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Methane Explosion Warmed the Prehistoric Earth, Possible Again A tremendous release of methane gas frozen beneath the sea floor heated the Earth by up to 13°F (7°C) 55 million years ago, a new NASA study confirms. NASA scientists used data from a computer simulation of the paleo-climate to better understand the role of methane in climate change. While most greenhouse gas studies focus on carbon dioxide, methane is 20 times more potent as a heat-trapping gas in the atmosphere. In the last 200 years, atmospheric methane has more than doubled due to decomposing organic materials in wetlands and swamps and human aided emissions from gas pipelines, coal mining, increases in irrigation and livestock flatulence. However, there is another source of methane, formed from decomposing organic matter in ocean sediments, frozen in deposits under the seabed. "We understand that other greenhouse gases apart from carbon dioxide are important for climate change today," said Gavin Schmidt, the lead author of the study and a researcher at NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York, NY and Columbia University's Center for Climate Systems Research. "This work should help quantify how important they have been in the past, and help estimate their effects in the future." The study will be presented on December 12, 2001, at the American Geophysical Union (AGU) Fall Meeting in San Francisco, Calif. Generally, cold temperatures and high pressure keep methane stable beneath the ocean floor, however, that might not always have been the case. A period of global warming, called the Late Paleocene Thermal Maximum (LPTM), occurred around 55 million years ago and lasted about 100,000 years. Current theory has linked this to a vast release of frozen methane from beneath the sea floor, which led to the earth warming as a result of increased greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. A movement of continental plates, like the Indian subcontinent, may have initiated a release that led to the LPTM, Schmidt said. We know today that when the Indian subcontinent moved into the Eurasian continent, the Himalayas began forming. This uplift of tectonic plates would have decreased pressure in the sea floor, and may have caused the large methane release. Once the atmosphere and oceans began to warm, Schmidt added, it is possible that more methane thawed and bubbled out. Some scientists speculate current global heating could eventually lead to a similar scenario in the future if the oceans warm substantially. When methane (CH4) enters the atmosphere, it reacts with molecules of oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H), called OH radicals. The OH radicals combine with methane and break it up, creating carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O), both of which are greenhouse gases. Scientists previously assumed that all of the released methane would be converted to CO2 and water after about a decade. If that happened, the rise in CO2 would have been the biggest player in warming the planet. But when scientists tried to find evidence of increased CO2 levels to explain the rapid warming during the LPTM, none could be found. The models used in the new study show that when you greatly increase methane amounts, the OH quickly gets used up, and the extra methane lingers for hundreds of years, producing enough global warming to explain the LTPM climate. "Ten years of methane is a blip, but hundreds of years of atmospheric methane is enough to warm up the atmosphere, melt the ice in the oceans, and change the whole climate system," Schmidt said. "So we may have solved a conundrum." Schmidt said the study should help in understanding the role methane plays in current greenhouse warming. "If you want to think about reducing future climate change, you also have to be aware of greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide, like methane and chlorofluorocarbons," said Schmidt. "It gives a more rounded view, and in the short-term, it may end up being more cost-efficient to reduce methane in the atmosphere than it is to reduce carbon dioxide." Schmidt, G.A., and D.T. Shindell 2003. Atmospheric composition, radiative forcing, and climate change as a consequence of a massive methane release from gas hydrates. Paleoceanography 18, no. 1, 1004, doi:10.1029/2002PA000757. Timothy R. Tawney, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD. Phone: 301/614-6573. [email protected] Krishna Ramanujan, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD. Phone: 301/286-3026. [email protected] This article was derived from the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Top Story.

http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research/news/20011210/

Order of magnitude Orders of magnitude are written in powers of 10. For example, the order of magnitude of 1500 is 3, since 1500 may be written as 1.5 × 103. Differences in order of magnitude can be measured on the logarithmic scale in "decades" (i.e., factors of ten). Examples of numbers of different magnitudes can be found at Orders of magnitude (numbers). We say two numbers have the same order of magnitude of a number if the big one divided by the little one is less than 10. For example, 23 and 82 have the same order of magnitude, but 23 and 820 do not. Orders of magnitude are used to make approximate comparisons. If numbers differ by one order of magnitude, x is about ten times different in quantity than y. If values differ by two orders of magnitude, they differ by a factor of about 100. Two numbers of the same order of magnitude have roughly the same scale: the larger value is less than ten times the smaller value. The order of magnitude of a number is, intuitively speaking, the number of powers of 10 contained in the number. More precisely, the order of magnitude of a number can be defined in terms of the common logarithm, usually as the integer part of the logarithm, obtained by truncation. For example, the number 4,000,000 has a logarithm (in base 10) of 6.602; its order of magnitude is 6. When truncating, a number of this order of magnitude is between 106 and 107. In a similar example, with the phrase "He had a seven-figure income", the order of magnitude is the number of figures minus one, so it is very easily determined without a calculator to be 6. An order of magnitude is an approximate position on a logarithmic scale. An order-of-magnitude estimate of a variable whose precise value is unknown is an estimate rounded to the nearest power of ten. For example, an order-of-magnitude estimate for a variable between about 3 billion and 30 billion (such as the human population of the Earth) is 10 billion. To round a number to its nearest order of magnitude, one rounds its logarithm to the nearest integer. Thus 4,000,000, which has a logarithm (in base 10) of 6.602, has 7 as its nearest order of magnitude, because "nearest" implies rounding rather than truncation. For a number written in scientific notation, this logarithmic rounding scale requires rounding up to the next power of ten when the multiplier is greater than the square root of ten (about 3.162). For example, the nearest order of magnitude for 1.7 × 108 is 8, whereas the nearest order of magnitude for 3.7 × 108 is 9. An order-of-magnitude estimate is sometimes also called a zeroth order approximation. An order-of-magnitude difference between two values is a factor of 10. For example, the mass of the planet Saturn is 95 times that of Earth, so Saturn is two orders of magnitude more massive than Earth. Order-of-magnitude differences are called decades when measured on a logarithmic scale. Non-decimal orders of magnitude Other orders of magnitude may be calculated using bases other than 10. The ancient Greeks ranked the nighttime brightness of celestial bodies by 6 levels in which each level was the fifth root of one hundred (about 2.512) as bright as the nearest weaker level of brightness, and thus the brightest level being 5 orders of magnitude brighter than the weakest indicates that it is (1001/5)5 or a factor of 100 times brighter. The different decimal numeral systems of the world use a larger base to better envision the size of the number, and have created names for the powers of this larger base. The table shows what number the order of magnitude aim at for base 10 and for base 1,000,000. It can be seen that the order of magnitude is included in the number name in this example, because bi- means 2 and tri- means 3 (these make sense in the long scale only), and the suffix -illion tells that the base is 1,000,000. But the number names billion, trillion themselves (here with other meaning than in the first chapter) are not names of the orders of magnitudes, they are names of "magnitudes", that is the numbers 1,000,000,000,000 etc. |order of magnitude||is log10 of||is log1,000,000 of||short scale||long scale| SI units in the table at right are used together with SI prefixes, which were devised with mainly base 1000 magnitudes in mind. The IEC standard prefixes with base 1024 were invented for use in electronic technology. The ancient apparent magnitudes for the brightness of stars uses the base and is reversed. The modernized version has however turned into a logarithmic scale with non-integer values. Extremely large numbers For extremely large numbers, a generalized order of magnitude can be based on their double logarithm or super-logarithm. Rounding these downward to an integer gives categories between very "round numbers", rounding them to the nearest integer and applying the inverse function gives the "nearest" round number. The double logarithm yields the categories: - ..., 1.0023–1.023, 1.023–1.26, 1.26–10, 10–1010, 1010–10100, 10100–101000, ... (the first two mentioned, and the extension to the left, may not be very useful, they merely demonstrate how the sequence mathematically continues to the left). The super-logarithm yields the categories: - , or - negative numbers, 0–1, 1–10, 10–1e10, 1e10–101e10, 101e10–410, 410–510, etc. (see tetration) The "midpoints" which determine which round number is nearer are in the first case: - 1.076, 2.071, 1453, 4.20e31, 1.69e316,... and, depending on the interpolation method, in the second case - −.301, .5, 3.162, 1453, 1e1453, , ,... (see notation of extremely large numbers) For extremely small numbers (in the sense of close to zero) neither method is suitable directly, but the generalized order of magnitude of the reciprocal can be considered. Similar to the logarithmic scale one can have a double logarithmic scale (example provided here) and super-logarithmic scale. The intervals above all have the same length on them, with the "midpoints" actually midway. More generally, a point midway between two points corresponds to the generalised f-mean with f(x) the corresponding function log log x or slog x. In the case of log log x, this mean of two numbers (e.g. 2 and 16 giving 4) does not depend on the base of the logarithm, just like in the case of log x (geometric mean, 2 and 8 giving 4), but unlike in the case of log log log x (4 and 65536 giving 16 if the base is 2, but, otherwise). - Big O notation - Names of large numbers - Names of small numbers - Number sense - Orders of approximation - Orders of magnitude (numbers) - Asimov, Isaac The Measure of the Universe (1983) - The Scale of the Universe 2 Interactive tool from Planck length 10−35 meters to universe size 1027 - Cosmos – an Illustrated Dimensional Journey from microcosmos to macrocosmos – from Digital Nature Agency - Powers of 10, a graphic animated illustration that starts with a view of the Milky Way at 1023 meters and ends with subatomic particles at 10−16 meters. - What is Order of Magnitude?

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_magnitude

The Neogrammarians (also Young Grammarians, German Junggrammatiker) were a German school of linguists, originally at the University of Leipzig, in the late 19th century who proposed the Neogrammarian hypothesis of the regularity of sound change. According to this hypothesis, a diachronic sound change affects simultaneously all words in which its environment is met, without exception. Verner's law is a famous example of the Neogrammarian hypothesis, as it resolved an apparent exception to Grimm's law. The Neogrammarian hypothesis was the first hypothesis of sound change to attempt to follow the principle of falsifiability according to scientific method. Subsequent researchers have questioned this hypothesis from two perspectives. First, adherents of lexical diffusion (where a sound change affects only a few words at first and then gradually spreads to other words) believe that some words undergo changes before others. Second, some believe that it is possible for sound changes to observe grammatical conditioning. Nonetheless, both of these challenges to exceptionlessness remain controversial, and many investigators continue to adhere to the Neogrammarian doctrine. Other contributions of the Neogrammarians to general linguistics were: - The object of linguistic investigation is not the language system, but rather the idiolect, that is, language as it is localized in the individual, and therefore is directly observable. - Autonomy of the sound level: being the most observable aspect of language, the sound level is seen as the most important level of description, and absolute autonomy of the sound level from syntax and semantics is assumed. - Historicism: the chief goal of linguistic investigation is the description of the historical change of a language. - Analogy: if the premise of the inviolability of sound laws fails, analogy can be applied as an explanation if plausible. Thus, exceptions are understood to be a (regular) adaptation to a related form. Leading Neogrammarian linguists included: - Otto Behaghel (1854–1936) - Wilhelm Braune (1850–1926) - Karl Brugmann (1849–1919) - Berthold Delbrück (1842–1922) - August Leskien (1840–1916) - Adolf Noreen (1854–1925) - Hermann Osthoff (1847–1909) - Hermann Paul (1846–1921) - Eduard Sievers (1850–1932) Despite their strong influence in their time, the methods and goals of the Neogrammarians have been criticized from various points of view, but mainly for: reducing the object of investigation to the idiolect; restricting themselves to the description of surface phenomena (sound level); overvaluation of historical languages and neglect of contemporary ones. - Hermann Paul: Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte. (1880). - Jankowsky, Kurt R. (1972). The neogrammarians. A re-evaluation of their place in the development of linguistic science. The Hague, Mouton. - Karl Brugmann und Bertold Delbrück: Grundriß der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen. (1897–1916). - Hugo Schuchardt: „Über die Lautgesetze. Gegen die Junggrammatiker“, in Hugo-Schuchardt-Brevier, ein Vademekum der allgemeinen Sprachwissenschaft., ed. Leo Spitzer. Halle (Saale) 1922. - Harald Wiese: Eine Zeitreise zu den Ursprüngen unserer Sprache. Wie die Indogermanistik unsere Wörter erklärt, Logos Verlag Berlin, 2007, ISBN 978-3-8325-1601-7. - For a discussion and rejection of grammatical conditioning see Hill, Nathan W. (2014) 'Grammatically conditioned sound change.' Language and Linguistics Compass, 8 (6). pp. 211-229. |This linguistics article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.|

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neogrammarian

If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources for Khan Academy. If you're behind a web filter, please make sure that the domains *.kastatic.org and *.kasandbox.org are unblocked. Comparing with multiplication In this tutorial, we look at multiplication and division through the lens of comparison. For example, say that you are 9 and 3 times older than your cousin. How old would your cousin be? Multiplying a number times 3 gets you to your age, 9. Can you figure out the answer? We'll go through several exercises together so you get enough practice to feel confident multiplying. By the way, memorizing your multiplication tables helps a lot! You'll learn that sometimes multiplication is used as a way of comparing two things. In these 2 examples, we're comparing age and height. When comparing it's often helpful to start by using letters to represent numbers. Watch this video as we walk you through 2 examples involving money and distance. If you think about it, multiplying is just another way of comparing numbers. How do we compare 4 and 20 using multiplication? Let's find out together. Multiplication helps us compare ages. Hint: learn those multiplication tables. They really help on problems like these. You read that right! We're comparing the strength of Ron and Hermione using multiplication. Who said math has to be boring? Rewrite multiplication equations as comparisons and comparisons as equations. Select the equation that can be used to solve a word problem.

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/cc-fourth-grade-math/cc-4th-mult-div-topic/cc-4th-mult-comparing

Skip to main content Get your brand new Wikispaces Classroom now and do "back to school" in style. Math for English Language Learners Pages and Files Math for English Language Learners Add "All Pages" Teaching Math Vocabulary to English Language Learners is critical One of the myths that drove us to choose mathematics as a topic for our ELL project was the misconception of how students should have less difficulty with math because it is a universal language. We found out how a low proficiency in a second language has a significative impact on learning math and that ELLs stumble on many things when they try to comprehend new math concepts or express their understanding. ELLs require extra help to be able to make the connection between mathematical operators and numbers Ballantyne, K.G., Sanderman, A.R., Levy, J. , 2008, p.51). Strategies which can be used to teach math vocabulary according to Rothenberg and Fisher in Murrey, D. (2008, p.147) are summarized as follows: Math Vocabulary Teaching Strategies - Promoting comprehensive input by using adequate speech, gestures and scaffolding techniques. This also includes teaching words with different meanings, use of cognates and introducing vocabulary after the students have learned the concept. - Contextualizing instruction by teaching academic language with realia support, manipulatives and graphic organizers when possible. - Creating a low - anxiety learning environment through well planned lessons. - Engaging in meaningful learning activities through real-world context tasks and discussions. To have a glimpse of the effective use of strategies in a math class setting click on the next example. It is very important to have ELLs understand the math concept first and then build their new vocabulary. It is also very enlightening for them to see different meanings to one word, especially if one is of common English and the other an important math definition. Words with different definitions are very powerful while teaching ELLs and there are many resources and tools to implement such as the use of a . To support vocabulary development teachers can incorporate strategies such as which are more thoroughly explained in the Connected Mathematics Project from Michigan State University along with the use of graphic organizers, Venn diagrams, concept maps, vocabulary charts and tree diagrams. The approach of teaching cognates to students is widely recommended because it allows the ELL to make a strong personal connection with new vocabulary. To realize how a math concept can be defined by two similar words in two languages is an “ah ha!” you will appreciate from the students. You can read more about strategies for math teachers focused on ELLs on the Texas Comprehensive Center website which is another strong example of how education institutions across the U.S. have created projects to research and support the education system with the goal to better serve students that are in learning English as a second language. Ballantyne, K.G., Sanderman, A.R., Levy, J. (2008). Educating English language learners: Building teacher capacity . Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition. Retrieved February 28, 2012 from Murrey, D. (2008). Differentiating instruction in mathematics for English language learners. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, v14 n3 (p146-153) National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Retrieved February 27, 2012 from For more information on vocabulary see these websites: Connected Mathematics Project from Michigan State University Texas Comprehensive Center Website: help on how to format text Turn off "Getting Started"

http://ism-math.wikispaces.com/Vocabulary?responseToken=0b1c7a93dfb1e51228717fa3fbcf771f5

Word relationship questions assess your ability to identify the relationship between words and to then apply this verbal analogy. To answer these questions you need to understand the meaning of the words in the question and establish what exactly the relationship is between them. You should then look at the answer options and decide which answer is the most appropriate. These questions test your reasoning ability as well as your vocabulary. These types of question appear in nearly all levels of verbal ability tests. This sample question paper contains 40 questions and has a suggested time limit of 10 minutes. The questions are presented in Letter/A4 format for easy printing and self-marking. Word relationship questions often take the form of verbal analogies. These can be classified into specific categories. For example; materials, taxonomic relationships, temporal relationships, parts of speech etc. The list is almost endless. Be sure that you understand what an analogy is before you start. Every analogy expresses a relationship between two things. It is this relationship that you must understand as you look at the options required to complete the analogy. First try to understand the relationships expressed in the question words. Then choose your answer so that the relationship in the first pair of words is similar to the relationship in the second pair of words in terms of meaning, order and function. Check that the parts of speech used in the two sections of analogy are consistent and follow in the same sequence. For example, if the first pair of words contains an adjective and a noun in that order, then the second pair of words must contain an adjective and a noun in the same order. Test designers are very fond of offering answer options which initially seem credible but where this golden rule is broken. Learn how to prepare properly for verbal reasoning tests. Click here for details of this best selling eBook, available now for immediate download.

http://www.psychometric-success.com/downloads/download-verbal-relationship-practice-tests.htm

A multiplier is a number by which another number is multiplied. What do you call a number by which another number is added or subtracted? - Anybody can ask a question - Anybody can answer - The best answers are voted up and rise to the top This question is too basic; it can be definitively and permanently answered by a single link to a standard internet reference source designed specifically to find that type of information.If this question can be reworded to fit the rules in the help center, please edit the question. There is the multiplier (that which multiplies) and the multiplicand (that which is to be multiplied). For subtraction there is the subtrahend (that which is to be subtracted) and the minuend (that which is to be diminished). For division there is the divisor (that which divides) and the dividend (that which is to be divided). These words with -and or -end are Latin future participles. There are a couple of mathematical points to make which inform the English involved. (1) 'Addition' (yes, simple addition!) covers two major operations: (a) Combination of two elements from a set (a binary operation) (eg 3 marbles + 2 marbles = 5 marbles). (b) Transformation of one element into another (a unary operation) (eg a 3cm-long worm grows by 2cm ) Both are modelled identically by 3 + 2 = 5, but a transformation arrow with '+2' over the top is fitting for the transformation. In the first case, addend + addend = sum / total In the second case, augend + addend = sum / total. (2) We've had a thread discussing the fact that there is no agreed term for the result of a subtraction; 'directed difference' is used by some.

http://english.stackexchange.com/questions/112574/what-is-a-word-similar-to-multiplier-but-for-addition-or-subtraction/112583

In this course, you'll come to see English grammar as a three-dimensional process that's useful in bringing coherence, cohesion, and texture to writing and speech. We'll begin by considering seven definitions of grammar that we'll draw on throughout the course. We'll also discuss the differences between patterns and rules, and why second-language learners benefit from our instruction on both. You'll learn why students need to understand the three dimensions of grammar—form, meaning, and use—and how seeing grammar as a dynamic and changing system helps students overcome many of their grammar challenges. You'll also see why teaching grammar in a way that makes it personally meaningful to your students brings the best results. And since teaching isn't just about presenting lessons, we'll also go over the importance of "reading" your students—observing them to try to figure out what learning process they're using. We'll contrast rote or mechanical practice with meaningful practice, and we'll go over guidelines for creating activities and adapting your textbook exercises to get students working on the unique learning challenge presented by each different grammatical structure. Toward the end of the course, we'll talk about what specific errors students make can indicate, and how they can help us pinpoint the unique challenges our students face so we can develop meaningful practice activities to help them meet those challenges. And we'll finish up the course by discussing ways that you can give valuable feedback to your students. Get ready to discover how to teach grammar in a way that's both effective and enjoyable for your students! Course materials are developed by Heinle I Cengage Learning, a global leader in ESL/EFL materials. Course content is approved by the TESOL Professional Development Committee so students who successfully complete this course receive a TESOL Certificate of Completion. Diane Larsen-Freeman is a Professor of Education, Professor of Linguistics, and Research Scientist at the English Language Institute at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. She is also Distinguished Senior Faculty Fellow at the School for International Training in Brattleboro, Vermont. She has spoken and published widely on the topics of teacher education, second language acquisition, English grammar, and language teaching methodology. Her books include: An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research (with Michael Long, Longman, 1991), The Grammar Book (with Marianne Celce-Murcia, Heinle/Thomson, 1999, second edition), Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (Oxford University Press, 2000, second edition), Grammar Dimensions (Series Director, Heinle, 2007, 4th edition), Teaching Language: From Grammar to Grammaring (Heinle, 2003) and Complex Systems and Applied Linguistics (with Lynne Cameron, Oxford University Press, 2008). In 1997, Dr. Larsen-Freeman was inducted into the Vermont Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1999, she was named one of the ESL pioneers by ESL Magazine. In 2000, she received a Lifetime Achievement Award from Heinle Publishers. Charletta Bowen will be your facilitator in the Discussion Areas. She is an English as a Second Language (ESL) teacher and has been teaching ESL for 30 years. She currently teaches advanced level students at a university in the U.S. • Internet access • One of the following browsers: o Mozilla Firefox o Microsoft Internet Explorer (9.0 or above) o Google Chrome • Adobe PDF plug-in (a free download obtained at Adobe.com .) A new session of each course opens each month, allowing you to enroll whenever your busy schedule permits! How does it work? Once a session starts, two lessons will be released each week, for the six-week duration of your course. You will have access to all previously released lessons until the course ends. Keep in mind that the interactive discussion area for each lesson automatically closes 2 weeks after each lesson is released, so you?re encouraged to complete each lesson within two weeks of its release. The Final Exam will be released on the same day as the last lesson. Once the Final Exam has been released, you will have 2 weeks plus 10 days to complete the Final and finish any remaining lessons in your course. No further extensions can be provided beyond these 10 days. Grammar is an incredibly rich system for making meaning in a language. It's a subject that many people misunderstand, though, and that's something we should all be concerned about because if we don't see fully how grammar contributes to communication, then our students won't either. When students misunderstand grammar, they'll often develop a negative attitude toward studying grammar. We'll begin this first lesson by considering seven definitions of grammar, and we'll draw on all seven of these definitions later in this course. We'll also discuss the differences between patterns and rules, and why second-language learners benefit from our instruction on both patterns and the rules in the classroom. Many people think of grammar structures as forms in a language. For instance, one form instructs us to place an s at the end of a noun if we want to make that noun plural. While there are indeed grammatical forms such as the plural s, there's more to grammar than form! In this lesson, you'll learn that grammar structures have meanings, and they have uses as well. This is very important to understand because grammar doesn't relate only to accuracy. It also relates to meaningfulness and appropriateness. We often teach grammar as forms that have meaning, but students don't often understand when or why to use particular structures. They wind up overusing them, under using them, or using them inappropriately. Students need to understand that there are three dimensions of grammar?form, meaning, and use?and that's what we'll discuss in today's lesson. The title of this lesson is Grammaring. Grammar + -ing. If you haven't heard the term before, don't be surprised. I coined it myself because I think adding the ing helps people understand that grammar isn't a fixed system of unchanging rules. On the contrary, grammatical rules and patterns change all the time! In this lesson, we'll talk about three ways that grammar is dynamic and changing. We'll also consider a long-time problem in language learning?the inert knowledge problem, where students appear to have learned something in class but can't use it outside of class for their own purposes. Finally, we'll talk about helping students overcome the inert knowledge problem by viewing grammar as a dynamic system and teaching it in a psychologically authentic way. When you think about grammar, you might think about rules that apply to sentences. Such rules might tell us the order of words in a phrase or in a sentence. But grammar goes beyond the sentence, too. Think about the sentences in a paragraph. There's an order they must follow to make sense, and grammar is what helps you to organize them! Today you'll learn the ways that people can use grammar to bring cohesion, coherence, and texture to what they're saying and writing. In the process, grammar helps to create organized wholes from written sentences and spoken utterances. Knowing how to create an organized whole out of sentences and utterances is very important for ESL and EFL students so they can learn to write and speak in a comprehensible way. Often people make a clear division between grammar structures and words. Grammar structures are patterns or formulas with open slots where the words go?it's up to you to add words to that structure. In this lesson, however, you'll see that grammar structures and words are actually interconnected. For one thing, the slots in certain grammatical patterns aren't really open, waiting for just any old word to fill them in. They can only be filled by particular words. Plus, certain grammar structures have characteristics that put them into the category of words, and some words have characteristics that would equally qualify them as grammar structures. So they can go either way as words or grammar structures. We'll talk about all of it in this lesson about lexicogrammar! If I asked you what you associate with the term "grammar," what would you say? I bet you'd say "rules." It's probably the most common association with grammar. Grammar rules are important in both language learning and teaching. I've taught grammar rules, and perhaps you have, too. I wouldn't want to do anything to discourage you from teaching rules. But in today's lesson, I hope to convince you that grammar has underlying reasons as well as rules. Reasons help you understand why rules are the way they are. Grammar isn't as arbitrary as you may have thought. You don't always have to tell your students, "That's just the way it is." Reasons will also help you understand the so-called "exceptions" to rules. Besides, reasons are broader than rules. If you understand a single reason, you'll understand a number of rules. Now, that sounds like a bargain, doesn't it? One of the problems that all teachers face is lack of time. There's never enough time to teach all you want your students to learn. You have to be selective. Now, you may be thinking selection becomes more difficult with a grammaring approach. After all, you've learned by now in this course that grammar is more complex than you may have thought. But in today's lesson, you'll learn an important principle as well. It's called the challenge principle. It's a principle for selecting what it is that you need to spend time on with your students. The challenge principle says that you should spend time focusing on the dimension of grammar that students find most challenging?it could be form, or meaning, or use. In this lesson, you'll learn how to apply the challenge principle to determine an instructional focus. Teaching isn't only about presenting lessons. A large part of being a good teacher is "reading" your students. By "reading" your students, I mean observing them while they're learning?trying to figure out what learning process they're using. You'll also see that students have their own goals for what they want to learn and their own strategies for how they'll meet these goals. In this lesson, you'll learn about some of the learning processes that students use to grasp grammar. You'll also see that different students approach learning grammar in different ways. By the end of this lesson, you'll have acquired the knowledge what you need to be a better observer and manager of your students' learning. And, believe me; watching your students learn is one of the very special rewards of teaching! In this lesson, we'll examine three different approaches to teaching grammar. We'll start with the traditional 3-P approach: present, practice, and produce?present a grammar structure, practice it, and then have your students produce it. We'll then contrast this traditional approach with a more recent proposal to focus on form within a communicative approach. I'll also talk about my grammaring approach. As you know by now, I believe that we need to teach grammar in a more dynamic fashion in order to overcome the inert knowledge problem. And my goal in this lesson is to convince you of that, too! We can make a number of contrasts between learning grammar in your native language and learning grammar in another language. One of the important differences is that in learning your native language, you learn from experience?you learn implicitly. Second language learners, on the other hand, often learn grammar explicitly?by following explicit rules and explanations. In this lesson, I'll contrast the two?implicit learning and teaching, and explicit learning and teaching. We'll also discuss the important question about using grammatical terminology while you're teaching grammar. Using grammar terms can be useful to students, but let's not to lose sight of the fact that what we're trying to do is to help them achieve an ability to use grammar?not necessarily turn them into grammarians. By now, you know that I believe that learning grammar should be an active process. The capacity to use grammar structures actively requires practice. In this lesson, we'll start off by contrasting rote or mechanical practice with meaningful practice. When people think of grammatical practice, they often think of drills. But today, you'll find out how to create meaningful practice activities that address the form, meaning, and use challenges in learning grammar. With these guidelines, you'll be able to create activities and adapt your textbook exercises so that your students are working on the unique learning challenge presented by each different grammatical structure. You can make your teaching process much more effective this way. With this lesson, we'll conclude our course. But we can't do that without taking up the important issue of giving feedback to our students, and that's the focus of this lesson. We'll start off by talking about what an error is. Recognizing what is and what isn't an error might not always be easy. Then, once we're satisfied that we've defined and detected an error, we'll need to go over what to do about it. This is actually a controversial area! I'll try to help by suggesting what sort of feedback students find most useful. Errors are also important windows into learners' minds?we can actually learn quite a lot from our learners' errors! You may find it amusing that one of the final questions we'll consider in this course has to do with learning. As you've no doubt seen throughout this course, I consider learning?learning about grammar, learning from our students, learning from each other?to be at the heart of good grammar teaching. So we'll conclude with a wish for the joy of learning. Reviews coming soon! Please check back next month. About Us | Job Opportunities | Contact Us | Site Map |

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1 Answer | Add Yours When speaking about the Constitution of the United States, delegated powers are the same thing as enumerated powers. These are the powers that are specifically given to the federal government. These can mostly be found in Section 8 of Article I. There, the Constitution lays out powers that Congress has. These include things like the power to impose taxes and the power to lay out rules for how new citizens can be naturalized. Delegated powers must be distinguished from implied powers. These are powers that are not specifically given to Congress in the Constitution but which are covered under the power to do things that are “necessary and proper” for carrying out the delegated powers. We’ve answered 301,108 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question

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A chord, in music, is any harmonic set of three or more notes that is heard as if sounding simultaneously. These need not actually be played together: arpeggios and broken chords (these involve the notes of the chord played one after the other, rather than at the same time) may, for many practical and theoretical purposes, constitute chords. Chords and sequences of chords are frequently used in modern Western, West African and Oceanian music, whereas they are absent from the music of many other parts of the world. In tonal Western classical music, the most frequently encountered chords are triads, so called because they consist of three distinct notes: the root note, a third above the root and a fifth interval above the root. Further notes may be added to give tetrads such as seventh chords (the most commonly encountered example being the dominant seventh chord) and added tone chords, as well as extended chords and tone clusters. Triads commonly found in the Western classical tradition are major and minor chords, with augmented and diminished chords appearing less often. The descriptions major, minor, augmented, and diminished are referred to collectively as chordal quality. Chords are also commonly classified by their root note—for instance, a C major triad consists of the pitch classes C, E, and G. A chord retains its identity if the notes are stacked in a different way vertically; however, if a chord has a note other than the root note as the lowest note, the chord is said to be in an inversion (this is also called an "inverted chord"). An ordered series of chords is called a chord progression. One example of a widely used chord progression in Western traditional music and blues is the 12 bar blues progression, the simplest versions of which include tonic, subdominant and dominant chords (this system of naming chords is described later in this section). Although any chord may in principle be followed by any other chord, certain patterns of chords are more common in Western music, and some pattern have been accepted as establishing the key (tonic note) in common-practice harmony–notably the movement between tonic and dominant chords. To describe this, Western music theory has developed the practicing of numbering chords using Roman numerals which represent the number of diatonic steps up from the tonic note of the scale. Common ways of notating or representing chords in Western music other than conventional staff notation include Roman numerals, figured bass, macro symbols (sometimes used in modern musicology), and chord charts. Each of these systems is more likely to appear in certain contexts: figured bass notation was used prominently in notation of Baroque music, macro symbols are used in modern musicology, and chord charts are typically found in the lead sheets used in popular music and jazz. The chords in a song or piece are also given names which refer to their function. The chord built on the first note of a major scale is called the tonic chord (colloquially called a "I" or "one" chord). The chord built on the fourth note of a major scale is called the subdominant chord (colloquially called a "IV" chord or "four" chord). The chord built on the fifth degree of the major scale is called the dominant chord (colloquially called a "V chord" or "five" chord). There are names for the chords built on every note of the major scale. Chords can be played on many instruments, including piano, pipe organ, guitar and mandolin. Chords can also be performed when multiple musicians play together in a musical ensemble or when multiple singers sing in a choir and they play or sing three or more notes at the same time. - 1 Definition and history - 2 Notation - 3 Characteristics - 4 Triads - 5 Seventh chords - 6 Extended chords - 7 Altered chords - 8 Added tone chords - 9 Suspended chords - 10 Borrowed chords - 11 References - 12 Sources - 13 Further reading - 14 External links Definition and history The English word chord derives from Middle English cord, a shortening of accord in the original sense of agreement and later, harmonious sound. A sequence of chords is known as a chord progression or harmonic progression. These are frequently used in Western music. A chord progression "aims for a definite goal" of establishing (or contradicting) a tonality founded on a key, root or tonic chord. The study of harmony involves chords and chord progressions, and the principles of connection that govern them. Ottó Károlyi writes that, "Two or more notes sounded simultaneously are known as a chord," though, since instances of any given note in different octaves may be taken as the same note, it is more precise for the purposes of analysis to speak of distinct pitch classes. Furthermore, as three notes are needed to define any common chord, three is often taken as the minimum number of notes that form a definite chord.[vague] Hence Andrew Surmani, for example, (2004, p. 72) states, "When three or more notes are sounded together, the combination is called a chord." George T. Jones (1994, p. 43) agrees: "Two tones sounding together are usually termed an interval, while three or mores tones are called a chord." According to Monath (1984, p. 37); "A chord is a combination of three or more tones sounded simultaneously," and the distances between the tones are called intervals. However sonorities of two pitches, or even single-note melodies, are commonly heard as implying chords. Since a chord may be understood as such even when all its notes are not simultaneously audible, there has been some academic discussion regarding the point at which a group of notes may be called a chord. Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990, p. 218) explains that, "We can encounter 'pure chords' in a musical work," such as in the Promenade of Modest Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition but, "Often, we must go from a textual given to a more abstract representation of the chords being used," as in Claude Debussy's Première Arabesque. In the medieval era, early Christian hymns featured organum (which used the simultaneous perfect intervals of a fourth, a fifth, and an octave), with chord progressions and harmony an incidental result of the emphasis on melodic lines during the medieval and then Renaissance (15-17th centuries). The Baroque period, the 17th and 18th centuries, began to feature the major and minor scale based tonal system and harmony, including chord progressions and circle progressions. It was in the Baroque period that the accompaniment of melodies with chords was developed, as in figured bass, and the familiar cadences (perfect authentic, etc.). In the Renaissance, certain dissonant sonorities that suggest the dominant seventh occurred with frequency. In the Baroque period the dominant seventh proper was introduced, and was in constant use in the Classical and Romantic periods. The leading-tone seventh appeared in the Baroque period and remains in use. Composers began to use nondominant seventh chords in the Baroque period. They became frequent in the Classical period, gave way to altered dominants in the Romantic period, and underwent a resurgence in the Post-Romantic and Impressionistic period. The Romantic period, the 19th century, featured increased chromaticism. Composers began to use secondary dominants in the Baroque, and they became common in the Romantic period. Many contemporary popular Western genres continue to rely on simple diatonic harmony, though far from universally: notable exceptions include the music of film scores, which often use chromatic, atonal or post-tonal harmony, and modern jazz (especially circa 1960), in which chords may include up to seven notes (and occasionally more). When referring to chords that do not function as harmony, such as in atonal music, the term "sonority" is often used specifically to avoid any tonal implications of the word "chord". Triads consist of three notes; the root or first note, the third, and the fifth. For example, the C major scale consists of the notes C D E F G A B: a triad can be constructed on any note of such a major scale, and all are minor or major except the triad on the seventh or leading-tone, which is a diminished chord. A triad formed using the note C itself consists of C (the root note), E (the third note of the scale) and G (the fifth note of the scale). The interval from C to E is of four semitones, a major third, and so this triad is called C Major. A triad formed upon the same scale but with D as the root note, D (root), F (third), A (fifth), on the other hand, has only three semitones between the root and third and is called D minor, a minor triad. Chords can be represented in various ways. The most common notation systems are: - Plain staff notation, used in classical music - Roman numerals, commonly used in harmonic analysis to denote the scale step on which the chord is built. - Figured bass, much used in the Baroque era, uses numbers added to a bass line written on staff (music), to enable keyboard players to improvise chords with the right hand while playing the bass with their left. - Macro symbols, sometimes used in modern musicology, to denote chord root and quality. - Various chord names and symbols used in popular music lead sheets, fake books, and chord charts, to quickly lay out the harmonic groundplan of a piece so that the musician may improvise, jam, or vamp on it. While scale degrees are typically represented with Arabic numerals, the triads that have these degrees as their roots are often identified by Roman numerals. In some conventions (as in this and related articles) upper-case Roman numerals indicate major triads while lower-case Roman numerals indicate minor triads: other writers, (e.g. Schoenberg) use upper case Roman numerals for both major and minor triads. Some writers use upper-case Roman numerals to indicate the chord is diatonic in the major scale, and lower-case Roman numerals to indicate that the chord is diatonic in the minor scale. Diminished triads may be represented by lower-case Roman numerals with a degree symbol. Roman numerals can also be used in stringed instrument notation to indicate the position or string to play. Figured bass notation Figured bass or thoroughbass is a kind of musical notation used in almost all Baroque music (ca. 1600-1750), though rarely in music from later than 1750, to indicate harmonies in relation to a conventionally written bass line. Figured bass is closely associated with chord-playing basso continuo accompaniment instruments, which included harpsichord, pipe organ and lute. Added numbers, symbols and accidentals beneath the staff indicate at the intervals to play, the numbers stand for the number of scale steps above the written note to play the figured notes. In the 2010s, some classical musicians who specialize in music from the Baroque era can still perform chords using figured bass notation. In many cases, however, when Baroque music is performed in the 2010s, the chord-playing performers read fully notated chords that have been prepared for the piece by the music publisher. A Baroque part for a chord-playing instrument that has fully written-out chords is called a "realization" of the figured bass part. In the illustration the bass note is a C, and the numbers 4 and 6 indicate that notes a fourth and a sixth above, that is F and A, should be played, giving the second inversion of the F major triad. If no numbers are written beneath a bass note, this is assumed to indicate the figure 5,3, which calls for a third and a fifth above the bass note (i.e., a root position triad). Macro analysis uses upper-case and lower-case letters to indicate the roots of chords, followed by symbols that specify the chord quality. - The root note (e.g. C). - The chord quality (e.g. major, maj, or M). [Note: if no chord quality is specified, the chord is assumed to be a major triad by default.] - The number of an interval (e.g. seventh, or 7), or less often its full name or symbol (e.g. major seventh, maj7, or M7). - The altered fifth (e.g. sharp five, or ♯5). - An additional interval number (e.g. add 13 or add13), in added tone chords. For instance, the name C augmented seventh, and the corresponding symbol Caug7, or C+7, are both composed of parts 1, 2, and 3. None of these parts, except for the root, directly refer to the notes forming the chord, but to the intervals they form with respect to the root. For instance, Caug7 is formed by the notes C-E-G♯-B♭. However, its name and symbol refer only to the root note C, the augmented (fifth) interval from C to G♯, and the (minor) seventh interval from C to B♭. The interval from C to E (a major third) sets the chord quality (major). A set of decoding rules is applied to deduce the missing information. Some of the symbols used for chord quality are similar to those used for interval quality: - m, or min for minor, - M, maj, or no symbol for major, - aug for augmented, - dim for diminished. The interpretation of chord symbols depends on the genre of music being played. In jazz from the Bebop era or later, major and minor chords are typically voiced as seventh chords even if only "C" or "c min" appear in the chart. In jazz charts, seventh chords are often voiced with upper extensions, such as the 9th, #11th and 13th, even if the chart only indicates "A7". As well, in jazz, the root and fifth are often omitted from chord voicings, except when there is a flat fifth. The root is played by the bass player. In cases where two chordal instruments are comping at the same time from a chart, the players have to either listen to each other's voicings, agree on a voicing beforehand, or alternate comping in different choruses. This is done because if the electric guitarist interprets an "A7" chord as "A7 b9" and the Hammond organ player interprets the "A7" as "A9", the two chords would clash. The interpretation of chord symbols also depends on the taste preferences of the bandleader or singer who is being accompanied. Some bandleaders or singers may prefer alt chords to be interpreted in different ways. One singer may prefer alt chords with b9s, while another singer may prefer b13s. In a pop or rock context, however, "C" and "c min" would almost always be played as triads, with no sevenths. In pop and rock, in the relatively less common cases where a songwriter wishes a Major 7th chord or a minor 7th chord, she will indicate this explicitly with the indications "C Maj 7" or "c min 7". In addition, however, - Δ is sometimes used for major, instead of the standard M, or maj, - − is sometimes used for minor, instead of the standard m or min, - +, or aug, is used for augmented (A is not used), - o, °, dim, is used for diminished (d is not used), - ø, or Ø is used for half diminished, - dom is used for dominant 7th - alt is used in jazz to indicate an altered dominant seventh chord (e.g., flat 9 and/or # 11) - 7 is used for dominant 7th - 9 is used for a ninth chord, which in jazz usually includes the dominant 7th as well - 13 indicates that the 13th is added to the chord. In jazz, when a number higher than 9th is used, it implies that other lower numbers are played. Thus for A13, a pianist would play the 3rd, the 7th, 9th and 13th (the 11th is normally omitted unless it is sharpened. Roots and fifths are commonly omitted from jazz chord voicings). - sus 4 indicates that the third is omitted and the fourth used instead. Other notes may be added to a Sus 4 chord, indicated with the word "add" and the scale degree (e.g., A sus 4 (add 9) or A sus 4 (add 7)). - /C# bass or /C# indicates that a bass note other than the root should be played. For example, A/C# bass indicates that an A Maj triad should be played with a C# in the bass. (Note: in some genres of modern jazz, two chords with a slash between them may indicate an advanced voicing called a polychord, which is the playing of two chords simultaneously--e.g., F/A would be interpreted as an F Major triad played simultaneously with an A Maj triad, that is the notes "F, A, C" and "A, C#, E". To avoid misunderstanding, the "/C# bass" notation can be used). - 5 in rock, hard rock and metal indicates that a power chord should be played. A power chord consists of the root and the fifth, possibly with the root doubled an octave higher. Thirds and sevenths are not played in power chords. Typically, power chords are played with distortion or overdrive. - Unusual chords can be indicated with a sequence of scale degrees and indicated additions or omissions (e.g., C7 (no 5th add 9) or F9 (no 7th add 13)). Within the diatonic scale, every chord has certain characteristics, which include: - Number of pitch classes (distinct notes without respect to octave) that constitute the chord. - Scale degree of the root note - Position or inversion of the chord - General type of intervals it appears constructed from—for example seconds, thirds, or fourths - Counts of each pitch class as occur between all combinations of notes the chord contains Number of notes |Number of notes||Name||Alternate name| Two-note combinations, whether referred to as chords or intervals, are called dyads. Chords constructed of three notes of some underlying scale are described as triads. Chords of four notes are known as tetrads, those containing five are called pentads and those using six are hexads. Sometimes the terms trichord, tetrachord, pentachord, and hexachord are used—though these more usually refer to the pitch classes of any scale, not generally played simultaneously. Chords that may contain more than three notes include pedal point chords, dominant seventh chords, extended chords, added tone chords, clusters, and polychords. Polychords are formed by two or more chords superimposed. Often these may be analysed as extended chords; examples include tertian, altered chord, secundal chord, quartal and quintal harmony and Tristan chord). Another example is when G7(♯11♭9) (G-B-D-F-A♭-C♯) is formed from G major (G-B-D) and D♭ major (D♭-F-A♭). A nonchord tone is a dissonant or unstable tone that lies outside the chord currently heard, though often resolving to a chord tone. |Roman numeral||Scale degree| |viio / ♭VII||leading tone / subtonic| In the key of C major the first degree of the scale, called the tonic, is the note C itself, so a C major chord, a triad built on the note C, may be called the one chord of that key and notated in Roman numerals as I. The same C major chord can be found in other scales: it forms chord III in the key of A minor (A-B-C) and chord IV in the key of G major (G-A-B-C). This numbering lets us see the job a chord is doing in the current key and tonality. Many analysts use lower-case Roman numerals to indicate minor triads and upper-case for major ones, and degree and plus signs ( o and + ) to indicate diminished and augmented triads respectively. Otherwise all the numerals may be upper-case and the qualities of the chords inferred from the scale degree. Chords outside the scale can be indicated by placing a flat/sharp sign before the chord — for example, the chord of E flat major in the key of C major is represented by ♭III. The tonic of the scale may be indicated to the left (e.g. F♯:) or may be understood from a key signature or other contextual clues. Indications of inversions or added tones may be omitted if they are not relevant to the analysis. Roman numerals indicate the root of the chord as a scale degree within a particular major key as follows: In the harmony of Western art music a chord is in root position when the tonic note is the lowest in the chord, and the other notes are above it. When the lowest note is not the tonic, the chord is inverted. Chords, having many constituent notes, can have many different inverted positions as shown below for the C major chord: |Bass note||Position||Order of notes||Notation| |C||root position||C E G||5 3 as G is a 5th above C and E is a 3rd above C |E||1st inversion||E G C||6 3 as C is a 6th above E and G is a 3rd above E |G||2nd inversion||G C E||6 4 as E is a 6th above G and C is a 4th above G Further, a four-note chord can be inverted to four different positions by the same method as triadic inversion. Where guitar chords are concerned the term "inversion" is used slightly differently; to refer to stock fingering "shapes". Secundal, tertian, and quartal chords |Secundal||2nd's : major 2nd, minor 2nd| |Tertian||3rd's : major 3rd, minor 3rd| |Quartal||4th's : perfect 4th, augmented 4th| Many chords are a sequence of ascending notes separated by intervals of roughly the same size. Chords can be classified into different categories by this size: - Tertian chords can be decomposed into a series of (major or minor) thirds. For example, the C major triad (C-E-G) is defined by a sequence of two intervals, the first (C-E) being a major third and the second (E-G) being a minor third. Most common chords are tertian. - Secundal chords can be decomposed into a series of (major or minor) seconds. For example, the chord C-D-E♭ is a series of seconds, containing a major second (C-D) and a minor second (D-E♭). - Quartal chords can be decomposed into a series of (perfect or augmented) fourths. Quartal harmony normally works with a combination of perfect and augmented fourths. Diminished fourths are enharmonically equivalent to major thirds, so they are uncommon. For example, the chord C-F-B is a series of fourths, containing a perfect fourth (C-F) and an augmented fourth/tritone (F-B). These terms can become ambiguous when dealing with non-diatonic scales, such as the pentatonic or chromatic scales. The use of accidentals can also complicate the terminology. For example, the chord B♯-E-A♭ appears to be a series of diminished fourths (B♯-E and E-A♭) but is enharmonically equivalent to (and sonically indistinguishable from) the chord C-E-G♯, which is a series of major thirds (C-E and E-G♯). The notes of a chord form intervals with each of the other notes of the chord in combination. A 3-note chord has 3 of these harmonic intervals, a 4-note chord has 6, a 5-note chord has 10, a 6-note chord has 15. The absence, presence, and placement of certain key intervals plays a large part in the sound of the chord, and sometimes of the selection of the chord that follows. A chord containing tritones is called tritonic; one without tritones is atritonic. Harmonic tritones are an important part of Dominant seventh chords, giving their sound a characteristic tension, and making the tritone interval likely to move in certain stereotypical ways to the following chord. A chord containing semitones, whether appearing as Minor seconds or Major sevenths, is called hemitonic; one without semitones is anhemitonic. Harmonic semitones are an important part of Major seventh chords, giving their sound a characteristic high tension, and making the harmonic semitone likely to move in certain stereotypical ways to the following chord. A chord containing Major sevenths but no Minor seconds is much less harsh in sound than one containing Minor seconds as well. Other chords of interest might include the - Diminished chord, which has many Minor thirds and no Major thirds, many Tritones but no Perfect fifths - Augmented chord, which has many Major thirds and no Minor thirds or Perfect fifths - Dominant seventh flat five chord, which has many Major thirds and Tritones and no Minor thirds or Perfect fifths Triads, also called triadic chords, are tertian chords with three notes. The four basic triads are described below. |Component intervals||Chord symbol||Notes||Audio| |Major triad||major||perfect||C, CM, Cmaj, CΔ, Cma||C E G||play (help·info)| |Minor triad||minor||perfect||Cm, Cmin, C-, Cmi||C E♭ G||play (help·info)| |Augmented triad||major||augmented||Caug, C+, C+||C E G♯||play (help·info)| |Diminished triad||minor||diminished||Cdim, Co, Cm(♭5)||C E♭ G♭||play (help·info)| Seventh chords are tertian chords, constructed by adding a fourth note to a triad, at the interval of a third above the fifth of the chord. This creates the interval of a seventh above the root of the chord, the next natural step in composing tertian chords. The seventh chord built on the fifth step of the scale (the dominant seventh) is the only one available in the major scale: it contains all three notes of the diminished triad of the seventh and is frequently used as a stronger substitute for it. There are various types of seventh chords depending on the quality of both the chord and the seventh added. In chord notation the chord type is sometimes superscripted and sometimes not (e.g. Dm7, Dm7, and Dm7 are all identical). |Component intervals||Chord symbol||Notes||Audio| |Diminished seventh||minor||diminished||diminished||Co7, Cdim7||C E♭ G♭ B||Play (help·info)| |Half-diminished seventh||minor||diminished||minor||Cø7, Cm7♭5, C−7(♭5)||C E♭ G♭ B♭||Play (help·info)| |Minor seventh||minor||perfect||minor||Cm7, Cmin7, C−7, C−7||C E♭ G B♭||Play (help·info)| |Minor major seventh||minor||perfect||major||Cm(M7), Cm maj7, C−(j7), C−Δ7, C−M7||C E♭ G B||Play (help·info)| |Dominant seventh||major||perfect||minor||C7, C7, Cdom7||C E G B♭||Play (help·info)| |Major seventh||major||perfect||major||CM7, Cmaj7, CΔ7, CΔ7, CΔ7, Cj7||C E G B||Play (help·info)| |Augmented seventh||major||augmented||minor||C+7, Caug7, C7+, C7+5, C7♯5||C E G♯ B♭||Play (help·info)| |Augmented major seventh||major||augmented||major||C+(M7), CM7+5, CM7♯5, C+j7, C+Δ7||C E G♯ B||Play (help·info)| Extended chords are triads with further tertian notes added beyond the seventh; the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth chords. After the thirteenth, any notes added in thirds duplicate notes elsewhere in the chord; all seven notes of the scale are present in the chord and adding more notes does not add new pitch classes. Such chords may be constructed only by using notes that lie outside the diatonic seven-note scale. |Dominant ninth||dominant seventh||major ninth||-||-||C9||C E G B♭ D||Play (help·info)| |Dominant eleventh||dominant seventh (the third is usually omitted) |major ninth||eleventh||-||C11||C E G B♭ D F||Play (help·info)| |Dominant thirteenth||dominant seventh||major ninth||perfect eleventh |major thirteenth||C13||C E G B♭ D F A||Play (help·info)| Other extended chords follow similar rules, so that for example maj9, maj11, and maj13 contain major seventh chords rather than dominant seventh chords, while min9, min11, and min13 contain minor seventh chords. Although the third and seventh of the chord are always determined by the symbols shown above, the fifth, ninth, eleventh and thirteenth may all be chromatically altered by accidentals (the root cannot be so altered without changing the name of the chord, while the third cannot be altered without altering the chord's quality). These are noted alongside the altered element. Accidentals are most often used with dominant seventh chords. Altered dominant seventh chords (C7alt) may have a flat ninth, a sharp ninth, a diminished fifth or an augmented fifth (see Levine's Jazz Theory). Some write this as C7+9, which assumes also the flat ninth, diminished fifth and augmented fifth (see Aebersold's Scale Syllabus). The augmented ninth is often referred to in blues and jazz as a blue note, being enharmonically equivalent to the flat third or tenth. When superscripted numerals are used the different numbers may be listed horizontally (as shown) or else vertically. |Seventh augmented fifth||dominant seventh||augmented fifth||C7+5, C7♯5||Play (help·info)| |Seventh flat ninth||dominant seventh||minor ninth||C7-9, C7♭9||Play (help·info)| |Seventh sharp ninth||dominant seventh||augmented ninth||C7+9, C7♯9||Play (help·info)| |Seventh augmented eleventh||dominant seventh||augmented eleventh||C7+11, C7♯11||Play (help·info)| |Seventh flat thirteenth||dominant seventh||minor thirteenth||C7-13, C7♭13||Play (help·info)| |Half-diminished seventh||minor seventh||diminished fifth||Cø, Cm7♭5||Play (help·info)| Added tone chords An added tone chord is a triad chord with an added, non-tertian note, such as the commonly added sixth as well as chords with an added second (ninth) or fourth (eleventh) or a combination of the three. These chords do not include "intervening" thirds as in an extended chord. Added chords can also have variations. Thus madd9, m4 and m6 are minor triads with extended notes. Sixth chords can belong to either of two groups. One is first inversion chords and added sixth chords that contain a sixth from the root. The other group is inverted chords in which the interval of a sixth appears above a bass note that is not the root. The major sixth chord (also called, sixth or added sixth with the chord notation 6, e.g., "C6") is by far the most common type of sixth chord of the first group. It comprises a major triad with the added major sixth above the root, common in popular music. For example, the chord C6 contains the notes C-E-G-A. The minor sixth chord (min6 or m6, e.g., "Cm6") is a minor triad with the same added note. For example, the chord Cmin6 contains the notes C-E♭-G-A. In chord notation, the sixth of either chord is always assumed a major sixth rather than a minor sixth, however a minor sixth interval may be indicated in the notation as, for example, "Cm(m6)", or Cmm6. The augmented sixth chord usually appears in chord notation as its enharmonic equivalent, the seventh chord. This chord contains two notes separated by the interval of an augmented sixth (or, by inversion, a diminished third, though this inversion is rare). The augmented sixth is generally used as a dissonant interval most commonly used in motion towards a dominant chord in root position (with the root doubled to create the octave the augmented sixth chord resolves to) or to a tonic chord in second inversion (a tonic triad with the fifth doubled for the same purpose). In this case, the tonic note of the key is included in the chord, sometimes along with an optional fourth note, to create one of the following (illustrated here in the key of C major): - Italian augmented sixth: A♭, C, F♯ - French augmented sixth: A♭, C, D, F♯ - German augmented sixth: A♭, C, E♭, F♯ The augmented sixth family of chords exhibits certain peculiarities. Since they are not based on triads, as are seventh chords and other sixth chords, they are not generally regarded as having roots (nor, therefore, inversions), although one re-voicing of the notes is common (with the namesake interval inverted to create a diminished third). The second group of sixth chords includes inverted major and minor chords, which may be called sixth chords in that the six-three (6/3) and six-four (6/4) chords contain intervals of a sixth with the bass note, though this is not the root. Nowadays this is mostly for academic study or analysis (see figured bass) but the neapolitan sixth chord is an important example; a major triad with a flat supertonic scale degree as its root that is called a "sixth" because it is almost always found in first inversion. Though a technically accurate Roman numeral analysis would be ♭II, it is generally labelled N6. In C major, the chord is notated (from root position) D♭, F, A♭. Because it uses chromatically altered tones this chord is often grouped with the borrowed chords but the chord is not borrowed from the relative major or minor and it may appear in both major and minor keys. |Add nine||major triad||major ninth||-||C2, Cadd9||C E G D||Play (help·info)| |Add fourth||major triad||perfect fourth||-||C4, Cadd11||C E G F||Play (help·info)| |Add sixth||major triad||major sixth||-||C6||C E G A||Play (help·info)| |Six-nine||major triad||major sixth||major ninth||C6/9||C E G A D||-| |Mixed-third||major triad||minor third||-||-||C E♭ E G||Play (help·info)| A suspended chord, or "sus chord" (sometimes wrongly thought to mean sustained chord), is a chord in which the third is replaced by either the second or the fourth. This produces two main chord types: the suspended second (sus2) and the suspended fourth (sus4). The chords, Csus2 and Csus4, for example, consist of the notes C D G and C F G, respectively. There is also a third type of suspended chord, in which both the second and fourth are present, for example the chord with the notes C D F G. The name suspended derives from an early polyphonic technique developed during the common practice period, in which a stepwise melodic progress to a harmonically stable note in any particular part was often momentarily delayed or suspended by extending the duration of the previous note. The resulting unexpected dissonance could then be all the more satisfyingly resolved by the eventual appearance of the displaced note. In traditional music theory the inclusion of the third in either chord would negate the suspension, so such chords would be called added ninth and added eleventh chords instead. In modern layman usage the term is restricted to the displacement of the third only and the dissonant second or fourth no longer needs to be held over (prepared) from the previous chord. Neither is it now obligatory for the displaced note to make an appearance at all though in the majority of cases the conventional stepwise resolution to the third is still observed. In post-bop and modal jazz compositions and improvisations suspended seventh chords are often used in nontraditional ways: these often do not function as V chords, and do not resolve from the fourth to the third. The lack of resolution gives the chord an ambiguous, static quality. Indeed, the third is often played on top of a sus4 chord. A good example is the jazz standard, Maiden Voyage. Extended versions are also possible, such as the seventh suspended fourth, which, with root C, contains the notes C F G B♭ and is notated as C7sus4 play (help·info). Csus4 is sometimes written Csus since the sus4 is more common than the sus2. |Sus2||open fifth||major second||-||-||Csus2||C D G||Play (help·info)| |Sus4||open fifth||perfect fourth||-||-||Csus4||C F G||Play (help·info)| |Jazz sus||open fifth||perfect fourth||minor seventh||major ninth||C9sus4||C F G B♭ D||Play (help·info)| A borrowed chord is one from a different key than the home key, the key of the piece it is used in. The most common occurrence of this is where a chord from the parallel major or minor key is used. Particularly good examples can be found throughout the works of composers such as Schubert. For instance, for a composer working in the C major key, a major ♭III chord would be borrowed, as this appears only in the C minor key. Although borrowed chords could theoretically include chords taken from any key other than the home key, this is not how the term is used when a chord is described in formal musical analysis. When a chord is analysed as "borrowed" from another key it may be shown by the Roman numeral corresponding with that key after a slash so, for example, V/V indicates the dominant chord of the dominant key of the present home-key. The dominant key of C major is G major so this secondary dominant is the chord of the fifth degree of the G major scale, which is D major. If used, this chord causes a modulation. - Benward & Saker (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice, Vol. I, p. 67&359. Seventh Edition. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-0."A chord is a harmonic unit with at least three different tones sounding simultaneously." "A combination of three or more pitches sounding at the same time." - Károlyi, Otto (1965). Introducing Music. Penguin Books. p. 63. Two or more notes sounding simultaneously are known as a chord. - Mitchell, Barry (January 16, 2008). "An explanation for the emergence of Jazz (1956)", Theory of Music. - Linkels, Ad, The Real Music of Paradise", In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 218–229. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0 - Malm, William P. (1996). Music Cultures of the Pacific, the Near East, and Asia. p.15. ISBN 0-13-182387-6. Third edition: "Indeed this harmonic orientation is one of the major differences between Western and much non-Western music." - Arnold Schoenberg, Structural Functions of Harmony, Faber and Faber, 1983, p.1-2. - Benward & Saker (2003), p. 77. Cite error: Invalid <ref>tag; name "B.26S" defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). Cite error: Invalid <ref>tag; name "B.26S" defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - Merriam-Webster, Inc. (1995). "Chord", Merriam-Webster's dictionary of English usage, p.243. ISBN 978-0-87779-132-4. - "Chord", Oxford Dictionaries. - Dahlhaus, Car. "Harmony". In Macy, Laura. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required) - Károlyi, Ottó, Introducing Music, p. 63. England: Penguin Books. - Schellenberg, E. Glenn; Bigand, Emmanuel; Poulin-Charronnat, Benedicte; Garnier, Cecilia; Stevens, Catherine (Nov 2005). "Children's implicit knowledge of harmony in Western music". Developmental Science 8 (8): 551–566. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.00447.x. PMID 16246247. - Duarter, John (2008). Melody & Harmony for Guitarists, p.49. ISBN 978-0-7866-7688-0. - Benward & Saker (2003), p.70. - Benward & Saker (2003), p.100. - Benward & Saker (2003), p.201. - Benward & Saker (2003), p.220. - Benward & Saker (2003), p.231. - Benward & Saker (2003), p.274. - Winston Harrison, The Rockmaster System: Relating Ongoing Chords to the Keyboard – Rock, Book 1, Dellwin Publishing Co. 2005, p. 33 - Pachet, François, Surprising Harmonies, International Journal on ComputingAnticipatory Systems, 1999. - Pen, Ronald (1992). Introduction to Music, p.81. McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-038068-6. "In each case the note that forms the foundation pitch is called the root, the middle tone of the chord is designated the third (because it is separated by the interval of a third from the root), and the top tone is referred to as the fifth (because it is a fifth away from the root)." - William G Andrews and Molly Sclater (2000). Materials of Western Music Part 1, p.227. ISBN 1-55122-034-2. - The symbol Δ is ambiguous, as it is used by some as a synonym for M (e.g. CΔ=CM and CΔ7=CM7), and by others as a synonym of M7 (e.g. CΔ=CM7). - Haerle, Dan (1982). The Jazz Language: A Theory Text for Jazz Composition and Improvisation, p.30. ISBN 978-0-7604-0014-2. - Policastro, Michael A. (1999). Understanding How to Build Guitar Chords and Arpeggios, p.168. ISBN 978-0-7866-4443-8. - Benward & Saker (2003), p.92. - Bert Weedon, Play in a Day, Faber Music Ltd, ISBN 0-571-52965-8, passim - among a wide range of other guitar tutors - Dufrenne, Mikel (1989). The Phenomenology of Aesthetic Experience, p.253. ISBN 0-8101-0591-8. - Connie E. Mayfield (2012) "Theory Essentials", p.523. ISBN 1-133-30818-X. - Hanson, Howard. (1960) Harmonic Materials of Modern Music, p.7ff. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. LOC 58-8138. - Benjamin, Horvit, and Nelson (2008). Techniques and Materials of Music, p.46-47. ISBN 0-495-50054-2. - Benjamin, Horvit, and Nelson (2008). Techniques and Materials of Music, p.48-49. ISBN 0-495-50054-2. - Hawkins, Stan. "Prince- Harmonic Analysis of 'Anna Stesia'", p.329 and 334n7, Popular Music, Vol. 11, No. 3 (Oct., 1992), pp. 325-335. - Miller, Michael (2005). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Music Theory, p.119. ISBN 978-1-59257-437-7. - Piston, Walter (1987). Harmony (5th ed.), p.66. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-95480-3. - Bartlette, Christopher, and Steven G. Laitz (2010). Graduate Review of Tonal Theory. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537698-2 - Grout, Donald Jay (1960). A History Of Western Music. Norton Publishing. - Dahlhaus, Carl. Gjerdingen, Robert O. trans. (1990). Studies in the Origin of Harmonic Tonality, p. 67. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09135-8. - Goldman (1965). Cited in Nattiez (1990). - Jones, George T. (1994). HarperCollins College Outline Music Theory. ISBN 0-06-467168-2. - Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1990). Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music (Musicologie générale et sémiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate (1990). ISBN 0-691-02714-5. - Norman Monath, Norman (1984). How To Play Popular Piano In 10 Easy Lessons. Fireside Books. ISBN 0-671-53067-4. - Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell, eds. (2001). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. ISBN 1-56159-239-0. - Surmani, Andrew (2004). Essentials of Music Theory: A Complete Self-Study Course for All Musicians. ISBN 0-7390-3635-1. - Benward, Bruce & Saker, Marilyn (2002). Music in Theory and Practice, Volumes I & II (7th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-294262-2. - Mailman, Joshua B. (2015). "Schoenberg's Chordal Experimentalism Revealed Through Representational Hierarchy Association (RHA), Contour Motives, and Binary State Switching" (PDF). Music Theory Spectrum 37 (2): 224–252. - Persichetti, Vincent (1961). Twentieth-century Harmony: Creative Aspects and Practice. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-09539-8. OCLC 398434. - Schejtman, Rod (2008). Music Fundamentals. The Piano Encyclopedia. ISBN 978-987-25216-2-2.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_(music)

