question
stringlengths 15
100
| context
stringlengths 18
412k
|
|---|---|
who was the first person to represent the british government in the gold coast | List of governors of the Gold Coast - wikipedia
This is a list of colonial administrators in the Gold Coast (modern Ghana) from the start of English presence in 1621 until Ghana 's independence from the United Kingdom in 1957.
In 1843 a governor was appointed subordinate to the Governor of Sierra Leone until 1850. After the Third Anglo - Ashanti War of 1873 -- 74, the Gold Coast was formally declared a crown colony.
In 1957, the Gold Coast and British Togoland, became the independent country of Ghana. The viceroy in the new country was the Governor - General of Ghana. He was the representative of the Queen of England and thus acted in the Queen 's name as other former governors had been in place and exercised such jurisdiction allocated to them by the constitutions they drew for themselves in respect to the governance of the colony.
|
who was prime minister of pakistan in 1999 | List of Prime ministers of Pakistan - Wikipedia
Parliament
Executive:
Judiciary
The Prime Minister of Pakistan (Urdu: وزِیرِ اعظم -- Wazīr - ē Aʿẓam, Urdu pronunciation: (ʋəˈziːr - ˌeː ˈɑː. zəm); Turkish lit. "Grand Vizier ''), is the popularly elected politician who is the chief executive of the Government of Pakistan. The Prime Minister is vested with responsibility of running the administration through his appointed federal cabinet, formulating national policies to ensure the safeguard of the interests of the nation and its people through the Council of Common Interests as well as making the decision to call to hold the nationwide general elections for the bicameral Parliament of Pakistan.
Since 1947, Pakistan has had nineteen elected prime ministers, aside from the appointed caretaker prime ministers who were only mandate to oversee the system until the process of elections is due finished. In Pakistan 's parliamentary system, the Prime Minister is sworn - in by the President and usually is the Chairman or / the President of its party or coalition that has the majority in the National Assembly -- the lower house of Pakistan Parliament.
After the India 's partition on the midnight of 14 / 15 August of 1947, Pakistan followed the British system by having it created the post of the Prime Minister based at the Prime Minister 's Secretariat. The Governor - General Muhammad Ali Jinnah, undertaking the advisement from the Founding Fathers of the nation, appointed Liaquat Ali Khan to establish and lead his administration on 15 August 1947. Before the presidential system in 1960, six prime ministers had served between 1947 until martial law in 1958. In 1971, the office was again revived but ceased to exist shortly. Executive powers and authority was given to the Prime Minister when the full set of the Constitution of Pakistan was promulgated in 1973 but the post was ceased from its effective operations after another martial law in 1977. After the general elections held in 1985, the office came to its existence. Between 1988 -- 99, the office was held by Benazir Bhutto of the PPP and Nawaz Sharif of PML (N), each holding the office for two non-consecutive terms between 1988 and 1999: Bhutto during 1988 -- 90 and 1993 -- 96; and Sharif during 1990 -- 93 and 1997 -- 99.
The premiership of the I.I. Chundrigar was the shortest in Pakistan 's history, serving only for 55 days into his term. At approximately five years and four months in total, Sharif is the longest - serving Prime Minister. Sharif was re-elected for a third non-consecutive term on 5 June 2013, which is a record in the history of Pakistan. The national politics in Pakistan was mostly dominated by the army department of the Pakistan Armed Forces throughout its history, but it is now dominated by the political parties.
After the general elections held in 2002, Zafarullah Khan Jamali was invited to form his administration as its Prime Minister. After the Supreme Court of Pakistan 's rulings to disqualified the Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani in 2012, the business of his administration was looked after by Pervez Ashraf until the caretaker administration was setup under Mir Hazar Khoso.
|
who sings the song take me to the river | Take Me to the River - wikipedia
"Take Me to the River '' is a 1974 song written by singer Al Green and guitarist Mabon "Teenie '' Hodges. Hit versions were recorded by both Syl Johnson and Talking Heads. In 2004, Al Green 's original version was ranked number 117 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
Al Green originally recorded the song for his 1974 album, Al Green Explores Your Mind, produced by Willie Mitchell and featuring musicians Charles, Leroy and Mabon Hodges (The Hodges Brothers), drummer Howard Grimes, and the Memphis Horns. Green and Mabon Hodges wrote the song while staying in a rented house at Lake Hamilton, Arkansas, for three days in 1973 in order to come up with new material. According to Mitchell, Green wrote the words and Green and Hodges wrote the tune together. Green dedicated his performance on the record to "... Little Junior Parker, a cousin of mine, he 's gone on but we 'd like to kinda carry on in his name... '' According to one writer, "Green 's song squares the singer 's early religious convictions with more earthly interests '', but when the singer became a pastor of the Full Gospel Tabernacle Church in 1976, he dropped the song from his repertoire.
Writing in The Independent in 1994, Tim de Lisle wrote: "Musically, it was much like any other track sung by Green and produced by Willie Mitchell, the Southern - soul maestro who ran Hi Records, the Memphis Horns and the Memphis Strings: R'n'B with lashings of subtlety, a light, easy, late - night sound, in which the strings, the horns, the organ, the guitars and that wild - honey voice blend into a single swinging, winning thing. It does n't sound like a band playing: it sounds like a lot of instruments humming. ''
Al Green also used the title Take Me to the River for his autobiography, published in 2000.
In 2004, Green 's original recording was ranked number 117 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest songs of all time. The song was used as the title track of the award - winning 2008 compilation album Take Me to the River: A Southern Soul Story 1961 - 1977.
The song played prominent role in an episode of the HBO series The Sopranos in which a Big Mouth Billy Bass played a major role; its lyrics reminded protagonist Tony Soprano of his murder of Big Pussy Bonpensiero. It also was used in the movie Blood In Blood Out.
The record company, Hi Records, did not release Green 's track as a single, but instead passed the song to his labelmate, Syl Johnson. Johnson 's recording of the song, featuring most of the same musicians as on Green 's version, but with additional harmonica and a grittier vocal performance, reached # 48 on the US Billboard Hot 100 in 1975, and # 7 on the U.S. Billboard R&B chart.
In 2000, the tune was used in the popular animatronic singing toy "Big Mouth Billy Bass ''. The recording was arranged and produced for the toy 's manufacturers, Gemmy Industries, by Al Thomas of Designer Music. According to Teenie Hodges, he made more money in royalties from that version than from any previous versions.
"Take Me to the River '' has also been notably recorded and performed by other artists. Rock band Foghat recorded the song for their 1976 album Night Shift. Two years later, Levon Helm and Bryan Ferry re-recorded it separately for their own solo albums. Blues rock singer Delbert McClinton recorded the song for his 1980 album, The Jealous Kind. Disco singer Claudja Barry recorded the song for her 1981 album, Made in Hong Kong. Jazz singer Diane Schuur recorded the song for her 1985 album, Schuur Thing. Tina Turner recorded the song as the B - side track for her 1987 single "Break Every Rule. '' Tom Jones and Curtis Stigers performed the song live as a duet, the performance later included in the Australian edition 's bonus disc of Jones ' 1994 album, The Lead and How to Swing It. Annie Lennox recorded her version for her 1995 album, Medusa. Grateful Dead performed the song live four times during the 1995 tour, including one at the Knickerbocker Arena in Albany, New York on June 21 and then another at Pittsburgh 's Three Rivers Stadium on June 30. Eva Cassidy performed the song live at Blues Alley in Washington, D.C. venue on January 1996, later included in her live album, released before her death that same year. The italian bluesman Zucchero Fornaciari sampled part of the melody for realizing his song Baila in the album Shake of 2001.
Phish performed the song three times in concert tours. The band performed it as a soundcheck track for the State Theatre concert in Minneapolis, Minnesota on April 9, 1993. The band re-performed it twice onstage, both incomplete: one as a medley with another song "David Bowie '' at the Lawrence Joel Coliseum in Winston - Salem, North Carolina on November 21, 1995, and another at Espace Julien (Marseille, France) on July 10, 1997.
Hootie & the Blowfish and a gospel choir performed it live at the sixth annual Billboard Music Awards (1995). The Dave Matthews Band performed the song live at Chicago 's Soldier Field football stadium during the 1999 winter acoustic tour. Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band performed the song alongside several other songs as part of the 20 - minute live performance of "Tenth Avenue Freeze - Out '' at the 1999 Detroit concert during the 1999 -- 2000 Reunion Tour. Courtney Love recorded the song for the Empire episode, "Out, Damned Spot '' (2015).
The band Talking Heads recorded the song for their second album More Songs About Buildings and Food (1978). Their version, recorded with co-producer Brian Eno in Nassau, Bahamas, was edited and released as a single, and reached # 26 on the US Billboard Hot 100 in 1979, as well as hitting the singles charts in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Thomas Ryan wrote of Talking Heads ' version that it "broadsided the status quo by combining the best ingredients of conventional pop music and classic soul music, stirring them together, and then presenting the mix in the guise of punk rock. ''
In the liner notes for Once in a Lifetime: The Best of Talking Heads, singer David Byrne writes: "Coincidence or conspiracy? There were at least four cover versions of this song out at the same time: Foghat, Bryan Ferry, Levon Helm, and us. More money for Mr Green 's full gospel tabernacle church, I suppose. A song that combines teenage lust with baptism. Not equates, you understand, but throws them in the same stew, at least. A potent blend. All praise the mighty spurtin ' Jesus. '' Live versions were included on Talking Heads ' albums The Name of This Band is Talking Heads and Stop Making Sense.
|
pandora and spotify are examples of which of the following | Pandora radio - wikipedia
Pandora Internet Radio (also known as Pandora Radio or simply Pandora) is a music streaming and automated music recommendation service powered by the Music Genome Project. As of 1 August 2017, the service, operated by Pandora Media, Inc., is available only in the United States. On 14 July 2017, Pandora emailed Australasian users to notify them that the New Zealand and Australian access to Pandora would cease on 31 July 2017. The service plays songs that have similar musical traits. The user then provides positive or negative feedback (as "thumbs up '' or "thumbs down '') for songs chosen by the service, and the feedback is taken into account in the subsequent selection of other songs to play. The service can be accessed either through a web browser or by downloading and installing application software on the user 's device such as a personal computer or mobile phone.
In 2000, Pandora Media Inc. began as Savage Beast Technologies, and was founded by Will Glaser, Jon Kraft and Tim Westergren. The idea was to create a separate, individualized radio station for each user having just the "good '' music on it, with none of the "junk '' that other users like. The company quickly ran through its initial two million dollars in funding and in 2001 the company ran out of money. Founder Tim Westergren convinced the fifty employees of the company to work for two years without pay.
Initially the company pursued a transitional strategy of technology licensing to third parties including AOL, Best Buy, Barnes & Noble, and Tower Records. In 2004 the company returned to its initial vision of producing customized radio stations and changed its name to Pandora Media. The website began as only a paid service but quickly changed to an advertising service to make it also available free for users.
In 2011, Pandora launched its IPO on the NYSE and is listed as ' P '. On March 7, 2013, Pandora chairman and chief executive Joseph J. Kennedy announced that he would be leaving the company after nine years. In April 2013, Pandora announced that their radio streaming service had passed 200 million users, about 70 million of whom were active monthly. By December 2013, Pandora was noted as accounting for 70 % of all Internet radio and 8 % of total radio listening in the United States.
On September 1, 2013, Pandora removed a 40 - hour - per - month limitation for free mobile listening. In December 2013, iTunes was described as Pandora 's "biggest existential threat ''.
In early 2015, Pandora removed lyrics from song pages, but returned them by July. On April 16, 2015, song samples were officially removed. At around the same time, a new feature was introduced to give users the ability to receive notices about their favorite artists through the music player. They also redesigned the thumbs up / down feature to allow the listener to undo their action. By January 2015, songs played on Pandora had received over 50 billion thumbs up from users.
On the 27th of June, 2017, Pandora announced that they would be terminating operations in Australia and New Zealand on the 31st of July, 2017.
On the 1st of August, 2017 at approximately 02: 10 AM AEST, Pandora Australia and New Zealand users access was terminated with all Pandora apps for Australasian users ceasing to function, and any attempt to access the website being redirected to a help article about the shutdown.
On June 11, 2013, Pandora announced that it would purchase the conventional FM radio station KXMZ in Rapid City, South Dakota. On October 7, 2015, Pandora announced that it has acquired independent ticketing agency Ticketfly for $450 million.
In November 2015, streaming music service Rdio, founded by Skype co-founders Janus Friis and Niklas Zennstroem, declared bankruptcy and sold its assets to Pandora for $75 million in an all - cash deal. Pandora brought on 100 Rdio employees, including Iain Morris and Rich Masio -- who joined a growing Licensing department in pursuit of direct licenses with labels and publishers.
A station is set by specifying an artist or song, or a combination of multiple items of any kind in a single station. Listeners can tune into pre-made genre stations, other users ' stations, or create their own stations based on their musical interests. Each track played can be responded to with favorable (thumbs up) or unfavorable (thumbs down) buttons, which determine if it should be played, and how much should similarly classified songs be played in the station. A second negative response to the same artist will ban that artist from the selected station unless the user has marked the artist positively on another occasion or if that artist is listed under the station 's variety. No response is applicable to musical attributes or to albums. An unfavorable response immediately stops play of the track. Clicking the thumbs down, or skipping to the next song too many times in a row will result in a short ban of skips. Pandora also utilizes short advertisements in between every couple of songs.
In addition, a menu is provided with the choices: I 'm tired of this song (allowing users to remove a song from the station temporarily, although it counts as a skip); Why was this song selected? (allowing users to learn more about the composition of each song); Move song to another station; New Station; and Bookmark. A Buy button is located at the top of each song block as well. From there, listeners can click on links to buy the song from iTunes or Amazon.
There is a setting in each member 's account regarding whether the user wants songs with explicit lyrics played. This, however, applies exclusively to song versions from albums with the Parental Advisory label, as other songs with censored versions will have that version played. An example is "Jet Airliner '' by the Steve Miller Band, which had one word censored for radio play. With explicit lyrics off, that version will play, because the album did not have a PA label.
While listening, users are offered the ability to buy the songs or albums at various online retailers. Over 450 different musical attributes are considered when selecting the next song. These 450 attributes are combined into larger groups called focus traits. There are 2,000 focus traits. Examples of these are rhythm syncopation, key tonality, vocal harmonies, and displayed instrumental proficiency.
The service has two subscription plans: a free subscription supported by advertisements, and a $54.89 USD / year or $4.99 USD / month subscription without ads. There are also ads in Pandora Mobile for mobile phones and the Pandora in The Home computer appliance. As of October 2014, less than 5 % of active listeners were paying subscribers. As of the IPO in 2011, Pandora had 800,000 tracks from 80,000 artists in its library, and 80 million users. By November 2014, Pandora had approximately doubled its library size, topping 1.5 million songs. As of October 2016, Pandora had 77.9 million active users.
In September 2016, Pandora announced additional features and subscription options; a new "mid-level '' subscription service known as Pandora Plus offers ad - free streaming, offline playback support using a prediction mechanism, and more skips and replays. Ad - supported free users could also begin to receive more skips and replays in exchange for watching an advertisement. Pandora also intended to launch a "premium '' service by the end of the year that would offer a full on - demand service more in line with competitors such as Apple Music and Spotify.
On March 13, 2017, Pandora launched Pandora Premium, a new service priced at US $10 which allows users to listen to and create playlists of individual songs on - demand. Pandora 's suggestions engine is leveraged to suggest and recommend songs and albums, as well as generate playlists based on "similar '' songs. Pandora also emphasized a use of machine learning and manual curation, and that it had filtered "karaoke tracks, knock - off covers and pet sounds (but not Pet Sounds) that slow down other other services '' from its library.
To comply with the requirements and protections offered by the DMCA, Pandora served users only in the United States, New Zealand and Australia, until 31 July 2017 when service to New Zealand and Australia ceased. Initially, this was enforced lightly, by requiring a US ZIP code at registration; but, since May 3, 2007, Pandora has used IP addresses to block users from non-complying countries.
Rewind is not permitted. Until May 2009, six skips per station were allowed per hour, further limited to 72 skips every 24 hours; giving a "thumbs down '' response, or a "do n't play for a month '' response, count as "skips ''. On May 21, 2009, the skip limit was altered such that it counts total skips from all stations with the limitation of twelve total skips every 24 hours. If a listener gives a song a thumbs - down or "do n't play for a month '' after the limit has been exceeded, the song will continue to play; it is only after the song has completed that it becomes subject to the listener 's restrictions. Play of a single artist is limited, as Pandora provides similar music, not a play - on - demand service.
Free accounts include advertising. These include simple interruptions, with the ad listed on the stream; advertising skins, which do not interrupt the stream; and popup ads.
Initially, users with free accounts could listen to 40 hours of music a month, and could pay $. 99 per month for unlimited streaming. In September 2011, Pandora removed the 40 hour listening limit. This 40 hour limit on free listening was re-introduced in March 2013 for mobile devices. However, this limit was removed once more on September of the same year.
Pandora is available on iOS devices. It is ad - supported and retains the original skip limits. Pandora is also available on Android (for tablets and mobile phones), and BlackBerry 10 handsets via the Amazon app store.
The Windows Mobile client is limited to a select number of handsets; however, the installer is available from 3rd party sources and works fine or with only minor display glitches on most devices. In March 2013, it became available on Windows Phone 8 as a free app with ad - free streaming until 2014.
The Pandora for BlackBerry OS (7.1 and earlier) application is limited to AT&T, Sprint, Verizon, T - Mobile, Boost Mobile, and U.S. Cellular carriers, but visiting the Pandora website directly other BlackBerry users have been successful in downloading the application.
The Pandora media player is based on OpenLaszlo. Pandora can also be accessed through many media streaming devices such as Roku, Reciva - based radios (from companies like Grace Digital, Sanyo, and Sangean), Frontier Silicon - based connected audio systems, Slim Devices, Sonos, and HEOS by Denon. product (s). On July 11, 2008, Pandora launched a mobile version of their software for the Apple iPhone and iPod Touch through the iTunes App Store. Pandora is also available for Windows Phone, Windows 10, Android phones, BlackBerry platforms, HP webOS (used on the Palm Pre, Palm Pixi, Palm Pre 2, and HP Veer). Pandora was the provider for MSN Radio until MSN discontinued their internet radio service on June 18, 2008. A modified version of Pandora has been made available for Sprint Nextel. Pandora is available on Comcast 's X1 / X2 cable TV products. A GNU / Linux - based application, called Pithos, which is available for accessing Pandora Radio, is available for most distributions via their repositories and is also available to build from source. SoundSpectrum 's iOS - based visualizing application Tunr has native support for Pandora, but requires a ONE subscription.
With a subscription to Pandora 's One service, Windows and Mac users can download a desktop application for Pandora that uses the Adobe Air without using a web browser to access Pandora. All the normal functionality is included such as thumbs up / down, skip, pause and access to all channels on a user 's account.
Pandora decided to be a consumer - oriented music discovery service, specifically a non-interactive radio station. In the three months that ended October 31, 2011, advertising comprised 88 % of Pandora 's total revenues; a figure of 80 % was reported for this metric in December 2013. RPM (revenue per 1000s of hours) is determined based on CPMs (cost per thousand impressions). CPMs are largely dependent upon network effects and thus increase as a website scales and adds users. As such, Pandora 's strategy in order to allow for widespread distribution was to offer a service unbundled from devices and transport. Pandora is currently working with system - on - chip manufacturers to embed its technologies on the chips they sell to consumer electronics manufacturers like Samsung, Sony, and Panasonic.
Pandora 's cost structure is highly variable, with content acquisition costs representing roughly 50 % of total costs. There are three main costs associated with content acquisition. First, SoundExchange collects content fees on behalf of labels or artists on the recording themselves. These are by far the largest content acquisition costs. Second, Pandora pays licensing fees to agencies such as BMI, ASCAP, or SESAC in order to compensate composers, songwriters and publishers. Lastly, Pandora also pays Rovi for song and artist information; this has recently been structured as a flat monthly fee.
High variable costs mean that Pandora does not have significant operating leverage, and in the next couple years might actually have negative operating leverage due to an unfavorable shift in product mix towards mobile. Pandora is currently estimated to monetize mobile hours at roughly one - ninth the rate of desktop hours. Since Pandora pays the same licensing cost per hour irrespective of the user 's platform, the net contribution to earnings per mobile hour is even more skewed with respect to contribution to earnings from desktop hours. Mobile revenues will improve over time as Pandora shifts from relying on third - party ad networks to selling ad inventory internally at premium rates.
In January 2011, Pandora met with investment banks to consider a possible $100 million IPO. The company filed with the SEC for a $100 mm IPO on February 11, 2011 and officially began trading on the New York Stock Exchange with ticker symbol "P '' on June 15, 2011 at a price of $16 / share. This gave them a valuation of nearly $2.6 billion.
Pandora announced $80.8 million in total revenue for their first quarter of fiscal 2012, which was up 58 % over their previous year Q1 results. Of the $80.8 million, $70.6 million came from advertising, while the other $10.2 million came from subscription. In addition, Pandora has seen a 62 % advertising revenue increase, and a 38 % subscription revenue increase year - over-year. However, the vast majority of Pandora 's users remain on the free, ad - supported model.
In 2007, a federal panel agreed with a SoundExchange request and ordered a doubling of the per - song performance royalty that Web radio stations pay to performers and record companies. Under this scheme, internet radio would pay double the royalty paid by satellite radio.
Because of the passage of DMCA in 1998 that increased fees and asked for licensing guarantees, the Pandora service was only available in Australia, New Zealand and the United States, until service to Australia and New Zealand ceased on 1 August 2017 after "consideration of external factors ''. These rulings affect all U.S. - based Internet - based radio stations (terrestrial radio is not affected).
As of July 2008, Pandora was in talks with major music labels regarding royalty issues to allow a return to the European market. Costs remain a concern because of European royalty standards and a low demand for paid music services.
In 2008, the founder of Pandora stated that the company may be on the verge of collapse. Royalty fees account for a majority portion of Pandora 's revenues. If an agreement between Pandora and SoundExchange had not been reached, it could have meant the end of Pandora. "We 're losing money as it is, '' said Tim Westergren. "The moment we think this problem in Washington is not going to get solved, we have to pull the plug because all we 're doing is wasting money. ''
On September 30, 2008, a bill was passed by the U.S. House and Senate to allow sites like Pandora to continue negotiations with SoundExchange into 2009.
On July 7, 2009, Pandora announced that an agreement had been reached regarding the royalty issue, which would significantly reduce the royalty rate, making it possible for Pandora to stay in business. Also announced was that free listening would be limited to 40 hours per month, but can be extended to unlimited for that month for USD $0.99. "The revised royalties are quite high, '' the company 's blog notes, "higher in fact than any other form of radio ''. The extended listening fee differs from "upgrading '', which also disables advertisements, increases the bitrate from 64 to 192 kbps, and provides a dedicated music player (as opposed to listening through browser). This service, known as "Pandora One '', costs $36 and is billed annually. Pandora has since introduced an option to purchase Pandora One subscriptions on a monthly basis at a rate of $3.99 per month. Also, in September 2013, Pandora began working with HitBliss to make Pandora One subscriptions available for HitBliss earned - payment.
With an update to the Pandora player in September 2011, the 40 hour cap was extended to 320 hours.
On November 22, 2011, Pandora reported its Q3 earnings. Royalty costs accounted for 50 % of revenue, slightly better than expected. Its revenue, most of it from advertising, continues to rise at respectable rates. Not only has Pandora attracted more users but the average number of hours per user have also increased. Pandora now accounts for an estimated 4 % of total US listening hours. As Pandora grows, it hopes to gain leverage on music labels and drive royalty costs down.
On December 9, 2011, the CEO of Spotify, Daniel Ek, announced Spotify Radio would offer an unlimited number of stations and unlimited skips. Though Pandora 's usage is 70 % mobile, the Spotify Radio app competes against Pandora 's mobile market.
Pandora CEO Tim Westergren has supported The Internet Radio Fairness Act or IRFA (H.R. 6480 / S. 3609), which would reduce the company 's royalty payments to the performers by 80 percent.
On November 5, 2012, Pandora filed suit in federal district court against ASCAP over royalty fees. In the suit, the company sought to advocate for lower licensing fees on all the songs represented by the ASCAP 's 435,000 members. On February 27, 2013, Pandora announced a 40 - hour - per - month limit on free mobile listening. Pandora CEO Tim Westergren cited escalating royalty costs as the reason for the mobile cap.
In a ruling made public earlier this year, US District Judge Denise Cote ruled that Pandora 's rate paid to ASCAP should remain the same -- 1.85 %. She cited (p. 97) "troubling coordination '' between two of the biggest publishing companies (Sony and UMPG) and ASCAP that alludes to core antitrust concern in the industry.
After arguing that both ASCAP and BMI were showing bias towards international broadcasters who own terrestrial radio stations, Pandora announced on June 11, 2013 that it would attempt to acquire KXMZ, a radio station in South Dakota, under the presumption that doing so would allow it to access the same preferential licensing terms offered to services such as iHeartRadio (which is owned by iHeartMedia, Inc., itself America 's largest radio broadcaster). The move was criticized by David Israelite, CEO of the National Music Publishers Association, who declared that Pandora was now "at war with songwriters, '' and had lost its credibility because it was resorting to "lawsuits and gimmicks '' to make its point. However, a member of Public Knowledge praised the move, by stating that it was "a perfect example of the twisted incentives and strange results we get from a music licensing system that is based on who wants a license instead of just what they want to do with the music they 're using. '' ASCAP also objected to the deal, filing a petition to deny with the FCC. The organization argued that the acquisition was not in the public interest because of Pandora 's intent to use it as a "bargaining chip '' for royalty payments. ASCAP also alleged that Pandora did not provide enough information about its ownership structure, failing to prove that less than 25 % of the company was owned by foreign interests. On January 14, 2014, the FCC denied the acquisition until Pandora "demonstrate (s) adequate support for its foreign ownership compliance certification. ''
On September 1, 2013, Pandora removed the 40 - hour - per - month limit on free mobile listening (originally announced on February 27, 2013). Pandora stated that it was able to make this change "thanks to the rapid progress of its mobile advertising. ''
In 2014, Pandora signed an agreement with some music copyright owners for lower royalties in exchange for more frequent streaming of songs. Though not illegal, this practice raised comparisons to payola, which is illegal payment for airplay on terrestrial radio.
On September 15, 2016, Pandora released "Pandora Plus '', a new subscription service to compete with other streaming services; the price was set at $4.99 and was available in later months.
In May 2010, Pandora was named in Lead411 's 2010 Hottest San Francisco Companies list. In 2013, Entertainment Weekly compared a number of music services and granted Pandora a "B - '', writing, "Free streaming radio, $36 a year to go ad - free. Launched in 2005, Pandora is available on just about every platform. There 's no on - demand, though, and stations tend to draw from a relatively small pool of albums. '' As of March 2014, the annual option was eliminated, and the US $3.99 monthly plan was the only way to get Pandora One. The price rose to US $4.99 a month in July 2014. The annual subscription was brought back and is now US $54.89 a year.
Before Pandora introduced advertising it initially offered a subscription - only service without commercials. However, the idea of paying did not sit well with most U.S. consumers and the company had to consider alternative business models to offer a free service. Then, in December 2005 Pandora sold its first advertisement.
In 2015, Pandora began playing more advertisements per hour in certain geographies and demographics. Pandora normally plays no more than 3 advertisements per hour for free users.
Pandora became fairly popular within just two years. Starting from 2010 to 2012 Pandora 's registered users had increased from 45 million to 125 million. The company 's revenue increased from $55 million to $274 million, in which a majority of it from advertising. In order to appeal to a large audience of consumers, Pandora offers ad - free access for $36 a year. During its 2011 fiscal year, Pandora reported $138 million in revenue with a $1.8 million net loss, excluding the cost of a special dividend associated with the IPO. Overall, Pandora controls 78 percent of Internet radio, and it has a 9.3 percent share of the U.S. public radio. Finally, in 2013 industry - wide total radio ad revenue increased to $17.6 billion in the U.S.
Pandora obtains its advertisers by explaining that the company reaches a narrower audience compared to terrestrial radio. "Pandora 's pitch to advertisers is that its technology can cater to consumers with far greater precision than radio -- it can pinpoint listeners by age and sex, ZIP code or even musical taste. ''
There are a few different methods of advertising on Pandora. Audio advertising comes in spots of 15 to 30 seconds, and run once every 20 minutes. However, users only encounter ads if they are engaging with the site, like contributing a "thumbs up '' or a "thumbs down '' when changing a song or station.
Next, there are banner ads which are featured on the wallpaper of the site. As noted by the New York Times, banner ads are on Pandora in order "to promote engagement, audio segments can be accompanied by clickable display ads offering coupons or product information.
Advertising on Pandora works through a method of collecting data from the users online browsing activity. Once the data is collected, the company uses the data to show the user target ads. This process of advertising is also known as behavioral advertising. Pandora offers its users the option of submitting out of the targeted ads, by a "opt - out '' configuration on its website. Opting - out will only prevent targeted ads, meaning users may continue to see generic (non-targeted ads) from these companies after they opt - out. Eventually, Pandora offers either targeted advertisements or generic advertisements for its non-subscribed users. However, Pandora 's advertising does not offer local content such as the local news, weather, traffic, and talk.
Pandora has created two market segments, one for Spanish listeners, and another for English listeners. By creating multiple market segments, Pandora 's advertising is customized to its users ' needs. In order to create the first two market segments, the company cross-referenced its registered user data with U.S. census. Then, the cross reference allows the company to identify zip codes with high populations of Hispanic and Spanish - speaking people, and finally it ran tests overlaying the two data sets to infer which listeners fit into those buckets.
Starting in the early 2010s, new entrants entered the personalized radio market, such as Grooveshark (launched 2007), iHeartRadio (launched 2008), Mog.com, TuneIn (founded 2002), AccuRadio, Rhapsody (launched 2001), and Europe 's Spotify, all threatening to use the concept of "true '' on - demand access to online music as a challenge to Pandora 's personalized radio.
Europe 's most popular online streaming music service, Spotify, launched in 2006 and arrived in the U.S. in mid-2011. As of 2016, Spotify has a catalogue of over 30 million songs compared to Pandora 's library of around 1.5 -- 2 million. As pointed out by editors Miranda Ferrara and Michele LaMeau, "Spotify allows users to upload their own songs to the online library. While Pandora allows listeners to connect to the social media site Facebook to see what their friends are listening to, Spotify users can quickly and easily share playlists with their friends through Facebook, Twitter, email, and SMS text messages ''.
The second competitor that is targeting Pandora 's personalized radio appeal is iHeartRadio. Editors Miranda Ferrara and Michele LaMeau note "iHeartRadio is the largest radio operator in the United States with 237 million listeners and 800 stations in 150 markets, iHeartRadio, like Pandora, offers listeners the opportunity to like or dislike a song in order to receive recommendations on other tunes. It also offers custom tools that allow the listener to discover new artists or more songs based on existing choices ''.
Sirius XM has also become a competitor in recent years due to online - only accounts and being able to customize stations; their wide availability in both the new and used car market also gives it an advantage over Pandora. When acquiring XM Satellite Radio in 2007, Sirius actually accurately predicted that it would be competing against streaming services like Pandora in its argument with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) over whether the merging of the only two satellite radio companies in North America would cause antitrust issues.
As recognized by the Ad Age staff, "Pandora has about 76 million monthly users, and about a 70 % share of the internet radio market in the U.S. '' Ad Age predicted that competition would likely intensify due to Apple 's acquisition of the Beats Music service, but Apple announced that it would be closing the service on November 30, 2015.
Yet even with all of its competition, Pandora 's Promoted Stations rely on its core Music Genome Project. Overall, the Music Genome Project of more than 450 attributes assigned to each song with a human - curated database of recorded music gives a big edge over competitors like Spotify and Beats Music.
South Dakota
|
how many subscribers do you have to have to get the ruby play button | YouTube Play Button - Wikipedia
YouTube Play Buttons, a part of the YouTube Creator Rewards, act as recognition by YouTube of its most popular channels.
These are distinct from the YouTube Awards, which are intended to recognize the best quality videos. YouTube Creator Rewards are based on a channel 's subscriber count, but are awarded at the sole discretion of YouTube. Each channel is reviewed before an award is issued, to ensure that the channel follows the YouTube community guidelines. YouTube reserves the right to refuse to hand out a Creator Reward, which it did not give to select channels with horror or political content, and various critics.
When a verified YouTuber reaches a specific milestone and is deemed eligible for a YouTube Creator Reward, they are awarded a relatively flat trophy in a metal casing with a YouTube play button symbol. The trophies are of different sizes: each button and plaque gets progressively bigger the more subscribers the channel gets.
There are currently three different tiers of rewards, plus a fourth that has been awarded only once:
|
list of movies based on marvel comics wiki | List of films based on Marvel Comics - wikipedia
Marvel Comics is a publisher of American comic books and related media. It counts among its characters such well - known superheroes as Spider - Man, Wolverine, Hulk, Thor, Iron Man, Captain America, Deadpool, Black Panther and Daredevil, and such teams as the Avengers, the X-Men, the Guardians of the Galaxy, and the Fantastic Four. Most of Marvel 's fictional characters are depicted as occupying a shared fictional universe, in which most locations mirroring real - life places. Many major characters are based in New York City.
Film adaptations based on Marvel Comics properties have included theatrically released film serials, live action and animated feature films, direct - to - video releases, and television films.
Live - action feature films and shorts produced by Marvel Studios are set within the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) unless otherwise noted.
The following films were television series episodes released as feature films, television films or direct - to - video movies.
All feature animated films are released direct - to - video, except as indicated.
|
who has the most shutouts in nhl history | List of NHL records (individual) - wikipedia
This is a list of individual records recognized by the National Hockey League through the end of the 2016 -- 17 NHL season.
Won the Stanley Cup with the highest number of different teams
|
who did notre dame lose to in college football | Michigan -- Notre Dame football rivalry - wikipedia
The Michigan -- Notre Dame football rivalry is an American college football rivalry between the Michigan Wolverines and Notre Dame Fighting Irish.
Michigan football and Notre Dame football are considered to be among the most elite college programs. Michigan and Notre Dame respectively rank # 1 and # 2 in winning percentage and # 1 and # 2 in all - time wins. The rivalry is heightened by the two schools ' competition for all - time win percentage, which each has held during their history, as well as national championships, with each school claiming 11. Additionally, the NCAA officially recognizes Notre Dame with 13 National Championships and Michigan with 9, while all major selectors recognize 21 national championships for Notre Dame and 16 for Michigan. Moreover, both schools are renowned for their Heisman Trophy winners (7 for Notre Dame and 3 for Michigan), consensus All - Americans (101 for Notre Dame and 82 for Michigan), College Football Hall of Fame members (52 for Notre Dame and 36 for Michigan), and NFL draft picks (495 for Notre Dame and 362 for Michigan).
Michigan is a member of the Big Ten Conference while Notre Dame football is independent. In 2013, Notre Dame joined the Atlantic Coast Conference in all sports except football and hockey, though the football team has played five ACC opponents each season since 2014. Notre Dame and Michigan reached a mutual agreement to suspend the series for the 2018 and 2019 football season. Notre Dame then decided to cancel the 2015 through 2017 games, citing the need to play ACC games. However, after cancelling the Michigan game, Notre Dame announced on September 4, 2014 that it had agreed to play Ohio State of the Big Ten in a home - and - home series in 2022 and 2023. It was announced that after a three - year hiatus, the series will resume in 2018 and 2019.
Notre Dame and Michigan first played in 1887 in Notre Dame 's first football game. The Wolverines proceeded to win the first eight contests, before Notre Dame notched its first win in the series in 1909. In 1942, in the first meeting since 1909, Michigan beat then # 4 Notre Dame in Notre Dame Stadium. The next season, on October 9, top - ranked Notre Dame defeated second - ranked Michigan in the first matchup of top teams since the creation of the AP Poll in 1936. The teams ceased to play each other until the series was renewed in 1978. It has since been played annually with the exception of hiatuses in 1983 -- 84, 1995 -- 96, and 2000 -- 01. After the 2014 meeting, the series went on hiatus. However, the series will be renewed in 2018 and 2019. Michigan leads the series 24 -- 17 -- 1.
Since the legalization of the forward pass in 1906, which many football historians agree is the beginning of the "Modern Era '' of college football, the series is tied 17 - 17 - 1. Since the modern era, the NCAA recognizes Michigan with 5 National Championships (2 selected by the AP) and Notre Dame with 13 (8 selected by the AP).
The first game took place in November 1887. Michigan had been playing football since 1879. Two players on Michigan 's 1887 team, George Winthrop DeHaven, Jr. and William Warren Harless, had previously attended Notre Dame. In October 1887, DeHaven wrote to Brother Paul, who ran Notre Dame 's intramural athletics program, telling him about the new game of football. Michigan had planned a game in Chicago on Thanksgiving Day, and the three men, DeHaven, Harless and Brother Paul, persuaded their respective schools to play a football match on the Notre Dame campus on the day before Thanksgiving.
On November 22, 1887, the Michigan football team departed from the Michigan Central Railroad Depot in Ann Arbor on the late train. After breakfast in Niles, Michigan, the team changed trains and arrived in South Bend between 7: 00 a.m. and 8: 00 a.m. The team was greeted by Father Superior Walsh and spent two hours touring the university buildings and departments of Notre Dame.
The game was the first played by a Notre Dame football team, and the Michigan team was credited with teaching the Notre Dame team the game before play began. The Notre Dame student newspaper, Scholastic, reported: "It was not considered a match contest, as the home team had been organized only a few weeks, and the Michigan boys, the champions of the West, came more to instruct them in the points of the Rugby game than to win fresh laurels. '' The proceedings began with a tutorial session in which players from both teams were divided irrespective of college. For the first 30 minutes, the teams scrimmaged in a practice game with Michigan "exchanging six men for the same number from Notre Dame. ''
After the practice session, the Michigan and Notre Dame teams played a game that lasted only half an hour which was described by The Chronicle (a University of Michigan newspaper) as follows: "The grounds were in very poor condition for playing, being covered with snow in a melting condition, and the players could scarcely keep their feet. Some time had been spent in preliminary practice; the game began and after rolling and tumbling in the mud for half an hour time was finally called, the score standing 8 to 0 in favor of U. of M. ''
Between 400 and 500 students watched the game. After the game, the team ate at the Notre Dame dining hall. The Notre Dame student newspaper reported on the gratitude of Notre Dame officials for Michigan 's tutorial in the game of football: "After a hearty dinner, Rev. President Walsh thanked the Ann Arbor team for their visit, and assured them of the cordial reception that would always await them at Notre Dame. '' Brother Paul arranged for carriages to take the team to Niles in time to catch the 3: 00 train to Chicago. The Notre Dame paper reported: "At 1 o'clock carriages were taken for Niles, and amidst rousing cheers the University of Michigan football team departed, leaving behind them a most favorable impression. ''
After Michigan 's visit to South Bend in November 1887, football became a popular game on the Notre Dame campus. A football association was formed with Brother Paul as the president. In the spring of 1888, Brother Paul challenged Michigan to return to South Bend. Two games were scheduled for a weekend in April 1888. On March 24, 1888, the Notre Dame student newspaper reported:
Michigan won the first game 26 -- 6. The game was played at Green Stocking Ball Park before a crowd stated to be as low as 300 and as high as 800 spectators. Before the game was played, a 100 - yard dash was run with players from both teams participating. Michigan 's James E. Duffy defeated Harry Jewett, the American sprint champion, in the race. The game began at 3: 20 p.m., and The Chronicle summarized the game as follows: "The feature of the game on our side was the tackling of Duffy, Harless, Babcock and Briggs, long runs and good passes by Rhodes, DeHaven, Wood, Ball and Button. As usual J.L. Duffy got in some good kicks. ''
The second game was played the next day, after the players were taken for a boat ride on St. Joseph 's Lake. The game began at about 2: 00 p.m. Michigan won 10 -- 4. The spring games were a disappointment to some Michigan fans in that the Michigan football team had not allowed its opponents to score a single point since November 1883 -- a span of more than four years. The Notre Dame team had scored 10 points in two games. DeHaven recalled that, when the Michigan players returned to Ann Arbor, they were booed on their arrival: "It was a badly battered team that landed in the crowded Ann Arbor depot, and we received a proper razzing for breaking a four - year record. '' No Michigan football team returned to play at Notre Dame until 1942.
