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والعالم المحسوس وإن كان تابعًا للعالم الإلهي شبيه الظل له، والعالم الإلهي مستغنٍ عنه وبريء منه فإنه مع ذلك قد يستحيل فرض عدمه إذ هو لا محالة تابع للعالم الإلهي، وإنما فساده أن يبدَّل لا أن يُعدم بالجملة، وبذلك نطق الكتاب العزيز حيثما وقع هذا المعنى منه في تغيير الجبال وتصييرها كالعهن والناس كالفراش، وتكوير الشمس والقمر وتفجير البحار، يوم تُبدَّل الأرض غير الأرض والسموات.

Yet even though the sense world mimics the divine like a shadow, and the divine world is self-sufficient and totally independent, still it is impossible to postulate complete nonexistence for the sensory world, for the very reason that it does reflect the world of the divine. The destruction of the world, then, can mean only that it is transformed, not that it goes out of existence altogether. The Holy Book speaks clearly to this effect in describing how the mountains will be set in motion and become like tufts of wool, and men like moths, the sun and moon cast down, the seas split open and spilled out, on the Day when the earth turns to what is no longer earth, and the heavens to what is no longer heaven.

فهذا القدْر هو الذي أمكنني الآن أن أشير إليك به فيما شاهده حي بن يقظان في ذلك المقام الكريم، فلا تلتمس الزيادة عليه من جهة الألفاظ فإن ذلك كالمتعذِّر.

These hints and no more I am able to relate concerning what Hayy Ibn Yaqzan witnessed at this lofty plane. Do not ask me to add anything more in words. That would be next to impossible.

وأما تمام خبره فسأتلوه عليك إن شاء الله تعالى؛ وهو أنه لما عاد إلى العالم المحسوس وذلك بعد جولانه حيث جال سئم تكاليف الحياة الدنيا واشتد شوقه إلى الحياة القصوى فجعل يطلب العود إلى ذلك المقام بالنحو الذي طلبه أولًا حتى وصل إليه بأيسر من السعي الذي وصل به أولًا ودام فيه ثانيًا مدة أطول من الأولى.

But I will tell you the rest of the story. Returned to the world of the senses from his wandering, Hayy grew weary of the cares of this world and longed still more for that other life. He tried to return as before, and found he could reach this higher level more easily and remain longer.

ثم عاد إلى عالم الحس. ثم تكلف الوصول إلى مقامه بعد ذلك فكان أيسر عليه من الأولى والثانية وكان دوامه أطول.

He returned to the sense world and set out again, finding he could reach this station still more easily and stay still longer.

وما زال الوصول إلى ذلك المقام الكريم يزيد عليه سهولة والدوام يزيد فيه طولًا مدة بعد مدة حتى صار يصل إليه متى شاء ولا ينفصل عنه إلا متى شاء، فكان يلازم مقامه ذلك ولا ينثني عنه إلا لضرورة بدنه التي كان قد قللها حتى كان لا يوجد أقل منها.

Again and again he returned to that sublime state, more and more easily, more and more sustainedly, until he reached the point that he could attain it whenever he wished and remain as long as he liked. He would stay riveted to his station, turning away only to attend the needs of his body, which had by now so wasted away that a more meagre figure could scarcely be found.

وهو في كل ذلك كله يريد أن يريحه الله — عز وجل — من كل بدنه الذي يدعوه إلى مفارقة مقامه ذلك فيتخلَّص إلى لذته تخلصًا دائمًا ويبرأ عما يجده من الألم عند الإعراض عن مقامه ذلك إلى ضرورة البدن.

All the while, Hayy longed that God—glory to Him—would ease him altogether of his body, which constantly called him away from his post, and let him enjoy bliss untrammelled and undisrupted, free of the painful need of leaving his vantage point to tend to the body.

وبقي على حالته تلك حتى أناف على سبعة أسابيع من منشئه، وذلك خمسون عامًا. وحينئذٍ اتفقت له صحبة أبسال، وكان من قصته معه ما يأتي ذكره بعد هذا إن شاء الله تعالى.

In this fashion Hayy lived until he had passed his seventh septenary and reached the age of fifty. It was then he chanced to make the acquaintance of Absal. God willing, I shall tell you the tale of their friendship.

ذكروا أن جزيرة قريبة من الجزيرة التي وُلد بها حي بن يقظان على أحد القولين المختلفين على صفة مبدئه انتقلت إليه ملة من الملل الصحيحة المأخوذة عن بعض الأنبياء المتقدمين صلوات الله عليهم.

Near the island where, according to one of the two conflicting accounts of his origin, Hayy was born, there was, so they say, a second island, in which had settled the followers of a certain true religion, based on the teachings of a certain ancient prophet-God’s blessing on all such prophets.

وكانت ملة محاكية لجميع الموجودات الحقيقية بالأمثال المضروبة التي تعطي خيالات تلك الأشياء وتثبت رسومها في النفوس حسبما جرت به العادة في مخاطبة الجمهور، فما زالت تلك الملة تنتشر بتلك الجزيرة وتتقوى وتظهر حتى قام بها ملكها وحمل الناس على التزامها.

Now the practice in this religion was to represent all reality in symbols, providing concrete images of things and impressing their outlines on the people’s souls, just as orators do when addressing a multitude. The sect spread widely throughout the island, ultimately growing so powerful and prominent that the king himself converted to it and made the people embrace it as well.

وكان قد نشأ بتلك الجزيرة فتيان من أهل الفضل والرغبة في الخير يسمى أحدهما أبسال والآخر سلامان فتلقيا تلك الملة وقبلاها أحسن قبول وأخذا على أنفسهما بالتزام جميع شرائعها والمواظبة على جميع أعمالها واصطحبا على ذلك. وكانا يتفقهان في بعض الأوقات فيما ورد من ألفاظ تلك الشريعة في صفة الله — عز وجل — وملائكته وصفات المعاد والثواب والعقاب.

There had grown up on this island two fine young men of ability and high principle, one named Absal and the other Salaman. Both had taken instruction in this religion and accepted it enthusiastically. Both held themselves duty- bound to abide by all its laws and precepts for living. They practiced their religion together; and together, from time to time, they would study some of that religion’s traditional expressions describing God—exalted be He—the angels He sends, and the character of resurrection, reward and punishment.