Phospholipids are a class of lipids that are a major component of all cell membranes. They can form lipid bilayers because of their amphiphilic characteristic. The structure of the phospholipid molecule generally consists of two hydrophobic fatty acid "tails" and a hydrophilic "head", joined together by a glycerol molecule. The phosphate groups can be modified with simple organic molecules such as choline. The first phospholipid identified in 1847 as such in biological tissues was lecithin, or phosphatidylcholine, in the egg yolk of chickens by the French chemist and pharmacist, Theodore Nicolas Gobley. Biological membranes in eukaryotes also contain another class of lipid, sterol, interspersed among the phospholipids and together they provide membrane fluidity and mechanical strength. Purified phospholipids are produced commercially and have found applications in nanotechnology and materials science. - 1 Amphipathic character - 2 Applications - 3 Simulations - 4 Characterization - 5 Phospholipid synthesis - 6 Sources - 7 In signal transduction - 8 Food technology - 9 Phospholipid derivatives - 10 Abbreviations used and chemical information of glycerophospholipids - 11 See also - 12 References The 'head' is hydrophilic (attracted to water), while the hydrophobic 'tails' are repelled by water and are forced to aggregate. The hydrophilic head contains the negatively charged phosphate group and glycerol. The hydrophobic tail usually consists of 2 long fatty acid chains. When placed in water, phospholipids form a variety of structures depending on the specific properties of the phospholipid. These specific properties allow phospholipids to play an important role in the phospholipid bilayer. In biological systems, the phospholipids often occur with other molecules (e.g., proteins, glycolipids, sterols) in a bilayer such as a cell membrane. Lipid bilayers occur when hydrophobic tails line up against one another, forming a membrane of hydrophilic heads on both sides facing the water. Such movement can be described by the fluid mosaic model, that describes the membrane as a mosaic of lipid molecules that act as a solvent for all the substances and proteins within it, so proteins and lipid molecules are then free to diffuse laterally through the lipid matrix and migrate over the membrane. Sterols contribute to membrane fluidity by hindering the packing together of phospholipids. However, this model has now been superseded, as through the study of lipid polymorphism it is now known that the behaviour of lipids under physiological (and other) conditions is not simple. - See: Glycerophospholipid - Phosphatidic acid (phosphatidate) (PA) - Phosphatidylethanolamine (cephalin) (PE) - Phosphatidylcholine (lecithin) (PC) - Phosphatidylserine (PS) - Ceramide phosphorylcholine (Sphingomyelin) (SPH) - Ceramide phosphorylethanolamine (Sphingomyelin) (Cer-PE) - Ceramide phosphoryllipid Phospholipids have been widely used to prepare liposomal, ethosomal and other nanoformulations of topical, oral and parenteral drugs for differing reasons like improved bio-availability, reduced toxicity and increased penetration. Ethosomal formulation of ketoconazole using Phospholipids showed good entrapment efficiency, stability profile and is a promising option for transdermal delivery with potential for topical application in fungal infections. Liposomes are often composed of phosphatidylcholine-enriched phospholipids and may also contain mixed Phospholipid chains with surfactant properties. Phospholipids are optically highly birefringent, i.e. their refractive index is different along their axis as opposed to perpendicular to it. Measurement of birefringence can be achieved using cross polarisers in a microscope to obtain an image of e.g. vesicle walls or using techniques such as dual polarisation interferometry to quantify lipid order or disruption in supported bilayers. There are no simple methods available for analysis of Phospholipids since the close range of polarity between different phospholipid species makes detection difficult. Oil chemists often use spectroscopy to determine total Phosphorus content and then calculate content of Phospholipids based on molecular weight of expected fatty acid species. Lipidomists use more absolute methods of analysis of with nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), particularly 31P-NMR, while HPLC-ELSD provides relative values. Phospholipid synthesis occurs in the cytosol adjacent to ER membrane that is studded with proteins that act in synthesis (GPAT and LPAAT acyl transferases, phosphatase and choline phosphotransferase) and allocation (flippase and floppase). Eventually a vesicle will bud off from the ER containing phospholipids destined for the cytoplasmic cellular membrane on its exterior leaflet and phospholipids destined for the exoplasmic cellular membrane on its inner leaflet. Common sources of industrially produced phospholipids are soya, rapeseed, sunflower, chicken eggs, bovine milk, fish eggs etc. Each source has a unique profile of individual phospholipid species and consequently differing applications in food, nutrition, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and drug delivery. In signal transduction Some types of phospholipid can be split to produce products that function as second messengers in signal transduction. Examples include phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate (PIP2), that can be split by the enzyme Phospholipase C into inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG), which both carry out the functions of the Gq type of G protein in response to various stimuli and intervene in various processes from long term depression in neurons to leukocyte signal pathways started by chemokine receptors. Phospholipids also intervene in prostaglandin signal pathways as the raw material used by lipase enzymes to produce the prostaglandin precursors. In plants they serve as the raw material to produce Jasmonic acid, a plant hormone similar in structure to prostaglandins that mediates defensive responses against pathogens. Phospholipids can act as an emulsifier, enabling oils to form a colloid with water. Phospholipids are one of the components of lecithin which is found in egg-yolks, as well as being extracted from soy beans, and is used as a food additive in many products, and can be purchased as a dietary supplement. Lysolecithins are typically used for WO emulsions like margarine due to their higher HLB ratio. - See table below for an extensive list. - Natural phospholipid derivates: - egg PC, egg PG, soy PC, hydrogenated soy PC, sphingomyelin as natural phospholipids. - Synthetic phospholipid derivates: - Phosphatidic aDSPA - Phosphatidylcholine (DDPC, DLPC, DMPC, DPPC, DSPC, DOPC, POPC, DEPC) - Phosphatidylglycerol (DMPG, DPPG, DSPG, POPG) - Phosphatidylethanolamine (DMPE, DPPE, DSPE DOPE) - Phosphatidylserine (DOPS) - PEG phospholipid (mPEG-phospholipid, polyglycerin-phospholipid, funcitionalized-phospholipid, terminal activated-phospholipid) Abbreviations used and chemical information of glycerophospholipids |DEPA-NA||80724-31-8||1,2-Dierucoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphate (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidic acid| |DEPG-NA||1,2-Dierucoyl-sn-glycero-3[Phospho-rac-(1-glycerol...) (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidylglycerol| |DLPA-NA||1,2-Dilauroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphate (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidic acid| |DLPG-NA||1,2-Dilauroyl-sn-glycero-3[Phospho-rac-(1-glycerol...) (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidylglycerol| |DLPG-NH4||1,2-Dilauroyl-sn-glycero-3[Phospho-rac-(1-glycerol...) (Ammonium Salt)||Phosphatidylglycerol| |DLPS-NA||1,2-Dilauroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoserine (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidylserine| |DMPA-NA||80724-3||1,2-Dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphate (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidic acid| |DMPG-NA||67232-80-8||1,2-Dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3[Phospho-rac-(1-glycerol...) (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidylglycerol| |DMPG-NH4||1,2-Dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3[Phospho-rac-(1-glycerol...) (Ammonium Salt)||Phosphatidylglycerol| |DMPG-NH4/NA||1,2-Dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3[Phospho-rac-(1-glycerol...) (Sodium/Ammonium Salt)||Phosphatidylglycerol| |DMPS-NA||1,2-Dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoserine (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidylserine| |DOPA-NA||1,2-Dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphate (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidic acid| |DOPG-NA||62700-69-0||1,2-Dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3[Phospho-rac-(1-glycerol...) (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidylglycerol| |DOPS-NA||70614-14-1||1,2-Dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoserine (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidylserine| |DPPA-NA||71065-87-7||1,2-Dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphate (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidic acid| |DPPG-NA||67232-81-9||1,2-Dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3[Phospho-rac-(1-glycerol...) (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidylglycerol| |DPPG-NH4||73548-70-6||1,2-Dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3[Phospho-rac-(1-glycerol...) (Ammonium Salt)||Phosphatidylglycerol| |DPPS-NA||1,2-Dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoserine (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidylserine| |DSPA-NA||108321-18-2||1,2-Distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphate (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidic acid| |DSPG-NA||67232-82-0||1,2-Distearoyl-sn-glycero-3[Phospho-rac-(1-glycerol...) (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidylglycerol| |DSPG-NH4||108347-80-4||1,2-Distearoyl-sn-glycero-3[Phospho-rac-(1-glycerol...) (Ammonium Salt)||Phosphatidylglycerol| |DSPS-NA||1,2-Distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoserine (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidylserine| |Egg Sphingomyelin empty Liposome| |HEPC||Hydrogenated Egg PC||Phosphatidylcholine| |HSPC||Hydrogenated Soy PC||Phosphatidylcholine| |Milk Sphingomyelin MPPC||1-Myristoyl-2-palmitoyl-sn-glycero 3-phosphocholine||Phosphatidylcholine| |POPG-NA||81490-05-3||1-Palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3[Phospho-rac-(1-glycerol)...] (Sodium Salt)||Phosphatidylglycerol| - Mashaghi S., Jadidi T., Koenderink G., Mashaghi A. (2013). "Lipid Nanotechnology". Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2013 (14): 4242–4282. doi:10.3390/ijms140242. - Campbell, Neil A.; Brad Williamson; Robin J. Heyden (2006). Biology: Exploring Life. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-250882-6.[page needed] - Ketoconazole Encapsulated Liposome and Ethosome: GUNJAN TIWARI - HPLC SEPARATION of PHOSPHOLIPIDS - W.W. Christie - P. Meneses and T. Glonek (1988). "High resolution 31P NMR of extracted phospholipids". The Journal of Lipid Research 29 (5): 679–689. PMID 3411242. - Furse, Samuel; Liddell, Susan; Ortori, Catharine A.; Williams, Huw; Neylon, D. Cameron; Scott, David J.; Barrett, David A.; Gray, David A. (2013). "The lipidome and proteome of oil bodies from Helianthus annuus (common sunflower)". Journal of Chemical Biology 6 (2): 63–76. doi:10.1007/s12154-012-0090-1. PMC 3606697. PMID 23532185. - T.L. Mounts, A.M. Nash (1990). "HPLC analysis of phospholipids in crude oil for evaluation of soybean deterioration". Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society 67 (11): 757–760. doi:10.1007/BF02540486. - Lodish, Harvey; Berk, Krieger, Kaiser, Scott, Bretsher, Ploegh, Matsuaira (2008). Molecular Cell Biology. W.H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-7601-4. Cite uses deprecated parameter - Choi, S.-Y.; Chang, J; Jiang, B; Seol, GH; Min, SS; Han, JS; Shin, HS; Gallagher, M; Kirkwood, A (2005). "Multiple Receptors Coupled to Phospholipase C Gate Long-Term Depression in Visual Cortex". Journal of Neuroscience 25 (49): 11433–43. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4084-05.2005. PMID 16339037. - Cronshaw, D. G.; Kouroumalis, A; Parry, R; Webb, A; Brown, Z; Ward, SG (2006). "Evidence that phospholipase C-dependent, calcium-independent mechanisms are required for directional migration of T lymphocytes in response to the CCR4 ligands CCL17 and CCL22". Journal of Leukocyte Biology 79 (6): 1369–80. doi:10.1189/jlb.0106035. PMID 16614259.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phospholipid

What it is: The Fisher Effect is an economic hypothesis stating that the real interest rate is equal to the nominal rate minus the expected rate of inflation. How it works (Example): In the late 1930s, U.S. economist Irving Fisher wrote a paper which posited that a country's interest rate level rises and falls in direct relation to its inflation rates. Fisher mathematically expressed this theory in the following way: R Nominal = R Real + R Inflation The equation states that a country's current (nominal) interest rate is equal to a real interest rate adjusted for the rate of inflation. In this sense, Fisher conceived of interest rates, as the prices of lending, being adjusted for inflation in the same manner that prices of goods and services are adjusted for inflation. For instance, if a country's nominal interest rate is six percent and its inflation rate is two percent, the country's real interest rate is four percent (6% - 2% = 4%). Why it Matters: The Fisher effect is an important tool by which lenders can gauge whether or not they are making money on a granted loan. Unless the rate charged is above and beyond the economy's inflation rate, a lender will not profit from the interest. Moreover, according to Fisher's theory, even if a loan is granted at no interest, a lending party would need to charge at least the inflation rate in order to retain purchasing power upon repayment.

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1 Answer | Add Yours As with many movements in the arts, the Harlem Renaissance was influenced heavily by the economics of its time. During the early 20th century, America like much of the world was moving from an agriculturally based economy to a more industrial. Cities in the North were leading the way in this change, so many African Americans in the less affluent South started to seek higher paying jobs above the Mason Dixon line. U.S. policy on immigration also prompted this northern migration, as the government began limiting the numbers of immigrants from entering the country. This policy along with the industrialization above and a promise of a better more equal life caused African American populations in major northern cities to nearly double by the 1930s. Socially, writers such as Booker T. Washington had pushed the notion forward of a well educated and proud African American man instead of the backward stereotypes that many people, including African Americans, had accepted from their society. This push towards independent thinking and pride in leadership of new lives also helped the Harlem Renaissance blossom. Beyond the extensive reach of WWI general influence, the end of the war in 1919 also brought racial relations to a head. White soldiers returned and struggled to accept the changing roles of African Americans. African American soldiers returned from fighting the respect they earned on the battlefield and once again were treated as second class citizens by fellow Americans they defended. In 1919, 25 race riots took place and over 75 lynchings were reported. Finally, Harlem itself influenced the movement as it became the center of African American life and culture in the northeast. The neighborhood had once been a wealthy white collection of homes and recently experienced a housing bubble and it was left with foreclosed properties that were affordable. The comfort and excitement offered by the neighborhood continued to attract African American leaders in all walks of life through the 1920s. The population quadrupled in that decade. We’ve answered 302,639 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question

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Genome projects are scientific endeavours that ultimately aim to determine the complete genome sequence of an organism (be it an animal, a plant, a fungus, a bacterium, an archaean, a protist or a virus) and to annotate protein-coding genes and other important genome-encoded features. The genome sequence of an organism includes the collective DNA sequences of each chromosome in the organism. For a bacterium containing a single chromosome, a genome project will aim to map the sequence of that chromosome. For the human species, whose genome includes 22 pairs of autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes, a complete genome sequence will involve 46 separate chromosome sequences. The Human Genome Project was a landmark genome project that is already having a major impact on research across the life sciences, with potential for spurring numerous medical and commercial developments. Genome assembly refers to the process of taking a large number of short DNA sequences and putting them back together to create a representation of the original chromosomes from which the DNA originated. In a shotgun sequencing project, all the DNA from a source (usually a single organism, anything from a bacterium to a mammal) is first fractured into millions of small pieces. These pieces are then "read" by automated sequencing machines, which can read up to 1000 nucleotides or bases at a time. (The four bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine, represented as AGCT.) A genome assembly algorithm works by taking all the pieces and aligning them to one another, and detecting all places where two of the short sequences, or reads, overlap. These overlapping reads can be merged, and the process continues. Genome assembly is a very difficult computational problem, made more difficult because many genomes contain large numbers of identical sequences, known as repeats. These repeats can be thousands of nucleotides long, and some occur in thousands of different locations, especially in the large genomes of plants and animals. The resulting (draft) genome sequence is produced by combining the information sequenced contigs and then employing linking information to create scaffolds. Scaffolds are positioned along the physical map of the chromosomes creating a "golden path". Originally, most large-scale DNA sequencing centers developed their own software for assembling the sequences that they produced. However, this has changed as the software has grown more complex and as the number of sequencing centers has increased. An example of such assembler Short Oligonucleotide Analysis Package developed by BGI for de novo assembly of human-sized genomes, alignment, SNP detection, resequencing, indel finding, and structural variation analysis. - identifying portions of the genome that do not code for proteins - identifying elements on the genome, a process called gene prediction, and - attaching biological information to these elements. Automatic annotation tools try to perform all this by computer analysis, as opposed to manual annotation (a.k.a. curation) which involves human expertise. Ideally, these approaches co-exist and complement each other in the same annotation pipeline. The basic level of annotation is using BLAST for finding similarities, and then annotating genomes based on that. However, nowadays more and more additional information is added to the annotation platform. The additional information allows manual annotators to deconvolute discrepancies between genes that are given the same annotation. Some databases use genome context information, similarity scores, experimental data, and integrations of other resources to provide genome annotations through their Subsystems approach. Other databases (e.g. Ensembl) rely on both curated data sources as well as a range of different software tools in their automated genome annotation pipeline. Structural annotation consists of the identification of genomic elements. - ORFs and their localisation - gene structure - coding regions - location of regulatory motifs Functional annotation consists of attaching biological information to genomic elements. - biochemical function - biological function - involved regulation and interactions These steps may involve both biological experiments and in silico analysis. Proteogenomics based approaches utilize information from expressed proteins, often derived from mass spectrometry, to improve genomics annotations. A variety of software tools have been developed to permit scientists to view and share genome annotations. Genome annotation remains a major challenge for scientists investigating the human genome, now that the genome sequences of more than a thousand human individuals and several model organisms are largely complete. Identifying the locations of genes and other genetic control elements is often described as defining the biological "parts list" for the assembly and normal operation of an organism. Scientists are still at an early stage in the process of delineating this parts list and in understanding how all the parts "fit together". Genome annotation is an active area of investigation and involves a number of different organizations in the life science community which publish the results of their efforts in publicly available biological databases accessible via the web and other electronic means. Here is an alphabetical listing of on-going projects relevant to genome annotation: - Encyclopedia of DNA elements (ENCODE) - Entrez Gene - Gene Ontology Consortium - Vertebrate and Genome Annotation Project (Vega) At Wikipedia, genome annotation has started to become automated under the auspices of the Gene Wiki portal which operates a bot that harvests gene data from research databases and creates gene stubs on that basis. When is a genome project finished? When sequencing a genome, there are usually regions that are difficult to sequence (often regions with highly repetitive DNA). Thus, 'completed' genome sequences are rarely ever complete, and terms such as 'working draft' or 'essentially complete' have been used to more accurately describe the status of such genome projects. Even when every base pair of a genome sequence has been determined, there are still likely to be errors present because DNA sequencing is not a completely accurate process. It could also be argued that a complete genome project should include the sequences of mitochondria and (for plants) chloroplasts as these organelles have their own genomes. It is often reported that the goal of sequencing a genome is to obtain information about the complete set of genes in that particular genome sequence. The proportion of a genome that encodes for genes may be very small (particularly in eukaryotes such as humans, where coding DNA may only account for a few percent of the entire sequence). However, it is not always possible (or desirable) to only sequence the coding regions separately. Also, as scientists understand more about the role of this noncoding DNA (often referred to as junk DNA), it will become more important to have a complete genome sequence as a background to understanding the genetics and biology of any given organism. In many ways genome projects do not confine themselves to only determining a DNA sequence of an organism. Such projects may also include gene prediction to find out where the genes are in a genome, and what those genes do. There may also be related projects to sequence ESTs or mRNAs to help find out where the genes actually are. Historical and technological perspectives Historically, when sequencing eukaryotic genomes (such as the worm Caenorhabditis elegans) it was common to first map the genome to provide a series of landmarks across the genome. Rather than sequence a chromosome in one go, it would be sequenced piece by piece (with the prior knowledge of approximately where that piece is located on the larger chromosome). Changes in technology and in particular improvements to the processing power of computers, means that genomes can now be 'shotgun sequenced' in one go (there are caveats to this approach though when compared to the traditional approach). Improvements in DNA sequencing technology has meant that the cost of sequencing a new genome sequence has steadily fallen (in terms of cost per base pair) and newer technology has also meant that genomes can be sequenced far more quickly. When research agencies decide what new genomes to sequence, the emphasis has been on species which are either high importance as model organism or have a relevance to human health (e.g. pathogenic bacteria or vectors of disease such as mosquitos) or species which have commercial importance (e.g. livestock and crop plants). Secondary emphasis is placed on species whose genomes will help answer important questions in molecular evolution (e.g. the common chimpanzee). In the future, it is likely that it will become even cheaper and quicker to sequence a genome. This will allow for complete genome sequences to be determined from many different individuals of the same species. For humans, this will allow us to better understand aspects of human genetic diversity. Example genome projects Many organisms have genome projects that have either been completed or will be completed shortly, including: - Humans, Homo sapiens; see Human genome project - Palaeo-Eskimo, an ancient-human - Neanderthal, "Homo neanderthalensis" (partial); see Neanderthal Genome Project - Common Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes; see Chimpanzee Genome Project - Domestic Cow - Bovine Genome - Honey Bee Genome Sequencing Consortium - Horse genome - Human microbiome project - International Grape Genome Program - International HapMap Project - Tomato 150+ genome resequencing project - 100K Genome Project - Genomics England - Joint Genome Institute - Model organism - National Center for Biotechnology Information - Illumina, private company involved in genome sequencing - Knome, private company offering genome analysis & sequencing - Pevsner, Jonathan (2009). Bioinformatics and functional genomics (2nd ed.). Hoboken, N.J: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9780470085851. - "Potential Benefits of Human Genome Project Research". Department of Energy, Human Genome Project Information. 2009-10-09. Retrieved 2010-06-18. - Li, Ruiqiang; Hongmei Zhu, Jue Ruan, Wubin Qian, Xiaodong Fang, Zhongbin Shi, Yingrui Li, Shengting Li, Gao Shan, Karsten Kristiansen, Songgang Li, Huanming Yang, Jian Wang, Jun Wang (February 2010). "De novo assembly of human genomes with massively parallel short read sequencing". Genome Research 20 (2): 265–272. doi:10.1101/gr.097261.109. ISSN 1549-5469. PMC 2813482. PMID 20019144. Cite uses deprecated parameter - Rasmussen, Morten; Yingrui Li, Stinus Lindgreen, Jakob Skou Pedersen, Anders Albrechtsen, Ida Moltke, Mait Metspalu, Ene Metspalu, Toomas Kivisild, Ramneek Gupta, Marcelo Bertalan, Kasper Nielsen, M Thomas P Gilbert, Yong Wang, Maanasa Raghavan, Paula F Campos, Hanne Munkholm Kamp, Andrew S Wilson, Andrew Gledhill, Silvana Tridico, Michael Bunce, Eline D Lorenzen, Jonas Binladen, Xiaosen Guo, Jing Zhao, Xiuqing Zhang, Hao Zhang, Zhuo Li, Minfeng Chen, Ludovic Orlando, Karsten Kristiansen, Mads Bak, Niels Tommerup, Christian Bendixen, Tracey L Pierre, Bjarne Grønnow, Morten Meldgaard, Claus Andreasen, Sardana A Fedorova, Ludmila P Osipova, Thomas F G Higham, Christopher Bronk Ramsey, Thomas V O Hansen, Finn C Nielsen, Michael H Crawford, Søren Brunak, Thomas Sicheritz-Pontén, Richard Villems, Rasmus Nielsen, Anders Krogh, Jun Wang, Eske Willerslev (2010-02-11). "Ancient human genome sequence of an extinct Palaeo-Eskimo". Nature 463 (7282): 757–762. doi:10.1038/nature08835. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 3951495. PMID 20148029. Cite uses deprecated parameter - Wang, Jun; Wei Wang, Ruiqiang Li, Yingrui Li, Geng Tian, Laurie Goodman, Wei Fan, Junqing Zhang, Jun Li, Juanbin Zhang, Yiran Guo, Binxiao Feng, Heng Li, Yao Lu, Xiaodong Fang, Huiqing Liang, Zhenglin Du, Dong Li, Yiqing Zhao, Yujie Hu, Zhenzhen Yang, Hancheng Zheng, Ines Hellmann, Michael Inouye, John Pool, Xin Yi, Jing Zhao, Jinjie Duan, Yan Zhou, Junjie Qin, Lijia Ma, Guoqing Li, Zhentao Yang, Guojie Zhang, Bin Yang, Chang Yu, Fang Liang, Wenjie Li, Shaochuan Li, Dawei Li, Peixiang Ni, Jue Ruan, Qibin Li, Hongmei Zhu, Dongyuan Liu, Zhike Lu, Ning Li, Guangwu Guo, Jianguo Zhang, Jia Ye, Lin Fang, Qin Hao, Quan Chen, Yu Liang, Yeyang Su, A. san, Cuo Ping, Shuang Yang, Fang Chen, Li Li, Ke Zhou, Hongkun Zheng, Yuanyuan Ren, Ling Yang, Yang Gao, Guohua Yang, Zhuo Li, Xiaoli Feng, Karsten Kristiansen, Gane Ka-Shu Wong, Rasmus Nielsen, Richard Durbin, Lars Bolund, Xiuqing Zhang, Songgang Li, Huanming Yang, Jian Wang (2008-11-06). "The diploid genome sequence of an Asian individual". Nature 456 (7218): 60–65. doi:10.1038/nature07484. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 2716080. PMID 18987735. Retrieved 2012-12-22. Cite uses deprecated parameter - Stein, L. (2001). "Genome annotation: from sequence to biology". Nature Reviews Genetics 2 (7): 493–503. doi:10.1038/35080529. PMID 11433356. - "Ensembl's genome annotation pipeline online documentation". - Gupta, Nitin; Stephen Tanner; Navdeep Jaitly; Joshua N Adkins; Mary Lipton; Robert Edwards; Margaret Romine; Andrei Osterman; Vineet Bafna; Richard D Smith; Pavel A Pevzner (September 2007). "Whole proteome analysis of post-translational modifications: applications of mass-spectrometry for proteogenomic annotation". Genome Research 17 (9): 1362–1377. doi:10.1101/gr.6427907. ISSN 1088-9051. PMC 1950905. PMID 17690205. - ENCODE Project Consortium (2011). Becker PB, ed. "A User's Guide to the Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE)". PLOS Biology 9 (4): e1001046. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001046. PMC 3079585. PMID 21526222. - McVean, G. A.; Abecasis, D. M.; Auton, R. M.; Brooks, G. A. R.; Depristo, D. R.; Durbin, A.; Handsaker, A. G.; Kang, P.; Marth, E. E.; McVean, P.; Gabriel, S. B.; Gibbs, R. A.; Green, E. D.; Hurles, M. E.; Knoppers, B. M.; Korbel, J. O.; Lander, E. S.; Lee, C.; Lehrach, H.; Mardis, E. R.; Marth, G. T.; McVean, G. A.; Nickerson, D. A.; Schmidt, J. P.; Sherry, S. T.; Wang, J.; Wilson, R. K.; Gibbs (Principal Investigator), R. A.; Dinh, H.; Kovar, C. (2012). "An integrated map of genetic variation from 1,092 human genomes". Nature 491 (7422): 56–65. doi:10.1038/nature11632. PMC 3498066. PMID 23128226. - Dunham, I.; Bernstein, A.; Birney, S. F.; Dunham, P. J.; Green, C. A.; Gunter, F.; Snyder, C. B.; Frietze, S.; Harrow, J.; Kaul, R.; Khatun, J.; Lajoie, B. R.; Landt, S. G.; Lee, B. K.; Pauli, F.; Rosenbloom, K. R.; Sabo, P.; Safi, A.; Sanyal, A.; Shoresh, N.; Simon, J. M.; Song, L.; Trinklein, N. D.; Altshuler, R. C.; Birney, E.; Brown, J. B.; Cheng, C.; Djebali, S.; Dong, X.; Dunham, I. (2012). "An integrated encyclopedia of DNA elements in the human genome". Nature 489 (7414): 57–74. doi:10.1038/nature11247. PMC 3439153. PMID 22955616. - Huss, Jon W.; Orozco, C; Goodale, J; Wu, C; Batalov, S; Vickers, TJ; Valafar, F; Su, AI (2008). "A Gene Wiki for Community Annotation of Gene Function". PLoS Biology 6 (7): e175. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060175. PMC 2443188. PMID 18613750. - Yates, Diana (2009-04-23). "What makes a cow a cow? Genome sequence sheds light on ruminant evolution" (Press Release). EurekAlert!. Retrieved 2012-12-22. - Elsik, C. G.; Elsik, R. L.; Tellam, K. C.; Worley, R. A.; Gibbs, D. M.; Muzny, G. M.; Weinstock, D. L.; Adelson, E. E.; Eichler, L.; Elnitski, R.; Guigó, D. L.; Hamernik, S. M.; Kappes, H. A.; Lewin, D. J.; Lynn, F. W.; Nicholas, A.; Reymond, M.; Rijnkels, L. C.; Skow, E. M.; Zdobnov, L.; Schook, J.; Womack, T.; Alioto, S. E.; Antonarakis, A.; Astashyn, C. E.; Chapple, H. -C.; Chen, J.; Chrast, F.; Câmara, O.; Ermolaeva, C. N. (2009). "The Genome Sequence of Taurine Cattle: A Window to Ruminant Biology and Evolution". Science 324 (5926): 522–528. doi:10.1126/science.1169588. PMC 2943200. PMID 19390049. |The Wikibook Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) has a page on the topic of: De_novo_assembly| - GOLD:Genomes OnLine Database - Genome Project Database - The Protein Naming Utility - EchinoBase An Echinoderm genomic database, (previous SpBase, a sea urchin genome database) - Global Invertebrate Genomics Alliance (GIGA)

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Some mammals used highly complex teeth to compete with dinosaurs Conventional wisdom holds that during the Mesozoic Era, mammals were small creatures that held on at life's edges. But at least one mammal group, rodent-like creatures called multituberculates, actually flourished during the last 20 million years of the dinosaurs' reign and survived their extinction 66 million years ago. New research led by a University of Washington paleontologist suggests that the multituberculates did so well in part because they developed numerous tubercles (bumps, or cusps) on their back teeth that allowed them to feed largely on angiosperms, flowering plants that were just becoming commonplace. "These mammals were able to radiate in terms of numbers of species, body size and shapes of their teeth, which influenced what they ate," said Gregory P. Wilson, a UW assistant professor of biology. He is the lead author of a paper documenting the research, published March 14 in the online edition of Nature. Some 170 million years ago, multituberculates were about the size of a mouse. Angiosperms started to appear about 140 million years ago and after that the small mammals' body sizes increased, eventually ranging from mouse-sized to the size of a beaver. Following the dinosaur extinction, multituberculates continued to flourish until other mammals -- mostly primates, ungulates and rodents -- gained a competitive advantage. That ultimately led to multituberculate extinction about 34 million years ago. The scientists examined teeth from 41 multituberculate species kept in fossil collections worldwide. They used laser and computed tomography (or CT) scanning to create 3-D images of the teeth in very high resolution, less than than 30 microns (smaller than one-third the diameter of a human hair). Using geographic information system software, they analyzed the tooth shape much as a geographer might in examining a mountain range when charting topography, Wilson said. The work involved determining which direction various patches of the tooth surfaces were facing. The more patches on a tooth the more complex its structure, and the most complex teeth show many bumps, or cusps. Carnivores have relatively simple teeth, with perhaps 110 patches per tooth row, because their food is easily broken down, Wilson said. But animals that depend more on vegetation for sustenance have teeth with substantially more patches because much of their food is broken down by the teeth. In multituberculates, sharper bladelike teeth were situated toward the front of the mouth. But the new analysis shows that in some multituberculates these teeth became less prominent over time and the teeth in the back became very complex, with as many as 348 patches per tooth row, ideal for crushing plant material. "If you look at the complexity of teeth, it will tell you information about the diet," Wilson said. "Multituberculates seem to be developing more cusps on their back teeth, and the bladelike tooth at the front is becoming less important as they develop these bumps to break down plant material." The researchers concluded that some angiosperms apparently suffered little effect from the dinosaur extinction event, since the multituberculates that ate those flowering plants continued to prosper. As the plants spread, the population of insect pollinators likely grew too and species feeding on insects also would have benefited, Wilson said. The paper's coauthors are Alistair Evans of Monash University in Australia, Ian Corfe, Mikael Fortelius and Jukka Jernvall of the University of Helsinki in Finland, and Peter Smits of the UW and Monash University. The research was funded by the National Science Foundation, the Denver Museum of Nature and Science, the University of Washington, the Australian Research Council, Monash University, Academy of Finland and the European Union's Synthesis of Systematic Resources. Source: University of Washington - Some Mammals Used Highly Complex Teeth to Compete with Dinosaursfrom Newswise - ScinewsFri, 16 Mar 2012, 0:00:53 EDT - Study: Dinosaurs' exit not mammals' cuefrom UPIThu, 15 Mar 2012, 1:31:04 EDT - Study: Dinosaurs' exit not mammals' cuefrom UPIWed, 14 Mar 2012, 22:30:36 EDT - Fossils show mammals lived with dinosaursfrom MSNBC: ScienceWed, 14 Mar 2012, 18:30:29 EDT - Some mammals used highly complex teeth to compete with dinosaursfrom Science DailyWed, 14 Mar 2012, 17:30:13 EDT - Observatory: Mammals’ Rise Began Before Dinosaurs’ Fall, Study Findsfrom NY Times ScienceWed, 14 Mar 2012, 14:40:08 EDT - Fossil Teeth Show Mammals Thrived Before Dinos Diedfrom Live ScienceWed, 14 Mar 2012, 14:30:24 EDT - Some mammals used highly complex teeth to compete with dinosaurs: studyfrom PhysorgWed, 14 Mar 2012, 14:00:33 EDT Latest Science NewsletterGet the latest and most popular science news articles of the week in your Inbox! It's free! Check out our next project, Biology.Net From other science news sites Popular science news articles - Scientists map movement of Greenland Ice during past 9,000 years - Central Appalachia flatter due to mountaintop mining - From allergens to anodes: Pollen derived battery electrodes - Prunetin prolongs lifespan in male fruit flies and enhances overall health - Half of the large carnivore attacks are due to the imprudence of human behavior - No proof that radiation from X rays and CT scans causes cancer - Researchers sequence bedbug genome, find unique features - Researchers sequence first bed bug genome - Two AgriLife Research entomologists co-author bedbug genome mapping paper - For older adults, serious depression symptoms increase risk for stroke and heart disease