After the three games played at South Bend in 1887 and 1888, Michigan and Notre Dame did not face each other on the football field for a decade.
Michigan and Notre Dame resumed the rivalry in 1898 playing three games between 1898 and 1900. Michigan won all three games by a combined score of 42 to 0.
The first game played in Ann Arbor between the Michigan and Notre Dame football teams occurred on October 23, 1898. The 1898 Michigan team was undefeated, won the school 's first Western Conference championship, and inspired Louis Elbel to write Michigan 's fight song, "The Victors ''. Michigan defeated Notre Dame, 23 -- 0. The field was reported to be a "mudbath, '' which favored the Wolverines who played the game in long cleats. William Caley scored three touchdowns in the game. Notre Dame 's highly touted 6 - foot, 4 - inch, 256 - pound center, John Eggeman, was held in check by Michigan 's backup center Harry Brown. The Chicago Daily Tribune reported: "Eggeman, the big center rush of the visitors, did not prove nearly so hard a proposition for Brown as was anticipated, and taken altogether the visitors ' strength was considerably overestimated, if they played their game today. '' The Irish managed only one first down and lost five fumbles. Notre Dame halfback George Lins punched a Michigan player in frustration, claiming he had been held throughout the game by Michigan 's quarterback. Notre Dame suspended Lins from the following week 's game. At the end of the game, the biggest crowd of the season "rushed the players off the field in honor. ''
The teams played again at Regents Field in Ann Arbor in 1899, with Michigan winning the game 12 -- 0. A newspaper account reported that Michigan 's defense was generally good, and the team 's overall performance against Notre Dame was "much superior '' to that displayed in the prior week 's game against Western Reserve. In 1900, Michigan prevailed 7 -- 0. The Wolverines scored two points on a safety when Notre Dame 's kicker missed the ball on an attempted punt from behind the goal line. Michigan scored its only touchdown on a series of "hard line bucks '' after two minutes of play.
Fielding H. Yost took over as Michigan 's coach in 1901. From 1901 to 1905, his "Point - a-Minute '' squads (so named because they averaged a point for each minute of play) went 55 -- 1 -- 1, outscoring their opponents by a margin of 2,821 to 42. Michigan played Notre Dame only once during the "Point - a-Minute '' year, on October 18, 1902, at a neutral site in Toledo, Ohio. The game was played on a slippery white clay field at Toledo 's Armory Park following a night of rain. Michigan had been heavily favored to win, and betting on the game was 2 to 1 that Notre Dame would not score. Though favored to run up a high score, Michigan scored only one touchdown and led 5 -- 0 at the end of the first half. While Michigan won the game 23 -- 0, Notre Dame had slowed the "Point - a-Minute '' offense that had scored 315 points (almost 80 points a game) in the first four games of the 1902 season. Michigan tackle Joe Maddock was the leading scorer in the game with 15 points on three touchdowns.
Although Notre Dame did not score on Michigan, its captain, Louis J. Salmon, demonstrated why he had earned "the reputation of being the hardest line bucker in the west. '' On one drive, Salmon took the ball to the Michigan 43 - yard line in two attempts. After Notre Dame reached Michigan 's 20 - yard line, "Salmon went at it in the most vicious and determined manner to score. He took the ball eight times in succession but was finally held for downs on the 5 - yard line. '' In the second half, Michigan 's running game wore down the Notre Dame defense. Michigan scored three touchdowns in the second half, and Notre Dame did not move into Michigan territory. Michigan end Curtis Redden was ejected after an altercation with Lonnegan of Notre Dame, though Redden claimed Lonnegan had been the instigator. After the game, Yost said, "I am satisfied. The score is just about what I though it would be after I had taken a look at the field. ''
After playing four games between 1898 and 1902, Michigan and Notre Dame did not schedule games over the next five seasons.
For the first time in six years, Michigan and Notre Dame met in October 1908, with Michigan winning, 12 -- 6, at Ann Arbor 's Ferry Field. Dave Allerdice scored all 12 of Michigan 's points on three field goals -- two in the first half and one in the last minute of the game. Notre Dame fullback Vaughan scored the only touchdown of the game on a long run from the 50 - yard line.
In November 1909, Notre Dame, coached by a former Michigan player in Frank Longman, defeated Michigan by a score of 11 to 3. The game was the ninth meeting in the rivalry, with Michigan having won the first eight games (five of them by shutouts) by a combined score of 121 to 16. The 1909 gave birth to the "Fighting Irish '' nickname. E.A. Batchelor, a sportswriter for the Detroit Free Press, submitted a report on the game with the headline: "' Shorty ' Longman 's Fighting Irishmen Humble the Wolverines to Tune of 11 to 3. '' Batchelor opened his report as follows:
Michigan football historian, John Kryk, later wrote: "With that flowery lead, E.A. Batchelor of the Detroit Free Press popularized a moniker Notre Dame teams would later come to embrace -- and aptly summed up the greatest athletic achievement to that point in Notre Dame history. '' Kryk noted that, according to Notre Dame folklore, Batchelor had overheard a Notre Dame player trying to motivate his teammates at halftime by pleading, "What 's the matter with you guys? You 're all Irish and you 're not fighting worth a lick. ''
After Notre Dame defeated Michigan in 1909, the two teams were scheduled to rematch on November 5, 1910. Before the 1910 contest, Yost protested Notre Dame 's intended use of two players (Philbrook and Dimmick) that he believed were ineligible and cancelled the 1910 meeting when Notre Dame did not bench the two players in question. Yost later refused to schedule Notre Dame for any later seasons, deepening the feud between Yost and Notre Dame coach Knute Rockne. After cancelling the series, Yost was instrumental in corralling together the member schools of the Western Conference (the current day Big Ten Conference), refusing entry to Notre Dame and suggesting that conference members should not schedule the Fighting Irish. As a result of the boycott by Midwest opponents, Notre Dame scheduled games against schools on the east coast and west coast, such as USC and Army, and did not play Michigan again until 1942.
After the long hiatus, Michigan athletic director and head coach Fritz Crisler arranged with Elmer Layden for two games to be played with Notre Dame during the 1942 and 1943 seasons. The 1942 game was played in South Bend and matched Michigan and Notre Dame teams ranked # 4 and # 6 in the AP Poll. The Wolverines defeated the Fighting Irish 32 -- 20 in front of a capacity crowd of 57,500. Tom Kuzma scored two touchdowns for Michigan.
The 1943 game, played at Michigan Stadium, was the most anticipated game of the 1943 college football season. Notre Dame, coached by Frank Leahy and led by 1943 Heisman Trophy winner Angelo Bertelli, came into the game ranked # 1 in the AP Poll with 53 first place votes. Michigan, with All - American Bill Daley and Elroy "Crazy - Legs '' Hirsch in the backfield, came into the game ranked # 2 receiving 36 first place votes. The game drew a record crowd of 85,688 spectators to Michigan Stadium. Michigan coach Fritz Crisler announced before the game that Elroy Hirsch was suffering from damaged knee ligaments and might not be able to play. Notre Dame won the game 35 -- 12. According to the United Press game account, Bertelli 's passing "caught the Wolverine secondary flatfooted and out of position repeatedly to make the rout complete. '' The third quarter was marked by a malfunction of the electric clock at Michigan Stadium, resulting in a quarter that lasted 23 minutes. In the Chicago Daily Tribune, Wilfrid Smith analogized to the 1927 Long Count Fight and wrote that the period "will be remembered as the ' long third quarter ' of collegiate sport. '' After nine plays had been run in the fourth quarter, the timing error was discovered, and an announcement was made over the stadium 's public address system that only two - and - a-half minutes remained in the game, as the fourth quarter was shortened to seven minutes. The only points in the short fourth quarter came on the last play of the game as Elroy Hirsch threw a 13 - yard touchdown pass to Paul White. Notre Dame went on to win the 1943 national title, maintaining its # 1 ranking in the AP Poll through the rest of the season.
In 1947, Notre Dame and Michigan fielded undefeated teams that traded the top spot in the poll all year. Notre Dame was ranked No. 1 and Michigan No. 2 on October 6, October 27, November 3, November 10, November 24, December 1, and in the final poll on December 8. Michigan was ranked No. 1 and Notre Dame No. 2 on October 13, October 20, and November 17. After the final poll was released before the bowls, as was the custom in those days, Notre Dame was awarded the AP National Title and trophy, which the school still holds. Both schools were 9 -- 0.
After the final AP Poll, Michigan went on to beat USC in the 1948 Rose Bowl, 49 -- 0, a greater margin than Notre Dame 's victory over USC (38 -- 7) in the final game of the regular season. Michigan 's 49 - point victory was the largest margin of victory ever against a USC team and most points scored in Rose Bowl history. Football writer Pete Rozelle reported on the reaction of the assembled writers in the Rose Bowl press box. "From Grantland Rice down through the ranks of the nation 's top sports writers assembled in the Rose Bowl press box yesterday there was nothing but glowing expletives for the synchronized Michigan Wolverine wrecking crew that powered over Southern California, 49 -- 0. While for the most part hedging from a comparison of Michigan with Notre Dame, the consensus of the scribes was that the offensive - minded Ann Arbor squad deserved no less than a co-rating with the Irish as America 's Number One Collegiate eleven. '' Grantland Rice, the dean of the nation 's sports writers, wrote of Michigan: "It is the best all - around college football team I 've seen this year. The backfield 's brilliant passing and running skill gives Michigan the most powerful offense in the country. ''
Notre Dame supporters argued that the post-season AP poll was final and should not be revisited. They contended that Michigan had run up the score on USC, noted that Notre Dame had not had an opportunity to play in a bowl game, and asserted that Michigan and other Big Nine schools were unwilling to schedule Notre Dame in the regular season.
Detroit Free Press sports editor Lyall Smith argued the debate should be answered by comparing the two teams ' performance against common opponents. Smith noted: "They played three common foes. Notre Dame beat Pitt, 40 -- 6, a margin of 34 points: Michigan beat Pitt 59 -- 0. Notre Dame defeated Northwestern, 26 to 19, a margin of seven points: Michigan beat the ' Cats 49 to 21, for a 28 - point advantage. Notre Dame dropped USC, 36 to 7, in what Coach Frank Leahy termed his team 's ' greatest game of the year, ' while Michigan slaughtered the same Trojans, 49 to 0. Against those three common opponents the Irish scored 104 points to 32. Michigan 's margin was 167 to 21. '' Smith also pointed to Michigan 's strength of schedule: "The teams Michigan played won 42 games, lost 48 and tied five. Notre Dame 's adversaries won only 30, lost 45, and tied 6. ''
In response to the debate over which team deserved to be recognized as the nation 's best, the Associated Press decided to hold a post-bowl poll. The AP reported on the rationale for the special poll this way: "The Associated Press is polling sports editors of its member papers throughout the country to help settle the argument as to which is the better football team -- Michigan or Notre Dame. The AP 's final poll of the top ten teams, released Dec. 8 at the conclusion of the regulation season, resulted in Notre Dame winning first place with 1,410 points. Michigan was second with 1,289... Returns so far received indicate that voting in this latest poll is likely to be the heaviest ever recorded. '' Another AP report indicated the special poll was "conducted by popular demand '' to answer "the burning sports question of the day '' and to do so "at the ballot box. ''
Michigan was voted No. 1 in the post-bowl poll by a vote of 226 to 119. The AP reported: "The nation 's sports writers gave the final answer Tuesday to the raging controversy on the relative strength of the Notre Dame and Michigan football teams, and it was the Wolverines over the Irish by almost two to one -- including those who saw both powerhouses perform... In the over-all total, 226 writers in 48 states and the District of Columbia picked Michigan, 119 balloted for Notre Dame, and 12 called it a draw. Opinion of the 54 writers who saw both in action last fall coincided at almost the same ratio, with 33 giving the nod to Michigan, 17 to Notre Dame, and four voting for a tie. '' The 357 votes cast in the post-bowl poll represented "the largest ever to take part in such an AP voting. ''
Commenting on the special poll, Michigan coach Fritz Crisler said "the men who voted could n't have made a mistake if they had picked either team. '' He described Notre Dame coach Frank Leahy as a "superb coach. '' Notre Dame President, Father John Cavanagh said, "We at Notre Dame feel grateful for the magnanimous statement of Coach Crisler. I listened to Michigan against Southern California and have only praise for the skill and accomplishment of your fine team. ''
Despite the magnanimous statements of Coach Crisler and Father Cavanagh, the reversed decision in the post-bowl poll only stoked the debate over which team was best. Said one columnist: "Hottest argument of the moment is the one over which had the better football team, Michigan or Notre Dame. '' Forty years later, the debate was still ongoing. In 1988, Michigan center Dan Dworsky noted: "Notre Dame still claims that national championship and so do we. ''
As selected by the AP poll, the NCAA record book officially recognizes Notre Dame as the sole champion in 1947. While the NCAA does acknowledge other selectors like the Billingsley, National Championship Foundation, and Helms, they only officially recognize the AP 's selections between 1936 - 1949.
After the 1943 game, 35 years elapsed before Notre Dame played Michigan in football, even though they competed against each other in other sports.
In 1968, Don Canham became Michigan 's athletic director in a year in which Michigan 's average home attendance was 67,000, far below the stadium 's capacity of 101,000. Canham pursued various ways to increase attendance at the stadium. Canham had been Michigan 's track coach since the 1940s, and he was friends with Notre Dame athletic director Moose Krause. Canham and Krause met at a post-season banquet in December 1968. Krause suggested that a game between Michigan and Notre Dame was sure to sell out the big stadium. In January 1969, representatives of the schools met again and agreed to a four - game series to commence in 1978. Before the 1978 game was played, Canham and Krause agreed to extend the contract, scheduling six more game to be played from 1984 to 1989.
Michigan 's new head coach, Bo Schembechler, was reportedly delighted at the chance to face his close friend and former mentor Ara Parseghian. Schembechler reportedly told Parseghian, "Ara, I 'm gon na whip your ass! '' Parseghian made what turned out to be a prophetic statement when he responded, "I 'll be long gone by then. '' By the time the two teams squared off in 1978, both coaches were correct: Ara had indeed left Notre Dame and Dan Devine had taken his place and the Wolverines delivered a thorough "whipping, '' 28 -- 14.
On September 23, 1978, the Irish and Wolverines met in South Bend for a game that Don Canham began promoting in 1971 as the "Reunion '' game. The game matched defending national champion Notre Dame led by Joe Montana against a Michigan team led by Rick Leach and ranked # 5 in the AP Poll. Notre Dame took a 14 -- 7 lead at the half, scoring early in the first quarter after Russell Davis fumbled the ball at Michigan 's 17 - yard line. However, Michigan scored three unanswered touchdowns in the second half and won, 28 -- 14. Rick Leach was the star of the game, accounting for all four Michigan touchdowns. Leach scored a rushing touchdown in the first half, but completed only 3 of 14 passes for 21 yards. In the second half, Leach completed 5 of 6 passes, with three of the passes going for touchdowns. For the Irish, Joe Montana completed 16 of 29 passes for 192 yards.
In 1979, the rivalry returned to Ann Arbor for the first time since 1943. In the season opener for both teams, Notre Dame upset # 6 Michigan 12 -- 10. Michigan dominated the game statistically with 306 yards of offense to 179 yards for Notre Dame. Notre Dame 's scoring came on four field goals from walk - on place - kicker Chuck Male. The Wolverines led at the half, 10 -- 6 and were shut down in the second half. Michigan had a chance to win with one second left, but a field goal attempt by Michigan 's Bryan Virgil was blocked by linebacker Bob Crable, who climbed up the back of Michigan lineman Mike Trgovac to gain additional elevation. Crable said after the game, "I was up over the center and he stayed down. I stepped up on his back and caught the ball on my left hip. '' A new rule was adopted the following season prohibiting this tactic. After the game, Michigan coach Bo Schembechler, said, "Our defense should have won the game. '' Notre Dame coach Dan Devine, whose team held Michigan to 94 yards in the second half, said, "Our defense rose to the occasion. We just asked the players to give a little more and dig down deep, and we asked ' Our Lady ' to help us. ''
The 1980 contest matched # 8 Notre Dame against # 12 Michigan in South Bend. The game was a see - saw affair in which Notre Dame take a 14 -- 0 lead, only to have Michigan erase it by halftime and go up 21 -- 14 in the third quarter. John Wangler replaced Rich Hewlett at quarterback in the second quarter and threw three touchdown passes for Michigan. Anthony Carter returned the opening kickoff in the second half 67 yards. John Krimm 's interception for a touchdown brought the Irish to within one, but Harry Oliver missed the extra point. The Irish scored again on a four - yard run by Phil Carter to take a 26 -- 21 lead with 3: 03 remaining in the game. Wangler led the Wolverines on a 78 - yard touchdown drive that featured a 37 - yard run by Butch Woolfolk to the Notre Dame four - yard line with 1: 06 left and a one - yard touchdown pass from Wangler to Craig Dunaway. Michigan led 27 -- 26 with 41 seconds left. With one last shot, freshman quarterback Blair Kiel led the Irish from their own 20 - yard line into Michigan territory. With four seconds left on the clock, Oliver atoned for his earlier missed extra point by kicking a 51 - yard field goal as time ran out for a 29 -- 27 Irish victory.
Dan Devine retired after the 1980 season and was succeeded by Gerry Faust. The 1981 season opened for # 1 Michigan with a disastrous 21 -- 14 loss to Wisconsin while the Irish made Faust 's debut a memorable one with a 27 -- 9 victory over LSU. The win propelled Notre Dame to the top spot in the polls as they traveled to Ann Arbor for a showdown with the Wolverines. It was no contest as Michigan romped, holding the Irish without a first down through the second and third quarters. For Faust, it was all downhill as the Irish tumbled to a final 5 -- 6 mark, their first losing season since 1963.
The 1982 contest was the first night game in Notre Dame Stadium history. Notre Dame 's defense held Michigan to 41 rushing yards and despite a freak pass that was plucked off the back of an Irish defender and taken for a Wolverine touchdown, the Irish prevailed.
After a two - year hiatus, the two teams met in the 1985 season opener. Faust 's teams had struggled through four seasons of inconsistency and it was hoped that they would be able to put it all together this year. Michigan meanwhile was coming off its worst season under Bo Schembechler, a 6 -- 6 campaign. Notre Dame led 9 -- 3 at the half, but their inability to score touchdowns raised some eyebrows. Michigan took control in the second half and won, 20 -- 12. Schembechler remarked afterwards that he expected much more from the Irish.
Faust resigned at the end of the 1985 season and was succeeded by Lou Holtz. In the 1986 opener, the Irish did everything but beat the Wolverines. They never punted and amassed 455 yards of total offense as the Michigan defense, not knowing what to expect, was on its heels all afternoon. Several turnovers deep in Michigan territory proved costly for Notre Dame. Tight end Joel Williams caught an apparent touchdown pass in the back of the end zone, but was ruled out of bounds even though it appeared otherwise. Ultimately, it all came down to a field goal attempt. Unlike 1980, John Carney 's attempt was off the mark and Michigan escaped with a 24 -- 23 victory. Irish fans gave the team a standing ovation as the teams left the field and Notre Dame was voted # 20 in the polls the following week, the first time a team had ever ascended into the Top 20 after a loss.
Seven Wolverine turnovers proved to be the difference as Notre Dame parlayed them into 17 points.
Ricky Watters ' 81 - yard punt return for a touchdown was the key play of the game. Notre Dame led at the half 13 -- 0 and both of Michigan 's touchdowns were set up by long kickoff returns. Reggie Ho was Notre Dame 's unsung hero with four field goals, the last one coming with 1: 13 left to put them up for good. Michigan had one last shot, but Mike Gillette missed a 48 - yard attempt at the final gun.
This was a memorable game for Irish fans, as Rocket Ismail returned two consecutive Michigan kickoffs for touchdowns. Notre Dame attempted only two passes the entire game which was played in the rain. Schembechler retired from coaching after the 1989 season and handpicked Gary Moeller as his successor.
Notre Dame notched its fourth straight win over the Wolverines with a come - from - behind win. Trailing 24 -- 14 in the third quarter, the Irish got a lucky bounce, or carom when an errant third down pass intended for Raghib Ismael found its way into the arms of receiver Lake Dawson and kept a scoring drive alive. Adrian Jarrell caught the winning touchdown late in the fourth quarter.
Michigan kept possession for over 40 minutes and quarterback Elvis Grbac completed 20 of 22 passes, a record for a Notre Dame opponent. This game was notable for Desmond Howard 's dramatic catch in the end zone on 4th down and 1.
This game is remembered for Reggie Brooks scoring Notre Dame 's first touchdown after being knocked out as he fell into the end zone. The Irish came back from a 17 -- 7 deficit to salvage a tie.
The Irish took a 27 -- 10 lead in the third quarter and were poised to put the game out of reach when fullback Marc Edwards was stuffed on fourth and goal from the Michigan one - yard - line. Michigan then drove 99 yards for a touchdown and closed the gap to four with less than a minute to go before Notre Dame recovered an onside kick to preserve a 27 -- 23 victory.
A last - second field goal by Remy Hamilton enabled the Wolverines to escape with a victory.
After another two - year hiatus, the two teams met again in 1997. By then Holtz had left Notre Dame and defensive coordinator Bob Davie was named head coach. Gary Moeller resigned after the 1994 season and was succeeded by Lloyd Carr. Notre Dame took a 14 -- 7 halftime lead before the Wolverines tied the score and eventually took a 21 -- 14 lead. In the fourth quarter, Notre Dame managed to recover three Wolverine fumbles deep in Michigan territory, but came away empty each time. Michigan would go undefeated and capture a share of the national championship that season.
The Irish opened the 1998 season with their best game under Davie with an impressive 36 -- 20 victory over the defending national champion Wolverines. It marked the most points the Irish had ever scored against Michigan. The Wolverines led at the half, but Notre Dame seized the momentum in the third quarter and won going away.
Notre Dame took a 22 -- 19 lead in the fourth quarter before Michigan scored late to retake the lead, 26 -- 22. The referees made a controversial call of excessive celebration on the go - ahead TD. Poor clock management proved costly for Notre Dame. Out of time outs, the Irish drove frantically downfield only to have time run out when they could not get out of bounds.
The two teams took another two - year hiatus in 2000 and 2001. By the time they met again in 2002, Bob Davie had been fired and Tyrone Willingham was named to succeed him. The teams turned the ball over a combined 8 times, including six lost fumbles. Even though Notre Dame would score its first offensive touchdowns of the year in this game, the defense once again proved its savior, as Shane Walton knocked away a 2 - point conversion pass that would have tied the game with four minutes left. Walton would seal the game for good by intercepting Michigan 's John Navarre in the final minute, and the Fighting Irish prevailed 25 -- 23.
Michigan notched the first shutout in the series since 1902, a 38 -- 0 blowout. Running back Chris Perry scored four touchdowns, three of them on the ground. 2003 proved to be a dismal season for Notre Dame.
In 2004, the Irish, coming off a disappointing 20 -- 17 loss to BYU, beat the Wolverines, 28 -- 20. Freshman tailback Darius Walker rushed for 115 yards for the Irish with 2 TD 's while Brady Quinn passed for another 2 TD 's.
Willingham was dismissed at the end of the 2004 season and was succeeded by Notre Dame alumnus Charlie Weis. In the 2005 contest, the Irish took a quick 14 -- 0 lead as they drove impressively for touchdowns early. Michigan 's defense stiffened and would only allow a field goal in the second half. The Wolverines managed to come to within a touchdown, but would not get any closer as Notre Dame prevailed, 17 -- 10. Brady Quinn passed for 19 -- 30 for 140 yards and 2 TD 's to lead the Irish to victory.
Michigan scored the most points (47) either team has scored in the history of the rivalry en route to a 47 -- 21 blowout. Michigan receiver Mario Manningham caught three touchdowns in the first half to help the Wolverines win against the Fighting Irish.
Both teams came into this game at 0 -- 2 for the first time in the series ' history. Michigan won a much needed game against a rebuilding Notre Dame team. The Wolverines ' defense harassed Jimmy Clausen all game as the Irish offense struggled to get anything going. The victory helped propel Michigan to an 8 -- 4 regular season and a victory in the Capital One Bowl against Florida, while Notre Dame finished 3 -- 9.
Notre Dame jumped out to a quick 21 -- 0 lead on their home field and never looked back. Michigan tried to mount a comeback, closing the score to 28 -- 17 before a Brian Smith fumble recovery and score ensured a 35 -- 17 victory for the Irish. The Irish would capitalize on 6 Michigan turnovers in all. Michigan 's program was transitioning to a new coach and offense, while Notre Dame was looking to rebound from a 3 -- 9 season. Notre Dame finished 7 -- 6 while Michigan finished 3 -- 9.
With Michigan trailing 34 -- 31 with 16 seconds left, Wolverines quarterback Tate Forcier threw a touchdown pass with 11 seconds left on the clock to wideout Greg Mathews to seal a 38 -- 34 comeback win for Michigan. This game set a record for the most total points in the history of the rivalry.
Notre Dame came back from a 21 -- 7 halftime deficit to take a 24 -- 21 lead, but Michigan 's Denard Robinson scored a 2 - yard touchdown with 27 seconds left to give Michigan a 28 -- 24 win. Robinson, a sophomore in his second career start, ran for 258 yards and two touchdowns while throwing for 244 yards with another touchdown.
This time Michigan was the team to come back from a steep deficit. The Wolverines trailed 24 -- 7 entering the fourth quarter and took a 28 -- 24 lead with 1: 22 left. Notre Dame scored a touchdown with 30 seconds left to take the lead 31 -- 28, but Michigan 's quarterback Denard Robinson drove the team 80 yards to score again with two seconds left. It was the latest point in the game that an opponent has scored a touchdown to beat Notre Dame.
Robinson ran for 108 yards and passed for 338 yards and four touchdowns. This was the first night game in the history of Michigan Stadium. A crowd of 114,804 was in attendance, setting a post-1948 NCAA collegiate football attendance record. (A 1927 Notre Dame -- Southern California game at Soldier Field in Chicago, prior to NCAA record keeping for attendance, drew an estimated 117,000 -- 123,000.)
Notre Dame forced 6 turnovers -- including 5 interceptions on 5 consecutive Michigan passes, plus a Denard Robinson fumble -- and defeated Michigan 13 -- 6 in a home night game. Senior Irish linebacker Manti Te'o collected two interceptions, while Irish QB Tommy Rees replaced starter Everett Golson and provided the game 's only touchdown on a 2 - yard run.
For Michigan, Devin Gardner scored 4 touchdowns passing, and scored once running.
Everett Golson passed for 226 yards and 3 touchdowns while Cam McDaniel rushed for 25 yards and ran into the end zone once to lead Notre Dame to a 31 -- 0 victory. Notre Dame 's defense harassed Michigan quarterback Devin Gardner all night long.
With seven seconds (: 07) left in the game and Michigan trailing 31 - 0, Gardner attempted one last pass attempt. The pass was intercepted by Elijah Shumate and returned for a touchdown and making the final score 37 - 0. During the return, Notre Dame safety Max Redfield blocked Gardner as Gardner began to run towards Shumate. The officials penalized the play and called back the touchdown. Replays showed Gardner began to run towards Shumate, making him eligible to be blocked. NCAA rules forbid blocks on quarterbacks after an interception unless they are attempting to tackle or block another player.
On September 25, 2012, Notre Dame announced that it would exercise its option to end the rivalry after the 2014 season. Michigan head coach Brady Hoke took issue with Notre Dame 's decision, going so far as to say Notre Dame was "chickening out ''. At the end of Michigan 's 41 -- 30 victory over Notre Dame on September 7, 2013, the speakers at Michigan Stadium loudly played "The Chicken Dance ''. However, on September 5, 2014, at Notre Dame Stadium, Notre Dame defeated Michigan 31 -- 0 in the last scheduled meeting between these two schools (at the time). Just prior to the end of the game, the crowd began to chant "Na na na na... Na na na na... hey, hey, hey... goodbye! '' (in reference to the song of the same name by Steam).
This has since changed, as the two schools will meet in 2018 and 2019 in a home - and - home series.
Source:
|
when did the buffalo bills play on thanksgiving | NFL on Thanksgiving Day - wikipedia
The National Football League (NFL) on Thanksgiving Day is a traditional series of games played during the Thanksgiving holiday in the United States. It has been a regular occurrence since the league 's inception in 1920. Currently, three NFL games are played every Thanksgiving. The first two are hosted by the Detroit Lions and the Dallas Cowboys; a third game, with no fixed opponents, has been played annually since 2006.
The concept of American football games being played on Thanksgiving Day dates back to 1876, shortly after the game had been invented, as it was a day that most people had off from work. In that year, the college football teams at Yale and Princeton began an annual tradition of playing each other on Thanksgiving Day. The University of Michigan also made it a tradition to play annual Thanksgiving games, holding 19 such games from 1885 to 1905. The Thanksgiving Day games between Michigan and the Chicago Maroons in the 1890s have been cited as "The Beginning of Thanksgiving Day Football. '' In some areas, high - school teams play on Thanksgiving, usually to wrap - up the regular - season.
By the time football had become a professional event, playing on Thanksgiving had already become an institution. Records of pro football being played on Thanksgiving date back to as early as the 1890s, with the first pro -- am team, the Allegheny Athletic Association of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1902, the "National '' Football League, a Major League Baseball - backed organization based entirely in Pennsylvania and unrelated to the current NFL, attempted to settle its championship over Thanksgiving weekend; after the game ended in a tie, eventually all three teams in the league claimed to have won the title. Members of the Ohio League, during its early years, usually placed their marquee matchups on Thanksgiving Day. For instance, in 1905 and 1906 the Latrobe Athletic Association and Canton Bulldogs, considered at the time to be two of the best teams in professional football (along with the Massillon Tigers), played on Thanksgiving. A rigging scandal with the Tigers leading up to the 1906 game led to severe drops in attendance for the Bulldogs and ultimately led to their suspension of operations. During the 1910s, the Ohio League stopped holding Thanksgiving games because many of its players coached high school teams and were unavailable. This was not the case in other regional circuits: in 1919, the New York Pro Football League featured a Thanksgiving matchup between the Buffalo Prospects and the Rochester Jeffersons. The game ended in a scoreless tie, leading to a rematch the next Sunday for the league championship.
Several other NFL teams played regularly on Thanksgiving in the first eighteen years of the league, including the Chicago Bears and Chicago Cardinals (1922 -- 33; the Bears played the Lions from 1934 to 1938 while the Cardinals switched to the Green Bay Packers for 1934 and 1935), Frankford Yellow Jackets, Pottsville Maroons, Buffalo All - Americans, Canton Bulldogs (even after the team moved to Cleveland they played the 1924 Thanksgiving game in Canton), and the New York Giants (1929 -- 38, who always played a crosstown rival). The first owner of the Lions, George A. Richards, started the tradition of the Thanksgiving Day game as a gimmick to get people to go to Lions football games, and to continue a tradition begun by the city 's previous NFL teams. What differentiated the Lions ' efforts from other teams that played on the holiday was that Richards owned radio station WJR, a major affiliate of the NBC Blue Network; he was able to negotiate an agreement with NBC to carry his Thanksgiving games live across the network.
During the Franksgiving controversy in 1939 and 1940, the only two teams to play the game were the Pittsburgh Steelers and Philadelphia Eagles, as both teams were in the same state (Pennsylvania). (At the time, then - president Franklin Roosevelt wanted to move the holiday for economic reasons and many states were resistant to the move; half the states recognized the move and the other half did not. This complicated scheduling for Thanksgiving games. Incidentally, the two teams were also exploring the possibility of a merger at the time.) Because of the looming World War II and the resulting shorter seasons, the NFL did not schedule any Thanksgiving games in 1941, nor did it schedule any in the subsequent years until the war ended in 1945. When the Thanksgiving games resumed in 1945, only the Lions ' annual home game would remain on the Thanksgiving holiday. In 1951, the Packers began a thirteen - season run as the perpetual opponent to the Lions each year through 1963.
The All - America Football Conference and American Football League, both of which would later be absorbed into the NFL, also held Thanksgiving contests, although neither of those leagues had permanent hosts. Likewise, the AFL of 1926 also played two Thanksgiving games in its lone season of existence, while the AFL of 1936 hosted one in its first season, which featured the Cleveland Rams, a future NFL team, and the 1940 -- 41 incarnation of the American Football League played two games in 1940 on the earlier "Franksgiving '' date.
In 1966, the Dallas Cowboys, who had been founded six years earlier, adopted the practice of hosting Thanksgiving games. It is widely rumored that the Cowboys sought a guarantee that they would regularly host Thanksgiving games as a condition of their very first one (since games on days other than Sunday were uncommon at the time and thus high attendance was not a certainty). This is only partly true; Dallas had in fact decided to host games on Thanksgiving by their own decision because there was nothing else to do or watch on that day. In 1975 and 1977, at the behest of then - Commissioner Pete Rozelle, the St. Louis Cardinals replaced Dallas as a host team (Dallas then hosted St. Louis in 1976). Although the Cardinals, at the time known as the "Cardiac Cards '' due to their propensity for winning very close games, were a modest success at the time, they were nowhere near as popular nationwide as the Cowboys, who were regular Super Bowl contenders during this era. This, combined with St. Louis 's consistently weak attendance, a series of ugly Cardinals losses in the three - game stretch, and opposition from the Kirkwood -- Webster Groves Turkey Day Game (a local high school football contest) led to Dallas resuming regular hosting duties in 1978; it was then, after Rozelle asked Dallas to resume hosting Thanksgiving games, that the Cowboys requested (and received) an agreement guaranteeing the Cowboys a spot on Thanksgiving Day forever.
Notwithstanding the aforementioned St. Louis - hosted games in 1975 and 1977, the two "traditional '' Thanksgiving Day pro football games since the 1970 AFL -- NFL merger have then been in Detroit and Dallas. Because of TV network commitments in place through the 2013 season, to make sure that both the AFC - carrying network (NBC from the 1970 merger to 1997, and CBS since 1998) and the NFC - carrying network (CBS from the 1970 merger to 1993, and Fox since 1994) got at least one game each, one of these games was between NFC opponents, and one featured AFC - NFC opponents. Thus, the AFC could showcase only one team on Thanksgiving, and the AFC team was always the visiting team.
Since 2006, a third NFL game on Thanksgiving has been played at night. It originally aired on the NFL Network as part of its Thursday Night Football package until 2011; NBC began carrying the night game in 2012. The Thanksgiving night game has no fixed opponents or conferences, enabling the league to freely choose whatever marquee match - up to feature on that night. The 2012 changes also allowed both Dallas and Detroit in the future to offer NFC games (one would be played at night), and CBS can offer a game with two AFC teams. In 2014, the NFL added the cross-flex rule, allowing CBS to televise NFC away games, and Fox to broadcast AFC away games, under select circumstances on Sunday afternoons; however, this did not cover the Thanksgiving contests. CBS also signed a separate contract to carry Thursday Night Football from the 2014 season through 2017, which allowed that network to carry games from either conference on Thursdays; from that year through 2016, CBS carried all - NFC contests every year on Thanksgiving, and in 2014 and 2015, no AFC teams played in any of the Thanksgiving games. For 2018, Fox took over Thursday Night Football rights, thus freeing that network up to carry an AFC visiting team on Thanksgiving, while restoring CBS 's requirement to carry an AFC game on Thanksgiving.
The NFL 's flexible scheduling rule currently does not apply for Thanksgiving games; however, the NFL in theory could in the future apply the rule to change start times and networks for the three games.
Since 2001 teams playing on Thanksgiving have worn throwback uniforms on numerous occasions. In some years (namely 2002), it extended to nearly all games of the weekend, and in some cases also involved classic field logos at the respective stadiums.
In 2001 -- 2004, and again in 2008, 2010, and 2017 the Detroit Lions have worn throwback uniforms based on their very early years.
From 2001 to 2003, Dallas chose to represent the 1990s Cowboys dynasty by wearing the navy "Double - Star '' jersey not seen since 1995. In 2004, the team wore uniforms not seen since 1963. In 2009, to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the AFL, both Dallas and Oakland played in a "AFL Legacy Game. '' In 2013, the Cowboys intended to wear their 1960s throwbacks, but chose not to do so after the NFL adopted a new policy requiring players and teams to utilize only one helmet a season to address the league 's new concussion protocol; rather than sport an incomplete throwback look, the Cowboys instead wore their standard blue jerseys at home for the first time since 1963. In 2015, the Cowboys resurrected their 1994 white "Double - Star '' jerseys only this time wore them with white pants as part of the league 's "Color Rush '', a trial run of specially - designed, monochromatic jerseys to be worn during Thursday games.
It has remained a tradition for Dallas and Detroit to host the afternoon games dating back several decades. However, in recent years, other teams have expressed interest in hosting Thanksgiving games. Lamar Hunt, the former owner of the Chiefs (who had hosted Thanksgiving games from 1967 -- 69 as an AFL team prior to the merger), lobbied heavily in favor of his team hosting a game on the holiday. When the NFL adopted a third, prime time game, the Chiefs were selected as the first team to host such a contest, but the team was not made a permanent host, and Hunt 's death shortly after the 2006 contest ended the lobbying on behalf of that team.
The host issue came to a head in 2008, focusing particularly on the winless Lions. Going into the game, Detroit had lost their last four Thanksgiving games, and opinions amongst the media had suggested removing Detroit and replacing them with a more attractive matchup. The team also required an extension to prevent a local television blackout. The Lions were routed by Tennessee 47 -- 10, en route to the team 's 0 -- 16 season. NFL commissioner Roger Goodell confirmed that the Lions would stay on Thanksgiving for the 2009 season, but kept the issue open to revisit in the future.
Conversely, the Dallas Cowboys, who typically represent a larger television draw, have had much fewer public calls to be replaced on Thanksgiving. One issue that has been debated is a perceived unfair advantage of playing at home on Thanksgiving. The advantage is given in the form of an extra day of practice for the home team while the road team has to travel to the game site. This is true for most Thursday games, but with the night games, the visitor can travel to the game site after practice and hold the final walk - thru the following morning.
With the introduction of the prime time game, which effectively allows all teams in the league an opportunity to play on Thanksgiving, along with the introduction of year - long Thursday Night Football ensuring all teams have one Thursday game during the regular season (thus negating any on - field advantages or disadvantages to being selected for Thanksgiving), the calls for Detroit and Dallas to be removed have curtailed.
(Winning teams are denoted by boldface type; tie games are italicized.)
Of current NFL franchises. This includes American Football League (AFL) games; however, it does not include All - America Football Conference (AAFC) games.