فأما أبسال فكان أشد غوصًا على الباطن وأكثر عثورًا على المعاني الروحانية وأطمع في التأويل. وأما سلامان صاحبه فكان أكثر احتفاظًا بالظاهر وأشد بُعدًا عن التأويل وأوقف عن التصرف والتأمل. وكلاهما مُجِدٌّ في الأعمال الظاهرة ومحاسبة النفس ومجاهدة الهوى.

Absal, for his part, was the more deeply concerned with getting down to the heart of things, the more eager to discover spiritual values, and the more ready to attempt a more or less allegorical interpretation. Salaman, on the other hand, was more anxious to preserve the literal and less prone to seek subtle intensions. On the whole he avoided giving too free rein to his thoughts. Still each of them executed the express commands of the text fastidiously, kept watch over his soul, and fought his passions.

وكان في تلك الشريعة أقوال تحمل على العزلة والانفراد وتدل على أن الفوز والنجاة فيهما، وأقوال أُخر تحمل على المعاشرة وملازمة الجماعة.

In the Law were certain statements proposing a life of solitude and isolation and suggesting that by these means salvation and spiritual triumph could be won. Other statements, however, favored life in a community and involvement in society.

فتعلَّق أبسال بطلب العزلة ورجح القول فيها لما كان في طباعه من دوام الفكرة وملازمة العبرة والغوص على المعاني، وأكثر ما كان يتأتى له أمله من ذلك بالانفراد. وتعلق سلامان بملازمة الجماعة ورجح القول فيها لما كان في طباعه من الجبن عن الفكرة والتصرف.

Absal devoted himself to the quest for solitude, preferring the words of the Law in its favor because he was naturally a thoughtful man, fond of contemplation and of probing for the deeper meanings of things; and he did find the most propitious time for seeking what he hoped for to be when he was alone. But Salaman preferred being among people and gave greater weight to the sayings of the Law in favor of society, since he was by nature chary of too much independent thinking or doing.

فكانت ملازمته الجماعة عنده مما يدرأ الوسواس ويزيل الظنون المعترضة ويعيذ من همزات الشياطين. وكان اختلافهما في هذا الرأي سبب افتراقهما.

In staying with the group he saw some means of fending off demonic promptings, dispelling distracting thoughts, and in general guarding against the goadings of the devil. Their differences on this point became the cause of their parting.

وكان أَبْسَال قد سمع عن الجزيرة التي ذُكر أن حي بن يقظان تكوَّن بها وعرف ما بها من الخصب والمرافق والهواء المعتدل، وأن الانفراد بها يتأتى لملتمسه، فأجمع على أن يرتحل إليها ويعتزل الناس بها بقية عمره.

For Absal had heard of the island where it is said Hayy came to be. He knew how temperate, fruitful and hospitable it was and how easy it would be, for anyone who so desired, to live there in solitude. So he decided to go there and remain in isolation for the rest of his life.

فجمع ما كان له من المال واشترى ببعضه مركبًا تحمله إلى تلك الجزيرة وفرَّق باقيه على المساكين وودَّع صاحبه سلامان وركب متن البحر، فحمله الملاحون إلى تلك الجزيرة ووضعوه بساحلها وانفصلوا عنها.

He took what money he had, and with some hired a boat to take him to the island. The rest he divided among the poor; and, saying goodbye to his friend, he set sail. The sailors brought him to the island, set him down on the beach and left.

فبقي أبسال بتلك الجزيرة يعبد الله — عز وجل — ويعظمه ويقدسه ويفكر في أسمائه الحسنى وصفاته العليا فلا ينقطع خاطره ولا تتكدر فكرته.

Absal remained there on the island, worshipping, magnifying, and sanctifying God—glory to Him—contemplating His most beautiful names and sublime attributes. His reveries were undisrupted; his thoughts, unsullied.

وإذا احتاج إلى غذاء تناول من ثمرات تلك الجزيرة وصيدها ما يسد بها جوعته. وأقام على تلك الحال مدة وهو في أتم غبطة وأعظم أُنس بمناجاة ربه.

When he needed food, he would take some of the island fruits or game, just enough to hold his appetite in check. He lived in this way for some time in most perfect happiness and intimacy with his Lord.

وكان كل يوم يشاهد من ألطافه ومزايا تُحَفه وتيسيره عليه في مطلبه وغذائه ما يثبِّت يقينه ويقر عينه.

Each day he could see for himself God’s splendid gifts and acts of grace—the ease with which He allowed him to find not just his food but all his wants, confirming his trust and putting a sparkle in his eye.

وكان في تلك المدة حي بن يقظان شديد الاستغراق في مقاماته الكريمة فكان لا يبرح مغارته إلا مرة في الأسبوع لتناول ما سنح من الغذاء؛ فلذلك لم يعثر عليه أبسال بأول وهلة بل كان يتطوف بأكناف تلك الجزيرة ويسيح في أرجائها فلا يرى إنسيًّا ولا يشاهد أثرًا فيزيد بذلك أنسه وتنبسط نفسه لما كان قد عزم عليه من التناهي في طلب العزلة والانفراد.

All this while Hayy Ibn Yaqzan was deeply immersed in his supernal ecstasies, emerging from his cave no more than once a week for whatever food came to hand. For this reason, Absal did not come across him at first, but surveyed the whole island without seeing a soul or even a footprint— which made him all the happier, since his intention had been to be alone.

إلى أن اتفق في بعض تلك الأوقات أن خرج حي بن يقظان لالتماس غذائه وأبسال قد ألمَّ بتلك الجهة، فوقع بصر كل منهما على الآخر.

But once, when Hayy had come out to look for food, Absal happened to be nearby and they saw each other.

فأما أبسال فلم يشك أنه من العباد المنقطعين وصل تلك الجزيرة لطلب العزلة عن الناس كما وصل هو إليها. فخشي إن هو تعرض له وتعرف به أن يكون سببًا في فساد حاله وعائقًا بينه وبين أمله.

Absal had no doubt that this was another anchorite who had come to the island, as he had, in search of solitude. He was anxious not to disturb the other by introducing himself, for fear of disrupting his frame of mind and preventing his attaining the goal he would be hoping to reach.

وأما حي بن يقظان فلم يدرِ ما هو لأنه لم يره على صورة شيء من الحيوانات التي كان قد عاينها قبل ذلك.

Hayy, for his part, had not the least idea what Absal was, since he had the form of no animal he had ever laid eyes on.

وكان عليه مدرعة سوداء من الشعر والصوف فظن أنها لباس طبيعي.