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During the Fifth & Fourth Centuries B.C. As such, it was superior to both the hieroglyphic style which was based on the representation of words in the form of pictures or ideograms, and the syllabic style which was based on "the systematic representation of syllables rather than words by signs." There is a great deal of evidence to support the claim that the Greeks adopted their alphabet from the Phoenicians, a Semitic group with whom the Greeks engaged in trade. In fact, the Greeks themselves originally referred to their alphabet as phoinikeia, which means "Phoenician objects." In adopting the Phoenician alphabet to their own use, the Greeks made some minor but significant changes. For example, the Phoenician symbols were still somewhat pictographic in that each letter represented an object (aleph stood for "ox," beth stood for "house," and so forth). In the Greek system, each letter simply represented a phonetic sound. This made the Greek alphabet more flexible in its usage than the Phoenician system. In addition, the Phoenician alphabet was designed to represent only the consonants of the language, with the missing vowels supposedly being understood by the reader. It may be noted that this trait of leaving out the vowels is still common among the languages which have stemmed from the Semitic branch, such as Arabic and Hebrew. The inventors of the Greek alphabet changed this by taking the Phoenician letters that represented sounds not used in the Greek language and using them to represent vowel sounds. Thus, Phoenician letters "derived from Semitic glottal stops, and breathings, were employed to signify vowel sounds." The resultant changes produced a new alphabet which possessed many inherent advantages. For example, with only twenty-four symbols, it was a simpler writing system than the earlier syllabic or hieroglyphic systems, which often contained hundreds of symbols that the reader had to learn. As such, "it was an alphabet which was relatively easy to lea... More on During the Fifth & Fourth Centuries B.C.... During the Fifth & Fourth Centuries B.C.. (1969, December 31). In LotsofEssays.com. Retrieved 23:35, February 12, 2016, from http://www.collegetermpapers.com/viewpaper/1303717507.html

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6 Written questions 6 Multiple choice questions - Process by which eroded rock is dropped in a new place - Giant pieces made of rock that float on a layer of partly melted rock. They move very, very slowly. - Huge sheets of ice that move slowly over land - A place where rock breaks and slips - Mountains and other surface features of the land - Flat piece of land made of sand and mud deposited by a river near its mouth. 5 True/False questions Sediment → The Point of Earth's surface that is directly above the focus Erosion → The process by which weathered rock is picked up and moved to a new place Earthquake → The breaking down of rock on Earth's surface into smaller pieces Volcano → Flat piece of land made of sand and mud deposited by a river near its mouth. Epicenter → The Point of Earth's surface that is directly above the focus

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Names of the Celts The name Κελτοί Keltoi and Celtae is used in Greek and Latin, respectively, as the name of a people of the La Tène horizon in the region of the upper Rhine and Danube during the 6th to 1st centuries BC in Greco-Roman ethnography. The etymology of this name and that of the Gauls Γαλάται Galatai / Galli is of uncertain etymology. The name of the Welsh, on the other hand, is taken from the designator used by the Germanic peoples for Celtic- and Latin-speaking peoples, *walha-, meaning foreign. The linguistic sense of the name Celts, grouping all speakers of Celtic languages, is modern. In particular, aside from a 1st-century literary genealogy of Celtus the grandson of Bretannos by Heracles, there is no record of the term "Celt" being used in connection with the Insular Celts, the inhabitants of the British Isles during the Iron Age, prior to the 17th century. The first recorded use of the name of Celts – as Κελτοί – to refer to an ethnic group was by Hecataeus of Miletus, the Greek geographer, in 517 BC, when writing about a people living near Massilia (modern Marseille). In the 5th century BC Herodotus referred to Keltoi living around the head of the Danube and also in the far west of Europe. The etymology of the term Keltoi is unclear. Possible roots include Indo-European *k´el-‘to hide’ (also in Old Irish celid), IE *k´el- ‘to heat’ or *kel- ‘to impel’. Several authors have supposed it to be Celtic in origin, while others view it as a name coined by Greeks. Linguist Patrizia De Bernardo Stempel falls in the latter group, and suggests the meaning "the tall ones". The Romans preferred the name Gauls (Galli) for those Celts whom they first encountered in northern Italy (Cisalpine Gaul). In the first century BC Caesar referred to the Gauls as calling themselves Celts in their own tongue. According to the 1st-century poet Parthenius of Nicaea, Celtus (Κελτός) was the son of Heracles and Keltine (Κελτίνη), the daughter of Bretannus (Βρεττανός); this literary genealogy exists nowhere else and was not connected with any known cult. Celtus became the eponymous ancestor of Celts. In Latin Celta came in turn from Herodotus' word for the Gauls, Keltoi. The Romans used Celtae to refer to continental Gauls, but apparently not to Insular Celts. The latter are divided linguistically into Goidels and Brythons. Aside from the Celtiberians —Lusones, Titi, Arevaci and Pelendones among others— who inhabited large regions of central Spain, Greek and Roman geographers also spoke of a people or group of peoples called Celtici or Κελτικοί, living in the South of modern day Portugal, in the Alentejo region, between the Tagus and the Guadiana rivers. They are first mentioned by Strabo, who wrote that they were the most numerous people inhabiting that region. Later, the description of Ptolemy shows a more reduced territory, comprising the regions from Évora to Setúbal, being the coastal and southern areas occupied by the Turdetani. A second group of Celtici was mentioned by Pliny living in the region of Baeturia (northwestern Andalusia); he considered that they proceeded "of the Celtiberians from the Lusitania, because of their religion, language, and because of the names of their cities". In the North, in Galicia, another group of Celtici dwelt the coastal areas. They comprised several populi, including the Celtici proper: the Praestamarci south of the Tambre river (Tamaris), the Supertamarci north of it, and the Neri by the Celtic promontory (Promunturium Celticum). Pomponius Mela affirmed that all the inhabitants of the coastal regions, from the bays of southern Galicia and till the Astures, were also Celtici: "All (this coast) is inhabited by the Celtici, except from the Douro river to the bays, where the Grovi dwelt (…) In the north coast first there are the Artabri, still of the Celtic people (Celticae gentis), and after them the Astures." He also mentioned the fabulous isles of tin, the Cassiterides, as situated among these Celtici. The Celtici Supertarmarci have also left a number of inscriptions, as the Celtici Flavienses did. Several villages and rural parishes still bear the name Céltigos (from Latin Celticos) in Galicia. This is also the name of an archpriesthood of the Catholic Church, a division of the archbishopric of Santiago de Compostela, encompassing part of the lands attributed to the Celtici Supertamarci by ancient authors. Introduction in Early Modern literature The name of the Celtae is revived in the learned literature of the Early Modern period. The French celtique and the German celtisch appear in the 16th century. The English word Celts is first attested in 1607. The adjective Celtic, formed after French celtique, appears a little later, in the mid 17th century. An early attestation is found in Milton's Paradise Lost (1667), in reference to the Insular Celts of antiquity: [the Ionian gods ... who] o'er the Celtic [fields] roamed the utmost Isles. (I.520, here in the 1674 spelling). In the 18th century the interest in "primitivism", which led to the idea of the "noble savage", brought a wave of enthusiasm for all things "Celtic". The antiquarian William Stukeley pictured a race of "Ancient Britons" constructing the "Temples of the Ancient Celts" such as Stonehenge (actually a pre-Celtic structure) before he decided in 1733 to recast the "Celts" in his book as "Druids". The Ossian fables written by James Macpherson - portrayed as ancient Scottish Gaelic poems - added to this romantic enthusiasm. The "Irish revival" came after the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 as a conscious attempt to demonstrate an Irish national identity, and with its counterpart in other countries subsequently became known as the "Celtic revival". The initial consonant of the English words Celt and Celtic can be realised either as /k/ or /s/ (that is, either hard or soft ⟨c⟩), both variants being recognised by modern dictionaries. A minor spelling variant Kelt, Keltic exists, for which /k/ is the only pronunciation. The English word originates in the 17th century, taken from the Celtæ of classical Latin. Until the mid 19th century, the sole pronunciation in English was /selt/ in keeping of the treatment of the letter ⟨c⟩ inherited by Middle English from Old French and Late Latin. Beginning in the mid-19th century, Celtic revivalist and nationalist publications advocated imitating the pronunciation of classical Latin in the time of Julius Caesar, when Latin Celtæ was pronounced /keltai/. An early example of this is a short article in a November 1857 issue of The Celt, a publication of the Irish Celtic Union. - "Of all the nations that have hitherto lived on the face of the earth, the English have the worst mode of pronouncing learned languages. This is admitted by the whole human race [...] This poor meagre sordid language resembles nothing so much as the hissing of serpents or geese. [...] The distinction which English writers are too stupid to notice, but which the Irish Grammarians are perpetually talking of, the distinction between broad and narrow vowels—governs the English language. [...] If we follow the unwritten law of the English we shall pronounce (Celt) Selt but Cæsar would pronounce it, Kaylt. Thus the reader may take which pronunciation he pleases. He may follow the rule of the Latin or the rule of the English language, and in either case be right." A guide to English pronunciation for Welsh speakers published in 1861 gives the alternative pronunciations "sel´tik, kel´tik" for the adjective Celtic. The pronunciation with /s/ remained standard throughout the 19th to early 20th century, but the variant with /k/ seems to have gained ground during the later 20th century, especially among "students of Celtic culture". On the other hand, the /s/ pronunciation remains the most recognised form when it occurs in the names of sports teams, most notably Celtic Football Club and the Boston Celtics basketball team. Cavan newspaper The Anglo-Celt also uses the soft c pronunciation in its name. The corresponding words in French are pronounced with /s/, and English Celtic was formed in imitation of French celtique. The corresponding German terms are Kelten and keltisch, not only pronounced as /k/ but even spelled with ⟨k⟩. This is a regular German treatment of names in Greek kappa, also observed in cases such Cimbri, Cimmerians, Cambyses, etc. These spellings with ⟨k⟩ arise in the later 18th century. From the 16th to the early 18th century, the prevalent spelling in German was celtisch. In current usage the terms "Celt" and "Celtic" can take several senses depending on context: The Celts of the European Iron Age, the group of Celtic-speaking peoples in historical linguistics, and the modern Celtic identity derived from the Romanticist Celtic Revival. After its use by Edward Lhuyd in 1707, the use of the word "Celtic" as an umbrella term for the pre-Roman peoples of the British Isles gained considerable popularity. Lhuyd was the first to recognise that the Irish, British and Gaulish languages were related to one another, and the inclusion of the Insular Celts under the term "Celtic" from this time expresses this linguistic relationship. By the late 18th century, the Celtic languages were recognised as one branch within the larger Indo-European family. The timeline of Celtic settlement in the British Isles is unclear and the object of much speculation, but it is clear that by the 1st century BC, most of Great Britain and Ireland was inhabited by Celtic-speaking peoples now known as the Insular Celts, divided into two large groups, Brythonic or P-Celtic, and Goidelic or Q-Celtic. The Brythonic groups under Roman rule were known in Latin as Britanni, while use of the names Celtae or Galli / Galatai was restricted to the Gauls. There are no specimens of Goidelic languages prior to the appearance of Primitive Irish inscriptions in the 4th century AD, however there are earlier references to the Iverni (in Ptolemy ca. 150, later also appearing as Hierni and Hiberni), and by 314, to the Scoti. Simon James argues that, while the term "Celtic" expresses a valid linguistic connection, its use of both Insular and Continental Celtic culture is misleading, as archaeology does not suggest a unified Celtic culture during the Iron Age.[importance?][page needed] With the rise of Celtic nationalism in the early to mid 19th century, the term "Celtic" also came to be a self-designation used by proponents of a modern Celtic identity. Thus, the contributor to "The Celt" discussing "the word Celt" states "The Greeks called us Keltoi", expressing a position of ethnic essentialism that extends the first person pronoun to include both 19th-century Irishmen and the Danubian Κελτοί of Herodotus. This sense of "Celtic" is preserved in its political sense in Celtic nationalism of organisations such as the Celtic League, but it is also used in a more general unpolitical sense, in expressions such as Celtic music. Latin Galli might be from an originally Celtic ethnic or tribal name, perhaps borrowed into Latin during the early 5th century BC Celtic expansions into Italy. Its root may be the Common Celtic *galno-, meaning "power" or "strength". The Greek Γαλάται Galatai (cf. Galatia in Anatolia) seems to be based on the same root, borrowed directly from the same hypothetical Celtic source which gave us Galli (the suffix -atai is simply an ethnic name indicator). Schumacher's account is slightly different: He states that Galli (nominative singular *gallos) is derived from the present stem of the verb which he reconstructs for Proto-Celtic as *gal-nV- (it is not clear what the vowel in the suffix, marked as V, should be reconstructed as), whose meaning he gives as "to be able to, to gain control of", while Galatai comes from the same root and is to be reconstructed as nominative singular *galatis < *gelH-ti-s. He gives the same meaning for both reconstructs, namely "Machthaber", i. e. "potentate, ruler (or even warlord)", or alternatively "Plünderer, Räuber", i. e. "raider, looter, pillager, marauder", and points out that both names can be exonyms in order to explain their pejorative meaning. The Proto-Indo-European verbal root in question is reconstructed by Schumacher as *gelH-, whose meaning is given as "Macht bekommen über", i. e., "to acquire power over" in the Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben. Gaul, Gaulish, Welsh The English Gaul and French: Gaule, Gaulois are unrelated to Latin Gallia and Galli, despite superficial similarity. They are rather derived from the Germanic term walha, "foreigner, Romanized person", an exonym applied by Germanic speakers to Celts, likely via a Latinization of Frankish *Walholant "Gaul", literally "Land of the Foreigners/Romans", making it partially cognate with the names Wales and Wallachia), the usual word for the non-Germanic-speaking peoples (Celtic-speaking and Latin-speaking indiscriminately). The Germanic w is regularly rendered as gu / g in French (cf. guerre = war, garder = ward), and the diphthong au is the regular outcome of al before a following consonant (cf. cheval ~ chevaux). Gaule or Gaulle can hardly be derived from Latin Gallia, since g would become j before a (cf. gamba > jambe), and the diphthong au would be unexplained; the regular outcome of Latin Gallia is Jaille in French which is found in several western placenames. The French term for "Welsh" is gallois, which is, however, not derived from the Latin Galli, but, like gaulois, borrowed (with suffix substitution) from Germanic *walhiska- "Celtic, Gallo-Roman, Romance" or its Old English descendant wælisc (= Modern English Welsh). The English form "Gaul" (first recorded in the 17th century) and "Gaulish" come from the French "Gaule" and "Gaulois", which translate Latin "Gallia" and "Gallus, -icus" respectively. In Old French, the words "gualeis", "galois", "walois" (Northern French phonetics keeping /w/) had different meanings: Welsh or the Langue d'oïl, etc. On the other hand, the word "Waulle" (Northern French phonetics keeping /w/) is recorded for the first time in the 13th century to translate the Latin word Gallia, while "gaulois" is recorded for the first time in the 15th century, and the scholars use it to translate the Latin words Gallus / Gallicus. The word comes from Proto-Germanic *Walha- (see Gaul: Name). The English word "Welsh" originates from the word wælisċ, the Anglo-Saxon form of *walhiska-, the reconstructed Proto-Germanic word for "foreign" or "Celt" (South German Welsch(e) "Celtic speaker", "French speaker", "Italian speaker"; Old Norse "valskr", pl. "valir" "Gaulish", "French"), that is supposed to be derived of the name of the "Volcae", a Celtic tribe who lived first in the South of Germany and emigrated then to Gaul. The Germanic term may ultimately have a Celtic source: It is possibly the result of a loan of the Celtic tribal name Volcae into pre-Germanic, *wolk- changing according to Grimm's Law to yield proto-Germanic *walh-. The Volcae were one of the Celtic peoples who for two centuries barred the southward expansion of the Germanic tribes (in what is now central Germany) on the line of the Harz mountains and into Saxony and Silesia. In the Middle Ages, territories with primarily Romance-speaking populations, such as France and Italy, were known in German as Welschland as opposed to Deutschland, and the word is cognate with Vlach and Walloon as well as with the "-wall" in "Cornwall". Other examples are the surnames "Wallace" and "Walsh". During the early Germanic period, the term seems to have been applied to the peasant population of the Roman Empire, most of whom were in the areas immediately settled by the Germanic people. The term Gael is, despite superficial similarity, also completely unrelated to Galli, see Gaels#Terminology. The Celtic-speaking people of Great Britain were known as Brittanni or Brittones in Latin and as Βρίττωνες in Greek; an earlier form was Pritani, or Πρετ(τ)αν(ν)οί in Greek (as recorded by Pytheas in the 4th century BC, among others, and surviving in Welsh as Prydain, the old name for Britain). Related to this is *Priteni, the reconstructed self-designation of the people later known as Picts, which is recorded later in Old Irish as Cruithin and Welsh as Prydyn. - H. D. Rankin, Celts and the classical world. Routledge, 1998 ISBN 0-415-15090-6. 1998. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-415-15090-3. Retrieved 2010-06-07. - Herodotus, The Histories, 2.33; 4.49. - John T. Koch (ed.), Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia. 5 vols. 2006, p. 371. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. - P. De Bernardo Stempel 2008. Linguistically Celtic ethnonyms: towards a classification, in Celtic and Other Languages in Ancient Europe, J. L. García Alonso (ed.), 101-118. Ediciones Universidad Salamanca. - Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 1.1: "All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae live, another in which the Aquitani live, and the third are those who in their own tongue are called Celts (Celtae), in our language Gauls (Galli). Compare the tribal name of the Celtici. - Parthenius, Love Stories 2, 30 - "Celtine, daughter of Bretannus, fell in love with Heracles and hid away his kine (the cattle of Geryon) refusing to give them back to him unless he would first content her. From Celtus the Celtic race derived their name." "(Ref.: Parth. 30.1-2)". Retrieved 5 December 2005. - Lorrio, Alberto J.; Gonzalo Ruiz Zapatero (1 February 2005). "The Celts in Iberia: An Overview" (PDF). e-Keltoi 6: 183–185. Retrieved 5 October 2011. - 'Celticos a Celtiberis ex Lusitania advenisse manifestum est sacris, lingua, oppidorum vocabulis', NH, II.13 - Celtici: Pomponius Mela and Pliny; Κελτικοί: Strabo - 'Totam Celtici colunt, sed a Durio ad flexum Grovi, fluuntque per eos Avo, Celadus, Nebis, Minius et cui oblivionis cognomen est Limia. Flexus ipse Lambriacam urbem amplexus recipit fluvios Laeron et Ullam. Partem quae prominet Praesamarchi habitant, perque eos Tamaris et Sars flumina non longe orta decurrunt, Tamaris secundum Ebora portum, Sars iuxta turrem Augusti titulo memorabilem. Cetera super Tamarici Nerique incolunt in eo tractu ultimi. Hactenus enim ad occidentem versa litora pertinent. Deinde ad septentriones toto latere terra convertitur a Celtico promunturio ad Pyrenaeum usque. Perpetua eius ora, nisi ubi modici recessus ac parva promunturia sunt, ad Cantabros paene recta est. In ea primum Artabri sunt etiamnum Celticae gentis, deinde Astyres.', Pomponius Mela, Chorographia, III.7-9. - Pomponius Mela, Chorographia, III.40. - Eburia / Calveni f(ilia) / Celtica / Sup(ertamarca) |(castello?) / Lubri; Fusca Co/edi f(ilia) Celti/ca Superta(marca) / |(castello) Blaniobr/i; Apana Ambo/lli f(ilia) Celtica / Supertam(arca) / Maiobri; Clarinu/s Clari f(ilius) Celticus Su/pertama(ricus). Cf. Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss / Slaby. - [Do]quirus Doci f(ilius) / [Ce]lticoflavien(sis); Cassius Vegetus / Celti Flaviensis. - Álvarez, Rosario, Francisco Dubert García, Xulio Sousa Fernández (ed.) (2006). Lingua e territorio (PDF). Santiago de Compostela: Consello da Cultura Galega. pp. 98–99. ISBN 84-96530-20-5. - The Indians were wont to use no bridles, like the Græcians and Celts. Edward Topsell, The historie of foure-footed beastes (1607), p. 251 (cited after OED). - (Lhuyd, p. 290) Lhuyd, E. "Archaeologia Britannica; An account of the languages, histories, and customs of the original inhabitants of Great Britain." (reprint ed.) Irish University Press, 1971. ISBN 0-7165-0031-0 - Laing, Lloyd and Jenifer (1992) Art of the Celts, London, Thames and Hudson ISBN 0-500-20256-7 - OED, s.v. "Celt", "Celtic". - "Keltic". American Heritage Dictionary. Retrieved 21 November 2014. - "Celtic or Keltic". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 21 November 2014. - "The word Celt", The Celt: A weekly periodical of Irish national literature edited by a committee of the Celtic Union, 28 November 1857, pp. 287–288, retrieved 11 November 2010 - "Celtic", William Spurrell, An English-Welsh Pronouncing Dictionary, 1861, p. 45, retrieved 11 November 2010 - "Although many dictionaries, including the OED, prefer the soft c pronunciation, most students of Celtic culture prefer the hard c." MacKillop, J. (1998) Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. New York: Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-869157-2 - @theanglocelt Twitter feed - but not Latin names such as Cicero, Cato; Kaiser is a special case as it is not a learned introduction into Modern German but a loan inherited from Old High German. - An early attestation is found in volume 2 of Sebastian Franck's and Nikolaus Höniger's Chronick of 1585 - (Lhuyd, p. 290) Lhuyd, E. (1971) Archaeologia Britannica; An account of the languages, histories, and customs of the original inhabitants of Great Britain. (reprint ed.) Irish University Press, ISBN 0-7165-0031-0 - Schumacher, Stefan; Schulze-Thulin, Britta; aan de Wiel, Caroline (2004). Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon (in German). Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen der Universität Innsbruck. pp. 325–326. ISBN 3-85124-692-6. - Rix, Helmut; Kümmel, Martin; Zehnder, Thomas; Lipp, Reiner; Schirmer, Brigitte (2001). Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben. Die Wurzeln und ihre Primärstammbildungen (in German) (2nd, expanded and corrected ed.). Wiesbaden, Germany: Ludwig Reichert Verlag. p. 185. ISBN 3-89500-219-4. - Sjögren, Albert, "Le nom de "Gaule", in "Studia Neophilologica", Vol. 11 (1938/39) pp. 210-214. - Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology (OUP 1966), p. 391. - Nouveau dictionnaire étymologique et historique (Larousse 1990), p. 336. - Neilson, William A. (ed.) (1957). Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, second edition. G & C Merriam Co. p. 2903. - Koch, John Thomas (2006). Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 532. ISBN 1-85109-440-7. - Mountain, Harry (1998). The Celtic Encyclopedia, Volume 1. uPublish.com. p. 252. ISBN 1-58112-889-4.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_the_Celts

An Earth impact by a large comet or asteroid could knock out human civilization with a single blow, as most people are now aware thanks to recent Hollywood movies and public outreach by planetary scientists. Since 1998, when NASA initiated its Spaceguard program to find comets and asteroids 1 km in diameter and larger, researchers have made some crucial inventories of the risky space rocks with orbits that come into close proximity of Earth. For instance, there are almost 1,000 of these so-called near-Earth objects with diameters of 1-kilometer or more. However disconcerting this might seem, we can rest assured that none will make it here in our lifetimes. “We can say with a very good deal of certainty that no asteroid or comet large enough to threaten life as we know it will hit Earth in the next 100 years,” says Donald Yeomans. At NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Yeomans is a senior research scientist and manager of the Near-Earth Object Program Office. He has spent his career studying the physical and dynamical modeling of near-Earth objects, as well as tracking them down. Yeomans works with an international network of professional and amateur astronomers who find and monitor asteroids and comets with orbits that come within approximately 0.33 AU, which is equivalent to 150 million kilometers. The team has identified 8,800 near-Earth objects as of early 2012, he noted during a talk at the American Museum of Natural History in New York on January 14 on his new book Near-Earth Objects, Finding Them Before They Find Us. The book gives readers an inside account of the latest efforts to find, track and study life-threatening asteroids and comets. There are literally millions of asteroids and comets in the solar system, ranging in size from the microscopic to hundreds of kilometers in diameter. Both are made of rocky, metallic materials that failed to aggregate into planets during the early days of the solar system. Yeomans says the only real difference between asteroids and comets is that a comet actively loses its dust and ice when near the sun, causing a highly visible tail to form behind it. Scientists have made exponential progress in identifying and tracking near-Earth objects in the past decade. NASA-sponsored near-Earth object surveys have found 90 percent of all asteroids and comets larger than a kilometer in diameter and projected their orbits at least 100 years into the future. Yeomans says the challenge now is finding all asteroids larger than 35 meters across, the size where one would pose a threat to a town or city, rather than all life on Earth. Historically, Earth impacts by large asteroids and comets are rare. In addition, there is no clear record of a person being killed by one. Yeomans says that while Earth impacts by large asteroid and meteors are very low probability events, they are of very high consequence. A prime example is just outside Winslow, Ariz., where a large crater was blasted into the Earth 50,000 years ago by a nearly 30-meter asteroid. Despite its relatively small size, the asteroid generated around 10 megatons of energy upon collision. By comparison, the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima during World War II generated around 0.02 megatons. The asteroid that killed the dinosaurs 65 million years ago was much larger—a chunk of rock 10 to 15 kilometers across. The crater that formed when it struck near what is now the Yucatn Peninsula is 150 kilometers in diameter. The impact caused an immense explosion that deposited a layer of debris 10 meters deep as far as several hundred kilometers away from the impact and rained burning ash down on all corners of the globe. Most animals on the surface of the Earth died, and debris in the upper atmosphere launched the planet into a global winter. Many of the life forms that survived were either in the ocean or underground. Today, if a survey detected a giant NEO headed for Earth, Yeomans says, humanity would have more than 50 years to prepare for it. He says a spacecraft could theoretically be used to divert such an asteroid off its Earth-colliding trajectory and out into space, and put in his plug for his employer, or at least organizations that support human ingenuity. “We have conceptual plans on how this could be done,” he says. “The reason the dinosaurs went extinct is because they didn’t have a space program.”

http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/asteroid-hunter-gives-an-update-on-the-threat-of-near-earth-objects/

Rubik's Cube is a famous puzzle cube invented by Ernö Rubik in 1974. For those unfamiliar with the cube, the basic concept is that the cube is made up of 27 cubelets. The exposed faces of these each have a different colour. Rubik invented a mechanism whereby any layer of cubelets (i.e. 9 cubelets) can be rotated in a clockwise or an anticlockwise (counterclockwise) direction, independently of the other layers. By doing this many times at random, the colours displayed on the faces become jumbled up. The objective of the puzzle is to restore the initial position in which each side of the cube shows only one colour. The approach to solving Rubik's Cube and the Wolstenholme notation and tools (sequences of twists) used are best seen in the Kublitz Cube application - an electronic version of the Cube. This is a version of the Cube in which you can effectively see, or know, the colours on all the cubelets without needing to turn the Cube around. This is effected by providing gaps between the 27 cubelets and by ensuring that the colours on any pair of opposite cubelet faces are identical; so, while you cannot see the colours on the back of the Cube, you can see those on the forward-facing sides of the back cubelets, which are the same. You can find an online version of Kublitz Cube here. Tap on the Help button to see the approach to solving the Cube and the Wolstenholme notation (which is also given below). With the Kublitz Cube application you don't simply get the approach to solving the Cube, but a means of putting it into practice. The Wolstenholme notation is concerned with specifying rotations of the cube in order to solve it. In order to introduce it, we shall first give a brief outline of the Kublitz Cube referred to above, and show some images of it that also demonstrate the names of the outer faces or layers of the cube. Outline of the Kublitz Cube The graphics of the Kublitz Cube are intended to represent a large cube made up of 27 smaller cubes, or cubelets - hence the name Kublitz, a word that sounds the same. Three key features of the Kublitz Cube cubelets are: The large cube (often referred to as just 'the cube') can also be considered as comprising 9 layers of 9 cubelets: a front layer and a back layer; a top layer and a bottom layer; a right layer and a left layer; and the middle layers lying between each of these pairs. The large cube is designed so that it has a goal, or reset, state, in which the 9 cubelet faces of each layer of 9 cubelets are the same colour. This is equivalent to the state in which the colours displayed on the outside of every one of the 6 faces of the large cube are all the same colour (a different colour for each of the 6 faces), as shown below. This is effectively the same goal state as a traditional physical cube. To demonstrate that the opposite faces of a cubelet are the same colour, if we rotate the cube 180 degrees around the top-bottom axis, it now appears as follows: Note how the cubelets at the front, which were displaying red on their forward-looking faces, are now at the back, displaying red on their forward-facing faces - the faces that had been backward-facing when the cubelets were at the front of the large cube. Likewise, you can see that the cubelets on the right that were displaying blue on their right-facing sides are now on the left, but still displaying blue on their right-facing sides. This design, and the view you get as shown above, means that you are able to know what colour is on every face of the large cube, since the opposite side of every hidden face, which has the same colour, is visible. This is a major difference, and improvement, on traditional physical puzzle cubes and their visual representations. Basic Wolstenholme notation In the images above, there are 12 arrows at the corners of the cube concerned with rotating the 6 outer layers. Near each pair of arrows you will see a single letter. This is the way this notation refers to these layers: The rotation of a given layer is specified in this notation by one of the following, placed after the layer letter: So, LA means turns the Left layer 90 degrees anticlockwise (counterclockwise). Important: Please note that the terms clockwise and anticlockwise are always used to indicate the direction of rotation when facing that particular side or layer from the outside of the large cube. This means that an anticlockwise rotation of the Back layer looks like a clockwise rotation when viewed from the front. In addition, the notation uses a three-letter specification for cube rotations, in which the letter C is added to the end to signify that the entire cube is to be rotated. So, FOC means that the entire cube is to be rotated around the Front-Back axis in a clockwise direction when viewed from the Front. Note that the cube rotation FOC is the same as the cube rotation BAC. When specifying sequences of rotations, we generally join two specifications of layer rotations together to form a 4-letter 'word'. So, ROTA specifies a clockwise rotation of the Right layer followed by an anticlockwise rotation of the Top layer. These 4-letter 'words' and the 3-letter cube specifications often form recognizable words or names, or maybe sequences of letters that sound like words. Examples include: FOTO, ROC, BAC, ROTA, RITA, ROTI, or RIFA. This is the primary reason for choosing the notation above, since we humans are good at remembering words and can build stories around them to help us remember them. The Kublitz Cube app includes four top-layer tools, which are sequences of rotations that have an overall impact on the Top layer, but not on the two layers below (see the app for more details). The sequences for each of the four tools are specified using the Wolstenholme notation and 'words', and have associated with them mnemonics that can help you remember them. You'll have to get used to thinking of eating rat, and know that a roti is a flat bread, often eaten as a wrap. These demonstrate the usefulness of having word-like rotation specifications. FOTO ROTA RAFA (photo rota rougher) Flipper and his dolphin friends are forming a photo rota to have their pictures taken in turn, but the rougher sea may prevent this. LOTA RATO LATA ROTI (lotta rat-oh latter roti) Lunch arrives: Cheese and a lotta rat! Oh, I'd rather swap the latter for a roti. RATA ROTA RATI ROTI (ratter rota ratty roti) The Ratter Rota shows the rat-catchers' work plans for the week, but with a twist, as it says who has to make the ratty roti for lunch. RITA FOBA RIFA BOTA RI (Rita Fo B.A. reefer boater rye) Loopy Rita Fo B.A. is celebrating her graduation smoking a reefer, wearing a boater and drinking rye whiskey. These four top-layer tools can, of course, be used with a physical cube - and can you really say you've solved the cube until you've solved a physical cube? If you want to solve the cube without having instructions around, you'll need to remember the tool sequences, hence the mnemonics above. The notation in Kublitz Cube was designed specifically for rotations of single outside layers of cubelets and of the entire cube. While all sequences can be specified using only this simple notation, more advanced puzzlers might wish to specify other moves more concisely. For example, they might want to refer to the rotation of the middle layer, between Front and Back, by 90 degrees clockwise as seen from the Front. Now this could be specified as three rotations using the simple notation: FOC FABO (i.e. rotate the complete cube clockwise then turn the Front and Back layers back again), but this is not concise. The notation can be easily extended by references to the specific layers. In order to maintain the word-like notation, each layer reference begins with the letter E and is then followed by one or more of the following letters: N is the layer nearest to the face specified; M is the middle layer, i.e. the second layer back from the face specified, and X is the extreme layer furthest from that face. The E followed by letters denoting the layer or layers to be rotated are specified between the face letter and the rotation direction letter. So, the rotation of the middle layer, between Front and Back, by 90 degrees clockwise as seen from the Front can be specified as FEMO (or as BEMA). The rotation of the top two layers in an anticlockwise direction as seen from the Top can be specified as TENMA (or DEXMO). The rotation of the Right layer by 180 degrees could be referred to as RENI or LEXI, but you would normally use the simple RI for this, unless the extended notation helps you to remember the move.

http://www.topaccolades.com/notation/rubikscube.htm

Skip to main content Wikispaces Classroom is now free, social, and easier than ever. Try it today. Pages and Files Unit 1 Basic Economic Concepts Unit II. Measurement of Economic Performance Unit III. National Income and Price Determination Unit IV. Financial Sector Unit VI. Economic Growth and Productivity VII. Open Economy - International Trade and Finance Add "All Pages" Unit 1 Basic Economic Concepts Unit I. Basic Economic Concepts A. Scarcity, choice and opportunity costs Scarcity is the fundamental economic problem of having seemingly unlimited human needs and wants, in a world of limited resources. It states that society has insufficient productive resources to fulfill all human wants and needs. Alternatively, scarcity implies that not all of society's goals can be pursued at the same time; trade-offs are made of one good against others. Opportunity cost is the cost of any activity measured in terms of the best alternative forgone. It is the sacrifice related to the second best choice available to someone who has picked among several mutually exclusive choices Rational choice theory , also known as rational action theory , is a framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and economic behavior. It is the main theoretical paradigm in the currently-dominant school of microeconomics. Rationality (here equated with "wanting more rather than less of a good") is widely used as an assumption of the behavior of individuals in microeconomic models and analysis and appears in almost all economics textbook treatments of human decision-making. It is also central to some of modern political science and is used by some scholars in other disciplines such as philosophy. It is the same as instrumental rationality, which involves seeking the most cost-effective means to achieve a specific goal without reflecting on the worthiness of that goal. was an early proponent of applying rational actor models more widely. He won the 1992 Nobel Memorial Prize for Economic Sciences for his studies of discrimination, crime, and human capital. B. Production possibilities curve The Production Possibilities Curve, pictured above, represents the point at which an economy is most efficiently producing its goods and services and, therefore, allocating its resources in the best way possible. If the economy is not producing the quantities indicated by the PPF, resources are being managed inefficiently and the production of society will dwindle. The production possibility frontier shows there are limits to production, so an economy, to achieve efficiency, must decide what combination of goods and services can be produced. Let’s take a look at what each of these points specified mean: - Producing at point A would be an point for a country, since it is located on the PPC. It shows, however, that the country is efficiently producing more units of wine than cotton. This is also a point at which all resources are being allocated , since it is another point located on the curve. However, at this point, the country is not focusing on the production of a good, wine or cotton, over the other. Again, this is another point of due to this point being located on the curve. However, producing at this point shows that the country focuses more of its resources on the production of wine rather than the production of cotton. This is the first point examined at which a country would NOT be efficient with allocating its resources. Any point that lies underneath the PPC is of resources, meaning the country is not producing at its full potential. On the first graph pictured, point Y represents a point of output level that cannot be reached with the amount of resources currently available in the country. However, in the second graph, we see the curve itself shift to a new curve, including point Y. This is called , and can be caused by a change in technology. (For example, more advanced machinery which increased the amount produced in the same amount of time.) C. Comparative advantage, absolute advantage, specialization and exchange We’ll start with some basic definitions: - a country has a comparative advantage in the production of a good when they can produce that good with a lower opportunity cost than another country. - a country has an absolute advantage simply when they can produce more of a specific good - this is when a country focuses on the production of specific goods (usually those native to their location). It is also the basis of global trade. AP_Microeconomics Practice Exam 2 Opportunity cost of producing one crab = 1/3 of a cake Opportunity cost of producing one crab = 1 cake Opportunity cost of producing one cake = 3 crabs Opportunity cost of producing one cake = 1 crab Based on the table of opportunity costs and graph above, we can determine which countries have the comparative and absolute advantages in producing crabs and cakes, therefore, which country should specialize in what good. Nation A has the comparative AND advantage in producing crabs, and Nation B also has both the comparative and absolute advantage in producing cakes. Therefore, Nation A should specialize in producing crabs, and Nation B should specialize in producing cakes. Comparative Advantage Practice problems D. Demand, supply and market equilibrium Supply and demand have similar behavior when it comes to micro and macro. However, there are still differences. Let’s compare the above graphs: the one of the left being a micro supply and demand curve, and the one on the right being an aggregate supply and demand schedule. When converting from Micro to Macro… Price turns into price level. Quantity turns into output, or real GDP Long –run aggregate supply, or full-employment, must be added. The equilibrium still occurs at the point where the demand and supply intersect. Economists have 3 reasons as to why the demand curve slopes downward The wealth effect: The premise that when the value of stock portfolios rises due to escalating stock prices, investors feel more comfortable and secure about their wealth, causing them to spend more. The interest-rate effect: the rationale for the down-sloping aggregate demand curve lies in the impact of the changing price level on interest rates and, in turn, on consumption and investment spending. More specifically, as the price level rises so do interest rates; rising interest rates in turn cause reductions in certain kinds of consumption and investment spending. The foreign purchases effect: if our price level rises relative to foreign countries, Australian buyers will purchase more imports at the expense of Australian goods. Similarly, foreigners will also buy fewer Australian goods, causing our exports to decline. In short, other things being equal, a rise in our domestic price level increases our imports and reduces our exports, thereby reducing the net exports component of aggregate demand in Australia. As far as shifting the aggregate demand, a change in any of the components of AD (in other words, a change in any of the components of GDP) will shift the demand accordingly. For example, if the government were to increase spending on national security, real GDP, or aggregate demand, would increase. Likewise, government cuts back on their spending, aggregate demand decreases, because government spending is a component of GDP. E. Macroeconomic issues: business cycle, unemployment, inflation, growth... The term business cycle refers to economy-wide fluctuations in production or economic activity over several months or years. These fluctuations occur around a long-term growth trend, and typically involve shifts over time between periods of relatively rapid economic growth (an expansion or boom), and periods of relative stagnation or decline (a contraction or recession). , as defined by the International Labour Organization, occurs when people are without jobs and they have actively looked for work within the past four weeks. The unemployment rate is a measure of the prevalence of unemployment and it is calculated as a percentage by dividing the number of unemployed individuals by all individuals currently in the labor force. File:World map of countries by rate of unemployment.svg To calculate the unemployment rate for a particular area or region, you will need to know the number of unemployed workers and the total number of people in the labor force in the particular area (such as a state or country). In the United States, this data is available from the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Labor Force refers to the number of people of working age and below retirement age who are actively participating in the work force or are actively seeking employment. Note that the total population of the area or region is irrelevant when calculating the unemployment rate. The formula for calculating the unemployment rate (expressed as a percent) is as follows:Unemployment Rate = (Unemployed Workers / Total Labor Force) * 100 For example: A small country has a population of 15,000 people. Of the total population, 12,000 people are in the labor force and 11,500 people are employed. What is the unemployment rate? First, find the number of unemployed by subtracting the number of employed (11,500) from the labor force (12,000). So, 12,000-11,500=500. Therefore, 500 people are unemployed. Now, to find the unemployment rate, plug the numbers into the formula: Unemployment Rate = (500/12,000)*100 = 4.2 percent. Unemployment calculations practice is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time. When the general price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services. Consequently, inflation also reflects an erosion in the purchasing power of money – a loss of real value in the internal medium of exchange and unit of account in the economy. A chief measure of price inflation is the inflation rate, the annualized percentage change in a general price index (normally the Consumer Price Index) over time. World Rates Of Inflation - Inflation Calculator - Calculating Inflation is the increase of per capita gross domestic product (GDP) or other measures of aggregate income, typically reported as the annual rate of change in real GDP. Economic growth is primarily driven by improvements in productivity, which involves producing more goods and services with the same inputs of labour, capital, energy and materials. Economists draw a distinction between short-term economic stabilization and long-term economic growth. The topic of economic growth is primarily concerned with the long run. The short-run variation of economic growth is termed the business cycle. The long-run path of economic growth is one of the central questions of economics; despite some problems of measurement, an increase in GDP of a country greater than population growth is generally taken as an increase in the standard of living of its inhabitants. Over long periods of time, even small rates of annual growth can have large effects through compounding. A growth rate of 2.5% per annum will lead to a doubling of GDP within 29 years, whilst a growth rate of 8% per annum will lead to a doubling of GDP within 10 years. This exponential characteristic can exacerbate differences across nations. File:Gdp accumulated change.png ©Barb E. Dahl and Chris P. Bacon AP Economics 2011 help on how to format text Turn off "Getting Started"

http://ap-macroeconomics.wikispaces.com/Unit+1+Basic+Economic+Concepts?responseToken=60cc6248bba54ecc23dafbe90d7ea946

Planetary Orbits and Motion Born in Germany in 1571, Johannes Kepler one of the most intelligent figures in the period of human growth known as the Renaissance. Kepler came to learn a lot about the nature of the universe from his teacher. Tycho Brahe was a prominent figure in astronomy circles. After Brahe passed away, Kepler spent much of his time continuing the work of his teacher in addition to his own. The result was a set of three beautifully formed laws that mathematically related orbits to existing knowledge. His most famous law: "...orbits are elliptical..." was particularly outstanding, as it shattered the age old Greek (Aristotle) conception that motion in the heavens (space) was perfectly circular. Kepler had shown through mathematics that in fact orbits were not perfect circles. Rather they were elliptical, and egg-like. Kepler died in 1630. But planetary motion is still described within the context of "Kepler's Laws". Kepler's 1st Law: Orbits are Elliptical After many experiments, Kepler discovered that the planets move on ellipses around the Sun. An ellipse is kind of a stretched out circle. A real circle has the same width, or diameter, whether you measure it across or up and down. But an ellipse has diameters of different lengths. How long the longest diameter is compared to the shortest one determines the eccentricity (e) of the ellipse; it's a measure of how stretched out the ellipse is. Circles have e=0 because their diameters are all the same. If an ellipse has one very short diameter, and one very long one, then it is a very stretched-out ellipse, and has an eccentricity nearly equal to 1. Planets do move on ellipses, but they are nearly circular (e very close to 0). Comets are a good example of objects in our solar system that may have very elliptical orbits. Compare the eccentricities and orbits of the objects in the diagram. Once Kepler figured out that planets move around the Sun on ellipses, he then discovered another interesting fact about the speeds of planets as they go around the Sun. Kepler's 2nd Law: The Speeds of Planets Kepler realized that the line connecting the planet and the Sun sweeps out equal area in equal time. Look at the diagram to the left. What Kepler found is that it takes the same amount of time for the blue planet to go from A to B as it does to go from C to D. But the distance from C to D is much larger than that from A to B. It has to be so that the green regions have the same area. So the planet must be moving faster between C and D than it is between A and B. This means that when planets are near the Sun in their orbit, they move faster than when they are further away. The diagram above shows a planet on its elliptical orbit around the Sun. The shaded areas are of equal size, and were swept out in equal time, i.e. it took the same amount of time for the planet to move from A to B and from C to D. Kepler's work led him to one more important discovery about the distances of planets. Kepler's 3rd Law: P2 = a3 Kepler's 3rd law is a mathematical formula. It means that if you know how long it takes a planet to go around the Sun (P), then you can determine that planet's distance from the Sun (a). This formula also tells us that planets far away from the Sun take longer to go around the Sun than those that are close to the Sun. Following is a table of orbital data for the planets. You will notice that Venus' orbital period (P) is longer than Mercury's, and the Earth's period is longer than Venus', and Mars' period is longer than Earth's... * Negative values of rotation period indicate that the planet rotates in the direction opposite to that in which it orbits the Sun. This is called retrograde rotation. The semimajor axis (the average distance to the Sun) is given in units of the Earth's average distance to the Sun, which is called an AU. For example, Neptune is 30 times more distant from the Sun than the Earth, on average. Orbital periods are also given in units of the Earth's orbital period, which is a year. As explained in Kepler's first law, the eccentricity (e) is a number which measures how elliptical orbits are. If e=0, the orbit is a circle. All the planets have eccentricities close to 0, so they must have orbits which are nearly circular. Spiral Wishing Wells demonstrate the laws of planetary motion as coins and balls (ball bearings and marbles) are launched in elliptical orbits. Click here to learn how to get your own mini-gravity-well and conduct various experiments. About the author... This information is collected, written, and edited by Steve Divnick, a former school teacher-turned-inventor. One of his inventions is the Spiral Wishing Well which has raised over $1 Billion for charities around the world. The Spiral Wishing Well is the same shape as a tornado and other naturally-occurring vortex's including the shape of water going down the drain. Divnick also invented the miniature Vortx® Coin-Spinning Toy which uses the same principles of physics. You can even make coins climb UP the funnel similar to how a tornado sucks objects up into its funnel. Click here to get your own Vortx®. Click here for more information about Divnick's other inventions.