The last currently active franchise to have never played on Thanksgiving through 2017 is the Jacksonville Jaguars, who joined the league in 1995.
An idiosyncrasy in the NFL 's current scheduling formula, which has been in effect since 2002 and revised in 2010, effectively prevents teams from the AFC North from playing the Lions or Cowboys on Thanksgiving, as the formula has the AFC North playing in Dallas or Detroit in years when the other team is slated to play the AFC game on Thanksgiving. These teams can, under the 2014 television contracts, play only in the third (night) game; should cross-flex be expanded to Thursdays or Fox win the Thursday Night contract in 2018 (either scenario would allow both Fox and CBS to carry AFC games), this idiosyncrasy will be eliminated.
The Los Angeles Rams have the longest active appearance drought of any team, with their last appearance coming in 1975. Among current NFL markets, Cleveland has had the longest wait to have a team from its city play on Thanksgiving; the Browns last appeared in 1989, several years before being suspended in the Cleveland Browns relocation controversy, and have not appeared in the game since rejoining the league as an expansion team.
Since 2010, the league has made efforts to end the longest droughts. New Orleans, Cincinnati, Baltimore, Houston, and Carolina all played their first Thanksgiving games during this time frame. San Francisco likewise played their first Thanksgiving game since 1972 in 2011, and the Los Angeles Chargers, who last played on the holiday in 1969 (while the team was still an AFL franchise in San Diego) before actually joining the league, appeared for the first time as an NFL member in 2017.
* All - America Football Conference team.
Since 1989, informal and sometimes lighthearted Man of the Match awards have been issued by the networks broadcasting the respective games. Running back Emmitt Smith holds the record for most Thanksgiving MVPs with five (1990, 1992, 1994, 1996 and 2002). Voting on the respective awards is typically done informally by the announcing crew themselves, and criteria are loose. Noteworthy statistical accomplishments weigh heavily, and "group '' awards are common. The announcement of the winner (s), and the presentation of the award is normally done immediately following the game, during post-game network coverage.
In 1989, John Madden of CBS awarded the first "Turkey Leg Award '', for the game 's most valuable player. Pursuant to its name, it was an actual cooked turkey leg, and players typically took a celebratory bite out of the leg for the cameras during post-game interviews. Reggie White of the Eagles was the first recipient. The gesture was seen mostly as a humorous gimmick relating to Madden 's famous multi-legged turkey, cooked and delivered by local restaurant owner Joe Pat Fieseler of Harvey 's Barbecue (located less than a mile from Texas Stadium). Since then, however, the award has gained subtle notoriety. Madden brought the award to FOX in 1994, and it continued through 2001.
Because of the loose and informal nature of the award, at times it has been awarded to multiple players. On one occasion in 1994, it was given to players of both teams.
When John Madden left FOX after 2001, the network introduced a new award starting in 2002, named the "Galloping Gobbler. '' It was represented by a small figurine of a silver turkey wearing a football helmet striking a Heisman - like pose. Much like Cleatus and Digger, the original Galloping Gobbler trophy reflected Fox 's irreverent mascots, and went through several iterations. Unimpressed by its tackiness, 2002 winner Emmitt Smith (who holds the record for most Thanksgiving MVP awards and had won the Turkey Leg Award four previous times) famously threw his in a trash can.
In 2007, the kitschy statuette was replaced with a bronze - colored statue of a nondescript turkey holding a football. In 2011, the trophies were discarded altogether and replaced by an attractive plaque. Unlike the aforementioned "Turkey Leg Award '', the "Galloping Gobbler '' is normally awarded to only one player annually, however in 2016, co-winners were honored.
For 2017, the Galloping Gobbler was permanently retired, and replaced with the "Game Ball, '' an stylish, ornate football - shaped trophy, reminiscent of the tradition where game - used balls are typically awarded to players of the game. No one at Fox seemed to notice the first ball awarded has the stripe markings of a college ball.
When the NFL returned to CBS in 1998, they introduced their own award, the "All - Iron Award '', which is, suitably enough, a small silver iron, a reference to Phil Simms ' All - Iron team for toughness. The All - Iron winner also receives a skillet of blackberry cobbler made by Simms ' mother.
Through 2006, the trophy was only awarded to one player annually. Occasionally, it has been issued as a "group award '' in addition to a single player award. In 2008, Simms stated it was "too close to call '' and named four players to the trophy; he then gave the award to several people every year until 2013, after which he reverted to a single MVP in 2014.
Simms was removed from the broadcast booth for the 2017 season and no player of the game was chosen that year.
During the time when NFL Network held the broadcast rights the prime time game, from 2007 to 2011 they gave out the "Pudding Pie Award '' for MVPs. The award was an actual pie. In 2009, NFL Network gave Brandon Marshall a pumpkin pie rather than the chocolate pudding pie of the previous two years.
NBC, which carried Thanksgiving afternoon games through 1997, did not issue an MVP award during that time. NBC began broadcasting the Thanksgiving prime time game in 2012, at which point the MVP award was added. The award is currently called the Sunday Night Football on Thanksgiving Night Player of the Game, and is typically awarded to multiple players on the winning team. From 2012 to 2015, the NBC award was referred to as the "Madden Thanksgiving Player - of - the - Game '', honoring John Madden (who announced NBC games from 2006 to 2008). In the first few years, the award specifically went to players on both offense and defense, but in recent years, defensive players have not necessarily been recognized. The winning players are presented with ceremonial game balls and, as a gesture to Madden, a cooked turkey leg.
DuMont was the first network to televise Thanksgiving games in 1953; CBS took over in 1956, and in 1965, the first ever color television broadcast of an NFL game was the Thanksgiving match between the Lions and the Baltimore Colts.
Starting in 2012, all three broadcast networks with NFL rights will carry one game apiece. The first two games are split between CBS and Fox. These games are rotated annually, with CBS getting the 12: 30 p.m. (EST) "early '' game, and Fox getting the 4: 25 p.m. "late '' game in even - numbered years, while Fox likewise gets the "early '' game and CBS the "late '' game in odd - numbered years. The third game, with a prime time 8: 30 p.m. start, is carried by NBC. The NFL may involve the Flexible Scheduling rule in the future to reassign games if the night game has less importance than the Dallas or Detroit game.
Westwood One holds national radio broadcast rights to all three games, with Compass Media Networks sharing rights to the Cowboys contest. (Under league rules, only radio stations that carry at least 12 Cowboys games in a season are allowed to carry the Compass broadcast.) The participating teams also air the games on their local flagship stations and regional radio networks.
The Cowboys Thanksgiving game has regularly been the most watched NFL regular season telecast each year, with the Lions Thanksgiving game usually in the top five.
|
compared to the star that it evolved from betelgeuse is | Betelgeuse - wikipedia
Coordinates: 05 55 10.3053, + 07 ° 24 ′ 25.426 ''
Betelgeuse, also designated Alpha Orionis (α Orionis, abbreviated Alpha Ori, α Ori), is the ninth - brightest star in the night sky and second - brightest in the constellation of Orion. It is distinctly reddish, and is a semiregular variable star whose apparent magnitude varies between 0.0 and 1.3, the widest range of any first - magnitude star. Betelgeuse is one of three stars that make up the Winter Triangle asterism, and it marks the center of the Winter Hexagon. It would be the brightest star in the night sky if the human eye could view all wavelengths of radiation.
Classified as a red supergiant of spectral type M1 - 2, the star is one of the largest and most luminous stars visible to the naked eye. If Betelgeuse were at the center of the Solar System, its surface would extend past the asteroid belt, wholly engulfing the orbits of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, and possibly Jupiter. Calculations of its mass range from slightly under ten to a little over twenty times that of the Sun. It is calculated to be 640 light - years away, yielding an absolute magnitude of about − 6. Less than 10 million years old, Betelgeuse has evolved rapidly because of its high mass. Having been ejected from its birthplace in the Orion OB1 Association -- which includes the stars in Orion 's Belt -- this runaway star has been observed moving through the interstellar medium at a speed of 30 km / s, creating a bow shock over four light - years wide. Currently in a late stage of stellar evolution, the supergiant is expected to explode as a supernova within the next million years.
In 1920, Betelgeuse became the first extrasolar star to have the angular size of its photosphere measured. Subsequent studies have reported an angular diameter (apparent size) ranging from 0.042 to 0.056 arcseconds, with the differences ascribed to the non-sphericity, limb darkening, pulsations, and varying appearance at different wavelengths. It is also surrounded by a complex, asymmetric envelope roughly 250 times the size of the star, caused by mass loss from the star itself. The angular diameter of Betelgeuse is only exceeded by R Doradus (and the Sun).
α Orionis (Latinised to Alpha Orionis) is the star 's Bayer designation. The traditional name Betelgeuse is derived from the Arabic إبط الجوزاء Ibṭ al - Jauzā ', meaning "the underarm of Orion '', or يد الجوزاء Yad al - Jauzā ', meaning "the hand of Orion '' (see below). In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN 's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN, which included Betelgeuse for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.
Betelgeuse and its red coloration have been noted since antiquity; the classical astronomer Ptolemy described its color as ὑπόκιρρος (hypókirrhos), a term that was later described by a translator of Ulugh Beg 's Zij - i Sultani as rubedo, Latin for "ruddiness ''. In the nineteenth century, before modern systems of stellar classification, Angelo Secchi included Betelgeuse as one of the prototypes for his Class III (orange to red) stars. By contrast, three centuries before Ptolemy, Chinese astronomers observed Betelgeuse as having a yellow coloration, suggesting that the star spent time as a yellow supergiant around the beginning of the common era, a possibility given current research into the complex circumstellar environment of these stars.
The variation in Betelgeuse 's brightness was first described in 1836 by Sir John Herschel, when he published his observations in Outlines of Astronomy. From 1836 to 1840, he noticed significant changes in magnitude when Betelgeuse outshone Rigel in October 1837 and again in November 1839. A 10 - year quiescent period followed; then in 1849, Herschel noted another short cycle of variability, which peaked in 1852. Later observers recorded unusually high maxima with an interval of years, but only small variations from 1957 to 1967. The records of the American Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO) show a maximum brightness of 0.2 in 1933 and 1942, and a minimum of 1.2, observed in 1927 and 1941. This variability in brightness may explain why Johann Bayer, with the publication of his Uranometria in 1603, designated the star alpha as it probably rivaled the usually brighter Rigel (beta). From Arctic latitudes, Betelgeuse 's red colour and higher location in the sky than Rigel meant the Inuit regarded it as brighter, and one local name was Ulluriajjuaq "large star ''.
In 1920, Albert Michelson and Francis Pease mounted a 6 - meter interferometer on the front of the 2.5 - meter telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory. Helped by John Anderson, the trio measured the angular diameter of Betelgeuse at 0.047 ", a figure which resulted in a diameter of 3.84 × 10 km (2.58 AU) based on the parallax value of 0.018 ''. However, limb darkening and measurement errors resulted in uncertainty about the accuracy of these measurements.
The 1950s and 1960s saw two developments that would affect stellar convection theory in red supergiants: the Stratoscope projects and the 1958 publication of Structure and Evolution of the Stars, principally the work of Martin Schwarzschild and his colleague at Princeton University, Richard Härm. This book disseminated ideas on how to apply computer technologies to create stellar models, while the Stratoscope projects, by taking balloon - borne telescopes above the Earth 's turbulence, produced some of the finest images of solar granules and sunspots ever seen, thus confirming the existence of convection in the solar atmosphere.
Astronomers in the 1970s saw some major advances in astronomical imaging technology beginning with Antoine Labeyrie 's invention of speckle interferometry, a process that significantly reduced the blurring effect caused by astronomical seeing. It increased the optical resolution of ground - based telescopes, allowing for more precise measurements of Betelgeuse 's photosphere. With improvements in infrared telescopy atop Mount Wilson, Mount Locke and Mauna Kea in Hawaii, astrophysicists began peering into the complex circumstellar shells surrounding the supergiant, causing them to suspect the presence of huge gas bubbles resulting from convection. But it was not until the late 1980s and early 1990s, when Betelgeuse became a regular target for aperture masking interferometry, that breakthroughs occurred in visible - light and infrared imaging. Pioneered by John E. Baldwin and colleagues of the Cavendish Astrophysics Group, the new technique employed a small mask with several holes in the telescope pupil plane, converting the aperture into an ad - hoc interferometric array. The technique contributed some of the most accurate measurements of Betelgeuse while revealing bright spots on the star 's photosphere. These were the first optical and infrared images of a stellar disk other than the Sun, taken first from ground - based interferometers and later from higher - resolution observations of the COAST telescope. The "bright patches '' or "hotspots '' observed with these instruments appeared to corroborate a theory put forth by Schwarzschild decades earlier of massive convection cells dominating the stellar surface.
In 1995, the Hubble Space Telescope 's Faint Object Camera captured an ultraviolet image with a resolution superior to that obtained by ground - based interferometers -- the first conventional - telescope image (or "direct - image '' in NASA terminology) of the disk of another star. Because ultraviolet light is absorbed by the Earth 's atmosphere, observations at these wavelengths are best performed by space telescopes. Like earlier pictures, this image contained a bright patch indicating a region in the southwestern quadrant 7003200000000000000 ♠ 2000 K hotter than the stellar surface. Subsequent ultraviolet spectra taken with the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph suggested that the hot spot was one of Betelgeuse 's poles of rotation. This would give the rotational axis an inclination of about 20 ° to the direction of Earth, and a position angle from celestial North of about 55 °.
In a study published in December 2000, the star 's diameter was measured with the Infrared Spatial Interferometer (ISI) at mid-infrared wavelengths producing a limb - darkened estimate of 55.2 ± 0.5 milliarcseconds (mas) -- a figure entirely consistent with Michelson 's findings eighty years earlier. At the time of its publication, the estimated parallax from the Hipparcos mission was 7.63 ± 1.64 mas, yielding an estimated radius for Betelgeuse of 3.6 AU. However, an infrared interferometric study published in 2009 announced that the star had shrunk by 15 % since 1993 at an increasing rate without a significant diminution in magnitude. Subsequent observations suggest that the apparent contraction may be due to shell activity in the star 's extended atmosphere.
In addition to the star 's diameter, questions have arisen about the complex dynamics of Betelgeuse 's extended atmosphere. The mass that makes up galaxies is recycled as stars are formed and destroyed, and red supergiants are major contributors, yet the process by which mass is lost remains a mystery. With advances in interferometric methodologies, astronomers may be close to resolving this conundrum. In July 2009, images released by the European Southern Observatory, taken by the ground - based Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI), showed a vast plume of gas extending 30 AU from the star into the surrounding atmosphere. This mass ejection was equal to the distance between the Sun and Neptune and is one of multiple events occurring in Betelgeuse 's surrounding atmosphere. Astronomers have identified at least six shells surrounding Betelgeuse. Solving the mystery of mass loss in the late stages of a star 's evolution may reveal those factors that precipitate the explosive deaths of these stellar giants.
In the night sky, Betelgeuse is easy to spot with the naked eye owing to its distinctive orange - red color. In the Northern Hemisphere, beginning in January of each year, it can be seen rising in the east just after sunset. By mid-September to mid-March (best in mid-December), it is visible to virtually every inhabited region of the globe, except for a few research stations in Antarctica at latitudes south of 82 °. In May (moderate northern latitudes) or June (southern latitudes), the red supergiant can be seen briefly on the western horizon after sunset, reappearing again a few months later on the eastern horizon before sunrise. In the intermediate period (June -- July) it is invisible to the naked eye (visible only with a telescope in daylight), unless around midday (when the Sun is below horizon) on Antarctic regions between 70 ° and 80 ° south latitude.
Betelgeuse is a variable star whose brightness ranges between 0.0 and 1.3. There are periods when it will surpass Procyon to become the seventh - brightest star, and occasionally even brighter. At its faintest Betelgeuse can fall behind Deneb and Mimosa, themselves both slightly variable, to be the 20th - brightest star.
Betelgeuse has a color index (B -- V) of 1.85 -- a figure which points to its advanced "redness ''. The photosphere has an extended atmosphere, which displays strong lines of emission rather than absorption, a phenomenon that occurs when a star is surrounded by a thick gaseous envelope (rather than ionized). This extended gaseous atmosphere has been observed moving away from and towards Betelgeuse, depending on radial velocity fluctuations in the photosphere. Betelgeuse is the brightest near - infrared source in the sky with a J band magnitude of − 2.99. As a result, only about 13 % of the star 's radiant energy is emitted in the form of visible light. If human eyes were sensitive to radiation at all wavelengths, Betelgeuse would appear as the brightest star in the sky.
Various catalogues list up to nine faint visual companions to Betelgeuse. They are at distances of about one to four arc - minutes and all are fainter than 10th magnitude. Betelgeuse is generally considered to be a single isolated star and a runaway star, not currently associated with any cluster or star - forming region, although its birthplace is unclear.
Two spectroscopic companions have been proposed to the red supergiant star. Analysis of polarization data from 1968 through 1983 indicated a close companion with a periodic orbit of about 2.1 years. Using speckle interferometry, the team concluded that the closer of the two companions was located at 6993290888208665722 ♠ 0.06 '' ± 0.01 '' (~ 9 AU) from the main star with a position angle (PA) of 273 degrees, an orbit that would potentially place it within the star 's chromosphere. The more distant companion was estimated at 6994247254977365863 ♠ 0.51 '' ± 0.01 '' (~ 77 AU) with a PA of 278 degrees. Further studies have found no evidence for these companions or have actively refuted their existence, but the possibility of a close companion contributing to the overall flux has never been fully ruled out. High - resolution interferometry of Betelgeuse and its vicinity, far beyond the technology of the 1980s and ' 90s, have not detected any companions.
Parallax is the apparent change of the position of an object, measured in seconds of arc, caused by the change of position of the observer of that object. As the Earth orbits the Sun, every star is seen to shift by a fraction of an arc second, which measure, combined with the baseline provided by the Earth 's orbit gives the distance to that star. Since the first successful parallax measurement by Friedrich Bessel in 1838, astronomers have been puzzled by Betelgeuse 's apparent distance. Knowledge of the star 's distance improves the accuracy of other stellar parameters, such as luminosity that, when combined with an angular diameter, can be used to calculate the physical radius and effective temperature; luminosity and isotopic abundances can also be used to estimate the stellar age and mass. In 1920, when the first interferometric studies were performed on the star 's diameter, the assumed parallax was 0.0180 arcseconds. This equated to a distance of 56 parsecs (pc) or roughly 180 light - years (ly), producing not only an inaccurate radius for the star but every other stellar characteristic. Since then, there has been ongoing work to measure the distance of Betelgeuse, with proposed distances as high as 400 pc or about 7019122989496143550 ♠ 1300 ly.
Before the publication of the Hipparcos Catalogue (1997), there were two conflicting parallax measurements for Betelgeuse. The first, in 1991, gave a parallax of π = 9.8 ± 4.7 mas, yielding a distance of roughly 102 pc or 330 ly. The second was the Hipparcos Input Catalogue (1993) with a trigonometric parallax of π = 5 ± 4 mas, a distance of 200 pc or 650 ly. Given this uncertainty, researchers were adopting a wide range of distance estimates, leading to significant variances in the calculation of the star 's attributes.
The results from the Hipparcos mission were released in 1997. The measured parallax of Betelgeuse was π = 7.63 ± 1.64 mas, which equated to a distance of 131 pc or roughly 430 ly, and had a smaller reported error than previous measurements. However, later evaluation of the Hipparcos parallax measurements for variable stars like Betelgeuse found that the uncertainty of these measurements had been underestimated. In 2007, an improved figure of π = 7000655000000000000 ♠ 6.55 ± 0.83 was calculated, hence a much tighter error factor yielding a distance of roughly 7018469022992383013 ♠ 152 ± 20 pc or 7018491957984574201 ♠ 520 ± 73 ly.
In 2008, using the Very Large Array (VLA), produced a radio solution of π = 6992245800536322535 ♠ 5.07 ± 1.10 mas, equalling a distance of 7018607878483549036 ♠ 197 ± 45 pc or 7018608324969386945 ♠ 643 ± 146 ly. As the researcher, Harper, points out: "The revised Hipparcos parallax leads to a larger distance (7018469022992383013 ♠ 152 ± 20 pc) than the original; however, the astrometric solution still requires a significant cosmic noise of 2.4 mas. Given these results it is clear that the Hipparcos data still contain systematic errors of unknown origin. '' Although the radio data also have systematic errors, the Harper solution combines the datasets in the hope of mitigating such errors. An updated result from further observations with ALMA and e-Merlin gives a parallax of 7000451000000000000 ♠ 4.51 ± 0.8 mas and a distance of 7002222000000000000 ♠ 222 + 34 − 48 pc. Further observations have resulted in a slightly revised parallax of 7000451000000000000 ♠ 4.51 ± 0.80.
Although the European Space Agency 's current Gaia mission was not expected to produce good results for stars brighter than the approximately V = 6 saturation limit of the mission 's instruments, actual operation has shown good performance on objects to about magnitude + 3. Forced observations of brighter stars mean that final results should be available for all bright stars and a parallax for Betelgeuse will be published an order of magnitude more accurate than currently available.
Betelgeuse is classified as a semiregular variable star, indicating that some periodicity is noticeable in the brightness changes, but amplitudes may vary, cycles may have different lengths, and there may be standstills or periods of irregularity. It is placed in subgroup SRc; these are pulsating red supergiants with amplitudes around one magnitude and periods from tens to hundreds of days.
Betelgeuse typically shows only small brightness changes near to magnitude + 0.5, although at its extremes it can become as bright as magnitude 0.0 or as faint as magnitude + 1.3. Betelgeuse is listed in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars with a possible period of 2,335 days. More detailed analyses have shown a main period near 400 days and a longer secondary period around 2,100 days.
Radial pulsations of red supergiants are well - modelled and show that periods of a few hundred days are typically due to fundamental and first overtone pulsation. Lines in the spectrum of Betelgeuse show doppler shifts indicating radial velocity changes corresponding, very roughly, to the brightness changes. This demonstrates the nature of the pulsations in size, although corresponding temperature and spectral variations are not clearly seen. Variations in the diameter of Betelgeuse have also been measured directly.
The source of the long secondary periods is unknown, but they certainly are n't due to radial pulsations. Interferometric observations of Betelgeuse have shown hotspots that are thought to be created by massive convection cells, a significant fraction of the diameter of the star and each emitting 5 -- 10 % of the total light of the star. One theory to explain long secondary periods is that they are caused by the evolution of such cells combined with the rotation of the star. Other theories include close binary interactions, chromospheric magnetic activity influencing mass loss, or non-radial pulsations such as g - modes.
In addition to the discrete dominant periods, small - amplitude stochastic variations are seen. It is proposed that this is due to granulation, similar to the same effect on the sun but on a much larger scale. Aboriginal people from the Great Victoria Desert of South Australia observed the variability of Betelgeuse and incorporated it into their oral traditions as Nyeeruna (Orion). Nyeeruna generates fire - magic in his right hand (Betelgeuse) to gain access to the Yugarilya sisters of the Pleiades, but is prevented from doing so by the eldest sister Kambugudha (Hyades), who kicks sand into his face, causing his fire - magic to dissipate in his humiliation. This is described in the oral tradition as a cyclic process, with Nyeeruna 's right hand brightening and fading over time.
On 13 December 1920, Betelgeuse became the first star outside the Solar System to have the angular size of its photosphere measured. Although interferometry was still in its infancy, the experiment proved a success. The researchers, using a uniform disk model, determined that Betelgeuse had a diameter of 0.047 arcseconds, although the stellar disk was likely 17 % larger due to the limb darkening, resulting in an estimate for its angular diameter of about 0.055 ". Since then, other studies have produced angular diameters that range from 0.042 to 0.069 arcseconds. Combining these data with historical distance estimates of 180 to 815 ly yields a projected radius of the stellar disk of anywhere from 1.2 to 8.9 AU. Using the Solar System for comparison, the orbit of Mars is about 1.5 AU, Ceres in the asteroid belt 2.7 AU, Jupiter 5.5 AU -- so, assuming Betelgeuse occupying the place of the Sun, its photosphere might extend beyond the Jovian orbit, not quite reaching Saturn at 9.5 AU.
The precise diameter has been hard to define for several reasons:
To overcome these challenges, researchers have employed various solutions. Astronomical interferometry, first conceived by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1868, was the seminal concept that has enabled major improvements in modern telescopy and led to the creation of the Michelson interferometer in the 1880s, and the first successful measurement of Betelgeuse. Just as human depth perception increases when two eyes instead of one perceive an object, Fizeau proposed the observation of stars through two apertures instead of one to obtain interferences that would furnish information on the star 's spatial intensity distribution. The science evolved quickly and multiple - aperture interferometers are now used to capture speckled images, which are synthesized using Fourier analysis to produce a portrait of high resolution. It was this methodology that identified the hotspots on Betelgeuse in the 1990s. Other technological breakthroughs include adaptive optics, space observatories like Hipparcos, Hubble and Spitzer, and the Astronomical Multi-BEam Recombiner (AMBER), which combines the beams of three telescopes simultaneously, allowing researchers to achieve milliarcsecond spatial resolution.
Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum -- the visible, near - infrared (NIR) or mid-infrared (MIR) -- produces the most accurate angular measurement is still debated. In 1996, Betelgeuse was shown to have a uniform disk of 56.6 ± 1.0 mas. In 2000, the SSL team produced another measure of 54.7 ± 0.3 mas, ignoring any possible contribution from hotspots, which are less noticeable in the mid-infrared. Also included was a theoretical allowance for limb darkening, yielding a diameter of 55.2 ± 0.5 mas. The earlier estimate equates to a radius of roughly 5.6 AU or 7003120000000000000 ♠ 1200 R, assuming the 2008 Harper distance of 197.0 ± 45 pc, a figure roughly the size of the Jovian orbit of 5.5 AU, published in 2009 in Astronomy Magazine and a year later in NASA 's Astronomy Picture of the Day.
A team of astronomers working in the near - infrared announced in 2004, that the more accurate photospheric measurement was 43.33 ± 0.04 mas. The study also put forth an explanation as to why varying wavelengths from the visible to mid-infrared produce different diameters: the star is seen through a thick, warm extended atmosphere. At short wavelengths (the visible spectrum) the atmosphere scatters light, thus slightly increasing the star 's diameter. At near - infrared wavelengths (K and L bands), the scattering is negligible, so the classical photosphere can be directly seen; in the mid-infrared the scattering increases once more, causing the thermal emission of the warm atmosphere to increase the apparent diameter.
Studies with the IOTA and VLTI published in 2009 brought strong support to Perrin 's analysis and yielded diameters ranging from 42.57 to 44.28 mas with comparatively insignificant margins of error. In 2011, a third estimate in the near - infrared corroborating the 2009 numbers, this time showing a limb - darkened disk diameter of 42.49 ± 0.06 mas. Consequently, if one combines the smaller Hipparcos distance from van Leeuwen of 152 ± 20 pc with Perrin 's angular measurement of 43.33 mas, a near - infrared photospheric estimate would equate to about 3.4 AU or 730 R. A 2014 paper derives an angular diameter of 42.28 mas (equivalent to a 41.01 mas uniform disc) using H and K band observations made with the VLTI AMBER instrument.
Central to this discussion, it was announced in 2009, that the radius of Betelgeuse had shrunk from 1993 to 2009 by 15 %, with the 2008 angular measurement equal to 47.0 mas, not too far from Perrin 's estimate. Unlike most earlier papers, this study encompassed a 15 - year period at one specific wavelength. Earlier studies have typically lasted one to two years by comparison and have explored multiple wavelengths, often yielding vastly different results. The diminution in Betelgeuse 's apparent size equates to a range of values between 56.0 ± 0.1 mas seen in 1993 to 47.0 ± 0.1 mas seen in 2008 -- a contraction of almost 0.9 AU in 15 years. What is not fully known is whether this observation is evidence of a rhythmic expansion and contraction of the star 's photosphere as astronomers have theorized, and if so, what the periodic cycle might be, although Townes suggested that if a cycle does exist, it is probably a few decades long. Other possible explanations are photospheric protrusions due to convection or a star that is not spherical but asymmetric causing the appearance of expansion and contraction as the star rotates on its axis.
The debate about differences between measurements in the mid-infrared, which suggest a possible expansion and contraction of the star, and the near - infrared, which advocates a relatively constant photospheric diameter, remains to be resolved. In a paper published in 2012, the Berkeley team reported that their measurements were "dominated by the behavior of cool, optically thick material above the stellar photosphere, '' indicating that the apparent expansion and contraction may be due to activity in the star 's outer shells and not the photosphere itself. This conclusion, if further corroborated, would suggest an average angular diameter for Betelgeuse closer to Perrin 's estimate at 43.33 arcseconds, hence a stellar radius of about 3.4 AU (730 R) assuming the shorter Hipparcos distance of 498 ± 73 ly in lieu of Harper 's estimate at 643 ± 146 ly. The Gaia spacecraft may clarify assumptions presently used in calculating the size of Betelgeuse 's stellar disk.
Once considered as having the largest angular diameter of any star in the sky after the Sun, Betelgeuse lost that distinction in 1997 when a group of astronomers measured R Doradus with a diameter of 57.0 ± 0.5 mas, although R Doradus, being much closer to Earth at about 200 ly, has a linear diameter roughly one - third that of Betelgeuse.
The generally reported radii of large cool stars are Rosseland radii, defined as the radius of the photosphere at a specific optical depth of two thirds. This corresponds to the radius calculated from the effective temperature and bolometric luminosity. The Rosseland radius differs from directly measured radii, but there are widely used conversion factors depending on the wavelength used for the angular measurements. For example, a measured angular diameter of 55.6 mas corresponds to a Rosseland mean diameter of 56.2 mas. The Rosseland radius derived from angular measurements of the star 's photosphere rather than an extended envelope is 887 R.
Betelgeuse is a very large, luminous but cool star classified as an M1 - 2 Ia - ab red supergiant. The letter "M '' in this designation means that it is a red star belonging to the M spectral class and therefore has a relatively low photospheric temperature; the "Ia - ab '' suffix luminosity class indicates that it is an intermediate - luminosity supergiant, with properties partway between a normal supergiant and a luminous supergiant. Since 1943, the spectrum of Betelgeuse has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified.
Uncertainty in the star 's surface temperature, diameter, and distance make it difficult to achieve a precise measurement of Betelgeuse 's luminosity, but research from 2012 quotes a luminosity of around 7005126000000000000 ♠ 126 000 L, assuming a distance of 200 pc. Studies since 2001 report effective temperatures ranging from 3,250 to 3,690 K. Values outside this range have previously been reported, and much of the variation is believed to be real, due to pulsations in the atmosphere. The star is also a slow rotator and the most recent velocity recorded was 5 km / s -- much slower than Antares which has a rotational velocity of 20 km / s. The rotation period depends on Betelgeuse 's size and orientation to Earth, but it has been calculated to take 8.4 years to turn on its axis.
In 2004, astronomers using computer simulations speculated that even if Betelgeuse is not rotating it might exhibit large - scale magnetic activity in its extended atmosphere, a factor where even moderately strong fields could have a meaningful influence over the star 's dust, wind and mass - loss properties. A series of spectropolarimetric observations obtained in 2010 with the Bernard Lyot Telescope at Pic du Midi Observatory revealed the presence of a weak magnetic field at the surface of Betelgeuse, suggesting that the giant convective motions of supergiant stars are able to trigger the onset of a small - scale dynamo effect.
Betelgeuse has no known orbital companions, so its mass can not be calculated by that direct method. Modern mass estimates from theoretical modelling have produced values of 9.5 -- 21 M, with values of 5 M -- 30 M from older studies. It has been calculated that Betelgeuse began its life as a star of 15 -- 20 M, based on a solar luminosity of 90,000 -- 150,000. A novel method of determining the supergiant 's mass was proposed in 2011, arguing for a current stellar mass of 11.6 M with an upper limit of 16.6 and lower of 7.7 M, based on observations of the star 's intensity profile from narrow H - band interferometry and using a photospheric measurement of roughly 4.3 AU or 955 R. Model fitting to evolutionary tracks give a current mass of 19.4 -- 19.7 M, from an initial mass of 20 M.
The kinematics of Betelgeuse are complex. The age of Class M supergiants with an initial mass of 20 M is roughly 10 million years. Starting from its present position and motion a projection back in time would place Betelgeuse around 290 parsecs farther from the galactic plane -- an implausible location, as there is no star formation region there. Moreover, Betelgeuse 's projected pathway does not appear to intersect with the 25 Ori subassociation or the far younger Orion Nebula Cluster (ONC, also known as Ori OB1d), particularly since Very Long Baseline Array astrometry yields a distance from Betelgeuse to the ONC of between 389 and 414 parsecs. Consequently, it is likely that Betelgeuse has not always had its current motion through space but has changed course at one time or another, possibly the result of a nearby stellar explosion. An observation by the Herschel Space Observatory in January 2013 revealed that the star 's winds are crashing against the surrounding interstellar medium.
The most likely star - formation scenario for Betelgeuse is that it is a runaway star from the Orion OB1 Association. Originally a member of a high - mass multiple system within Ori OB1a, Betelgeuse was probably formed about 10 -- 12 million years ago, but has evolved rapidly due to its high mass.
Like many young stars in Orion whose mass is greater than 10 M, Betelgeuse will use its fuel quickly and not live long. On the Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram, Betelgeuse has moved off the main sequence and has swelled and cooled to become a red supergiant. Although young, Betelgeuse has exhausted the hydrogen in its core, causing the core to contract under the force of gravity into a hotter and denser state. As a result, it has begun to fuse helium into carbon and oxygen and has ignited a hydrogen shell outside the core. The hydrogen - burning shell and the contracting core cause the outer envelope to expand and cool. Its mass is such that the star will eventually fuse higher elements through neon, magnesium, and silicon all the way to iron, at which point it will collapse and explode, probably as a type II supernova.
As an early M - type supergiant, Betelgeuse is one of the largest, most luminous and yet one of the most ethereal stars known. A radius of 5.5 AU is roughly 1,180 times the radius of the Sun -- able to contain over two quadrillion Earths (2.15 × 10) or more than 1.6 billion (1.65 × 10) Suns. That is the equivalent of Betelgeuse being a football stadium like Wembley Stadium in London with the Earth a tiny pearl, 1 millimeter in diameter, orbiting a Sun the size of a mango. Moreover, observations from 2009 of Betelgeuse exhibiting a 15 % contraction in angular diameter would equate to a reduction of the star 's radius from about 5.5 to 4.6 AU, assuming that the photosphere is a perfect sphere. A reduction of this magnitude would correspond to a diminution in photospheric volume of about 41 %. Not only is the photosphere enormous, but the star is surrounded by a complex circumstellar environment where light could take over three years to escape. In the outer reaches of the photosphere the density is extremely low, yet the total mass of the star is believed to be no more than 7001200000000000000 ♠ 20 M. Consequently, the average density is less than twelve parts per billion (6992111900000000000 ♠ 1.119 × 10) that of the Sun. Such star matter is so tenuous that Betelgeuse has often been called a "red - hot vacuum ''.
In the late phase of stellar evolution, massive stars like Betelgeuse exhibit high rates of mass loss, possibly as much as 1 M every 10,000 years, resulting in a complex circumstellar environment that is constantly in flux. In a 2009 paper, stellar mass loss was cited as the "key to understanding the evolution of the universe from the earliest cosmological times to the current epoch, and of planet formation and the formation of life itself ''. However, the physical mechanism is not well understood. When Schwarzschild first proposed his theory of huge convection cells, he argued it was the likely cause of mass loss in evolved supergiants like Betelgeuse. Recent work has corroborated this hypothesis, yet there are still uncertainties about the structure of their convection, the mechanism of their mass loss, the way dust forms in their extended atmosphere, and the conditions which precipitate their dramatic finale as a type II supernova. In 2001, Graham Harper estimated a stellar wind at 0.03 M every 10,000 years, but research since 2009 has provided evidence of episodic mass loss making any total figure for Betelgeuse uncertain. Current observations suggest that a star like Betelgeuse may spend a portion of its lifetime as a red supergiant, but then cross back across the H-R diagram, pass once again through a brief yellow supergiant phase and then explode as a blue supergiant or Wolf - Rayet star.
Astronomers may be close to solving this mystery. They noticed a large plume of gas extending at least six times its stellar radius indicating that Betelgeuse is not shedding matter evenly in all directions. The plume 's presence implies that the spherical symmetry of the star 's photosphere, often observed in the infrared, is not preserved in its close environment. Asymmetries on the stellar disk had been reported at different wavelengths. However, due to the refined capabilities of the NACO adaptive optics on the VLT, these asymmetries have come into focus. The two mechanisms that could cause such asymmetrical mass loss, were large - scale convection cells or polar mass loss, possibly due to rotation. Probing deeper with ESO 's AMBER, gas in the supergiant 's extended atmosphere has been observed vigorously moving up and down, creating bubbles as large as the supergiant itself, leading his team to conclude that such stellar upheaval is behind the massive plume ejection observed by Kervella.
In addition to the photosphere, six other components of Betelgeuse 's atmosphere have now been identified. They are a molecular environment otherwise known as the MOLsphere, a gaseous envelope, a chromosphere, a dust environment and two outer shells (S1 and S2) composed of carbon monoxide (CO). Some of these elements are known to be asymmetric while others overlap.
At about 0.45 stellar radii (~ 2 -- 3 AU) above the photosphere, there may lie a molecular layer known as the MOLsphere or molecular environment. Studies show it to be composed of water vapor and carbon monoxide with an effective temperature of about 7003150000000000000 ♠ 1500 ± 500 K. Water vapor had been originally detected in the supergiant 's spectrum in the 1960s with the two Stratoscope projects but had been ignored for decades. The MOLsphere may also contain SiO and Al O -- molecules which could explain the formation of dust particles.
The asymmetric gaseous envelope, another cooler region, extends for several radii (~ 10 -- 40 AU) from the photosphere. It is enriched in oxygen and especially in nitrogen relative to carbon. These composition anomalies are likely caused by contamination by CNO - processed material from the inside of Betelgeuse.
Radio - telescope images taken in 1998 confirm that Betelgeuse has a highly complex atmosphere, with a temperature of 7003345000000000000 ♠ 3450 ± 850 K, similar to that recorded on the star 's surface but much lower than surrounding gas in the same region. The VLA images also show this lower - temperature gas progressively cools as it extends outward. Although unexpected, it turns out to be the most abundant constituent of Betelgeuse 's atmosphere. "This alters our basic understanding of red - supergiant star atmospheres '', explained Jeremy Lim, the team 's leader. "Instead of the star 's atmosphere expanding uniformly due to gas heated to high temperatures near its surface, it now appears that several giant convection cells propel gas from the star 's surface into its atmosphere. '' This is the same region in which Kervella 's 2009 finding of a bright plume, possibly containing carbon and nitrogen and extending at least six photospheric radii in the southwest direction of the star, is believed to exist.
The chromosphere was directly imaged by the Faint Object Camera on board the Hubble Space Telescope in ultraviolet wavelengths. The images also revealed a bright area in the southwest quadrant of the disk. The average radius of the chromosphere in 1996 was about 2.2 times the optical disk (~ 10 AU) and was reported to have a temperature no higher than 7003550000000000000 ♠ 5500 K. However, in 2004 observations with the STIS, Hubble 's high - precision spectrometer, pointed to the existence of warm chromospheric plasma at least one arcsecond away from the star. At a distance of 197 pc, the size of the chromosphere could be up to 200 AU. The observations have conclusively demonstrated that the warm chromospheric plasma spatially overlaps and co-exists with cool gas in Betelgeuse 's gaseous envelope as well as with the dust in its circumstellar dust shells (see below).