Besides, he was wearing a long, black cloak of wool and goat hair, which Hayy took to be his natural coat.

فوقف يتعجب منه مليًّا. وولَّى أبسال هاربًا منه خيفةَ أن يشغله عن حاله، فاقتفى حي بن يقظان أثره لما كان في طباعه من البحث عن الحقائق.

Hayy simply stood gazing at him in amazement; but Absal, still hoping not to distract him, took to his heels and ran. Always naturally eager to find out about things, Hayy set out after him.

فلما رآه يشتد في الهرب، خنس عنه وتوارى له حتى ظن أبسال أنه قد انصرف عنه وتباعد من تلك الجهة.

But, seeing Absal run still faster, he fell back and dropped out of sight, letting Absal suppose he had lost the trail and gone elsewhere.

فشرع أبسال في الصلاة والقراءة والدعاء والبكاء والتضرع والتواجد حتى شغله ذلك عن كل شيء.

Absal then took up his devotions and was soon completely absorbed in invocations, recitations, weeping, and lamentations.

فجعل حي بن يقظان يتقرب منه قليلًا قليلًا وأبسال لا يشعر به حتى دنا منه، بحيث يسمع قراءته وتسبيحه، ويشاهد خضوعه وبكاءه، فسمع صوتًا حسنًا وحروفًا منظمة لم يعهد مثلها من شيء من أصناف الحيوان.

Little by little Hayy crept up without Absal’s noticing, until he was in earshot of his praises and recitations and could make out how he was humbling himself and weeping. The voice he heard was pleasant and the sounds somehow clearly patterned, quite unlike the call of any animal he had ever heard before.

ونظر إلى أشكاله وتخطيطه فرآه على صورته وتبيَّن له أن المدرعة التي عليه ليست جلدًا طبيعيًّا وإنما هي لباس مُتَّخذ مثل لباسه هو.

On closer inspection of the other’s features and the lines of his body, Hayy recognized the form as his own and realized that the long coat was not a natural skin, but simply a garment intended for use like his own.

ولما رأى حسن خشوعه وتضرعه وبكائه لم يشكَّ في أنه من الذوات العارفة بالحق فتشوق إليه وأراد أن يرى ما عنده وما الذي أوجب بكاءه وتضرعه فزاد في الدنو منه حتى أحس به أبسال فاشتد في العَدْوِ واشتدَّ حي بن يقظان في أثره حتى التحق به — لما كان أعطاه الله من القوة والبسطة في العلم والجسم — فالتزمه وقبض عليه ولم يمكنه من البراح.

Seeing how abject Absal made himself, Hayy had no doubt that he was one of those beings who know the Truth. He felt drawn to him, and wanted to know what was wrong, what was it that made him cry. He approached closer and closer, but Absal caught sight of him and fled. Hayy ran after him, and with the power and vigor God had given him, not just mentally, but physically as well, he caught up with him and seized him in a grip from which he could not escape.

فلما نظر إليه أَبْسال وهو مكتسٍ بجلود الحيوان ذوات الأوبار وشعره قد طال حتى جلل كثيرًا منه ورأى ما عنده من سرعة العَدْو وقوة البطش فَرِق منه فَرَقًا شديدًا وجعل يستعطفه ويرغب إليه بكلام لا يفهمه حي بن يقظان ولا يدري ما هو غير أنه يميز فيه شمائل الجزع. فكان يؤنسه بأصوات كان قد تعلمها من الحيوانات ويجر يده على رأسه ويمسح أعطافه، ويتملق إليه ويظهر البِشر والفرح به.

When he got a good look at his captor, clothed in hides still bristling with fur, his hair so overgrown that it hung down over a good part of his body, when he saw how fast he could run and how fiercely he could grapple, Absal was terrified and began to beg for mercy. Hayy could not understand a word he said. But he could make out the signs of fright and did his best to put the other at ease with a variety of animal cries he knew. Hayy also patted his head, rubbed his sides, and spoke soothingly to him, trying to show how delighted he was with him.

حتى سكن جأش أبسال وعلم أنه لا يريد به سوءًا.

Eventually Absal’s trepidation died down and he realized that Hayy did not mean him any harm.

وكان أبسال قديمًا، لمحبته في علم التأويل، قد تعلم أكثر الألسن ومهر فيها، فجعل يكلِّم حي بن يقظان ويسائله عن شأنه بكل لسان يعلمه ويعالج إفهامه فلا يستطيع، وحي بن يقظان في ذلك كله يتعجب مما يسمع ولا يدري ما هو، غير أنه يُظهر له البِشر والقبول، فاستغرب كل واحد منهما أمر صاحبه.

Years before, in his passion for the study of the more sophisticated level of interpretation, Absal had studied and gained fluency in many languages, so he tried to speak to Hayy, asking him about himself in every language he knew. But Absal was completely unable to make himself understood. Hayy was astounded by this performance, but had no idea what it might mean—unless it was a sign of friendliness and high spirits. Neither of them knew what to make of the other.

وكان عند أبسال بقية من زاد كان قد استصحبه من الجزيرة المعمورة فقرَّبه إلى حي بن يقظان فلم يدرِ ما هو لأنه لم يكن شاهده قبل ذلك.

Absal had a little food left over from the provisions he had brought from the civilized island. He offered it to Hayy, but Hayy did not know what it was. He had never seen anything like it.

فأكل منه أبسال وأشار إليه ليأكل، ففكَّر حي بن يقظان فيما كان ألزم نفسه من الشروط لتناول الغذاء ولم يدرِ أصل ذلك الشيء الذي قُدِّم له، ما هو، وهل يجوز له تناوله أم لا! فامتنع عن الأكل.

Absal ate a bit and made signs to Hayy that he should eat some too. But Hayy was thinking of his dietary rules. Not knowing what the proffered food might be or what it was made from, he had no idea whether he was allowed to eat it or not, so he would not take any.

ولم يزل أبسال يرغِّب إليه ويستعطفه.

Absal, however, kept trying to interest him in it, in an effort to win him over.

وقد كان أولع به حي بن يقظان فخشي إن دام على امتناعه أن يوحشه فأقدم على ذلك الزاد وأكل منه.

And Hayy, liking him and afraid to hurt his feelings by persistently refusing, took the food and ate some.