http://www.spiralwishingwells.com/guide/planets.html

Homograph Teacher Resources Find Homograph educational ideas and activities Showing 1 - 20 of 105 resources Homophones and Homographs Getting tired of correcting to, two, and too? What about weather and whether? Use a thorough lesson on homophones and homographs to clear up those differences. Fourth and fifth graders identify which words sound the same and are spelled... 4th - 5th English Language Arts CCSS: Designed Unlocking the Secrets: Homophones and Homographs Homophones and homographs are the focus of this language arts PowerPoint. Learners are coached on the meanings of these parts of speech, then attempt to select the correct word in a variety of slides. A very nice presentation on these... 3rd - 4th English Language Arts Goldie Girl and There, Their, and They're: Homophones and Homographs Instruct your class on homonyms and homophones. Learners take a pre-test and examine a list of homophones. They also play online word games to practice spelling and usage and write a fairy tale in which they use at least 10 homophones.... 8th English Language Arts Instant Spelling Activity: Homographs Middle schoolers identify homographs. In this homograph lesson, students listen to a sentence that contains a homograph to identify the homograph. Middle schoolers choose 16 homographs to put in a BINGO grid. Students write sentences... 6th - 8th English Language Arts Basic Linguistics: Fun Trivia Quiz Meta-cognition can transform learning. If your syllabus includes linguistics to enhance learners' comprehension and expression in English, here is an interactive online quiz to assess what they have learned. Titled "Basic Linguistics,"... 10th - Higher Ed English Language Arts

http://www.lessonplanet.com/lesson-plans/homograph

There is usually a period of several weeks in which newly infected people have not yet produced enough HIV antibodies to be detected. The CDC said there have been 35 AIDS cases since 1985 linked to blood from people in this "window period." Like the first generation of AIDS blood tests, current tests detect antibodies to the AIDS viruses. Unfortunately, for a brief time after infection, people make too few antibodies for these tests to detect. As a result, their blood passes all the screening tests, even though it can transmit HIV. The "window period" for HIV-1 lasts about 22 days The FDA recommended in August 1995 that blood banks begin using the new p24 antigen test for HIV-1 when it became available. This test might cut 6 to 12 days from the window period=97at an added cost of perhaps $60 million each year. Future tests may be based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which can detect HIV directly by detecting its genetic material. PCR is sensitive enough to detect HIV in blood several days earlier than the p24 antigen test. PCR was invented in the mid-1980s, and it gave scientists a way to quickly and simply make millions of copies of genes for their experiments. Molecular biologists could probe the gene defects underlying cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, and many other diseases. Virologists could study the myriad variants of HIV-1 to determine how the virus changes over time. Pharmacologists could measure the effects of potential drugs on viruses. Archaeologists could track ancient human migrations . Once refined by experimental scientists, PCR was eagerly adapted by clinicians. Its sensitivity made it seem a natural for testing donated blood for diseases. So far, PCR has proved difficult to automate, a necessity for processing the 14 million units of blood donated each year. Also, PCR is expensive and, as viewers of the O.J. Simpson trial learned, demands pristine handling conditions and meticulous technique. More research is needed before blood banks can take advantage of PCRs power. But protecting the blood supply from HIV-1 is not enough. Scientists continue to discover other diseases that can be transmitted in blood. Also, mistakes can occur. Blood can be mislabeled. Blood bank volunteers can neglect to ask prospective donors all the required questions. Lab workers can be sloppy in testing blood, or a test kit can be defective. Thousands of errors and accidents are reported to FDA each year. And even if cheap, reliable, error-proof screening tests were available for every transmittable disease, transfusion would still not be 100% safe. No medical procedure is . Transfusions cause some kind of problem in about 10% of recipients. These problems range from fever and hives to iron overload and congestive heart failure. The test, to be sold under the name Abbott HIVAG-1 Monoclonal, is an enzyme immunoassay (EIA), and is the second FDA-licensed HIV antigen detection kit intended for use in blood banks and plasma centers nationwide according to new FDA blood screening recommendations. Abbott HIVAG-1 Monoclonal is also cleared for prognostic use in HIV-infected patients. "The test reduces the window period between HIV infection and detection the first 25 to 45 days, when the virus can elude efforts to screen it out," said Ronald Gilcher, M.D., president and CEO, Sylvan N. Goldman Center, Oklahoma Blood Institute, where the test has been researched since 1991. "The new test also cuts testing time to four hours from 24 from Abbotts earlier version antigen test." HIV antibody testing has been used by all U.S. blood institutions to screen donated blood and plasma for HIV infection. This new test will allow U.S. blood screening centers to have an alternate source for the p24 antigen test. (HIV antibody tests will continue to be used in parallel to identify HIV positive blood.) While antibody testing can measure the bodys immune response to the presence of a virus, antigen testing detects the virus itself. Patients infected with HIV may have positive antigen results very early in the infectionbefore a substantial antibody response has formed. As a result, people recently infected with HIV may be identified by the antigen test while the antibody test remains negative or indeterminate until a later date. I hope this information is of some assistance.David A. Reznik, D.D.S. Some notes and a link The "window period" is the time it takes for a person who has been infected with HIV to react to the virus by creating HIV antibodies. CLICK HERE FOR MORE ON HIV TESTING Local factors in the genital tract are also important. Other local infections, ulcers, mucosal trauma etc contribute of higher chance. Prophylaxis with medicines can prevent transmission if taken as early as possible after exposure, preferably within a day of contact. Medicines are not of known benefit after 1 month. PCR test can confirm the disease early after contact (95% detection after 6 weeks). ELISA and Western blot can be falsely negative upto 3-4 months. Similarly, a negative test in the sex worker may not mean 100% negative result, if the lady is in window period. If you are negative even after 6 months, means you should have not acquired the infection. In such a fortunate situation, it is wise to avoid sexual mis-adventures in future! Your WB test is negative at this point (nearly 50 days; less than 2 months). It is most likely that you are un-infected. However, as a possibility of still 5-10% chance, it is worthwhile to not donate blood for 6 months post exposure. A negative WB or ELISA at 3 months will however make you 99% negative and at 6 month, 100% negative. If there is an emergency to donate, a negative DNA PCR test at this point can be done which can suggest that you are 99% negative.Dr AS, AIDSHELPLINE Belgaum, India Dental HealthPatient's Paradise [an error occurred while processing this directive]

http://www.healthmantra.com/aids-win.shtml

|Feudal land tenure in England| A vassal or feudatory is a person who has entered into a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. The obligations often included military support and mutual protection, in exchange for certain privileges, usually including the grant of land held as a fiefdom. The term can be applied to similar arrangements in other feudal societies. In contrast, a fidelity, or fidelitas, was a sworn loyalty, subject to the king. In fully developed vassalage, the lord and the vassal would take part in a commendation ceremony composed of two parts, the homage and the fealty, including the use of Christian sacraments to show its sacred importance. According to Eginhard's brief description, the commendatio made to Pippin the Younger in 757 by Tassillo, Duke of Bavaria, involved the relics of Saints Denis, Rusticus, Éleuthère, Martin, and Germain – apparently assembled at Compiègne for the event. Such refinements were not included from the outset when it was time of crisis, war, hunger, etc.. Under feudalism, those who were weakest needed the protection of the knights who owned the weapons and knew how to fight. Feudal society was increasingly based on the concept of "lordship" (French seigneur), which was one of the distinguishing features of the Early Middle Ages and had evolved from times of Late Antiquity. In the time of Charlemagne (ruled 768–814), the connection slowly developed between vassalage and the grant of land, the main form of wealth at that time. Contemporaneous social developments included agricultural "manorialism" and the social and legal structures labelled — but only since the 18th century — "feudalism". These developments proceeded at different rates in various regions. In Merovingian times (5th century to 752), monarchs would reward only the greatest and most trusted vassals with lands. Even at the most extreme devolution of any remnants of central power, in 10th-century France, the majority of vassals still had no fixed estates. The stratification of a fighting band of vassals into distinct groups might roughly correlate with the new term "fief" that had started to supersede "benefice" in the 9th century. An "upper" group comprised great territorial magnates, who were strong enough to ensure the inheritance of their benefice to the heirs of their family. A "lower" group consisted of landless knights attached to a count or duke. This social settling process also received impetus in fundamental changes in the conduct of warfare. As co-ordinated cavalry superseded disorganized infantry, armies became more expensive to maintain. A vassal needed economic resources to equip the cavalry he was bound to contribute to his lord to fight his frequent wars. Such resources, in the absence of a money economy, came only from land and its associated assets, which included peasants as well as wood and water. Difference between "vassal" and "vassal state" |This section does not cite any sources. (November 2011)| Many empires have set up vassal states out of cities, kingdoms, and tribes that they wish to bring under their auspices without having to conquer or govern them. In these cases, vassalage (or suzerainty) just means forfeiting foreign-policy independence in exchange for full internal autonomy and perhaps a formal tribute. A lesser state that might be called a "junior ally" would be called a "vassal" as a reference to a domestic "fiefholder" or "trustee", simply to apply a common domestic norm to diplomatic culture. This allows different cultures to understand formal hegemonic relationships in personal terms, even among states using non-personal forms of rule. Imperial states that have used this terminology include Ancient Rome, the Mongol Empire, and the British Empire. In Feudal Japan, the relations between the powerful Daimyo and Shugo and the subordinate Ji-samurai bear some obvious resemblance to the Western Vassalage, though there are also some significant differences. Modern, neo-feudal equivalents Vassal relations are reincarnated in neo-feudal societies, such as Russia, Ukraine and other post-soviet states since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Whereas modern constitutions do not provide for establishment of formal ruler-vassal relations, societies work on similar informal principles. The post-soviet neo-feudal system is based on the lack of any civil structures, even an ideological structure such as the Communist Party. Governance has been established by a network of former middle-level party officials, police and secret service members and the new oligarchs - nouveau riche with political ambitions. Which group dominates is country specific. In the Russian Federation it is claimed that up to 78% of the elite have signs of being siloviki. In Ukraine the upper hand have the oligarchs, whereas the post-soviet Central Asia offers several examples of dynastic (family) rules. - Vassal state - Feudalism in the Holy Roman Empire - Mandala (political model) - Vavasour, a type of vassal - Manrent, Scottish Clan treaties of offensive and defensive alliance - Gokenin, vassals of the shogunate in Japan - Villein, a serf, or low-born worker under Feudalism - nöken (plural: nöker) was the Mongol term for a tribal leader acknowledging another as his liege - Hughes, Michael (1992). Early Modern Germany, 1477–1806, MacMillan Press and University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, p. 18. ISBN 0-8122-1427-7. - F. L. Ganshof, "Benefice and Vassalage in the Age of Charlemagne" Cambridge Historical Journal 6.2 (1939:147-75). - Ganshof 151 note 23 and passim; the essential point was made again, and the documents on which the historian's view of vassalage are based were reviewed, with translation and commentary, by Elizabeth Magnou-Nortier, Foi et Fidélité. Recherches sur l'évolution des liens personnels chez les Francs du VIIe au IXe siècle (University of Toulouse Press) 1975. - "at". Noctes-gallicanae.org. Retrieved 2012-02-13. - The Tours formulary, which a mutual contract of rural patronage, offered parallels; it was probably derived from Late Antique Gallo-Roman precedents, according to Magnou-Nortier 1975. - Ganshof, François Louis, Feudalism translated 1964 - V. L. Inozemtsev: Neo-Feudalism Explained, The American Interest, Volume 6, Number 4, March 1, 2011; retrieved 2015-12-30 - Ex-KGB Fill Russia's Elite, Reuters, 2006; retrieved 2015-12-30 - After the Euromaidan of 2014 a major struggle for power started in Ukraine between the corruption and oligarch-based network and the actors of the public revolt.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassalage

The earliest pre-Ptolemaic theories assumed that the earth was the center of the universe (see Ptolemaic system). With the acceptance of the heliocentric, or sun-centered, theory (see Copernican system), the nature and extent of the solar system began to be realized. The Milky Way, a vast collection of stars separated by enormous distances, came to be called a galaxy and was thought to constitute the entire universe with the sun at or near its center. By studying the distribution of globular star clusters the American astronomer Harlow Shapley was able to give the first reliable indication of the size of the galaxy and the position of the sun within it. Modern estimates show it to have a diameter of about 100,000 light-years with the sun toward the edge of the disk, about 28,000 light-years from the center. During the first two decades of the 20th cent. astronomers came to realize that some of the faint hazy patches in the sky, called nebulae, are not within our own galaxy, but are separate galaxies at great distances from the Milky Way. Willem de Sitter of Leyden suggested that the universe began as a single point and expands without end. After studying the red shift (see Doppler effect) in the spectral lines of the distant galaxies, the American astronomers Edwin Hubble and M. L. Humason concluded that the universe is expanding, with the galaxies appearing to fly away from each other at great speeds. According to Hubble's law, the expansion of the universe is approximately uniform. The greater the distance between any two galaxies, the greater their relative speed of separation. At the end of the 20th cent. the study of very distant supernovas led to the belief that the cosmic expansion was accelerating. To explain this cosmologists postulated a repulsive force, dark energy, that counteracts gravity and pushes galaxies apart. It also appears that the universe has been expanding at different rates over its cosmic history. This led to a variation of the big-bang theory in which, under the influence of gravity, the expansion slowed initially and then, under the influence of dark energy, suddenly accelerated. It is estimated that this "cosmic jerk" occurred five billion years ago, about the time the solar system was formed. This theory postulates a flat, expanding universe with a composition of c.70% dark energy, c.30% dark matter, and c.0.5% bright stars. A number of questions must be answered, however, before cosmologists can establish a single, comprehensive theory. The expansion rate and age of the universe must be established. The nature and density of the missing mass, the dark matter and dark energy that is far more abundant than ordinary, visible matter, must be identified. The total mass of the universe must be determined to establish whether it is sufficient to support an equilibrium condition—a state in which the universe will neither collapse of its own weight nor expand into diminishing infinity. Such an equilibrium is called "omega equals one," where omega is the ratio between the actual density of the universe and the critical density required to support equilibrium. If omega is greater than one, the universe would have too much mass and its gravity would cause a cosmic collapse. If omega is less than one, the low-density universe would expand forever. Today the most widely accepted picture of the universe is an omega-equals-one system of hundreds of billions of galaxies, many of them clustered in groups of hundreds or thousands, spread over a volume with a diameter of at least 10 billion light-years and all receding from each other, with the speeds of the most widely separated galaxies approaching the speed of light. On a more detailed level there is great diversity of opinion, and cosmology remains a highly speculative and controversial science.

http://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/science/cosmology-development-modern-cosmology.html

The Indiana bat was one of the 1st species in the United States that was listed as endangered and has been protected by law since March 11, 1967 .OTHER STATUS: Indiana bats were found in a variety of plant associations in a southern Iowa study. Riparian areas were dominated by eastern cottonwood, hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), and silver maple (Acer saccharinum). In the forested floodplains, the dominant plants included black walnut (Juglans nigra), silver maple, American elm (Ulmus americana), and eastern cottonwood. In undisturbed upland forest, the most common plants were black oak (Quercus velutina), bur oak (Q. macrocarpa), shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), and bitternut hickory (C. cordiformis). Black walnut, American basswood, American elm, and bur oak dominated other upland Indiana bat sites .Studies have identified at least 29 tree species that Indiana bats use during the summer. The greatest number of utilized tree species are found in the central portion of Indiana bats's range (primarily Missouri, southern Illinois, southern Indiana, and Kentucky), but this is likely because the majority of research conducted on the species has occurred in this region. Roost trees from these central states, which are mainly in the oak-hickory cover type, include silver maple, red maple (Acer rubrum), sugar maple (A. saccharum), white oak (Q. alba), red oak (Q. rubra), pin oak (Q. palustris), scarlet oak (Q. coccinea), post oak (Q. stellata), shingle oak (Q. imbricaria), eastern cottonwood, shagbark hickory, bitternut hickory, mockernut hickory (C. alba), pignut hickory (C. glabra), American elm, slippery elm (Ulmus rubra), honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), white ash (F. americana), Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), and sassafras (Sassafras albidum) [17,18,20,35,36,38,44,47,50,59,89]. In southern Michigan and northern Indiana, which are mainly in the oak-hickory and elm-ash-cottonwood cover types, trees utilized as roosts include green, white, and black ash (Fraxinus nigra), silver maple, shagbark hickory, and American elm [22,46,51,56]. And finally, in the southern areas of the Indiana bat's range (primarily Tennessee, Arkansas, and northern Alabama), which include the oak-hickory and oak-pine cover types, Indiana bats utilize shagbark hickory, white oak, red oak, pitch pine (P. rigida), shortleaf pine (P. echinata), loblolly pine (P. taeda), sweet birch (Betula lenta), and eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) [14,85]. Virtually no information exists for Indiana bats roosting in the Northeast (such as Pennsylvania, New York, and Vermont) or for the eastern sections of the range (including Virginia, West Virginia, and Maryland). In these areas, Indiana bats likely utilize the some of the same species listed here and also take advantage of other tree species that are available. |Scott Johnson, Indiana Department of Natural Resources| TIMING OF MAJOR LIFE HISTORY EVENTS: Indiana bats begin to arrive at hibernacula (caves and mines in which they spend the winter) from their summer roosting sites in late August, with most returning in September . Females enter hibernation shortly after arriving at hibernacula, but males remain active until late autumn to breed with females arriving late. Most Indiana bats hibernate from October through April, but many at the northern extent of their range hibernate from September to May. Occasionally, Indiana bats are found hibernating singly, but almost all are found hibernating in dense clusters of 3,230 bats/m² to 5,215 bats/m² . Spring migration can begin as early as late March, but most Indiana bats do not leave their winter hibernacula until late April to early May . Females emerge from hibernacula first, usually between late March and early May. Most males do not begin to emerge until mid- to late April [58,93]. Females arrive at summer locations beginning in mid-April. Females form summer nursery colonies of up to 100 adult females during summer [47,93]. Males typically roost alone or in small bachelor groups during the summer. Many males spend the summer near their winter hibernacula, while others migrate to other areas, similar to areas used by females . Females can mate during their 1st fall, but some do not breed until their 2nd year [81,93]. Males become reproductively active during their 2nd year . Breeding occurs in and around hibernacula in fall [29,93]. During the breeding season, Indiana bats undergo a phenomenon known as swarming. During this activity, large numbers of bats fly in and out of caves from sunset to sunrise . Swarming mainly occurs during August to September and is thought to be an integral part of mating . Bats have been observed copulating in caves until early October . During the swarming/breeding period, very few bats are found roosting within the hibernacula during the day . Limited mating may also occur at the end of hibernation . Fertilization does not occur until the end of hibernation [81,87,93], and gestation takes approximately 60 days . Parturition occurs in late May to early July [81,93]. Female Indiana bats typically give birth to 1 pup [81,87,93]. Juveniles are weaned after 25 to 37 days and become volant (able to fly) at about the same time . Most young can fly by early to late July [44,62], but sometimes do not fly until early August . Humphrey and others reported an 8% mortality rate by the time young were weaned. However, they assumed that all females mate in the autumn , which is not the case, so not all the females would give birth. Thus, mortality of young may be even lower than 8%. Indiana bats are relatively long lived. One Indiana bat was captured 20 years after being banded as an adult . Data from other recaptured individuals show that females live at least 14 years 9 months , while males may live for at least 13 years 10 months .PREFERRED HABITAT: In an Illinois study by Gardner and others , the study area where Indiana bats were found was estimated as approximately 67% agricultural land including cropland and old fields; 30% was upland forest; while 2.2% was floodplain forest. Finally, only 0.1% of the area was covered with water. Kurta and others found that in southern Michigan, the general landscape occupied by Indiana bats consisted of open fields and agricultural lands (55%), wetlands and lowland forest (19%), other forested habitats (17%), developed areas (6%), and perennial water sources such as ponds and streams (3%). In southern Illinois, Carter and others reported that all roosts were located in bottomland, swamp, and floodplain areas. Miller and others determined the predominant habitat types near areas where Indiana bats were captured in Missouri were forest, crop fields, and grasslands. Indiana bats did not show any preference for early successional habitats, such as old fields, shrublands, and early successional forests, showing 71% to 75% of activity occurring in other habitats . Although much of the landscape throughout the distributional range of the Indiana bat is dominated by agricultural lands and other open areas, these areas are typically not utilized by Indiana bats [44,67]. Indiana bats typically spend the winter months in caves or mines. However, a few bats have been found hibernating on a dam in northern Michigan . Indiana bats need very specific conditions in order to survive the winter hibernation period, which lasts approximately 6 months. As the microclimate in a hibernaculum fluctuates throughout the winter, Indiana bats sometimes fly to different areas within the hibernaculum to find optimal conditions [28,40], but this does not appear necessary for every hibernaculum . Indiana bats may even switch between nearby hibernacula in search of the most appropriate hibernating conditions . Indiana bats are generally loyal to specific hibernacula or to the general area near hibernacula that they have occupied previously . Critical winter habitats of Indiana bats have been designated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and include 13 hibernacula distributed across Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee, and West Virginia . Three types of hibernacula have been designated depending on the amount of use each receives from year to year. Priority One hibernacula are those that consistently have greater than 30,000 Indiana bats hibernating inside each winter. Priority Two hibernacula contain 500 to 30,000 bats, and Priority 3 hibernacula are any with fewer than 500 bats. At least 50% of Indiana bats are thought to hibernate in the 8 Priority One hibernacula, which can be found in Indiana (3 hibernacula), Missouri (3), and Kentucky (2). Estimates of hibernating populations in 2001 suggest that Priority One hibernacula have experienced a 48% decline since 1983. Overall, populations have fallen approximately 57% since 1960 across all hibernacula. Evidence suggests that Priority Two hibernacula are becoming more important to Indiana bat survival . Site Characteristics: Studies have identified at least 29 tree species (see Plant Communities) used by Indiana bats during the summer and during spring and fall migrations. Since so many tree species are utilized as roosts, tree species is likely not a limiting habitat requirement. In addition to trees, Indiana bats have used a Pennsylvania church attic , a utility pole , and bat boxes as roosts. However, use of man-made structures appears to be rare. Roost selection by females may be related to environmental factors, especially weather. Cool temperatures can slow fetal development [44,75], so choosing roosts with appropriate conditions is essential for reproductive success and probably influences roost choice. Two types of day roosts utilized by Indiana bats have been identified as primary and alternate roosts. Primary roosts typically support more than 30 bats at a time and are used most often by a maternity colony. Trees that support smaller numbers of Indiana bats from the same maternity colony are designated as alternate roosts. In cases where smaller maternity colonies are present in an area, primary roosts may be defined as those used for more than 2 days at a time by each bat, while alternate roosts are generally used less than 2 consecutive days . Maternity colonies may use up to 3 primary roosts and up to 33 alternate roosts [36,64] in a single season. Reproductively active females frequently switch roosts to find optimal roosting conditions. When switching between day roosts, Indiana bats may travel as little as 23 feet (7 m) or as far as 3.6 miles (5.8 km) [53,54,56]. In general, moves are relatively short and typically less than 0.6 mile (1 km) . Primary roosts are most often found at forest edges or in canopy gaps [17,64]. Alternate roosts are generally located in a shaded portion of the interior forest and occasionally at the forest edge . Most roost trees in a Kentucky study occurred in canopy gaps in oak, oak-hickory, oak-pine, and oak-poplar community types . Roosts found by Kurta and others in a elm-ash-maple forest in Michigan were in a woodland/marsh edge, a lowland hardwood forest, small wetlands, a shrub wetland/cornfield edge, and a small woodlot. Around hibernacula in autumn, Indiana bats tended to choose roost trees on upper slopes and ridges that were exposed to direct sunlight throughout the day . The preferred amount of canopy cover at the roost is unclear. Many studies have reported the need for low cover, while others have documented use of trees with moderate to high canopy cover, occasionally up to complete canopy closure. Canopy cover ranges from 0% at the forest edge to 100% in the interior of the stand [17,35,59]. A general trend is that primary roosts are found in low cover, while alternate roosts tend to be more shaded. Few data directly compare the differences between roost types. In Alabama, canopy cover at the roost tended to be low at an average of 35.5%, but at the stand level, canopy cover was higher with a mean of 65.8% . In a habitat suitability model, Romme and others recommended the ideal canopy cover for roosting Indiana bats as 60% to 80%. Actual roost sites in eastern Tennessee were very high in the tree, and Indiana bats were able to exit the roost above the surrounding canopy. Thus, canopy cover measurements taken from the bases of roost trees may overestimate the actual amount of cover required by roosting Indiana bats . A great deal of difference exists between stands occupied by Indiana bats. A Virginia pine roost was in a stand with a density of only 367 trees/ha while in Kentucky, a shagbark hickory roost was in a closed canopy stand with 1,210 trees/ha . Overall tree density in Great Smoky Mountain National Park was higher around primary roosts than at alternate roosts . At the landscape level, the basal area for stands with roosts was 30% lower than basal area of random stands in Alabama . Tree density in southern Iowa varied between different habitats. In a forested floodplain, tree density was lowest at 229 trees/ha, while a riparian strip had the highest tree density at 493 trees/ha . The number of roosts used and home range occupied by a maternity colony can vary widely. In Missouri, Callahan and others found that the highest density of roosts being used in a oak-hickory stand was 0.25 tree/ha. In Michigan, the number of trees utilized by a colony was 4.6 trees/ha, with as many as 13.2 potential roosts/ha in the green ash-silver maple stand . Clark and others estimated that the density of potential roosts in southern Iowa in areas where Indiana bats were caught was 10 to 26/ha in riparian, floodplain, and upland areas dominated by eastern cottonwood-silver maple, oak-hickory, and black walnut-silver maple-American elm, respectively. In Illinois, the suggested optimal number of potential roost trees in an upland oak-hickory habitat was 64/ha; the optimal number for riparian and floodplain forest, dominated by silver maple and eastern cottonwood, was proposed to be 41/ha . Salyers and others suggested a potential roost density of 15 trees/ha was needed, or 30 roosts/ha if artificial roost boxes are erected in a stand with American elm and shagbark hickory. The roosting home range used by any single Indiana bat was as large as 568 hectares in a oak-pine community in Kentucky . Roosts of 2 maternity colonies in southern Illinois were located in roosting areas estimated at 11.72 hectares and 146.5 hectares and included green ash, American elm, silver maple, pin oak, and shagbark hickory . The extent of the maternity home range may depend on the availability of suitable roosts in the area . Most habitat attributes measured for the Indiana bat were insignificant as well as inconsistent from one location to another. In Missouri, oak-hickory stands with maternity colonies had significantly (p=0.01) more medium trees (12-22 inches (30-57 cm) dbh) and significantly (p=0.01) more large sized trees (>22 inches (57 cm) dbh) than areas where Indiana bats were not found. No other major landscape differences were detected . Distances seen between roosts and other habitat features may be influenced by the age, sex, and reproductive condition of the Indiana bats. Distances between roosts and paved roads is greater than the distances between roosts and unpaved roads in some locales, although overlap between the two situations has been documented. In Illinois, most roosts used by adult females and juveniles were about 2,300 feet (700 m) or more from a paved highway, while adult males roosted less than 790 feet (240 m) from the road [35,36]. In Michigan, roosts were only slightly closer to paved roads: 2,000 feet (600 m) on average for all roosts located . In general, roosts were located 1,600 feet (500 m) to 2,600 feet (800 m) from unpaved roads in Illinois and Michigan [36,51]. Roost trees used during autumn in Kentucky were very close to unpaved roads at an average of 160 feet (50 m) . Roost proximity to water is highly variable and therefore probably not as important as once thought. In Indiana, roost trees were discovered less than 660 feet (200 m) from a creek , while roosts in another part of Indiana were 1.2 miles (2 km) from the nearest permanent water source [36,51]. To the other extreme, roosts of a maternity colony from Michigan were all found in a 12-acre (5 ha) wetland that was inundated for most of the year . In Virginia, foraging areas near a stream were utilized . Intermittent streams may be located closer to roosts than more permanent sources of water [35,51]. Ponds, streams, and road ruts appear to be important water sources, especially in upland habitats . Foraging habitat: Studies on the foraging needs for Indiana bats are inconclusive. Callahan and others reported that bats foraged in a landscape composed of pasture, corn fields, woodlots, and a strip of riparian woodland, although Indiana bat activity was not necessarily recorded in all these habitat types. Murray and Kurta made some qualitative assessments of Indiana bat foraging habitat in Michigan: the majority of bats were found foraging in forested wetlands and other woodlands, while 1 bat foraged in an area around a small lake and another in an area with 50% woodland and 50% open fields. Another Indiana bat foraged over a river, while 10 others foraged in areas greater than 0.6 mile (1 km) from the same river . Bat activity was centered around small canopy gaps or closed forest canopy along small 2nd-order streams in West Virginia . Indiana bats foraged under the dense oak-hickory forest canopy along ridges and hillsides in eastern Missouri, but rarely over streams . Indiana bats have been detected foraging in upland forest [11,23,47,93] in addition to riparian areas such as floodplain forest edges [11,23,44,55,69,72,93]. Romme and others also suggested that foraging habitat would ideally have 50% to 70% canopy closure. Indiana bats rarely utilize open agricultural fields and pastures, upland hedgerows, open water, and deforested creeks for traveling or foraging [36,44,67]. Boyles and others concluded that most activity occurred under the canopy as opposed to above the canopy. Hibernacula: During hibernation, Indiana bats occupy open areas of hibernacula ceilings and generally avoid crevices and other enclosed areas . Indiana bats were associated with hibernacula that were long (µ=2,817 feet (858 m)), had high ceilings (µ=15 feet (4.5 m)), and had large entrances (µ=104.4 feet² (9.7 m²)). The preferred hibernacula often had multiple entrances promoting airflow. Hibernacula choice may be influenced by the ability of the outside landscape to provide adequate forage upon arrival at the hibernacula as well as the specific microclimate inside. Having forested areas around the hibernacula entrance and low amounts of open farmland may be important factors influencing the suitability of hibernacula . This is the only comprehensive habitat assessment of Indiana bat hibernacula known to date (2005).COVER REQUIREMENTS: Another important factor relating to roost suitability is tree condition. Indiana bats prefer dead or dying trees with exfoliating bark . The amount of exfoliating bark present on a tree seems to be insignificant . Indiana bats show an affinity for very large trees that receive lots of sunlight . Typically, Indiana bats roost in snags, but a few species of live trees are also utilized. Live roost trees are usually shagbark hickory, silver maple, and white oak [17,35,89]. Shagbark hickories make excellent alternate roosts throughout the Indiana bats's range due to their naturally exfoliating bark . Although Indiana bats primarily roost under loose bark, a small fraction roost in tree cavities [14,35,50,51,53,89]. Primary roosts are generally larger than alternate roosts , but both show a lot of variability. Females typically use large roost trees averaging 10.8 inches (27.4 cm) to 25.7 inches (65.3 cm) as maternity roosts [17,35,41,47,50,51,56,83,85]. Males are more flexible, roosting in trees as small as 3 inches (8 cm) dbh [35,41,47,59]. In a review, Romme and others determined that Indiana bats required tree roosts greater than 8 inches (22 cm) dbh, while Clawson suggested that roosts of 12 inches (30 cm) dbh or larger were preferred. The heights of roost trees vary, but they tend to be tall, with average heights ranging from 62.7 feet (19.1 m) to 100 feet (30 m). The heights of the actual roosting sites are variable as well, ranging from 4.6 feet (1.4 m) to 59 feet (18 m) [41,51,56,85]. There is evidence that roost height is influenced by the extent of canopy closure. Specifically, more open canopies tend to be correlated with into lower roost heights . However, this rule does not appear to hold true in all localities [51,85]. In addition to day roosts, Indiana bats use temporary roosts throughout the night to rest between foraging bouts. Limited research has examined the use of night roosts by Indiana bats, and thus their use and importance are poorly understood. Males, lactating and postlactating females, and juveniles have been found roosting under bridges at night [48,65]. Some Indiana bats were tracked to 3 different night roosts within the same night . Night roosts are often found within the bats's foraging area. Indiana bats using night roosts are thought to roost alone and only and for short periods, typically 10 minutes or less. Lactating bats may return to the day roost several times each night, presumably to nurse their young. Pregnant bats have not been tracked back to the day roost during the night except during heavy rain. Because Indiana bats are difficult to track during their nightly movements and usually rest for such short periods of time, the specific requirements that Indiana bats need in a night roost, and reasons why night roosts are needed, are still unknown. During spring and fall, Indiana bats migrate between hibernacula and summer roosting sites. In New York and Vermont, bats traveled up to 25 miles (40 km) between hibernacula and summer roosting sites in spring . This is a considerably shorter distance than what is seen in the Midwest, where bats may travel up to 300 miles (500 km) . Many males remain close to hibernacula during the spring and summer [2,102] rather than migrating long distances like females. Occasionally, they even roost within hibernacula during the summer . Males also roost in caves and trees during fall swarming [26,102]. Few data exist for the roosting requirements of Indiana bats during spring and fall migrations; data indicate that requirements during these times are similar to summer needs in that the bats chose large trees with direct sunlight and exfoliating bark [15,41]. The ability for Indiana bats to find suitable hibernating conditions is critical for their survival. A hibernaculum that remained too warm during one winter caused a 45% mortality rate in hibernating Indiana bats . Bats generally hibernate in warmer portions of the hibernacula in fall, then move to cooler areas as winter progresses. During October and November, temperatures at roosting sites within major hibernacula in 6 states averaged 43.5 °F to 53.2 °F (6.4-11.8 °C). Roost temperatures at the same hibernacula ranged from 34.5 °F to 48.6 °F (1.4-9.2 °C) from December to February. Temperatures in March and April were slightly lower than in autumn at 39.6 °F to 51.3 °F (4.2-10.7 °C) . The Indiana Bat Recovery Team discovered that Indiana bat populations increased over time in hibernacula that had stable mid-winter temperatures averaging 37.4 °F to 45.0 °F (3.0-7.2 °C) , and declined in hibernacula with temperatures outside this range [90,93]. Temperatures slightly above freezing during hibernation allow Indiana bats to slow their metabolic rates as much as possible without the risk of freezing to death or using up fat too quickly [42,77]. Hibernating Indiana bats may also survive low temperatures by sharing body heat within the tight clusters they typically form . Bats awaken periodically throughout the hibernation period, presumably to eliminate waste or to move to more appropriate microclimates [39,40]. This periodic waking does not seem to affect the survival of Indiana bats, but waking caused by disturbance can cause Indiana bats to use up large amounts of energy, which can cause them to run out of fat reserves before the end of winter, possibly leading to death . One way in which caves retain low temperatures is through a constant input of cold air from outside the cave circulating in. Typically, the caves supporting the largest Indiana bat populations have multiple entrances that allow cool air from outside the cave to come in, creating a circulation of fresh cooled air . Gates that are meant to keep vandals out of caves have altered the temperature and airflow of hibernacula, resulting in population declines of Indiana bats at many major hibernacula throughout their range. Removing or modifying gates at some of these have given these populations a chance to rebound . Also, the bats seem to prefer a relative humidity of 74% to 100%, although it is uncommon for the air to be saturated [2,26,28,39,42]. Relative humidities of only 50.4% have also been recorded . More research is needed to identify other specific environmental conditions that bats require at hibernacula.FOOD HABITS: In addition to differences in diet, variation in foraging behaviors have been documented. For instance, the distance that an individual Indiana bat travels between a day roost and a nightly foraging range can vary. Garner and Gardner discovered that Indiana bats traveled up to 1.6 miles (2.6 km) from their day roosts to their foraging sites in Illinois. Similarly, bats traveled up to 1.5 miles (2.4 km) to forage in Kentucky . In Michigan, female bats traveled as far as 2.6 miles (4.2 km) to reach foraging areas with an average of 1.5 miles (2.4 km) . Several studies have documented similarities in how foraging habitats are actually utilized by Indiana bats. Humphrey and others found Indiana bats in Indiana were foraging around the canopy, which was 7 to 98 feet (2-30 m) above ground. LaVal and others , whose study was also conducted in Missouri, found that a female bat foraged 7 to 33 feet (2-10 m) above a river. In the same study, a male Indiana bat was observed flying in an elliptical pattern among trees at 10 to 33 feet (3-10 m) above the ground under the canopy of dense forests . In addition, bats were observed foraging at canopy height in Virginia , which would likely provide foraging conditions similar to the studies previously mentioned. Differences in the extent of foraging ranges have also been noted. Bats from the same colony foraged in different areas at least some of the time . Humphrey and others reported that the average foraging area for female bats in Indiana was 843 acres (341 ha), but the foraging area for males averaged 6,837 acres (2,767 ha). Hobson and Holland reported a male bat utilizing a foraging area of 1,544 acres (625 ha) in Virginia . In Illinois, however, the foraging ranges were much smaller at an average of 625 acres (253 ha) for adult females, 141 acres (57 ha) for adult males, 91 acres (37 ha) for juvenile females, and only 69 acres (28 ha) for juvenile males [35,36,47]. Humphrey and others found that foraging areas utilized by Indiana bats in Indiana increased throughout the summer season, but only averaged 11.2 acres (4.54 ha) in mid-summer.PREDATORS: The impact of natural predators on Indiana bats is minimal compared to the damage to habitat and mortality caused by humans, especially during hibernation. The presence of people in caves can cause Indiana bats to come out of hibernation, leading to a large increase in the energy used by the bats. By causing Indiana bats to wake up and use greater amounts of energy stores, humans can cause high mortality in a cave population of hibernating Indiana bats . Human disturbance and the degradation of habitat are the primary causes for the decline of the Indiana bat .MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS: Harvesting trees within stands where Indiana bats are known to roost during the summer could result in the mortality or displacement of individual bats or possibly entire colonies . Harvests would probably be safer in these areas during the hibernation period when the trees are not being utilized. However, felling trees at any time may result in the loss of unknown maternity roosts . Cutting down a tree with roosting Indiana bats is assumed to be unlikely in most cases because of the rarity of the species, because many stands with suitable habitat have more potential roost trees than are likely utilized by Indiana bats, and because most maternity colonies are far apart across their range . Since roost trees tend to be ephemeral, lasting for just a couple of seasons because of tree fall or loss of exfoliating bark from the bole, it may be more beneficial for Indiana bat conservation to protect and manage stands rather than individual trees. Others go a step further by recommending that existing snags should be retained and new snags should be recruited . This may be especially true for lands intensively managed for wood harvest where forests are not allowed to reach old age classes and very few snags are typically created . Since Indiana bats need a variety of roosts to suit their roosting needs, trees of various species, size, and condition should be maintained to provide the maximum probability that the needs of the bats will be met and to provide a continuous supply of roosts for when old roosts become unsuitable . When harvesting trees in either green or salvage units, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in Pennsylvania recommends that all shagbark and shellbark hickories, living or dead, be retained in any area where Indiana bats could potentially occur. More than 16 live trees of at least 9 inches (23 cm) dbh should be left per acre in partial harvest units. Three of these live trees should be at least 20 inches (51 cm) dbh. For final harvest units and clearcuts, 8 to 15 live trees at least 9 inches (23 cm) dbh should be retained per acre with 1 tree being at least 20 inches dbh per acre. For partial to intermediate harvests in green stands, canopy cover should be reduced to 54%. Live residual trees surrounding approximately 1/3rd of the large (>12 inches (30 cm) dbh) snags with exfoliating bark should be saved in order to provide partial shade of the snags throughout the summer . These live trees could potentially become suitable roosts in the future. Live hickories, oaks, elms, ashes, cottonwoods, and maples should be retained when possible since they are the types primarily used as roosts [78,94]. In partial and final harvests in salvage units as well as in clearcuts, 5 to 10 snags of at least 9 inches (23 cm) in diameter should be retained per acre. At least 1 snag 16 inches (41 cm) dbh should remain per 2 acres (0.8 ha). All known Indiana bat roosts should be protected until they are no longer suitable for use as roosts . In other reports, even more harvest guidelines were presented. For instance, for every 5 acres (2 ha) harvested, a clump of trees 0.25 acre ( 0.1 ha) in size should be left and contain "den trees," snags, oaks and hickories, conifers, less common species, and/or mast species in a variety of sizes . Additionally, large snags in open canopy should be preserved . Due to the bats' preference for large snags, removal of any snag with exfoliating bark within Indiana bat habitat would potentially cause habitat degradation by the removal of current or potential roost sites. Several studies document stand use by Indiana bats after tree harvest. Bats completely avoided sites in the study area that had been recently clearcut in Kentucky . However, unmanaged forest stands received 1.5 to 2 times as much activity as expected based on habitat availability. Recent two-aged shelterwood harvests experienced 4 to 7 times the amount of activity expected. These two-aged shelterwood harvests followed guidelines that called for the retention of 40 live trees/ha as well as all snags, shagbark hickories, hollow trees, and trees with large dead limbs. More roosts and more bats utilizing those roosts were found within these harvested areas than in a similar Kentucky study where 40 live trees and just 5 snags/ha were retained . In Illinois, a maternity colony remained in a selectively harvested area and utilized the same roosts that were previously occupied . Indiana bats were occasionally observed foraging under intact canopies and forests with gaps that were created by diameter-limit harvests in West Virginia. Indiana bat activity was not recorded in clearcut areas or under complex canopies . A project in eastern Texas proposed that thinning in pine forests will create more suitable habitats for the southeastern myotis (Myotis austroriparius) and Rafinesque's big-eared bat (Corynorhinus rafinsquii) by promoting the growth of remaining pine trees to old-growth age class . This condition is reportedly similar to what is preferred by the Indiana bat . Thus, thinning understory may help to improve Indiana bat summer habitat. (See Site Characteristics for discussion on the preferred stand structure of Indiana bats.) Further recommendations for improving and maintaining the landscape for the Indiana bat have been proposed by biologists in Missouri, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Riparian corridors should be forested for 100 feet (30 m) or more on either side of a stream. In areas lacking wide forest corridors, reforestation should be a priority . Reducing forest canopies from 100% cover to roughly 30% to 80% cover and clearing some understory is also recommended [8,26]. However, reducing canopy cover even more could be detrimental to the bats by causing the loss of current and future roosts as well as by altering the landscape and microhabitats. Creating new water sources, especially in upland habitats, may improve habitats in which other water sources are not readily available . Sedimentation of stream corridors following logging could potentially affect the insect prey assemblage in a foraging area . Greater threats to the survival of Indiana bats may exist during hibernation. Hibernating bats that are disturbed by human activity have faster weight loss than those not visited by people. Bats located in hibernacula that are visited by people during the hibernation period are more likely to die before spring . The biggest threats to Indiana bat hibernacula are human disturbance, including researchers and spelunkers, and vandalism, poorly designed gates that disrupt airflow, natural hazards such as flooding or mine collapse, and microclimate changes [39,93]. Although gating cave and mine entrances can deter humans from entering hibernacula and disturbing hibernating bats, gates can severely change temperature and airflow within the cave causing it to fall below optimal conditions [42,77]. Management recommendations include protecting hibernacula with bat-friendly gates and restoring abandoned hibernacula if possible [26,103]. Hibernacula should also be closed to visitation from September 1 to April 30 toward the southern extent of the species's range, and from September 1 to May 31 in the north. To minimize disturbance to hibernating populations, censuses of Indiana bats should only occur biennially . Clawson also recommended that a 0.25-mile (0.4 ha) buffer zone be established around hibernacula, in which no development, agricultural activities, logging, or mining should occur. Kiser and Elliott suggested that any snags located within 1.4 miles (2.4 km) of a hibernaculum should be retained, and recruitment of new snags in the same area should also be a priority to ensure that a continuous supply of new roost trees will be available. In addition, any areas that have been altered through agricultural, mining, logging, and other activities should be reforested with trees that are commonly used by Indiana bats for roosting . Pesticides commonly used in agriculture in the past and present, such as organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids, have all been found in the feces and tissues of bats. Since the ban on organochlorines, pyrethroids may be the biggest threat to bat health because they are likely to persist in the environment . Pesticides inhibit cholinesterase and may cause cancer, birth defects, and death in bats. These conclusions are based on preliminary results and thus are largely speculative . Organochlorines, especially DDE, a long-lived product of DDT, build up in bat tissues but are not always found at lethal levels . Products of DDT are highly soluble in fat, so when bats build up fat for hibernation, they run the risk of taking so much that it can be fatal. Pesticide residues concentrate in the brain as other fat in the body is metabolized . There is evidence of Indiana bat mortality due to organochlorines found in the Indiana bat [25,71]. Organochlorine residues still exist in the environment even though their use has been banned for decades. Pesticide residues originate in the bats' prey and build up in tissues, including brain tissues, over time . Pesticide toxicity may have contributed to many mass die-offs that have occurred in the Indiana bat as well as other species around the world . Restricting pesticide use, especially within the vicinity of hibernacula, may help reduce the negative impacts that they can have on Indiana bats and other bat species.In the northern regions of its range, Indiana bat populations have remained stable or increased slightly since surveys were first conducted in 1960, especially in Indiana, New York, Ohio, and West Virginia. However, Indiana bat populations have decreased drastically in the southern portion of its range, especially in Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee, and Arkansas [27,93]. What we have learned about their year-round habitat needs can give us direction on how land should be managed to ensure the survival of the Indiana bat. MacGregor and others discovered Indiana bats utilizing roosts located within prescribed fire areas twice as much as expected during 1 year based on the amount of area available. Indiana bat utilization was equal to expected during the 2nd year of the Kentucky study . Some individuals were discovered roosting in a partially burned post oak (Quercus stellata) in Illinois . These studies show that fire-affected landscapes remain suitable for Indiana bat use over time. A mathematical model suggested that closely related bat species in California would be affected differently by high-severity fires. The fringed myotis (Myotis thysanodes) and the Yuma myotis (M. yumanensis) were both predicted to be adversely affected by postwildfire conditions due to a perceived decrease in habitat suitability. In contrast, the model suggested that the long-eared myotis (M. evotis) would benefit from a high severity wildfire through the production of more suitable habitat . Based on the results of this model, it is unclear how a high severity fire may affect Indiana bat habitat. The following table provides fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where the Indiana bat is important. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find Fire Regimes". |Community or Ecosystem||Dominant Species||Fire Return Interval Range (years)| |silver maple-American elm||Acer saccharinum-Ulmus americana||<5 to 200| |sugar maple||A. saccharum||>1,000| |sugar maple-basswood||A. saccharum-Tilia americana||>1,000| |sugarberry-America elm-green ash||Celtis laevigata-Ulmus americana-Fraxinus pennsylvanica||<35 to 200| |beech-sugar maple||Fagus spp.-Acer saccharum||>1,000| |black ash||Fraxinus nigra||<35 to 200| |shortleaf pine-oak||Pinus echinata-Quercus spp.||<10| |slash pine-hardwood||P. elliottii-variable||<35| |longleaf pine-scrub oak||P. palustris-Quercus spp.||6-10| |Table Mountain pine||P. pungens||<35 to 200| |eastern white pine||P. strobus||35-200| |eastern white pine-eastern hemlock||Pinus strobus-Tsuga canadensis||35-200| |Virginia pine-oak||P. virginiana-Quercus spp.||10 to <35| |sycamore-sweetgum-American elm||Platanus occidentalis-Liquidambar styraciflua-Ulmus americana||<35 to 200| |black cherry-sugar maple||Prunus serotina-Acer saccharum||>1,000| |oak-hickory||Quercus-Carya spp.||<35 | |oak-gum-cypress||Quercus-Nyssa-spp.-Taxodium distichum||35 to >200 | |southeastern oak-pine||Quercus-Pinus spp.||<10| |white oak-black oak-northern red oak||Quercus alba-Q. velutina-Q. rubra||<35| |northern pin oak||Q. ellipsoidalis||<35| |bear oak||Q. ilicifolia||<35| |bur oak||Q. macrocarpa||<10| |chestnut oak||Q. prinus||3-8| |northern red oak||Q. rubra||10 to <35| |post oak-blackjack oak||Q. stellata-Q. marilandica||<10| |black oak||Q. velutina||<35| |eastern hemlock-yellow birch||Tsuga canadensis-Betula alleghaniensis||>200 | |elm-ash-cottonwood||Ulmus-Fraxinus-Populus spp.||<35 to 200 [31,98]| 1. Baker, Robert J.; Bradley, Lisa C.; Bradley, Robert D.; Dragoo, Jerry W.; Engstrom, Mark D.; Hoffmann, Robert S.; Jones, Cheri A.; Reid, Fiona; Rice, Dale W.; Jones, Clyde. 2003. Revised checklist of North American mammals north of Mexico, 2003. Occasional Papers No. 229. Lubbock, TX: Museum of Texas Tech University. 23 p. 2. Barbour, Roger W.; Davis, Wayne H. 1969. Bats of America. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky. 286 p. 3. Barclay, Robert M. R.; Brigham, R. Mark. 2001. Year-to-year reuse of tree-roosts by California bats (Myotis californicus) in southern British Columbia. American Midland Naturalist. 146(1): 80-85. 4. Bat Conservation International, Inc. 2001. Bats in eastern woodlands. Austin, TX: Bat Conservation International, Inc. 307 pp. 5. Belwood, Jacqueline J. 2001. An Indiana bat roost in suburbia: important observations and concerns for the future. Bat Research News. 42(2): 26. 6. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. 7. Bogener, Dave. 2003. SP-T11 -- Effects of fuel load management and fire prevention on wildlife and plant communities. Oroville, CA: State of California, Department of Water Resources. Draft final report. Oroville Facilities Relicensing: Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Project No. 2100. 42 p. 8. Boyer, Angela L. 2001. Biological opinion on the land and resource management plan: Wayne National Forest, Ohio. Reynoldsburg, OH: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 52 p. 9. Boyles, Justin G.; Miller, Matt N.; Robbins, Lynn W. 2003. Bat species activity in two forest habitats above and below the canopy. Bat Research News. 44(1): 21. [Abstract]. 10. Brack, Virgil, Jr.; LaVal, Richard K. 1985. 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http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/animals/mammal/myso/all.html

