinegar.
+
+Sweetness is a taste felt when sugars are in the food. Most people consider sweetness to be a pleasant taste.
+
+This sensation is not a special sense of taste because it does not have specific taste buds. It is a complex sensation.
+
+Substances such as ethanol and capsaicin cause a burning sensation called chemesthesis, piquance, spiciness, hotness, or prickliness. Two main sources of  this sensation are capsaicin from chili peppers and piperine from black pepper.
+
+Foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly giving the sensation of "hot". Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye (cornea) or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to such chemicals.
+
+The tongue can also feel other sensations not generally included in the basic tastes. These are largely detected by the somatosensory system.
+
+Also, it is known that smell and sight contribute to the overall sensation of eating and drinking. The temperature of food makes a difference to its appreciation.
+
+The strange coolness of spearmint, menthol and camphor is caused by their molecules triggering a sensory system which normally works to sense low temperatures.
+
+There is still much to learn about the taste system. Consider, for example, the tastes of ginger and horseradish.

ensimple/224.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+on the European continent  (dark grey)  —  [Legend]
+
+Andorra (/ænˈdɒrə/ (listen)), officially the Principality of Andorra, is a landlocked sovereign country located in the eastern Pyrenees Mountains of Southern Europe and bordered by Spain and France.[3] There are about 84,000 people living in the country. The capital is Andorra la Vella. It is ruled by a Spanish Bishop and the French President. Andorra's government is a parliamentary democracy.
+
+Andorra is a rich country mostly because of tourism.  There are about 10.2 million visitors each year.[4]
+
+The official language is Catalan, although Spanish, Portuguese, and French are also used.
+
+It is not a member of the European Union. The euro is the money used.
+
+It is said that Charles the Great (Charlemagne) gave the Andorran people their country in return for fighting against the Moors.
+
+Before 1095, Andorra did not have any type of military protection.  The Lord of Caboet and the Bishop of Urgell decided to rule Andorra together.  In 1607 Henry IV of France said the head of the French state and the Bishop of Urgell would be co-princes of Andorra.
+
+Andorra declared war on Imperial Germany during World War I.  It did not do any fighting.  They stayed against Germany until 1957 because they were not in the Treaty of Versailles.
+
+Andorra doesn't have an Army.[5] France and Spain help to defend Andorra.  The country has a police force of 295.
+
+Andorra has seven parishes:
+
+Andorra is in the Pyrenees mountain range.  The highest mountain is Coma Pedrosa.
+
+The largest cities in Andorra are:
+
+For other locations in Andorra, see List of cities in Andorra.
+
+The population of Andorra is mostly (90%) Roman Catholic.[6] Their patron saint is Our Lady of Meritxell.
+
+Children between the ages of 6 and 16 must have full-time education. Education up to secondary level is paid by the government.
+
+The University of Andorra (UdA) is the state public university.  It is the only university in Andorra.
+
+A satellite image of Andorra
+
+
+
+
+

ensimple/2240.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
+
+Austria (German: Österreich; officially called Republic of Austria), is a country in Central Europe. Around Austria there are the countries of Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Italy, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein. Currently, the chancellor is Sebastian Kurz. The previous chancellor was Brigitte Bierlein (2019). Austria has been a member-state of the United Nations since 1955 the European Union since 1995 and OPEC since 2019.
+
+The people in Austria speak German, a few also speak Hungarian, Slovenian and Croatian. The capital of Austria is Vienna (Wien).
+
+Austria is more than a thousand years old. Its history can be followed to the ninth century. At that time the first people moved to the land now known as Austria. The name "Ostarrichi" is first written in an official document from 996. Since then this word has developed into the Modern German word Österreich, which literally means "East Empire."
+
+Austria is a democratic republic. It is a neutral state, that means it does not take part in wars with other countries. It has been in the United Nations since 1955 and in the European Union since 1995.
+
+Austria is also a federal state and divided into nine states (German: Bundesländer):
+
+More information: States of Austria.
+
+There has been human settlement in the area that is now Austria for a long time. The first settlers go back to the Paleolithic age. That was the time of the Neanderthals. They left works of art such as the Venus of Willendorf. In the Neolithic age people were living there to dig for mineral resources, especially copper. Ötzi, a mummy found in a glacier between Austria and Italy, is from that time. In the Bronze Age people built bigger settlements and fortresses, especially where there were mineral resources. Salt mining began near Hallstatt. At that time, Celts began to form the first states.