فلما ذاقه واستطابه بدا له سوء ما صنع من نقض عهوده في شرط الغذاء، وندم على فعله وأراد الانفصال عن أبسال والإقبال على شأنه من طلب الرجوع إلى مقامه الكريم فلم يتأتَّ له، فرأى أن يقيم مع أبسال في عالم الحس حتى يقف على حقيقة شأنه ولا يبقى في نفسه هو نزوع إليه وينصرف بعد ذلك إلى مقامه دون أن يشغله شاغل، فالتزم صحبة أبسال.

The moment he tasted how good it was, Hayy knew he had done wrong to violate his pledged dietary restrictions. He regretted what he had done and wanted to get away from Absal and devote himself to his true purpose, a return to sublimity. But this time ecstasy would not come so readily. It seemed best to remain in the sense-world with Absal until he had found out so much about him that he no longer felt any interest in him. Then he would be able to go back to his station without further distraction. So he sought out Absal’s company.

ولما رأى أبسال أيضًا أنه لا يتكلم آمن غوائله على دينه ورجا أن يعلمه الكلام والعلم والدين فيكون له بذلك أعظم أجر وزلفى عند الله.

When Absal, for his part, saw that Hayy did not know how to talk, the fears he had felt of harm to his faith were eased, and he became eager to teach him to speak, hoping to impart knowledge and religion to him, and by so doing earn God’s favor and a greater reward.

فشرع أبسال في تعليمه الكلام أولًا بأول بأن كان يشير له إلى أعيان الموجودات وينطق بأسمائها ويكرر ذلك عليه ويحمله على النطق فينطق بها مقترنًا بالإشارة حتى علمه الأسماء كلها ودرَّجه قليلًا قليلًا حتى تكلم في أقرب مدة.

So Absal began teaching him to talk, at first by pointing at some basic objects and pronouncing their names over and over, making him pronounce them too and pronounce them while pointing, until he had taught him nouns. Then he progressed with him, little by little and step by step, until in no time Hayy could speak.

فجعل أبسال يسأله عن شأنه ومن أين صار إلى تلك الجزيرة فأعلمه حي بن يقظان أنه لا يدري لنفسه ابتداء ولا أبًا ولا أمًّا أكثر من الظبية التي ربَّته ووصف له شأنه كله وكيف ترقى بالمعرفة حتى انتهى إلى درجة الوصول.

Absal then plied him with questions about himself and how he had come to the island. Hayy informed him that he had no idea of his origins. He knew of no father or any mother besides the doe that had raised him. He told all about his life and the growth of his awareness, culminating in contact with the divine.

فلما سمع أبسال منه وصف تلك الحقائق والذوات المفارقة لعالم الحس العارفة بذات الحق — عز وجل — ووصف ذلك الحق — تعالى وجل — بأوصافه الحسنى ووصف له ما أمكنه وصفه مما شاهده عند الوصول من لذات الواصلين وآلام المحجوبين لم يشك أبسال في أن جميع الأشياء التي وردت في شريعته من أمر الله — عز وجل — وملائكته وكتبه ورسله واليوم الآخر وجنته وناره هي أمثلة هذه التي شاهدها حي بن يقظان فانفتح بصر قلبه وانقدحت نار خاطره وتطابق عنده المعقول والمنقول وقربت عليه طريق التأويل ولم يبقَ عليه مُشكل في الشرع إلا تبين له ولا مغلق إلا انفتح ولا غامض إلا اتضح وصار من أولي الألباب.

Hearing Hayy’s description of the beings which are divorced from the sense-world and conscious of the Truth—glory be to Him—his description of the Truth Himself, by all His lovely attributes, and his description, as best he could, of the joys of those who reach Him and the agonies of those veiled from Him, Absal had no doubt that all the traditions of his religion about God, His angels, bibles and prophets, Judgement Day, Heaven and Hell were symbolic representations of these things that Hayy Ibn Yaqzan had seen for himself. The eyes of his heart were unclosed. His mind caught fire. Reason and tradition were at one within him. All the paths of exegesis lay open before him. All his old religious puzzlings were solved; all the obscurities, clear. Now he had “a heart to understand.”

وعند ذلك نظر إلى حي بن يقظان بعين التعظيم والتوقير وتحقق عنده أنه من أولياء الله الذين لا خوف عليهم ولا هم يحزنون.

Absal looked on Hayy Ibn Yaqzan with newfound reverence. Here, surely, was a man of God, one of those who “know neither fear nor sorrow.”

فالتزم خدمته والاقتداء به والأخذ بإشارته فيما تعارض عنده من الأعمال الشرعية التي قد تعلمها في ملته.

He wanted to serve as his disciple, follow his example and accept his direction in those things which in Absal’s own view corresponded to the religious practices he had learned in his society.

وجعل حي بن يقظان يستفحصه عن أمره وشأنه فجعل أبسال يصف له شأن جزيرته وما فيها من العالم وكيف كانت سِيرهم قبل وصول الملة إليهم. وكيف هي الآن بعد وصولها إليهم.

Hayy then asked him about himself and his life; and Absal, accordingly, set out to tell him about his island and the people who lived there. He described how they had lived before the advent of their present religion and how they acted now.

ووصف له جميع ما ورد في الشريعة من وصف العالم الإلهي والجنة والنار والبعث والنشور والحشر والحساب والميزان والصراط.

He related all the religious traditions describing the divine world, Heaven and Hell, rebirth and resurrection, the gathering and reckoning, the scales of justice and the strait way.

ففهم حي بن يقظان ذلك كله ولم يرَ فيه شيئًا على خلاف ما شاهده في مقامه الكريم.

Hayy understood all this and found none of it in contradiction with what he had seen for himself from his supernal vantage point.

فعلم أن الذي وصف ذلك وجاء به مُحِقٌّ في وصفه صادق في قوله رسول من عند ربه، فآمن به وصدَّقه وشهد برسالته.

He recognized that whoever had offered this description had given a faithful picture and spoken truly. This man must have been a “messenger sent by his Lord.” Hayy believed in this messenger and the truth of what he said. He bore witness to his mission as apostle of God.

ثم جعل يسأله عما جاء به من الفرائض ووضعه من العبادات فوصف له الصلاة والزكاة والصيام والحج وما أشبهها من الأعمال الظاهرة فتلقى ذلك والتزمه وأخذ نفسه بأدائه امتثالًا للأمر الذي صحَّ عنده صدق قائله.