The first claim of a dust shell surrounding Betelgeuse was put forth in 1977 when it was noted that dust shells around mature stars often emit large amounts of radiation in excess of the photospheric contribution. Using heterodyne interferometry, it was concluded that the red supergiant emits most of its excess radiation from positions beyond 12 stellar radii or roughly the distance of the Kuiper belt at 50 to 60 AU, which depends on the assumed stellar radius. Since then, there have been studies done of this dust envelope at varying wavelengths yielding decidedly different results. Studies from the 1990s have estimated the inner radius of the dust shell anywhere from 0.5 to 1.0 arcseconds, or 100 to 200 AU. These studies point out that the dust environment surrounding Betelgeuse is not static. In 1994, it was reported that Betelgeuse undergoes sporadic decades long dust production, followed by inactivity. In 1997, significant changes in the dust shell 's morphology in one year were noted, suggesting that the shell is asymmetrically illuminated by a stellar radiation field strongly affected by the existence of photospheric hotspots. The 1984 report of a giant asymmetric dust shell 1 pc (206,265 AU) has not been corroborated by recent studies, although another published the same year said that three dust shells were found extending four light - years from one side of the decaying star, suggesting that Betelgeuse sheds its outer layers as it moves.
Although the exact size of the two outer CO shells remains elusive, preliminary estimates suggest that one shell extends from about 1.5 to 4.0 arcseconds and the other expands as far as 7.0 arcseconds. Assuming the Jovian orbit of 5.5 AU as the star radius, the inner shell would extend roughly 50 to 150 stellar radii (~ 300 to 800 AU) with the outer one as far as 250 stellar radii (~ 1,400 AU). The Sun 's heliopause is estimated at about 100 AU, so the size of this outer shell would be almost fourteen times the size of the Solar System.
Betelgeuse is travelling supersonically through the interstellar medium at a speed of 30 km per second (i.e. ~ 6.3 AU per year) creating a bow shock. The shock is not created by the star, but by its powerful stellar wind as it ejects vast amounts of gas into the interstellar medium at a speed of 17 km / s, heating the material surrounding the star, thereby making it visible in infrared light. Because Betelgeuse is so bright, it was only in 1997 that the bow shock was first imaged. The cometary structure is estimated to be at least one parsec wide, assuming a distance of 643 light - years.
Hydrodynamic simulations of the bow shock made in 2012 indicate that it is very young -- less than 30,000 years old -- suggesting two possibilities: that Betelgeuse moved into a region of the interstellar medium with different properties only recently or that Betelgeuse has undergone a significant transformation producing a changed stellar wind. A 2012 paper, proposed that this phenomenon was caused by Betelgeuse transitioning from a blue supergiant (BSG) to a red supergiant (RSG). There is evidence that in the late evolutionary stage of a star like Betelgeuse, such stars "may undergo rapid transitions from red to blue and vice versa on the Hertzsprung - Russell diagram, with accompanying rapid changes to their stellar winds and bow shocks. '' Moreover, if future research bears out this hypothesis, Betelgeuse may prove to have traveled close to 200,000 AU as a red supergiant scattering as much as 7000300000000000000 ♠ 3 M along its trajectory.
Betelgeuse is a red supergiant that has evolved from an O - type main sequence star. Its core will eventually collapse, producing a supernova explosion and leaving behind a compact remnant. The details depend on the exact initial mass and other physical properties of that main sequence star.
The initial mass of Betelgeuse can only be estimated by testing different stellar evolutionary models to match its current observed properties. The unknowns of both the models and the current properties mean that there is considerable uncertainty in Betelgeuse 's initial appearance, but its mass is usually estimated to have been in the range of 10 -- 25 M, with modern models finding values of 15 -- 20 M. Its chemical makeup can be reasonably assumed to have been around 70 % hydrogen, 28 % helium, and 2.4 % heavy elements, slightly more metal - rich than the sun but otherwise similar. The initial rotation rate is more uncertain, but models with slow to moderate initial rotation rates produce the best matches to Betelgeuse 's current properties. That main sequence version of Betelgeuse would have been a hot luminous star with a spectral type such as O9V.
A 15 M star would take between 11.5 and 15 million years to reach the red supergiant stage, with more rapidly - rotating stars taking the longest. Rapidly - rotating 20 M stars take only 9.3 million years to reach the red supergiant stage, while 20 M stars with slow rotation take only 8.1 million years. These form the best estimates of Betelgeuse 's current age, with a preferred age since the zero age main sequence of 8.0 -- 8.5 million years for a 20 M star with no rotation.
The time spent so far as a red supergiant can be estimated by comparing mass loss rates to the observed circumstellar material, as well as the abundances of heavy elements at the surface. Estimates range from 20,000 years to a maximum of 140,000 years. Betelgeuse appears to undergo short periods of heavy mass loss and is a runaway star moving rapidly through space, so comparisons of its current mass loss to the total lost mass are difficult. The surface of Betelgeuse shows enhancement of nitrogen, relatively low levels of carbon, and a high proportion of C relative to C, all indicative of a star that has experienced the first dredge - up. However, the first dredge - up occurs soon after a star reaches the red supergiant phase and so this only means that Betelgeuse has been a red supergiant for at least a few thousand years. The best prediction is that Betelgeuse has already spent around 40,000 years as a red supergiant, having left the main sequence perhaps one million years ago.
The current mass can be estimated from evolutionary models from the initial mass and the expected mass lost so far. For Betelgeuse, the total mass lost is predicted to be no more than about one M, giving a current mass of 19.4 -- 19.7 M, considerably higher than estimated by other means such as pulsational properties or limb - darkening models.
All stars more massive than about 10 M are expected to end their lives when their core collapses, typically producing a supernova explosion. Up to about 15 M, a type II - P supernova is always produced from the red supergiant stage. More massive stars can lose mass quickly enough that they evolve towards higher temperatures before their cores can collapse, particularly for rotating stars and models with especially high mass loss rates. These stars can produce type II - L or type IIb supernovae from yellow or blue supergiants, or type Ib / c supernovae from Wolf - Rayet stars. Models of rotating 20 M stars predict a peculiar type II supernova similar to SN 1987A from a blue supergiant progenitor. On the other hand, non-rotating 20 M models predict a type II - P supernova from a red supergiant progenitor.
The time until Betelgeuse explodes depends on the predicted initial conditions and on the estimate of the time already spent as a red supergiant. The total lifetime from the start of the red supergiant phase to core collapse varies from about 300,000 years for a rotating 25 M star, 550,000 years for a rotating 20 M star, and up to a million years for a non-rotating 15 M star. Given the estimated time since Betelgeuse became a red supergiant, estimates of its remaining lifetime range from a "best guess '' of under 100,000 years for a non-rotating 20 M model to far longer for rotating models or lower - mass stars. Betelgeuse 's suspected birthplace in the Orion OB1 Association is the location of several previous supernovae. It is believed that runaway stars may be caused by supernovae, and there is strong evidence that OB stars μ Columbae, AE Aurigae and 53 Arietis all originated from such explosions in Ori OB1 2.2, 2.7 and 4.9 million years ago.
A typical type II - P supernova emits 7046200000000000000 ♠ 2 × 10 J of neutrinos and produces an explosion with a kinetic energy of 7044200000000000000 ♠ 2 × 10 J. As seen from Earth, it would have a peak apparent magnitude of about − 12.4. It may outshine the full moon and would be easily visible in daylight. This type of supernova would remain at roughly constant brightness for 2 -- 3 months before rapidly dimming. The visible light is produced mainly by the radioactive decay of cobalt, and maintains its brightness due to the increasing transparency of the cooling hydrogen ejected by the supernova.
Due to misunderstandings caused by the 2009 publication of the star 's 15 % contraction, apparently of its outer atmosphere, Betelgeuse has frequently been the subject of scare stories and rumors suggesting that it will explode within a year, leading to exaggerated claims about the consequences of such an event. The timing and prevalence of these rumors have been linked to broader misconceptions of astronomy, particularly to doomsday predictions relating to the Mayan calendar. Betelgeuse is not likely to produce a gamma - ray burst and is not close enough for its x-rays, ultraviolet radiation, or ejected material to cause significant effects on Earth.
Following Betelgeuse 's supernova, a small dense remnant will be left behind, either a neutron star or black hole. This is predicted to be a neutron star of approximately 1.5 M. Only more massive stars, or low - metallicity stars with lower mass loss, would produce a black hole.
Betelgeuse has been known as Betelgeux, and in German Beteigeuze (according to Bode). Betelgeux and Betelgeuze were used until the early 20th century, when the spelling Betelgeuse became universal. There is no consensus for the correct pronunciation of the name, and pronunciations for the star are as varied as its spellings:
Betelgeuse is often mistranslated as "armpit of the central one ''. In his 1899 work Star - Names and Their Meanings, American amateur naturalist Richard Hinckley Allen stated the derivation was from the ابط الجوزاء Ibṭ al - Jauzah, which he claimed degenerated into a number of forms including Bed Elgueze, Beit Algueze, Bet El - gueze, Beteigeuze and more, to the forms Betelgeuse, Betelguese, Betelgueze and Betelgeux. The star was named Beldengeuze in the Alfonsine Tables, and Italian Jesuit priest and astronomer Giovanni Battista Riccioli had called it Bectelgeuze or Bedalgeuze.
Paul Kunitzsch, Professor of Arabic Studies at the University of Munich, refuted Allen 's derivation and instead proposed that the full name is a corruption of the Arabic يد الجوزاء Yad al - Jauzā ' meaning "the Hand of al - Jauzā ' '', i.e., Orion. European mistransliteration into medieval Latin led to the first character y (ي, with two dots underneath) being misread as a b (ب, with only one dot underneath). During the Renaissance, the star 's name was written as بيت الجوزاء Bait al - Jauzā ' ("house of Orion '') or بط الجوزاء Baţ al - Jauzā ', incorrectly thought to mean "armpit of Orion '' (a true translation of "armpit '' would be ابط, transliterated as Ibţ). This led to the modern rendering as Betelgeuse. Other writers have since accepted Kunitzsch 's explanation.
The last part of the name, "- elgeuse '', comes from the Arabic الجوزاء al - Jauzā ', a historical Arabic name of the constellation Orion, a feminine name in old Arabian legend, and of uncertain meaning. Because جوز j-w-z, the root of jauzā ', means "middle '', al - Jauzā ' roughly means "the Central One ''. Another explanation for Al - Jauza is a black sheep with whiteness in its middle and since this constellation stands out for its brightness among other darker ones, hence the name in Arabic. Later, al - Jauzā ' was also designated as the scientific Arabic name for Orion and for Gemini.
The modern Arabic name for Orion is الجبار al - Jabbār ("the Giant ''), although the use of الجوزاء al - Jauzā ' in the name of the star has continued. The 17th - century English translator Edmund Chilmead gave it the name Ied Algeuze ("Orion 's Hand ''), from Christmannus. Other Arabic names recorded include Al Yad al Yamnā ("the Right Hand ''), Al Dhira ("the Arm ''), and Al Mankib ("the Shoulder ''), all appended to "of the giant '', as منكب الجوزاء Mankib al Jauzā '.
Other names for Betelgeuse included the Persian Bašn "the Arm '', and Coptic Klaria "an Armlet ''. Bahu was its Sanskrit name, as part of a Hindu understanding of the constellation as a running antelope or stag. In traditional Chinese astronomy, Betelgeuse was known as 参 宿 四 (Shēnxiùsì, the Fourth Star of the constellation of Three Stars) as the Chinese constellation 参 宿 originally referred to the three stars in the girdle of Orion. This constellation was ultimately expanded to ten stars, but the earlier name stuck. In Japan, the Taira, or Heike, clan adopted Betelgeuse and its red color as its symbol, calling the star Heike - boshi, (平家 星), while the Minamoto, or Genji, clan had chosen Rigel and its white color. The two powerful families fought a legendary war in Japanese history, the stars seen as facing each other off and only kept apart by the Belt.
In Tahitian lore, Betelgeuse was one of the pillars propping up the sky, known as Anâ - varu, the pillar to sit by. It was also called Ta'urua - nui - o - Mere "Great festivity in parental yearnings ''. A Hawaiian term for it was Kaulua - koko "brilliant red star ''. The Lacandon people of Central America knew it as chäk tulix "red butterfly ''.
With the history of astronomy intimately associated with mythology and astrology before the scientific revolution, the red star, like the planet Mars that derives its name from a Roman war god, has been closely associated with the martial archetype of conquest for millennia, and by extension, the motif of death and rebirth. Other cultures have produced different myths. Stephen R. Wilk has proposed the constellation of Orion could have represented the Greek mythological figure Pelops, who had an artificial shoulder of ivory made for him, with Betelgeuse as the shoulder, its color reminiscent of the reddish yellow sheen of ivory.
In the Americas, Betelgeuse signifies a severed limb of a man - figure (Orion) -- the Taulipang of Brazil know the constellation as Zililkawai, a hero whose leg was cut off by his wife, with the variable light from Betelgeuse linked to the severing of the limb. Similarly, the Lakota people of North America see it as a chief whose arm has been severed. The Wardaman people of northern Australia knew the star as Ya - jungin "Owl Eyes Flicking '', its variable light signifying its intermittent watching of ceremonies led by the Red Kangaroo Leader Rigel. In South African mythology, Betelgeuse was perceived as a lion casting a predatory gaze toward the three zebras represented by Orion 's Belt.
A Sanskrit name for Betelgeuse is ārdrā "the moist one '', eponymous of the Ardra lunar mansion in Hindu astrology. The Rigvedic God of storms Rudra presided over the star; this association was linked by 19th - century star enthusiast Richard Hinckley Allen to Orion 's stormy nature. The constellations in Macedonian folklore represented agricultural items and animals, reflecting their village way of life. To them, Betelgeuse was Orach "the ploughman '', alongside the rest of Orion which depicted a plough with oxen. The rising of Betelgeuse at around 3 a.m. in late summer and autumn signified the time for village men to go to the fields and plough. To the Inuit, the appearance of Betelgeuse and Bellatrix high in the southern sky after sunset marked the beginning of spring and lengthening days in late February and early March. The two stars were known as Akuttujuuk "those (two) placed far apart '', referring to the distance between them, mainly to people from North Baffin Island and Melville Peninsula.
The opposed locations of Orion and Scorpius, with their corresponding bright variable red stars Betelgeuse and Antares, were noted by ancient cultures around the world. The setting of Orion and rising of Scorpius signify the death of Orion by the scorpion. In China they signify brothers and rivals Shen and Shang. The Batak of Sumatra marked their New Year with the first new moon after the sinking of Orion 's Belt below the horizon, at which point Betelgeuse remained "like the tail of a rooster ''. The positions of Betelgeuse and Antares at opposite ends of the celestial sky were considered significant and their constellations were seen as a pair of scorpions. Scorpion days marked as nights that both constellations could be seen.
The star 's unusual name inspired the title of the 1988 film Beetlejuice, and script writer Michael McDowell was impressed by how many people made the connection. He added that they had received a suggestion the sequel be named Sanduleak - 69 202 after the former star of SN 1987A. In August Derleth 's short story "The Dweller in the Darkness '' set in H.P. Lovecraft 's Cthulhu Mythos, Betelgeuse is the home of the "benign '' Elder Gods. The identity of the red star Borgil mentioned in Lord of the Rings was much debated; Aldebaran, Betelgeuse and the planet Mars were touted as candidates. Professor Kristine Larsen has concluded the evidence points to it being Aldebaran as it precedes Menelvagor (Orion). Astronomy writer Robert Burnham Jr. proposed the term padparadaschah which denotes a rare orange sapphire in India, for the star. In the popular science fiction series The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams, Ford Prefect was from "a small planet somewhere in the vicinity of Betelgeuse. '' In the poetic work Betelguese, a Trip Through Hell by Jean Louis De Esque, hell is on Betelgeuse because De Esque believed that it was "a celestial pariah, an outcast, the largest of all known comets or outlawed suns in the universe. ''. In his 1953 story "Tony and the Beetles '' Philip K. Dick describes a planet system around Betelguese and the neighboring stars occupied by the Terra (Earth) invaders. The main character incorrectly states the name of the star is of Jewish origin.
Two American navy ships were named after the star, both of them World War II vessels, the USS Betelgeuse (AKA - 11) launched in 1939 and USS Betelgeuse (AK - 260) launched in 1944. In 1979, a French supertanker named Betelgeuse was moored off Whiddy Island discharging oil when it exploded, killing 50 people in one of the worst disasters in Ireland 's history.
The Dave Matthews Band song "Black and Blue Bird '' references the star.
The Philip Larkin poem "The North Ship '', found in the collection of the same name, references the star in the section titled "Above 80 ° N '', which reads: "' A woman has ten claws, ' / Sang the drunken boatswain; / Farther than Betelgeuse, / More brilliant than Orion / Or the planets Venus and Mars, / The star flames on the ocean; / ' A woman has ten claws, ' / Sang the drunken boatswain. ''
Humbert Wolfe wrote a poem about Betelgeuse, which was set to music by Gustav Holst.
The analogy is based on the computation of certain ratios -- specifically the diameter, radius and volume of the three celestial bodies in question, Betelgeuse, the Sun and Earth. Once these ratios are derived, the relative size of each as they relate to Wembley Stadium can be easily determined. The calculations begin with the formula for angular diameter as follows:
Also:
Therefore:
Conclusion:
As pointed out in the Angular anomalies section, the observed contraction could be due to a shrinking of the star 's radius or by other phenomena. Assuming the photosphere is spherical, calculating a reduction in volume begins with the formula for angular diameter as follows: Calculations for 1993 values:
Calculations for 2008 values:
Therefore:
1,180 R ☉
|
who abolished the custom of sati in india | Sati (practice) - wikipedia
Sati or suttee is an obsolete funeral custom where a widow immolates herself on her husband 's pyre or takes her own life in another fashion shortly after her husband 's death. Such women were held in higher regard.
Mention of the practice can be dated back to the 3rd century BC, while evidence of practice by widows of kings only appears beginning between the 5th and 9th centuries CE. The practice is considered to have originated within the warrior aristocracy in India, gradually gaining in popularity from the 10th century AD and spreading to other groups from the 12th through 18th century CE. The practice was particularly prevalent among some Hindu communities, observed in aristocratic Sikh families, and has been attested to outside South Asia in a number of localities in Southeast Asia, such as in Indonesia and Vietnam.
Under British rule, the practice was initially tolerated. In the province of Bengal, sati was attended by a colonial government official, which states historian A.F. Salahuddin Ahmed, "not only seemed to accord an official sanction, but also increased its prestige value ''. Between 1815 and 1818, the number of sati in Bengal province doubled from 378 to 839. Under sustained campaigning against sati by Christian missionaries such as William Carey and Brahmin Hindu reformers such as Ram Mohan Roy, the provincial government banned sati in 1829. This was followed up by similar laws by the authorities in the princely states of India in the ensuing decades, with a general ban for the whole of India issued by Queen Victoria in 1861. In Nepal, sati was banned in 1920. The Indian Sati Prevention Act from 1988 further criminalised any type of aiding, abetting, and glorifying of sati.
Sati (Sanskrit: सती / satī) is derived from the name of the goddess Sati, who self - immolated because she was unable to bear her father Daksha 's humiliation to her husband Shiva.
The term sati was originally interpreted as "chaste woman ''. Sati appears in Hindi and Sanskrit texts, where it is synonymous with "good wife ''; the term suttee was commonly used by Anglo - Indian English writers. Sati designates therefore originally the woman, rather than the rite; the rite itself having technical names such as sahagamana ("going with '') or sahamarana ("dying with ''). Anvarohana ("ascension '' to the pyre) is occasionally met, as well as satidaha as terms to designate the process. Satipratha is also, on occasion, used as a term signifying the custom of burning widows alive. Two other terms related to sati are sativrata and satimata. Sativrata, an uncommon and seldom used term, denotes the woman who makes a vow, vrat, to protect her husband while he is alive and then die with her husband. Satimata denotes a venerated widow who committed sati.
The Indian Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 Part I, Section 2 (c) defines sati as the act or rite itself.
Few reliable records exist of the practice before the time of the Gupta empire, approximately 400 CE although the Greek historian Aristobulus of Cassandreia, who traveled to India with the expedition of Alexander the Great, recorded that he had heard that among certain tribes widows were glad to burn along with their husbands, and that those who declined to die were disgraced. According to Axel Michaels, the first inscriptional evidence of the practice is from Nepal in 464 CE, and in India from 510 CE. The early evidence suggests that widow - burning practice was seldom carried out in the general population. Centuries later, instances of sati began to be marked by inscribed memorial stones called Sati stones. According to J.C. Harle, the medieval memorial stones appear in two forms -- viragal (hero stone) and satigal (sati stone), each to memorialize something different. Both of these are found in many regions of India, but "rarely if ever earlier in date than the 8th or 9th century ''. Numerous memorial sati stones appear 11th - century onwards, states Michaels, and the largest collections are found in Rajasthan.
A description of sati appears in the Greek 1st - century BCE historian Diodorus Siculus 's account of the war fought in Iran between two of Alexander the Great 's generals, Eumenes of Cardia and Antigonus Monophthalmus. In 317 BCE Eumenes 's cosmopolitan army defeated that of Antigonus in the Battle of Paraitakene. Among the fallen was one Ceteus, the commander of Eumenes 's Indian soldiers. Diodorus writes that Ceteus had been followed on campaign by his two wives, at his funeral the two wives competed for the honour of joining their husband on the pyre. After the older wife was found to be pregnant, Eumenes 's generals ruled in favour of the younger. She was led to the pyre crowned in garlands to the hymns of her kinsfolk. The whole army then marched three times around the pyre before it was lit. According to Diodorus the practice of sati started because Indians married for love, unlike the Greeks who favoured marriages arranged by the parents. When inevitably many of these love marriages turned sour, the woman would often poison the husband and find a new lover. To end these murders, a law was therefore instituted that the widow should either join her husband in death or live in perpetual widowhood. Modern historians believe Diodorus 's source for this episode was the eyewitness account of the now lost historian Hieronymus of Cardia. Hieronymus ' explanation of the origin of sati appears to be his own composite, created from a variety of Indian traditions and practices to form a moral lesson upholding traditional Greek values.
In the 1886 published Hobson - Jobson, Henry Yule and Arthur Coke Burnell mention the practice of Suttee (sati) as an early custom of Russians near Volga, tribes of Thracians in southeast Europe, and some tribes of Tonga and Fiji islands. Yule and Burnell also compiled a few dozen excerpts of historical descriptions of sati, the first being of Ceteus (or Keteus) mentioned above in 317 BC, and then a few before the 9th century AD, where the widow of a king had the choice to burn with him or abstain. Most of the compiled list on sati, by Yule and Burnell, date from 1200 AD through the 1870s AD.
Pontic Steppe
Caucasus
East - Asia
Eastern Europe
Northern Europe
Pontic Steppe
Northern / Eastern Steppe
Europe
South - Asia
Steppe
Europe
Caucasus
India
Indo - Aryans
Iranians
Europe
East - Asia
Europe
Indo - Aryan
Iranian
Indian
Iranian
Others
Europe
The archaeologist Elena Efimovna Kuzmina enlists clear parallels between the burial practices of the ancient Asiatic steppe Andronovo cultures (fl. 1800 -- 1400 BCE) and the Vedic Age. In Kuzmina 's archaeological definition, sati is understood as a double burial, the co-cremation of a man and a woman / wife, a feature to be found in both cultures. Kuzʹmina states that in the Androvo culture and Vedic age, the practice was never strictly observed and was symbolic.
The sacrifice of widow (s) or a great man 's retainers at his death is attested in various Indo - European cultures outside of India. As an example where the widows vied for the honour to die with their common husband, the 5th - century BCE historian Herodotus mentions the Krestones tribe among the Thracians. The woman found to have been held highest in the husband 's favour while he lived had her throat slit on his grave, the surviving wives reputedly regarding it as a great shame to have to live on. Citing 6th - century AD Procopius from his "Gothic Wars '', Edward Gibbon notes that among the Germanic tribe of the Heruli, a widow typically hanged herself upon her husband 's tomb.
The early 14th - century CE traveller Odoric of Pordenone mentions wife burning in Zampa (Champa), in nowadays south / central Vietnam. Anant Altekar states that sati spread with Hindu migrants to Southeast Asian islands, such as to Java, Sumatra and Bali. According to Dutch colonial records, this was however a rare practice in Indonesia, one found in royal households.
In Cambodia, both the lords and the wives of a dead king voluntarily burnt themselves in the 15th and 16th centuries. According to European traveller accounts, in 15th century Mergui, in present - day extreme south Myanmar, widow burning was practiced. A Chinese pilgrim from the 15th century seems to attest the practice on islands called Ma - i - tung and Ma - i (possibly Belitung (outside Sumatra) and Northern Philippines, respectively).
According to the historian K.M. de Silva, Christian missionaries in Sri Lanka with a substantial Hindu minority population, reported "there were no glaring social evils associated with the indigenous religions - no sati, (...). There was thus less scope for the social reformer. '' However, although sati was non-existent in the colonial era, earlier Muslim travellers such as Sulaiman al - Tajir reported that sati was optionally practiced, which a widow could choose to undertake.
In 1968, Eberhard stated that the practice of widow burning was observed inside China, but was rare and influenced by India. Chinese sociology studies that followed suggest that the practice was historically more widespread, far removed from India (near the Korean peninsula), and found among the Manchu people of China where a widow would ritually commit suicide after her husband died (Chinese: xunsi, congxun). After her suicide, she was socially celebrated as a virtuous chaste widow. This Altaic tradition was not limited to the Manchu people of China, but also found in other Chinese ethnic groups. The practice of self - immolation and other forms of public suicide by widows were observed, for example, in Fukien province of southeast China, in some cases in duress after a rape attempt and in other cases voluntarily without duress.
A similar practice of widow suicide to follow her husband or fiancé, states Hai - soon Lee, existed in medieval Korea, in accordance with the traditional Confucian ethos. According to Martina Deuchler, this practice was praised as misok (beautiful custom), and the dead widow praised as "faithful wife '', in the historic Korean culture and literature.
Historical documents attest to the public self - immolation practice (self cremation, as shaoshen 燒 身 or zifen 自焚) among Buddhist nuns (and monks) in ancient and medieval China for religious reasons. This was considered as evidence of a renunciant bodhisattva, and may have been inspired by the Jataka tales wherein the Buddha in his earlier lives immolates himself to assist other living beings, or teachings in the Lotus Sutra. The Chinese Buddhist asceticism practices, states James Benn, were not an adaptation or import of Indian ascetic practices, but an invention of Chinese Buddhists, based on their unique interpretations of Buddhists texts. It may be an adoption of more ancient pre-Buddhist Chinese practices.
In modern times, Buddhist nuns have used self - immolation as a form of protest. Thich Nu Thanh Quang, a Buddhist nun publicly burnt herself to death in front of Diệu Đế Pagoda in central Vietnam, as a mark of protest against the Vietnam War. Her death triggered a wave of similar self - immolations by other nuns and monks as the war continued.
A well - known case is that of the 10th - century AD ship burial of the Rus ' described by Ibn Fadlan. Here, when a female slave had said she would be willing to die, her body was subsequently burned with her master on the pyre.
Such rituals as widow sacrifice / widow burning have, presumably, prehistoric roots. Early 20th - century pioneering anthropologist James G. Frazer, for example, thought that the legendary Greek story of Capaneus, whose wife Evadne threw herself on his funeral pyre, might be a relic of an earlier custom of live widow - burning. The strangling of widows after their husbands ' deaths are attested from as disparate cultures as the Natchez people in present - day US state Louisiana, to a number of Pacific Islander cultures.
The Rajput practice of Jauhar, known from Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, was the collective suicide of widows who preferred death rather than being captured alive and dishonored by victorious Muslim soldiers in a war. According to Bose, jauhar practice grew in the 14th and 15th century with Hindu - Muslim wars of northwest India, where the Hindu women preferred death than slavery or rape they faced if captured. Sati - style jauhar custom was observed only during Hindu - Muslim wars in medieval India, but not during internecine Hindu - Hindu wars among the Rajputs.
Arvind Sharma states that there was a distinction between jauhar and sati, because jauhar was principally motivated by a desire to avoid being captured by the invading Muslims, while sati was suicide of a devoted widow. John Hawley disagrees, and states there was a connection between jauhar and sati in terms of the insecurity and fears of the widow (s), and that these customs reinforced each other. Further Jauhar was a custom for which special combustible rooms were built within the forts called Lakshagraha made of Lacquer and other inflammable substances.
Sati was observed within Sikh aristocracy. For example, when the founder of the Sikh Empire Ranjit Singh died in 1839, four of his proper wives and seven of his concubines committed themselves to sati. Two wives committed sati when Sikh King Kharak Singh died, and five women joined the funeral pyre of Maharaja Basant Singh. When Raja Suchet Singh died in 1844, 310 women committed sati. Sikh theology does not support the Sati practice, however, as is evidenced by the criticism of the practice by the 3rd Sikh Guru Guru Amar Das (1479 -- 1554).
In ancient texts of Jainism, such as the Kalpa Sūtra the term Sati is found, and it means "virtuous woman ''. Many texts include a list of sixteen Satis, ancient women that represent auspiciousness and virtue, names revered in the mythology of Hinduism as well. The connotation of the term Sati, states M Whitney Kelting, means the same "virtuousness, chaste, dedication to her family '' as in Hinduism, and in both cases, it is different from the associated practice called suttee during colonial British India. Evidence suggests that there were instances of Sati practice (self immolation) by Jain women, including some in the 19th century. In the Epigraphia Carnatica, two of the 41 cases of sati in the time period 1400 to 1600 CE are those of Jain women. The low numbers of Jains known to have committed sati suggests that the practice was uncommon within this community. In Jainism, the alternate competing phenomenon of widows becoming nuns, after a husband 's death, has been recorded.
In Bihar, the Muslim widows were stated to be carrying out a related practice. Buchanan Hamilton in his early 19th century Shahabad report wrote that Sati - like practice had spread to Muhammadans because he had heard that a widow had herself buried in the coffin of her dead husband.
The earlier historian Anant Sadashiv Altekar, in his (1938) The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization From Prehistoric Times to the Present Day held the position that the Vedic Age saw an active discontinuation of pre-historic burning of widows, on basis that a 1000 BCE funerary custom describes that of symbolic sati, where the widow lies down by her deceased husband, but is then bidden to rise again, to enjoy the bliss of children and wealth remaining for her. In the following, a brief sketch on the chronology on the spread of sati, as proposed by Altekar is given.
According to Altekar, there is no mention of actual sati in the period of Brahmana literature (c. 1500 -- 700 BCE) and the later Grhyusutras, roughly composed 600 -- 300 BCE on a number of rituals, but sati is not described or mentioned. In fact, what is written about funeral customs, is that the widow is brought back from the funeral pyre, typically by a trusted servant. Altekar thinks it significant that Gautama Buddha, who castigated customs of animal sacrifice, and other customs where pain was inflicted, is entirely silent about burning women alive. Altekar takes these elements as proofs that burning widows alive had long ago died out as a practice. Nor do the authors of the Dharmasutras (c. 400 BCE -- 100 BCE) or Yajnavalkya (c. 100 CE -- 300 CE) say anything about it being commendable to burn a widow alive on her husband 's funeral pyre. Although we have late fourth - century BCE evidence from Greek authors and the Mahabharata for the ' existence ' of the custom of sati, Altekar thinks it did not really begin to grow in popularity before 400 CE, by the manner of which it is infrequently mentioned in the Puranas of that time. A very early attested case from 510 CE is that of the wife of Goparaja, who immolated herself with her dead husband, according to the Eran inscription of king Bhanugupta, with another similar case attested from 606 CE. As the custom grew in popularity, Altekar highlights as determined opponents of this aristocratic custom in particular 7th - century poet Bāṇabhaṭṭa, but also 9th - century theologian Medhātithi and 12th - century Devana Bhatta. In Altekar 's view, their crusades against the custom were largely unsuccessful.
According to Altekar, it is the period c. 700 -- 1100 CE that sees sati becoming really widespread in India, in particular in Kashmir. As the centuries wore on, Altekar provides a few statistics on the spread of the custom. In Rajputana, a later stronghold for sati there are two, possibly three reliably attested cases before 1000 CE. For the period from 1200 to 1600 CE, there are at least 20 such cases. For the Carnatic, we have about 11 inscriptions relative to sati from 1000 to 1400 CE; for 1400 - 1600 CE we have 41.
Thus, a main view that Altekar espoused is that the spread of sati increased over time (with local variations, for example reductions in territories governed by zealous rulers hostile to the practice), and probably was close to a maximum when the British began to intervene in the first decades of the nineteenth century.
How, when, where and why the practice of sati spread are complex and much debated questions, without a consensus.
According to one model, proposed by Yang, taking into account the association of sati with the warrior elite in particular, sati only became really widespread during the Muslim invasions of India, and the practice of sati now acquired an additional meaning as a means to preserve the honour of women whose men had been slain. Sashi states, "the argument is that the practice came into effect during the Islamic invasion of India, to protect their honor from Muslims who were known to commit mass rape on the women of cities that they could capture successfully. ''
However, this theory does not address the evidence of occasional incidences of sati in pre-Islamic times. The first archeological evidence in the form of Sati stones extolling Sati appear around 700 CE, states John Hawley, including the great sati stones (ma sati kal) from 8th through 15th - century CE and hero - stones ("virgal '') from the 12th and 13th century. The practice remained limited to the warrior class among Hindus until the start of 2nd millennium CE. During the period of Muslim - Hindu conflict, Rajputs performed a distinct form of sati known as jauhar as a direct response to the onslaught they experienced. The earliest Islamic invasions of South Asia have been recorded from early 8th century CE such as with the raids of Muhammad bin Qasim, and major wars of Islamic expansion after the 10th century. This chronology has led to the theory that the increase in sati practice in India may be related to the centuries of Islamic invasion and its expansion in South Asia.
Alternate theories for the spread of sati include it expanding from Kshatriya caste to others castes, not because of wars, but on its own, as part of "Sanskritization '' and cultural phenomenon that conflated sati as a caste status symbol. This theory has been challenged because it does not explain the spread of sati from Kashatriyas to Brahmins, and Brahmins were not considered to be of inferior caste status than Kshatriyas. Another theory, by Hawley, is that sati started as a "nonreligious, ruling - class, patriarchal '' ideology but later spread as a gilded status symbol of "valor '', "honor '' and "purity '', representing strength and courage in internecine Rajput wars, and after Muslim invasions where Hindu women feared becoming the "booty for the captor '' and committed jauhar and sati to avoid "rape, torture and other ignominies ''.
The above theories do not explain how and why sati practice continued during the colonial era, particularly in significant numbers in colonial Bengal Presidency (modern Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Bangladesh and Assam). Three theories have been proposed: first that sati was believed to be supported by Hindu scriptures by the 19th century, second that sati was encouraged by unscrupulous neighbors because it was a means of property annexation from a widow who had the right to inherit her dead husband 's property under Hindu law and sati helped eliminate the inheritor, and third theory being that poverty was so extreme during the 19th century that sati was a means of escape for a woman with no means or hope of survival.
Daniel Grey states that the understanding of origins and spread of sati were distorted in the colonial era because of a concerted effort to push "problem Hindu '' theories in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
According to Annemarie Schimmel, the Mughal Emperor Akbar was averse to the practice of Sati; however, he expressed his admiration for "widows who wished to be cremated with their deceased husbands ''. He was averse to abuse, and in 1582, Akbar issued an order to prevent any use of compulsion in sati. According to M. Reza Pirbhai, a professor of South Asian and World history, it is unclear if a prohibition on sati was issued by Akbar, and other than a claim of ban by Monserrate upon his insistence, no other primary sources mention an actual ban. Instances of sati continued during and after the era of Akbar. For example, according to a poem, Sūz u gudāz ("Burning and melting '') by Muhammad Riza Nau'i of Khasbushan (d. 1610), Akbar attempted to prevent a sati by calling a widow before him and offering her wealth and protection. The poet reports hearing the story from Prince Dāniyāl, Akbar 's third son. According to Arvind Sharma, a professor of Comparative Religion specializing on Hinduism, the widow "rejected all this persuasion as well as the counsel of the Brahmans, and would neither speak nor hear of anything but the Fire ''.
Jahangir, who succeeded Akbar in early 17th century, found sati prevalent among the Muslims of Rajaur (Kashmir). They had been converted to Islam by Sultan Firoz. During this era, many Muslims and Hindus were ambivalent about the practice, with Muslim attitude leaning towards disapproval. According to Sharma, the evidence nevertheless suggests that sati was universally admired, and both "Hindus and Muslims went in large numbers to witness a sati ''. According to Reza Pirbhai, the memoirs of Jahangir suggest sati continued in his regime, was practiced by Hindus and Muslims, he was fascinated by the custom, and that those Kashmiri Muslim widows who practiced sati either immolated themselves or buried themselves alive with their dead husbands. Jahangir prohibited such sati and other customary practices in Kashmir.
Aurangzeb issued another order in 1663, states Sheikh Muhammad Ikram, after returning from Kashmir, "in all lands under Mughal control, never again should the officials allow a woman to be burnt ''. The Aurangzeb order, states Ikram, though not mentioned in the formal histories, is recorded in the official records of Aurangzeb 's time. Although Aurangzeb 's orders could be evaded with payment of bribes to officials, adds Ikram, later European travelers record that sati was not much practiced in Mughal empire, and that Sati was "very rare, except it be some Rajah 's wives, that the Indian women burn at all '' by the end of Aurangzeb 's reign.
The memoirs of European merchants and travelers, as well the colonial era Christian missionaries of British India described Sati practices under Mughal rulers. The Spanish missionary Domingo Navarrete wrote in 1670 of different styles of Sati during Aurangzeb 's time.
The Portuguese banned the practice in Goa after the conquest of Goa, however the practice continued in the region. The Dutch and the French banned it in Chinsurah and Pondichéry, their respective colonies. The Danes, who held the small territories of Tranquebar and Serampore, permitted it until the 19th century. The Danish strictly forbade, apparently early the custom of sati at Tranquebar, a colony the held from 1620 - 1845 (whereas Serampore (Frederiksnagore) was Danish colony merely from 1755 - 1845).
Attempts to limit or ban the practice had been made by individual British officers in the 18th century, but without the backing of the British East India Company. The first formal British ban was imposed in 1798, in the city of Calcutta only. The practice continued in surrounding regions. In the beginning of the 19th century, the evangelical church in Britain, and its members in India, started campaigns against sati. Leaders of these campaigns included William Carey and William Wilberforce. These movements put pressure on the company to ban the act. William Carey, and the other missionaries at Serampore conducted in 1803 -- 04 a census on cases of sati for a region within a 30 - mile radius of Calcutta, finding more than 300 such cases there. The missionaries also approached Hindu theologians, who opined that the practice was encouraged, rather than enjoined by the Hindu scriptures.
Serampore was a Danish colony, rather than British, and the reason why Carey started his mission in Danish India, rather than in British, was because The East India Company did not accept Christian missionary activity within their domains. In 1813, in a speech to the House of Commons, William Wilberforce, with particular reference to the statistics on sati collected by Carey and the other Serampore missionaries, forced through a bill that made Christian missionary preaching in British India legal, to combat such perceived social evils as sati.