+
+The Romans came 15 B.C. to Austria and made the Celtic Regnum Noricum to a province. Modern Austria was part of three provinces, Raetia, Noricum and Pannonia. The border in the north was the Danube.
+
+Austria was the Austrian Empire from about 800 to 1867 and was ruled by The House of Habsburg for most of that period. Between 1867 and 1918 it was a part of Austria-Hungary. Then it became a republic. The First Republic was from 1918 to 1938. From 1938 to 1945 Austria was part of Nazi Germany. The Second Republic was started in 1945.
+
+Austria is a largely mountainous country since it is partially in the Alps. The high mountainous Alps in the west of Austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country where the Danube flows.
+
+Many famous composers were Austrians or born in Austria. There are Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Franz Schubert, Anton Bruckner, Johann Strauss, Sr., Johann Strauss, Jr. and Gustav Mahler. In modern times there were Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern and Alban Berg, who belonged to the Second Viennese School.
+
+Austria has many artists, there are Gustav Klimt, Oskar Kokoschka, Egon Schiele or Friedensreich Hundertwasser, Inge Morath or Otto Wagner and scienc.
+
+Famous Austrian dishes are Wiener Schnitzel, Apfelstrudel, Schweinsbraten, Kaiserschmarren, Knödel, Sachertorte and Tafelspitz. But you can also find a lot of local dishes like Kärntner Reindling (a kind of cake), Kärntner Nudeln (also called "Kärntner Kasnudeln", you may write it "...nudln" too), Tiroler Knödl (may be written "...knödel"; ), Tiroler Schlipfkrapfen (another kind of "Kärntner Nudeln"), Salzburger Nockerl (also may be written ..."Nockerln"), Steirisches Wurzelfleisch (..."Wurzlfleisch") or Sterz ("Steirischer Sterz").
+
+Hallstatt
+
+Salzburg
+
+Schönbrunn palace
+
+Semmering railway
+
+Graz
+
+Schloss Eggenberg
+
+Wachau
+
+Vienna
+
+Neusiedler See
+
+
+
+Burgenland ·
+Carinthia ·
+Lower Austria ·
+Salzburg(erland) ·
+Styria ·
+Tyrol ·
+Upper Austria ·
+Vienna ·
+Vorarlberg

ensimple/2241.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+A government is a group of people that have the power to rule  in a territory, according to the law. This territory may be a country, a state or province within a country, or a region.
+
+Plato listed five kinds of government in The Republic:
+
+The most common type of government in the Western world is called democracy. In democracies, people in a country can vote during elections for representatives or political parties that they prefer. The people in democracies can elect representatives who will sit on legislatures such as the Parliament or Congress. Political parties are organizations of people with similar ideas about how a country or region should be governed. Different political parties have different ideas about how the government should handle different problems. Democracy is the government of the people, by the people and for the people.
+
+However, many countries have forms of democracy which limit freedom of choice by the voters. One of the most common ways is to limit which parties who can for parliament, or limit the parties access to mass media such as television. Another way is to rig the voting system by removing votes from opposition voters and substituting votes for the party in power. Few countries are textbook democracies, and the differences between them has been much studied.[1][2][3]
+
+A monarchy is a government ruled by a king or a queen who inherits their position from their family, which is often called the "royal family." There are two types of monarchies: absolute monarchies and constitutional monarchies. In an absolute monarchy, the ruler has no limits on their wishes or powers. In a constitutional monarchy a ruler's powers are limited by a document called a constitution.
+
+In modern times, monarchies still exist in Great Britain and the Commonwealth, the Netherlands, Spain, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and Thailand, along with several other countries. A monarch may have one of several titles: King or Queen, Emperor or Empress, or Emir.
+
+An aristocracy is a government run by the people of a ruling class, usually people who come from wealthy families, families with a particular set of values, or people who come from a particular place. A person who rules in an aristocracy is an aristocrat. Aristocracy is different from nobility, in that nobility means that one bloodline would rule, an aristocracy would mean that a few or many bloodlines would rule, or that rulers be chosen in a different manner.