What obligations and acts of worship had he prescribed, Hayy asked. Absal described prayer, poor tax, fasting, and pilgrimage, and other such outward practices. Hayy accepted these and undertook to observe them. He held himself responsible to practice these things in obedience to the command of one whose truthfulness he could not doubt.

إلا أنه بقي في نفسه أمران كان يتعجب منهما ولا يدري وجه الحكمة فيهما؛ أحدهما: لمَ ضرب هذا الرسول الأمثال للناس في أكثر ما وصفه من أمر العالم الإلهي وأضرب عن المكاشفة حتى وقع الناس في أمر عظيم من التجسيم واعتقاد أشياء في ذات الحق هو منزَّه عنها وبريء منها، وكذلك في أمر الثواب والعقاب؟

Still there were two things that surprised him and the wisdom of which he could not see. First, why did this prophet rely for the most part on symbols to portray the divine world, allowing mankind to fall into the grave error of conceiving the Truth corporeally and ascribing to Him things which He transcends and is totally free of (and similarly with reward and punishment) instead of simply revealing the truth?

والأمر الآخر: لمَ اقتصر على هذه الفرائض ووظائف العبادات وأباح الاقتناء للأموال والتوسُّع في المأكل حتى يفرغ الناس للاشتغال بالباطل والإعراض عن الحق؟

Second, why did he confine himself to these particular rituals and duties and allow the amassing of wealth and overindulgence in eating, leaving men idle to busy themselves with inane pastimes and neglect the Truth.

وكان رأيه هو ألا يتناول أحد شيئًا إلا ما يقيم به الرمق، وأما الأموال فلم تكن لها عنده معنًى. وكان يرى ما في الشرع من الأحكام في أمر الأموال كالزكاة وتشعبها والبيوع والربا والحدود والعقوبات، فكان يستغرب ذلك كله ويراه تطويلًا،

Hayy’s own idea was that no one should eat the least bit more than would keep him on the brink of survival. Property meant nothing to him, and when he saw all the provisions of the Law to do with money, such as the regulations regarding the collection and distribution of welfare or those regulating sales and interest, with all their statutory and discretionary penalties, he was dumbfounded. All this seemed superfluous.

فلمّا رأها الصبي على تلك الحالة، جزع جزعًا شديدًا، وكادت نفسه تفيض أسفًا عليها.

When the boy saw her in such a state, he was beside himself with grief. His soul seemed to overflow with sorrow.

ويقول: إن الناس لو فهموا الأمر على حقيقته لأعرضوا عن هذه البواطل وأقبلوا على الحق واستغنوا عن هذا كله ولم يكن لأحد اختصاص بمال يُسأل عن زكاته أو تُقطع الأيدي على سرقته أو تذهب النفوس على أخذه مجاهرة.

If people understood things as they really are, Hayy said, they would forget these inanities and seek the Truth. They would not need all these laws. No one would have any property of his own to be demanded as charity or for which human beings might struggle and risk amputation.

وكان الذي أوقعه في ذلك ظنه أن الناس كلهم ذوو فطر فائقة وأذهان ثاقبة ونفوس حازمة، ولم يكن يدري ما هم عليه من البلادة والنقص وسوء الرأي وضعف العزم وأنهم كالأنعام بل هم أضل سبيلًا.

What made him think so was his naive belief that all men had outstanding character, brilliant minds and resolute spirits. He had no idea how stupid, inadequate, thoughtless, and weak willed they are, “like sheep gone astray, only worse.”

فلما اشتد إشفاقه على الناس وطمع أن تكون نجاتهم على يديه حدثت له النية في الوصول إليهم وإيضاح الحق لديهم وتبييه لهم، ففاوض في ذلك صاحبه أبسال وسأله هل تمكنه حيلة في الوصول إليهم فأعلمه بما هم فيه من نقص الفطرة والإعراض عن أمر الله، فلم يتأتَّ له فهم ذلك وبقي في نفسه تعلُّق بما كان قد أمَّله.

Hayy deeply pitied mankind and hoped that it might be through him that they would be saved. He was eager to go to these men to reveal and explain the Truth. He spoke about it with his friend Absal, asking if he knew any way of reaching them. Absal warned him how defective they are in character and how heedless of God’s Word, but this was not easy for Hayy to understand. His heart was set on what he hoped to accomplish.

وطمع أَبْسال أيضًا أن يهدي الله على يديه طائفة من معارفه المريدين الذين كانوا أقرب من التخلص من سواهم فساعده على رأيه ورأيا أن يلتزما ساحل البحر ولا يفارقاه ليلًا ولا نهارًا لعل الله إن يُسَنِّي لهما عبور البحر فالتزما ذلك وابتهلا الله تعالى أن يهيئ لهما من أمرهما رشدًا.

Absal himself had hopes that through Hayy God might give guidance to a body of aspiring acquaintances of his, who were somewhat closer to salvation than the rest. He agreed to help with the idea. The two men decided to stay by the shore day and night, in hopes that God might give them some ready means of crossing over. And so they stayed, humbly praying God to fortify them with sound judgment.

فكان من أمر الله — عز وجل — أن سفينة في البحر ضلَّت مسلكها ودفعتها الرياح وتلاطم الأمواج إلى ساحلها.

By God’s command it happened that a ship lost its course and was driven by the winds and the beating of the waves to their shore.

فلما قربت من البر رأى أهلها الرجلين على الشاطئ، فدنوا منهما فكلمهم أَبْسال وسألهم أن يحملوهما معهم فأجابوهما إلى ذلك وأدخلوهما السفينة، فأرسل الله إليهم ريحًا رخاء حملت السفينة في أقرب مدة إلى الجزيرة التي أمَّلاها فنزلا بها ودخلا مدينتها.

When it came close to land the men on board saw two men on the beach, so they rode in closer and Absal hailed them and asked if they would take them along. The men answered yes and brought them on board. No sooner had they done so than God sent a favorable wind that brought the ship with all possible speed to the island where the two had hoped to go. They debarked and went up to the city.

واجتمع أصحاب أَبْسال به فعرَّفهم شأن حي بن يقظان فاشتملوا عليه اشتمالًا شديدًا وأكبروا أمره واجتمعوا إليه وأعظموه وبجَّلوه.

Absal’s friends gathered, and he told them all about Hayy Ibn Yaqzan. They all marvelled at the story. They crowded around him, making much of him, and in fact deeply in awe of him.

وأعلمه أَبْسال أن تلك الطائفة هم أقرب إلى الفهم والذكاء من جميع الناس وأنه إن عجز عن تعليمهم فهو عن تعليم الجمهور أعجز.