Elijah Hoole in his book Personal Narrative of a Mission to the South of India, from 1820 to 1828 reports an instance of Sati at Bangalore, which he did not personally witness. Another missionary, Mr. England, reports witnessing Sati in the Bangalore Civil and Military Station on 9 June 1826. However, these practices were very rare after the Government of Madras cracked down on the practice from the early 1800s (p. 82).
The British authorities within the Bengal Presidency started systematically to collect figures on the practice in 1815.
The ban on Sati, effected by Lord William Bentinck in 1829, was largely due to the efforts of both Christian and Hindu reformers such as William Carey and Ram Mohan Roy. In 1799 Carey, a Baptist missionary from England, first witnessed the burning of a widow on her husband 's funeral pyre. Horrified by the practice, Carey and his coworkers Joshua Marshman and William Ward opposed sati from that point onward, lobbying for its abolishment. Known as the Serampore Trio, they published essays forcefully condemning the practice and presented an address against Sati to then Governor General of India, Lord Wellesley.
In 1812 Raja Ram Mohan Roy, founder of Brahmo Samaj, began to champion the cause of banning sati practice. He was motivated by the experience of seeing his own sister - in - law being forced to commit sati. He visited Kolkata 's cremation grounds to persuade widows against immolation, formed watch groups to do the same, sought the support of other elite Bengali classes, and wrote and disseminated articles to show that it was not required by Hindu scripture. He was at loggerheads with Hindu groups which did not want the Government to interfere in religious practices.
From 1815 - 1818 Sati deaths doubled. Ram Mohan Roy launched an attack on Sati that "aroused such anger that for awhile his life was in danger '' In 1821 he published a tract opposing Sati, and in 1823 the Serampore missionaries led by Carey published a book containing their earlier essays, of which the first three chapters opposed Sati. Another Christian missionary published a tract against Sati in 1927.
Sahajanand Swami, the founder of the Swaminarayan sect, preached against the practice of sati in his area of influence, that is Gujarat. He argued that the practice had no Vedic standing and only God could take a life he had given. He also opined that widows could lead lives that would eventually lead to salvation. Sir John Malcolm, the Governor of Bombay supported Sahajanand Swami in this endeavor.
In 1828 Lord William Bentinck came to power as Governor of India. When he landed in Calcutta, he said that he felt "the dreadful responsibility hanging over his head in this world and the next, if... he was to consent to the continuance of this practice (sati) one moment longer. ''
Bentinck decided to put an immediate end to Sati. Ram Mohan Roy warned Bentinck against abruptly ending Sati. However, after observing that the judges in the courts were unanimously in favor of it, Bentinck proceeded to lay the draft before his council. Charles Metcalfe, the Governor 's most prominent counselor expressed apprehension that the banning of Sati might be "used by the disaffected and designing '' as "an engine to produce insurrection. '' However these concerns did n't deter him from upholding the Governor 's decision "in the suppression of the horrible custom by which so many lives are cruelly sacrificed. ''
Thus on Sunday morning of December 4, 1829 Lord Bentinck issued Regulation XVII declaring Sati to be illegal and punishable in criminal courts. It was presented to William Carey for translation. His response is recorded as follows: "Springing to his feet and throwing off his black coat he cried, ' No church for me to - day... If I delay an hour to translate and publish this, many a widow 's life may be sacrificed, ' he said. By evening the task was finished. ''
On February 2nd 1830 this law was extended to Madras and Bombay. The ban was challenged by a petition signed by "several thousand... Hindoo inhabitants of Bihar, Bengal, Orissa etc '' and the matter went to the Privy Council in London. Along with British supporters, Ram Mohan Roy presented counter-petitions to parliament in support of ending Sati. The Privy Council rejected the petition in 1832, and the ban on Sati was upheld.
After the ban, priests in Sindh region complained that the British colonial government was interfering with the rare local sati custom. Charles Napier clarified in 1843 that anyone involved in this custom would be executed and their property confiscated. According to an account of his administration, there were no more sati thereafter, in the region Napier administered.
Sati remained legal in some princely states for a time after it had been banned in lands under British control. Baroda and other princely states of Kathiawar Agency banned the practice in 1840, whereas Kolhapur followed them in 1841, the princely state of Indore some time before 1843. According to a speaker at the East India House in 1842, the princely states of Satara, Kingdom of Nagpur and Mysore had by then banned sati. Jaipur banned the practice in 1846, while Hyderabad, Gwalior and Jammu and Kashmir did the same in 1847. Awadh and Bhopal were actively suppressing sati by 1849. Cutch outlawed it in 1852 with Jodhpur having banned sati about the same time.
The 1846 abolition in Jaipur was regarded by many British as a catalyst for the abolition cause within the Rajputana; within 4 months after Jaipur 's 1846 ban, 11 of the 18 independently governed states in Rajputana had followed Jaipur 's example. One paper says that in the year 1846 - 1847 alone, 23 states in the whole of India (not just within Rajputana) had banned sati. It was not before 1861 sati was legally banned in all princely states of India, Mewar resisting for a long time before that time. The last legal case within princely states was from 1861 Udaipur the capital of Mewar, but as Anant S. Altekar shows, local opinion had then shifted strongly against the practice. All the widows of Maharanna Sarup Singh flatly refused to become sati when asked, and the one who was burnt with him was a slave girl. Later the same year, the general ban on sati was issued by a proclamation from Queen Victoria.
Some princely states, such as the major Salute state of Travancore, were perceived not to ever have sanctioned sati within their domains. For example, the regent Gowri Parvati Bayi was asked by the British Resident if he should permit a sati to take place in 1818, but the regent urged him not to do so, since the custom of sati had never been acceptable in her domains. In another state, Sawunt Waree (Sawantvadi), the king Khemsawant III (r. 1755 -- 1803) is credited for having issued a positive prohibition of sati over a period of ten or twelve years. That prohibition from the 18th century may have lapsed, since in 1843, the government in Sawunt Waree issued a new prohibition of sati.
Following the outcry after the sati of Roop Kanwar, the Indian Government enacted the Rajasthan Sati Prevention Ordinance, 1987 on 1 October 1987 and later passed the Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987.
The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 Part I, Section 2 (c) defines sati as:
The burning or burying alive of --
The Prevention of Sati Act makes it illegal to support, glorify or attempt to commit sati. Support of sati, including coercing or forcing someone to commit sati, can be punished by death sentence or life imprisonment, while glorifying sati is punishable with one to seven years in prison.
Enforcement of these measures is not always consistent. The National Council for Women (NCW) has suggested amendments to the law to remove some of these flaws. Prohibitions of certain practices, such as worship at ancient shrines, is a matter of controversy.
There have been 30 cases of sati or attempted sati over a 44 - year period (1943 - 1987) in India, the official number being 28. A well - documented case from 1987 was that of 18 - year - old Roop Kanwar. In response to this incident, additional legislation against sati practice was passed, first within the state of Rajasthan, then nationwide by the central government of India.
In 2002, a 65 - year - old woman by the name of Kuttu died after sitting on her husband 's funeral pyre in the Indian Panna district. On 18 May 2006, Vidyawati, a 35 - year - old woman allegedly committed sati by jumping into the blazing funeral pyre of her husband in Rari - Bujurg Village, Fatehpur district in the State of Uttar Pradesh. On 21 August 2006, Janakrani, a 40 - year - old woman, burned to death on the funeral pyre of her husband Prem Narayan in Sagar district; Janakrani had not been forced or prompted by anybody to commit the act. On 11 October 2008 a 75 - year - old woman, Lalmati Verma, committed sati by jumping into her 80 - year - old husband 's funeral pyre at Checher in the Kasdol block of Chhattisgarh 's Raipur district; Verma killed herself after mourners had left the cremation site.
Scholars debate whether these rare reports of sati suicide by widows are related to culture or are examples of mental illness and suicide such as those found among women worldwide. In the case of Roop Kanwar, Dinesh Bhugra states that there is a possibility that the suicides could be triggered by "a state of depersonalization as a result of severe bereavement '', then adds that it is unlikely that Kanwar had mental illness and culture likely played a role. However, Colucci and Lester state that none of the women reported by media to have committed sati had been given a psychiatric evaluation before their sati suicide and thus there is no objective data to ascertain if culture or mental illness was the primary driver behind their suicide. Inamdar, Oberfield and Darrell state that the women who commit sati are often "childless or old and face miserable impoverished lives '' which combined with great stress from the loss of the only personal support may be the cause of a widow 's suicide.
Accounts describe numerous variants in the sati ritual. The majority of accounts describe the woman seated or lying down on the funeral pyre beside her dead husband. Many other accounts describe women walking or jumping into the flames after the fire had been lit, and some describe women seating themselves on the funeral pyre and then lighting it themselves.
Although sati is typically thought of as consisting of the procedure in which the widow is placed, or enters, or jumps, upon the funeral pyre of her husband, slight variations in funeral practice have been reported here as well, by region. For example, the mid-17th - century traveler Tavernier claims that in some regions, the sati occurred by construction of a small hut, within which the widow and her husband were burnt, while in other regions, a pit was dug, in which the husband 's corpse was placed along with flammable materials, into which the widow jumped after the fire had started. In mid-nineteenth - century Lombok, an island in today 's Indonesia, the local Balinese aristocracy practiced widow suicide on occasion; but only widows of royal descent could burn themselves alive (others were stabbed to death by a kris knife first). At Lombok, a high bamboo platform was erected in front of the fire and, when the flames were at their strongest, the widow climbed up the platform and dived into the fire.
Hindus only bury the bodies of those under the age of two. Those older than two are customarily cremated. A few European accounts provide rare descriptions of Indian sati that included the burial of the widow with her dead husband. Jean - Baptiste Tavernier, a 17th - century world traveller and trader of gems, wrote that women were buried with their dead husbands along the Coast of Coromandel while people danced during the cremation rites.
The 18th - century Flemish painter Frans Balthazar Solvyns provided the only known eyewitness account of an Indian sati involving a burial. Solvyns states that the custom included the woman shaving her head, music and the event was guarded by East India Trading company officials. He expresses admiration for the Hindu woman, but also calls the custom barbaric.
The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 Part I, Section 2 (c) includes within its definition of sati not just the act of burning a widow alive, but also that of burying her alive.
Sati is often described as voluntary, although in some cases it may have been forced. In one narrative account in 1785, the widow appears to have been drugged either with bhang or opium and was tied to the pyre which would have prevented her from escaping the fire, if she changed her mind.
The British local press of the time proffered several accounts of alleged forcing of the woman. As an example, The Calcutta Review published accounts as the following one:
In 1822, the Salt Agent at Barripore, 16 miles south of Calcutta, went out of his way to report a case which he had witnessed, in which the woman was forcibly held down by a great bamboo by two men, so as to preclude all chance of escape. In Cuttack, a woman dropt herself into a burning pit, and rose up again as if to escape, when a washerman gave her a push with a bamboo, which sent her back into the hottest part of the fire. This is said to be based on the set of official documents. Yet another such case appearing in official papers, transmitted into British journals, is case 41, page 411 here, where the woman was, apparently, thrown twice back in the fire by her relatives, in a case from 1821.
Apart from accounts of direct compulsion, some evidence exists that precautions, at times, were taken so that the widow could not escape the flames once they were lit. Anant S. Altekar, for example, points out that it is much more difficult to escape a fiery pit you 've jumped in, than descending from a pyre you have entered on. He mentions the custom of the fiery pit as particularly prevalent in the Deccan and western India. From Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh, where the widow typically was placed in a hut along with her husband, her leg was tied to one of the hut 's pillars. Finally, from Bengal, where the tradition of the pyre held sway, the widow 's feet could be tied to posts fixed to the ground, she was asked three times if she wished to ascend to heaven, before the flames were lit.
The historian Anant Sadashiv Altekar states that some historical records suggest without doubt that instances of sati were forced, but overall the evidence suggests most instances were a voluntary act on the woman 's part.
There have been accounts of symbolic sati in some Hindu communities. A widow lies down next to her dead husband, and certain parts of both the marriage ceremony and the funeral ceremonies are enacted, but without her death. An example in Sri Lanka is attested from modern times Although this form of symbolic sati has contemporary evidence, it should by no means be regarded as a modern invention. For example, the ancient and sacred Atharvaveda, one of the four Vedas, believed to have been composed around 1000 BCE, describes a funerary ritual where the widow lies down by her deceased husband, but is then asked to descend, to enjoy the blessings from the children and wealth left to her.
In 20th - century India, a tradition developed of venerating jivit (living satis). A jivit is a woman who once desired to commit sati, but lives after having sacrificed her desire to die. Two famous jivit were Bala Satimata, and Umca Satimata, both living until the early 1990s.
Records of sati exist across the subcontinent. However, there seems to have been major differences historically, in different regions, and among communities. Furthermore, no reliable figures exist for the numbers who have died by sati, in general.
An 1829 report by a Christian missionary organization includes among other things, statistics on sati. It begins with a declaration that "the object of all missions to the heathen is to substitute for these systems the Gospel of Christ '', thereafter lists sati for each year over the period 1815 - 1824 which totals 5,369, followed by a statement that a total of 5,997 instances of women were burned or buried alive in the Bengal presidency over the 10 - year period, i.e., average 600 per year. In the same report, it states that the Madras and Bombay presidencies totaled 635 instances of sati over the same ten - year period. The 1829 missionary report does not provide its sources and acknowledges that "no correct idea can be formed of the number of murders occasioned by suttees '', then states some of the statistics is based on "conjectures ''. According to Yang, these "numbers are fraught with problems ''.
William Bentinck, in an 1829 report, stated without specifying the year or period, that "of the 463 satis occurring in the whole of the Presidency of Fort William, 420 took place in Bengal, Behar, and Orissa, or what is termed the Lower Provinces, and of these latter 287 in the Calcutta Division alone ''. For the Upper Provinces, Bentinck added, "in these Provinces the satis amount to forty three only upon a population of nearly twenty millions '', i.e., average one sati per 465,000.
Anand Yang, speaking of the early nineteenth century CE, says that contrary to conventional wisdom, sati was not, in general, confined to being an upper class phenomenon, but spread through the classes / castes. In the 575 reported cases from 1823, for example, 41 percent were Brahmins, some 6 percent were Kshatriyas, whereas 2 percent were Vaishiyas, and 51 percent Sudras. In Banaras, though, in the 1815 - 1828 British records, the upper castes were only for two years represented with less than 70 % of the total; in 1821, all sati were from the upper castes there.
Yang notes that many studies seem to emphasize the young age of the widows who committed sati. However, by study of the British figures from 1815 to 1828, Yang states the overwhelming majority were ageing women: The statistics from 1825 to 1826 about two thirds were above the age of 40 when committing sati.
Anand Yang summarizes the regional variation in incidence of sati as follows:
... the practice was never generalized... but was confined to certain areas: in the north,... the Gangetic Valley, Punjab and Rajasthan; in the west, to the southern Konkan region; and in the south, to Madurai and Vijayanagar.
Narayan H. Kulkarnee believes that sati became to be practiced in medieval days Maharashtra initially by the Maratha nobility claiming Rajput descent. Then, according to Kulkarnee, the practice of sati may have increased across caste distinctions as an honour saving custom in the face of Muslim advances into the territory. But, the practice never gained the type of prevalence as seen in Rajasthan or Bengal, and social customs of actively dissuading a widow from committing sati are well established. Apparently not a single instance of sati are attested for the 17th and 18th centuries CE.
The sati stone evidence from the time of the empire is regarded as relatively rare; only about 50 are clearly identified as such. Thus, Carla M. Sinopoli, citing Verghese, says that despite the attention European travellers paid the phenomenon, it should be regarded as having been fairly uncommon during the time of the Vijayanagara empire.
Sangam literature (200 BCE) mentions the Sati of a Chola queen. The Madurai Nayak dynasty, reigning 1529 - 1736 CE seems to have adopted the custom in larger measure; one Jesuit priest observing in 1609 Madurai the burning of 400 women at the death of Nayak Muttu Krishnappa.
Kongu Nadu region of Tamil Nadu has the highest number of Veera Maha Sati (வீரமாசதி) or Veeramathy temples (வீரமாத்தி) from all the native Kongu castes.
Kongu Nadu region of Tamil Nadu has the highest number of Veera Maha Satis (வீரமாசதி) or Veeramathys (வீரமாத்தி) in South India. Sangam literature talk about the Sati of a Chola queen.
Established in 1799, a few records exist from the Princely State of Mysore that say permission to commit sati could be granted. Dewan (prime minister) Purnaiah is said to have allowed it for a Brahmin widow in 1805, whereas an 1827 eye - witness to the burning of a widow in Bangalore in 1827 says it was rather uncommon there.
In the Upper Gangetic plain, while it occurred, there is no indication that it was especially widespread. The earliest known attempt by a government to stop the practice took place here, that of Muhammad Tughlaq, in the Sultanate of Delhi in the 14th century.
In the Lower Gangetic plain, the practice may have reached a high level fairly late in history. According to available evidence and the existing reports of the occurrences of it, the greatest incidence of sati in any region and period, in total numbers, occurred in Bengal and Bihar in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
The earliest stone inscription in South Asia relating to sati has been found in Nepal, dated to be from the 5th century, wherein the king successfully persuades his mother to not commit sati when his father died. This inscription suggests that sati practice was known but not compelled. Nepal formally banned sati in 1920.
On the Indonesian island of Bali, sati (known as masatya) was practised by the aristocracy as late as 1903, until the Dutch colonial masters pushed for its termination, forcing the local Balinese princes to sign treaties containing the prohibition of sati as one of the clauses. Early Dutch observers of the particular Balinese custom in the 17th century said that only widows, themselves of royal blood, were to be burned alive. Concubines or others of inferior blood lines consenting to die with their princely husband could choose to be stabbed to death before burning.
Lindsey Harlan, having conducted extensive field work among Rajput women, has constructed a model of how, and why, women having committed sati are still venerated today, and how the worshippers think about the process involved. Essentially, a woman on the path to become a sati goes through three stages
The dutiful wife, the pativrata, is devoted and subservient to her husband, and also protective of him. If he dies before her, some culpability is attached to her for his death, as not having been sufficiently protective of him. Making the vow to burn alive beside him removes her own culpability, as well as within the afterlife, enables her to protect him from new dangers.
In Harlan 's model, having made the holy vow to burn herself transforms the woman to a sativrata, a transitional stage between the living and the dead, before ascending the funeral pyre. Once a woman committed herself to become sati, popular belief thought her to become endowed with many supernatural powers. Lourens P. Van Den Bosch enumerates some of them. The sati would gain the powers of prophecy and clairvoyance, as well as the ability to bless women with sons, who had not borne sons before. The gifts from a sati were venerated as valuable relics, and in her journey to the pyre, people would seek to touch her garments to benefit from her powers.
Lindsey Harlan probes deeper into the sativrata stage: As a transitional figure on her path to become a powerful family protector as satimata, the sativrata dictates the terms, and obligations the family must fulfill in order for her to protect them once she has become satimata, by showing reverence to her by observing the conditions. These are generally called ok. A typical example of an ok is to place a restriction on the type of colours used in the family members 's clothing, or to forbid the use of some particular type of clothing.
What can be termed curses, shrap is also within the sativrata 's power, understood to be a severe teaching to members of her family in how they have failed. One woman cursed her in - laws when they refused to bring neither a horse or a drummer to her pyre, saying that whenever in the future might have need of either (and many religious rituals requires such a presence), it would not be available to them.
After her death on the pyre, the woman is finally transformed into the shape of the satimata, an spiritual embodiment of goodness, with her principal concern of being a family protector. Typically, the satimata occurs in the dreams of the family members, teaching for example, the women how to be good pativratas, herself through her sacrifice having proved she was the perfect pativrata. However, although the satimata 's intentions are always for the good of the family, she is not averse to let, for example, children become sick, or the cows ' udders wither, if she thinks this is an appropriate lesson to the living wife who had neglected her duties as pativrata.
David Brick, in his 2010 review of ancient Indian literature, states
There is no mention of sahagamana (sati) whatsoever in either Vedic literature or any of the early Dharmasutras or Dharmasastras. By "early Dharmasutras or Dharmasastras '', I refer specifically to both the early Dharmasutras of Apastamba, Hiranyakesin, Gautama, Baudhayana and Vasistha, and the later Dharmasastras of Manu, Narada, and Yajnavalkya. -- David Brick, Yale University
The earliest scholarly discussion of sati, whether it is right or wrong, is found in the Sanskrit literature dated to 10th - to 12th - century. The earliest known commentary on sati by Medhatithi of Kashmir argues that sati is a form of suicide, which is prohibited by the Vedic tradition. Vijnanesvara, of the 12th - century Chalukya court, and the 13th - century Madhvacharya, argue that sati should not to be considered suicide, which was otherwise variously banned or discouraged in the scriptures. They offer a combination of reasons, both in favor and against sati.
In the following, a historical chronology is given of the debate within Hinduism on the topic of sati.
The most ancient texts still revered among Hindus today are the Vedas, where the Saṃhitās are the most ancient, four collections roughly dated in their composition to 1700 -- 1100 BCE. In two of these collections, the Rigveda and the Atharvaveda there is material relevant to the discussion of sati.
Claims about the mention of sati in Rig Veda varies. There are differing translations of the passage. One of the passages goes:
The text does not mention widowhood, and other translations differ in their translation of the word here rendered as ' pyre ' (yoni, literally "seat, abode ''; Griffith has "first let the dames go up to where he lieth ''). In addition, the following verse, which is unambiguously about widows, contradicts any suggestion of the woman 's death; it explicitly states that the widow should return to her house.
A reason given for the discrepancy in translation and interpretation of verse 10.18. 8, is that one consonant in a word that meant house, yonim agree "foremost to the yoni '', was deliberately changed by those who wished claim scriptural justification, to a word that meant fire, yomiagne.
Dehejia states that Vedic literature has no mention of any practice resembling Sati. There is only one mention in the Vedas, of a widow lying down beside her dead husband who is asked to leave the grieving and return to the living, then prayer is offered for a happy life for her with children and wealth. Dehejia writes that this passage does not imply a pre-existing sati custom, nor of widow remarriage, nor that it is authentic verse because its solitary mention may also be explained as a later date insertion into the text. Dehejia writes that no ancient or early medieval era Buddhist texts mention sati, and if the practice existed it would likely have been condemned by these texts.
David Brick, a professor of South Asia Studies, states that neither sati nor equivalent terms such as sahagamana are ever mentioned in any Vedic literature (Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads), or in any of the early Dharmasutras or Dharmasastras.
The Brahmana literature, one of the layers within the ancient Vedic texts, dated about 1000 BCE -- 500 BCE are entirely silent about sati according to the historian Altekar. Similarly, the Grhyasutras, a body of text devoted to ritual, with composition date about the time of the youngest within Brahmana literature, sati is not mentioned, either. What is mentioned concerning funeral rites, though, is that the widow is to be brought back from her husband 's funeral pyre, either by his brother, or by a trusted servant. In the Taittiriya Aranyaka from about the same time, it is said that when leaving, the widow took from her husband 's side such objects as his bow, gold and jewels (which previously would have been burnt with him), and a hope expressed that the widow and her relatives would lead a happy and prosperous life afterwards. According to Altekar, it is "clear '' that the custom of actual widow burning had died out a long time previously at this stage.
Nor is the practice of sati mentioned anywhere in the Dharmasutras, texts tentatively dated by Pandurang Vaman Kane to 600 - 100 BCE, while Patrick Olivelle thinks the bounds should be roughly 250 - 100 BCE instead
Not only is sati not mentioned in Brahmana and Dharmasastra literature, Satapatha Brahmana explains that suicide by anyone is inappropriate (adharmic). This Śruti prohibition became one of the several basis for arguments presented against sati by 11th - to 14th - century Hindu scholars such as Medhatithi of Kashmir,
Thus, in none of the principal religious texts believed composed before the Common Era is there any evidence at all for a sanctioning of the practice of sati. It is wholly unmentioned, although the archaic Atharvaveda do contain hints of a funeral practice of symbolic sati. In addition, the twelfth - century CE commentary of Apararka, claiming to quote the Dharmasutra text Apastamba, it says that the Apastamba prescribes that if a widow has made a vow of burning herself (anvahorana, "ascend the pyre ''), but then retracts her vow, she must expiate her sin by the penance ritual called Prajapatya - vrata
The oldest portion of the epic Ramayana, the Valmiki Ramayana, is tentatively dated for its composition by Robert P. Goldman to 750 -- 500 BCE. Anant S. Altekar says that no instances of sati occur in this earliest, archaic part of the whole Ramayana.
According to Ramashraya Sharma, there is no conclusive evidence of the sati practice in the Ramayana. For instance, Tara, Mandodari and the widows of Ravana, all live after their respective husband 's deaths, though all of them announce their wish to die, while lamenting for their husbands. The first two remarry their brother - in - law. The only instance of sati appears in the Uttara Kanda -- believed to be a later addition to the original text -- in which Kushadhwaja 's wife performs sati. The Telugu adaptation of the Ramayana, the 14th - century Ranganatha Ramayana, tells that Sulochana, wife of Indrajit, became sati on his funeral pyre.
Instances of sati are found in the Mahabharata.
Madri, the second wife of Pandu, immolates herself. She believes she is responsible for his death, as he had been cursed with death if he ever had intercourse. He died while performing the forbidden act with Madri; she blamed herself for not rejecting him, as she knew of the curse. Also, in the case of Madri the entire assembly of sages sought to dissuade her from the act, and no religious merit is attached to the fate she chooses against all advice. In the Musala - parvan of the Mahabharata, the four wives of Vasudeva are said to commit sati. Furthermore, as news of Krishna 's death reaches Hastinapur, five of his wives choose to burn themselves.
Against these stray examples within the Mahabharata of sati, there are scores of instances in the same epic of widows who do not commit sati, none of them blamed for not doing so.
The four works, Manusmṛti (200 BCE -- 200 CE), Yājñavalkya Smṛti (200 -- 500 CE), Nāradasmṛti (100 BCE -- 400 CE) and the Viṣṇusmṛti (700 -- 1000 CE) are the principal Smrti works in the Dharmaśāstra tradition, along with the Parasara Smrti, composed in the latter period, rather than in the earlier.
The first three principal smrtis, those of Manu, Yājñavalkya and Nārada, do not contain any mention of sati.
Justifications for the practice are given in the Vishnu Smriti (dated from 700 to 1000CE):
In contrast, Moriz Winternitz states that Brihaspati Smriti prohibits burning of widows. Brihaspati Smriti was authored after the three principal smritis of Manu, Yājñavalkya and Nārada.
Passages of the Parasara Smriti say:
Neither of these suggest sati as mandatory, but Parasara Smriti elaborates the benefits of sati in greater detail.
Within the dharmashastric tradition espousing sati as a justified, and even recommended, option to ascetic widowhood, there remained a curious conception worth noting the achieved status for a woman committing sati. Burning herself on the pyre would give her, and her husband, automatic, but not eternal, reception into heaven (svarga), whereas only the wholly chaste widow living out her natural life span could hope for final liberation (moksha) and breaking the cycle of rebirth. Thus, acknowledging that performing sati only achieved an inferior otherworldy status than successful widowhood could achieve, sati became recommended when coupled with a dismissal of the effective possibility for a widow to remain truly chaste.
While some smriti passages allow sati as optional, others forbid the practice entirely. Vijñāneśvara (c. 1076 -- 1127), an early Dharmaśāstric scholar, claims that many smriti call for the prohibition of sati among Brahmin widows, but not among other social castes. Vijñāneśvara, quoting scriptures from Paithinasi and Angiras to support his argument, states:
"Due to Vedic injunction, a Brahmin woman should not follow her husband in death, but for the other social classes, tradition holds this to be the supreme Law of Women... when a woman of Brahmin caste follows her husband in death, by killing herself she leaders neither herself nor her husband to heaven. ''
However, as proof of the contradictory opinion of the smriti on sati, in his Mitākṣarā, Vijñāneśvara argues Brahmin women are technically only forbidden from performing sati on pyres other than those of their deceased husbands. Quoting the Yājñavalkya Smṛti, Vijñāneśvara states, "a Brahmin woman ought not to depart by ascending a separate pyre. '' David Brick states that the Brahmin sati commentary suggests that the practice may have originated in the warrior and ruling class of medieval Indian society. In addition to providing arguments in support of sati, Vijñāneśvara offers arguments against the ritual.
Those who supported the ritual, did however, put restrictions on sati. It was considered wrong for women who had young children to care for, those who were pregnant or menstruating. A woman who had doubts or did not wish to commit sati at the last moment, could be removed from the pyre by a man, usually a brother of the deceased or someone from her husband 's side of the family.
David Brick, summarizing the historical evolution of scholarly debate on sati in medieval India, states:
To summarize, one can loosely arrange Dharmasastic writings on sahagamana into three historical periods. In the first of these, which roughly corresponds to the second half of the 1st millennium CE, smrti texts that prescribe sahagamana begin to appear. However, during approximately this same period, other Brahmanical authors also compose a number of smrtis that proscribe this practice specifically in the case of Brahmin widows. Moreover, Medhatithi -- our earliest commentator to address the issue -- strongly opposes the practice for all women. Taken together, this textual evidence suggests that sahagamana was still quite controversial at this time. In the following period, opposition to this custom starts to weaken, as none of the later commentators fully endorses Medhatithi 's position on sahagamana. Indeed, after Vijnanesvara in the early twelfth century, the strongest position taken against sahagamana appears to be that it is an inferior option to brahmacarya (ascetic celibacy), since its result is only heaven rather than moksa (liberation). Finally, in the third period, several commentators refute even this attenuated objection to sahagamana, for they cite a previously unquoted smrti passage that specifically lists liberation as a result of the rite 's performance. They thereby claim that sahagamana is at least as beneficial an option for widows as brahmacarya and perhaps even more so, given the special praise it sometimes receives. These authors, however, consistently stop short of making it an obligatory act. Hence, the commentarial literature of the dharma tradition attests to a gradual shift from strict prohibition to complete endorsement in its attitude toward sahagamana.
Although the myth of the goddess Sati is that of a wife who dies by her own volition on a fire, this is not a case of the practice of sati. The goddess was not widowed, and the myth is quite unconnected with the justifications for the practice.
Julia Leslie points to an 18th - century CE text on the duties of the wife by Tryambakayajvan that contains statements she regards as evidence for a sub-tradition of justifying strongly encouraged, pressured, or even forced sati. Although the standard view of the sati within the justifying tradition is that of the woman who out of moral heroism chooses sati, rather than choosing to enter ascetic widowhood, Tryambaka is quite clear upon the automatic good effect of sati for the woman who was a ' bad ' wife:
Women who, due to their wicked minds, have always despised their husbands... whether they do this (i.e., sati), of their own free will, or out of anger, or even out of fear -- all of them are purified from sin.
Thus, as Leslie puts it, becoming (or being pressured into the role of) a sati was, within Tryambaka 's thinking, the only truly effective method of atonement for the bad wife.
Opposition to sati was expressed by several exegesis scholars such as the ninth - or tenth - century Kashmir scholar Medatithi -- who offers the earliest known explicit discussion of sati, the 12th - to 17th - century scholars Vijnanesvara, Apararka and Devanadhatta, as well as the mystical Tantric tradition, with its valorization of the feminine principle.
Explicit criticisms were published by Medhatithi, a commentator on various theological works. He offered two arguments for his opposition. He considered sati a form of suicide, which was forbidden by the Vedas:
Medhatithi offered a second reason against sati, calling it against dharma (adharma). He argued that there is a general prohibition against violence of any form against living beings in the Vedic dharma tradition, sati causes death which is sufficient proof of violence, and thus sati is against Vedic teachings.
Vijnanesvara presents both sides of the argument, for and against sati. He argues first that Vedas do not prohibit sacrifice aimed to stop an enemy and in pursuit of heaven, and sati for these reasons is thus not prohibited. He then presents two arguments against sati, calling it "unobjectionable ''. The first is based on hymn 10.2. 6.7 of Satapatha Brahmana will forbids suicide. His second reason against sati is an appeal to relative merit between two choices. Death may grant a woman 's wish to enter heaven with her dead husband, but living offers her the possibility of reaching moksha through knowledge of the Self through learning, reflecting and meditating. In Vedic tradition, moksha is of higher merit than heaven, because moksha leads to eternal, unsurpassed bliss while heaven is impermanent and smaller happiness. Living gives her an option to discover deeper, fulfilling happiness than dying through sati does, according to Vijnanesvara.
Apararka acknowledges that Vedic scripture prohibits violence against living beings and "one should not kill ''; however, he argues that this rule prohibits violence against another person, but does not prohibit killing oneself if one wants to. Thus sati is a woman 's choice and it is not prohibited by Vedic tradition, argues Apararka.
Reform and bhakti movements within Hinduism favoured egalitarian societies, and in line with the tenor of these beliefs, generally condemned the practice, sometimes explicitly. The 12th - century Virashaiva movement condemned the practice.
In a petition to the British East India Company in 1818, Ram Mohan Roy wrote that:
"All these instances are murders according to every shastra. ''
European artists in the eighteenth century produced many images for their own native markets, showing the widows as heroic women, and moral exemplars.
In her article "Can the Subaltern Speak? '' philosopher Gayatri Spivak discusses the British manipulation of sati practice, and how sati takes the form of imprisoning women in the double bind of self - expression attributed to mental illness and social rejection, or of self - incrimination according to British colonial law. The woman who commits sati takes the form of the subaltern in Spivak 's work, a form much of postcolonial studies takes very seriously. The Australian rock band Tlot Tlot 's song "The Bonebass Suttee '' on their 1991 album A Day at the Bay is about the practice.
The 2005 novel The Ashram by Indian writer Sattar Memon, deals with the plight of an oppressed young woman in India, under pressure to commit suttee and the endeavours of a western spiritual aspirant to save her.
|
bruise treating arnica comes from what type of plant | Arnica - wikipedia
Arnica / ˈɑːrnɪkə / is a genus of perennial, herbaceous plants in the sunflower family (Asteraceae). The genus name Arnica may be derived from the Greek arni, "lamb '', in reference to the plants ' soft, hairy leaves. Arnica is also known by the names mountain tobacco and, confusingly, leopard 's bane and wolfsbane -- two names that it shares with the entirely unrelated genus Aconitum.
This Circumboreal and montane (subalpine) genus occurs mostly in the temperate regions of western North America, with a few species native to the Arctic regions of northern Eurasia and North America.
Several species, such as Arnica montana and A. chamissonis, contain helenalin, a sesquiterpene lactone that is a major ingredient in anti-inflammatory preparations (used mostly for bruises).
Arnica species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Bucculatrix arnicella.
Arnica was previously classified in the tribe Senecioneae because it has a flower or pappus of fine bristles.
Arnica plants have a deep - rooted, erect stem that is usually unbranched. Their downy opposite leaves are borne towards the apex of the stem. The ovoid, leathery basal leaves are arranged in a rosette.
They show large yellow or orange flowers, 6 -- 8 cm (2 -- 3 in) wide with 10 -- 15 cm (4 -- 6 in) long ray florets and numerous disc florets. The phyllaries (a bract under the flowerhead) has long spreading hairs. Each phyllary is associated with a ray floret. Species of Arnica, with an involucre (a circle of bracts arranged surrounding the flower head) arranged in two rows, have only their outer phyllaries associated with ray florets. The flowers have a slight aromatic smell. If taken in the wrong dose it can be very dangerous.
The seedlike fruit has a pappus of plumose, white or pale tan bristles. The entire plant has a strong and distinct pine - sage odor when the leaves of mature plants are rubbed or bruised.
The species Arnica montana, native to Europe, has long been used medicinally, but the effectiveness of this use has not been substantiated.
According to The Memorial Sloan - Kettering Cancer Center, "A few clinical trials suggest benefits of topical arnica for osteoarthritis; and for affecting significant reduction of bruising compared to placebo or low concentration vitamin K ointments. A study of wound - healing after surgery to treat varicose veins found no statistically significant proof of efficacy.
Homeopathic preparations of Arnica are widely marketed and used. In the UK, the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency has registered the product for topical treatment of sprains and bruising under the National Rules for Homoeopathic Products (2006). These rules allow for these conditions to be made on the packaging in the absence of similar evidence to that required for conventional medicines under the Medicines Act 1968 and 1971. Homeopathy is discredited in the scientific community and there is no clinical evidence for its benefit.
Arnica montana contains the toxin helenalin, which can be poisonous if large amounts of the plant are eaten, and contact with the plant can also cause skin irritation.
Accepted species:
|
who plays mandy in season 1 of shameless | Jane Levy - wikipedia
Jane Colburn Levy (born December 29, 1989) is an American actress. In early 2011, she received popular recognition starring as Tessa Altman, a leading character on the ABC comedy series Suburgatory (2011 -- 14).
In 2012, Levy appeared in the films Fun Size and Nobody Walks. In 2013, Levy starred in the supernatural horror film Evil Dead directed by Fede Álvarez. In 2016, she teamed up with Alvarez again and starred in the horror film Do n't Breathe.
Levy was born in Los Angeles, the daughter of Mary (née Tilbury), an artist, and Lester Levy, a musician. Her father is Jewish. Her mother is of English, Scottish, and Irish descent. She attended Sir Francis Drake High School in San Anselmo, California. While in school, she was on the hip hop dancing team and was captain of the soccer team, and appeared in community theatre productions of Annie and The Wizard of Oz. She describes herself at school as being a "floater '', someone who got along with everyone. While at high school she visited England for five months. She attended Goucher College for a semester before transferring to the Stella Adler Studio of Acting in New York City where she graduated from the Conservatory.
Levy moved back to Los Angeles after two years in New York City. Levy was cast as Mandy Milkovich in a five - episode role on the Showtime series Shameless within a few weeks of returning to the West Coast. In March 2011, she landed the first lead role of her career on the sitcom Suburgatory, with Jeremy Sisto and Cheryl Hines. Since being in the show she has been compared to Emma Stone, due in part to her red hair. On May 9, 2014, Suburgatory was canceled by ABC after three seasons.
Levy was named by both TV Guide and TheInsider.com as one of the breakout stars of 2011, and was included on the top eleven list of funniest women compiled by AOL. Forbes named her as one of the handful of entertainment stars on their list of 30 under 30 who are "reinventing the world '' (a list of the brightest stars of the future). Noting that Suburgatory was "one of the big hits of the new (TV) season '' and that Levy would be seen in two upcoming films, Forbes called her "one to watch ''.
Levy appeared in two films in 2012, Fun Size and Nobody Walks; the former was the first feature from Gossip Girl creator Josh Schwartz. Released before Halloween, Fun Size co-starred Victoria Justice and comedian Chelsea Handler. While filming it, Levy was disappointed that she failed to meet co-star Johnny Knoxville, as he was on set for the one week of shooting that she was not. Levy later starred in the 2013 remake of the horror classic The Evil Dead, as the drug - dependent Mia, replacing Lily Collins, who had originally been cast. The following year, she starred in two independent films, About Alex and Bang Bang Baby. In 2015, Levy co-starred opposite Rene Russo in Frank and Cindy.
In 2016, Levy starred in her Evil Dead director Fede Alvarez 's horror film Do n't Breathe, the story of friends who break into the house of a wealthy blind man. A sleeper hit, Do n't Breathe also received positive reviews from critics and grossed over $156 million. Also that year, she starred with Lucas Till in Monster Trucks, Paramount Animation 's first live - action / CGI film, directed by Ice Age 's Chris Wedge. The film was filmed in 2014.