+
+Under a dictatorship, the government is run by one person who has all the power over the people in a country. Originally, the Roman Republic made dictators to lead during time of war. The Roman dictators (and Greek tyrants) were not always cruel or unkind, but they did hold on to power all by themselves, rather than sharing power with the people. The Roman dictators only held power for a short period of time.
+
+In modern times, a dictator's rule is not stopped by any laws, constitutions, or other social and political institutions, and can last many years or even decades. After World War II, many governments in Latin America, Asia, and Africa were ruled by dictators. Examples of dictators include Josef Stalin, Adolf Hitler, Augusto Pinochet,  Idi Amin, Muammar al-Qaddafi, and Gamal Abdul Nasser. The rules of these dictators continued from when they took power until when they died, because they would not allow any other person or law to take power from them. There is no evidence of a woman serving as a dictator in modern times.
+
+An oligarchy is a government ruled by a small group of powerful people. These people may spread power equally or not equally. An oligarchy is different from a true democracy because very few people are given the chance to change things. An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or passed down from father to son. An oligarchy does not have one clear ruler, but several powerful people. Some past examples of oligarchy are the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Apartheid South Africa. A fictional example is the dystopian society of Oceania in the book Nineteen Eighty-Four. Some critics of representative democracy think of the United States as an oligarchy. This view is shared by anarchists.
+
+The simplest idea of government is those who rule over people and land. This may be as small as a community or village or as big as a continent (like Australia and India).
+
+The people who rule can allow others to own land. It is a deed by government that gives this right in the way that laws describe. Some think they have the right to hold land without government permission. This view is called libertarianism. Others think they can do without government. This view is called anarchism.
+
+Almost every place on Earth is connected to one and only one government. Places without government are where people follow traditions instead of government rules, small border disputed areas and the continent of Antarctica, because almost no people live there. For every other place on Earth there is a government that claims 'sovereign control' over it. The word "sovereign" is old and means "control by a King" (sovereign). Governments of villages, cities, counties and other communities are subordinate to the government of the state or province where they exist, and then to that of the country.
+
+It is from Kings and feudalism that modern governments and nation states came. The capital of a country, for instance, is where the King kept his assets. From this we get the modern idea of capital in economics. A government may regulate trade as well as to rule over land.
+
+Governments also control people and decide things about what morality to accept or punish. In  many countries, there are strict rules about sexual intercourse and drugs which are part of law and offenders are punished for disobeying them.
+
+Tax is how government is paid for in most countries. People who buy, sell, import, invest, own a house or land, or earn money are made to pay some of the money to a government.
+
+There are many theories of how to organize government better. These are called theories of civics. Many people think leaders must be elected by some kind of democracy. That way, they can be replaced at election. Many governments are not a democracy but other forms in which only a few people have power.
+
+There are many theories of how to run a government better, and keep people from hurting each other. These theories are part of politics.

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+Graffiti is marks, scratching or drawings made on a surface on a public place. It is often created with paint or spray paint (paint that is sprayed from a can). A single mark could be called a graffito but the word graffiti is usually used, meaning that there is more than 1 mark.
+
+Graffiti can take the form of art, drawings or words. When done without a property owner's permission it is considered vandalism. Sometimes it is just a person's name or a rude word. Sometimes it is a public political protest because Graffiti is illegal without permission.
+
+Graffiti has been found in very old cities. For example, in the Roman Empire, people wrote messages and drew caricatures on walls.[source?] Graffiti is also found in many places. Some people do murals of graffiti rather than just writing one mark in a location. It was used for good instead of vandalism. Probably the simplest graffiti is when a person cuts (or carves) the name of a lover on a tree with a knife.
+
+Today, many graffiti are very complicated mixtures of writing and pictures. They are sometimes made by gangs and applied with spray-paint to buildings, bridges, street signs, and other areas. These are often signed with a tag (in graffiti slang, a signature), which is a shape special.
+
+Graffiti can be thought of as a part of hip hop or street protest. It is often but not always illegal. Some cities have small areas where graffiti can be made. Sometimes graffiti are very beautiful. Some people consider graffiti as not only something bad, but something good, like art. Some people pay graffiti artists to do graffiti on their buildings. In the 1980s, some graffiti artists like Keith Haring became very famous.