Absal informed Hayy that of all men this group approached nearest to intelligence and understanding. If Hayy were unable to teach them, it would be all the more impossible for him to teach the masses.

وكان رأس تلك الجزيرة وكبيرها سلامان، وهو صاحب أَبْسال الذي كان يرى ملازمة الجماعة ويقول بتحريم العزلة، فشرع حي بن يقظان في تعليمهم وبث أسرار الحكمة إليهم.

The ruler of the island and its most eminent man at this time was Salaman, Absal’s friend who believed in living within society and held it unlawful to withdraw. Hayy Ibn Yaqzan began to teach this group and explain some of his profound wisdom to them.

فما هو إلا أن ترقَّى عن الظاهر قليلًا وأخذ في وصف ما سبق إلى فهمهم خلافه فجعلوا ينقبضون عنه وتشمئز نفوسهم مما يأتي به، ويتسخطونه بقلوبهم وإن أظهروا له الرضا في وجهه إكرامًا لغربته فيهم ومراعاةً لحقِّ صاحبهم أَبْسال.

But the moment he rose the slightest bit above the literal or began to portray things against which they were prejudiced, they recoiled in horror from his ideas and closed their minds. Out of courtesy to the stranger and in deference to their friend Absal, they made a show of being pleased with Hayy, but in their hearts they resented him.

وما زال حي بن يقظان يستلطفهم ليلًا ونهارًا ويبين لهم الحق سرًّا وجهارًا فلا يزيدهم ذلك إلا نبوًّا ونفارًا مع أنهم كانوا محبين للخير راغبين في الحق إلا أنهم لنقص فطرتهم كانوا لا يطلبون الحق من طريقة ولا يأخذونه بجهة تحقيقه ولا يلتمسونه من بابه بل كانوا لا يريدون معرفته من طريق أربابه، فيئس من إصلاحهم، وانقطع رجاؤه من صلاحهم لقلة قبولهم.

Hayy found them delightful and continued his exposition of the truth, exoteric and esoteric, night and day. But the more he taught, the more repugnance they felt, despite the fact that these were men who loved the good and sincerely yearned for the Truth. Their inborn infirmity simply would not allow them to seek Him as Hayy did, to grasp the true essence of His being and see Him in His own terms. They wanted to know Him in some human way. In the end Hayy despaired of helping them and gave up his hopes that they would accept his teaching.

وتصفح طبقات الناس بعد ذلك فرأى كل حزب بما لديهم فرحون قد اتخذوا إلههم هواهم ومعبودهم شهواتهم وتهالكوا في جميع حطام الدنيا وألهاهم التكاثر حتى زاروا المقابر، لا تنجع فيهم الموعظة ولا تعمل فيهم الكلمة الحسنة ولا يزدادون بالجدل إلا إصرارًا.

Then, class by class, he studied mankind. He saw “every faction delighted with its own.” They had made their passions their god, and desire the object of their worship. They destroyed each other to collect the trash of this world, “distracted by greed ’til they went down to their graves.” Preaching is no help, fine words have no effect on them. Arguing only makes them more pig-headed.

وأما الحكمة فلا سبيل لهم إليها ولا حظ لهم منها، قد غمرتهم الجهالة وران على قلوبهم ما كانوا يكسبون، ختم الله على قلوبهم وعلى سمعهم وعلى أبصارهم غشاوة ولهم عذاب عظيم.

Wisdom, they have no means of reaching; they were allotted no share of it. They are engulfed in ignorance. Their hearts are corroded by their possessions. God has sealed their hearts and shrouded their eyes and ears. Theirs will be an awesome punishment.

فلما رأى سرادق العذاب قد أحاط بهم وظلمات الحجب قد تغشَّتهم والكل منهم — إلا اليسير — لا يتمسكون من مِلَّتهم إلا بالدنيا وقد نبذوا أعمالهم على خِفَّتها وسهولتها وراء ظهورهم واشتروا بها ثمنًا قليلًا وألهاهم عن ذكر الله تعالى التجارة والبيع ولم يخافوا يومًا تتقلب فيه القلوب والأبصار، بان له وتحقق على القطع أن مخاطبتهم بطريق المكاشفة لا تمكن وأن تكليفهم من العمل فوق هذا القدر لا يتفق، وأن حظ أكثر الجمهور من الانتفاع بالشريعة إنما هو في حياتهم الدنيا ليستقيم له معاشه ولا يتعدى عليه سواه فيما اختُصَّ هو به، وأنه لا يفوز منهم بالسعادة الأخروية إلا الشاذ النادر وهو مَن أراد حرث الآخرة وسعى لها سعيها وهو مؤمن. وأما من طغى وآثر الحياة الدنيا فإن الجحيم هي المأوى.

When he saw that the torture pavilion already encircled them and the shadows of the veil already enshrouded them, when he saw that all but a very few of them adhered to their religion only for the sake of this world and “flung away works, no matter how light and easy, sold them for a bad price”, distracted from the thought of God by business, heedless of the Day when hearts and eyes will be turned inwards, Hayy saw clearly and definitely that to appeal to them publicly and openly was impossible. Any attempt to impose a higher task on them was bound to fail. The sole benefit most people could derive from religion was for this world, in that it helped them lead decent lives without others encroaching on what belonged to them. Hayy now knew that only a very few win the true happiness of the man who “desires the world to come, strives for it and is faithful.” But “for the insolent who prefer this life— Hell will be their refuge!”

وأي تعب أعظم وشقاوة أطم ممَّن إذا تصفَّحت أعماله من وقت انتباهه من نومه إلى حين رجوعه إلى الكرى لا تجد منها شيئًا إلا وهو يلتمس به تحصيل غاية من هذه الأمور المحسوسة الخسيسة؛ إما مال يجمعه أو لذة ينالها أو شهوة يقضيها أو غيطًا يتشفَّى به أو جاهٍ يحرزه أو عمل من أعمال الشرع يتزين به أو يدافع عن رقبته، وهي كلها ظلمات بعضها فوق بعض في بحر لُجِّي وَإِنْ مِنْكُمْ إِلَّا وَارِدُهَا كَانَ عَلَى رَبِّكَ حَتْمًا مَقْضِيًّا.