Scientists have confirmed the function of a gene that controls the awakening of trees from winter dormancy, a critical factor in their ability to adjust to environmental changes associated with climate change. While other researchers have identified genes involved in producing the first green leaves of spring, the discovery of a master regulator in poplar trees (Populus species) could eventually lead to breeding plants that are better adapted for warmer climates. The results of the study that began more than a decade ago at Oregon State University were published today in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, by scientists from Michigan Technological University and Oregon State. "No one has ever isolated a controlling gene for this timing in a wild plant, outside of Arabidopsis, a small flowering plant related to mustard and cabbage," said Steve Strauss, co-author and distinguished professor of forest biotechnology at OSU. "This is the first time a gene that controls the timing of bud break in trees has been identified." The timings of annual cycles — when trees open their leaves, when they produce flowers, when they go dormant — help trees adapt to changes in environmental signals like those associated with climate, but the genetics have to keep up, Strauss said. While trees possess the genetic diversity to adjust to current conditions, climate models suggest that temperature and precipitation patterns in many parts of the world may expose trees to more stressful conditions in the future. Experts have suggested that some tree species may not be able to cope with these changes fast enough, whether by adaptation or migration. As a result, forest health may decline, trees may disappear from places they are currently found, and some species may even go extinct. "For example, are there going to be healthy and widespread populations of Douglas fir in Oregon in a hundred years?" said Strauss. "That depends on the natural diversity that we have and how much the environment changes. Will there be sufficient genetic diversity around to evolve populations that can cope with a much warmer and likely drier climate? We just don't know." Strauss called the confirmation of the bud-break gene — which scientists named EBB1 for short — a "first step" in developing the ability to engineer adaptability into trees in the future. "Having this knowledge enables you to engineer changes when they might become urgent," he said. Yordan Yordanov and Victor Busov at Michigan Tech worked with Cathleen Ma and Strauss at Oregon State to trace the function of EBB1 in buds and other plant tissues responsible for setting forth the first green shoots of spring. They developed modified trees that overproduced EBB1 genes and emerged from dormancy earlier in the year. They also showed that trees with less EBB1 activity emerged from dormancy later. "The absence of EBB1 during dormancy allows the tree to progress through the physiological, developmental and adaptive changes leading to dormancy," said Busov, "while the expression of EBB1 in specific cell layers prior to bud-break enables reactivation of growth in the cells that develop into shoots and leaves, and re-entry into the active growth phase of the tree." The study began when Strauss noticed poplar trees emerging earlier than others in an experimental field trial at Oregon State. One April morning, he found that four seedling trees in a 2.5-acre test plot were putting forth leaves at least a week before all the other trees. Strauss and Busov, a former post-doctoral researcher at Oregon State, led efforts to identify the genes responsible. They found that EBB1 codes for a protein that helps to restart cell division in a part of the tree known as meristem, which is analogous to stem cells in animals. EBB1 also plays a role in suppressing genes that prepare trees for dormancy in the fall and in other processes such as nutrient cycling and root growth that are critical for survival. Altogether, they found nearly 1,000 other poplar genes whose activity is affected by EBB1. It's unlikely that plant breeders will use the finding any time soon, Strauss said. Breeders tend to rely on large clusters of genes that are associated with specific traits such as hardiness, tree shape or flowering. However, as more genes of this kind are identified, the opportunity to breed or engineer trees adapted to extreme conditions will grow. Funding for the research was provided by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the U.S. Department of Energy and the Tree Biosafety and Genomics Research Cooperative at Oregon State. Steven Strauss | Eurek Alert! New method opens crystal clear views of biomolecules 11.02.2016 | Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY Scientists from MIPT gain insights into 'forbidden' chemistry 11.02.2016 | Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology Today, plants and microorganisms are heavily used for the production of medicinal products. The production of biopharmaceuticals in plants, also referred to as “Molecular Pharming”, represents a continuously growing field of plant biotechnology. Preferred host organisms include yeast and crop plants, such as maize and potato – plants with high demands. With the help of a special algal strain, the research team of Prof. Ralph Bock at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology in Potsdam strives to develop a more efficient and resource-saving system for the production of medicines and vaccines. They tested its practicality by synthesizing a component of a potential AIDS vaccine. The use of plants and microorganisms to produce pharmaceuticals is nothing new. In 1982, bacteria were genetically modified to produce human insulin, a drug... Atomic clock experts from the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) are the first research group in the world to have built an optical single-ion clock which attains an accuracy which had only been predicted theoretically so far. Their optical ytterbium clock achieved a relative systematic measurement uncertainty of 3 E-18. The results have been published in the current issue of the scientific journal "Physical Review Letters". Atomic clock experts from the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) are the first research group in the world to have built an optical single-ion clock... The University of Würzburg has two new space projects in the pipeline which are concerned with the observation of planets and autonomous fault correction aboard satellites. The German Federal Ministry of Economic Affairs and Energy funds the projects with around 1.6 million euros. Detecting tornadoes that sweep across Mars. Discovering meteors that fall to Earth. Investigating strange lightning that flashes from Earth's atmosphere into... Physicists from Saarland University and the ESPCI in Paris have shown how liquids on solid surfaces can be made to slide over the surface a bit like a bobsleigh on ice. The key is to apply a coating at the boundary between the liquid and the surface that induces the liquid to slip. This results in an increase in the average flow velocity of the liquid and its throughput. This was demonstrated by studying the behaviour of droplets on surfaces with different coatings as they evolved into the equilibrium state. The results could prove useful in optimizing industrial processes, such as the extrusion of plastics. The study has been published in the respected academic journal PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America). Exceeding critical temperature limits in the Southern Ocean may cause the collapse of ice sheets and a sharp rise in sea levels A future warming of the Southern Ocean caused by rising greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere may severely disrupt the stability of the West... 09.02.2016 | Event News 02.02.2016 | Event News 26.01.2016 | Event News 11.02.2016 | Life Sciences 11.02.2016 | Physics and Astronomy 11.02.2016 | Earth Sciences

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Toggle: English / Spanish Chromosomes are structures found in the center (nucleus) of cells that carry long pieces of DNA. DNA is the material that holds genes. It is the building block of the human body. Chromosomes also contain proteins that help DNA exist in the proper form. Chromosomes come in pairs. Normally, each cell in the human body has 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total chromosomes). Half come from the mother; the other half come from the father. Two of the chromosomes (the X and the Y chromosome) determine if you are born a boy or a girl (your gender). They are called sex chromosomes: - Females have 2 X chromosomes. - Males have 1 X and 1 Y chromosome. The mother gives an X chromosome to the child. The father may contribute an X or a Y. The chromosome from the father determines if the baby is a girl or a boy. The remaining chromosomes are called autosomal chromosomes. They are known as chromosome pairs 1 through 22. Dorland's Online Medical Dictionary. Available at: www.dorlands.com/def.jsp?id=100021078. Accessed April 27, 2015. Stein CK. Applications of Cytogenetics in Modern Pathology. In: McPherson RA, Pincus MR, eds. Henry's Clinical Diagnosis and Management by Laboratory Methods. 22nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2011:chap 68. - Last reviewed on 4/20/2015 - Chad Haldeman-Englert, MD, FACMG, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Section on Medical Genetics, Winston-Salem, NC. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Isla Ogilvie, PhD, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team. The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- 2013 A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.

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The history of Rome in the Middle Ages, bewildering in its detail, is essentially that of two institutions, the papacy and the commune of Rome. In the 5th cent. the Goths ruled Italy from Ravenna, their capital. Odoacer and Theodoric the Great kept the old administration of Rome under Roman law, with Roman officials. The city, whose population was to remain less than 50,000 throughout the Middle Ages, suffered severely from the wars between the Goths and Byzantines. In 552, Narses conquered Rome for Byzantium and became the first of the exarchs (viceroys) who ruled Italy from Ravenna. Under Byzantine rule commerce declined, and the senate and consuls disappeared. Pope Gregory I (590–604), one of the greatest Roman leaders of all time, began to emancipate Rome from the exarchs. Sustained by the people, the popes soon exercised greater power in Rome than did the imperial governors, and many secular buildings were converted into churches. The papal elections were, for the next 12 centuries, the main events in Roman history. Two other far-reaching developments (7th–8th cent.) were the division of the people into four classes (clergy, nobility, soldiers, and the lowest class) and the emergence of the Papal States. The coronation (800) at Rome of Charlemagne as emperor of the West ended all question of Byzantine suzerainty over Rome, but it also inaugurated an era characterized by the ambiguous relationship between the emperors and the popes. That era was punctuated by visits to the city by the German kings, to be crowned emperor or to secure the election of a pope to their liking or to impose their will on the pope. In 846, Rome was sacked by the Arabs; the Leonine walls were built to protect the city, but they did not prevent the frequent occupations and plunderings of the city by Christian powers. By the 10th cent., Rome and the papacy had reached their lowest point. Papal elections, originally exercised by the citizens of Rome, had come under the control of the great noble families, among whom the Frangipani and Pierleone families and later the Orsini and the Colonna were the most powerful. Each of these would rather have torn Rome apart than allowed the other families to gain undue influence. They built fortresses in the city (often improvised transformations of the ancient palaces and theaters) and ruled Rome from them. From 932 to 954, Alberic, a very able man, governed Rome firmly and restored its self-respect, but after his death and after the proceedings that accompanied the coronation of Otto I as emperor, Rome relapsed into chaos, and the papal dignity once more became the pawn of the emperors and of local feudatories. Contending factions often elected several popes at once. Gregory VII reformed these abuses and strongly claimed the supremacy of the church over the municipality, but he himself ended as an exile, Emperor Henry IV having taken Rome in 1084. The Normans under Robert Guiscard came to rescue Gregory and thoroughly sacked the city on the same occasion (1084). Papal authority was challenged in the 12th cent. by the communal movement. A commune was set up (1144–55), led by Arnold of Brescia, but it was subdued by the intervention of Emperor Frederick I. Finally, a republic under papal patronage was established, headed by an elected senator. However, civil strife continued between popular and aristocratic factions and between Guelphs and Ghibellines. The commune made war to subdue neighboring cities, for it pretended to rule over the Papal States, particularly the duchy of Rome, which included Latium and parts of Tuscany. Innocent III controlled the government of the city, but it regained its autonomy after the accession of Emperor Frederick II. Later in the 13th cent. foreign senators began to be chosen; among them were Brancaleone degli Andalò (1252–58) and Charles I of Naples. During the "Babylonian captivity" of the popes at Avignon (1309–78) Rome was desolate, economically ruined, and in constant turmoil. Cola di Rienzi became the champion of the people and tried to revive the ancient Roman institutions, as envisaged also by Petrarch and Dante; in 1347 he was made tribune, but his dreams were doomed. Cardinal Albornoz temporarily restored the papal authority over Rome, but the Great Schism (1378–1417) intervened. Once more a republic was set up. In 1420, Martin V returned to Rome, and with him began the true and effective dominion of the popes in Rome. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.

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A collider is a type of particle accelerator involving directed beams of particles. Colliders may either be ring accelerators or linear accelerators, and may collide a single beam of particles against a stationary target or two beams head-on. Colliders are used as a research tool in particle physics by accelerating particles to very high kinetic energy and letting them impact other particles. Analysis of the byproducts of these collisions gives scientists good evidence of the structure of the subatomic world and the laws of nature governing it. These may become apparent only at high energies and for tiny periods of time, and therefore may be hard or impossible to study in other ways. In particle physics one gains knowledge about elementary particles by accelerating particles to very high kinetic energy and letting them impact on other particles. For sufficiently high energy, a reaction happens that transforms the particles into other particles. Detecting these products gives insight into the physics involved. To do such experiments there are two possible setups: - Fixed target setup: A beam of particles (the projectiles) is accelerated with a particle accelerator, and as collision partner, one puts a stationary target into the path of the beam. - Collider: Two beams of particles are accelerated and the beams are directed against each other, so that the particles collide while flying in opposite directions. This process can be used to make strange and anti-matter. The collider setup is harder to construct but has the great advantage that according to special relativity the energy of an inelastic collision between two particles approaching each other with a given velocity is not just 4 times as high as in the case of one particle resting (as it would be in non-relativistic physics); it can be orders of magnitude higher if the collision velocity is near the speed of light. The first serious proposal for a collider originated with a group at the Midwestern Universities Research Association (MURA). This group proposed building two tangent radial-sector FFAG accelerator rings. Tihiro Ohkawa, one of the authors of the first paper, went on to develop a radial-sector FFAG accelerator design that could accelerate two counterrotating particle beams within a single ring of magnets. The third FFAG prototype built by the MURA group was a 50 MeV electron machine built in 1961 to demonstrate the feasibility of this concept. Gerard K. O'Neill proposed using a single accelerator to inject particles into a pair of tangent storage rings. As in the original MURA proposal, collisions would occur in the tangent section. The benefit of storage rings is that the storage ring can accumulate a high beam flux from an injection accelerator that achieves a much lower flux. The first electron-positron colliders were built in late 1950's-early 1960's in Italy, at the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare in Frascati near Rome, by the Austrian-Italian physicist Bruno Touschek and in the US, by the Stanford-Princeton team that included William C.Barber, Bernard Gittelman, Gerry O’Neill, and Burton Richter. Around the same time, in the early 1960s, the VEP-1 electron-electron collider was independently developed and built under supervision of Gersh Budker in the Soviet Institute of Nuclear Physics. In 1966, work began on the Intersecting Storage Rings at CERN, and in 1971, this collider was operational. The ISR was a pair of storage rings that accumulated particles injected by the CERN Proton Synchrotron. This was the first hadron collider, as all of the earlier efforts had worked with electrons or with electrons and positrons. |Accelerator||Centre, city, country||First operation||accelerated particles||max energy per beam, GeV||Luminosity, 1030 cm−2 s−1||Perimeter (length), km| |VEPP-2000||INP, Novosibirsk, Russia||2006||е+e−||1.0||100||0.024| |VEPP-4М||INP, Novosibirsk, Russia||1994||е+e−||6||20||0.366| |BEPC II||IHEP, Beijing, China||2008||е+е−||3.7||700||0.240| |KEKB||KEK, Tsukuba, Japan||1999||е+е−||8.5 (e-), 4 (e+)||21100||3.016| |RHIC||BNL, USA||2000||pp, Au-Au, Cu-Cu, d-Au||100/n||10, 0.005, 0.02, 0.07||3.834| |6500 (planned 7000), 1580/n (planned 2760/n) |10000 (reached 7700), - List of known colliders - Large Electron–Positron Collider - Large Hadron Collider - Very Large Hadron Collider - Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider - International Linear Collider - Storage ring - Kerst, D. W.; Cole, F. T.; Crane, H. R.; Jones, L. W.; et al. (1956). "Attainment of Very High Energy by Means of Intersecting Beams of Particles". Physical Review 102 (2): 590–591. Bibcode:1956PhRv..102..590K. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.102.590. - US patent 2890348, Tihiro Ohkawa, "Particle Accelerator", issued 1959-06-09 - Science: Physics & Fantasy, Time, Monday, Feb. 11, 1957. - O'Neill, G. (1956). "Storage-Ring Synchrotron: Device for High-Energy Physics Research" (PDF). Physical Review 102 (5): 1418–1419. Bibcode:1956PhRv..102.1418O. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.102.1418. - Shiltsev, V. "The first colliders: AdA, VEP-1 and Princeton-Stanford". arXiv:1307.3116. - Kjell Johnsen, The ISR in the time of Jentschke, CERN Courier, June 1, 2003. - Shiltsev, V. "High energy particle colliders: past 20 years, next 20 years and beyond, Physics-Uspekhi 55.10 (2012) 965". doi:10.3367/UFNe.0182.201210d.1033/meta (inactive 2016-01-18). - Shiltsev, V. "Crystal Ball: On the Future High Energy Colliders". arXiv:1511.01934. - High Energy Collider Parameters - Handbook of accelerator physics and engineering, edited by A. Chao, M. Tigner, 1999, p.11. - DAFNE Achievements

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_collider

The most important carbohydrate is glucose, a simple sugar (monosaccharide) that is metabolized by nearly all known organisms. Glucose and other carbohydrates are part of a wide variety of metabolic pathways across species: plants synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis storing the absorbed energy internally, often in the form of starch or lipids. Plant components are consumed by animals and fungi, and used as fuel for cellular respiration. Oxidation of one gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 4 kcal of energy, while the oxidation of one gram of lipids yields about 9 kcal. Energy obtained from metabolism (e.g., oxidation of glucose) is usually stored temporarily within cells in the form of ATP. Organisms capable of aerobic respiration metabolize glucose and oxygen to release energy with carbon dioxide and water as byproducts. Carbohydrates can be chemically divided into complex and simple. Simple carbohydrates consist of single or double sugar units (monosaccharides and disaccharides, respectively). Sucrose or table sugar (a disaccharide) is a common example of a simple carbohydrate. Complex carbohydrates contain three or more sugar units linked in a chain, with most containing hundreds to thousands of sugar units. They are digested by enzymes to release the simple sugars. Starch, for example, is a polymer of glucose units and is typically broken down to glucose. Cellulose is also a polymer of glucose but it cannot be digested by most organisms. Bacteria that produce enzymes to digest cellulose live inside the gut of some mammals, such as cows, and when these mammals eat plants, the cellulose is broken down by the bacteria and some of it is released into the gut. Doctors and scientists once believed that eating complex carbohydrates instead of sugars would help maintain lower blood glucose. Numerous studies suggest, however, that both sugars and starches produce an unpredictable range of glycemic and insulinemic responses. While some studies support a more rapid absorption of sugars relative to starches other studies reveal that many complex carbohydrates such as those found in bread, rice, and potatoes have glycemic indices similar to or higher than simple carbohydrates such as sucrose. Sucrose, for example, has a glycemic index lower than expected because the sucrose molecule is half fructose, which has little effect on blood glucose. The value of classifying carbohydrates as simple or complex is questionable. The glycemic index is a better predictor of a carbohydrate's effect on blood glucose. Carbohydrates are a superior short-term fuel for organisms because they are simpler to metabolize than fats or those amino acids (components of proteins) that can be used for fuel. In animals, the most important carbohydrate is glucose. The concentration of glucose in the blood is used as the main control for the central metabolic hormone, insulin. Starch, and cellulose in a few organisms (e.g., some animals (such as termites) and some microorganisms (such as protists and bacteria)), both being glucose polymers, are disassembled during digestion and absorbed as glucose. Some simple carbohydrates have their own enzymatic oxidation pathways, as do only a few of the more complex carbohydrates. The disaccharide lactose, for instance, requires the enzyme lactase to be broken into its monosaccharide components; many animals lack this enzyme in adulthood. Carbohydrates are typically stored as long polymers of glucose molecules with glycosidic bonds for structural support (e.g. chitin, cellulose) or for energy storage (e.g. glycogen, starch). However, the strong affinity of most carbohydrates for water makes storage of large quantities of carbohydrates inefficient due to the large molecular weight of the solvated water-carbohydrate complex. In most organisms, excess carbohydrates are regularly catabolised to form acetyl-CoA, which is a feed stock for the fatty acid synthesis pathway; fatty acids, triglycerides, and other lipids are commonly used for long-term energy storage. The hydrophobic character of lipids makes them a much more compact form of energy storage than hydrophilic carbohydrates. However, animals, including humans, lack the necessary enzymatic machinery and so do not synthesize glucose from lipids, though glycerol can be converted to glucose. Oligosaccharides and/or polysaccharides are typically cleaved into smaller monosaccharides by enzymes called glycoside hydrolases. The monosaccharide units then enter monosaccharide catabolism. Organisms vary in the range of monosaccharides they can absorb and use and they can also vary in the range of more complex carbohydrates they are capable of disassembling. The pentose phosphate pathway, which acts in the conversion of hexoses into pentoses and in NADPH regeneration. NADPH is an essential antioxidant in cells which prevents oxidative damage and acts as precursor for production of many biomolecules. The hormoneinsulin is the primary regulatory signal in animals, suggesting that the basic mechanism is very old and very central to animal life. When present, it causes many tissue cells to take up glucose from the circulation, causes some cells to store glucose internally in the form of glycogen, causes some cells to take in and hold lipids, and in many cases controls cellular electrolyte balances and amino acid uptake as well. Its absence turns off glucose uptake into cells, reverses electrolyte adjustments, begins glycogen breakdown and glucose release into the circulation by some cells, begins lipid release from lipid storage cells, etc. The level of circulatory glucose (known informally as "blood sugar") is the most important signal to the insulin-producing cells. Because the level of circulatory glucose is largely determined by the intake of dietary carbohydrates, diet controls major aspects of metabolism via insulin. In humans, insulin is made by beta cells in the pancreas, fat is stored in adipose tissue cells, and glycogen is both stored and released as needed by liver cells. Regardless of insulin levels, no glucose is released to the blood from internal glycogen stores from muscle cells. The hormone glucagon, on the other hand, has an effect opposite to that of insulin, forcing the conversion of glycogen in liver cells to glucose, which is then released into the blood. Muscle cells, however, lack the ability to export glucose into the blood. The release of glucagon is precipitated by low levels of blood glucose. Other hormones, notably growth hormone, cortisol, and certain catecholamines (such as epinepherine) have glucoregulatory actions similar to glucagon. ^Blaack, EE; Saris, WHM (1995). "Health Aspects of Various Digestible Carbohydrates". Nutritional Research15 (10): 1547-73. ^Wolever, Thomas M. S. (2006), The Glycaemic Index: A Physiological Classification of Dietary Carbohydrate, CABI, pg. 65, ISBN 9781845930516. “Indeed, blood glucose responses elicited by pure sugars and fruits suggest rapid absorption because the blood glucose concentration rises more quickly and falls more rapidly than after bread (Wolever et al., 1993; Lee and Wolever, 1998). Further evidence that sugars are rapidly absorbed is provided by recent studies indicating that the switch from oxidation of fat to carbohydrate occurs more rapidly after a high-sucrose meal than a high-starch meal, with the increase in carbohydrate oxidation being sustained for longer after the starch than the sucrose meal (Daly et al., 2000).” ^Jenkins, DJ; Jenkins, AL; Wolever, TM; Josse, RG; Wong, GS (1984). "The glycaemic response to carbohydrate foods". The Lancet324: 388–391. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(84)90554-3.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate_metabolism

Watching this resources will notify you when proposed changes or new versions are created so you can keep track of improvements that have been made. Favoriting this resource allows you to save it in the “My Resources” tab of your account. There, you can easily access this resource later when you’re ready to customize it or assign it to your students. The pollen tube develops from the pollen grain to initiate fertilization; the pollen grain divides into two sperm cells by mitosis; one of the sperm cells unites with the egg cell during fertilization. Once the ovule is fertilized, a diploidsporophyte is produced, which gives rise to the embryo enclosed in a seed coat of tissue from the parent plant. Fetilization and seed development can take years; the seed that is formed is made up of three tissues: the seed coat, the gametophyte, and the embryo. Pine trees are conifers (cone bearing) and carry both male and female sporophylls on the same mature sporophyte. Therefore, they are monoecious plants. Like all gymnosperms, pines are heterosporous, generating two different types of spores: male microspores and female megaspores. In the male cones (staminate cones), the microsporocytes give rise to pollen grains by meiosis. In the spring, large amounts of yellow pollen are released and carried by the wind. Some gametophytes will land on a female cone. Pollination is defined as the initiation of pollen tube growth. The pollen tube develops slowly as the generative cell in the pollen grain divides into two haploid sperm cells by mitosis. At fertilization, one of the sperm cells will finally unite its haploid nucleus with the haploid nucleus of an egg cell. Female cones (ovulate cones) contain two ovules per scale. One megaspore mother cell (megasporocyte) undergoes meiosis in each ovule. Three of the four cells break down leaving only a single surviving cell which will develop into a female multicellular gametophyte. It encloses archegonia (an archegonium is a reproductive organ that contains a single large egg). Upon fertilization, the diploid egg will give rise to the embryo, which is enclosed in a seed coat of tissue from the parent plant. Fertilization and seed development is a long process in pine trees: it may take up to two years after pollination. The seed that is formed contains three generations of tissues: the seed coat that originates from the sporophyte tissue, the gametophyte that will provide nutrients, and the embryo itself. In the life cycle of a conifer, the sporophyte (2n) phase is the longest phase. The gametophytes (1n), microspores and megaspores, are reduced in size. This phase may take more than one year between pollination and fertilization while the pollen tube grows towards the megasporocyte (2n), which undergoes meiosis into megaspores. The megaspores will mature into eggs (1n) . Male & female gametophytes develop from sporophytes., Male & female gametophytes develop from the same cones., Male & female gametophytes are made by separate cones on the same plant., or Male & female gametophytes are made by separate cones on different plants.

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Joint, in anatomy, a structure that separates two or more adjacent elements of the skeletal system. Depending on the type of joint, such separated elements may or may not move on one another. This article discusses the joints of the human body—particularly their structure but also their ligaments, nerve and blood supply, and nutrition. Although the discussion focuses on human joints, its content is applicable to joints of vertebrates in general and mammals in particular. For information about the disorders and injuries that commonly affect human joints, see joint disease. In order to describe the main types of joint structures, it is helpful first to summarize the motions made possible by joints. These motions include spinning, swinging, gliding, rolling, and approximation. Spin is a movement of a bone around its own long axis; it is denoted by the anatomical term rotation. An important example of spin is provided by the radius (outer bone of the forearm); this bone can spin upon the lower end of the humerus (upper arm) in all positions of the elbow. When an individual presses the back of the hand against the mouth, the forearm is pronated, or twisted; when the palm of the hand is pressed against the mouth, the forearm is supinated, or untwisted. Pronation is caused by medial (inward) rotation of the radius and supination by lateral (outward) rotation. Swing, or angular movement, brings about a change in the angle between the long axis of the moving bone and some reference line in the fixed bone. Flexion (bending) and extension (straightening) of the elbow are examples of swing. A swing (to the right or left) of one bone away from another is called abduction; the reverse, adduction. Approximation denotes the movement caused by pressing or pulling one bone directly toward another—i.e., by a “translation” in the physical sense. The reverse of approximation is separation. Gliding and rolling movements occur only within synovial joints and cause a moving bone to swing. Types of joints Considered temporally, joints are either transient or permanent. The bones of a transient joint fuse together sooner or later, but always after birth. All the joints of the skull, for example, are transient except those of the middle ear and those between the lower jaw and the braincase. The bones of a permanent joint do not fuse except as the result of disease or surgery. Such fusion is called arthrodesis. All permanent and some transient joints permit movement. Movement of the latter may be temporary, as with the roof bones of an infant’s skull during birth, or long-term, as with the joints of the base of the skull during postnatal development. There are two basic structural types of joint: diarthrosis, in which fluid is present, and synarthrosis, in which there is no fluid. All the diarthroses (commonly called synovial joints) are permanent. Some of the synarthroses are transient; others are permanent. Synarthroses are divided into three classes: fibrous, symphysis, and cartilaginous.

http://www.britannica.com/science/joint-skeleton

|This article needs additional citations for verification. (January 2008)| |Problems playing this file? See media help.| The Doppler effect (or Doppler shift) is the change in frequency of a wave (or other periodic event) for an observer moving relative to its source. It is named after the Austrian physicist Christian Doppler, who proposed it in 1842 in Prague. It is commonly heard when a vehicle sounding a siren or horn approaches, passes, and recedes from an observer. Compared to the emitted frequency, the received frequency is higher during the approach, identical at the instant of passing by, and lower during the recession. When the source of the waves is moving toward the observer, each successive wave crest is emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous wave. Therefore, each wave takes slightly less time to reach the observer than the previous wave. Hence, the time between the arrival of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced, causing an increase in the frequency. While they are travelling, the distance between successive wave fronts is reduced, so the waves "bunch together". Conversely, if the source of waves is moving away from the observer, each wave is emitted from a position farther from the observer than the previous wave, so the arrival time between successive waves is increased, reducing the frequency. The distance between successive wave fronts is then increased, so the waves "spread out". For waves that propagate in a medium, such as sound waves, the velocity of the observer and of the source are relative to the medium in which the waves are transmitted. The total Doppler effect may therefore result from motion of the source, motion of the observer, or motion of the medium. Each of these effects is analyzed separately. For waves which do not require a medium, such as light or gravity in general relativity, only the relative difference in velocity between the observer and the source needs to be considered. - 1 Developments - 2 General - 3 Analysis - 4 Application - 5 Inverse Doppler effect - 6 See also - 7 References - 8 Further reading - 9 External links Doppler first proposed this effect in 1842 in his treatise "Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels" (On the coloured light of the binary stars and some other stars of the heavens). The hypothesis was tested for sound waves by Buys Ballot in 1845. He confirmed that the sound's pitch was higher than the emitted frequency when the sound source approached him, and lower than the emitted frequency when the sound source receded from him. Hippolyte Fizeau discovered independently the same phenomenon on electromagnetic waves in 1848 (in France, the effect is sometimes called "effet Doppler-Fizeau" but that name was not adopted by the rest of the world as Fizeau's discovery was six years after Doppler's proposal). In Britain, John Scott Russell made an experimental study of the Doppler effect (1848). In classical physics, where the speeds of source and the receiver relative to the medium are lower than the velocity of waves in the medium, the relationship between observed frequency and emitted frequency is given by: - is the velocity of waves in the medium; - is the velocity of the receiver relative to the medium; positive if the receiver is moving towards the source (and negative in the other direction); - is the velocity of the source relative to the medium; positive if the source is moving away from the receiver (and negative in the other direction). The frequency is decreased if either is moving away from the other. The above formula assumes that the source is either directly approaching or receding from the observer. If the source approaches the observer at an angle (but still with a constant velocity), the observed frequency that is first heard is higher than the object's emitted frequency. Thereafter, there is a monotonic decrease in the observed frequency as it gets closer to the observer, through equality when it is coming from a direction perpendicular to the relative motion (and was emitted at the point of closest approach; but when the wave is received, the source and observer will no longer be at their closest), and a continued monotonic decrease as it recedes from the observer. When the observer is very close to the path of the object, the transition from high to low frequency is very abrupt. When the observer is far from the path of the object, the transition from high to low frequency is gradual. If the speeds and are small compared to the speed of the wave, the relationship between observed frequency and emitted frequency is approximately |Observed frequency||Change in frequency| - is the velocity of the receiver relative to the source: it is positive when the source and the receiver are moving towards each other. To understand what happens, consider the following analogy. Someone throws one ball every second at a man. Assume that balls travel with constant velocity. If the thrower is stationary, the man will receive one ball every second. However, if the thrower is moving towards the man, he will receive balls more frequently because the balls will be less spaced out. The inverse is true if the thrower is moving away from the man. So it is actually the wavelength which is affected; as a consequence, the received frequency is also affected. It may also be said that the velocity of the wave remains constant whereas wavelength changes; hence frequency also changes. With an observer stationary relative to the medium, if a moving source is emitting waves with an actual frequency (in this case, the wavelength is changed, the transmission velocity of the wave keeps constant note that the transmission velocity of the wave does not depend on the velocity of the source), then the observer detects waves with a frequency given by A similar analysis for a moving observer and a stationary source (in this case, the wavelength keeps constant, but due to the motion, the rate at which the observer receives waves and hence the transmission velocity of the wave [with respect to the observer] is changed) yields the observed frequency: These can be generalized into the equation that was presented in the previous section. An interesting effect was predicted by Lord Rayleigh in his classic book on sound: if the source is moving at twice the speed of sound, a musical piece emitted by that source would be heard in correct time and tune, but backwards. The Doppler effect with sound is only clearly heard with objects moving at high speed, as change in frequency of musical tone involves a speed of around 40 meters per second, and smaller changes in frequency can easily be confused by changes in the amplitude of the sounds from moving emitters. Neil A Downie has demonstrated how the Doppler effect can be made much more easily audible by using an ultrasonic (e.g. 40 kHz) emitter on the moving object. The observer then uses a heterodyne frequency converter, as used in many bat detectors, to listen to a band around 40 kHz. In this case, with the bat detector tuned to give frequency for the stationary emitter of 2000 Hz, the observer will perceive a frequency shift of a whole tone, 240 Hz, if the emitter travels at 2 meters per second. The siren on a passing emergency vehicle will start out higher than its stationary pitch, slide down as it passes, and continue lower than its stationary pitch as it recedes from the observer. Astronomer John Dobson explained the effect thus: - "The reason the siren slides is because it doesn't hit you." In other words, if the siren approached the observer directly, the pitch would remain constant until the vehicle hit him, and then immediately jump to a new lower pitch. Because the vehicle passes by the observer, the radial velocity does not remain constant, but instead varies as a function of the angle between his line of sight and the siren's velocity: where is the angle between the object's forward velocity and the line of sight from the object to the observer. The Doppler effect for electromagnetic waves such as light is of great use in astronomy and results in either a so-called redshift or blueshift. It has been used to measure the speed at which stars and galaxies are approaching or receding from us; that is, their radial velocities. This may be used to detect if an apparently single star is, in reality, a close binary, to measure the rotational speed of stars and galaxies, or to detect exoplanets. (Note that redshift is also used to measure the expansion of space, but that this is not truly a Doppler effect.) The use of the Doppler effect for light in astronomy depends on our knowledge that the spectra of stars are not homogeneous. They exhibit absorption lines at well defined frequencies that are correlated with the energies required to excite electrons in various elements from one level to another. The Doppler effect is recognizable in the fact that the absorption lines are not always at the frequencies that are obtained from the spectrum of a stationary light source. Since blue light has a higher frequency than red light, the spectral lines of an approaching astronomical light source exhibit a blueshift and those of a receding astronomical light source exhibit a redshift. Among the nearby stars, the largest radial velocities with respect to the Sun are +308 km/s (BD-15°4041, also known as LHS 52, 81.7 light-years away) and -260 km/s (Woolley 9722, also known as Wolf 1106 and LHS 64, 78.2 light-years away). Positive radial velocity means the star is receding from the Sun, negative that it is approaching. The Doppler effect is used in some types of radar, to measure the velocity of detected objects. A radar beam is fired at a moving target — e.g. a motor car, as police use radar to detect speeding motorists — as it approaches or recedes from the radar source. Each successive radar wave has to travel farther to reach the car, before being reflected and re-detected near the source. As each wave has to move farther, the gap between each wave increases, increasing the wavelength. In some situations, the radar beam is fired at the moving car as it approaches, in which case each successive wave travels a lesser distance, decreasing the wavelength. In either situation, calculations from the Doppler effect accurately determine the car's velocity. Moreover, the proximity fuze, developed during World War II, relies upon Doppler radar to detonate explosives at the correct time, height, distance, etc. Because the doppler shift affects the wave incident upon the target as well as the wave reflected back to the radar, the change in frequency observed by a radar due to a target moving at relative velocity is twice that from the same target emitting a wave: Medical imaging and blood flow measurement An echocardiogram can, within certain limits, produce an accurate assessment of the direction of blood flow and the velocity of blood and cardiac tissue at any arbitrary point using the Doppler effect. One of the limitations is that the ultrasound beam should be as parallel to the blood flow as possible. Velocity measurements allow assessment of cardiac valve areas and function, any abnormal communications between the left and right side of the heart, any leaking of blood through the valves (valvular regurgitation), and calculation of the cardiac output. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound using gas-filled microbubble contrast media can be used to improve velocity or other flow-related medical measurements. Although "Doppler" has become synonymous with "velocity measurement" in medical imaging, in many cases it is not the frequency shift (Doppler shift) of the received signal that is measured, but the phase shift (when the received signal arrives). Velocity measurements of blood flow are also used in other fields of medical ultrasonography, such as obstetric ultrasonography and neurology. Velocity measurement of blood flow in arteries and veins based on Doppler effect is an effective tool for diagnosis of vascular problems like stenosis. Instruments such as the laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV), and acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV) have been developed to measure velocities in a fluid flow. The LDV emits a light beam and the ADV emits an ultrasonic acoustic burst, and measure the Doppler shift in wavelengths of reflections from particles moving with the flow. The actual flow is computed as a function of the water velocity and phase. This technique allows non-intrusive flow measurements, at high precision and high frequency. Velocity profile measurement Developed originally for velocity measurements in medical applications (blood flow), Ultrasonic Doppler Velocimetry (UDV) can measure in real time complete velocity profile in almost any liquids containing particles in suspension such as dust, gas bubbles, emulsions. Flows can be pulsating, oscillating, laminar or turbulent, stationary or transient. This technique is fully non-invasive. Fast moving satellites can have a Doppler shift of dozens of kilohertz relative to a ground station. The speed, thus magnitude of Doppler effect, changes due to earth curvature. Dynamic Doppler compensation, where the frequency of a signal is changed multiple times during transmission, is used so the satellite receives a constant frequency signal. The Leslie speaker, associated with and predominantly used with the Hammond B-3 organ, takes advantage of the Doppler effect by using an electric motor to rotate an acoustic horn around a loudspeaker, sending its sound in a circle. This results at the listener's ear in rapidly fluctuating frequencies of a keyboard note. A laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) is a non-contact method for measuring vibration. The laser beam from the LDV is directed at the surface of interest, and the vibration amplitude and frequency are extracted from the Doppler shift of the laser beam frequency due to the motion of the surface. During the segmentation of vertebrate embroys, waves of gene expression sweep across the presomitic mesoderm, the tissue from which the precursors of the vertebrae (somites) are formed. A new somite is formed upon arrival of a wave at the anterior end of the presomitic mesoderm. In zebrafish, it has been shown that the shortening of the presomitic mesoderm during segmentation leads to a Doppler effect as the anterior end of the tissue moves into the waves. This Doppler effect contributes to the period of segmentation. Inverse Doppler effect Since 1968 scientists such as Victor Veselago have speculated about the possibility of an inverse Doppler effect. The experiment that claimed to have detected this effect was conducted by Nigel Seddon and Trevor Bearpark in Bristol, United Kingdom in 2003. Researchers from Swinburne University of Technology and the University of Shanghai for Science and Technology showed that this effect can be observed in optical frequencies as well. This was made possible by growing a photonic crystal and projecting a laser beam into the crystal. This made the crystal act like a super prism and the inverse Doppler effect could be observed. - Relativistic Doppler effect - Doppler cooling - Fizeau experiment - Photoacoustic Doppler effect - Differential Doppler effect - Rayleigh fading - Alec Eden The search for Christian Doppler,Springer-Verlag, Wien 1992. Contains a facsimile edition with an English translation. - Buys Ballot (1845). "Akustische Versuche auf der Niederländischen Eisenbahn, nebst gelegentlichen Bemerkungen zur Theorie des Hrn. Prof. Doppler (in German)". Annalen der Physik und Chemie 11: 321–351. Bibcode:1845AnP...142..321B. doi:10.1002/andp.18451421102. - Fizeau: "Acoustique et optique". Lecture, Société Philomathique de Paris, 29 December 1848. According to Becker(pg. 109), this was never published, but recounted by M. Moigno(1850): "Répertoire d'optique moderne" (in French), vol 3. pp 1165-1203 and later in full by Fizeau, "Des effets du mouvement sur le ton des vibrations sonores et sur la longeur d'onde des rayons de lumière"; [Paris, 1870]. Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 19, 211-221. - Scott Russell, John (1848). "On certain effects produced on sound by the rapid motion of the observer". Report of the Eighteenth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (John Murray, London in 1849) 18 (7): 37–38. Retrieved 2008-07-08. - Rosen, Joe; Gothard, Lisa Quinn (2009). Encyclopedia of Physical Science. Infobase Publishing. p. 155. ISBN 0-8160-7011-3. Extract of page 155 - Strutt (Lord Rayleigh), John William (1896). MacMillan & Co, ed. The Theory of Sound 2 (2 ed.). p. 154. - Downie, Neil A, 'Vacuum Bazookas, Electric Rainbow Jelly and 27 other projects for Saturday Science', Princeton (2001) ISBn 0-691-00986-4 - The distinction is made clear in Harrison, Edward Robert (2000). Cosmology: The Science of the Universe (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 306ff. ISBN 0-521-66148-X. - Evans, D. H.; McDicken, W. N. (2000). Doppler Ultrasound (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-97001-8.[page needed] - Qingchong, Liu (1999), "Doppler measurement and compensation in mobile satellite communications systems", Military Communications Conference Proceedings / MILCOM 1: 316–320, doi:10.1109/milcom.1999.822695 - Soroldoni, D.; Jörg, D. J.; Morelli, L. G.; Richmond, D. L.; Schindelin, J.; Jülicher, F.; Oates, A. C. (2014). "A Doppler Effect in Embryonic Pattern Formation". Science 345: 222–225. Bibcode:2014Sci...345..222S. doi:10.1126/science.1253089. PMID 25013078. - Kozyrev, Alexander B.; van der Weide, Daniel W. (2005). "Explanation of the Inverse Doppler Effect Observed in Nonlinear Transmission Lines". Physical Review Letters 94 (20): 203902. Bibcode:2005PhRvL..94t3902K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.94.203902. PMID 16090248. Lay summary – Phys.org (May 23, 2005). - Scientists reverse Doppler Effect, physorg.com, March 7, 2011, retrieved 2011-03-18 - Doppler, C. (1842). Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels (About the coloured light of the binary stars and some other stars of the heavens). Publisher: Abhandlungen der Königl. Böhm. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften (V. Folge, Bd. 2, S. 465-482) [Proceedings of the Royal Bohemian Society of Sciences (Part V, Vol 2)]; Prague: 1842 (Reissued 1903). Some sources mention 1843 as year of publication because in that year the article was published in the Proceedings of the Bohemian Society of Sciences. Doppler himself referred to the publication as "Prag 1842 bei Borrosch und André", because in 1842 he had a preliminary edition printed that he distributed independently. - "Doppler and the Doppler effect", E. N. da C. Andrade, Endeavour Vol. XVIII No. 69, January 1959 (published by ICI London). Historical account of Doppler's original paper and subsequent developments. - Adrian, Eleni (24 June 1995). "Doppler Effect". NCSA. Retrieved 2008-07-13. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Doppler effect.| - Doppler Effect, [ScienceWorld] - Java simulation of Doppler effect - Doppler Shift for Sound and Light at MathPages - Flash simulation and game of Doppler effect of sound at Scratch (programming language) - The Doppler Effect and Sonic Booms (D.A. Russell, Kettering University) - Video Mashup with Doppler Effect videos - Wave Propagation from John de Pillis. An animation showing that the speed of a moving wave source does not affect the speed of the wave. - EM Wave Animation from John de Pillis. How an electromagnetic wave propagates through a vacuum - Doppler Shift Demo - Interactive flash simulation for demonstrating Doppler shift. - Interactive applets at Physics 2000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_effect