+
+Modern graffiti was made famous in New York City in the early 1970s by the children of the working class. They called it "writing," and called themselves "writers." In a 1971 New York Times article, the term "graffiti" was first used to refer to the new urban art explosion that was becoming popular in New York City. This period of the early 1970s is known as the "Original School." Later in the 1980s, the next generation of graffiti artists is known as "Old School."

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+Alexander Graham Bell (March 3, 1847 - August 2, 1922) was a teacher, scientist, and inventor. He was the founder of the Bell Telephone Company.
+
+Alexander Graham Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. His family was known for teaching people how to speak English clearly (elocution). Both his grandfather, Alexander Bell, and his father, Alexander Melville Bell, taught elocution. His father wrote often about this and is most known for his invention and writings of Visible Speech.[1] In his writings he explained ways of teaching people who were deaf and unable to speak. It also showed how these people could learn to speak words by watching their lips and reading what other people were saying.
+
+Alexander Graham Bell went to the Royal High School of Edinburgh. He graduated at the age of fifteen. At the age of sixteen, he got a job as a student and teacher of elocution and music in Weston House Academy, at Elgin in Morayshire. He spent the next year at the University of Edinburgh. While still in Scotland, he became more interested in the science of sound (acoustics). He hoped to help his deaf mother. From 1866 to 1867, he was a teacher at Somersetshire College in Bath, Somerset.
+
+In 1870 when he was 23 years old, he moved with his family to Canada where they settled at Brantford, Ontario.[1] Bell began to study communication machines. He made a piano that could be heard far away by using electricity. In 1871 he went with his father to Montreal, Quebec in Canada, where he took a job teaching about "visible speech". His father was asked to teach about it at a large school for deaf mutes in Boston, Massachusetts, but instead he gave the job to his son. The younger Bell began teaching there in 1872.[1] Alexander Graham Bell soon became famous in the United States for this important work. He published many writings about it in Washington, D.C.. Because of this work, thousands of deaf mutes in the United States of America are now able to speak, even though they cannot hear.
+
+In 1876, Bell was the first inventor to patent the telephone, and he helped start the Bell Telephone Company with others in July 1877.[1] In 1879, this company joined with the New England Telephone Company to form the National Bell Telephone Company. In 1880, they formed the American Bell Telephone Company, and in 1885, American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T), still a large company today. Along with Thomas Edison, Bell formed the Oriental Telephone Company on January 25, 1881.
+
+Bell married Mabel Hubbard on July 11, 1877. He died of diabetes at his home near Baddeck, Nova Scotia in 1922.
+
+Bell's genius is seen in part by the eighteen patents granted in his name alone and the twelve that he shared with others. These included fifteen for the telephone and telegraph, four for the photophone, one for the phonograph, five for aeronautics, four for hydrofoils, and two for a selenium cell. In 1888, he was one of the original members of the National Geographic Society and became its second president.
+
+He was given many honors.
+
+His past experience made him ready to work more with sound and electricity. He began his studies in 1874 with a musical telegraph, in which he used an electric circuit and a magnet to make an iron reed or tongue vibrate. One day, it was found that a reed failed to respond to the current. Mr. Bell desired his assistant, who was at the other end of the line, to pluck the reed, thinking it had stuck to the magnet. His assistant, Thomas Watson complied, and to his surprise, Bell heard the corresponding reed at his end of the line vibrate and sound the same - without any electric current to power it. A few experiments soon showed that his reed had been set in vibration by the changes in the magnetic field that the moving reed produced in the line. This discovery led him to stop using the electric battery current. His idea was that, since the circuit was never broken, all the complex vibrations of speech might be converted into currents, which in turn would reproduce the speech at a distance.
+
+Bell, with his assistant, devised a receiver, consisting of a stretched film or drum with a bit of magnetised iron attached to its middle, and free to vibrate in front of the pole of an electromagnet in circuit with the line. This apparatus was completed on June 2, 1875. On July 7, he instructed his assistant to make a second receiver which could be used with the first, and a few days later they were tried together, at each end of the line, which ran from a room in the inventor's house at Boston to the cellar underneath. Bell, in the room, held one instrument in his hands, while Watson in the cellar listened at the other. The inventor spoke into his instrument, "Do you understand what I say?" and Mr. Watson rushed back into the upstairs and answered "Yes." The first successful two-way telephone call was not made until March 10, 1876 when Bell spoke into his device, "Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you." and Watson answered back and came into the room to see Bell.[1] The first long distance telephone call was made on August 10, 1876 by Bell from the family home in Brantford, Ontario to his assistant in Paris, Ontario, some 16 km (10 mi.) away.