What weariness is heavier, what misery more overburdening than recounting all you do from the time you get up to the time you go to bed without finding a single action that did not amount to seeking one of these vile, sensory aims: money making, pleasure seeking, satisfying some lust, venting rage, saving face, performing religious rites for the sake of honor, or just to save your neck! All these are only “cloud upon cloud over a deep sea.” “Not one among you will not descend there—this from your Lord, decreed and sealed.”

فلما فهم أحوال الناس وأن أكثرهم بمنزلة الحيوان غير الناطق علم أن الحكمة كلها والهداية والتوفيق فيما نطقت به الرسل ووردت به الشريعة لا يمكن غير ذلك ولا يحتمل المزيد عليه، فلكل عملٍ رجالٌ وكل ميسر لما خلق له: سُنَّةَ اللهِ فِي الَّذِينَ خَلَوْا مِنْ قَبْلُ وَلَنْ تَجِدَ لِسُنَّةِ اللهِ تَبْدِيلًا.

Hayy now understood the human condition. He saw that most men are no better than unreasoning animals, and realized that all wisdom and guidance, all that could possibly help them was contained already in the words of the prophets and the religious traditions. None of this could be different. There was nothing to be added. There is a man for every task and everyone belongs to the life for which he was created. “This was God’s way with those who came before, and never will you find a change in the ways of God.”

وأنا ليس مطلوبي شيئًا بهذه الصفة إنما مطلوبي الشيء الذي يختص به هذا الموضع الذي أجدني لا أستغني عنه طرفة عين وإليه كان انبعاثي من أول.

But what I’ve been looking for all along is something uniquely related to this special position and something I know I could not live without for the batting of an eye.

فكان ينظر إليه بذاته مجردًا عن هذه الأفعال التي تظهر ببادئ الرأي أنها صادرة عنه، فكان يرى أنه ليس إلا جسمًا من هذه الأجسام فيظهر له بهذا التأمل أن الأجسام كلها شيء واحد: حيها وجمادها متحركها وساكنها، إلا أنه يظهر أن لبعضها أفعالًا بآلات، ولا يدري هل تلك الأفعال ذاتية لها أو سارية إليها من غيرها.

Hayy wondered what he himself might be, stripped of all the functions which seemed at first glance to emanate from himself, and realized that he was no more than another body. These thoughts, then, brought him to the conclusion that all bodies —whether they are animate or inanimate—are one thing, although some exhibit certain special functions, which they implement by organs. But he did not know whether these activities were strictly speaking their own or had come from something else—

فحمله العجب بها وبما ركب الله تعالى في طباعه من الجراءة والقوة على أن يمد يده إليها وأراد أن يأخذ منها شيئًا فلما باشرها أحرقت يده فلم يستطع القبض عليها، فاهتدى إلى أن يأخذ قبسًا لم تستولِ النار على جميعه فأخذ بطرفه السليم والنار في طرفه الآخر فتأتَّي له ذلك وحمله إلى موضعه الذي كان يأوي إليه، وكان قد خلا في جحر استحسنه للسكنى قبل ذلك.

Carried away by his amazement, and by the courage, not to say audacity, God had compounded with his nature, Hayy reached out and tried to grasp a piece of it. But when he touched it it burnt his hand, and he could not hold on to it. Then he got the idea of taking a brand that was not wholly on fire. He picked it up by the end that wasn’t burning, leaving the fire at the other end. This he could manage with ease, so he took it home—for he had moved into a cave, which seemed to him a fine place to live.

فأقدم عليه وقطع جناحيه وذنبه صحاحًا كما هي وفتح ريشها وسواها وسلخ عنه سائر جلده وفصله على قطعتين، ربط إحداهما على ظهره وأخرى على سرته وما تحتها وعلق الذنب من خلفه وعلق الجناحين على عضديه، فأكسبه ذلك سترًا ودفئًا ومهابة في نفوس جميع الوحوش حتى كانت لا تنازعه ولا تعارضه.

Boldly taking hold of the eagle, Hayy cut off the wings and tail just as they were, all in one piece. He stretched out the wings and smoothed down the feathers, stripped off the remaining skin and split it in half, tying it about his middle, hanging down, half in front and half behind. The tail, he threw across his back; and he fastened the wings to his arms. Thus he got a fine covering that not only kept him warm but also so terrified the animals that not one of them would fight with him or get in his way.

فرأينا أن نلمع إليهم بطرف من سر الأسرار لنجتذبهم إلى جانب التحقيق ثم نصدهم عن ذلك الطريق، ولم نُخلِّ مع ذلك ما أودعناه هذه الأوراق اليسيرة من الأسرار عن حجاب رقيق وستر لطيف ينتهك سريعًا لمن هو أهله ويتكاثف لمن لا يستحق تجاوزه حتى لا يتعداه.

I decided to afford them a fleeting glimpse of the mystery of mysteries to draw them to true understanding and turn them away from this other, false way. Nonetheless I have not left the secrets set down in these few pages entirely without a veil—a sheer one, easily pierced by those fit to do so, but capable of growing so thick to those unworthy of passing beyond that they will never breach it.

فانصرف إلى سلامان وأصحابه فاعتذر عما تكلَّم به معه وتبرأ إليهم منه وأعلمهم أنه قد رأى مثل رأيهم واهتدى بمثل هديهم وأوصاهم بملازمة ما هم عليه من الْتزام حدود الشرع والأعمال الظاهرة وقلة الخوض فيما لا يعنيهم والإيمان بالمتشابهات والتسليم لها والإعراض عن البدع والأهواء والاقتداء بالسلف الصالح والترك لمحدثات الأمور.

So Hayy went to Salaman and his friends and apologized, dissociating himself from what he had said. He told them that he had seen the light and realized that they were right. He urged them to hold fast to their observance of all the statutes regulating outward behavior and not delve into things that did not concern them, submissively to accept all the most problematical elements of the tradition and shun originality and innovation, follow in the footsteps of their righteous forbears and leave behind everything modern.

وأمرهم بمجانبة ما عليه جمهور العوام من إهمال الشريعة والإقبال على الدنيا، وحذرهم منه غاية التحذير.

He cautioned them most emphatically not to neglect religion or pursue the world as the vast majority of people do.

وعلم هو وصاحبه أَبْسال أن هذه الطائفة المريدة القاصرة لا نجاة لها إلا بهذه الطريق وأنها إن رفعت عنه إلى بقاع الاستبصار اختلَّ ما هي عليه ولم يمكنها أن تلحق بدرجة السعداء وتذبذبت وانتكست وساءت عاقبتها.