In 2017, Levy has appeared in I Do n't Feel at Home in This World Anymore directed by Macon Blair, and will star in zombie comedy Office Uprising. She played the female lead in the Pretenders, a romantic drama directed by James Franco. Also in 2017, Levy appeared in the Showtime series Twin Peaks.
On March 3, 2011, Levy married actor Jaime Freitas. According to court documents, the couple separated on October 31, 2011. In April 2013, Levy filed for divorce, citing irreconcilable differences.
Replaced by Emma Greenwell after Season 1
|
how many episodes in series 3 of my mad fat diary | List of My Mad Fat diary episodes - wikipedia
My Mad Fat Diary is a British comedy - drama television series that debuted on E4 on 14 January 2013. It is based on My Fat, Mad Teenage Diary written by Rae Earl.
The show, which drew an average of 1.2 million viewers per episode, was re-commissioned for a second series and it started filming in June / July 2013. It aired on 17 February 2014. The second season aired on E4 and consisted of seven episodes. The series featured Rae starting college.
On 26 November 2014 Sharon Rooney confirmed on Twitter that there would be more episodes. A read through was held on 26 January 2015. The series consisted of three episodes, which began filming in February 2015 and were shown on E4 between 22 June and 6 July 2015.
|
when did germany violate the treaty of versailles | Treaty of Versailles - wikipedia
Central Powers Germany
Allied Powers United States British Empire France Italy Japan
The Treaty of Versailles (French: Traité de Versailles) was the most important of the peace treaties that brought World War I to an end. The Treaty ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919 in Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand which directly led to World War I. The other Central Powers on the German side of World War I signed separate treaties. Although the armistice, signed on 11 November 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of Allied negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. The treaty was registered by the Secretariat of the League of Nations on 21 October 1919.
Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the most important and controversial required "Germany (to) accept the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage '' during the war (the other members of the Central Powers signed treaties containing similar articles). This article, Article 231, later became known as the War Guilt clause. The treaty forced Germany to disarm, make substantial territorial concessions, and pay reparations to certain countries that had formed the Entente powers. In 1921 the total cost of these reparations was assessed at 132 billion marks (then $31.4 billion or £ 6.6 billion, roughly equivalent to US $442 billion or UK £ 284 billion in 2018). At the time economists, notably John Maynard Keynes (a British delegate to the Paris Peace Conference), predicted that the treaty was too harsh -- a "Carthaginian peace '' -- and said the reparations figure was excessive and counter-productive, views that, since then, have been the subject of ongoing debate by historians and economists from several countries. On the other hand, prominent figures on the Allied side such as French Marshal Ferdinand Foch criticized the treaty for treating Germany too leniently.
The result of these competing and sometimes conflicting goals among the victors was a compromise that left no one content: Germany was neither pacified nor conciliated, nor was it permanently weakened. The problems that arose from the treaty would lead to the Locarno Treaties, which improved relations between Germany and the other European powers, and the re-negotiation of the reparation system resulting in the Dawes Plan, the Young Plan, and the indefinite postponement of reparations at the Lausanne Conference of 1932.
Although it is often referred to as the "Versailles Conference '', only the actual signing of the treaty took place at the historic palace. Most of the negotiations were in Paris, with the "Big Four '' meetings taking place generally at the Quai d'Orsay.
On 28 June 1914 the Bosnian - Serb Gavrilo Princip assassinated the heir to the throne of Austria - Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in the name of Serbian nationalism. This caused a diplomatic crisis, resulting in Austria - Hungary declaring war on Serbia and sparking the First World War. Due to a variety of reasons, within weeks the major powers of Europe -- divided into two alliances known as the Central Powers and the Triple Entente -- went to war. As the conflict progressed, additional countries from around the globe became drawn into the conflict on both sides. Fighting would rage across Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Asia for the next four years. In 1917, two revolutions occurred within the Russian Empire, which led to the collapse of the Imperial Government and the rise of the Bolshevik Party led by Vladimir Lenin.
On 6 April 1917, the United States entered the war against the Central Powers. The reasons were twofold: German submarine warfare against merchant ships trading with France and Britain, which led to the sinking of the RMS Lusitania and the loss of 128 American lives; and the interception of the German Zimmerman Telegram, urging for Mexico to declare war against the United States. The American war aim was to detach the war from nationalistic disputes and ambitions after the Bolshevik disclosure of secret treaties between the Allies. The existence of these treaties tended to discredit Allied claims that Germany was the sole power with aggressive ambitions.
On 8 January 1918, United States President Woodrow Wilson issued a statement that became known as the Fourteen Points. This speech outlined a policy of free trade, open agreements, democracy, and self - determination. It also called for a diplomatic end to the war, international disarmament, the withdrawal of the Central Powers from occupied territories, the creation of a Polish state, the redrawing of Europe 's borders along ethnic lines, and the formation of a League of Nations to guarantee the political independence and territorial integrity of all states. Wilson 's speech also responded to Vladimir Lenin 's Decree on Peace of November 1917, which proposed an immediate withdrawal of Russia from the war and called for a just and democratic peace uncompromised by territorial annexations. The Fourteen Points were based on the research of the Inquiry, a team of about 150 advisors led by foreign - policy advisor Edward M. House, into the topics likely to arise in the anticipated peace conference.
After the Central Powers launched Operation Faustschlag on the Eastern Front, the new Soviet Government of Russia signed the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk with Germany on 3 March 1918. This treaty ended the war between Russia and the Central powers and annexed 1,300,000 square miles (3,400,000 km) of territory and 62 million people. This loss equated to a third of the Russian population, a quarter of its territory, around a third of the country 's arable land, three - quarters of its coal and iron, a third of its factories (totalling 54 percent of the nation 's industrial capacity), and a quarter of its railroads.
During the autumn of 1918, the Central Powers began to collapse. Desertion rates within the German army began to increase, and civilian strikes drastically reduced war production. On the Western Front, the Allied forces launched the Hundred Days Offensive and decisively defeated the German western armies. Sailors of the Imperial German Navy at Kiel mutinied, which prompted uprisings in Germany, which became known as the German Revolution. The German government tried to obtain a peace settlement based on the Fourteen Points, and maintained it was on this basis that they surrendered. Following negotiations, the Allied powers and Germany signed an armistice, which came into effect on 11 November while German forces were still positioned in France and Belgium.
The terms of the armistice called for an immediate evacuation of German troops from occupied Belgium, France, and Luxembourg within fifteen days. In addition, it established that Allied forces would occupy the Rhineland. In late 1918, Allied troops entered Germany and began the occupation.
Both the German Empire and Great Britain were dependent on imports of food and raw materials, primarily from the Americas, which had to be shipped across the Atlantic Ocean. The Blockade of Germany (1914 -- 1919) was a naval operation conducted by the Allied Powers to stop the supply of raw materials and foodstuffs reaching the Central Powers. The German Kaiserliche Marine was mainly restricted to the German Bight and used commerce raiders and unrestricted submarine warfare for a counter-blockade. The German Board of Public Health in December 1918 stated that 763,000 German civilians had died during the Allied blockade, although an academic study in 1928 put the death toll at 424,000 people.
In late 1918, a Polish government was formed and an independent Poland proclaimed. In December, Poles launched an uprising within the German province of Posen. Fighting lasted until February, when an armistice was signed that left the province in Polish hands, but technically still a German possession.
Talks between the Allies to establish a common negotiating position started on 18 January 1919, in the Salle de l'Horloge at the French Foreign Ministry on the Quai d'Orsay in Paris. Initially, 70 delegates from 27 nations participated in the negotiations. Russia was excluded due to their signing of a separate peace (the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk) and early withdrawal from the war. Furthermore, German negotiators were excluded to deny them an opportunity to divide the Allies diplomatically.
Initially, a "Council of Ten '' (comprising two delegates each from Britain, France, the United States, Italy, and Japan) met officially to decide the peace terms. This council was replaced by the "Council of Five '', formed from each countries foreign ministers, to discuss minor matters. Prime Minister of France Georges Clemenceau, Prime Minister of Italy Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom David Lloyd George, and President of the United States Woodrow Wilson formed the "Big Four '' (at one point becoming the "Big Three '' following the temporally withdrawal of Vittorio Emanuele Orlando). These four men met in 145 closed sessions to make all the major decisions, which were later ratified by the entire assembly. The minor powers attended a weekly "Plenary Conference '' that discussed issues in a general forum but made no decisions. These members formed over 50 commissions that made various recommendations, many of which were incorporated into the final text of the treaty.
France had lost 1.3 million soldiers killed, including 25 % of French men aged 18 -- 30 and 400,000 civilians. France had also been more physically damaged than any other nation (the so - called zone rouge (Red Zone)); the most industrialized region and the source of most coal and iron ore in the north - east had been devastated and in the final days of the war mines had been flooded and railways, bridges and factories destroyed. Clemenceau intended to ensure the security of France, by weakening Germany economically, militarily, territorially and by supplanting Germany as the leading producer of steel in Europe. A position, British economist and Versailles negotiator, John Maynard Keynes summarized as attempting to "set the clock back and undo what, since 1870, the progress of Germany had accomplished. ''
Clemenceau told Wilson: "America is far away, protected by the ocean. Not even Napoleon himself could touch England. You are both sheltered; we are not ''. The French wanted a frontier on the Rhine, to protect France from a German invasion and compensate for French demographic and economic inferiority. American and British representatives refused the French claim and after two months of negotiations, the French accepted a British pledge to provide an immediate alliance with France if Germany attacked again, and Wilson agreed to put a similar proposal to the Senate. Clemenceau had told the Chamber of Deputies, in December 1918, that his goal was to maintain an alliance with both countries. Clemenceau accepted the offer, in return for an occupation of the Rhineland for fifteen years and that Germany would also demilitarise the Rhineland.
French negotiators wanted reparations, to make Germany pay for the damage caused during the war and to weaken Germany. The French also wanted the iron ore and coal of the Saar Valley, by annexation to France. The French were willing to accept a smaller amount of reparations than the Americans would concede and Clemenceau was willing discuss Germany capacity to pay with the German delegation, before the final settlement was drafted. In April and May 1919, the French and Germans held separate talks, on mutually acceptable arrangements on issues like reparation, reconstruction and industrial collaboration. France, along with the British Dominions and Belgium, opposed mandates and favored annexation of former Germany colonies.
Britain had suffered little land devastation during the war. However, the British wartime coalition was re-elected during the so - called Coupon election at the end of 1918, with a policy of squeezing the German "' til the pips squeak ''. Public opinion favoured a "just peace '', which would force Germany to pay reparations and be unable to repeat the aggression of 1914, although those of a "liberal and advanced opinion '' shared Wilson 's ideal of a peace of reconciliation.
In private Lloyd George opposed revenge and attempted to compromise between Clemenceau 's demands and the Fourteen Points, because Europe would eventually have to reconcile with Germany. Lloyd George wanted terms of reparation that would not cripple the German economy, so that Germany would remain a viable economic power and trading partner. By arguing that British war pensions and widows ' allowances should be included in the German reparation sum, Lloyd George ensured that a large amount would go to the British Empire.
Lloyd George also intended to maintain a European balance of power to thwart a French attempt to establish itself as the dominant European Power. A revived Germany would be a counterweight to France and a deterrent to Bolshevik Russia. Lloyd George also wanted to neutralize the German navy to keep the Royal Navy as the greatest naval power in the world; dismantle the German colonial empire with several of its territorial possessions ceded to Britain and others being established as League of Nations mandates, a position opposed by the Dominions.
Prior to the American entry into the war, Wilson had talked of a ' peace without victory '. This position fluctuated following the US entry into the war. Wilson talked of the German aggressors who there could be no compromised peace with. However, on 8 January 1918, Wilson delivered a speech (known as the Fourteen Points) that declared the American peace objectives: the rebuilding of the European economy, self - determination of European ethnic groups, the promotion of free trade, the creation of appropriate mandates for former colonies, and above all, the creation of a powerful League of Nations that would ensure the peace. The aim of the latter was to provide a forum to revise the peace treaties as needed, and deal with problems that arose as a result of the peace and the rise of new states.
Wilson brought along top intellectuals as advisors to the American peace delegation, and the overall American position echoed the Fourteen Points. Wilson firmly opposed harsh treatment on Germany. While the British and French wanted to largely annex the German colonial empire, Wilson saw that as a violation of the fundamental principles of justice and human rights of the native populations, and favored them having the right of self - determination via the creation of mandates. The promoted idea called for the major powers to act as disinterested trustees over a region, aiding the native populations until they could govern themselves. In spite of this position and in order to ensure that Japan did not refuse to join the League of Nations, Wilson favored turning over the former German colony of Shandong, in Eastern China, to Japan rather than return the area to Chinese control. Further confounding the Americans, was US internal partisan politics. In November 1918, the Republican Party won the Senate election by a slim margin. Wilson, a Democrat, refused to include prominent Republicans in the American delegation making his efforts seem partisan, and contributed to a risk of political defeat at home.
In June 1919, the Allies declared that war would resume if the German government did not sign the treaty they had agreed to among themselves. The government headed by Philipp Scheidemann was unable to agree on a common position, and Scheidemann himself resigned rather than agree to sign the treaty. Gustav Bauer, the head of the new government, sent a telegram stating his intention to sign the treaty if certain articles were withdrawn, including Articles 227, 230 and 231. In response, the Allies issued an ultimatum stating that Germany would have to accept the treaty or face an invasion of Allied forces across the Rhine within 24 hours. On 23 June, Bauer capitulated and sent a second telegram with a confirmation that a German delegation would arrive shortly to sign the treaty. On 28 June 1919, the fifth anniversary of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (the immediate impetus for the war), the peace treaty was signed. The treaty had clauses ranging from war crimes, the prohibition on the merging of Austria with Germany without the consent of the League of Nations, freedom of navigation on major European rivers, to the returning of a Koran to the king of Hedjaz.
The treaty stripped Germany of 25,000 square miles (65,000 km) of territory and 7 million people. It also required Germany to give up the gains made via the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk and grant independence to the protectorates that had been established. In Western Europe Germany was required to recognize Belgian sovereignty over Moresnet and cede control of the Eupen - Malmedy area. Within six months of the transfer, Belgium was required to conduct a plebiscite on whether the citizens of the region wanted to remain under Belgian sovereignty or return to German control, communicate the results to the League of Nations and abide by the League 's decision. To compensate for the destruction of French coal mines, Germany was to cede the output of the Saar coalmines to France and control of the Saar to the League of Nations for 15 years; a plebiscite would then be held to decide sovereignty. The treaty "restored '' the provinces of Alsace - Lorraine to France by rescinding the treaties of Versailles and Frankfurt of 1871 as they pertained to this issue. The sovereignty of Schleswig - Holstein was to be resolved by a plebiscite to be held at a future time (see Schleswig Plebiscites).
In Eastern Europe, Germany was to recognize the independence of Czechoslovakia and cede parts of the province of Upper Silesia. Germany had to recognize the independence of Poland and renounce "all rights and title over the territory ''. Portions of Upper Silesia were to be ceded to Poland, with the future of the rest of the province to be decided by plebiscite. The border would be fixed with regard to the vote and to the geographical and economic conditions of each locality. The province of Posen (now Poznan), which had come under Polish control during the Greater Poland Uprising, was also to be ceded to Poland. Pomerelia (Eastern Pomerania), on historical and ethnic grounds, was transferred to Poland so that the new state could have access to the sea and became known as the Polish Corridor. The sovereignty of part of southern East Prussia was to be decided via plebiscite while the East Prussian Soldau area, which was astride the rail line between Warsaw and Danzig, was transferred to Poland outright without plebiscite. An area of 51,800 square kilometres (20,000 square miles) was granted to Poland at the expense of Germany. Memel was to be ceded to the Allied and Associated powers, for disposal according to their wishes. Germany was to cede the city of Danzig and its hinterland, including the delta of the Vistula River on the Baltic Sea, for the League of Nations to establish the Free City of Danzig.
Article 119 of the treaty required Germany to renounce sovereignty over former colonies and Article 22 converted the territories into League of Nations mandates under the control of Allied states. Togoland and German Kamerun (Cameroon) were transferred to France. Ruanda and Urundi were allocated to Belgium, whereas German South - West Africa went to South Africa and the United Kingdom obtained German East Africa. As compensation for the German invasion of Portuguese Africa, Portugal was granted the Kionga Triangle, a sliver of German East Africa in northern Mozambique. Article 156 of the treaty transferred German concessions in Shandong, China, to Japan, not to China. Japan was granted all German possessions in the Pacific north of the equator and those south of the equator went to Australia, except for German Samoa, which was taken by New Zealand.
The treaty was comprehensive and complex in the restrictions imposed upon the post-war German armed forces (the Reichswehr). The provisions were intended to make the Reichswehr incapable of offensive action and to encourage international disarmament. Germany was to demobilize sufficient soldiers by 31 March 1920 to leave an army of no more than 100,000 men in a maximum of seven infantry and three cavalry divisions. The treaty laid down the organisation of the divisions and support units, and the General Staff was to be dissolved. Military schools for officer training were limited to three, one school per arm, and conscription was abolished. Private soldiers and non-commissioned officers were to be retained for at least twelve years and officers for a minimum of 25 years, with former officers being forbidden to attend military exercises. To prevent Germany from building up a large cadre of trained men, the number of men allowed to leave early was limited.
The number of civilian staff supporting the army was reduced and the police force was reduced to its pre-war size, with increases limited to population increases; paramilitary forces were forbidden. The Rhineland was to be demilitarized, all fortifications in the Rhineland and 50 kilometres (31 miles) east of the river were to be demolished and new construction was forbidden. Military structures and fortifications on the islands of Heligoland and Düne were to be destroyed. Germany was prohibited from the arms trade, limits were imposed on the type and quantity of weapons and prohibited from the manufacture or stockpile of chemical weapons, armoured cars, tanks and military aircraft. The German navy was allowed six pre-dreadnought battleships and was limited to a maximum of six light cruisers (not exceeding 6,000 long tons (6,100 t)), twelve destroyers (not exceeding 800 long tons (810 t)) and twelve torpedo boats (not exceeding 200 long tons (200 t)) and was forbidden submarines. The manpower of the navy was not to exceed 15,000 men, including manning for the fleet, coast defences, signal stations, administration, other land services, officers and men of all grades and corps. The number of officers and warrant officers was not allowed to exceed 1,500 men. Germany surrendered eight battleships, eight light cruisers, forty - two destroyers, and fifty torpedo boats for decommissioning. Thirty - two auxiliary ships were to be disarmed and converted to merchant use. Article 198 prohibited Germany from having an air force, including naval air forces, and required Germany to hand over all aerial related materials. In conjunction, Germany was forbidden to manufacture or import aircraft or related material for a period of six months following the signing of the treaty.
In Article 231 Germany accepted responsibility for the losses and damages caused by the war "as a consequence of the... aggression of Germany and her allies. '' The treaty required Germany to compensate the Allied powers, and it also established an Allied "Reparation Commission '' to determine the exact amount which Germany would pay and the form that such payment would take. The commission was required to "give to the German Government a just opportunity to be heard '', and to submit its conclusions by 1 May 1921. In the interim, the treaty required Germany to pay an equivalent of 20 billion gold marks ($5 billion) in gold, commodities, ships, securities or other forms. The money would help to pay for Allied occupation costs and buy food and raw materials for Germany.
To ensure compliance, the Rhineland and bridgeheads east of the Rhine were to be occupied by Allied troops for fifteen years. If Germany had not committed aggression, a staged withdrawal would take place; after five years, the Cologne bridgehead and the territory north of a line along the Ruhr would be evacuated. After ten years, the bridgehead at Coblenz and the territories to the north would be evacuated and after fifteen years remaining Allied forces would be withdrawn. If Germany reneged on the treaty obligations, the bridgeheads would be reoccupied immediately.
Part I of the treaty, as per all the treaties signed during the Paris Peace Conference, was the Covenant of the League of Nations, which provided for the creation of the League, an organization for the arbitration of international disputes. Part XIII organized the establishment of the International Labour Officer, to regulate hours of work, including a maximum working day and week; the regulation of the labour supply; the prevention of unemployment; the provision of a living wage; the protection of the worker against sickness, disease and injury arising out of his employment; the protection of children, young persons and women; provision for old age and injury; protection of the interests of workers when employed abroad; recognition of the principle of freedom of association; the organization of vocational and technical education and other measures. The treaty also called for the signatories to sign or ratify the International Opium Convention.
The delegates of the Commonwealth and British Government had mixed thoughts on the treaty, with some seeing the French policy as being greedy and vindictive. Lloyd George and his private secretary Philip Kerr believed in the treaty, although they also felt that the French would keep Europe in a constant state of turmoil by attempting to enforce the treaty. Delegate Harold Nicolson wrote "are we making a good peace? '', while General Jan Smuts (a member of the South African delegation) wrote to Lloyd - George, before the signing, that the treaty was unstable and declared "Are we in our sober senses or suffering from shellshock? What has become of Wilson 's 14 points? '' He wanted the Germans not be made to sign at the "point of the bayonet ''. Smuts issued a statement condemning the treaty and regretting that the promises of "a new international order and a fairer, better world are not written in this treaty ''. Lord Robert Cecil said that many within the Foreign Office were disappointed by the treaty. The treaty received widespread approval from the general public. Bernadotte Schmitt wrote that the "average Englishman... thought Germany got only what it deserved '' as a result of the treaty. However, public opinion changed as German complaints mounted.
The surrendering of the German High Seas Fleet following the armistice, its internment, and eventual scuttling at Scapa Flow meant that Britain 's primary war goal was achieved prior to the signing of the treaty. As a result, British policy towards Germany began diverging from France 's almost from the moment the guns fell silent and focused on establishing Germany as a bulwark against the threat posed by the new Soviet Union.
By the 1930s, Lloyd George 's position on the treaty has changed. In 1938, he published his memoir titled The Truth About the Peace Treaties, in which he repudiated the terms of the treaty that bore his signature. Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, following the German re-militarisation of the Rhineland in 1936, stated that he was "pleased '' that the treaty was "vanishing '', expressing his hope that the French had been taught a "severe lesson ''.
The signing of the treaty was met with roars of approval, singing, and dancing from a crowd outside the Palace of Versailles. In Paris proper, people rejoiced at the official end of the war, the return of Alsace and Lorraine to France, and that Germany had agreed to pay reparations.
While France ratified the treaty and was active in the League, the jubilant mood soon gave way to a political backlash for Clemenceau. The French Right saw the treaty as being too lenient and saw it as failing to achieve all of France 's demands. Left - wing politicians attacked the treaty and Clemenceau for being too harsh (the latter turning into a ritual condemnation of the treaty, for politicians remarking on French foreign affairs, as late as August 1939). Marshal Ferdinand Foch stated "this (treaty) is not peace. It is an armistice for twenty years. ''; a criticism over the failure to annex the Rhineland and for compromising French security for the benefit of the United States and Britain. When Clemenceau stood for election as President of France in January 1920, he was defeated.
Reaction in Italy to the treaty was extremely negative. The country had suffered high casualties, yet failed to achieve most of its major war goals, notably gaining control of the Dalmatian coast and Fiume. President Wilson rejected Italy 's claims on the basis of "national self - determination. '' For their part, Britain and France -- who had been forced in the war 's latter stages to divert their own troops to the Italian front to stave off collapse -- were disinclined to support Italy 's position at the peace conference. Differences in negotiating strategy between Premier Vittorio Orlando and Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino further undermined Italy 's position at the conference. A furious Vittorio Orlando suffered a nervous collapse and at one point walked out of the conference (though he later returned). He lost his position as prime minister just a week before the treaty was scheduled to be signed, effectively ending his active political career. Anger and dismay over the treaty 's provisions helped pave the way for the establishment of Benito Mussolini 's dictatorship three years later.
Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in 1916 primarily to ensure the security of its African colonies, which were threatened with seizure by both Britain and Germany. To this extent, she succeeded in her war aims. The treaty recognized Portuguese sovereignty over these areas and awarded her small portions of Germany 's bordering overseas colonies. Otherwise, however, Portugal obtained little at the peace conference. Her promised share of German reparations never materialized, and a seat she coveted on the executive council of the new League of Nations went instead to Spain -- which had remained neutral in the war. In the end, Portugal ratified the treaty, but got little out of the war, which cost more than 8,000 Portuguese troops and as many as 100,000 of her African colonial subjects their lives.
After the Versailles conference, Democratic President Woodrow Wilson claimed that "at last the world knows America as the savior of the world! '' However, the Republican Party, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, controlled the US Senate after the election of 1918, and the senators were divided into multiple positions on the Versailles question. It proved possible to build a majority coalition, but impossible to build a two - thirds coalition that was needed to pass a treaty.
A discontent bloc of 12 -- 18 "Irreconcilables '', mostly Republicans but also representatives of the Irish and German Democrats, fiercely opposed the treaty. One block of Democrats strongly supported the Versailles Treaty, even with reservations added by Lodge. A second group of Democrats supported the treaty but followed Wilson in opposing any amendments or reservations. The largest bloc, led by Senator Lodge, comprised a majority of the Republicans. They wanted a treaty with reservations, especially on Article 10, which involved the power of the League of Nations to make war without a vote by the US Congress. All of the Irreconcilables were bitter enemies of President Wilson, and he launched a nationwide speaking tour in the summer of 1919 to refute them. However, Wilson collapsed midway with a serious stroke that effectively ruined his leadership skills.
The closest the treaty came to passage was on 19 November 1919, as Lodge and his Republicans formed a coalition with the pro-Treaty Democrats, and were close to a two - thirds majority for a Treaty with reservations, but Wilson rejected this compromise and enough Democrats followed his lead to permanently end the chances for ratification. Among the American public as a whole, the Irish Catholics and the German Americans were intensely opposed to the treaty, saying it favored the British.
After Wilson 's presidency, his successor Republican President Warren G. Harding continued American opposition to the formation of the League of Nations. Congress subsequently passed the Knox -- Porter Resolution bringing a formal end to hostilities between the United States and the Central Powers. It was signed into law by President Harding on 2 July 1921. Soon after, the US -- German Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Berlin on 25 August 1921, the US -- Austrian Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Vienna on 24 August 1921, and the US -- Hungarian Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Budapest on 29 August 1921.
Wilson 's former friend Edward Mandell House, present at the negotiations, wrote in his diary on 29 June 1919:
I am leaving Paris, after eight fateful months, with conflicting emotions. Looking at the conference in retrospect, there is much to approve and yet much to regret. It is easy to say what should have been done, but more difficult to have found a way of doing it. To those who are saying that the treaty is bad and should never have been made and that it will involve Europe in infinite difficulties in its enforcement, I feel like admitting it. But I would also say in reply that empires can not be shattered, and new states raised upon their ruins without disturbance. To create new boundaries is to create new troubles. The one follows the other. While I should have preferred a different peace, I doubt very much whether it could have been made, for the ingredients required for such a peace as I would have were lacking at Paris.
China felt betrayed as the German territory in China was handed to Japan. The sense of betrayal led to great demonstrations in China and the fall of the nascent Chinese Republic 's government and poisoned relations with the West.
On 29 April, the German delegation under the leadership of the Foreign Minister Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff - Rantzau arrived in Versailles. On 7 May, when faced with the conditions dictated by the victors, including the so - called "War Guilt Clause '', von Brockdorff - Rantzau replied to Clemenceau, Wilson and Lloyd George: "We know the full brunt of hate that confronts us here. You demand from us to confess we were the only guilty party of war; such a confession in my mouth would be a lie. '' Because Germany was not allowed to take part in the negotiations, the German government issued a protest against what it considered to be unfair demands, and a "violation of honour '', soon afterwards withdrawing from the proceedings of the peace conference.
Germans of all political shades denounced the treaty -- particularly the provision that blamed Germany for starting the war -- as an insult to the nation 's honor. They referred to the treaty as "the Diktat '' since its terms were presented to Germany on a take - it - or - leave - it basis. Germany ′ s first democratically elected head of government, Philipp Scheidemann, resigned rather than sign the treaty. In a passionate speech before the National Assembly on 21 March 1919, he called the treaty a "murderous plan '' and exclaimed,
Which hand, trying to put us in chains like these, would not wither? The treaty is unacceptable.
After Scheidemann ′ s resignation, a new coalition government was formed under Gustav Bauer. President Friedrich Ebert knew that Germany was in an impossible situation. Although he shared his countrymen 's disgust with the treaty, he was sober enough to consider the possibility that the government would not be in a position to reject it. He believed that if Germany refused to sign the treaty, the Allies would invade Germany from the west -- and there was no guarantee that the army would be able to make a stand in the event of an invasion. With this in mind, he asked Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg if the army was capable of any meaningful resistance in the event the Allies resumed the war. If there was even the slightest chance that the army could hold out, Ebert intended to recommend against ratifying the treaty. Hindenburg -- after prodding from his chief of staff, Wilhelm Groener -- concluded the army could not resume the war even on a limited scale. However, rather than inform Ebert himself, he had Groener inform the government that the army would be in an untenable position in the event of renewed hostilities. Upon receiving this, the new government recommended signing the treaty. The National Assembly voted in favour of signing the treaty by 237 to 138, with five abstentions (there were 421 delegates in total). This result was wired to Clemenceau just hours before the deadline. Foreign minister Hermann Müller and colonial minister Johannes Bell travelled to Versailles to sign the treaty on behalf of Germany. The treaty was signed on 28 June 1919 and ratified by the National Assembly on 9 July by a vote of 209 to 116.
Conservatives, nationalists and ex-military leaders condemned the treaty. Politicians of the Weimar Republic who supported the treaty, socialists, communists, and Jews were viewed with suspicion as persons of questionable loyalty. It was rumored that Jews had not supported the war and had played a role in selling Germany out to its enemies. Those who seemed to benefit from a weakened Germany and the newly formed Weimar Republic were regarded as having "stabbed Germany in the back ''. Those who instigated unrest and strikes in the critical military industries on the home front or who opposed German nationalism were seen to have contributed to Germany 's defeat. These theories were given credence by the fact that when Germany surrendered in November 1918, its armies were still on French and Belgian territory. Furthermore, on the Eastern Front, Germany had already won the war against Russia and concluded the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk. In the West, Germany had seemed to have come close to winning the war with the Spring Offensive earlier in 1918. Its failure was blamed on strikes in the arms industry at a critical moment of the offensive, leaving soldiers with an inadequate supply of materiel. The strikes were regarded by nationalists as having been instigated by traitors, with the Jews taking most of the blame.
On 5 May 1921, the reparation Commission established the London Schedule of Payments and a final reparation sum of 132 billion gold marks to be demanded of all the Central Powers. This was the public assessment of what the Central Powers combined could pay, and was also a compromise between Belgian, British, and French demands and assessments. Furthermore, the Commission recognized that the Central Powers could pay little and that the burden would fall upon Germany. As a result the sum was split into different categories, of which Germany was only required to pay 50 billion gold marks (US $12.5 billion); this being the genuine assessment of the Commission on what Germany could pay, and allowed the Allied powers to save face with the public by presenting a higher figure. Furthermore, payments made between 1919 and 1921 were taken into account reducing the sum to 41 billion gold marks.
In order to meet this sum, Germany could pay in case or kind: coal, timber, chemical dyes, pharmaceuticals, livestock, agricultural machines, construction materials, and factory machinery. Germany 's assistance with the restoration of the university library of Louvain, which was destroyed by the Germans on 25 August 1914, was also credited towards the sum. Territorial changes imposed by the treaty were also factored in. The payment schedule required US $250 million within twenty - five days and then US $500 million annually, plus 26 per cent of the value of German exports. The German Government was to issue bonds at five per cent interest and set up a sinking fund of one per cent to support the payment of reparations.
In February and March 1920, the Schleswig Plebiscites were held. The people of Schleswig were presented with only two choices: Danish or German sovereignty. The northern Danish - speaking area voted for Denmark while the southern German - speaking area voted for Germany, resulting in the province being partitioned. The East Prussia plebiscite was held on 11 July 1920. There was a 90 % turn out with 99.3 % of the population wishing to remain with Germany. Further plebiscites were held in Eupen, Malmedy, and Prussian Moresnet. On 20 September 1920, the League of Nations allotted these territories to Belgium. These latter plebiscites were followed by a boundary commission in 1922, followed by the new Belgian - German border being recognized by the German Government on on 15 December 1923. The transfer of the Hultschin area, of Silesia, to Czechoslovakia was completed on 3 February 1921.
Following the implementation of the treaty, Upper Silesia was initially governed by Britain, France, and Italy. Between 1919 - 1921, three major outbreaks of violence took place between German and Polish civilians, resulting in German and Polish military forces also becoming involved. In March 1921, the Inter-Allied Commission held the Upper Silesia plebiscite, which was peaceful despite the previous violence. The plebiscite resulted in c. 60 per cent of the population voting for the province to remain part of Germany. Following the vote, the League of Nations debated the future of the province. In 1922, Upper Silesia was partitioned: Oppeln, in the north - west, remained with Germany while Silesia Province, in the south - east, was transferred to Poland.
Memel remained under the authority of the League of Nations, with a French military garrison, until January 1923. On 9 January 1923, Lithuanian forces invaded the territory during the Klaipėda Revolt. The French garrison withdrew, and in February the Allies agreed to attach Memel as an "autonomous territory '' to Lithuania. On 8 May 1924, after negotiations between the Lithuanian Government and the Conference of Ambassadors and action by the League of Nations, the annexation of Memel was ratified. Lithuania accepted the Memel Statute, a power - sharing arrangement to protect non-Lithuanians in the territory and its autonomous status while responsibility for the territory remained with the great powers. The League of Nations mediated between the Germans and Lithuanians on a local level, helping the power - sharing arrangement last until 1939.
On 13 January 1935, 15 years after the Saar Basin had been placed under the protection of the League of Nations, a plebiscite was held to determine the future of the area. 528,105 votes were cast, with 477,119 votes (90 per cent of the ballot) in favour of union with Germany; 46,613 votes were cast for the status quo, and 2,124 votes for union with France. The region returned to German sovereignty on 1 March 1935. When the result was announced 4,100 people, including 800 refugees from Germany fled to France.
In late 1918, America, Belgian, British, and French troops entered the Rhineland to enforce the armistice. Prior to the treaty, the occupation force stood at roughly 740,000 men. Following the signing of the peace treaty, the numbers drastically decreased and by 1926 the occupation force numbered only 76,000 men. As part of the 1929 negotiations that would become the Young Plan, Stresemann and Aristide Briand negotiated the early withdrawal of Allied forces from the Rhineland. On 30 June 1930, after speeches and the lowering of flags, the last troops of the Anglo - French - Belgian occupation force withdrew from Germany.
Belgium maintained an occupation force of roughly 10,000 troops throughout the initial years. This figure fell to 7,102 by 1926, and continued to fall as a result of diplomatic developments.
The British Second Army, with some 275,000 veteran soldiers, entered Germany in late 1918. In March 1919, this force became the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR). The total number of troops committed to the occupation rapidly dwindled as veteran soldiers were demobilized, and were replaced by inexperienced men who had finished basic training following the cessation of hostilities. By 1920, the BAOR consisted of only 40,594 men and the following year had been further reduced to 12,421. The size of the BAOR fluctuated over the following years, but never rose above 9,000 men. The British did not adhere to all obligated territorial withdrawals as dictated by Versailles, on account of Germany not meeting her own treaty obligations. A complete withdrawal was considered, but rejected in order to maintain a presence to continue acting as a check on French ambitions and prevent the establishment of an autonomous Rhineland Republic.
The French Army of the Rhine was initially 250,000 men strong, including at a peak 40,000 African colonial troops (Troupes coloniales). By 1923, the French occupation force had decreased to roughly 130,000 men, including 27,126 African troops. The troop numbers peaked again at 250,000 during the occupation of the Ruhr, before decreasing to 60,000 men by 1926. Germans viewed the use of French colonial troops as a deliberate act of humiliation, and used their presence to create a propaganda campaign dubbed the Black shame. This campaign lasted throughout the 1920s and 30s, although peaked in 1920 and 1921. For example, a 1921 German Government memo detailed 300 acts of violence from colonial troops, which included 65 murders and 170 sexual offenses. Historical consensus is that the charges were exaggerated for political and propaganda purposes, and that the colonial troops behaved far better than their white counterparts. An estimated 5 - 800 Rhineland Bastards were born as a result of fraternization between colonial troops and German women, and whom would latter be persecuted.
The United States Third Army entered Germany with 200,000 men. In June 1919, the Third Army demobilized and by 1920 the US occupation force had been reduced to 15,000 men. Wilson further reduced the garrison to 6,500 men, prior to the inauguration of Warren G. Harding in 1921. On 7 January 1923, after the Franco -- Belgian occupation of the Ruhr, the US senate legislated the withdrawal of the remaining force. On 24 January, the American garrison started their withdrawal from the Rhineland, with the final troops leaving in early February.
The German economy was so weak that only a small percentage of reparations was paid in hard currency. Nonetheless, even the payment of this small percentage of the original reparations (132 billion gold marks) still placed a significant burden on the German economy. Although the causes of the devastating post-war hyperinflation are complex and disputed, Germans blamed the near - collapse of their economy on the treaty, and some economists estimated that the reparations accounted for as much as one - third of the hyper - inflation.
In March 1921, French and Belgian troops occupied Duisburg, which formed part of the demilitarized Rhineland, according to the Treaty of Versailles. In January 1923, French and Belgian forces occupied the rest of the Ruhr area as a reprisal after Germany failed to fulfill reparation payments demanded by the Versailles Treaty. The German government answered with "passive resistance '', which meant that coal miners and railway workers refused to obey any instructions by the occupation forces. Production and transportation came to a standstill, but the financial consequences contributed to German hyperinflation and completely ruined public finances in Germany. Consequently, passive resistance was called off in late 1923. The end of passive resistance in the Ruhr allowed Germany to undertake a currency reform and to negotiate the Dawes Plan, which led to the withdrawal of French and Belgian troops from the Ruhr Area in 1925.
In 1920, the head of the Reichswehr Hans von Seeckt clandestinely re-established the General Staff, by expanding the Truppenamt (Troop Office); purportedly a human resources section of the army. In March, 18,000 German troops entered the Rhineland under the guise of attempting to quell possible unrest by communists and in doing so violated the demilitarized zone. In response, French troops advanced further into Germany until the German troops withdrew.
German officials conspired systematically to evade the clauses of the treaty, by failing to meet disarmament deadlines, refusing Allied officials access to military facilities, and maintaining and hiding weapon production. As the treaty did not ban German companies from producing war material outside of Germany, companies moved to the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Sweden. Bofors was bought by Krupp, and in 1921 German troops were sent to Sweden to test weapons. The establishment of diplomatic ties with the Soviet Union, via the Genoa Conference and Treaty of Rapallo, was also used to circumvent the Treaty of Versailles. Publicly, these diplomatic exchanges were largely in regards to trade and future economic cooperation. However, secret military clauses were included that allowed for Germany to develop weapons inside the Soviet Union. Furthermore, it allowed for Germany to establish three training areas for aviation, chemical and tank warfare. In 1923, the British newspaper The Times made several claims about the state of the German Armed Forces: that it had equipment for 800,000 men, was transferring army staff to civilian positions in order to obscure their real duties, and warned of the militarization of the German police force by the exploitation the Krümper system.