A stereotype is a popular belief about specific types of individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings. Stereotypes are standardized and simplified conceptions of people based on some prior assumptions.Another name for stereotyping is bias. A bias is a tendency, most of these are good, but sometimes stereotyping can turn into discrimination if we misinterpret a bias and act upon it in a negative manner. The stereotype was invented by Firmin Didot in the world of printing; it was originally a duplicate impression of an original typographical element, used for printing instead of the original. American journalist Walter Lippmann coined the metaphor, calling a stereotype a "picture in our heads" saying, "Whether right or wrong (...) imagination is shaped by the pictures seen (...) originally printers' words, and in their literal printers' meanings were synonymous. Specifically, cliché was a French word for the printing surface for a stereotype. The first reference to "stereotype," in its modern, English use was in 1850, in the noun, meaning "image perpetuated without change." In one perspective of the stereotyping process, there are the concepts of ingroups and outgroups. From each individual's perspective, ingroups are viewed as normal and superior, and are generally the group that they already associate with, or aspire to join. An outgroup is simply all the other groups. They are seen as lesser than or inferior to the in-groups. An example of this would be: Asians are smarter than Americans. In this example Asians are looked at as being smarter because their education systems are more strict than that of the Americans. A second perspective is that of automatic and explicit or subconscious and conscious. Automatic or subconscious stereotyping is that which everyone does without noticing. Automatic stereotyping is quickly preceded by an explicit or conscious check which permits time for any needed corrections. Automatic stereotyping is affected by explicit stereotyping because frequent conscious thoughts will quickly develop into subconscious stereotypes. A third method to categorizing stereotypes is general types and sub-types. Stereotypes consist of hierarchical systems consisting of broad and specific groups being the general types and sub-types respectively. A general type could be defined as a broad stereotype typically known among many people and usually widely accepted, whereas the sub-group would be one of the several groups making up the general group. These would be more specific, and opinions of these groups would vary according to differing perspectives. Certain circumstances can affect the way an individual stereotypes. Some theorists argue in favor of the conceptual connection and that one's own subjective thought about someone is sufficient information to make assumptions about that individual. Other theorists argue that at minimum there must be a causal connection between mental states and behavior to make assumptions or stereotypes. Thus results and opinions may vary according to circumstance and theory. An example of a common, incorrect assumption is that of assuming certain internal characteristics based on external appearance. The explanation for one's actions is his or her internal state (goals, feeling, personality, traits, motives, values, and impulses), not his or her appearance. Sociologist Charles E. Hurst, "One reason for stereotypes is the lack of personal, concrete familiarity that individuals have with persons in other racial or ethnic groups. Lack of familiarity encourages the lumping together of unknown individuals." Stereotypes focus upon and thereby exaggerate differences between groups. Competition between groups minimizes similarities and magnifies differences. This makes it seem as if groups are very different when in fact they may be more alike than different. For example, among African Americans, identity as an American citizen is more salient than racial background; that is, African Americans are more American than African. Different disciplines give different accounts of how stereotypes develop: Psychologists may focus on an individual's experience with groups, patterns of communication about those groups, and intergroup conflict. Pioneering psychologist William James cautioned psychologists themselves to be wary of their own stereotyping, in what he called the psychologist's fallacy. Sociologists focus on the relations among different groups in a social structure. Psychoanalytically-oriented humanists (e.g., Sander Gilman) have argued that stereotypes, by definition, are representations that are not accurate, but a projection of one to another. A number of theories have been derived from sociological studies of stereotyping and prejudicial thinking. In early studies it was believed that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, and authoritarian people. Sociologists concluded that this was a result of conflict, poor parenting, and inadequate mental and emotional development. This idea has been overturned; more recent studies have concluded that stereotypes are commonplace. One theory as to why people stereotype is that it is too difficult to take in all of the complexities of other people as individuals. Even though stereotyping is inexact, it is an efficient way to mentally organize large blocks of information. Categorization is an essential human capability because it enables us to simplify, predict, and organize our world. Once one has sorted and organized everyone into tidy categories, there is a human tendency to avoid processing new or unexpected information about each individual. Assigning general group characteristics to members of that group saves time and satisfies the need to predict the social world in a general sense. Some psychologist believe that childhood influences are some of the most complex and influential factors in developing stereotypes. Though they can be absorbed at any age, stereotypes are usually acquired in early childhood under the influence of parents, teachers, peers, and the media. Once a stereotype is learned, it often becomes self-perpetuating. Another prominent theory is the stereotype content model which attempts to predict behavior based on levels of warmth and competence. See main article: Stereotype threat. Stereotypes can have a negative and positive impact on individuals. Joshua Aronson and Claude M. Steele have done research on the psychological effects of stereotyping, particularly its effect on African Americans and women. They argue that psychological research has shown that competence is highly responsive to situation and interactions with others. They cite, for example, a study which found that bogus feedback to college students dramatically affected their IQ test performance, and another in which students were either praised as very smart, congratulated on their hard work, or told that they scored high. The group praised as smart performed significantly worse than the others. They believe that there is an 'innate ability bias'. These effects are not just limited to minority groups. Mathematically competent white males, mostly math and engineering students, were asked to take a difficult math test. One group was told that this was being done to determine why Asians were scoring better. This group performed significantly worse than the control group. Possible prejudicial effects of stereotypes are: Stereotypes allow individuals to make better informed evaluations of individuals about whom they possess little or no individuating information, and in many, but not all circumstances stereotyping helps individuals arrive at more accurate conclusions. Over time, some victims of negative stereotypes display self-fulfilling prophecy behavior, in which they assume that the stereotype represents norms to emulate. Negative effects may include forming inaccurate opinions of people, scapegoating, erroneous judgmentalism, preventing emotional identification, distress, and impaired performance. Yet, the stereotype that stereotypes are inaccurate, resistant to change, overgeneralized, exaggerated, and destructive is not founded on empirical social science research, which instead shows that stereotypes are often accurate and that people do not rely on stereotypes when relevant personal information is available. Indeed, Jussim et al. comment that ethnic and gender stereotypes are surprisingly accurate, while stereotypes concerning political affiliation and nationality are much less accurate; the stereotypes assessed for accuracy concerned intelligence, behavior, personality, and economic status. Stereotype accuracy is a growing area of study and for Yueh-Ting Lee and his colleagues they have created an EPA Model (Evaluation, Potency, Accuracy) to describe the continuously changing variables of stereotypes. Stereotypes are common in various cultural media, where they take the form of dramatic stock characters. These characters are found in the works of playwright Bertold Brecht, Dario Fo, and Jacques Lecoq, who characterize their actors as stereotypes for theatrical effect. In commedia dell'arte this is similarly common. The instantly recognizable nature of stereotypes mean that they are effective in advertising and situation comedy. These stereotypes change, and in modern times only a few of the stereotyped characters shown in John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress would be recognizable. In literature and art, stereotypes are clichéd or predictable characters or situations. Throughout history, storytellers have drawn from stereotypical characters and situations, in order to connect the audience with new tales immediately. Sometimes such stereotypes can be sophisticated, such as Shakespeare's Shylock in The Merchant of Venice. Arguably a stereotype that becomes complex and sophisticated ceases to be a stereotype per se by its unique characterization. Thus while Shylock remains politically unstable in being a stereotypical Jew, the subject of prejudicial derision in Shakespeare's era, his many other detailed features raise him above a simple stereotype and into a unique character, worthy of modern performance. Simply because one feature of a character can be categorized as being typical does not make the entire character a stereotype. Despite their proximity in etymological roots, cliché and stereotype are not used synonymously in cultural spheres. For example a cliché is a high criticism in narratology where genre and categorization automatically associates a story within its recognizable group. Labeling a situation or character in a story as typical suggests it is fitting for its genre or category. Whereas declaring that a storyteller has relied on cliché is to pejoratively observe a simplicity and lack of originality in the tale. To criticize Ian Fleming for a stereotypically unlikely escape for James Bond would be understood by the reader or listener, but it would be more appropriately criticized as a cliché in that it is overused and reproduced. Narrative genre relies heavily on typical features to remain recognizable and generate meaning in the reader/viewer. Some contemporary studies indicate that racial, ethnic and cultural stereotypes are still widespread in Hollywood blockbuster movies. See also: Anti-Igbo sentiment. See main article: Anti-Europeanism. See also: Albanophobia, Anglophobia, Anti-British sentiment, Anti-Catalanism, Francophobia, Anti-German sentiment, Anti-Italianism, Anti-Polish sentiment, Lusophobia, Antiziganism, Anti-Romanian discrimination, Anti-Estonian sentiment, Anti-Serb sentiment, Anti-Scottish sentiment, Anti-Sovietism and Anti-Ukrainian sentiment. See main article: Stereotypes of Jews. See main article: LGBT stereotypes.

http://everything.explained.today/Stereotype/

Midnight Judges Act The Midnight Judges Act (also known as the Judiciary Act of 1801; 2 Stat. 89, or the Midnight Appointments) represented an effort to solve an issue in the U.S. Supreme Court during the early 19th century. There was concern, beginning in 1789, about the system that required the Justices of the Supreme Court to “ride circuit” and reiterate decisions made in the appellate level courts. The Supreme Court Justices have often voiced concern and suggested that the judges of the Supreme and circuit courts be divided. Jefferson did not want the judiciary to gain more power over the executive branch. The Act reduced the number of seats on the Supreme Court from 6 to 5, effective upon the next vacancy in the Court. No such vacancy occurred during the brief period the Act was in effect, so the size of the Court remained unchanged. It reorganized the circuit courts, doubling them in number from three to six, and created three new circuit judgeships for each circuit (except the sixth, which received only one circuit judge). In addition to creating new lifetime posts for Federalist judges, the circuit judgeships were intended to relieve the Justices of the Supreme Court from the hardships of riding circuit (that is, sitting as judges on the circuit courts). The circuit judge-ships were abolished in 1802, and the Justices continued to ride circuit until 1879. One of the judges on the Supreme Court appointed by Adams was Chief Justice John Marshall. It also reorganized the district courts, creating ten. These courts were to be presided over by the existing district judges in most cases. In addition to subdividing several of the existing district courts, it created the District of Ohio which covered the Northwest and Indiana Territories, and the District of Potomac from the District of Columbia and pieces of Maryland and Virginia, which was the first time a federal judicial district crossed state lines. However, the district courts for Kentucky and Tennessee were abolished, and their judges reassigned to the circuit courts. In addition, it gave the circuit courts jurisdiction to hear "all cases in law or equity, arising under the constitution and laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority." This form of jurisdiction, now known as federal question jurisdiction, had not previously been granted to the federal courts. The Midnight Judges In the nineteen days between passage of this Act and the conclusion of his administration, President Adams quickly filled as many of the newly created circuit judgeships as possible. The new judges were known as the Midnight Judges because Adams was said to be signing their appointments at midnight prior to President Thomas Jefferson's inauguration. (Actually, only three commissions were signed on his last day.) The famous Supreme Court case of Marbury v. Madison involved one of these "midnight" appointments, although it was an appointment to a judgeship of the District of Columbia, which was authorized under a different Act of Congress, not the Judiciary Act. Attempts to solve this situation before and throughout the presidency of John Adams were overshadowed by more pressing foreign and domestic issues that occupied Congress during the early years of the nation’s development. None of those attempts to fix the situation facing the Supreme Court was successful until John Adams took control in 1797. Faced with the Election of 1800, a watershed moment in American history that represented not only the struggle to correctly organize the foundation of the United States government but also the culmination of struggle between the waning Federalist Party and the rising Democratic-Republican Party, John Adams successfully reorganized the nation’s court system with the Judiciary Act of 1801. The Election of 1800 During the Election of 1800, there was an intense growth of partisan politics, the political party of the executive branch of government changed for the first time, and there was an unprecedented peaceful transition of the political orientation of the country’s leadership. The main issues in this election were taxes, the military, peace negotiations with France, and the Alien and Sedition Acts and Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. The campaign leading up to this election and the election itself revealed sharp divisions within the Federalist Party. Alexander Hamilton and the extreme Federalists attacked Adams for his persistence for peace with France, his opposition to building an army, and his failure to enforce the Alien & Sedition Acts. The results of this election favored Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr over John Adams, but both Jefferson and Burr got 73 electoral votes. Presented with a tie, the House of Representatives, which was dominated by Federalists and led by Alexander Hamilton, eventually decided the election in favor of Thomas Jefferson. Democratic-Republicans also won control of the legislative branch of government after the congressional elections. Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated March 4, 1801 without the presence of President John Adams. Jefferson's inaugural address attempted to appease the Federalists by promising to maintain the strength of the federal government and to pay off the national debt. Jefferson spoke of dangerous “entangling alliances” with foreign countries as George Washington did, and made a plea for national unity claiming that “we are all republicans and we are all federalists.” Once elected, Jefferson set out to rescind the Judiciary Act of 1801 and remove newly appointed Federalists. Marbury v. Madison The implications of Adams's actions in appointing Federalists to the Supreme Court and the Federal courts, led to one of the most important decisions in American judicial history. Marbury v. Madison solidified the United States' system of checks and balances and gave the judicial branch equal power with the executive and legislative branches. This controversial case began with Adams’ appointment of Federalist William Marbury as a Justice of the Peace in the District of Columbia. When the newly appointed Secretary of State James Madison refused to process Marbury’s selection, Marbury requested a writ of mandamus, which would force Madison to make his appointment official. Chief Justice John Marshall declared that the Supreme Court did not have the authority to force Madison to make the appointment official. This statement actually challenged the Judiciary Act of 1789, which stated that the Supreme Court did, in fact, have the right to issue those writs. Marshall, therefore, ruled that part of the Judiciary Act of 1789 unconstitutional because the Constitution did not expressly grant this power to the judiciary. In deciding the constitutionality of an act of Congress, Marshall established judicial review, the most significant development in the history of the Supreme Court. Impeachment of Samuel Chase Among the repercussions of the repeal of the Judiciary Act was the first and, to date, only impeachment of a sitting Supreme Court Justice, Samuel Chase. Chase, a Federalist appointed to the Supreme Court by George Washington, had publicly attacked the repeal in May 1803 while issuing his charge to a grand jury in Baltimore, Maryland: "The late alteration of the federal judiciary...will take away all security for property and personal liberty, and our Republican constitution will sink into a mobocracy, the worst of all popular governments." Jefferson responded to the attack by suggesting to his supporters in the U.S. House of Representatives that Chase be impeached, asking, "Ought the seditious and official attack on the principles of our Constitution . . .to go unpunished?" The House took Jefferson's suggestion, impeaching Chase in 1804. He was acquitted by the Senate of all charges in March 1805. Federal question jurisdiction The repeal of the Judiciary Act also ended the brief period of comprehensive Federal-question jurisdiction. The federal courts would not receive such jurisdiction again until 1875. - Turner, Katheryn. “Republican Policy and the Judiciary Act of.” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 22. January 1965. New York: Columbia University Press, 1992. Page 5. - Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803). - Elkins, Stanley M.; McKitrick, Eric; The Age of Federalism; New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. p. 731. - Stephenson, D. Grier; Campaigns and The Court: The U.S. Supreme Court in Presidential Elections; New York: Columbia University Press, c1999. Page 48. - “The John Adams Administration.” Presidential Administration Profiles for Students. Online Edition. Gale Group. Pages 1, 3. - “The Thomas Jefferson Administrations.” Presidential Administration Profiles for Students. Online Edition. Gale Group, 2002. Page 3. - Elkins, Stanley M.; McKitrick, Eric; The Age of Federalism; New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. p. 731 - 732. - Rehnquist, William H. Grand Inquests: The Historic Impeachments of Justice Samuel Chase and President Andrew Johnson. Quill: 1992, p.52 - Jerry W. Knudson, "The Jeffersonian Assault on the Federalist Judiciary, 1802-1805: Political Forces and Press Reaction," American Journal of Legal History 1970 14(1): 55-75; Richard Ellis, "The Impeachment of Samuel Chase," in American Political Trials, ed. by Michael R. Belknap (1994) pp 57-76, quote on p. 64. - James M. O'Fallon, The Case of Benjamin More: A Lost Episode in the Struggle over Repeal of the 1801 Judiciary Act, 11 Law & Hist. Rev. 43 (1993).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midnight_Judges_Act

Astronomy & Space Classroom Resources This collection of lessons and web resources is aimed at classroom teachers, their students, and students' families. Most of these resources come from the National Science Digital Library (NSDL). NSDL is the National Science Foundation's online library of resources for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education. See www.nsdl.org Teachers' Domain: Earth in the Universe Resource: Educator (grades K-12) This Web site provides a collection of information and lesson plans on the topic of Earth and the Universe. Navigate this site with ease to access information. ComPADRE Pathway for Physics and Astronomy Education Communities Resource: Educator (grades K-12) The ComPADRE Digital Library is a network of free online resource collections for faculty, college students, and teachers in Physics and Astronomy education. The site offers online discussions and tutorials for students, resources for physics and astronomy teachers in grades K-12, research for college faculty and information on available learning opportunities. Resource: General Public Maintained by astronomer Phil Plait, this Web site has a new home at Discover Blog and is devoted to correcting myths and misconceptions about astronomy and related topics. Plait is a skeptic, and fights misuses of science as well as praising the wonder of real science. The site provides numerous links to support Plait's opinion and is sometimes quite entertaining but always thought provoking. Eyes on the Sky and Feet on the Ground Resource: Educator (grades K-6) and Parents This Web site promotes an understanding of the scientific process of investigation and includes suggestions for discussions before and after explorations. There are lesson plans for hands-on activities broken down by levels: K-2, 2-4, and 4-6. A most valuable resource for teaching inquiry-based science to young children leading their curiosity to question and explore. Marshall Space Flight Center Education Resource: Educator (grades K-12) and Parents This NASA Web page provides resources for students and educators and offers detailed information on the educational programs and research opportunities offered by the Marshall Space Flight Center. The page has something for all ages of students as well as educators and parents. Resource: Educator (grades 6-8) and General Public The Amazing Space Web site promotes the science and majestic beauty of the universe for use in the classroom. Content developed for educators and learners of all ages is accurate, classroom-friendly, visually appealing, and carefully crafted to adhere to accepted educational standards. By sharing Hubble Space Telescope's greatest discoveries, learners of all ages will enjoy learning about the universe and gain an even greater understanding of it in the future. Exploration of the Universe (EUD) Resource: Educator (grades 8-12) and Students (grades 8-12) The Education and Outreach page of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center Web site provides background information about the structure and evolution of the universe. This page is a valuable resource for educators and students. Resource: Educator (grades K-high education), Students (grades K-higher education) and General Public The NASA home page provides everyone with the latest information from space. The home page allows users to choose an information path for Educators, Students, and the general public. Astronomy & Space Research Overview Resource: All Audiences Information on NSF.gov website reviewing polar research. Site provides information on life in the poles to climate change. Information is current with eye-catching visuals. Targets grades K-12.

http://[email protected]/news/classroom/astronomy.jsp

Monitoring a volcano requires scientists to use of a variety of techniques that can hear and see activity inside a volcano. The USGS Volcano Hazards Program monitors volcanoes to detect signs of change that forewarn of volcanic reawakening. To fully understand a volcano's behavior, monitoring should include several types of observations (earthquakes, ground movement, volcanic gas, rock chemistry, water chemistry, remote satellite analysis) on a continuous or near-real-time basis. Scientists collect data from the instrument networks then analyze them to look for out-of-the-ordinary signals. By comparing the data analysis with similar results from past volcanic events, volcanologists are better able to forecast changes in volcanic activity and determine whether and when a volcano might erupt in the future. Most data can be accessed from our offices in the observatories but visits to the volcanoes, when possible, add valuable information. Rapid advances in technology are helping scientists develop efficient and accurate monitoring equipment. These new systems are capable of collecting and transmitting accurate real-time data from the volcano back to Observatory offices, which improves eruption forecasting. It is important that instruments be installed during quiet times when volcanoes are not active so that they are ready to detect the slightest bit of volcanic stirring. Early detection gives the maximum amount of time for people to prepare for an eruption. When a volcano begins showing new or unusual signs of activity, monitoring data help answer critical questions necessary for assessing and then communicating timely information about volcanic hazards. For example, prior to the 2004 eruption at Mount St. Helens monitoring equipment recorded a large increase in earthquake activity. Scientists quickly examined other monitoring data including gas, ground deformation, and satellite imagery to assess if magma or fluid was moving towards the surface. Based on the history of the volcano and the analysis of the monitoring data scientists were able to determine the types of magma could be moving towards the surface. This type of knowledge helps scientists figure out the possible types of volcanic activity and the associated hazards to people. Knowing the hazards helps officials determine which real-time warnings are needed to prevent loss of life and property.

http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/vhp/monitoring.html

Salmonellosis is a foodborne illness caused by infection with Salmonella bacteria. Most infections are spread to people through consumption of contaminated food (usually meat, poultry, eggs, or milk). Salmonella infections affect the intestines and cause vomiting, fever, and cramping, which usually clear up without medical treatment. You can help prevent Salmonella infections by not serving any raw meat or eggs, and by not keeping reptiles as pets, particularly if you have very young children. Hand washing is a powerful way to guard against Salmonella infections. So teach kids to wash their hands, particularly after trips to the bathroom and before handling food in any way. Not everyone who ingests Salmonella bacteria will become ill. Children, especially infants, are most likely to get sick from it. About 50,000 cases of salmonellosis are reported in the United States each year and about a third of those are in kids 4 years old or younger. There are many different types of Salmonella bacteria. The type responsible for most infections in humans is carried by chickens, cows, pigs, and reptiles (such as turtles, lizards, and iguanas). Another, rarer form — called Salmonella Typhi (S.Typhi) — causes typhoid fever. People usually get typhoid fever by drinking beverages or eating food that has been handled by someone who has typhoid fever or is a carrier of the illness. Most cases are in developing countries where clean water and other sanitation measures are hard to come by. Signs and Symptoms A Salmonella infection generally causes nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea (sometimes bloody), fever, and headache. Because many different kinds of illnesses can cause these symptoms, most doctors will take a stool sample to make an accurate diagnosis. Symptoms of most infections start within 3 days of contamination and usually go away without medical treatment. At first, typhoid fever caused by Salmonella bacteria looks similar to infections by non-typhoid Salmonella. But in the second week, the liver and spleen can become enlarged, and a distinctive "rose spotted" skin rash may appear. From there, the infection can cause other health problems, like meningitis and pneumonia. People at risk for more serious complications from a Salmonella infection include those who: - have problems with their immune systems (such as people with HIV) - take cancer-fighting drugs - have sickle cell disease or an absent or nonfunctioning spleen - take chronic stomach acid suppression medication In these higher-risk groups, most doctors will treat an infection with antibiotics to prevent it from spreading to other parts of the body. Here are some ways to help prevent Salmonella bacteria from making your family sick: - Cook food thoroughly. Salmonella bacteria are most commonly found in animal products and can be killed by the heat of cooking. Don't serve raw or undercooked eggs, poultry, or meat. Microwaving is not a reliable way to kill the bacteria. If you're pregnant, be especially careful to avoid undercooked foods. - Take care with eggs. Because Salmonella bacteria can contaminate even intact and disinfected grade A eggs, cook them well and avoid serving poached or sunny-side up eggs (with runny yolks). - Clean cooking surfaces regularly. Salmonellosis also can spread through cross-contamination, so when you're preparing meals, keep uncooked meats away from cooked and ready-to-eat foods. Thoroughly wash your hands, cutting boards, counters, and knives after handling uncooked foods. - Avoid foods that might contain raw-food products. Caesar salad dressing, the Italian dessert tiramisu, homemade ice cream, chocolate mousse, eggnog, cookie dough, and frostings can contain raw eggs. Unpasteurized milk and juices also can be contaminated with Salmonella. - Wash hands often. Fecal matter (poop) is often the source of Salmonella contamination, so hand washing is extremely important, especially after using the toilet and before preparing food. - Take care with pets. Avoid contact with the feces of family pets — especially reptiles. Wash your hands thoroughly after handling an animal and make sure that no reptiles are permitted to come into contact with a baby. Even healthy reptiles (especially turtles and iguanas) are not safe pets for small children and should not be in the same house as an infant. - Don't cook food for others if you are sick, especially if you have vomiting or diarrhea. - Keep food chilled. Don't leave cooked food out for more than 2 hours after serving (1 hour on a hot day) and store it promptly. Also, keep your refrigerator set to under 40ºF (4.4ºC). If your child has salmonellosis and a healthy immune system, your doctor may let the infection pass without giving any medicines. But any time a child develops a fever, headache, or bloody diarrhea, call the doctor to rule out any other problems. If your child is infected and has a fever, you may want to give acetaminophen to reduce his or her temperature and relieve cramping. As with any infection that causes diarrhea, it's important to give your child plenty of liquids to avoid dehydration. Reviewed by: Rupal Christine Gupta, MD Date reviewed: August 2014 |Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) The CDC (the national public health institute of the United States) promotes health and quality of life by preventing and controlling disease, injury, and disability.| |U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) The FDA is responsible for protecting the public health by ensuring the safety, efficacy, and security of human and veterinary drugs, biological products, medical devices, our nation's food supply, cosmetics, and products that emit radiation.| |CDC: Travelers' Health Look up vaccination requirements for travel destinations, get updates on international outbreaks, and more, searachable by country.| |U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) The USDA works to enhance the quality of life for people by supporting the production of agriculture.| |E. Coli Undercooked burgers and unwashed produce are among the foods that can harbor E. coli bacteria and lead to infection marked by severe diarrhea. Here's how to protect your family.| |Yersiniosis Yersiniosis is an uncommon infection caused by the consumption of undercooked meat products, unpasteurized milk, or water contaminated by the bacteria.| |Food Safety for Your Family Why is food safety important? And how can you be sure your kitchen and the foods you prepare in it are safe?| |Why Is Hand Washing So Important? Did you know that proper hand washing is the best way to keep from getting sick? Here's how to teach this all-important habit to your kids.| |Campylobacter Infections These bacterial infections can cause diarrhea, cramping, abdominal pain, and fever. Good hand-washing and food safety habits can prevent them.| |Food Poisoning Sometimes, germs can get into food and cause food poisoning. Find out what to do if your child gets food poisoning - and how to prevent it.| |What Are Germs? Germs are the microscopic bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa that can cause disease. With a little prevention, you can keep harmful germs out of your family's way.| |Typhoid Fever While typhoid fever isn't common in the U.S., it can be a health threat elsewhere. Learn about this illness and how to prevent it.| |Stool Test: Bacteria Culture A stool culture helps doctors determine if there's a bacterial infection in the intestines.| |Produce Precautions Kids need daily servings of fruits and vegetables. Here's how to make sure the produce you buy and prepare is safe.| |Listeria Infections Listeriosis, a serious infection caused by eating food contaminated with a bacterium, primarily affects pregnant women, newborns, and adults with weakened immune systems. Some simple precautions can protect your family from infection.| |Fever and Taking Your Child's Temperature Although it can be frightening when your child's temperature rises, fever itself causes no harm and can actually be a good thing - it's often the body's way of fighting infections.| |Diarrhea Most kids battle diarrhea from time to time, so it's important to know what to do to relieve and even prevent it.| Note: All information is for educational purposes only. For specific medical advice, diagnoses, and treatment, consult your doctor. © 1995-2016 KidsHealth® All rights reserved. Images provided by iStock, Getty Images, Corbis, Veer, Science Photo Library, Science Source Images, Shutterstock, and Clipart.com

http://www.childrensdayton.org/cms/kidshealth/5ae9735bd2d3709f/index.html

CHAPTER 3 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION Discrete Probability Distribution Jan 2009 : At the end of the lecture, you will be able to : - select an appropriate discrete probability distribution * binomial distribution or * poisson distribution to calculate probabilities in specific application - calculate the probability, means and variance for each of the discrete distributions presented DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION Learning Objectives: Jan 2009 Bernoulli Trials : experiment with two possible outcomes, either ‘ Success’ or ‘failure’. Probability of success is given as p and probability of failure is 1- p BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION Bin(n,p) Requirements of a binomial experiment: * n Bernoulli trials * trials are independent * that each trial have a constant probability p of success. Example binomial experiment: tossing the same coin successively and independently n times Jan 2009 BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION Bin( n , p ) A binomial random variable X associated with a binomial experiment consisting of n trials is defined as: X = the number of ‘success’ among n trials The probability mass function of X is Mean and Variance: A random variable that has a binomial distribution with parameters n and p , is denoted by X ~ Bin ( n , p ) Jan 2009 Poisson Probability Distribution Conditions to apply the Poisson Probability distribution are: 1. x is a discrete random variable 2. The occurrences are random 3. The occurrences are independent Useful to model the number of times that a certain event occurs per unit of time, distance, or volume. Examples of application of Poisson probability distribution <ul><li>The number of telephone calls received by an office during </li></ul><ul><li>a given day </li></ul>ii) The number of defects in a five-foot-long iron rod. Jan 2009 Poisson Probability Distribution, X ~ P( ) The probability of x occurrences in an interval is where is the mean number of occurrences in that interval. ( per unit time or per unit area) Mean and Variance: Jan 2009 <ul><li>Carry out experiment to estimate that represents the </li></ul><ul><li>mean number of events that occur in one unit time/ space </li></ul>* The number of events X that occur in t units of time is counted and is estimated. * If the number of events are independent and events cannot occur simultaneously, then X follows a Poisson distribution. A process that produces such events is a Poisson process Let denote the mean number of events that occur in one unit of time.Let N T denote the number of events that are observed to occur in T units of time or space, then N T ~ P ( T), Poisson Process A particular slide catching your eye? Clipping is a handy way to collect important slides you want to go back to later.

http://www.slideshare.net/ayimsevenfold/chapter-3-discretedistributionrev2009

The beginnings of civilization in Europe can be traced to very ancient times, but they are not as old as the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt. The Roman and Greek cultures flourished in Europe, and European civilization—language, technology, political concepts, and the Christian religion—have been spread throughout the world by European colonists and immigrants. Throughout history, Europe has been the scene of many great and destructive wars that have ravaged both rural and urban areas. Once embraced by vast and powerful empires and kingdoms, successful nationalistic uprisings (especially in the 19th cent.) divided the continent into many sovereign states. The political fragmentation led to economic competition and political strife among the states. After World War II, Europe became divided into two ideological blocs (Eastern Europe, dominated by the USSR, and Western Europe, dominated by the United States) and became engaged in the cold war. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed as a military deterrent to the spread of Communism and sought to maintain a military balance with its eastern equivalent, the Warsaw Treaty Organization. Cold war tensions eased in the 1960s, and signs of normalization of East-West relations appeared in the 1970s. In Western Europe, the European Economic Community (Common Market), the European Coal and Steel Community, and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) merged in 1967 to form the European Community. Known since 1993 as the European Union, the organization aims to develop economic and monetary union among its members, ultimately leading to political union. The Eastern European counterpart was the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), which, like the Warsaw Treaty Organization, dissolved with the breakup of the Soviet bloc in the early 1990s. The loosening of political control sparked a revival of the long pent-up ethnic nationalism and a wave of democratization that led to an overthrow of the Communist governments in Eastern Europe. In the former Yugoslavia, ethnic tensions between Muslims, Croats, and Serbs were unleashed, leading to civil war and massacres of members of ethnic groups, or "ethnic cleansing," in areas where other groups won military control. During the early and mid-1990s most of the former Soviet bloc countries embarked on economic restructuring programs to transform their centralized economies into market-based ones. The pace of reform varied, especially as the hardships involved became increasingly evident. Meanwhile, in Western Europe the European Union, amid some tensions, continued working toward greater political and economic unity, including the creation of a common European currency.

http://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/world/europe-outline-history.html

Coral reefs: stunning, diverse, found worldwide, and incredibly fragile, despite the fact that they look like they’re made from stone. These delicate, beautiful structures are microcosms, communities filled with organisms living in a mutually beneficial world that provides food, shelter and protection from harsh weather. Sadly, 25% of coral reefs are already hopelessly damaged, according to the World Wildlife Fund, and many others face serious threats. Combating damage to coral reefs requires understanding the multifaceted nature of the threats against their survival, and determining the best way to address these environmental issues before it’s too late. The loss of coral reefs would be tragic not just because we’d miss something beautiful in the world, but because they also play an important environmental role. 1. Ocean Acidification Associated with climate change, ocean acidification occurs as atmospheric CO2 rises and the ocean absorbs it. The oceans have been burdened with a huge percentage of the rapidly-rising CO2 in the Earth’s atmosphere, and they aren’t equipped to handle it. Historically, the ocean’s pH was relatively stable. Today, it’s dropping due to reactions between seawater and CO2, and corals are missing out on valuable carbonate ions they need to form. Not only that, but as the level of dissolved CO2 in the ocean rises, it appears to be directly damaging coral skeletons, causing them to break and crumble. 2. Coral Bleaching Thanks to climate change, the ocean is getting warmer. Corals, along with many other organisms in the sea, are extremely sensitive to small temperature changes. In their case, they can react to temperature increases by expelling their critical symbiotic algae, known as zooxanthellae. How critical? They provide up to 80% of the energy needed by the coral to survive, so when they leave, the coral is at risk of dying off — and it acquires a distinctive pale color, explaining the term “bleaching.” Coral, like the rest of us, doesn’t take kindly to toxins in its environment, and when exposed to chemical and industrial pollution, it can die. Moreover, corals are at risk of what is known as “nutrient pollution,” where the ocean becomes rich in nutrients as a result of fertilizer release, animal waste and related materials. It turns out there is such a thing as too much of a good thing — algae swarm in and bloom in response to the sudden food source, and they choke out the coral population. Better pollution controls and conservation are critical to prevent this issue. Coral reefs often furnish a number of valuable food species, but unfortunately, humans don’t always manage fisheries responsibly. Consequently, species can become fished out, disturbing the balance of the reef environment. Not only that, but some fishers use destructive practices like adding chemicals to the water to stun fish, deep water trawling or using explosives to quickly startle fish to the surface of the water. These practices damage the coral and harm bycatch — the “useless” species that won’t be harvested. Likewise, crab and lobster traps can damage reefs by banging around in the current and entangling coral and other species in their ropes. Coastlines tend to make popular places for development. Historically, they were ideal for trade and other activities thanks to their proximity to major ports. Now, coastlines have become one of the most popular places in the world to live thanks to existing settlement and stunning views of the water, along with activities associated with the ocean like surfing, going to the beach and snorkling. Unfortunately for coral, development is bad news, because it increases pressures on already fragile reefs. Some cities that once had thriving reefs now have nothing left, while in other rapidly-developing areas, things are not looking good for coral reefs. Tourism, closely related to development, is also linked with damage to coral reefs. Tourists who aren’t aware of environmental issues may directly damage coral by stepping on it, harvesting souvenirs to take home, or disrupting the marine environment. Meanwhile, boaters may dump waste in reefs as well as damaging coral by hitting it with propellers and anchors. Ever get a sunburn? Coral has some natural protections against UV radiation, but it’s not prepared for ozone depletion. As the Earth’s ozone has become thinned in spots, some corals are showing signs of damage caused by UV exposure; it’s not exactly like they can slap on a layer of sunscreen for additional protection in the face of increasing exposure. Like other changes in the Earth’s atmosphere, ozone depletion is hard to fix, and it’s difficult to come up with a way to protect corals from it. Coral jewelry is just one of many things made from coral. In addition to being used in souvenirs for tourists, coral is also removed for use in making roads, paths and various other products. This is especially common in nations with limited sources of income, which turn to their reefs and other natural wonders to meet their economic needs. Even though this puts substantial pressure on the environment, and eventually depletes reefs, these nations may have no other choice. Think back on the photos of coral reefs you’ve seen, or, if you’ve been lucky enough to see one in person, the real thing. One thing you’ll note in almost all of them is the extremely clear water. Coral hates suspended sediment, and doesn’t thrive in waters clogged with dirt, debris and other materials. Sadly, sedimentation is on the rise thanks to development and the destruction of wetlands, which normally act like giant traps for sediment, preventing it from reaching the ocean (and, incidentally, preventing loss of valuable topsoil). As sedimentation increases, coral populations suffer. 9. Stormy Waters Ahead Tropical storms, hurricanes and other rough weather are a fact of nature, but evidence suggests they may be increasing in frequency and severity in response to climate change. Coral reefs can be badly damaged as a result of storm surge, the high, aggressive waves associated with severe storms. Sadly, this doesn’t just damage the coral; it also exposes the shoreline to further damage, because the coral would normally act as a buffer zone to help protect the shore. 10. Rising Sea Levels Coral is highly sensitive to light levels (one reason it can’t handle sedimentation and algae blooms). As sea levels rise, the amount of available light will decrease around existing reefs. Coral won’t be able to grow under those conditions, and it may begin to die off, which means that it will cease to support the reef and the larger population of organisms that relies on the coral for food and shelter. Formerly diverse areas could become deserts very quickly, and projections suggest that at current predicted rates of sea level rise, many famous coral reefs, such as those in the Caribbean, won’t be able to keep pace.

http://www.care2.com/causes/10-threats-to-the-worlds-stunning-coral-reefs.html/2

Photographs can be powerful connections to the past. Grade Range: 4-12 Resource Type(s): Reference Materials, Reference Materials Date Posted: 10/14/2008 From 1861-1865, Americans battled over preserving their Union and ending slavery. The Civil War is the focus of this section of The Price of Freedom: Americans at War, an online exhibition. This pivotal and complicated period of American history is divided into sections that allow students to focus either on a specific aspect of the war, or the conflict as a whole. The sections included are: John Brown, Fort Sumter, the Battle of Bull Run, major turning points, the war at sea, Wilderness to Appomattox, political leaders, military leaders, soldiers in blue and gray; battles and casualties and Reconstruction and the legacies of the war. A non-flash version of this site is available: The Civil War. Historical Thinking Standards (Grades K-4) 3B: Compare and contrast differing sets of ideas, values, personalities, behaviors, and institutions. 3C: Analyze historical fiction. 3D: Distinguish between fact and fiction. 3E: Compare different stories about a historical figure, era, or event. 3F: Analyze illustrations in historical stories. 3G: Consider multiple perspectives. 3H: Explain causes in analyzing historical actions. 3I: Challenge arguments of historical inevitability. 3J: Hypothesize influences of the past. Standards in History (Grades K-4) United States History Standards (Grades 5-12) Historical Thinking Standards (Grades 5-12) 2B: Reconstruct the literal meaning of a historical passage. 2C: Identify the central question(s) the historical narrative addresses. 2D: Differentiate between historical facts and historical interpretations. 2E: Read historical narratives imaginatively. 2F: Appreciate historical perspectives. 2G: Draw upon data in historical maps. 2H: Utilize visual, mathematical, and quatitative data. 2I: Draw upon the visual, literary, and musical sources. 3B: Consider multiple perspectives. 3C: Analyze cause-and-effect relationships. 3D: Draw comparisons across eras and regions in order to define enduring issues. 3E: Distinguish between unsupported expressions of opinion and informed hypotheses grounded in historical evidence. 3F: Compare competing historical narratives. 3G: Challenge arguments of historical inevitability. 3H: Hold interpretations of history as tentative. 3I: Evaluate major debates among historians. 3J: Hypothesize the influence of the past.

https://historyexplorer.si.edu/resource/civil-war

Scientists at École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) in Switzerland believe solar panels made from nanowires could be built with fewer materials and perform more efficiently than current photovoltaic modules. Anna Fontcuberta i Morral and her team built a nanowire solar cell out of gallium arsenide, a material which is better at converting light into power than silicon. They found that it collects up to 12 times more light than the usual flat solar cell. Fontcuberta’s prototype is said to be almost 10 per cent more efficient at transforming light into power than allowed, in theory, for conventional single material solar panels. Furthermore, optimizing the dimensions of the nanowire, improving the quality of the gallium arsenide and using better electrical contacts to extract the current could increase the prototype’s efficiency. The EPFL study, published in Nature Photonics, suggests that an array of nanowires may attain 33 per cent efficiency, whereas commercial (flat) solar panels are up to 20 per cent efficient. Also, arrays of nanowires would use at least 10,000 times less gallium arsenide, allowing for industrial use of the material.

http://www.theengineer.co.uk/swiss-scientists-demonstrate-nanowire-solar-cell/

Find content from Thinkfinity Partners using a visual bookmarking and sharing tool. Home › Results from ReadWriteThink 1-10 of 223 Results from ReadWriteThink - Classroom Resources | Grades 6 – 8 | Lesson Plan | Standard Lesson ABC Bookmaking Builds Vocabulary in the Content Areas V is for vocabulary. A content area unit provides the theme for a specialized ABC book, as students select, research, define, and illustrate a word for each alphabet letter. - Classroom Resources | Grades 9 – 12 | Lesson Plan | Standard Lesson A Biography Study: Using Role-Play to Explore Authors' Lives Students read biographies and explore websites of selected American authors and then role-play as the authors. - Classroom Resources | Grades 4 – 7 | Lesson Plan | Standard Lesson A “Cay”ribbean Island Study As a pre-reading activity for The Cay, groups of students choose and study a Caribbean island, create a final product in the format of their choice, and finally, do an oral presentation to share information learned. - Classroom Resources | Grades 6 – 12 | Lesson Plan | Recurring Lesson Active Reading through Self-Assessment: The Student-Made Quiz This recurring lesson encourages students to comprehend their reading through inquiry and collaboration. They choose important quotations from the text and work in groups to formulate “quiz” questions that their peers will answer. - Classroom Resources | Grades 3 – 12 | Calendar Activity |  February 20 Actor Sidney Poitier was born in 1924. Students do a journal entry about barriers that have been broken,such as age, race, and gender, that might impede them in the future, and how they can break through those barriers. - Classroom Resources | Grades 3 – 5 | Lesson Plan | Recurring Lesson A Daily DEAR Program: Drop Everything, and Read! The teacher shouts, "Drop Everything and Read!" and students settle into their seats to read books they've selected. This independent reading program helps students build a lifelong reading habit. - Classroom Resources | Grades K – 2 | Lesson Plan | Standard Lesson Adventures in Nonfiction: A Guided Inquiry Journey Students are guided through an informal exploration of nonfiction texts and child-oriented Websites, learning browsing and skimming techniques for the purpose of gathering interesting information. - Classroom Resources | Grades 7 – 12 | Calendar Activity |  July 16 African American journalist Ida B. Wells was born in 1862. Students brainstorm a list of human rights issues, research their group's issue in depth, examine the way journalists cover a story, and create articles for a classroom newspaper. - Classroom Resources | Grades 3 – 5 | Lesson Plan | Standard Lesson A Genre Study of Letters With The Jolly Postman Students read The Jolly Postman, in which a postman delivers letters to storybook characters. They explore different types of mail and categorize letters from the book and their own mail. - Classroom Resources | Grades 5 – 12 | Calendar Activity |  August 11 Alex Haley, author of Roots, was born in 1921. Students explore their own roots by interviewing family members and use their family history to write a fictional account of their roots.

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hydrothermal vent, crack along a rift or ridge in the deep ocean floor that spews out water heated to high temperatures by the magma under the earth's crust. Some vents are in areas of seafloor spreading, and in some locations water temperatures above 350°C (660°F) have been recorded; temperatures at vents in the Cayman Trough in the Caribbean Sea have been measured at above 400°C (750°F). The deepest known vents are those of the Beebe Vent Field in the Cayman Trough, some 16,273 ft (4,960 m) below the sea surface. The hot springs found at hydrothermal vents leach out valuable subsurface minerals and deposit them on the ocean floor. The dissolved minerals precipitate when they hit the cold ocean water, in some cases creating dark, billowing clouds (hence the name "black smokers" for some of the springs) and settling to build large chimneylike structures. Giant tube worms, bristle worms, yellow mussels, clams, and pink sea urchins are among the animals found in the unique ecological systems that surround the vents. All of these animals live—without sunlight—in conditions of high pressure, steep temperature gradients, and levels of minerals that would be toxic to animals on land. The primary producers of these ecosystems are bacteria that use chemosynthesis to produce energy from dissolved hydrogen sulfide. Some scientists believe such vents may have been the source of life on earth. Hydrothermal vents were first discovered near the Galápagos Islands in 1977 by scientists in the research submersible Alvin. Vents have since been discovered in the Atlantic, Indian, and Southern oceans as well. Although a number of species found around the vents in each ocean are also found in other oceans, many of the species are unique to the particular region in which they are found. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.

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|This article or section may have been copied and pasted from a source, possibly in violation of Wikipedia's copyright policy. Please remedy this by editing this article to remove any non-free copyrighted content and attributing free content correctly, or flagging the content for deletion. Please be sure that the supposed source of the copyright violation is not itself a Wikipedia mirror. (August 2015)| Positive Discipline (or PD) is a discipline model used by schools, and in parenting, that focuses on the positive points of behaviour, based on the idea that there are no bad children, just good and bad behaviors. You can teach and reinforce the good behaviors while weaning the bad behaviors without hurting the child verbally or physically. People engaging in positive discipline are not ignoring problems. Rather, they are actively involved in helping their child learn how to handle situations more appropriately while remaining calm, friendly and respectful to the children themselves. Positive discipline includes a number of different techniques that, used in combination, can lead to a more effective way for parents to manage their kids behaviour, or for teachers to manage groups of students. Some of these are listed below. Positive Behavior Support (PBS) is a structured, open-ended model that many parents and schools follow. It promotes positive decision making, teaching expectations to children early, and encouraging positive behaviors. Positive discipline contrasts with negative discipline. Negative discipline may involve angry, destructive, or violent responses to inappropriate behavior. In the terms used by psychology research, positive discipline uses the full range of reinforcement and punishment options: - Positive reinforcement, such as complimenting a good effort; - Negative reinforcement, such as ignoring requests made in a whining tone of voice; - Positive punishment, such as requiring a child to clean up a mess he made; and - Negative punishment, such as removing a privilege in response to poor behavior. However, unlike negative discipline, it does all of these things in a kind, encouraging, and firm manner. The focus of positive discipline is to establish reasonable limits and guide children to take responsibility to stay within these limits, or learn how to remedy the situation when they don't. There are 5 criteria for effective positive discipline: - Helps children feel a sense of connection. (Belonging and significance) - Is mutually respectful and encouraging. (Kind and firm at the same time.) - Is effective long-term. (Considers what the children are thinking, feeling, learning, and deciding about themselves and their world – and what to do in the future to survive or to thrive.) - Teaches important social and life skills. (Respect, concern for others, problem solving, and cooperation as well as the skills to contribute to the home, school or larger community.) - Invites children to discover how capable they are. (Encourages the constructive use of personal power and autonomy.) Positive Behavior Support (PBS) is a form of child discipline that is a proactive and positive approach used by staff, parents and community agencies to promote successful behavior and learning at home and at school for all students. PBS supports the acquisition of replacement behaviors, a reduction of crisis intervention, the appreciation of individual differences, strategies for self-control, and durable improvement in the quality of life for all. Part of using positive discipline is preventing situations in which negative behaviors can arise. There are different techniques that teachers can use to prevent bad behaviors: Students who "misbehave" are actually demonstrating "mistaken" behavior. There are many reasons why a student may exhibit mistaken behavior, i.e. lack of knowing appropriate behavior to feeling unwanted or unaccepted. For students who simply do not know what appropriate behavior they should be exhibiting, the teacher can teach the appropriate behavior. For example, the young child who grabs toys from others can be stopped from grabbing a toy and then shown how to ask for a turn. For students who are feeling unwanted or unaccepted, a positive relationship needs to develop between the teacher and student before ANY form of discipline will work. The sanctions that are listed at the end of the article would be less needed if students have a strong connection with the adult in charge and knew that the teacher respected them. Teachers need to know how to build these relationships. Simply telling them to demonstrate respect and connection with students is not enough for some of them, because they may also lack knowledge on how to do this. Teachers need to view each child as an account; they must deposit positive experiences in the student before they make a withdraw from the child when discipline takes place. Teachers can make deposits through praise, special activities, fun classroom jobs, smiles and appropriate pats on the backs. Some children have never experienced positive attention. Children long for attention; if they are not receiving positive attention they will exhibit behavior that will elicit negative attention. Teachers can recognize groups of students who would not work well together (because they are friends or do not get along well) and have them separated from the start. Some teachers employ the "boy-girl-boy-girl" method of lining or circling up (which may be sexist or effective, depending on your perspective). Another technique would be to be explicit with the rules, and consequences for breaking those rules, from the start. If students have a clear understanding of the rules, they will be more compliant when there are consequences for their behaviors later on. A series of 3 warnings is sometimes used before a harsher consequence is used (detention, time-out, etc.), especially for smaller annoyances (for example, a student can get warnings for calling out, rather than getting an immediate detention, because a warning is usually effective enough). Harsher consequences should come without warnings for more egregious behaviors (hitting another student, cursing, deliberately disobeying a warning, etc.). Teachers can feel justified that they have not "pulled a fast one" on students. Students are more likely to follow the rules and expectations when they are clearly defined and defined early. Many students need to know and understand what the negative behaviors are before they end up doing one by accident. Involving the students when making the rules and discipline plans may help prevent some students from acting out. It teaches the students responsibility and creates an awareness of what good versus bad behaviors are. It also makes the student feel obligated and motivated to follow the rules because they were involved while they were created. Gerunds are words ending in "ing". It is believed that using gerunds can help reinforce the positive behavior another would like to see rather than attacking a bad behavior. For example, a teacher might see students running down the hall and calmly say "walking" rather than yell "stop running" in an agitated voice. He might say "gently" (an adverb) instead of insisting "calm down!" (This addition is an example of "Behaviorism" and is not part of the original Positive Discipline that does not advocate punishment or rewards.) Positive discipline includes rewarding good behavior as much as curtailing negative behaviors. Some "rewards" can be verbal. Some are actual gifts. Instead of yelling at a student displaying negative behaviors, a teacher/leader might recognize a student behaving well with a "thank you Billy for joining the line", or "I like the way you helped Billy find his notebook." Recognizing a positive behavior can bring a group's focus away from the students displaying negative behavior, who might just be "acting out" for attention. Seeing this, students seeking attention might try displaying good behaviors to get the recognition of the leader. One persons submits this as a reward method: Students are given stamps in their planner if they do well in a lesson. When they receive enough stamps from the same subject (usually 3 or 5) the student has a credit. When 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 credits have been awarded to a particular student, that student receives a certificate. If a student meets certain behavioural criteria, they are rewarded with a trip at the end of term. - A special chain or necklace students pass from one to another for doing good deeds. - High fives and positive words. - Awards/achievements on the wall of the classroom or cafeteria. If a student is causing a distraction during class, a teacher might do something to gain the attention of the student without losing momentum of the lecture. One technique is quietly placing a hand on the shoulder of the student while continuing to speak. The student becomes aware that the teacher would like them to focus. Another technique is to non-chalantly stand in-between two students talking to each other. This causes a physical barrier to the conversation and alerts the students to the teacher's needs. A third technique for a standing group is to gently move the student next to the teacher. A funny technique that requires a skilled PD practitioner is "the grocery list look". A gentler version of "the evil eye" this look is not happy or mad, but focused. The teacher looks at the student, places her tongue on the tip of her mouth, and thinks about a list of things to do (not to the child!). This focused look, along with silence, makes a student just uncomfortable enough to change behaviors, not enough to make them feel embarrassed or scared as an evil eye might. Studies of implementation of Positive Discipline techniques have shown that Positive Discipline tools do produce significant results. A study of school-wide implementation of classroom meetings in a lower-income Sacramento, CA elementary school over a four-year period showed that suspensions decreased (from 64 annually to 4 annually), vandalism decreased (from 24 episodes to 2) and teachers reported improvement in classroom atmosphere, behavior, attitudes and academic performance. (Platt, 1979) A study of parent and teacher education programs directed at parents and teachers of students with "maladaptive" behavior that implemented Positive Discipline tools showed a statistically significant improvement in the behavior of students in the program schools when compared to control schools. (Nelsen, 1979) Smaller studies examining the impacts of specific Positive Discipline tools have also shown positive results. (Browning, 2000; Potter, 1999; Esquivel) Studies have repeatedly demonstrated that a student’s perception of being part of the school community (being "connected" to school) decreases the incidence of socially risky behavior (such as emotional distress and suicidal thoughts / attempts, cigarette, alcohol and marijuana use; violent behavior) and increases academic performance. (Resnick et al., 1997; Battistich, 1999; Goodenow, 1993) There is also significant evidence that teaching younger students social skills has a protective effect that lasts into adolescence. Students that have been taught social skills are more likely to succeed in school and less likely to engage in problem behaviors. (Kellam et al., 1998; Battistich, 1999) Programs similar to Positive Discipline have been studied and shown to be effective in changing parent behavior. In a study of Adlerian parent education classes for parents of teens, Stanley (1978) found that parents did more problem solving with their teens and were less autocratic in decision making. Positive Discipline teaches parents the skills to be both kind and firm at the same time. Numerous studies show that teens who perceive their parents as both kind (responsive) and firm (demanding) are at lower risk for smoking, use of marijuana, use of alcohol, or being violent, and have a later onset of sexual activity. (Aquilino, 2001; Baumrind, 1991; Jackson et al., 1998; Simons, Morton et al., 2001) Other studies have correlated the teen’s perception of parenting style (kind and firm versus autocratic or permissive) with improved academic performance. (Cohen, 1997; Deslandes, 1997; Dornbusch et al., 1987; Lam, 1997) Studies have shown that through the use of positive intervention programs "designed specifically to address the personal and social factors that place some high school students at risk of drug abuse, schools can reduce these young people's drug use and other unhealthy behaviors" (Eggert, 1995; Nicholas, 2995; Owen, 1995). Use of such programs has shown improvement in academics and a decline in drug use across the board. Studies have shown "that kids who are at high risk of dropping out of school and abusing drugs are more isolated and depressed and have more problems with anger", says Dr. Leona Eggert of the University of Washington in Seattle. "They are disconnected from school and family and are loosely connected with negative peers" (Eggert, 1995; Nicholas, 1995; Owen, 1995). Overall implementing positive programs to deal with Positive Discipline will better the decision making process of teens and parents, according to some researchers. Better student-teacher relations. Less teacher wasted energy/frustration. Students recognize desirable positive behaviors, rather than feel attacked. Statistics show that each year, close to one third of eighteen-year-olds do not finish high school (Bridgeland, 2006; Dilulio, 2006; Morison, 2006). Minority and low-income areas show even higher numbers. 75 percent of crimes committed in the United States are done by high school drop-outs. In order to know how to intervene Civic Enterprises interviewed dropouts and asked them what they suggest be done to increase high school completion numbers. Here is what they came up with: 81% said there should be more opportunities for "real-world" learning, 81% said "better" teachers, 75% said smaller class numbers, 70% said "increasing supervision in schools", 70% said greater opportunities for summer school and after-school programs, 62% said "more classroom discipline, and 41% said to have someone available to talk about personal problems with (Bridgeland, 2006; Dilulio, 2006; Morison, 2006). Through use of Positive Discipline, efforts are being made to prevent occurrences such as dropping out of school. - School punishment - Compare with Discipline in Sudbury Model Democratic Schools - Child discipline - Assertive discipline - "Madison Metropolitan School District Student Conduct and Discipline Plan" (PDF). Retrieved 14 January 2016. - Nelsen, Jane (2006). Positive Discipline. ISBN 978-0-345-48767-4. - "Creating Behavior Plans". - Eggert, L.L.; Nicholas, L.J.; Owen, L.M (1995). Reconnecting Youth: A peer group approach to building life skills. Bloomington, IN: National Educational Service. - Bridgeland, John; Dilulio, John; Morison, Karen (2006). The Silent Epidemic: Perspectives of High School Dropouts. Washington, D.C: Civic Enterprises, LLC. - Positive Child Discipline Positive Child Discipline - Positive Discipline 101: How to Discipline a Child in a Way That Actually Works