Hayy Ibn Yaqzan and his friend Absal now knew that even this aspiring group fell short and could be saved only in their own way. If ever they were to venture beyond their present level to the vantage point of insight, what they had would be shattered, and even so they would be unable to reach the level of the blessed. They would waver and slip and their end would be all the worse.

وإن هي دامت على ما هي عليه حتى يوافيها اليقين فازت بالأمن وكانت من أصحاب اليمين، وأما السابقون السابقون فأولئك هم المقربون.

But if they went along as they were until overtaken by death, they would win salvation and come to sit on the right. But “those who run in the forefront, those who run in the forefront, they will be brought near.”

فودَّعاهم وانفصلا عنهم وتلطفا في العود إلى جزيرتهما حتى يسَّر الله — عز وجل — عليهما العبور إليها.

So, saying goodbye to them, the two left their company and discreetly sought passage back to their own island. Soon God—exalted be He—gave them an easy crossing.

وطلب حي بن يقظان مقامه الكريم بالنحو الذي طلبه أولًا حتى عاد إليه واقتدى به أَبْسال حتى قرب منه أو كاد، وعبدا الله في تلك الجزيرة حتى أتاهما اليقين.

Hayy searched for his ecstasy as he had before, until once again it came. Absal imitated him until he approached the same heights, or nearly so. Thus, they served God on the island until man’s certain fate overtook them.

هذا — أيدنا الله وإياك بروح منه — ما كان من نبأ حي بن يقظان وأَبْسال وسلامان وقد اشتمل على حظ من الكلام لا يوجد في كتاب ولا يُسمع في معتاد خطاب، وهو من العلم المكنون الذي لا يقبله إلا أهل المعرفة بالله ولا يجهله إلا أهل الغِرَّة بالله.

And this—may God give you spirit to strengthen you—is the story of Hayy Ibn Yaqzan, Absal and Salaman. It takes up a line of discourse not found in books or heard in the usual sort of speeches. It belongs to a hidden branch of study received only by those who are aware of God and unknown to those who know Him not.

وقد خالفنا فيه طريق السلف الصالح في الضنانة به والشُّحِّ عليه.

In treating of this openly I have broken the precedent of our righteous ancestors, who were sparing to the point of tightfistedness in speaking of it.

إلا أن الذي سهَّل علينا إفشاء هذا السر وهتك الحجاب ما ظهر في زماننا من آراء مفسدة نبغت بها متفلسفة العصر وصرحت بها حتى انتشرت في البلدان وعمَّ ضررها وخشينا على الضعفاء الذين اطرحوا تقليد الأنبياء — صلوات الله عليهم — وأرادوا تقليد السفهاء والأغبياء أن يظنوا أن تلك الآراء هي الأسرار المضنون بها على غير أهلها فيزيد بذلك حبهم فيها وولوعهم بها.

What made it easy for me to strip off the veil of secrecy and divulge this mystery was the great number of corrupt ideas that have sprouted up and are being openly spread by the self-styled philosophers of today, so widely that they have covered the land and caused universal damage. Fearing that the weak-minded, who throw over the authority of prophets to ape the ways of fools, might mistake these notions for the esoteric doctrines which must be kept secret from those unfit to know them, and thus be all the more enticed to embrace them,

وأنا أسأل إخواني الواقفين على هذا الكلام أن يقبلوا عذري فيما تساهلت في تبيينه وتسامحت في تثبيته فلم أفعل ذلك إلا لأني تسنَّمت شواهق يزلُّ الطرف عن مرآها، وأردت تقريب الكلام فيها على وجه الترغيب والتشويق في دخول الطريق.

Of my brothers who read these words I ask indulgence for my loose exposition and lack of rigor in demonstration. My only excuse is that I had risen to pinnacles higher than the eye can see, and I wanted to try, at least, to approach them in words so as to excite desire and inspire a passion to start out along this road.

وأسأل الله التجاوز والعفو، وأن يوردنا من المعرفة به الصفو، إنه منعم كريم.

Of God I ask forgiveness, and pray Him to purify our knowledge of Him, for He is bountiful and it is He Who bestows all blessings.

والسلام عليك أيها الأخ المفترض إسعافه ورحمة الله وبركاته.

Farewell my brother, whom it was my duty to help. The blessings and the mercy of God upon you!

الأخلاق والسير في مداواة النفوس

Al-Akhlâq wa’l-Siyar (Morals and Behaviour)

قَالَ أَبُو مُحَمَّد عَليّ بن أَحْمد بن [سعيد بن] حزم [الفقيه الأندلسي] رَضِي الله عَنهُ:

Abû Muhammad ‘Alî Ibn Ahmad Ibn Sa’îd Ibn Hazm [the Andalusian jurist]. Allâh may be pleased with him has said:

لابن حزم الأندلسي

By Ibn Hazm al-Andaloosee

الْحَمد لله على عَظِيم مننه، وَصلى الله على مُحَمَّد عَبده وَخَاتم أنبيائه وَرُسُله وَسلم تَسْلِيمًا، وَأَبْرَأ إِلَيْهِ تَعَالَى من الْحول وَالْقُوَّة، وَأَسْتَعِينهُ على كل مَا يعْصم فِي الدُّنْيَا من جَمِيع المخاوف والمكاره، ويخلص فِي الْأُخْرَى من كل هول ومضيق.

Praise be to Allâh for His great gifts. May Allâh bless [our master] Muhammad, His servant, the seal of His Prophets and Messengers; may He grant them eternal blessings. I rely on Him for any ability and strength I may have, and I seek His aid and protection against all the various terrors and ills of this world. And may He deliver me from all horror and suffering in the next world.

أما بعد: فَإِنِّي جمعت فِي كتابي هَذَا مَعَاني كَثِيرَة، أفادنيها واهب التَّمْيِيز تَعَالَى بمرور الْأَيَّام وتعاقب الْأَحْوَال، بِمَا منحني عز وَجل من التهمم بتصاريف الزَّمَان، والإشراف على أَحْوَاله، حَتَّى أنفقت فِي ذَلِك أَكثر عمري،

Now, I have gathered together in this book numerous ideas which Allâh, the provider of intellect, has enabled me to profit from as day succeeded day, [and year succeeded year] and circumstances altered, permitting me to understand the vicissitudes of fate and to control its fluctuations, to the extent that I have devoted the larger part of my life to it.