The Weimar Government also funded domestic rearmament programs, which were covertly funded with the money camouflaged in "X-budgets '', worth up to an additional 10 % of the disclosed military budget. By 1925, German companies had begun to design tanks and modern artillery. During the year, over half of Chinese arms imports were German and worth 13 million Reichsmarks. In January 1927, following the withdrawal of the Allied disarmament committee, Krupps ramped up production of armor plate and artillery. Production increased so that by 1937, military exports had increased to 82,788,604 Reichsmarks. Production was not the only violation: "Volunteers '' were rapidly passed through the army to make a pool of trained reserves, and paramilitary organizations were encouraged with the illegally militarized police. Non-commissioned officers (NCOs) were not limited by the treaty, thus this loophole was exploited and as such the number of NCOs were vastly in excess to the number needed by the Reichswehr.
In December 1931, the Reichswehr finalized a second rearmament plan that called for 480 million Reichsmarks to be spent over the following five years: this program sought to provide Germany the capability of creating and supplying a defensive force of 21 divisions supported by aircraft, artillery, and tanks. This coincided with a 1 billion Reichsmark programme that planned for additional industrial infrastructure that would be able to permanently maintain this force. As these programs did not require an expansion of the military, they were nominally legal. On 7 November 1932, the Reich Minister of Defense Kurt von Schleicher authorized the illegal Umbau Plan for a standing army of 21 divisions based on 147,000 professional soldiers and a large militia. Later in the year at the World Disarmament Conference, Germany withdrew to force France and the United Kingdom to accept German equality of status. The United Kingdom attempted to get Germany to return with the promise of all nations maintaining an equality in armaments and security. The British later proposed and agreed to an increase in the Reichswehr to 200,000 men, and for Germany to have an air force half the size of the French. It was also negotiated for the French Army to be reduced.
In October 1933, following the rise of Adolf Hitler and the founding of Nazi regime, Germany withdrew from League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference. In March 1935, Germany reintroduced conscription followed by an open rearmament programme, the official unveiling of the Luftwaffe (air force), and signed the Anglo - German Naval Agreement that allowed a surface fleet 35 % of the size of the Royal Navy. The resulting rearmament programs was allotted 35 billion Reichsmarks over an eight year period.
On 7 March 1936, German troops entered and remilitarized the Rhineland. On 12 March 1938, following German pressure to the collapse the Austrian Government, German troops crossed into Austria and the following day Hitler announced the Anschluss: the annexation of Austria by Germany. The following year, on 23 March 1939, Germany annexed Memel from Lithuania.
According to David Stevenson, since the opening of French archives, most commentators have remarked on French restraint and reasonableness at the conference, though Stevenson notes that "(t) he jury is still out '', and that "there have been signs that the pendulum of judgement is swinging back the other way. ''
In his book The Economic Consequences of the Peace, John Maynard Keynes referred to the Treaty of Versailles as a "Carthaginian peace '', a misguided attempt to destroy Germany on behalf of French revanchism, rather than to follow the fairer principles for a lasting peace set out in President Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points, which Germany had accepted at the armistice. He stated: "I believe that the campaign for securing out of Germany the general costs of the war was one of the most serious acts of political unwisdom for which our statesmen have ever been responsible. '' Keynes had been the principal representative of the British Treasury at the Paris Peace Conference, and used in his passionate book arguments that he and others (including some US officials) had used at Paris. He believed the sums being asked of Germany in reparations were many times more than it was possible for Germany to pay, and that these would produce drastic instability.
French economist Étienne Mantoux disputed that analysis. During the 1940s, Mantoux wrote a posthumously published book titled The Carthaginian Peace, or the Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes in an attempt to rebut Keynes ' claims. More recently economists have argued that the restriction of Germany to a small army saved it so much money it could afford the reparations payments.
It has been argued (for instance by historian Gerhard Weinberg in his book A World At Arms) that the treaty was in fact quite advantageous to Germany. The Bismarckian Reich was maintained as a political unit instead of being broken up, and Germany largely escaped post-war military occupation (in contrast to the situation following World War II). In a 1995 essay, Weinberg noted that with the disappearance of Austria - Hungary and with Russia withdrawn from Europe, that Germany was now the dominant power in Eastern Europe.
The British military historian Correlli Barnett claimed that the Treaty of Versailles was "extremely lenient in comparison with the peace terms that Germany herself, when she was expecting to win the war, had had in mind to impose on the Allies ''. Furthermore, he claimed, it was "hardly a slap on the wrist '' when contrasted with the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk that Germany had imposed on a defeated Russia in March 1918, which had taken away a third of Russia 's population (albeit of non-Russian ethnicity), one - half of Russia 's industrial undertakings and nine - tenths of Russia 's coal mines, coupled with an indemnity of six billion marks. Eventually, even under the "cruel '' terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany ′ s economy had been restored to its pre-war status.
Barnett also claims that, in strategic terms, Germany was in fact in a superior position following the Treaty than she had been in 1914. Germany ′ s eastern frontiers faced Russia and Austria, who had both in the past balanced German power. Barnett asserts that its post-war eastern borders were safer, because the former Austrian Empire fractured after the war into smaller, weaker states, Russia was wracked by revolution and civil war, and the newly restored Poland was no match for even a defeated Germany. In the West, Germany was balanced only by France and Belgium, both of which were smaller in population and less economically vibrant than Germany. Barnett concludes by saying that instead of weakening Germany, the treaty "much enhanced '' German power. Britain and France should have (according to Barnett) "divided and permanently weakened '' Germany by undoing Bismarck 's work and partitioning Germany into smaller, weaker states so it could never have disrupted the peace of Europe again. By failing to do this and therefore not solving the problem of German power and restoring the equilibrium of Europe, Britain "had failed in her main purpose in taking part in the Great War ''.
The British historian of modern Germany, Richard J. Evans, wrote that during the war the German right was committed to an annexationist program which aimed at Germany annexing most of Europe and Africa. Consequently, any peace treaty that did not leave Germany as the conqueror would be unacceptable to them. Short of allowing Germany to keep all the conquests of the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk, Evans argued that there was nothing that could have been done to persuade the German right to accept Versailles. Evans further noted that the parties of the Weimar Coalition, namely the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), the social liberal German Democratic Party (DDP) and the Christian democratic Centre Party, were all equally opposed to Versailles, and it is false to claim as some historians have that opposition to Versailles also equalled opposition to the Weimar Republic. Finally, Evans argued that it is untrue that Versailles caused the premature end of the Republic, instead contending that it was the Great Depression of the early 1930s that put an end to German democracy. He also argued that Versailles was not the "main cause '' of National Socialism and the German economy was "only marginally influenced by the impact of reparations ''.
Ewa Thompson points out that the treaty allowed numerous nations in Central and Eastern Europe to liberate themselves from oppressive German rule, a fact that is often neglected by Western historiography, more interested in understanding the German point of view. In nations that found themselves free as the result of the treaty -- such as Poles or Czechs -- it is seen as a symbol of recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by their much larger aggressive neighbours.
Regardless of modern strategic or economic analysis, resentment caused by the treaty sowed fertile psychological ground for the eventual rise of the Nazi Party. The German historian Detlev Peukert wrote that Versailles was far from the impossible peace that most Germans claimed it was during the interwar period, and though not without flaws was actually quite reasonable to Germany. Rather, Peukert argued that it was widely believed in Germany that Versailles was a totally unreasonable treaty, and it was this "perception '' rather than the "reality '' of the Versailles treaty that mattered. Peukert noted that because of the "millenarian hopes '' created in Germany during World War I when for a time it appeared that Germany was on the verge of conquering all of Europe, any peace treaty the Allies of World War I imposed on the defeated German Reich were bound to create a nationalist backlash, and there was nothing the Allies could have done to avoid that backlash. Having noted that much, Peukert commented that the policy of rapprochement with the Western powers that Gustav Stresemann carried out between 1923 and 1929 were constructive policies that might have allowed Germany to play a more positive role in Europe, and that it was not true that German democracy was doomed to die in 1919 because of Versailles. Finally, Peukert argued that it was the Great Depression and the turn to a nationalist policy of autarky within Germany at the same time that finished off the Weimar Republic, not the Treaty of Versailles.
French historian Raymond Cartier states that millions of Germans in the Sudetenland and in Posen - West Prussia were placed under foreign rule in a hostile environment, where harassment and violation of rights by authorities are documented. Cartier asserts that, out of 1,058,000 Germans in Posen - West Prussia in 1921, 758,867 fled their homelands within five years due to Polish harassment. In 1926, the Polish Ministry of the Interior estimated the remaining number of Germans at fewer than 300,000. These sharpening ethnic conflicts would lead to public demands to reattach the annexed territory in 1938 and become a pretext for Hitler ′ s annexations of Czechoslovakia and parts of Poland.
The plebiscites initiated due to the treaty have drawn much comment. Historian Robert Peckham wrote that the issue of Schleswig "was premised on a gross simplification of the region 's history... Versailles ignored any possibility of there being a third way: the kind of compact represented by the Swiss Federation; a bilingual or even trilingual Schleswig - Holsteinian state '' or other options such as "a Schleswigian state in a loose confederation with Denmark or Germany, or an autonomous region under the protection of the League of Nations. '' In regards to the East Prussia plebiscite, historian Richard Blanke wrote that "no other contested ethnic group has ever, under un-coerced conditions, issued so one - sided a statement of its national preference ''. Richard Debo wrote "both Berlin and Warsaw believed the Soviet invasion of Poland had influenced the East Prussian plebiscites. Poland appeared so close to collapse that even Polish voters had cast their ballots for Germany ''.
In regards to the Silesian plebiscite, Blanke observed "given that the electorate was at least 60 % Polish - speaking, this means that about one ' Pole ' in three voted for Germany '' and "most Polish observers and historians '' have concluded that the outcome of plebiscite was due to "unfair German advantages of incumbency and socio - economic position ''. Blanke alleged "coercion of various kinds even in the face of an allied occupation regime '' occurred, and that Germany granted votes to those "who had been born in Upper Silesia but no longer resided there ''. Blanke concluded that despite these protests "there is plenty of other evidence, including Reichstag election results both before and after 1921 and the large - scale emigration of Polish - speaking Upper Silesians to Germany after 1945, that their identification with Germany in 1921 was neither exceptional nor temporary '' and "here was a large population of Germans and Poles -- not coincidentally, of the same Catholic religion -- that not only shared the same living space but also came in many cases to see themselves as members of the same national community ''. Prince Eustachy Sapieha, the Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs, alleged that Soviet Russia "appeared to be intentionally delaying negotiations '' to end the Polish - Soviet War "with the object of influencing the Upper Silesian plebiscite ''. Once the region was partitioned, both "Germany and Poland attempted to ' cleanse ' their shares of Upper Silesia '' via oppression resulting in Germans migrating to Germany and Poles migrating to Poland. Despite the oppression and migration, Opole Silesia "remained ethnically mixed. ''
Frank Russell wrote that, in regards to the Saar plebiscite, the inhabitants "were not terrorized at the polls '' and the "totalitarian (Nazi) German regime was not distasteful to most of the Saar inhabitants and that they preferred it even to an efficient, economical, and benevolent international rule. '' When the outcome of the vote became known, 4,100 (including 800 refugees who had previously fled Germany) residents fled over the border into France.
During the formulation of the treaty, the British wanted Germany to abolish conscription and be allowed to maintain volunteer Army. The French wanted Germany to maintain a conscript army of up to 200,000 men in order to justify their own maintenance of a similar force. Thus the treaty 's allowance of 100,000 volunteers was a compromise between the British and French positions. Germany, on the other hand, saw the terms as leaving them defenseless against any potential enemy. Bernadotte Everly Schmitt wrote that "there is no reason to believe that the Allied governments were insincere when they stated at the beginning of Part V of the Treaty... that in order to facilitate a general reduction of the armament of all nations, Germany was to be required to disarm first. '' A lack of American ratification of the treaty or joining the League of Nations left France unwilling to disarm, which resulted in a German unwillingness to rearm. Schmitt argued "had the four Allies remained united, they could have forced Germany really to disarm, and the German will and capacity to resist other provisions of the treaty would have correspondingly diminished. ''
Max Hantke and Mark Spoerer wrote "military and economic historians (have) found that the German military only insignificantly exceeded the limits '' of the treaty prior to 1933. Adam Tooze concurred, and wrote "To put this in perspective, annual military spending by the Weimar Republic was counted not in the billions but in the hundreds of millions of Reichsmarks ''; for example, the Weimar Republic 's 1931 program of 480 million Reichsmarks over five years compared to the Nazi Government 's 1933 plan to spend 4.4 billion Reichsmarks per year. P.M.H. Bell argued that the British Government was aware of latter Weimar rearming, and lent public respectability to the German efforts by not opposing them. Norman Davies wrote that "a curious oversight '' of the military restrictions were that they "did not include rockets in its list of prohibited weapons '', which provided Wernher von Braun an area to research within eventually resulting in "his break (that) came in 1943 '' leading to the development of the V - 2 rocket.
|
who sang the original always on my mind | Always on My Mind - wikipedia
"Always on My Mind '' is an American country music song by Johnny Christopher, Mark James and Wayne Carson, recorded first by Gwen McCrae (as "You Were Always On My Mind '') and Brenda Lee in 1972.
AllMusic lists over 300 recorded releases of the song in versions by dozens of performers. While Brenda Lee 's version had stalled at number 45 on the country charts in 1972, other performers would reach the top 20 in the United States and elsewhere with their own versions: Elvis Presley in 1972; John Wesley Ryles in 1979; Willie Nelson 's Grammy Award - winning version in 1982; Pet Shop Boys in 1987; Loretta Lynn in 2016.
Wayne Carson said that he wrote most of the song in 10 minutes at his kitchen table in Springfield, Missouri, and completed the song in studio with the assistance of Johnny and Mark.
Carson, who had the song about a year and one day, was finishing a recording session. Producer Chips Moman asked about recording "that mind '' song, but added it would need a bridge. Wayne went upstairs to the studio 's old piano, trying to work out a bridge, when Johnny and Mark walked in the door, and he asked for their help to complete his song.
The trio felt that the song was finished and at first could not come up with anything to add, but Wayne explained that Moman was insisting that a bridge be added. So between them, the two - line "Tell me... '' bridge was written.
The song was passed to one of Elvis 's bodyguards, who gave Presley the cut from the studio. Moman did not produce Presley 's recording, but did record the Willie Nelson version years later.
Elvis Presley recorded his version of "Always on My Mind '' on March 29, 1972, a few weeks after his February separation from wife Priscilla. The song received immense fame and critical appreciation and is considered one of the standout songs of the ' 70s for Elvis. The song was released as the B - side of the "Separate Ways '' single, which reached Gold status in the U.S for sales of over a million copies. It was listed as a double sided hit reaching number 16 on Billboard magazine 's Hot Country Singles chart in November 1972. In the UK "Always on My Mind '' was the hit song and "Separate Ways '' was the B - side. It was voted the number 1 song of Presley 's recording career in a poll conducted by ITV in 2013.
In 1979, John Wesley Ryles reached number 20 on the US country charts with his rendition, entitled "You Are Always on My Mind '', from the album Let the Night Begin. The rendition was produced by Bob Montgomery.
A review in Billboard praised the "brightly mixed vocals '' and "powerful production ''.
Willie Nelson recorded and released the song in early 1982. It raced to number one on Billboard magazine 's Hot Country Singles chart that May, spending two weeks on top and total of 21 weeks on the chart. The song also did very well on Top 40 radio, reaching number five on the Billboard Hot 100 for three weeks and staying on this chart for 23 weeks. In the year end charts, it was Billboard 's biggest Country hit for 1982. This version also charted in a number of other countries.
Nelson 's version would result in three wins at the 25th Grammy Awards in February 1983: songwriters Christopher, James and Carson won Song of the Year and Best Country Song; in addition, Nelson won for Best Male Country Vocal Performance.
This version also won Country Music Association awards in two consecutive years: 1982 Song of the Year and 1983 Song of the Year for songwriters Christopher, James and Carson; 1982 Single of the Year for Nelson, and; contributed to Nelson winning 1982 Album of the Year for the album "Always on My Mind ''.
Willie Nelson performed the number with Johnny Cash on the 1998 release of VH1 Storytellers: Johnny Cash & Willie Nelson. The song was also featured on a December 2009 ASPCA commercial.
The single was certified Platinum by the RIAA signifying U.S. sales in excess of two million. In 2008, the single was inducted to the Grammy Hall of Fame.
Nelson 's version was also featured, in its entirety, in a season two (2013) episode of the HBO television series The Newsroom.
In 1987, the Pet Shop Boys performed a synthpop version of "Always on My Mind '' on Love Me Tender, a television special on the ITV network in the UK. Commemorating the tenth anniversary of Presley 's death, the programme featured various popular acts of the time performing cover versions of his hits. The Pet Shop Boys ' performance was so well - received that the duo decided to record the song and release it as a single.
This version became the UK 's Christmas number one single that year. It went on to top the charts for four weeks in total, and reached number four on the US Billboard Hot 100.
The Pet Shop Boys version introduces a harmonic variation not present in the original version. In the original the ending phrase "always on my mind '' is sung to a IV - V - I cadence (C-D - G). The Pet Shop Boys extend this cadence by adding two further chords: C-D - Gm / B ♭ - C-G (i.e. a progression of IV - V - III - IV - I).
In November 2004, The Daily Telegraph newspaper placed the version at number two in a list of the fifty greatest cover versions of all time. In October 2014, a public poll compiled by the BBC saw the song voted the all - time best cover version.
In the video for Pet Shop Boys ' version of "Always on My Mind '' (an excerpt from their surreal music film It Could n't Happen Here), Neil Tennant and Chris Lowe are seated in the front of a taxi cab, when an eccentric passenger gets in, played by notable British actor Joss Ackland. At the end of the song, he gets out of the car, which drives away. Standing alone, he mutters: "You went away. It should make me feel better. But I do n't know how I 'm going to get through '', which is part of the lyrics for another Pet Shop Boys track, "What Have I Done to Deserve This? '', which was released earlier in the year.
In 1988, the duo remixed the song for their third studio LP, Introspective, combining it with an acid - house track called "In My House ''.
In 2008, Konami used the song for Dance Dance Revolution X which was released for both arcades and the Sony PlayStation 2 console. In 2010, the song was re-used for Dance Dance Revolution X2 which was released for arcades.
In 2017, Burberry released its Holiday campaign, as directed by Alasdair McLellan, which features "Cara Delevingne and British actor Matt Smith. It opens with Delevingne singing "Always on My Mind '' before segueing into the Pet Shop Boys cover of the song.
|
when do we light the first hanukkah candle 2013 | Hanukkah - wikipedia
Hanukkah (/ ˈhɑːnəkə / HAH - nə - kə; Hebrew: חֲנֻכָּה khanuká, Tiberian: khanuká, usually spelled חנוכה, pronounced (χanuˈka) in Modern Hebrew, (ˈχanukə) or (ˈχanikə) in Yiddish; a transliteration also romanized as Chanukah or Ḥanukah) is a Jewish holiday commemorating the rededication of the Holy Temple (the Second Temple) in Jerusalem at the time of the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire. Hanukkah is observed for eight nights and days, starting on the 25th day of Kislev according to the Hebrew calendar, which may occur at any time from late November to late December in the Gregorian calendar. It is also known as the Festival of Lights and the Feast of Dedication.
The festival is observed by lighting the candles of a candelabrum with nine branches, called a Hanukkah menorah (or hanukkiah). One branch is typically placed above or below the others and its candle is used to light the other eight candles. This unique candle is called the shamash (Hebrew: שמש , "attendant ''). Each night, one additional candle is lit by the shamash until all eight candles are lit together on the final night of the holiday. Other Hanukkah festivities include playing dreidel and eating oil - based foods such as doughnuts and latkes. Since the 1970s, the worldwide Chabad Hasidic movement has initiated public menorah lightings in open public places in many countries.
The name "Hanukkah '' derives from the Hebrew verb "חנך '', meaning "to dedicate ''. On Hanukkah, the Maccabean Jews regained control of Jerusalem and rededicated the Temple. Many homiletical explanations have been given for the name:
In Hebrew, the word Hanukkah is written חֲנֻכָּה or חנוכה (Ḥănukkāh). It is most commonly transliterated to English as Chanukah or Hanukkah, the latter because the sound represented by "CH '' ((χ), similar to the Scottish pronunciation of "loch '') is not native to the English language. Furthermore, the letter "ḥet '' (ח), which is the first letter in the Hebrew spelling, is pronounced differently in modern Hebrew (voiceless uvular fricative) from in classical Hebrew (voiceless pharyngeal fricative (ħ)), and neither of those sounds is unambiguously representable in English spelling. Moreover, the ' kaf ' consonant is geminate in classical (but not modern) Hebrew. Adapting the classical Hebrew pronunciation with the geminate and pharyngeal Ḥeth can lead to the spelling "Hanukkah ''; while adapting the modern Hebrew pronunciation with no gemination and uvular Ḥeth leads to the spelling "Chanukah ''.
The story of Hanukkah is preserved in the books of the First and Second Maccabees, which describe in detail the re-dedication of the Temple in Jerusalem and the lighting of the menorah. These books are not part of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) which came from the Palestinian canon; however, they were part of the Alexandrian canon which is also called the Septuagint (sometimes abbreviated LXX). Both books are included in the Old Testament used by the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, since those churches consider the books deuterocanonical. They are not included in the Old Testament books in most Protestant Bibles since most Protestants consider the books apocryphal. Multiple references to Hanukkah are also made in the Mishna (Bikkurim 1: 6, Rosh HaShanah 1: 3, Taanit 2: 10, Megillah 3: 4 and 3: 6, Moed Katan 3: 9, and Bava Kama 6: 6), though specific laws are not described. The miracle of the one - day supply of oil miraculously lasting eight days is first described in the Talmud, committed to writing about 600 years after the events described in the books of Maccabees.
Rav Nissim Gaon postulates in his Hakdamah Le'mafteach Hatalmud that information on the holiday was so commonplace that the Mishna felt no need to explain it. A modern - day scholar Reuvein Margolies suggests that as the Mishnah was redacted after the Bar Kochba revolt, its editors were reluctant to include explicit discussion of a holiday celebrating another relatively recent revolt against a foreign ruler, for fear of antagonizing the Romans.
The Gemara (Talmud), in tractate Shabbat, page 21b, focuses on Shabbat candles and moves to Hanukkah candles and says that after the forces of Antiochus IV had been driven from the Temple, the Maccabees discovered that almost all of the ritual olive oil had been profaned. They found only a single container that was still sealed by the High Priest, with enough oil to keep the menorah in the Temple lit for a single day. They used this, yet it burned for eight days (the time it took to have new oil pressed and made ready).
The Talmud presents three options:
Except in times of danger, the lights were to be placed outside one 's door, on the opposite side of the mezuza, or in the window closest to the street. Rashi, in a note to Shabbat 21b, says their purpose is to publicize the miracle. The blessings for Hanukkah lights are discussed in tractate Succah, p. 46a.
The Jewish historian Titus Flavius Josephus narrates in his book, Jewish Antiquities XII, how the victorious Judas Maccabeus ordered lavish yearly eight - day festivities after rededicating the Temple in Jerusalem that had been profaned by Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Josephus does not say the festival was called Hanukkah but rather the "Festival of Lights '':
The story of Hanukkah is alluded to in the book of 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees. The eight - day rededication of the temple is described in 1 Maccabees 4: 36 -- 4: 59, though the name of the festival and the miracle of the lights do not appear here. A story similar in character, and obviously older in date, is the one alluded to in 2 Maccabees 1: 18 -- 1: 36 according to which the relighting of the altar fire by Nehemiah was due to a miracle which occurred on the 25th of Kislev, and which appears to be given as the reason for the selection of the same date for the rededication of the altar by Judah Maccabee. The above account in 1 Maccabees 4, as well as 2 Maccabees 1: 9 portrays the feast as a delayed observation of the eight - day Feast of Booths (Sukkot) "; similarly 2 Maccabees 10: 6 explains the length of the feast as "in the manner of the Feast of Booths ''.
Another source is the Megillat Antiochus. This work (also known as "Megillat Benei Ḥashmonai '', "Megillat Hanukkah '', or "Megillat Yevanit '') is extant in both the Aramaic and Hebrew languages; the Hebrew version is a literal translation from the Aramaic original. Recent scholarship dates it to somewhere between the 2nd and 5th Centuries, probably in the 2nd century, with the Hebrew dating to the 7th century. It was published for the first time in Mantua in 1557. Saadia Gaon, who translated it into Arabic in the 9th century, ascribed it to the elders of the School of Shammai and the School of Hillel. The Hebrew text with an English translation can be found in the Siddur of Philip Birnbaum.
The Scroll of Antiochus concludes with the following words:
... After this, the sons of Israel went up to the Temple and rebuilt its gates and purified the Temple from the dead bodies and from the defilement. And they sought after pure olive oil to light the lamps therewith, but could not find any, except one bowl that was sealed with the signet ring of the High Priest from the days of Samuel the prophet and they knew that it was pure. There was in it (enough oil) to light (the lamps therewith) for one day, but the God of heaven whose name dwells there put therein his blessing and they were able to light from it eight days. Therefore, the sons of Ḥashmonai made this covenant and took upon themselves a solemn vow, they and the sons of Israel, all of them, to publish amongst the sons of Israel, (to the end) that they might observe these eight days of joy and honour, as the days of the feasts written in (the book of) the Law; (even) to light in them so as to make known to those who come after them that their God wrought for them salvation from heaven. In them, it is not permitted to mourn, neither to decree a fast (on those days), and anyone who has a vow to perform, let him perform it.
Original language (Aramaic):
In the Christian Greek Scriptures, John 10: 22 -- 23 says Jesus walked in Solomon 's Porch at the Jerusalem Temple during "the Feast of Dedication and it was winter. '' The Greek term that is used is "the renewals '' (Greek ta enkainia τὰ ἐγκαίνια). The Hebrew word for "dedication '' is Hanukkah. The Aramaic New Testament uses the Aramaic word Khawdata (a close synonym), which literally means "renewal '' or "to make new. '' Josephus refers to the festival as "lights. ''
Judea was part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt until 200 BCE when King Antiochus III the Great of Syria defeated King Ptolemy V Epiphanes of Egypt at the Battle of Panium. Judea then became part of the Seleucid Empire of Syria. King Antiochus III the Great wanting to conciliate his new Jewish subjects guaranteed their right to "live according to their ancestral customs '' and to continue to practice their religion in the Temple of Jerusalem. However, in 175 BCE, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the son of Antiochus III, invaded Judea, at the request of the sons of Tobias. The Tobiads, who led the Hellenizing Jewish faction in Jerusalem, were expelled to Syria around 170 BCE when the high priest Onias and his pro-Egyptian faction wrested control from them. The exiled Tobiads lobbied Antiochus IV Epiphanes to recapture Jerusalem. As Flavius Josephus relates:
The king being thereto disposed beforehand, complied with them, and came upon the Jews with a great army, and took their city by force, and slew a great multitude of those that favored Ptolemy, and sent out his soldiers to plunder them without mercy. He also spoiled the temple, and put a stop to the constant practice of offering a daily sacrifice of expiation for three years and six months.
When the Second Temple in Jerusalem was looted and services stopped, Judaism was outlawed. In 167 BCE, Antiochus ordered an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple. He banned brit milah (circumcision) and ordered pigs to be sacrificed at the altar of the temple.
Antiochus 's actions provoked a large - scale revolt. Mattathias (Mattityahu), a Jewish priest, and his five sons Jochanan, Simeon, Eleazar, Jonathan, and Judah led a rebellion against Antiochus. It started with Mattathias killing first, a Jew who wanted to comply with Antiochus 's order to sacrifice to Zeus, and then a Greek official who was to enforce the government 's behest (1 Mac. 2, 24 -- 25). Judah became known as Yehuda HaMakabi ("Judah the Hammer ''). By 166 BCE Mattathias had died, and Judah took his place as leader. By 165 BCE the Jewish revolt against the Seleucid monarchy was successful. The Temple was liberated and rededicated. The festival of Hanukkah was instituted to celebrate this event. Judah ordered the Temple to be cleansed, a new altar to be built in place of the polluted one and new holy vessels to be made. According to the Talmud, unadulterated and undefiled pure olive oil with the seal of the kohen gadol (high priest) was needed for the menorah in the Temple, which was required to burn throughout the night every night. The story goes that one flask was found with only enough oil to burn for one day, yet it burned for eight days, the time needed to prepare a fresh supply of kosher oil for the menorah. An eight - day festival was declared by the Jewish sages to commemorate this miracle.
The version of the story in 1 Maccabees states that an eight - day celebration of songs and sacrifices was proclaimed upon re-dedication of the altar, and makes no specific mention of the miracle of the oil.
Some modern scholars argue that the king was intervening in an internal civil war between the Maccabean Jews and the Hellenized Jews in Jerusalem.
These competed violently over who would be the High Priest, with traditionalists with Hebrew / Aramaic names like Onias contesting with Hellenizing High Priests with Greek names like Jason and Menelaus. In particular, Jason 's Hellenistic reforms would prove to be a decisive factor leading to eventual conflict within the ranks of Judaism. Other authors point to possible socioeconomic reasons in addition to the religious reasons behind the civil war.
What began in many respects as a civil war escalated when the Hellenistic kingdom of Syria sided with the Hellenizing Jews in their conflict with the traditionalists. As the conflict escalated, Antiochus took the side of the Hellenizers by prohibiting the religious practices the traditionalists had rallied around. This may explain why the king, in a total departure from Seleucid practice in all other places and times, banned a traditional religion.
The miracle of the oil is widely regarded as a legend and its authenticity has been questioned since the Middle Ages. However, given the famous question Rabbi Yosef Karo posed concerning why Hanukkah is celebrated for eight days when the miracle was only for seven days (since there was enough oil for one day), it was clear that he believed it was a historical event. This belief has been adopted by most of Orthodox Judaism, in as much as Rabbi Karo 's Shulchan Aruch is a main Code of Jewish Law.
Selected battles between the Maccabees and the Seleucid Syrian - Greeks:
Hanukkah is celebrated with a series of rituals that are performed every day throughout the 8 - day holiday, some are family - based and others communal. There are special additions to the daily prayer service, and a section is added to the blessing after meals.
Hanukkah is not a "Sabbath - like '' holiday, and there is no obligation to refrain from activities that are forbidden on the Sabbath, as specified in the Shulkhan Arukh. Adherents go to work as usual but may leave early in order to be home to kindle the lights at nightfall. There is no religious reason for schools to be closed, although in Israel schools close from the second day for the whole week of Hanukkah. Many families exchange gifts each night, such as books or games, and "Hanukkah Gelt '' is often given to children. Fried foods (such as latkes (potato pancakes), jelly doughnuts (sufganiyot), and Sephardic bimuelos) are eaten to commemorate the importance of oil during the celebration of Hanukkah. Some also have a custom of eating dairy products to remember Judith and how she overcame Holofernes by feeding him cheese, which made him thirsty, and giving him wine to drink. When Holofernes became very drunk, Judith cut off his head.
Each night throughout the 8 day holiday, a candle or oil - based light is lit. As a universally practiced "beautification '' (hiddur mitzvah) of the mitzvah, the number of lights lit is increased by one each night. An extra light called a shamash, meaning "attendant '' or "sexton, '' is also lit each night, and is given a distinct location, usually higher, lower, or to the side of the others.
Among Ashkenazim the tendency is for every male member of the household (and in many families, girls as well) to light a full set of lights each night, while among Sephardim the prevalent custom is to have one set of lights for the entire household.
The purpose of the shamash is to adhere to the prohibition, specified in the Talmud (Tractate Shabbat 21b -- 23a), against using the Hanukkah lights for anything other than publicizing and meditating on the Hanukkah miracle. This differs from Sabbath candles which are meant to be used for illumination and lighting. Hence, if one were to need extra illumination on Hanukkah, the shamash candle would be available, and one would avoid using the prohibited lights. Some, especially Ashkenazim, light the shamash candle first and then use it to light the others. So altogether, including the shamash, two lights are lit on the first night, three on the second and so on, ending with nine on the last night, for a total of 44 (36, excluding the shamash). It is Sephardic custom not to light the shamash first and use it to light the rest. Instead, the shamash candle is the last to be lit, and a different candle or a match is used to light all the candles. Some Hasidic Jews follow this Sephardic custom as well.
The lights can be candles or oil lamps. Electric lights are sometimes used and are acceptable in places where open flame is not permitted, such as a hospital room, or for the very elderly and infirm; however, those who permit reciting a blessing over electric lamps only allow it if it is incandescent and battery operated (an incandescent flashlight would be acceptable for this purpose), while a blessing may not be recited over a plug - in menorah or lamp. Most Jewish homes have a special candelabrum referred to as either a Chanukiah (the modern Israeli term) or a menorah (the traditional name, simply Hebrew for ' lamp '). Many families use an oil lamp (traditionally filled with olive oil) for Hanukkah. Like the candle Chanukiah, it has eight wicks to light plus the additional shamash light.
In the United States, Hanukkah became a more visible festival in the public sphere from the 1970s when Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson called for public awareness and observance of the festival and encouraged the lighting of public menorahs. Diane Ashton attributed the increased visibility and reinvention of Hanukkah by some of the American Jewish community as a way to adapt to American life, re-inventing the festival in "the language of individualism and personal conscience derived from both Protestantism and the Enlightenment ''.
The reason for the Hanukkah lights is not for the "lighting of the house within '', but rather for the "illumination of the house without, '' so that passersby should see it and be reminded of the holiday 's miracle (i.e. that the sole cruse of pure oil found which held enough oil to burn for one night actually burned for eight nights). Accordingly, lamps are set up at a prominent window or near the door leading to the street. It is customary amongst some Ashkenazi Jews to have a separate menorah for each family member (customs vary), whereas most Sephardi Jews light one for the whole household. Only when there was danger of antisemitic persecution were lamps supposed to be hidden from public view, as was the case in Persia under the rule of the Zoroastrians, or in parts of Europe before and during World War II. However, most Hasidic groups light lamps near an inside doorway, not necessarily in public view. According to this tradition, the lamps are placed on the opposite side from the mezuzah, so that when one passes through the door s / he is surrounded by the holiness of mitzvot (the commandments).
Generally, women are exempt in Jewish law from time - bound positive commandments, although the Talmud requires that women engage in the mitzvah of lighting Hanukkah candles "for they too were involved in the miracle. ''
Hanukkah lights should usually burn for at least half an hour after it gets dark. The custom of many is to light at sundown, although most Hasidim light later. Many Hasidic Rebbes light much later to fulfill the obligation of publicizing the miracle by the presence of their Hasidim when they kindle the lights.
Inexpensive small wax candles sold for Hanukkah burn for approximately half an hour so should be lit no earlier than nightfall. Friday night presents a problem, however. Since candles may not be lit on Shabbat itself, the candles must be lit before sunset. However, they must remain lit through the lighting of the Shabbat candles. Therefore, the Hanukkah menorah is lit first with larger candles than usual, followed by the Shabbat candles. At the end of the Shabbat, there are those who light the Hanukkah lights before Havdalah and those who make Havdalah before the lighting Hanukkah lights.
If for whatever reason one did n't light at sunset or nightfall, the lights should be kindled later, as long as there are people in the streets. Later than that, the lights should still be kindled, but the blessings should be recited only if there is at least somebody else awake in the house and present at the lighting of the Hannukah lights.
Typically two blessings (brachot; singular: brachah) are recited during this eight - day festival when lighting the candles. On the first night, the shehecheyanu blessing is added, making a total of three blessings.
The blessings are said before or after the candles are lit depending on tradition. On the first night of Hanukkah one light (candle or oil) is lit on the right side of the menorah, on the following night a second light is placed to the left of the first but it is lit first, and so on, proceeding from placing candles right to left but lighting them from left to right over the eight nights.
בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה ה ', אֱ - לֹהֵינוּ מֶלֶךְ הָעוֹלָם, אֲשֶׁר קִדְּשָׁנוּ בְּמִצְוֹתָיו, וְצִוָּנוּ לְהַדְלִיק נֵר חֲנֻכָּה.
Transliteration: Barukh ata Adonai Eloheinu, melekh ha'olam, asher kid'shanu b'mitzvotav v'tzivanu l'hadlik ner shel Hanukkah.
Translation: "Blessed are You, LORD our God, King of the universe, Who has sanctified us with His commandments and commanded us to kindle the Hanukkah light (s). ''
בָּרוּךְ אַתָּה ה ' אֱ - לֹהֵינוּ מֶלֶךְ הָעוֹלָם, שֶׁעָשָׂה נִסִּים לַאֲבוֹתֵֽינוּ בַּיָּמִים הָהֵם בַּזְּמַן הַזֶּה.
Transliteration: Barukh ata Adonai Eloheinu, melekh ha'olam, she'asa nisim la'avoteinu ba'yamim ha'heim ba'z'man ha'ze.
Translation: "Blessed are You, LORD our God, King of the universe, Who performed miracles for our ancestors in those days at this time... ''
After the lights are kindled the hymn Hanerot Halalu is recited. There are several different versions; the version presented here is recited in many Ashkenazic communities:
In the Ashkenazi tradition, each night after the lighting of the candles, the hymn Ma'oz Tzur is sung. The song contains six stanzas. The first and last deal with general themes of divine salvation, and the middle four deal with events of persecution in Jewish history, and praises God for survival despite these tragedies (the exodus from Egypt, the Babylonian captivity, the miracle of the holiday of Purim, the Hasmonean victory), and a longing for the days when Judea will finally triumph over Rome.
The song was composed in the thirteenth century by a poet only known through the acrostic found in the first letters of the original five stanzas of the song: Mordechai. The familiar tune is most probably a derivation of a German Protestant church hymn or a popular folk song.
After lighting the candles and Ma'oz Tzur, singing other Hanukkah songs is customary in many Jewish homes. Some Hasidic and Sephardi Jews recite Psalms, such as Psalms 30, Psalms 67, and Psalms 91. In North America and in Israel it is common to exchange presents or give children presents at this time. In addition, many families encourage their children to give tzedakah (charity) in lieu of presents for themselves.
An addition is made to the "hoda'ah '' (thanksgiving) benediction in the Amidah (thrice - daily prayers), called Al ha - Nissim ("On / about the Miracles ''). This addition refers to the victory achieved over the Syrians by the Hasmonean Mattathias and his sons.
The same prayer is added to the grace after meals. In addition, the Hallel (praise) (Psalms 113 -- Psalms 118) are sung during each morning service and the Tachanun penitential prayers are omitted.
The Torah is read every day in the shacharit morning services in synagogue, on the first day beginning from Numbers 6: 22 (according to some customs, Numbers 7: 1), and the last day ending with Numbers 8: 4. Since Hanukkah lasts eight days it includes at least one, and sometimes two, Jewish Sabbaths (Saturdays). The weekly Torah portion for the first Sabbath is almost always Miketz, telling of Joseph 's dream and his enslavement in Egypt. The Haftarah reading for the first Sabbath Hanukkah is Zechariah 2: 14 -- Zechariah 4: 7. When there is a second Sabbath on Hanukkah, the Haftarah reading is from 1Kings 7: 40 -- 1Kings 7: 50.
The Hanukkah menorah is also kindled daily in the synagogue, at night with the blessings and in the morning without the blessings.
The menorah is not lit during Shabbat, but rather prior to the beginning of Shabbat as described above and not at all during the day. During the Middle Ages "Megillat Antiochus '' was read in the Italian synagogues on Hanukkah just as the Book of Esther is read on Purim. It still forms part of the liturgy of the Yemenite Jews.