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3 Answers | Add Yours Romanticism was, in essence, a movement that rebelled against and defined itself in opposition to the Enlightenment. For the artists and philosophers of the Enlightenment, the ideal life was one governed by reason. Artists and poets strove for ideals of harmony, symmetry, and order, valuing meticulous craftsmanship and the classical tradition. Among philosophers, truth was discovered by a combination of reason and empirical research. The ideals of the period included a faith in human reason to understand the universe and resolve the problems of the world, expressed in the couplet by Alexander Pope: Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night: God said, "Let Newton be!" and all was light The Romantic movement emphasized the individual self and sentiment as opposed to reason and was more pessimistic in attitude, viewing the intellectual and artist as solitary geniuses rather than integral parts of a social system. Rather than valuing symmetry and harmony, the Romantics valued individuality, surprise, intensity of emotion, and expressiveness. They looked back to medieval (or "Gothic") models as much as to the Augustan tradition of Rome. The ideals of these two intellectual movements were very different from one another. The Enlightenment thinkers believed very strongly in rationality and science. They believed that the natural world and even human behavior could be explained scientifically. They even felt that they could use the scientific method to improve human society. By contrast, the Romantics rejected the whole idea of reason and science. They felt that a scientific worldview was cold and sterile. They felt that science and material progress would rob people of their humanity (this is, for example, one of the major themes of Frankenstein, by Mary Shelley). In place of reason, the Romantics exalted feelings and emotions. They felt that intuition and emotions were important sources of knowledge. Thus, the ideals of the Romantics and the thinkers of the Enlightenment were very much opposed to one another. Romanticism was a movement that stressed human emotions and beauty of nature, while Enlightenment was quite an opposite movement. While Enlightenment's belief about the material world is that it is the reflection of the ideal world, Romanticism's belief about the material world is that it is the manifestation of divinity or God's self-expression. The Enlightenment movement was characterized by moderation and order, while Romanticism admired spontaneity and disorder. While the Enlightenment believed that objectivity and realism can be possible, Romanticism believed that subjectivity and relativity cannot be avoided. The Enlightenment's literary forms kept and applied traditional forms, while Romanticism's literary forms revealed stylistic autonomy. Enlightenment's art had to be educational and it had to prove its utility, while Romanticism's art appealed mainly to emotions. We’ve answered 301,231 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question

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Grammar, Pronunciation, and Vocabulary The various forms of Chinese differ least in grammar, more in vocabulary, and most in pronunciation. Like the other Sino-Tibetan languages, Chinese is tonal, i.e., different tones distinguish words otherwise pronounced alike. The number of tones varies in different forms of Chinese, but Mandarin has four tones: a high tone, a rising tone, a tone that combines a falling and a rising inflection, and a falling tone. Chinese (again, like other Sino-Tibetan languages) is also strongly monosyllabic. Chinese often uses combinations of monosyllables that result in polysyllabic compounds having different meanings from their individual elements. For example, the word for "explanation," shue-ming, combines shue ("speak") with ming ("bright"). These compounds can embrace three and even four monosyllables: shuo-ch'u-lai, the word for "describe," is made up of shuo ("speak"), ch'u ("out"), and lai ("come"). This practice has greatly increased the Chinese vocabulary and also makes it much easier to grasp the meaning of spoken Chinese words. The elements of Chinese tend to be more grammatically isolated than connected, because the language lacks inflection to indicate person, number, gender, case, tense, voice, and so forth. Suffixes may be used to denote some of these features. For example, the suffix -le is a sign of the perfect tense of the verb. Subordination and possession can be marked by the suffix -te. The position and use of a word in a sentence may determine its part of speech and its meaning. Sections in this article: The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: Language and Linguistics

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Spanish missions in California |Part of a series on the| |Part of a series on the| |Spanish missions in California| The Spanish missions in California comprise a series of 21 religious outposts; established by Catholic priests of the Franciscan order between 1769 and 1833, to expand Christianity among the Native Americans northwards into what is today the U.S. state of California. The missions were part of a major effort by the Spanish Empire to extend colonization into the most northern and western parts of Spain's North American claims. The missionaries introduced European fruits, vegetables, cattle, horses, ranching and technology into the region that became the New Spain province of Alta California; however, the missions also brought serious negative consequences to the Native American populations with whom the missionaries and other Spaniards came in contact. Mexico achieved independence in 1822, taking Alta California along with it, but the missions maintained authority over native neophytes and control of vast land holdings until the 1830s. The Alta California government secularized the missions after the passage of the Mexican secularization act of 1833. This divided the mission lands into land grants, which became many of the Ranchos of California. In the end, the missions had mixed results in their objectives: to convert, educate, and "civilize" the indigenous population and transform the natives into Spanish colonial citizens. Today, the surviving mission buildings are the state's oldest structures, and the most-visited historic monuments. - 1 History - 2 Mission locations and military districts - 3 Site selection and layout - 4 Franciscans and Indians - 5 Mission industries - 6 Present-day California missions - 7 Legacy and Native American controversy - 8 Gallery of missions - 9 See also - 10 Notes - 11 Citations - 12 References - 13 Further reading - 14 External links Beginning in 1492 with the voyages of Christopher Columbus, the Kingdom of Spain sought to establish missions to convert indigenous people in Nueva España (New Spain), which consisted of the Caribbean, Mexico, and most of what is now the Southwestern United States) to Roman Catholicism. This would facilitate colonization of these lands awarded to Spain by the Catholic Church, including that region later known as Alta California.[notes 1][notes 2][notes 3] Early Spanish exploration Only 48 years after Columbus discovered the Americas for Europe, Francisco Vázquez de Coronado set out from Compostela, New Spain on February 23, 1540, at the head of a large expedition. Accompanied by 400 European men-at-arms (mostly Spaniards), 1,300 to 2,000 Mexican Indian allies, several Indian and Africans slaves, and four Franciscan monks, he traveled from Mexico through parts of the southwestern United States to present-day Kansas between 1540 and 1542. Two years later on 27 June 1542, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo set out from Navidad, Mexico and sailed up the coast of Baja California and into the region of Alta California. Secret English claims Unknown to Spain, Sir Francis Drake, an English privateer who pillaged Hispanic ships and settlements, claimed the Alta California region for England in 1579, a full generation before the first English landing in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. During his circumnavigation of the world, Drake anchored in a harbor just north of present-day San Francisco, California, and claimed the territory for Queen Elizabeth I. To preserve an uneasy peace with Spain and to avoid the prospect of Spain threatening England's claims in the New World, Queen Elizabeth I ordered Drake's discovery and claim kept secret. However, it wasn't until 1741 that the Spanish monarchy of King Philip V was stimulated to consider how to protect his claims to Alta California. Philip was spurred on when the territorial ambitions of Tsarist Russia were expressed in the Vitus Bering expedition along the western coast on the North American continent.[notes 4][notes 5] California represents the "high-water mark" of Spanish expansion in North America as the last and northernmost colony on the continent. The mission system arose in part from the need to control Spain's ever-expanding holdings in the New World. Realizing that the colonies required a literate population base that the mother country could not supply, the Spanish government (with the cooperation of the Church) established a network of missions to convert the indigenous population to Christianity. They aimed to make converts and tax paying citizens of those they conquered.[notes 6] To make them into Spanish citizens and productive inhabitants, the Spanish government and the Church required the indigenous people to learn Spanish language and vocational skills along with Christian teachings. Estimates for the pre-contact indigenous population in California are based on a number of different sources and vary substantially, from 133,000, to 225,000, to as high as 705,000 from more than 100 separate tribes or nations.[notes 7][notes 8] On January 29, 1767, Spain's King Charles III ordered the new governor Portola to forcibly expel the Jesuits, who operated under the authority of the Pope and had established a chain of fifteen missions on the Baja California Peninsula.[notes 9] Visitador General José de Gálvez engaged the Franciscans, under the leadership of Fray Junípero Serra, to take charge of those outposts on March 12, 1768. The padres closed or consolidated several of the existing settlements, and also founded Misión San Fernando Rey de España de Velicatá (the only Franciscan mission in all of Baja California) and the nearby Visita de la Presentación in 1769. This plan, however, changed within a few months after Gálvez received the following orders: "Occupy and fortify San Diego and Monterey for God and the King of Spain." The Church ordered the priests of the Dominican Order to take charge of the Baja California missions so the Franciscans could concentrate on founding new missions in Alta California. Mission period (1769–1833) On July 14, 1769 Gálvez sent the Portolá expedition out from Loreto to explore lands to the north. Leader Gaspar de Portolá was accompanied by a group of Franciscans led by Junípero Serra. Serra's plan was to extend the string of missions north from the Baja California peninsula, connected by an established road and spaced a day's travel apart. The first Alta California mission and presidio were founded at San Diego, the second at Monterey. En route to Monterey, the Rev. Francisco Gómez and the Rev. Juan Crespí came across a Native settlement wherein two young girls were dying: one, a baby, said to be "dying at its mother's breast," the other a small girl suffering of burns. On July 22, Gómez baptized the baby, naming her Maria Magdalena, while Crespí baptized the older child, naming her Margarita. These were the first recorded baptisms in Alta California. Crespi dubbed the spot Los Cristianos.[notes 10] The group continued northward but missed Monterey Harbor and returned to San Diego on January 24, 1770. Near the end of 1769 the Portolá expedition had reached its most northerly point at present-day San Francisco. In following years, the Spanish Crown sent a number of follow-up expeditions to explore more of Alta California. Each mission was to be turned over to a secular clergy and all the common mission lands distributed amongst the native population within ten years after its founding, a policy that was based upon Spain's experience with the more advanced tribes in Mexico, Central America, and Peru. In time, it became apparent to the Rev. Serra and his associates that the natives on the northern frontier in Alta California required a much longer period of acclimatization. None of the California missions ever attained complete self-sufficiency, and required continued (albeit modest) financial support from mother Spain. Mission development was therefore financed out of El Fondo Piadoso de las Californias (The Pious Fund of the Californias), which originated in 1697 and consisted of voluntary donations from individuals and religious bodies in Mexico to members of the Society of Jesus) to enable the missionaries to propagate the Catholic Faith in the area then known as California. Starting with the onset of the Mexican War of Independence in 1810, this support largely disappeared, and missions and converts were left on their own. As of 1800, native labor had made up the backbone of the colonial economy. Arguably "the worst epidemic of the Spanish Era in California" was known to be the measles epidemic of 1806, wherein one-quarter of the mission Native American population of the San Francisco Bay area died of the measles or related complications between March and May of that year. In 1811, the Spanish Viceroy in Mexico sent an interrogatorio (questionnaire) to all of the missions in Alta California regarding the customs, disposition, and condition of the Mission Indians. The replies, which varied greatly in the length, spirit, and even the value of the information contained therein, were collected and prefaced by the Father-Presidente with a short general statement or abstract; the compilation was thereupon forwarded to the viceregal government.[notes 11] The contemporary nature of the responses, no matter how incomplete or biased some may be, are nonetheless of considerable value to modern ethnologists. Russian colonization of the Americas reached its southernmost point with the 1812 establishment of Fort Ross (krepost' rus), an agricultural, scientific, and fur-trading settlement located in present-day Sonoma County, California. In November and December 1818, several of the missions were attacked by Hipólito Bouchard, "California's only pirate."[notes 12] A French privateer sailing under the flag of Argentina, Pirata Buchar (as he was known to the locals) worked his way down the California coast, conducting raids on the installations at Monterey, Santa Barbara, and San Juan Capistrano, with limited success. Upon hearing of the attacks, many mission priests (along with a few government officials) sought refuge at Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad, the mission chain's most isolated outpost. Ironically, Mission Santa Cruz (though ultimately ignored by the marauders) was ignominiously sacked and vandalized by local residents who were entrusted with securing the church's valuables. By 1819, Spain decided to limit its "reach" in the New World to Northern California due to the costs involved in sustaining these remote outposts; the northernmost settlement therefore is Mission San Francisco Solano, founded in Sonoma in 1823.[notes 13] An attempt to found a twenty-second mission in Santa Rosa in 1827 was aborted.[notes 14][notes 15][notes 16] In 1833 the final group of missionaries arrived in Alta California. These were Mexican-born (rather than Spaniards), and had been trained at the Apostolic College of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Zacatecas. Among these friars was Francisco García Diego y Moreno, who would become the first bishop of the Diocese of Both Californias. These friars would bear the brunt of the changes brought on by secularization and the U.S. occupation, and many would marked by allegations of corruption. José María de Echeandía, the first native Mexican elected Governor of Alta California issued a "Proclamation of Emancipation" (or "Prevenciónes de Emancipacion") on July 25, 1826. All Indians within the military districts of San Diego, Santa Barbara, and Monterey who were found qualified were freed from missionary rule and made eligible to become Mexican citizens. Those who wished to remain under mission tutelage were exempted from most forms of corporal punishment.[notes 18] By 1830 even the neophyte populations themselves appeared confident in their own abilities to operate the mission ranches and farms independently; the padres, however, doubted the capabilities of their charges in this regard. Accelerating immigration, both Mexican and foreign, increased pressure on the Alta California government to seize the mission properties and dispossess the natives in accordance with Echeandía's directive.[notes 19] Despite the fact that Echeandía's emancipation plan was met with little encouragement from the novices who populated the southern missions, he was nonetheless determined to test the scheme on a large scale at Mission San Juan Capistrano. To that end, he appointed a number of comisionados (commissioners) to oversee the emancipation of the Indians. The Mexican government passed legislation on December 20, 1827 that mandated the expulsion of all Spaniards younger than sixty years of age from Mexican territories; Governor Echeandía nevertheless intervened on behalf of some of the missionaries to prevent their deportation once the law took effect in California. Governor José Figueroa (who took office in 1833) initially attempted to keep the mission system intact, but the Mexican Congress passed An Act for the Secularization of the Missions of California on August 17, 1833 when liberal Valentín Gómez Farías was in office.[notes 20] The Act also provided for the colonization of both Alta and Baja California, the expenses of this latter move to be borne by the proceeds gained from the sale of the mission property to private interests. Mission San Juan Capistrano was the very first to feel the effects of secularization when, on August 9, 1834 Governor Figueroa issued his "Decree of Confiscation." Nine other settlements quickly followed, with six more in 1835; San Buenaventura and San Francisco de Asís were among the last to succumb, in June and December 1836, respectively. The Franciscans soon thereafter abandoned most of the missions, taking with them almost everything of value, after which the locals typically plundered the mission buildings for construction materials. Former mission pasture lands were divided into large land grants called ranchos, greatly increasing the number of private land holdings in Alta California. Rancho period (1834–1849) In spite of this neglect, the Indian towns at San Juan Capistrano, San Dieguito, and Las Flores did continue on for some time under a provision in Gobernador Echeandía's 1826 Proclamation that allowed for the partial conversion of missions to pueblos. According to one estimate, the native population in and around the missions proper was approximately 80,000 at the time of the confiscation; others claim that the statewide population had dwindled to approximately 100,000 by the early 1840s, due in no small part to the natives' exposure to European diseases, and from the Franciscan practice of cloistering women in the convento and controlling sexuality during the child-bearing age. (Baja California Territory experienced a similar reduction in native population resulting from Spanish colonization efforts there). Pío de Jesus Pico, the last Mexican Governor of Alta California, found upon taking office that there were few funds available to carry on the affairs of the province. He prevailed upon the assembly to pass a decree authorizing the renting or the sale of all mission property, reserving only the church, a curate's house, and a building for a courthouse. The expenses of conducting the services of the church were to be provided from the proceeds, but there was no disposition made as to what should be done to secure the funds for that purpose. After secularization, Father-Presidente Narciso Durán transferred the missions' headquarters to Santa Barbara, thereby making Mission Santa Barbara the repository of some 3,000 original documents that had been scattered through the California missions. The Mission archive is the oldest library in the State of California that still remains in the hands of its founders, the Franciscans (it is the only mission where they have maintained an uninterrupted presence). Beginning with the writings of Hubert Howe Bancroft, the library has served as a center for historical study of the missions for more than a century. In 1895 journalist and historian Charles Fletcher Lummis criticized the Act and its results, saying: Disestablishment—a polite term for robbery—by Mexico (rather than by native Californians misrepresenting the Mexican government) in 1834, was the death blow of the mission system. The lands were confiscated; the buildings were sold for beggarly sums, and often for beggarly purposes. The Indian converts were scattered and starved out; the noble buildings were pillaged for their tiles and adobes... California statehood (1850 and beyond) Precise figures relating to the population decline of California indigenes are not available. One writer, Gregory Orfalea, estimates that pre-contact population was reduced by 33 percent during Spanish and Mexican rule, mostly through introduction of European diseases, but much more after the United States takeover in 1848. By 1870, the loss of indigenous lives had become catastrophic. Up to 80 percent died, leaving a population of about 30,000 in 1870. Orfalea claims that nearly half of the native deaths after 1848 were murder. In 1837-38, a major smallpox epidemic devastated native tribes north of San Francisco Bay, in the jurisdiction of Mission San Francisco Solano. General Mariano Vallejo estimated that 70,000 died from the disease. Vallejo's ally, chief Sem-Yeto, was one of the few natives to be vaccinated, and one of the few to survive. When the mission properties were secularized between 1834 and 1838, the approximately 15,000 resident neophytes lost whatever protection the mission system afforded them. While under the secularization laws the natives were to receive up to one-half of the mission properties, this never happened. The natives lost whatever stock and movable property they may have accumulated. When California became a U.S. state, California law stripped them of legal title to the land. In the Act of September 30, 1850, Congress appropriated funds to allow the President to appoint three Commissioners, O. M. Wozencraft, Redick McKee and George W. Barbour, to study the California situation and "...negotiate treaties with the various Indian tribes of California." Treaty negotiations ensued during the period between March 19, 1851 and January 7, 1852, during which the Commission interacted with 402 Indian chiefs and headmen (representing approximately one-third to one-half of the California tribes) and entered into eighteen treaties. California Senator William M. Gwin's Act of March 3, 1851 created the Public Land Commission, whose purpose was to determine the validity of Spanish and Mexican land grants in California. On February 19, 1853 Archbishop J.S. Alemany filed petitions for the return of all former mission lands in the state. Ownership of 1,051.44 acres (4.2550 km2) (essentially exact area of land occupied by the original mission buildings, cemeteries, and gardens) was subsequently conveyed to the Church, along with the Cañada de los Pinos (or College Rancho) in Santa Barbara County comprising 35,499.73 acres (143.6623 km2), and La Laguna in San Luis Obispo County, consisting of 4,157.02 acres (16.8229 km2). As the result of a U.S. government investigation in 1873, a number of Indian reservations were assigned by executive proclamation in 1875. The commissioner of Indian affairs reported in 1879 that the number of Mission Indians in the state was down to around 3,000. Mission locations and military districts Prior to 1754, grants of mission lands were made directly by the Spanish Crown. But, given the remote locations and the inherent difficulties in communicating with the territorial governments, power was transferred to the viceroys of New Spain to grant lands and establish missions in North America. The 21 Alta California missions were established along the northernmost section of California's El Camino Real (Spanish for The Royal Highway, though often spoken as "The King's Highway"), christened in honor of King Charles III), much of which is now U.S. Route 101 and several Mission Streets. The mission planning was begun in 1767 under the leadership of Fray Junípero Serra, O.F.M. (who, in 1767, along with his fellow priests, had taken control over a group of missions in Baja California Peninsula previously administered by the Jesuits). The Rev. Pedro Estévan Tápis proposed the establishment of a mission on one of the Channel Islands in the Pacific Ocean off San Pedro Harbor in 1784, with either Santa Catalina or Santa Cruz (known as Limú to the Tongva residents) being the most likely locations, the reasoning being that an offshore mission might have attracted potential people to convert who were not living on the mainland, and could have been an effective measure to restrict smuggling operations. Governor José Joaquín de Arrillaga approved the plan the following year, however an outbreak of sarampion (measles) killing some 200 Tongva people coupled with a scarcity of land for agriculture and potable water left the success of such a venture in doubt, so no effort to found an island mission was ever made. In September, 1821 the Rev. Mariano Payeras, "Comisario Prefecto" of the California missions, visited Cañada de Santa Ysabel east of Mission San Diego de Alcalá as part of a plan to establish an entire chain of inland missions. The Santa Ysabel Asistencia had been founded in 1818 as a "mother" mission, however the plan's expanding beyond never came to fruition. Work on the mission chain was concluded in 1823, even though Serra had died in 1784 (plans to establish a twenty-second mission in Santa Rosa in 1827 were canceled).[notes 21] The Rev. Fermín Francisco de Lasuén took up Serra's work and established nine more mission sites, from 1786 through 1798; others established the last three compounds, along with at least five asistencias (mission assistance outposts). At the peak of its development in 1832, the mission system controlled an area equal to approximately one-sixth of Alta California. There were 21 missions accompanied by military outposts in Alta California from San Diego to Sonoma, California. To facilitate travel between them on horse an foot, the mission settlements were situated approximately 30 miles (48 kilometers) apart, about one day's journey on horseback, or three days on foot. The entire trail eventually became a 600-mile (966-kilometer) long "California Mission Trail.":132:152 Heavy freight movement was practical only via water. Tradition has it that the padres sprinkled mustard seeds along the trail to mark it with bright yellow flowers.:79:260 During the Mission Period Alta California was divided into four military districts. Each was garrisoned (comandancias) by a presidio strategically placed along the California coast to protect the missions and other Spanish settlements in Upper California. Each of these functioned as a base of military operations for a specific region. They were independent of one another and were organized from south to north as follows: - El Presidio Real de San Diego founded on July 16, 1769 – responsible for the defense of all installations located within the First Military District (the missions at San Diego, San Luis Rey, San Juan Capistrano, and San Gabriel); - El Presidio Real de Santa Bárbara founded on April 12, 1782 – responsible for the defense of all installations located within the Second Military District (the missions at San Fernando, San Buenaventura, Santa Barbara, Santa Inés, and La Purísima, along with El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles del Río de Porciúncula [Los Angeles]); - El Presidio Real de San Carlos de Monterey (El Castillo) founded on June 3, 1770 – responsible for the defense of all installations located within the Third Military District (the missions at San Luis Obispo, San Miguel, San Antonio, Soledad, San Carlos, and San Juan Bautista, along with Villa Branciforte [Santa Cruz]); and - El Presidio Real de San Francisco founded on December 17, 1776 – responsible for the defense of all installations located within the Fourth Military District (the missions at Santa Cruz, San José, Santa Clara, San Francisco, San Rafael, and Solano, along with El Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe [San Jose]). - El Presidio de Sonoma, or "Sonoma Barracks" (a collection of guardhouses, storerooms, living quarters, and an observation tower) was established in 1836 by Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo (the "Commandante-General of the Northern Frontier of Alta California") as a part of Mexico's strategy to halt Russian incursions into the region. The Sonoma Presidio became the new headquarters of the Mexican Army in California, while the remaining presidios were essentially abandoned and, in time, fell into ruins. An ongoing power struggle between church and state grew increasingly heated and lasted for decades. Originating as a feud between the Rev. Serra and Pedro Fages (the military governor of Alta California from 1770 to 1774, who regarded the Spanish installations in California as military institutions first and religious outposts second), the uneasy relationship persisted for more than sixty years.[notes 22] Dependent upon one another for their very survival, military leaders and mission padres nevertheless adopted conflicting stances regarding everything from land rights, the allocation of supplies, protection of the missions, the criminal propensities of the soldiers, and (in particular) the status of the native populations.[notes 23] - Mission San Diego de Alcalá (1769–1771) - Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo (1771–1815) - Mission La Purísima Concepción*(1815–1819) - Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo (1819–1824) - Mission San José*(1824–1827) - Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo (1827–1830) - Mission San José*(1830–1833) - Mission Santa Barbara (1833–1846) † The Rev. Payeras and the Rev. Durán remained at their resident missions during their terms as Father-Presidente, therefore those settlements became the de facto headquarters (until 1833, when all mission records were permanently relocated to Santa Barbara).[notes 24] - The Rev. Junípero Serra (1769–1784) - The Rev. Francisco Palóu (presidente pro tempore) (1784–1785) - The Rev. Fermín Francisco de Lasuén (1785–1803) - The Rev. Pedro Estévan Tápis (1803–1812) - The Rev. José Francisco de Paula Señan (1812–1815) - The Rev. Mariano Payéras (1815–1820) - The Rev. José Francisco de Paula Señan (1820–1823) - The Rev. Vicente Francisco de Sarría (1823–1824) - The Rev. Narciso Durán (1824–1827) - The Rev. José Bernardo Sánchez (1827–1831) - The Rev. Narciso Durán (1831–1838) - The Rev. José Joaquin Jimeno (1838–1844) - The Rev. Narciso Durán (1844–1846) The "Father-Presidente" was the head of the Catholic missions in Alta and Baja California. He was appointed by the College of San Fernando de Mexico until 1812, when the position became known as the "Commissary Prefect" who was appointed by the Commissary General of the Indies (a Franciscan residing in Spain). Beginning in 1831, separate individuals were elected to oversee Upper and Lower California. Site selection and layout In addition to the presidio (royal fort) and pueblo (town), the misión was one of the three major agencies employed by the Spanish sovereign to extend its borders and consolidate its colonial territories. Asistencias ("satellite" or "sub" missions, sometimes referred to as "contributing chapels") were small-scale missions that regularly conducted Mass on days of obligation but lacked a resident priest; as with the missions, these settlements were typically established in areas with high concentrations of potential native converts. The Spanish Californians had never strayed from the coast when establishing their settlements; Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad was located farthest inland, being only some thirty miles (48 kilometers) from the shore. Each frontier station was forced to be self-supporting, as existing means of supply were inadequate to maintain a colony of any size. California was months away from the nearest base in colonized Mexico, and the cargo ships of the day were too small to carry more than a few months’ rations in their holds. To sustain a mission, the padres required the help of colonists or converted Native Americans, called neophytes, to cultivate crops and tend livestock in the volume needed to support a fair-sized establishment. The scarcity of imported materials, together with a lack of skilled laborers, compelled the missionaries to employ simple building materials and methods in the construction of mission structures. Although the missions were considered temporary ventures by the Spanish hierarchy, the development of an individual settlement was not simply a matter of "priestly whim." The founding of a mission followed longstanding rules and procedures; the paperwork involved required months, sometimes years of correspondence, and demanded the attention of virtually every level of the bureaucracy. Once empowered to erect a mission in a given area, the men assigned to it chose a specific site that featured a good water supply, plenty of wood for fires and building materials, and ample fields for grazing herds and raising crops. The padres blessed the site, and with the aid of their military escort fashioned temporary shelters out of tree limbs or driven stakes, roofed with thatch or reeds (cañas). It was these simple huts that ultimately gave way to the stone and adobe buildings that exist to the present. The first priority when beginning a settlement was the location and construction of the church (iglesia). The majority of mission sanctuaries were oriented on a roughly east-west axis to take the best advantage of the sun's position for interior illumination; the exact alignment depended on the geographic features of the particular site. Once the spot for the church had been selected, its position was marked and the remainder of the mission complex was laid out. The workshops, kitchens, living quarters, storerooms, and other ancillary chambers were usually grouped in the form of a quadrangle, inside which religious celebrations and other festive events often took place. The cuadrángulo was rarely a perfect square because the missionaries had no surveying instruments at their disposal and simply measured off all dimensions by foot. Some fanciful accounts regarding the construction of the missions claimed that underground tunnels were incorporated in the design, to be used as a means of emergency egress in the event of attack; however, no historical evidence (written or physical) has ever been uncovered to support these assertions.[notes 25] Franciscans and Indians The Alta California missions, known as reductions (reducciones) or congregations (congregaciones), were settlements founded by the Spanish colonizers of the New World with the purpose of totally assimilating indigenous populations into European culture and the Catholic religion. It was a doctrine established in 1531, which based the Spanish state's right over the land and persons of the Indies on the Papal charge to evangelize them. It was employed wherever the indigenous populations were not already concentrated in native pueblos. Indians were congregated around the mission proper through the use of means including forced resettlement, whereupon they were "reduced" from a perceived free "undisciplined'" state and ultimately converted into "civilized" members of colonial society. Their own civilized and disciplined culture, developed over 8,000 years of freedom, was not considered. A total of 146 Friars Minor, all of whom were ordained as priests (and mostly Spaniards by birth) served in California between 1769 and 1845. 67 missionaries died at their posts (two as martyrs: Padres Luis Jayme and Andrés Quintana), while the remainder returned to Europe due to illness, or upon completing their ten-year service commitment. As the rules of the Franciscan Order forbade friars to live alone, two missionaries were assigned to each settlement, sequestered in the mission's convento. To these the governor assigned a guard of five or six soldiers under the command of a corporal, who generally acted as steward of the mission's temporal affairs, subject to the priests' direction. Indians were initially attracted into the mission compounds by gifts of food, colored beads, bits of bright cloth, and trinkets. Once a Native American "gentile" was baptized, they were labeled a neophyte, or new believer. This happened only after a brief period during which the initiates were instructed in the most basic aspects of the Catholic faith. But, while many natives were lured to join the missions out of curiosity and sincere desire to participate and engage in trade, many found themselves trapped once they were baptised. To the padres, a baptized Indian person was no longer free to move about the country, but had to labor and worship at the mission under the strict observance of the priests and overseers, who herded them to daily masses and labors. If an Indian did not report for their duties for a period of a few days, they were searched for, and if it was discovered that they had left without permission, they were considered runaways. Large-scale military expeditions were organized to round up the escaped neophytes. Sometimes the Franciscans even permitted neophytes to escape to their villages, so that an expedition might be organized to follow them and in the process of capturing the fugitives, a dozen or more new "Christians" could be rounded up. On one occasion," writes Hugo Reid, "they went as far as the present Rancho del Chino, where they tied and whipped every man, woman and child in the lodge, and drove part of them back.... On the road they did the same with those of the lodge at San Jose. On arriving home the men were instructed to throw their bows and arrows at the feet of the priest, and make due submission. The infants were then baptized, as were also all children under eight years of age; the former were left with their mothers, but the latter kept apart from all communication with their parents. The consequence was, first, the women consented to the rite and received it, for the love they bore their children; and finally the males gave way for the purpose of enjoying once more the society of wife and family. Marriage was then performed, and so this contaminated race, in their own sight and that of their kindred, became followers of Christ. A total of 20,355 natives were "attached" to the California missions in 1806 (the highest figure recorded during in the Mission Period); under Mexican rule the number rose to 21,066 (in 1824, the record year during the entire era of the Franciscan missions).[notes 28] During the entire period of Mission rule, from 1769 to 1834, the Franciscans baptized 53,600 adult Indians and buried 37,000. Dr. Cook estimates that 15,250 or 45% of the population decrease was caused by disease. Two epidemics of measles, one in 1806 and the other in 1828, caused many deaths. The mortality rates were so high that the missions were constantly dependent upon new conversions. Young native women were required to reside in the monjerío (or "nunnery") under the supervision of a trusted Indian matron who bore the responsibility for their welfare and education. Women only left the convent after they had been "won" by an Indian suitor and were deemed ready for marriage. Following Spanish custom, courtship took place on either side of a barred window. After the marriage ceremony the woman moved out of the mission compound and into one of the family huts. These "nunneries" were considered a necessity by the priests, who felt the women needed to be protected from the men, both Indian and de razón (real men, i.e. Europeans). The cramped and unsanitary conditions the girls lived in contributed to the fast spread of disease and population decline. So many died at times that many of the Indian residents of the missions urged the priests to raid new villages to supply them with more women. As of December 31, 1832 (the peak of the mission system's development) the mission padres had performed a combined total of 87,787 baptisms and 24,529 marriages, and recorded 63,789 deaths. The neophytes were kept in well-guarded mission compounds. The policy of the Franciscans was to keep them constantly occupied. "If the Indian would not work," writes C. D. Willard, "he was starved and flogged. If he ran away he was pursued and brought back." Bells were vitally important to daily life at any mission. The bells were rung at mealtimes, to call the Mission residents to work and to religious services, during births and funerals, to signal the approach of a ship or returning missionary, and at other times; novices were instructed in the intricate rituals associated with the ringing the mission bells. The daily routine began with sunrise Mass and morning prayers, followed by instruction of the natives in the teachings of the Roman Catholic faith. After a generous (by era standards) breakfast of atole, the able-bodied men and women were assigned their tasks for the day. The women were committed to dressmaking, knitting, weaving, embroidering, laundering, and cooking, while some of the stronger girls ground flour or carried adobe bricks (weighing 55 lb, or 25 kg each) to the men engaged in building. The men worked a variety of jobs, having learned from the missionaries how to plow, sow, irrigate, cultivate, reap, thresh, and glean. In addition, they were taught to build adobe houses, tan leather hides, shear sheep, weave rugs and clothing from wool, make ropes, soap, paint, and other useful duties. The work day was six hours, interrupted by dinner (lunch) around 11:00 a.m. and a two-hour siesta, and ended with evening prayers and the rosary, supper, and social activities. About 90 days out of each year were designated as religious or civil holidays, free from manual labor. The labor organization of the missions resembled a slave plantation in many respects.[notes 29] Foreigners who visited the missions remarked at how the priests' control over the Indians appeared excessive, but necessary given the white men's isolation and numeric disadvantage.[notes 30] Indians were not paid wages as they were not considered free laborers and, as a result, the missions were able to profit from the goods produced by the Mission Indians to the detriment of the other Spanish and Mexican settlers of the time who could not compete economically with the advantage of the mission system. The Franciscans began to send neophytes to work as servants of Spanish soldiers in the presidios. Each presidio was provided with land, el rancho del rey, which served as a pasture for the presidio livestock and as a source of food for the soldiers. Theoretically the soldiers were supposed to work on this land themselves but within a few years the neophytes were doing all the work on the presidio farm and, in addition, were serving domestics for the soldiers. While the fiction prevailed that neophytes were to receive wages for their work, no attempt was made to collect the wages for these services after 1790. It is recorded that the neophytes performed the work "under unmitigated compulsion." In recent years, much debate has arisen as to the actual treatment of the Indians during the Mission period, and many claim that the California mission system is directly responsible for the decline of the native cultures.[notes 31] Evidence has now been brought to light that puts the Indians' experiences in a very different context.[notes 32][notes 33] The missionaries of California were by-and-large well-meaning, devoted men...[whose] attitudes toward the Indians ranged from genuine (if paternalistic) affection to wrathful disgust. They were ill-equipped—nor did most truly desire—to understand complex and radically different Native American customs. Using European standards, they condemned the Indians for living in a "wilderness," for worshipping false gods or no God at all, and for having no written laws, standing armies, forts, or churches. The goal of the missions was, above all, to become self-sufficient in relatively short order. Farming, therefore, was the most important industry of any mission. Barley, maize, and wheat were among the most common crops grown. Cereal grains were dried and ground by stone into flour. Even today, California is well known for the abundance and many varieties of fruit trees that are cultivated throughout the state. The only fruits indigenous to the region, however, consisted of wild berries or grew on small bushes. Spanish missionaries brought fruit seeds over from Europe, many of which had been introduced from Asia following earlier expeditions to the continent; orange, grape, apple, peach, pear, and fig seeds were among the most prolific of the imports. Grapes were also grown and fermented into wine for sacramental use and again, for trading. The specific variety, called the Criolla or Mission grape, was first planted at Mission San Juan Capistrano in 1779; in 1783, the first wine produced in Alta California emerged from the mission's winery. Ranching also became an important mission industry as cattle and sheep herds were raised. Mission San Gabriel Arcángel unknowingly witnessed the origin of the California citrus industry with the planting of the region's first significant orchard in 1804, though the commercial potential of citrus was not realized until 1841. Olives (first cultivated at Mission San Diego de Alcalá) were grown, cured, and pressed under large stone wheels to extract their oil, both for use at the mission and to trade for other goods. The Rev. Serra set aside a portion of the Mission Carmel gardens in 1774 for tobacco plants, a practice that soon spread throughout the mission system.[notes 34] It was also the missions' responsibility to provide the Spanish forts, or presidios, with the necessary foodstuffs, and manufactured goods to sustain operations. It was a constant point of contention between missionaries and the soldiers as to how many fanegas of barley, or how many shirts or blankets the mission had to provide the garrisons on any given year. At times these requirements were hard to meet, especially during years of drought, or when the much anticipated shipments from the port of San Blas failed to arrive. The Spaniards kept meticulous records of mission activities, and each year reports submitted to the Father-Presidente summarizing both the material and spiritual status at each of the settlements. Livestock was raised, not only for the purpose of obtaining meat, but also for wool, leather, and tallow, and for cultivating the land. In 1832, at the height of their prosperity, the missions collectively owned: - 151,180 head of cattle; - 137,969 sheep; - 14,522 horses; - 1,575 mules or burros; - 1,711 goats; and - 1,164 swine. All these grazing animals were originally brought up from Mexico. A great many Indians were required to guard the herds and flocks on the mission ranches, which created the need for "...a class of horsemen scarcely surpassed anywhere." These animals multiplied beyond the settler's expectations, often overrunning pastures and extending well-beyond the domains of the missions. The giant herds of horses and cows took well to the climate and the extensive pastures of the Coastal California region, but at a heavy price for the California Native American people. The uncontrolled spread of these new herds, and associated invasive exotic plant species, quickly exhausted the native plants in the grasslands, and the chaparral and woodlands that the Indians depended on for their seed, foliage, and bulb harvests. The grazing-overgrazing problems were also recognized by the Spaniards, who periodically had extermination parties cull and kill thousands of excess livestock, when herd populations grew beyond their control or the land's capacity. Years with a severe drought did this also. Mission kitchens and bakeries prepared and served thousands of meals each day. Candles, soap, grease, and ointments were all made from tallow (rendered animal fat) in large vats located just outside the west wing. Also situated in this general area were vats for dyeing wool and tanning leather, and primitive looms for weaving. Large bodegas (warehouses) provided long-term storage for preserved foodstuffs and other treated materials. Each mission had to fabricate virtually all of its construction materials from local materials. Workers in the carpintería (carpentry shop) used crude methods to shape beams, lintels, and other structural elements; more skilled artisans carved doors, furniture, and wooden implements. For certain applications bricks (ladrillos) were fired in ovens (kilns) to strengthen them and make them more resistant to the elements; when tejas (roof tiles) eventually replaced the conventional jacal roofing (densely packed reeds) they were placed in the kilns to harden them as well. Glazed ceramic pots, dishes, and canisters were also made in mission kilns. Prior to the establishment of the missions, the native peoples knew only how to utilize bone, seashells, stone, and wood for building, tool making, weapons, and so forth. The missionaries established manual training in European skills and methods; in agriculture, mechanical arts, and the raising and care of livestock. Everything consumed and otherwise utilized by the natives was produced at the missions under the supervision of the padres; thus, the neophytes not only supported themselves, but after 1811 sustained the entire military and civil government of California. The foundry at Mission San Juan Capistrano was the first to introduce the Indians to the Iron Age. The blacksmith used the mission's forges (California's first) to smelt and fashion iron into everything from basic tools and hardware (such as nails) to crosses, gates, hinges, even cannon for mission defense. Iron in particular was a commodity that the mission acquired solely through trade, as the missionaries had neither the know-how nor technology to mine and process metal ores. No study of the missions is complete without mention of their extensive water supply systems. Stone zanjas (aqueducts, sometimes spanning miles, brought fresh water from a nearby river or spring to the mission site. Open or covered lined ditches and/or baked clay pipes, joined together with lime mortar or bitumen, gravity-fed the water into large cisterns and fountains, and emptied into waterways where the force of the water was used to turn grinding wheels and other simple machinery, or dispensed for use in cleaning. Water used for drinking and cooking was allowed to trickle through alternate layers of sand and charcoal to remove the impurities. One of the best-preserved mission water systems is at Mission Santa Barbara. Present-day California missions No other group of structures in the United States elicits the intense interest as inspired by the Missions of California (California is home to the greatest number of well-preserved missions found in any U.S. state).[notes 35] The missions are collectively the best-known historic element of the coastal regions of California: - Most of the missions are still owned and operated by some entity within the Catholic Church. - Four of the missions are still run under the auspices of the Franciscan Order (San Antonio de Padua, Santa Barbara, San Miguel Arcángel, and San Luis Rey de Francia) - Four of the missions (San Diego de Alcalá, San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo, San Francisco de Asís, and San Juan Capistrano) have been designated minor basilicas by the Holy See due to their cultural, historic, architectural, and religious importance. - Mission La Purísima Concepción, Mission San Francisco Solano, and the one remaining mission-era structure of Mission Santa Cruz are owned and operated by the California Department of Parks and Recreation as State Historic Parks; - Seven mission sites are designated National Historic Landmarks, fourteen are listed in the National Register of Historic Places, and all are designated as California Historical Landmarks for their historic, architectural, and archaeological significance. Because virtually all of the artwork at the missions served either a devotional or didactic purpose, there was no underlying reason for the mission residents to record their surroundings graphically; visitors, however, found them to be objects of curiosity. During the 1850s a number of artists found gainful employment as draftsmen attached to expeditions sent to map the Pacific coastline and the border between California and Mexico (as well as plot practical railroad routes); many of the drawings were reproduced as lithographs in the expedition reports. In 1875 American illustrator Henry Chapman Ford began visiting each of the twenty-one mission sites, where he created a historically important portfolio of watercolors, oils, and etchings. His depictions of the missions were (in part) responsible for the revival of interest in the state's Spanish heritage, and indirectly for the restoration of the missions. The 1880s saw the appearance of a number of articles on the missions in national publications and the first books on the subject; as a result, a large number of artists did one or more mission paintings, though few attempted a series. The popularity of the missions also stemmed largely from Helen Hunt Jackson's 1884 novel Ramona and the subsequent efforts of Charles Fletcher Lummis, William Randolph Hearst, and other members of the "Landmarks Club of Southern California" to restore three of the southern missions in the early 20th century (San Juan Capistrano, San Diego de Alcalá, and San Fernando; the Pala Asistencia was also restored by this effort).[notes 36] Lummis wrote in 1895, In ten years from now—unless our intelligence shall awaken at once—there will remain of these noble piles nothing but a few indeterminable heaps of adobe. We shall deserve and shall have the contempt of all thoughtful people if we suffer our noble missions to fall. In acknowledgement of the magnitude of the restoration efforts required and the urgent need to have acted quickly to prevent further or even total degradation, Lummis went on to state, It is no exaggeration to say that human power could not have restored these four missions had there been a five-year delay in the attempt. In 1911 author John Steven McGroarty penned The Mission Play, a three-hour pageant describing the California missions from their founding in 1769 through secularization in 1834, and ending with their "final ruin" in 1847. Today, the missions exist in varying degrees of architectural integrity and structural soundness. The most common extant features at the mission grounds include the church building and an ancillary convento (convent) wing. In some cases (in San Rafael, Santa Cruz, and Soledad, for example), the current buildings are replicas constructed on or near the original site. Other mission compounds remain relatively intact and true to their original, Mission Era construction. A notable example of an intact complex is the now-threatened Mission San Miguel Arcángel: its chapel retains the original interior murals created by Salinan Indians under the direction of Esteban Munras, a Spanish artist and last Spanish diplomat to California. This structure was closed to the public from 2003 to 2009 due to severe damage from the San Simeon earthquake. Many missions have preserved (or in some cases reconstructed) historic features in addition to chapel buildings. The missions have earned a prominent place in California's historic consciousness, and a steady stream of tourists from all over the world visit them. In recognition of that fact, on November 30, 2004 President George W. Bush signed HR 1446, the California Mission Preservation Act, into law. The measure provided $10 million over a five-year period to the California Missions Foundation for projects related to the physical preservation of the missions, including structural rehabilitation, stabilization, and conservation of mission art and artifacts. The California Missions Foundation, a volunteer, tax-exempt organization, was founded in 1998 by Richard Ameil, an eighth generation Californian. A change to the California Constitution has also been proposed that would allow the use of State funds in restoration efforts. Legacy and Native American controversy There is controversy over the California Department of Education's treatment of the missions in the Department's elementary curriculum; in the tradition of historical revisionism, it has been alleged that the curriculum "waters down" the harsh treatment of Native Americans. Modern anthropologists cite a cultural bias on the part of the missionaries that blinded them to the natives' plight and caused them to develop strong negative opinions of the California Indians.[notes 37] European diseases that the California Native Americans had no immunity to caused a significant population reduction from the first encounter through the 19th century. Gallery of missions On California history: - Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail - History of California through 1899 - California 4th Grade Mission Project - History of the west coast of North America On general missionary history: On colonial Spanish American history: - List of the oldest churches in Mexico - Spanish colonization of the Americas - Indian Reductions - California mission clash of cultures - Native Americans in the United States - The Spanish claim to the Pacific Northwest dated back to a 1493 papal bull (Inter caetera) and rights contained in the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas; in these two formal acts, Spain gave itself the exclusive right to colonize all of the Western Hemisphere (excluding Brazil), including all of the west coast of North America. - The term Alta California as applies to the mission chain founded by Serra refers specifically to the modern-day United States State of California. - Leffingwell: The Rev. Antonio de la Ascensión, a Carmelite who visited San Diego with Vizcaíno's 1602 expedition, "surveyed the area and concluded that the land was fertile, the fish plentiful, and gold abundant." Ascensión was convinced that California's potential wealth and strategic location merited colonization, and in 1620 recommended in a letter to Madrid that missions be established in the region, a venture that would involve military as well as religious personnel. - Chapman: "It is usually stated that the Spanish court at Madrid received reports about Russian aggression in the Pacific northwest, and sent orders to meet them by the occupation of Alta California, wherefore the expeditions of 1769 were made. This view contains only a smattering of the truth. It is evident from [José de] Gálvez's correspondence of 1768 that he and [Carlos Francisco de] Croix had discussed the advisability of an immediate expedition to Monterey, long before any word came from Spain about the Russian activities." - Bennett: California had been visited a number of times since Cabrillo's discovery in 1542, which initially included notable expeditions led by Englishmen Francis Drake in 1579 and Thomas Cavendish 1587, and later on by Woodes Rogers (1710), George Shelvocke (1719), James Cook (1778), and finally George Vancouver in 1792. Spanish explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno made landfall in San Diego Bay in 1602, and the famed conquistador Hernán Cortés explored the California Gulf Coast in 1735. - Bennett: "Other pioneers have blazed the way for civilization by the torch and the bullet, and the red man has disappeared before them; but it remained for the Spanish priests to undertake to preserve the Indian and seek to make his existence compatible with a higher civilization." - Kroeber: "In the matter of population, too, the effect of Caucasian contact cannot be wholly slighted, since all statistics date from a late period. The disintegration of Native numbers and Native culture have proceeded hand in hand, but in very different rations according to locality. The determination of population strength before the arrival of whites is, on the other hand, of considerable significance toward the understanding of Indian culture, on account of the close relations which are manifest between type of culture and density of population." - Chapman, p. 383: "...there may have been about 133,000 [Native inhabitants] in what is now the state as a whole, and 70,000 in or near the conquered area. The missions included only the Indians of given localities, though it is true that they were situated on the best lands and in the most populous centres. Even in the vicinity of the missions, there were some unconverted groups, however." See Population of Native California. - Bennett: Due to the isolation of the Baja California missions, the decree for expulsion did not arrive in June 1767, as it did in the rest of New Spain, but was delayed until the new governor, Portolà, arrived with the news on November 30. Jesuits from the operating missions gathered in Loreto, whereupon they left for exile on February 3, 1768. - Engelhardt: Today, the site (located at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton in San Diego County) is in Los Christianitos ("The Little Christians") Canyon, and is designated as La Christiana California Historical Landmark #562. on - Kroeber: "Some of the missionaries evidently regarded compliance with the instructions of the questionnaire as an official requirement which was perfunctorily performed. In many cases no answers were given various questions at certain of the missions." - There is a great contrast between the legacy of Bouchard in Argentina versus his reputation in the United States. In Buenos Aires, Bouchard is honored as a brave patriot, while in California he is most often remembered as a pirate, and not a privateer. See Hippolyte Bouchard. - Hittell: "...it [Mission San Francisco Solano] was quite frequently known as the mission of Sonoma. From the beginning it was rather a military than a religious establishment—a sort of outpost or barrier, first against the Russians and afterwards against the Americans; but still a large adobe church was built and Indians were baptized." - Hittell: "By that time, it was found that the Russians were not such undesirable neighbors as in 1817 it was thought they might become...the Russian scare, for the time being at least was over; and as for the old enthusiasm for new spiritual conquests, there was none left." - Bennett 1897b, p. 154: "Up to 1817 the 'spiritual conquest' of California had been confined to the territory south of San Francisco Bay. And this, it might be said, was as far as possible under the mission system. There had been a few years prior to that time certain alarming incursions of the Russians, which distressed Spain, and it was ordered that missions be started across the bay." - Chapman: "...the Russians and the English were by no means the only foreign peoples who threatened Spain's domination of the Pacific coast. The Indians and the Chinese had their opportunity before Spain appeared upon the scene. The Japanese were at one time a potential concern, and the Portuguese and Dutch voyagers occasionally gave Spain concern. The French for many years were the most dangerous enemy of all, but with their disappearance from North America in 1763, as a result of their defeat in the Seven Years' War, they were no longer a menace. The people of the United States were eventually to become the most powerful outstanding element." - Robinson: The cortes (legislature) of New Spain issued a decree in 1813 for at least partial secularization that affected all missions in America and was to apply to all outposts that had operated for ten years or more; however, the decree was never enforced in California. - Catholic historian Zephyrin Engelhardt referred to Echeandía as "...an avowed enemy of the religious orders." - Settlers made numerous false claims to diminish the natives' abilities: "The Indians are by nature slovenly and indolent," stated one newcomer. "They have unfeelingly appropriated the region," claimed another. - Yenne: In 1833, Figueroa replaced the Spanish-born Franciscan padres at all of the settlements north of Mission San Antonio de Padua with Mexican-born Franciscan priests from the College of Guadalupe de Zacatecas. In response, Father-Presidente Narciso Durán transferred the headquarters of the Alta California Mission System to Mission Santa Bárbara, where it remained until 1846. - : "By that time, it was found that the Russian colonies were not such undesirable neighbors as in 1817 it was thought they might become... the Russian scare, for the time being at least was over; and as for the old enthusiasm for new spiritual conquests, there was none left." - Bennett: "...Junípero had in California insisted that the military should be subservient to the priests, that the conquest was spiritual, not temporal..." - Engelhardt: "Recruited from the scum of society in Mexico, frequently convicts and jailbirds, it is not surprising that the mission guards, leather-jacket soldiers, as they were called, should be guilty of...crimes at nearly all the Missions...In truth, the guards counted among the worst obstacles to missionary progress. The wonder is, that the missionaries nevertheless succeeded so well in attracting converts." - In 1833 Figueroa replaced the padres at all of the settlements north of Mission San Antonio de Padua with Mexican-born Franciscan priests from the College of Guadalupe de Zacatecas. In response, Father-Presidente Narciso Durán transferred the headquarters of the Alta California Mission System to Mission Santa Bárbara, where they remained until 1846. - Engelhardt: One such hypothesis was put forth by author by Prent Duel in his 1919 work Mission Architecture as Exemplified in San Xavier Del Bac: "Most missions of early date possessed secret passages as a means of escape in case they were besieged. It is difficult to locate any of them now as they are well concealed." - Chapman: "Latter-day historians have been altogether too prone to regard the hostility to the Spaniards on the part of the California Indians as a matter of small consequence, since no disaster in fact ever happened...On the other hand the San Diego plot involved untold thousands of Indians, being virtually a national uprising, and owing to the distance from New Spain to and the extreme difficulty of maintaining communications a victory for the Indians would have ended Spanish settlement in Alta California." As it turned out, "...the position of the Spaniards was strengthened by the San Diego outbreak, for the Indians felt from that time forth that it was impossible to throw out their conquerors." See also Mission Puerto de Purísima Concepción and Mission San Pedro y San Pablo de Bicuñer regarding the Yuma 'massacres' of 1781. - Engelhardt: Not all of the native cultures responded with hostility to the Spaniards' presence; Engelhardt portrayed the natives at Mission San Juan Capistrano (dubbed the "Juaneño" by the missionaries), where there was never any instance of unrest, as being "uncommonly friendly and docile." The Rev. Juan Crespí, who accompanied the 1769 expedition, described the first encounter with the area's inhabitants: "They came unarmed and with a gentleness which has no name they brought their poor seeds to us as gifts...The locality itself and the docility of the Indians invited the establishment of a Mission for them." - Chapman: "Over the hills of the Coast Range, in the valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, north of San Francisco Bay, and in the Sierra Nevadas of the south there were untold thousands whom the mission system never reached...they were as if in a world apart from the narrow strip of coast which was all there was of the Spanish California." - Bennett: "The system had singularly failed in its purposes. It was the design of the Spanish government to have the missions educate, elevate, civilize, the Indians into citizens. When this was done, citizenship should be extended them and the missions should be dissolved as having served their purpose...[instead] the priests returned them projects of conversion, schemes of faith, which they never comprehended...He [the Indian] became a slave; the mission was a plantation; the friar was a taskmaster." - Bennett: "In 1825 Governor Argüello wrote that the slavery of the Indians at the missions was bestial...Governor Figueroa declared that the missions were 'entrenchments of monastic despotism'..." - Bennett: "It cannot be said that the mission system made the Indians more able to sustain themselves in civilization than it had found them...Upon the whole it may be said that this mission experiment was a failure." - Lippy: "A matter of debate in reflecting on the role of Spanish missions concerns the degree to which the Spanish colonial regimes regarded the work of the priests as a legitimate religious enterprise and the degree to which it was viewed as a 'frontier institution,' part of a colonial defense program. That is, were Spanish motives based on a desire to promote conversion or on a desire to have religious missions serve as a buffer to protect the main colonial settlements and an aid in controlling the Indians?" - Bennett: The missions in effect served as "...the citadels of the theocracy which was planted in California by Spain, under which its wild inhabitants were subjected, which stood as their guardians, civil and religious, and whose duty it was to elevate them and make them acceptable as citizens and Spanish subjects...it remained for the Spanish priests to undertake to preserve the Indian and seek to make his existence compatible with higher civilization." - Bean: "Serra's decision to plant tobacco at the missions was prompted by the fact that from San Diego to Monterey the natives invariably begged him for Spanish tobacco." - Morrison: That the buildings in the California mission chain are in large part intact is due in no small measure to their relatively recent construction; Mission San Diego de Alcalá was founded more than two centuries after the establishment of the Mission of Nombre de Dios in St. Augustine, Florida in 1565 and 170 years following the founding of Mission San Gabriel del Yunque in present-day Santa Fe, New Mexico in 1598. - Thompson: In the words of Charles Lummis, the historic structures "...were falling to ruin with frightful rapidity, their roofs being breached or gone, the adobe walls melting under the winter rains." - Hittell: "Boscana himself and his brother missionaries were men of narrow range of thought, continually seeking among the superstitions of the natives for resemblances of the true faith and ever ready to catch at the slightest hints and magnify them into complicated dogmas corresponding afar of those which they themselves taught." - Saunders and Chase, p. 65 - Kelsey, p. 18 - Leffingwell, p. 10 - Winship. pp. 32–4, 37 - Flint, R. (Winter 2005). "What They Never Told You about the Coronado Expedition". Kiva 71 (2): 203–217. doi:10.2307/30246725 (inactive 2015-02-08). JSTOR 30246725. - Kelsey, Harry (1986). Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo. San Marino: The Huntington Library. - Kelsey, Harry. "The Queen's Pirate". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 December 2015. - "Drake Claims California for England". History.com. Retrieved 11 December 2015. - Morrison, p. 214 - Frost, Orcutt William, ed. (2003), Bering: The Russian Discovery of America, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-10059-0 - Chapman, p. 216 - Bennett 1897a, pp. 11–12 - Rawls, p. 3 - Bennett 1897a, p. 10 - "Old Mission Santa Inés:" Clerical historian Maynard Geiger, "This was to be a cooperative effort, imperial in origin, protective in purpose, but primarily spiritual in execution." - Chapman, Charles E. Ph.D. (1921). A History of California; The Spanish Period. The MacMillan Company location= New York. ISBN 978-1148507927. - Orfalea, Gregory. "Hungry for Souls Was Junípero Serra a Saint?". Commonweal magazine. Retrieved 11 December 2015. - Rawls, p. 6 - Kroeber 1925, p. vi. - Bennett, p. 15 - Bennett 1897a, p. 16 - James, p. 11 - Engelhardt 1922, p. 258 - Yenne, p. 10 - Leffingwell, p. 25 - Engelhardt 1920, p. 76 - Robinson, p. 28 - Engelhardt 1908, pp. 3–18 - Bennett 1897a, p. 13 - Rawls, p. 106 - Milliken, pp. 172–173, 193 - Kroeber, p. 1 - Kroeber, p. 2 - Kelsey, p. 4 - Nordlander, p. 10 - Jones, p. 170 - Young, p. 102 - Hittell, p. 499 - Chapman, pp. 254–255 - Bacich, Damian. "The Zacatecan Franciscans in Alta California: A Misunderstood Legacy."Boletín: Journal of the California Mission Studies Association, Vol. 28, Nos. 1&2, 2011-12 - Robinson, p. 29 - Engelhardt 1922, p. 80 - Bancroft, vol. i, pp. 100–101: The motives behind the issuance of Echeandía's premature decree may have had more to do with his desire to appease "...some prominent Californians who had already had their eyes on the mission lands..." than with concern for the welfare of the natives. - Stern and Miller, pp. 51–52 - Forbes, p. 201: In 1831, the number of Indians under missionary control in all of Upper California stood at 18,683; garrison soldiers, free settlers, and "other classes" totaled 4,342. - Kelsey, p. 21 - Bancroft, vol. iii, pp. 322; 626 - Engelhard 1922, p. 223 - Yenne, pp. 18–19 - Engelhardt 1922, p. 114 - Yenne, pp. 83, 93 - Robinson, p. 42 - Cook, p. 200 - James, p. 215 - Engelhardt 1922, p. 248 - Bancroft, H. H. (1886). The works of Hubert Howe Bancroft: History of California : vol. IV, 1840-1845, pp73-74. San Francisco [Calif.: A.L. Bancroft - Robinson, p. 14 - Robinson, p. 100 - Robinson, pp. 31–32: The area shown is that stated in the Corrected Reports of Spanish and Mexican Grants in California Complete to February 25, 1886 as a supplement to the Official Report of 1883–1884. Patents for each mission were issued to Archbishop J.S. Alemany based on his claim filed with the Public Land Commission on February 19, 1853. - Rawls, pp. 112–113 - Capron, p. 3 - Bancroft, pp. 33–34 - Young, p. 17 - Robinson, p. 25 - Yenne, Bill (2004). The Missions of California. Advantage Publishers Group, San Diego, California. ISBN 1-59223-319-8. - Bennett, John E. (January 1897a). "Should the California Missions Be Preserved? – Part I". Overland Monthly XXIX (169): 9–24. - Markham, Edwin (1914). California the Wonderful: Her Romantic History, Her Picturesque People, Her Wild Shores... Hearst's International Library Company, Inc., New York. - Riesenberg, Felix (1962). The Golden Road: The Story of California's Spanish Mission Trail. McGraw-Hill, New York. ISBN 0-07-052740-7. - Engelhardt 1920, p. 228 - Leffingwell, p. 22 - Forbes, p. 202: In 1831, the number of Indians under missionary control stood at 6,465; garrison soldiers totaled 796. - Leffingwell, p. 68 - Forbes, p. 202: In 1831, the number of Indians under missionary control stood at 3,292; garrison soldiers totaled 613; the population of El Pueblo de los Ángeles numbered 1,388. - Leffingwell, p. 119 - Forbes, p. 202: In 1831, the number of Indians under missionary control stood at 3,305; garrison soldiers totaled 708; the population of Villa Branciforte numbered 130. - Leffingwell, p. 154 - Forbes, p. 202: In 1831, the number of Indians under missionary control stood at 5,433; garrison soldiers totaled 371; the population of El Pueblo de San José numbered 524. - Leffingwell, p. 170 - Paddison, p. 23 - Bennett 1897a, p. 20 - Engelhardt 1922, pp. 8–10 - Yenne, p. 186 - Ruscin, p. 196 - Ruscin, p. 61 - Chapman, p. 418: Chapman does not consider the sub-missions (asistencias) that make up the inland chain in this regard. - Engelhardt 1920, pp. 350–351 - Ruscin, p. 12 - Paddison, p. 48 - Chapman, pp. 310–311 - Engelhardt 1922, p. 12 - Rawls, pp. 14–16 - Leffingwell, pp. 19, 132 - Bennett 1897a, p. 20: Priests were paid an annual salary of $400. - Carey McWilliams.Southern California:An Island on the Land - Chapman, p. 383 - Paddison, p. 130 - Newcomb, p. viii - Krell, p. 316 - Engelhardt 1922, p. 30 - Bennett 1897b, p. 156 - Bennett 1897b, p. 158 - Bennett 1897b, p. 160: "The fathers claimed all the land in California in trust for the Indians, yet the Indians received no visible benefit from the trust." - Lippy, p. 47 - Paddison, p. xiv - A. Thompson, p. 341 - Bean and Lawson, p. 37 - A fanega is equal to 100 pounds. - Krell, p. 316: As of December 31, 1832. - California Native Grass Association - Engelhardt 1922, p. 211 - Mission Historical Park - City of Santa Barbara - Young, p. 18 - Stern and Miller, p. 85 - Stern and Neuerburg, p. 95 - Thompson, Mark, pp. 185–186 - "Past Campaigns" - Stern and Miller, p. 60 - California Missions Preservation Act - Coronado and Ignatin - McKanna, p. 15; also, per Hittell, p. 753 - Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1886). History of California, Volume II (1801–1894). The History Company, San Francisco, California. - Bean, Lowell John and Harry Lawton (1976). Native Californians: A Theoretical Perspective. Ballena Press, Banning, California. - Bennett, John E. (January 1897a). "Should the California Missions Be Preserved? – Part I". Overland Monthly XXIX (169): 9–24. - Bennett, John E. (February 1897b). "Should the California Missions Be Preserved? – Part II". Overland Monthly XXIX (170): 150–161. - Capron, E.S. (1854). History of California from its Discovery to the Present Time. John P. Jewett & Company, Cleveland, Ohio. - Chapman, Charles E., Ph.D. (1921). A History of California; The Spanish Period. The MacMillan Company, New York. - Cook, Sherburne F., Ph.D. (1976). The Population of the California Indians, 1769–1970. University of California Press, Berkeley, California. ISBN 0-520-02923-2. - Coronado, Michael; Heather Ignatin (June 5, 2006). "Plan would open Prop. 40 funds to missions". The Orange County Register. Retrieved 2008-03-08. - Engelhardt, Zephyrin, O.F.M. (1908). The Missions and Missionaries of California, Volume One. The James H. Barry Co., San Francisco, California. - Engelhardt, Zephyrin, O.F.M. (1920). San Diego Mission. James H. Barry Company, San Francisco, California. - Engelhardt, Zephyrin, O.F.M. (1922). San Juan Capistrano Mission. Standard Printing Co., Los Angeles, California. - Forbes, Alexander (1839). California: A History of Upper and Lower California. Smith, Elder and Co., Cornhill, London. ISBN 0-405-04972-2. - Geiger, Maynard J., O.F.M., Ph.D. (1969). Franciscan Missionaries in Hispanic California, 1769–1848: A Biographical Dictionary. Huntington Library, San Marino, California. - Harley, R. Bruce (1997–2003). "The San Bernardino Asistencias". California Mission Studies Association. Archived from the original on 2006-06-13. Retrieved 2006-11-21. - Hittell, Theodore H. (1898). History of California, Volume I. N.J. Stone & Company, San Francisco, California. - James, George Wharton (1913). The Old Franciscan Missions Of California. Little, Brown, and Co. Inc., Boston, Massachusetts. ISBN 0-89341-321-6. - Jones, Roger W. (1997). California from the Conquistadores to the Legends of Laguna. Rockledge Enterprises, Laguna Hills, California. - Jones, Terry L.; Kathryn A. Klar (2005). "Linguistic Evidence for a Prehistoric Polynesia-Southern California Contact Event". Anthropological Linguistics (47): 369–400. - Jones, Terry L. and Kathryn A. Klar (eds.) (2007). California Prehistory: Colonization, Culture, and Complexity. Altimira Press, Landham, Maryland. ISBN 0-7591-0872-2. - Kelsey, H. (1993). Mission San Juan Capistrano: A Pocket History. Interdisciplinary Research, Inc., Altadena, California. ISBN 0-9785881-0-X. - Krell, Dorothy (ed.) (1979). The California Missions: A Pictorial History. Sunset Publishing Corporation, Menlo Park, California. ISBN 0-376-05172-8. - Kroeber, Alfred L. (1908). "A Mission Record of the California Indians". University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 8 (1): 1–27. - Kroeber, Alfred L. (1925). Handbook of the Indians of California. Dover Publications, Inc., New York. ISBN 0-486-23368-5. - Leffingwell, Randy (2005). California Missions and Presidios: The History & Beauty of the Spanish Missions. Voyageur Press, Inc., Stillwater, Minnesota. ISBN 0-89658-492-5. - Lippy, Charles H. (1985). Bibliography of Religion in the South. Mercer University Press, Macon, Georgia. ISBN 0-86554-161-2. - Markham, Edwin (1914). California the Wonderful: Her Romantic History, Her Picturesque People, Her Wild Shores... Hearst's International Library Company, Inc., New York. - Margolin, Malcolm (1993). The Way We Lived: California Indian Stories, Songs & Remembrances. Heyday Books, Berkeley, California. ISBN 0-930588-55-X. - McKanna, Clare Vernon (2002). Race and Homicide in Nineteenth-Century California. University of Nevada Press, Reno, Nevada. ISBN 0-87417-515-1. - Milliken, Randall (1995). A Time of Little Choice: The Disintegration of Tribal Culture in the San Francisco Bay Area 1769–1910. Ballena Press, Menlo Park, California. ISBN 0-87919-132-5. - Morrison, Hugh (1987). Early American Architecture: From the First Colonial Settlements to the National Period. Dover Publications, New York. ISBN 0-486-25492-5. - Newcomb, Rexford (1973). The Franciscan Mission Architecture of Alta California. Dover Publications, Inc., New York. ISBN 0-486-21740-X. - Nordlander, David J. (1994). For God & Tsar: A Brief History of Russian America 1741–1867. Alaska Natural History Association, Anchorage, AK. ISBN 0-930931-15-7. - Oakley, Kenneth P. (September 1963). "Relative Dating of Arlington Springs Man". Science 20 (3586): 41–1172. doi:10.1126/science.141.3586.1172. PMID 14043359. - Paddison, Joshua (ed.) (1999). A World Transformed: Firsthand Accounts of California Before the Gold Rush. Heyday Books, Berkeley, California. ISBN 1-890771-13-9. - "Past Campaigns". California Mission Studies Association. 2000. Retrieved 2007-07-08. - "The Pious Fund of the Californias". Catholic Encyclopedia. 1911. Retrieved 2007-07-08. - "Pre-Mission History". Old Mission Santa Inés. 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-26. - Rawls, James J. (1984). Indians of California: The Changing Image. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma. ISBN 0-8061-2020-7. - Riesenberg, Felix (1962). The Golden Road: The Story of California's Spanish Mission Trail. McGraw-Hill, New York. ISBN 0-07-052740-7. - Robinson, W.W. (1948). Land in California. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California. ISBN 0-520-03875-4. - Ruscin, Terry (1999). Mission Memoirs. Sunbelt Publications, San Diego, California. ISBN 0-932653-30-8. - Saunders, Charles Francis and J. Smeaton Chase (1915). The California Padres and Their Missions. Houghton Mifflin, Boston and New York. ISBN 0-910118-53-1. - Stern, Jean and Gerald J. Miller (1995). Romance of the Bells: The California Missions in Art. The Irvine Museum, Irvine, California. ISBN 0-9635468-5-6. - Thompson, Anthony W., Robert J. Church, and Bruce H. Jones (2000). Pacific Fruit Express. Signature Press, Wilton, California. ISBN 1-930013-03-5. - Thompson, Mark (2001). American Character: The Curious Life of Charles Fletcher Lummis and the Rediscovery of the Southwest. Arcade Publishing, New York. ISBN 1-55970-550-7. - Vancouver, George (1801). A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean and Round the World, Volume III. Printed for John Stockdale, Piccadilly, London. - Yenne, Bill (2004). The Missions of California. Advantage Publishers Group, San Diego, California. ISBN 1-59223-319-8. - Young, S., and Levick, M. (1988). The Missions of California. Chronicle Books LLC, San Francisco, California. ISBN 0-8118-1938-8. - Baer, Kurt (1958). Architecture of the California Missions. University of California Press, Los Angeles, California. - Berger, John A. (1941). The Franciscan Missions of California. G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York. - Carillo, J. M., O.F.M. (1967). The Story of Mission San Antonio de Padua. Paisano Press, Inc., Balboa Island, California. - Camphouse, M. (1974). Guidebook to the Missions of California. Anderson, Ritchie & Simon, Los Angeles, California. ISBN 0-378-03792-7. - Crespí, Juan: A Description of Distant Roads: Original Journals of the First Expedition into California, 1796–1770, edited and translated by Alan K. Brown, San Diego State University Press, 2001, ISBN 978-1-879691-64-3 - Crump, S. (1975). California's Spanish Missions: Their Yesterdays and Todays. Trans-Anglo Books, Del Mar, California. ISBN 0-87046-028-5. - Drager, K., and Fracchia, C. (1997). The Golden Dream: California from Gold Rush to Statehood. Graphic Arts Center Publishing Company, Portland, Oregon. ISBN 1-55868-312-7. - Johnson, P., ed. (1964). The California Missions. Lane Book Company, Menlo Park, California. - Moorhead, Max L. (1991). The Presidio: Bastion Of The Spanish Borderlands. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma. ISBN 0-8061-2317-6. - Rawls, J. and Bean, W. (1997). California: An Interpretive History. McGraw-Hill, New York. ISBN 0-07-052411-4. - Robinson, W.W. (1953). Panorama: A Picture History of Southern California. Anderson, Ritchie & Simon, Los Angeles, California. - Weitze, Karen J. (1984). California's Mission Revival. Hennessy & Ingalls, Inc., Los Angeles, California. ISBN 0-912158-89-1. - Wright, Ralph B., Ed. (1984). California's Missions. Lowman Publishing Company, Arroyo Grande, California. Articles and archives - Early California Population Project (ECPP) The Huntington Library, 2006. Provides public access to all the information contained in California's historic mission registers. - California Missions article at the Catholic Encyclopedia - The California Missions, 2001. - Matrimonial Investigation records of the San Gabriel Mission Claremont Colleges Digital Library, 2008, 169 records digitized and searchable by priest name or by the names of the couple requesting marriage. - Junipero Serra, the Vatican, & Enslavement Theology Preview of Fogel, Daniel. ISM Press Books. Offers a critical perspective on the missions' impact on California's Indians. - MissionTour Tom Simondi, 2001–2005. - The Old Franciscan Missions of California James, George Wharton, 1913. eText at Project Gutenberg. - The San Diego Founders Trail 2001–2008 website. - Trails and Roads: El Camino Real Faigin, Daniel P. California Highways, 1996–2004 - Almanac: California Missions GAzis-SAx, Joel, 1999. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to California missions.| - California Mission Studies Association - California's Spanish Missions - Library of Congress: American Memory Project: Early California History, The Missions - Tricia Anne Weber: The Spanish Missions of California - Album of Views of the Missions of California, Souvenir Publishing Company, San Francisco, Los Angeles, 1890's. - The Missions of California, by Eugene Leslie Smyth, Chicago: Alexander Belford & Co., 1899. - California Historical Society - California Mission Visitors Guide - National Register of Historic Places: Early History of the California Coast: List of Sites - California Mission Sketches by Henry Miller, 1856 and Finding Aid to the Documents relating to Missions of the Californias : typescript, 1768–1802 at The Bancroft Library - Howser, Huell (December 8, 2000). "Art of the Missions (110)". California Missions. Chapman University Huell Howser Archive.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Missions_of_California