+
+On March 7, 1876, the U.S. Patent Office gave him patent #174465 for the telephone.[1]
+
+Bell is also credited with the invention of an improved metal detector in 1881 that made sounds when it was near metal. The device was quickly put together in an attempt to find the bullet in the body of U.S. President James Garfield. The metal detector worked, but did not find the bullet because of the metal bedframe the President was lying on. Bell gave a full description of his experiments in a paper read before the "American Association for the Advancement of Science" in August, 1882.
+
+Bell was an active supporter of the eugenics movement in the United States. He was the honorary president of the "Second International Congress of Eugenics" held at the American Museum of Natural History in New York in 1921.
+
+As a teacher of the deaf, Bell did not want deaf people to teach in schools for the deaf. He was also against the use of sign language. These things mean that he is not appreciated by some deaf people in the present day.

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+A seed is the part of a seed plant which can grow into a new plant. It is a reproductive structure which disperses,[1] and can survive for some time. A typical seed includes three basic parts: (1) an embryo, (2) a supply of nutrients for the embryo, and (3) a seed coat.
+
+There are many different kinds of seeds. Some plants make a lot of seeds, some make only a few. Seeds are often hard and very small, but some are larger. The coconut is as big as a child's head, but it contains more than just a seed. At the start, seeds are dormant (resting inside their coat) for a while. When the seed is ready to develop, it needs water, air and warmth but not sunlight to become a seedling.
+
+Seeds carry the food that helps the new plant begin to grow. This food store is in the endosperm, and/or in the cotyledons. Many kinds of seeds are good food for animals and people. The many kinds of grain that people grow, such as rice, wheat, and maize, are all seeds. Seeds are often inside fruits.
+
+A seed, though not active, is a tiny living thing. It contains the embryo of the future plant, which is not changing or developing: it is dormant. The common idea is that the seed "sleeps" until it gets what it needs to wake up. That is not correct. Different seeds have different habits, no doubt adapted to their habitat. There are different kinds of resting stages in seeds:[2]
+
+When a seed germinates ("wakes up"), it begins to grow into a little plant called a seedling.[2] It uses the soft fleshy material inside the seed for nutrients (food) until it is ready to make food on its own using sunlight, water and air.
+
+Most seeds germinate underground where there is no sunlight. The plant does not need the nutrients in soil for a few days or weeks, because the seed has all the things it needs to grow.[3] Later, though, it will begin to need sunlight. If there is sunlight, the plant will use it to grow healthy. If there is no light, the plant will still grow for a while, but its plastids will not mature: the chlorophyll does not turn green. If the plant does not get enough light, it will eventually die. It needs light to make food for itself when the reserve in the seed runs out.[2]
+
+Seeds have been an important development in the reproduction and spread of conifers and flowering plants. Plants such as mosses, liverworts and ferns do not have seeds, and use unprotected spores and other methods to propagate themselves. Before the upper Devonian period, land plants, like modern ferns, reproduced by sending spores into the air. The spores would land and become new plants only in favourable conditions. Spores have little food stored, and may be just single cells rather than embryos.
+
+The evolution of seeds changed the plant life cycle by freeing plants from the need for external water for sexual reproduction, and by providing protection and nutrients for the developing embryo. These functions allowed plants to expand beyond the immediate neighbourhood of water sources. They were able to exploit environments which were drier and more upland.[6]p92 This can be seen by the success of seed plants in important biological niches on land, from forests to grasslands both in hot and cold climates. The present-day seed plants are the Gymnosperms, with naked seeds, and the Angiosperms with covered seeds, usually fruits.
+
+The first true seeds are from the upper Devonian 370–354 million years ago, which is probably the theatre of their first evolutionary radiation. The earliest seed-producing trees were in the forests of the Carboniferous period.[6]p112 The seed plants steadily became one of the most important elements of nearly all ecosystems.