- What is Planetary Science? - Science Nuggets - Call for Comet Tail Images - MSSL Home - The First Akon Europa Penetrator Workshop Rosetta is the European Space Agency's first cornerstone mission in planetary exploration. Its mission is to orbit and land on a comet, following gravity assist flybys of inner planets (Earth three times and Mars once) and scientific flybys of asteroids. Launched successfully 2 March 2004 to comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. Rosetta is an ambitious and comprehensive mission consising of two spacecraft - an orbiter and a lander. The orbiter will be delivered to a comet, where it will become the first spacecraft to go into orbit around a cometary nucleus. The first encounter will be far out in the comet's orbit where it is cold and inactive. The lander will be deployed soon afterwards, to make the first ever measurements on the surface of a comet. The orbiter will travel with the target comet as it nears the Sun, the nucleus warms, material boils away and activity develops. Close to the Sun, comets have two tails - a dust tail and a plasma tail which can be millions of km long. Rosetta will make detailed close-up studies of the comet's nucleus, including the development of activity, imaging studies, composition measurements and dust. Comets are important to study as they are ancient objects, almost unchanged since the beginning of the solar system 4.6 billion years ago. They are often called the building blocks of the outer solar system, and are the nearest surviving objects to the early 'planetesimals'. Comets are thought to be stored in two 'reservoirs': the Oort cloud and the Kuiper belt. Every so often comets are nudged inwards in their orbits, passing through the inner solar system and in some cases being trapped in a lower solar orbit by Jupiter. Some comets, likely to be from the Oort cloud, have orbits with 'long' periods (eg Halley 76 years, Hale Bopp thousands of years) and others such as Wirtanen (Rosetta's original target) and Grigg-Skjellerup have interacted significantly with Jupiter and have 'short' periods near 5 years. Comets are also important due to their role early in the solar system of bombarding the Earth's and other atmospheres with volatile substances like water and carbon based compounds. There is evidence that at the end of the solar system's early bombardment phase, 4.6 to 3.8 billion years ago, the compositition of Earth's atmosphere bore some similarities to the composition of comets. Comets therefore may have played an important role in bringing water and other volatiles to Earth and other inner solar system objects, in addition to outgassing of volatile material from the forming planets. They are also important because of collisions which can still happen, as seen with comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 hitting Jupiter in 1994. In space exploration terms the missions to Giacobini-Zinner (ICE), Halley (Giotto, Vega-1 and 2, Suisei and Sakigake) and Grigg-Skjellerup (Giotto) started cometary exploration in the mid-1980s and early 1990s. The 2001 encounter with Borrelly (Deep Space 1) provided some more data, and Stardust flew by comet Wild-2 in 2004. Stardust images showed only the third cometary nucleus, after Halley and Borrelly, seen by humankind, and will return some cometary dust to Earth in 2006. The imminent NASA mission to Tempel 1 (Deep Impact, launch January 2005) will also provide vital and complementary data. But ESA's Rosetta has a relatively broad suite of scientific objectives compared to these smaller missions with more tightly focussed sceintific aims. Rosetta will take cometary exploration to the next stage by orbiting and landing on a comet. At MSSL we have studied data from our Johnstone Plasma Analyser on Giotto, which visited Halley and Grigg Skjellerup, providing key information on how the ion tail forms, via 'ion pickup', at two different comets with a factor 100 difference in gas production rate. This process is also important in many other solar system contexts, including the 'scavenging' of the Mars and Venus atmospheres by the solar wind, and even in fusion experiments on Earth. MSSL role in Rosetta Andrew Coates of MSSL is a co-investigator in the Rosetta Plasma Consortium, and leads the science team for this set of five complementary sensors on the Rosetta Orbiter. The sensor teams are led by IRF-Uppsala and Kiruna (S), T.U.Braunschweig (D), SwRI (USA), and LPCE (F); the plasma interface unit is from IC (UK). We expect that the RPC instrument will be one of the first to detect the signs of activity as the comet warms. The UK involvement in RPC consists of Imperial College (plasma interface unit hardware) and UCL-MSSL (science team lead). Scientific goals of the RPC include - Study of onset of activity of a comet, and development of its interaction with the solar wind, as the spacecraft approaches the Sun. - The gas production will change over many orders of magnitude during the mission, changing the activity from a quiescent, bare nucleus to a complex interaction region, with a plasma tail. - Interaction between the nucleus and its environment: studies of conductivity, magnetization, sputtering, charging, dust levitation. - First exploration of the detailed structure of the inner coma of a comet. - First exploration of plasma tail formation region and determination of its relationship to other plasma boundaries. - Determination of the role of tail rays, long observed at comets but role in tail formation and relation to in-situ data not understood as yet. - Determination of permanence of boundaries in the comet-solar wind interaction. - Determination of particle acceleration processes near the comet. - Study of interaction between gas expansion, ionization and photochemical. 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http://www.ucl.ac.uk/mssl/planetary-science/missions/rosetta

In the first half of the 20th cent., most of the Maya region looked much as it had centuries earlier. Society was divided between a commercial and administrative elite group of Spanish-speaking whites and ladinos, who resided in the larger towns, and a much larger group of Maya-speaking agriculturists, who resided in rural villages. In few areas of Latin America was a racial divide so clearly demarcated, with castelike divisions separating ladinos from the indigenous population. Although the political division between Mexico and Guatemala occurred early in the 19th cent., there were few discernible consequences prior to the years following the Mexican revolution (1910–17). At this time a land redistribution program, together with a set of legal guarantees preventing the expropriation of village lands, were applied to rural populations throughout Mexico; in contrast, no such guarantees were respected with regard to the Guatemalan population. Demographic growth among Maya-speaking populations increasingly led to pressure on available resources, leading to widespread deforestation and erosion and forcing many groups to adopt commercial specializations to supplement income derived from agriculture. Among the better-known examples of the latter are the colorful cotton textiles produced in the Guatemalan highlands, marketed both locally and in industrialized countries. Also in Guatemala, seasonal labor on the growing number of coffee plantations along the Pacific coast became increasingly important throughout the first half of the 20th cent. Beginning in the 1930s and 40s, improved communications throughout the Maya region opened many new and often local economic opportunities for wage employment and commercial activity. As Maya populations have become more tightly integrated into national economies, their distinctive ethnic markers, including dress, language, and religious practices, have often been abandoned, leaving increasing numbers culturally indistinguishable from the ladino population. Conversely, economically autonomous communities have used the same ethnic markers as a means of preserving the integrity of group boundaries and corporately held resources. Partly for this reason, the Guatemalan military unleashed a campaign of terror beginning in the mid-1970s, specifically targeting the indigenous population. All markers of traditional ethnic identity, including distinctive dress, language, and even Catholicism, became targets of military repression. Village lands were subject to widespread seizure, and government-sponsored resettlement programs were widely applied. In the 1970s and 80s there were tens of thousands of deaths and "disappearances" and an exodus of many hundreds of thousands, most from Maya-speaking regions, seeking sanctuary primarily in Mexico and the United States. However, over a million Maya remain in Guatemala. In Mexico, a 1994 uprising in Chiapas drew much of its strength from the support of Mayan peasants. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.

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Skip to Content View Additional Content In This Section Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a type of staphylococcus or "staph" bacterium that is resistant to many antibiotics. Staph bacteria, like other kinds of bacteria, normally live on your skin and in your nose, usually without causing problems. But if these bacteria become resistant to antibiotics, they can cause serious infections, especially in people who are ill or weak. MRSA is different from other types of staph because it cannot be treated with certain antibiotics such as methicillin. MRSA infections are more difficult to treat than ordinary staph infections. This is because the strains of staph known as MRSA do not respond well to many common antibiotics used to kill bacteria. When methicillin and other antibiotics do not kill the bacteria causing an infection, it becomes harder to get rid of the infection. MRSA bacteria are more likely to develop when antibiotics are used too often or are not used correctly. Given enough time, bacteria can change so that these antibiotics no longer work well. MRSA, like all staph bacteria, can be spread from one person to another through casual contact or through contaminated objects. It is commonly spread from the hands of someone who has MRSA. This could be anyone in a health care setting or in the community. MRSA is usually not spread through the air like the common cold or flu virus, unless a person has MRSA pneumonia and is coughing. MRSA that is acquired in a hospital or health care setting is called healthcare-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (HA-MRSA). In most cases, a person who is already sick or who has a weakened immune system becomes infected with HA-MRSA. These infections can occur in wounds or skin, burns, and IV or other sites where tubes enter the body, as well as in the eyes, bones, heart, or blood. In the past, MRSA infected people who had chronic illnesses. But now MRSA has become more common in healthy people. These infections can occur among people who have scratches, cuts, or wounds and who have close contact with one another, such as members of sports teams. This type of MRSA is called community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA). Symptoms of a MRSA infection depend on where the infection is. If MRSA is causing an infection in a wound, that area of your skin may be red or tender. If you have pneumonia, you may develop a Community-associated MRSA commonly causes skin infections, cellulitis. Often, people think they have been bitten by a spider or insect. Because MRSA infections can become serious in a short amount of time, it is important to see your doctor right away if you notice a boil or other skin problem. If your doctor thinks that you are infected with MRSA, he or she will send a sample of your infected wound, blood, or urine to a lab. The lab will grow the bacteria and then test to see which kinds of antibiotics kill the bacteria. This test may take several days. You may also be tested if your doctor suspects that you are a MRSA carrier. A MRSA carrier is a person who has the bacteria living on the skin and in the nose but who is not sick. The test is done by taking a swab from the inside of the Depending on how serious your infection is, the doctor may drain your wound, prescribe antibiotic medicine, give you an IV (intravenous) antibiotic, or hospitalize you. If you have a MRSA infection and need to be in a hospital, you may be isolated in a private room to reduce the chances of spreading the bacteria to others. When your doctors and nurses are caring for you, they may use extra precautions such as wearing gloves and gowns. If you have a MRSA pneumonia, they may also wear masks. Most cases of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) begin as mild skin infections such as pimples or boils. Your doctor may be able to treat these infections without antibiotics by using a minor surgical procedure that opens and drains the sores. your doctor prescribes antibiotic medicine, be sure to take all the medicine even if you begin to feel better right away. If you do not take all the medicine, you may not kill all the bacteria. No matter what your treatment, be sure to call your doctor if your infection does not get better as As more antibiotic-resistant bacteria develop, hospitals are taking extra care to practice infection control, which includes frequent hand-washing and isolation of patients who are infected with You can also take steps to protect yourself from If you have an infection with MRSA, you can keep from spreading the bacteria. If you need to go to the hospital for some reason, and you have staph bacteria living on your skin and in your nose, you may be treated to try to prevent getting or spreading a MRSA infection. You may be given an ointment to put on your skin or inside your nose. And you need to wash your skin daily with a special soap that can get rid of the bacteria. Other Works Consulted American Academy of Pediatrics (2012). Staphylococcal infections. In LK Pickering et al., eds., Red Book: 2012 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, 29th ed., pp. 653–668. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2010). MRSA infections. Available online: http://www.cdc.gov/mrsa/index.html. Kallen AJ, et al. (2010). Health care-associated invasive MRSA infections, 2005–2008. JAMA, 304(6): 641–647. Liu C, et al. (2011). Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 52(3): 285–292. ByHealthwise StaffPrimary Medical ReviewerE. Gregory Thompson, MD - Internal MedicineSpecialist Medical ReviewerTheresa O'Young, PharmD - Clinical Pharmacy Current as ofMay 22, 2015 Current as of: May 22, 2015 E. Gregory Thompson, MD - Internal Medicine & Theresa O'Young, PharmD - Clinical Pharmacy To learn more about Healthwise, visit Healthwise.org. © 1995-2015 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.

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Shift in feeding behavior of mosquitoes sheds light on West Nile virus outbreaks Since its introduction to the United States in 1999, West Nile virus has become the major vector-borne disease in the U.S., with 770 reported deaths, 20,000 reported illnesses, and perhaps around a million people infected. The virus is transmitted by Culex mosquitoes (the "vector") and cycles between birds that the mosquitoes feed on. Humans can also be infected with the virus when bitten by these mosquitoes. Scientists have struggled to explain these large outbreaks in the U.S., which stand in stark contrast to the sporadic European infections. In a new study published in the open access journal PLoS Biology, Drs. Marm Kilpatrick, Peter Daszak, and colleagues now present evidence that the major vector of West Nile virus in the USA, Culex pipiens mosquitoes, change their feeding behavior in the fall from their preferred host, American robins, to humans, resulting in large scale outbreaks of disease. These feeding shifts appear to be a "continent-wide phenomenon," the researchers conclude, and may explain why West Nile virus outbreaks are so intense in the U.S. compared to Europe and Africa, where the virus originates. From May through September 2005,Dr. Kilpatrick, senior research scientist with the Consortium for Conservation Medicine, and his team collected mosquitoes and caught birds at six sites in Maryland and Washington, D.C. They determined the changes in mosquito populations throughout the West Nile virus transmission season, the abundance and diversity of bird species at these sites, and tested samples for West Nile virus. Dr. Kilpatrick says, "To find out which species mosquitoes favored as hosts, we collected thousands of Culex pipiens mosquitoes and selected those that had just fed and still had bloodmeals in them. We sequenced the DNA in the bloodmeal to identify the species of host they had fed on." Their findings showed that from May to June, the American robin, which represented just 4.5% bird population at their sites, accounted for more than half of Culex pipiens' meals. As the summer wore on and robins left their breeding grounds, the probability that humans were fed on increased sevenfold. Because the overall number of birds increased during this time, Kilpatrick and his team concluded that mosquitoes changed to humans as a result of robin dispersal, rather than a lack of avian hosts. "This feeding shift happened, even though the total number of birds at our site increased as other species' offspring joined the population," said Kilpatrick. With the data collected from the Washington, D.C., area, the researchers presented a model of the risks of infection of the West Nile virus in humans. The model predicted that the risk of human infection peaked in late July to mid-August, declined toward the end of August, and then rose slightly at the end of September. The actual human cases in the area that year, the authors point out, "showed a strikingly similar pattern." This same pattern was seen in California and Colorado, with numbers of infected Culex tarsalis mosquitoes (the main vectors in the western USA) peaking in June and July, followed by a late-summer spike in human infections, suggesting a continent-wide phenomenon. Dr. Peter Daszak, Executive Director of the Consortium for Conservation Medicine, comments: "This is a case study in how to understand emerging diseases. Our collaborative team includes ecologists, virologists, and entomologists, and uses state-of-the-art techniques, including DNA sequencing of mosquito blood meals, to piece together what drives a virus to cause outbreaks in people. At the CCM we study the ecology of diseases and develop predictive models that can help us prevent future outbreaks. We are now using this approach to help understand the emergence and spread of other viruses such as SARS, Nipah virus and avian influenza." The study is funded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease. Citation: Kilpatrick AM, Kramer LD, Jones MJ, Marra PP, Daszak P (2006) West Nile virus epidemics in North America are driven by shifts in mosquito feeding behavior. PLoS Biol 4(4): e82. Consortium for Conservation Medicine 460 W 34th St. New York, NY USA 10001 Consortium for Conservation Medicine 61 Route 9W Palisades, NY USA10964 PLEASE MENTION THE OPEN-ACCESS JOURNAL PLoS BIOLOGY (www.plosbiology.org) AS THE SOURCE FOR THESE ARTICLES AND PROVIDE A LINK TO THE FREELY-AVAILABLE TEXT. THANK YOU. All works published in PLoS Biology are open access. Everything is imately available--to read, download, redistribute, include in databases, and otherwise use--without cost to anyone, anywhere, subject only to the condition that the original authorship and source are properly attributed. Copyright is retained by the authors. The Public Library of Science uses the Creative Commons Attribution License. Last reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 21 Feb 2009 Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved.

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Thalassemia is a group of inherited blood disorders that interfere with the body's normal production of hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a substance that red blood cells need in order to carry oxygen to body tissues. Thalassemia is inherited, passed on through genes from parent to child. Symptoms of the disease vary. Some people have no symptoms or very mild symptoms, in which case they may not need treatment. Others develop symptoms of anemia, such as weakness, fatigue, lightheadedness, and pale skin. People who have moderate to severe symptoms of anemia may require treatment. Treatment depends on the severity of the thalassemia. Treatment can include folic acid supplements, medicine, blood transfusions, or stem cell transplants from blood or bone marrow. Very rare forms of thalassemia may cause organ damage that can result in death. eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise To learn more visit Healthwise.org © 1995-2014 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated. - Early Care for Your Premature Baby - What to Eat When You Have Cancer - When to Take More Pain Medication

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April is in the middle of the dry season, which runs from January through May in this region, and naturally coincides with fire season. Farmers often use fire to return nutrients to the soil and to clear the ground of unwanted plants. Fire helps enhance crops and grasses for pasture. Some of the fires in this image may be wildfires, with natural (lightning) or accidental (human) sources. As the dry season progresses, the number of fires tend to grow, as does the blanket of smoke which settles over the land, and although the fire may help the farmers get their lands ready for planting season, unfortunately, the fires also produce smoke that degrades air quality. This natural-color satellite image was collected by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) aboard the Terra satellite on April 24, 2014. Actively burning areas, detected by MODIS's thermal bands, are outlined in red. Each hot spot, which appears as a red mark, is an area where the thermal detectors on the MODIS instrument recognized temperatures higher than background. When accompanied by plumes of smoke, as in this image, such hot spots are diagnostic for fire. |Contact: Rob Gutro| NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center

http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/Fires-in-the-Yucatan-Peninsula-in-April-2014-35336-1/

NetWellness is a global, community service providing quality, unbiased health information from our partner university faculty. NetWellness is commercial-free and does not accept advertising. Friday, February 12, 2016 The spine is an intricate structure of bones, muscles, and other tissues that form the posterior part of the body's trunk, from the skull to the pelvis. The centerpiece is the spinal column, which not only supports the upper body’s weight but houses and protects the spinal cord — the delicate nervous system structure that carries signals that control the body’s movements and convey its sensations to and from the brain. The spinal column consists of 5 regions, made up of 33 bones called vertebrae. Cervical Region – The top seven vertebrae make up the cervical region (labeled C1–C7). The first of these vertebrae supports the skull. Thoracic Region - Each of these twelve vertebrae supports a pair of ribs (labeled T1–T12). Lumbar Region – These are the five largest and strongest vertebrae (labeled L1–L5). This area of the spine, as well as its surrounding tissues, can cause "low back pain". Sacral and Coccygeal Regions - The sacrum is made up of five fused vertebrae. The coccyx is made up of four fused vertebrae. Stacked on top of one another, the vertebrae form the spinal column, also known as the spine. Each of these bones contains a roundish hole that, when stacked in register with all the others, creates a channel (the "spinal canal") that surrounds the spinal cord. The spinal cord descends from the base of the brain and extends in the adult to just below the rib cage. Small nerves ("roots") enter and emerge from the spinal cord through spaces between the vertebrae called "foramina" (singular is "foramen"), or "neuroforamina". Because the bones of the spinal column continue growing long after the spinal cord reaches its full length in early childhood, the nerve roots to the lower back and legs extend many inches down the spinal column before exiting. This large bundle of nerve roots was dubbed by early anatomists as the cauda equina, or horse’s tail. The spaces between the vertebrae are maintained by round, spongy pads of cartilage called intervertebral discs that allow for flexibility in the lower back and act much like shock absorbers throughout the spinal column to cushion the bones as the body moves. Bands of tissue known as ligaments and tendons hold the vertebrae in place and attach the muscles to the spinal column. Source: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke - Low Back Pain Fact Sheet Last Reviewed: Apr 28, 2009 David J Hart, MD Associate Professor of Neurosurgery School of Medicine Case Western Reserve University

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