The last day of Hanukkah is known by some as Zot Hanukkah and by others as Chanukat HaMizbeach, from the verse read on this day in the synagogue Numbers 7: 84, Zot Hanukkat Hamizbe'ach: "This was the dedication of the altar ''. According to the teachings of Kabbalah and Hasidism, this day is the final "seal '' of the High Holiday season of Yom Kippur and is considered a time to repent out of love for God. In this spirit, many Hasidic Jews wish each other Gmar chatimah tovah ("may you be sealed totally for good ''), a traditional greeting for the Yom Kippur season. It is taught in Hasidic and Kabbalistic literature that this day is particularly auspicious for the fulfillment of prayers.
It is customary for women not to work for at least the first half - hour of the candles ' burning, and some have the custom not to work for the entire time of burning. It is also forbidden to fast or to eulogize during Hanukkah.
A large number of songs have been written on Hanukkah themes, perhaps more so than for any other Jewish holiday. Some of the best known are "Ma'oz Tzur '' (Rock of Ages), "Latke'le Latke'le '' (Yiddish song about cooking Latkes), "Hanukkiah Li Yesh '' ("I Have a Hanukkah Menorah ''), "Ocho Kandelikas '' ("Eight Little Candles ''), "Kad Katan '' ("A Small Jug ''), "S'vivon Sov Sov Sov '' ("Dreidel, Spin and Spin ''), "Haneirot Halolu '' ("These Candles which we light ''), "Mi Yimalel '' ("Who can Retell '') and "Ner Li, Ner Li '' ("I have a Candle ''). Among the most well known songs in English - speaking countries are "Dreidel, Dreidel, Dreidel '' and "Oh Chanukah ''.
Among the Rebbes of the Nadvorna Hasidic dynasty, it is customary for the Rebbes to play violin after the menorah is lit.
Penina Moise 's Hannukah Hymn published in the 1842 Hymns Written for the Use of Hebrew Congregations was instrumental in the beginning of Americanization of Hanukkah.
There is a custom of eating foods fried or baked in oil (preferably olive oil) to commemorate the miracle of a small flask of oil keeping the Second Temple 's Menorah alight for eight days. Traditional foods include potato pancakes, known as latkes in Yiddish, especially among Ashkenazi families. Sephardi, Polish, and Israeli families eat jam - filled doughnuts (Yiddish: פאנטשקעס pontshkes), bimuelos (fritters) and sufganiyot which are deep - fried in oil. Hungarian Jews eat cheese pancakes known as "cheese latkes ''.
Latkes are not popular in Israel, having been largely replaced by sufganiyot due to local economic factors, convenience and the influence of trade unions. Bakeries in Israel have popularized many new types of fillings for sufganiyot besides the traditional strawberry jelly filling, including chocolate cream, vanilla cream, caramel, cappuccino and others. In recent years, downsized, "mini '' sufganiyot containing half the calories of the regular, 400 - to - 600 - calorie version, have become popular.
Rabbinic literature also records a tradition of eating cheese and other dairy products during Hanukkah. This custom, as mentioned above, commemorates the heroism of Judith during the Babylonian captivity of the Jews and reminds us that women also played an important role in the events of Hanukkah. The deuterocanonical book of Judith (Yehudit or Yehudis in Hebrew), which is not part of the Tanakh, records that Holofernes, an Assyrian general, had surrounded the village of Bethulia as part of his campaign to conquer Judea. After intense fighting, the water supply of the Jews was cut off and the situation became desperate. Judith, a pious widow, told the city leaders that she had a plan to save the city. Judith went to the Assyrian camps and pretended to surrender. She met Holofernes, who was smitten by her beauty. She went back to his tent with him, where she plied him with cheese and wine. When he fell into a drunken sleep, Judith beheaded him and escaped from the camp, taking the severed head with her (the beheading of Holofernes by Judith has historically been a popular theme in art). When Holofernes ' soldiers found his corpse, they were overcome with fear; the Jews, on the other hand, were emboldened and launched a successful counterattack. The town was saved, and the Assyrians defeated.
Roast goose has historically been a traditional Hanukkah food among Eastern European and American Jews, although the custom has declined in recent decades.
After lighting the candles, it is customary to play (or spin) the dreidel. The dreidel, or sevivon in Hebrew, is a four - sided spinning top that children play with during Hanukkah. Each side is imprinted with a Hebrew letter which is an abbreviation for the Hebrew words נס גדול היה שם (Nes Gadol Haya Sham, "A great miracle happened there ''), referring to the miracle of the oil that took place in the Beit Hamikdash. On dreidels sold in Israel, the fourth side is inscribed with the letter פ (Pe), rendering the acronym נס גדול היה פה (Nes Gadol Haya Po, "A great miracle happened here ''), referring to the fact that the miracle occurred in the land of Israel, although this is a relatively recent innovation. Stores in Haredi neighborhoods sell the traditional Shin dreidels as well, because they understand "there '' to refer to the Temple and not the entire Land of Israel, and because the Hasidic Masters ascribe significance to the traditional letters.
Chanukkah gelt (Yiddish for "Chanukkah money '') known in Israel by the Hebrew translation dmei Hanukkah, is often distributed to children during the festival of Hanukkah. The giving of Hanukkah gelt also adds to the holiday excitement. The amount is usually in small coins, although grandparents or relatives may give larger sums. The tradition of giving Chanukah gelt dates back to a long - standing East European custom of children presenting their teachers with a small sum of money at this time of year as a token of gratitude. One minhag favors the fifth night of Hanukkah for giving Hanukkah gelt. Unlike the other nights of Hanukkah, the fifth does not ever fall on the Shabbat, hence never conflicting with the Halachic injunction against handling money on the Shabbat.
The United States has a history of recognizing and celebrating Hanukkah in a number of ways. The earliest Hanukkah link with the White House occurred in 1951 when Israeli Prime Minister David Ben - Gurion presented United States President Harry Truman with a Hanukkah Menorah. In 1979 president Jimmy Carter took part in the first public Hanukkah candle - lighting ceremony of the National Menorah held across the White House lawn. In 1989, President George H.W. Bush displayed a menorah in the White House. In 1993, President Bill Clinton invited a group of schoolchildren to the Oval Office for a small ceremony.
The United States Postal Service has released several Hanukkah - themed postage stamps. In 1996 the United States Postal Service (USPS) issued a 32 cent Hanukkah stamp as a joint issue with Israel. In 2004 after 8 years of reissuing the menorah design, the USPS issued a dreidel design for the Hanukkah stamp. The dreidel design was used through 2008. In 2009 a Hanukkah stamp was issued with a design featured a photograph of a menorah with nine lit candles.
In 2001, President George W. Bush held an official Hanukkah reception in the White House in conjunction with the candle - lighting ceremony, and since then this ceremony has become an annual tradition attended by Jewish leaders from around the country. In 2008, George Bush linked the occasion to the 1951 gift by using that menorah for the ceremony, with a grandson of Ben - Gurion and a grandson of Truman lighting the candles.
In December 2014, two Hanukkah celebrations were held at the White House. The White House commissioned a menorah made by students at the Max Rayne school in Israel and invited two of its students to join U.S. President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama as they welcomed over 500 guests to the celebration. The students ' school in Israel had been subjected to arson by extremists. President Obama said these "students teach us an important lesson for this time in our history. The light of hope must outlast the fires of hate. That 's what the Hanukkah story teaches us. It 's what our young people can teach us -- that one act of faith can make a miracle, that love is stronger than hate, that peace can triumph over conflict. '' Rabbi Angela Warnick Buchdahl, in leading prayers at the ceremony commented on the how special the scene was, asking the President if he believed America 's founding fathers could possibly have pictured that a female Asian - American rabbi would one day be at the White House leading Jewish prayers in front of the African - American president.
The dates of Hanukkah are determined by the Hebrew calendar. Hanukkah begins at the 25th day of Kislev and concludes on the 2nd or 3rd day of Tevet (Kislev can have 29 or 30 days). The Jewish day begins at sunset. Hanukkah begins at sunset of the date listed.
In 2013, on 28 November, the American holiday of Thanksgiving fell during Hanukkah for only the third time since Thanksgiving was declared a national holiday by President Abraham Lincoln. The last time was 1899; and due to the Gregorian and Jewish calendars being slightly out of sync with each other, it will not happen again in the foreseeable future. This convergence prompted the creation of the portmanteau neologism Thanksgivukkah.
Major Jewish holidays are those when all forms of work are forbidden, and that feature traditional holiday meals, kiddush, holiday candle - lighting, etc. Only biblical holidays fit these criteria, and Chanukah was instituted some two centuries after the Hebrew Bible was completed. Nevertheless, though Chanukah is of rabbinic origin, it is traditionally celebrated in a major and very public fashion. The requirement to position the menorah, or Chanukiah, at the door or window, symbolizes the desire to give the Chanukah miracle a high - profile.
Some Jewish historians suggest a different explanation for the rabbinic reluctance to laud the militarism. First, the rabbis wrote after Hasmonean leaders had led Judea into Rome 's grip and so may not have wanted to offer the family much praise. Second, they clearly wanted to promote a sense of dependence on God, urging Jews to look toward the divine for protection. They likely feared inciting Jews to another revolt that might end in disaster, like the CE 135 experience.
With the advent of Zionism and the state of Israel, however, these themes were reconsidered. In modern Israel, the national and military aspects of Hanukkah became, once again, more dominant.
In North America especially, Hanukkah gained increased importance with many Jewish families in the latter part of the 20th century, including among large numbers of secular Jews, who wanted a Jewish alternative to the Christmas celebrations that often overlap with Hanukkah. Though it was traditional among Ashkenazi Jews to give "gelt '' or money to children during Hanukkah, in many families this has been supplemented with other gifts so that Jewish children can enjoy gifts just as their Christmas - celebrating peers do.
While Hanukkah is a relatively minor Jewish holiday, as indicated by the lack of religious restrictions on work other than a few minutes after lighting the candles, in North America, Hanukkah in the 21st century has taken a place equal to Passover as a symbol of Jewish identity. Both the Israeli and North American versions of Hanukkah emphasize resistance, focusing on some combination of national liberation and religious freedom as the defining meaning of the holiday.
Some Jews in North America and Israel have taken up environmental concerns in relation to Hanukkah 's "miracle of the oil '', emphasizing reflection on energy conservation and energy independence. An example of this is the Coalition on the Environment and Jewish Life 's renewable energy campaign.
An entire room of Paris 's Museum of Jewish Art and History is dedicated to Hanukkah, through an exceptional collection of Hanukkiyot, in a variety of shapes and designs, origins and periods. This panorama stands as a metaphor for the great diversity of Jewish customs throughout the world.
France, 14th century
France, 16th century
Germany, 17th century
Italy, 18th century
Poland, 18th century
France, 19th century
Europe, 19th century
Yemen, 20th century
Tunisia, 20th century
Israel, 20th century
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Kaufmann, Kohler (1901 -- 1906). "ḤANUKKAH ''. In Singer, Isidore; et al. Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
|
where does let's make a deal get their money | Let 's Make a Deal - wikipedia
Let 's Make a Deal is a television game show that originated in the United States in 1963 and has since been produced in many countries throughout the world. The program was created and produced by Stefan Hatos and Monty Hall, the latter serving as its host for many years.
The format of Let 's Make a Deal involves selected members of the studio audience, referred to as "traders, '' making deals with the host. In most cases, a trader will be offered something of value and given a choice of whether to keep it or exchange it for a different item. The program 's defining game mechanism is that the other item is hidden from the trader until that choice is made. The trader thus does not know if he or she is getting something of greater value or a prize that is referred to as a "zonk, '' an item purposely chosen to be of little or no value to the trader.
Let 's Make a Deal is also known for audience members who dress up in outrageous or crazy costumes in order to increase their chances of being selected as a trader.
The most recent edition of Let 's Make a Deal has been airing on CBS since October 5, 2009, when it took over the spot on the network 's daytime schedule vacated by the long running soap opera Guiding Light. Wayne Brady is the host of the current series, with Jonathan Mangum as his announcer / assistant. Tiffany Coyne is the current model, joining in 2010, with musician Cat Gray in 2011.
Let 's Make a Deal first aired on NBC in 1963 as part of its daytime schedule. The show moved to ABC in 1968, where it remained until 1976; and on two separate occasions the show was given a weekly nighttime spot on those networks. The first syndicated edition of Let 's Make a Deal premiered in 1971. Distributed by ABC Films, and then by its successor Worldvision Enterprises once the fin - syn rules were enacted, the series ran until 1977 and aired weekly.
A revival of the series based in Hall 's native Canada was launched in 1980 and aired in syndication on American and Canadian stations for one season. This series was produced by Catalena Productions and distributed in America by Rhodes Productions, Catalena 's partner company. In the fall of 1984, the series returned for a third run in syndication as The All - New Let 's Make a Deal. Running for two seasons until 1986, this series was distributed by Telepictures.
NBC revived Let 's Make a Deal twice in a thirteen - year span. The first was a daytime series in 1990 that was the first to not be produced or hosted by Monty Hall. Instead, the show was a production of Ron Greenberg and Dick Clark, and featured Bob Hilton (best known for announcing other game shows) as host (although Hall would eventually return as host for special episodes).
A primetime edition was launched in 2003 but drew poor ratings and was cancelled after three of its intended five episodes had aired. This version had CNN reporter Billy Bush as host, and had a significantly larger budget.
A partial remake called Big Deal, hosted by Mark DeCarlo, was broadcast on Fox in 1996. In 1998 and 1999, Buena Vista Television (now Disney -- ABC Domestic Television) was in talks with Stone - Stanley (the producers of Big Deal) to create a revival hosted by Gordon Elliott, but it was never picked up. The show was one of several used as part of the summer series Gameshow Marathon on CBS in 2006, hosted by Ricki Lake.
As noted above, CBS revived Let 's Make a Deal in 2009. The revival premiered on October 5, 2009, and CBS airs the show daily at 10: 00 am and 3: 00 pm Eastern time (9: 00 am and 2: 00 pm in other time zones). Like the program that it replaced, the long - running soap opera Guiding Light, affiliates can choose to air it in either time slot; most affiliates, however, prefer the early slot in order to pair the two CBS daytime game shows together.
From September 20 to October 15, 2010, Let 's Make a Deal and The Price Is Right aired two episodes a day on alternating weeks. CBS did this to fill a gap between the final episode of As the World Turns, which ended a fifty - four - year run on September 17, 2010, and the debut of The Talk. The double - run games aired at 2: 00 pm Eastern.
Although the current version of the show debuted in September 2009, long after The Price Is Right (which made the switch in September 2008) and the two Sony Pictures Television daytime dramas had made the switch to high definition, Let 's Make a Deal was, along with Big Brother, one of only two programs across the five major networks that was still being actively produced in standard definition. For the start of production for its 2014 -- 15 season in June 2014, Let 's Make a Deal began being produced in high definition, with Big Brother 16 making the switch later in June. Let 's Make a Deal was the last remaining CBS program to make the switch by air date, with the first HD episode airing on September 22, 2014.
Monty Hall hosted the original daytime network series for its entire run (with the exception of a short time in early 1972 when Hall fell ill and early television pioneer Dennis James substituted in his stead); Hall also hosted its accompanying primetime and syndicated series as well as the two 1980s syndicated efforts, and he served as consultant for the current version until his death.
Game show announcer Bob Hilton became the new host for the NBC 1990 series; however, due to low ratings, Hilton was fired from the show and in October 1990, Hall returned to the show (but was announced as "guest host '') and remained as host until the series was canceled in January 1991. Access Hollywood host Billy Bush emceed the 2003 series, with Hall making a cameo appearance in one episode. Each Let 's Make a Deal announcer also served as a de facto assistant host, as many times the announcer would be called upon to carry props across the trading floor. The original announcer for the series was Wendell Niles, who was replaced by Jay Stewart in 1964. Stewart remained with Let 's Make a Deal until the end of the syndicated series in 1977. The 1980 Canadian - produced syndicated series was announced by Chuck Chandler. The 1984 syndicated series employed voice actor Brian Cummings in the announcer / assistant role for its first season, with disc jockey Dean Goss taking the position for the following season. The 1990 NBC revival series was announced by Dean Miuccio, with the 2003 edition featuring Vance DeGeneres in that role.
The longest tenured prize model on Let 's Make a Deal was Carol Merrill, who stayed with the series from its debut until 1977. The models on the 1980s series were Maggie Brown, Julie Hall (1980), Karen LaPierre, and Melanie Vincz (1984). For the 1990 series, the show featured Georgia Satelle and identical twins Elaine and Diane Klimaszewski, who later gained fame as the Coors Light Twins.
Hall (2010 and 2013) and Merrill (2013) both appeared on the current Brady version, each making one - week appearances each. The 2013 celebration of the franchise 's 50th anniversary was Hall 's last official appearance on the show prior to his death, but Hall also appeared in 2017 CBS publicity shots with Brady as part of a CBS Daytime publicity photo celebrating the network 's daytime ratings.
When the current version debuted in 2009 at Las Vegas, Alison Fiori was the show 's original model, lasting for much of the first season in Las Vegas before the show moved to Los Angeles. During the 2013 - 14 season, Danielle Demski was the show 's model for most of the season while Tiffany Coyne was on maternity leave.
The original daytime series was recorded at NBC Studios in Burbank, California and then at ABC Television Center in Los Angeles once the program switched networks in 1968. The weekly syndicated series also taped at ABC Television Center, doing so for its first five seasons. After ABC cancelled the daytime series in 1976, production of the syndicated series ceased there as well and the sixth and final season was recorded in the ballroom of the Las Vegas Hilton hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada.
The 1980 Canadian series taped at Panorama Studios in Vancouver, BC, which production company Catalena Productions used as its base of operations. The All - New Let 's Make a Deal taped its first season of episodes in Burbank at NBC Studios, then moved to Hollywood Center Studios in Hollywood, California for the second and final season. The 1990 NBC daytime series was recorded at Disney - MGM Studios on the grounds of Walt Disney World in Orlando, Florida. The 2003 revival returned production to Burbank.
The current edition of the series originally emanated from the Tropicana in Las Vegas. The show returned to Hollywood in 2010, first at Sunset Bronson Studios and later at Raleigh Studios.
Each episode of Let 's Make a Deal consists of several "deals '' between the host and a member (or members, generally a married couple) of the audience, referred to as "traders. '' Audience members are picked at the host 's whim as the show moves along, and couples are often selected to play together as traders. The deals are mini-games within the show that take several formats.
In the simplest format, a trader is given a prize of medium value (such as a television set or a few hundred dollars in cash), and the host offers them the opportunity to trade for another prize. However, the offered prize is unknown. It might be concealed on the stage behind one of three curtains, or behind "boxes '' onstage (large panels painted to look like boxes), within smaller boxes brought out to the audience, or occasionally in other formats. The initial prize given to the trader may also be concealed, such as in a box, wallet or purse, or the trader might be initially given a box, envelope or curtain. The format varies widely.
Technically, traders are supposed to bring something to trade in, but this rule has seldom been enforced. On several occasions, a trader is actually asked to trade in an item such as their shoes or purse, only to receive the item back at the end of the deal as a "prize ''. On at least one occasion, the purse was taken backstage and a high - valued prize was placed inside of it.
Prizes generally are either a legitimate prize, such as a trip, electronics, furniture, appliances, or a car. Certain contestants also win cash, or a junked booby prize called the "zonk '' (e.g., live animals, large amounts of food, fake money, fake trips, junked cars, etc. or something outlandish such as a giant article of clothing, a room full of junked furniture, etc.). Sometimes zonks are legitimate prizes but of a low value (e.g., Matchbox cars, wheelbarrows, T - shirts, groceries, etc.). On rare occasions, a trader appears to get zonked, but the zonk is a cover - up for a legitimate prize. Also on rare occasions, a contestant who is zonked is given an opportunity to play for the Big Deal of the Day; usually, this happens only if there are very few or no big winners during the show.
Though usually considered joke prizes, traders legally win the zonks. However, after the taping of the show, any trader who had been zonked is offered a consolation prize (currently $100) instead of having to take home the actual zonk. This is partly because some of the zonks are impractical or physically impossible to receive or deliver to the traders (such as live animals or the guy in an animal costume), or the props are owned by the studio. A disclaimer at the end of the credits of later 1970s episodes read "Some traders accept reasonable duplicates of zonk prizes. '' Starting in the 2012 -- 13 season, CBS invited viewers to provide zonk ideas to producers. At the end of the season, the zonk declared the most creative was worth $2,500 to the winner, and other viewers ' zonk ideas were also used. For every viewer - developed zonk, the host announced the viewer who provided the zonk. The contest has been continued throughout the past several seasons after its 2012 introduction.
As the end credits of the show roll, it is typical for the host to ask random members of the studio audience to participate in fast deals. In the current Wayne Brady version, these are often referred to as "quickie deals '', and are conducted by the host, announcer, and model each. CBS will post information on the show 's Twitter address (@ LetsMakeADeal) days before taping to encourage audience members to carry certain items in their pockets in order to win an additional $500 cash, when one of the hosts approaches them at the end of the show and asks to see such items. The deals are usually in the form of the following:
Deals were often more complicated than the basic format described above. Additionally, some deals took the form of games of chance, and others in the form of pricing games.
A wide variety of chance - based games have been used on the show. Examples:
Depending on the game, the trader is given the opportunity to stop the game at various points and take a "sure thing '' deal or cash / prizes already accumulated or continue on and risk possibly losing.
Other deals related to pricing merchandise are featured in order to win a larger prize or cash amounts. Sometimes traders are required to price individual items (either grocery products or smaller prizes generally valued less than $100) within a certain range to win successively larger prizes or a car. Other times traders must choose an item that a pre-announced price, order grocery items or small prizes from least to most expensive, or two items with prices that total a certain amount to win a larger prize. These games are not used on the CBS version because of their similarities to The Price is Right.
On the CBS version, due to the similarities of the pricing game concept with The Price is Right, quiz games are used instead. These deals involve products in the form of when they were introduced to the market, general knowledge quizzes, currency exchange rates (at the time of taping), or knowledge of geography of trips to certain locales used as prizes.
The Big Deal serves as the final segment of the show and offers a chance at a significantly larger prize for a lucky trader. Before the round, the value of the day 's Big Deal is announced to the audience.
The process for choosing traders was the same for every series through the 2003 NBC primetime series. Monty Hall (or his successors) would begin asking the day 's traders, starting with the highest winner, if they wanted to give back what they had managed to win earlier in the show for a chance to choose one of three numbered doors on the stage. The process continued until two traders agreed to play, and the biggest winner of the two got first choice of Door # 1, Door # 2, or Door # 3. The other trader then chose from the remaining two doors. Since the 2009 series, the Big Deal has been played with just one trader.
Each of the doors conceals either a prize package of some sort, or a cash award hidden inside a prop such as "Monty 's Piggy Bank '' or the "Let 's Make a Deal Vault. '' On occasion, a door containing an all - cash prize is opened before the traders make their choices, but the amount of the prize is not revealed. Most often, the value of the "Low '' Door (the lowest - valued door) is less than the value of the player 's original winnings, while the "Medium '' Door 's value is at least $1,000 more than the player 's traded winnings.
When the Big Deal is not behind the selected door, one of the non-Big Deal doors is opened first, then the chosen door, with the Big Deal revealed last. If the Big Deal door IS selected, the other two doors are usually revealed first, although on rare occasions, the Big Deal door has been revealed second, after one of the other two doors (usually the "Medium '' door) is revealed.
The Big Deal prize is usually the most extravagant on each episode, and is often a car or a vacation with first - class accommodations. On occasion, the Big Deal consists of one of the all - cash prizes mentioned above; at other times, a cash bonus is added to the prizes in the Big Deal to bring the total up to the announced value. On other occasions, the Big Deal is revealed to include "Everything in the Big Deal '', meaning the prizes behind all 3 doors are won if the player chose the Big Deal.
The Big Deal is the one time in the show where a trader is guaranteed to not walk away with a Zonk.
During the 1975 -- 76 syndicated season, winners of the Big Deal were offered a chance to win the "Super Deal ''. At this point, Big Deals were limited to a range of $8,000 to $10,000. The trader could risk their Big Deal winnings on a shot at adding a $20,000 cash prize, which was hidden behind only one of three mini-doors onstage. The other two doors contained cash amounts of $1,000 or $2,000; however, the $1,000 value was later replaced with a "mystery '' amount between $1,000 and $9,000. A trader who decided to play risked their Big Deal winnings and selected one of the mini-doors. If the $20,000 prize was behind the door, the trader kept the Big Deal and added the $20,000 prize, for a potential maximum total of $30,000. However, if a trader selected one of the other two doors, he or she forfeited the Big Deal prizes but kept the cash amount behind the door. The Super Deal was discontinued when the show permanently moved to Las Vegas for the final season (1976 -- 77), and Big Deal values returned to the previous range of $10,000 to $15,000.
From 2012 to 2016 of the Brady version, the Super Deal was offered as a limited event (usually for a week of shows promoted as "Super Deal Week '') and was not played regularly. The show designated one or two weeks of episodes, typically airing during a special event (e.g., the 500th episode, 50th anniversary of franchise, etc.). In this version, the top cash prize was $50,000 while the other two cash prizes were $1,000 and $2,000. In addition, instead of using mini-doors, the cash amounts were hidden in three large colored envelopes of red, green, and purple, respectively referred by Brady as ruby, emerald, and sapphire.
For season premiere weeks in 2015 and 2016 of the Brady version, Big Deal of the Day winners had an opportunity to win every non-zonk, non-cash prize from that day 's episode as a "Mega-Deal ''. Prior to the start of the Big Deal, the contestant picked both a Big Deal curtain and one of seven Mega Deal cards (reduced by one for each day that the Mega Deal was not won that week). Unlike the Super Deal, the contestant does not risk their winnings in the Mega Deal. Only if the contestant won the Big Deal would the contestant 's card be revealed. If the card was the Mega Deal, they won every non-zonk, non-cash prize on the show that day. Regardless, at the end of the Big Deal, whichever door was chosen was the contestant 's to keep.
The week of May 9, 2016 was designated Mash - Up Week. During each of the five broadcast days, Deal and The Price Is Right each featured one game from the other 's lineup. The games were slightly modified to reflect the nature of the shows on which they were played; those on TPIR required contestants to price items, while those on Deal used random draws and the offer of cash / prize deals to stop a game early.
Upon the original Let 's Make a Deal 's debut, journalist Charles Witbeck was skeptical of the show 's chances of success, noting that the previous four NBC programs to compete with CBS 's Password had failed. Some critics described the show as "mindless '' and "demeaning to traders and audiences alike ''.
By 1974, however, the show had spent more than a decade at or near the top of daytime ratings, and became the highest - rated syndicated primetime program. At the time, the show held the world 's record for the longest waiting list for tickets in show - business history -- there were 350 seats available for each show, and a wait time of two - to - three years after requesting a ticket.
In 2001, Let 's Make a Deal was ranked as # 18 on TV Guide 's list of "The 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time ''. In 2006, GSN aired a series of specials counting down its own list of the "50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time '', on which Let 's Make a Deal was # 7.
In 2014, the American series won a Daytime Creative Arts Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Song for "30,000 Reasons to Love Me '', composed by Cat Gray and sung by Wayne Brady.
RTL Group holds international (and as of February 2009, American) rights to the show, and has licensed the show to 14 countries.
* The 1980 -- 81 version aired in both the U.S. and Canada.
In 1964, Milton Bradley released a home version of Let 's Make a Deal featuring gameplay somewhat different from the television show. In 1974, Ideal Toys released an updated version of the game featuring Hall on the box cover, which was also given to all traders on the syndicated version in the 1974 -- 75 season. An electronic tabletop version by Tiger Electronics was released in 1998. In the late summer of 2006, an interactive DVD version of Let 's Make a Deal was released by Imagination Games, which also features classic clips from the Monty Hall years of the show. In 2010, Pressman Toy Corporation released an updated version of the box game, with gameplay more similar to the 1974 version, featuring Brady on the box cover.
Various U.S. lotteries have included instant lottery tickets based on Let 's Make a Deal.
In 1999, Shuffle Master teamed up with Bally 's to do a video slot machine game based on the show with the voice and likeness of Monty Hall.
In 2004, IGT (International Gaming Technology) did a new video slot game based on the show still featuring Monty Hall.
In 2013, Aristocrat Technology did an all - new video slot machine game based on the Wayne Brady version.
The Monty Hall Problem, also called the Monty Hall paradox, is a veridical paradox because the result appears impossible but is demonstrably true. The Monty Hall problem, in its usual interpretation, is mathematically equivalent to the earlier Three Prisoners problem, and both bear some similarity to the much older Bertrand 's box paradox. The problem examines the counterintuitive effect of switching one 's choice of doors, one of which hides a "prize ''.
The problem has been analyzed many times, in books, articles and online. In an interview with The New York Times reporter John Tierney in 1991, Hall gave an explanation of the solution to that problem, stating that he played on the psychology of the trader, and why the solution did not apply to the case of the actual show.
|
how many times did the new england patriots go to the superbowl | New England Patriots - wikipedia
American Football League (1960 -- 1969)
National Football League (1970 -- present)
Navy Blue, Red, Silver, White
League championships (5)
Conference championships (10)
Division championships (20)
The New England Patriots are a professional American football team based in the Greater Boston region. The Patriots compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) East division. The team plays its home games at Gillette Stadium in the town of Foxborough, Massachusetts, which is located 21 miles (34 km) southwest of downtown Boston, Massachusetts and 20 miles (32 km) northeast of downtown Providence, Rhode Island. The Patriots are also headquartered at Gillette Stadium.
An original member of the American Football League (AFL), the Patriots joined the NFL in the 1970 merger of the two leagues. The team changed its name from the original Boston Patriots after relocating to Foxborough in 1971. The Patriots played their home games at Foxboro Stadium from 1971 to 2001, then moved to Gillette Stadium at the start of the 2002 season. The Patriots ' rivalry with the New York Jets is considered one of the most bitter rivalries in the NFL.
The Patriots have appeared in the Super Bowl ten times in franchise history, the most of any team, eight of them since the arrival of head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady in 2000. The Patriots have since become one of the most successful teams in NFL history, winning 15 AFC East titles in 17 seasons since 2001, without a losing season in that period. The franchise has since set numerous notable records, including most wins in a ten - year period (126, in 2003 -- 2012), an undefeated 16 - game regular season in 2007, the longest winning streak consisting of regular season and playoff games in NFL history (a 21 - game streak from October 2003 to October 2004), and the most consecutive division titles won by a team in NFL history (won nine straight division titles from 2009 to 2017). The team owns the record for most Super Bowls reached (eight) and won (five) by a head coach -- quarterback tandem. Currently, the team is tied with the 49ers and Cowboys for the second most Super Bowl wins with five, after the Steelers, who have six.
On November 16, 1959, Boston business executive Billy Sullivan was awarded the eighth and final franchise of the developing American Football League (AFL). The following winter, locals were allowed to submit ideas for the Boston football team 's official name. The most popular choice -- and the one that Sullivan selected -- was the "Boston Patriots, '' with "Patriots '' referring to those colonists of the Thirteen Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution and in July 1776 declared the United States of America an independent nation. Immediately thereafter, artist Phil Bissell of The Boston Globe developed the "Pat Patriot '' logo.
The Patriots struggled for most of their years in the AFL, and they never had a regular home stadium. Nickerson Field, Harvard Stadium, Fenway Park, and Alumni Stadium all served as home fields during their time in the American Football League. They played in only one AFL championship game, following the 1963 season, in which they lost to the San Diego Chargers 51 -- 10. They did not appear again in an AFL or NFL post-season game for another 13 years.
When the NFL and AFL merged in 1970, the Patriots were placed in the American Football Conference (AFC) East division, where they still play today. The following year, the Patriots moved to a new stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, which would serve as their home for the next 30 years. As a result of the move, they announced they would change their name from the Boston Patriots to the Bay State Patriots. The name was rejected by the NFL and on March 22, 1971, the team officially announced they would change its geographic name to New England.
During the 1970s, the Patriots had some success, earning a berth to the playoffs in 1976 -- as a wild card team -- and in 1978 -- as AFC East champions. They lost in the first round both times. In 1985, they returned to the playoffs, and made it all the way to Super Bowl XX, which they lost to the Chicago Bears 46 -- 10. Following their Super Bowl loss, they returned to the playoffs in 1986, but lost in the first round. The team would not make the playoffs again for eight more years. During the 1990 season, the Patriots went 1 -- 15. They changed ownership three times in the ensuing 14 years, being purchased from the Sullivan family first by Victor Kiam in 1988, who sold the team to James Orthwein in 1992. Orthwein intended to move the team to his native St. Louis, Missouri (where it would have been renamed as the St. Louis Stallions), but instead sold the team in 1994 to its current owner Robert Kraft.
Though Orthwein 's period as owner was short and controversial, he did oversee major changes to the team, first with the hiring of former New York Giants coach Bill Parcells in 1993. Orthwein and his marketing team also commissioned the NFL to develop a new visual identity and logo, and changed their primary colors from the traditional red, white and blue to blue and silver for the team uniforms. Parcells would bring the Patriots to two playoff appearances, including Super Bowl XXXI, which they lost to the Green Bay Packers by a score of 35 -- 21. Pete Carroll, Parcells 's successor, would also take the team to the playoffs twice in 1997 & 1998 before being dismissed as head coach after the 1999 season.
The Patriots ' current coach, Bill Belichick, was hired in 2000, and a new home field, Gillette Stadium, was opened in 2002. Under Belichick, the team won three Super Bowls in four years (2001, 2003, and 2004). The Patriots finished the 2007 regular season with a perfect 16 -- 0 record, becoming only the fourth team in league history to go undefeated in the regular season, and the only one since the league expanded its regular season schedule to 16 games. After advancing to Super Bowl XLII, the team 's fourth Super Bowl in seven years, the Patriots were defeated by the Giants to end their bid for a 19 -- 0 season. With the loss, the Patriots ended the year at 18 -- 1, becoming only one of three teams to go 18 -- 1 along with the 1984 San Francisco 49ers and the 1985 Chicago Bears. The Patriots ' returned to the Super Bowl in 2012 but lost again to the Giants, 21 -- 17. In 2015, they won Super Bowl XLIX, defeating the Seattle Seahawks by a score of 28 -- 24. The Patriots became the first team to reach nine Super Bowls in the 2016 -- 17 playoffs and faced the Atlanta Falcons in Super Bowl LI, which ended up paving the way for their fifth Super Bowl victory, tying them with the Dallas Cowboys and the San Francisco 49ers for the second-most in NFL history, 1 behind the Pittsburgh Steelers with 6; the game was also the first Super Bowl to go into overtime.
The Patriots became the first team to reach ten Super Bowls in the 2017 -- 18 playoffs but lost to the Philadelphia Eagles in Super Bowl LII, on February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota.
The Patriots original helmet logo was a simple tricorne hat, used only for the 1960 season. From 1961 to 1992, the Patriots used a logo of a Revolutionary War minuteman hiking a football. The Patriots script logo during this time consisted of a western - style font. The minuteman logo became known as the "Pat Patriot '' logo, which later became the name of the team 's mascot.
In 1979, the Patriots worked with NFL Properties to design a new, streamlined logo, to replace the complex Pat Patriot logo. The new logo featured the blue and white profile of a minuteman in a tricorne hat set against a flag showing three red stripes separated by two white stripes. Team owner Billy Sullivan decided to put the new logo up to a vote against Pat Patriot with the fans at the September 23rd home game against the San Diego Chargers, using a sound level meter to judge the crowd 's reaction. The new logo was decidedly rejected by the crowd in favor of Pat, and the concept was shelved.
In 1993, a new logo was unveiled involving the gray face of a minuteman wearing a red, white and blue hat that begins as a tricorne and transitions into a flowing banner - like design. The logo bears some superficial resemblance to the aborted 1979 logo. It became popularly known as the "Flying Elvis '' due to many observing its resemblance to the profile of a young Elvis Presley. In 2000, the blue color was darkened.
On July 3, 2013, the Patriots unveiled a new wordmark logo.
The Patriots originally wore red jerseys with white block numbering at home, and white jerseys with red block numbering on the road. Both uniforms used white pants and white helmets, first with the hat logo over the player 's number, then with the "Pat Patriot '' logo starting in 1961. A blue stripe was added to the two red helmet stripes in 1964. The numbers on both the home and away jerseys gained a blue outline in 1973. In 1979, the Patriots began the first of many sporadic runs of wearing red pants with the white jerseys. The red pants were dropped in 1981, but returned in 1984. After being dropped again in 1988, they were used again from 1990 to 1992.
The Patriots underwent a complete identity overhaul before the 1993 season, starting with the introduction of the aforementioned "Flying Elvis '' logo. The new uniforms consisted of a royal blue home jersey and a white away jersey. The helmet was silver with the Flying Elvis logo and no additional striping. Both uniforms used silver pants, originally with stripes designed to look like those flowing from the Flying Elvis, but these were changed to simple red and blue stripes after one season. When they debuted, both the home and away jerseys used red block numbers with a blue and white outline, but after one season the home uniforms switched to the now - familiar white with a red outline.
In 1995, the Patriots switched the block numbers to a more modern rounded number font with a dropshadow. The Patriots were one of the first adopters of custom numbers, a trend that would grow drastically over the next 20 years.
However, in 2000, the Patriots also became one of the only teams to drop the rounded numbers and switched back to block numbers. Also that year, the shade of blue was darkened from royal to nautical blue. The Patriots, unsatisfied with the white - on - silver road look, also took the opportunity to introduce blue pants to be worn with the white jersey, offering a better contrast. To better match the blue pants, the number on the white jersey was switched from red to blue.
In 1994, the Patriots wore the "Pat Patriot '' helmets and plain white striped pants from two seasons prior as alternates as part of the NFL 's 75th anniversary celebration. In 2002, NFL teams were allowed to add a permanent third jersey to be worn in a maximum of two games. The Patriots reintroduced a red jersey as their alternate, complimented with the old - style "Pat Patriot '' helmet. In 2003, the Patriots changed their alternate to a silver jersey with blue pants. For this uniform, the "Flying Elvis '' helmet was utilized. The uniform was identical to the white jersey with any areas of white replaced by silver. These uniforms were dropped after 2007. No alternate uniform was used in 2008. In 2009, the red alternate was reintroduced, again accompanied by the "Pat Patriot '' helmet. An alternate white road jersey was also worn with the older helmet for one game, using red numbers, in tribute to the 50th anniversary of the AFL. The red alternate gained a blue outline around the numbers in 2010 and this was worn through 2012. The Patriots retired their alternate red uniforms in 2013, thanks to a new NFL rule outlawing throwback alternate helmets.
In 2016, the Patriots took part in the NFL Color Rush program, wearing monochrome navy uniforms on September 22 against the Houston Texans.
In terms of number of games played, the Patriots have competed most against teams either currently or formerly from the AFC East division. This includes the current teams, the New York Jets, the Miami Dolphins, and the Buffalo Bills, as well as former divisional opponents the Indianapolis Colts. Among those, however, a few run deeper than others.
The closest geographically has been the rivalry with the New York Jets. The Patriots and Jets have been in the same division (what is now the AFC East) since both teams ' foundings in 1960, and have played each other at least twice a year since then. The rivalry between the Jets and Patriots has escalated since 1996, when Patriots head coach Bill Parcells left the Patriots under controversy to become the head coach of the Jets; he was replaced by former Jets coach Pete Carroll. Four years later Carroll was fired, and Parcells 's assistant, Bill Belichick, resigned the day he was named the Jets ' head coach to become the head coach of the Patriots. Six years after that, Eric Mangini, an assistant under Belichick, became the head coach of the Jets.
Bill Belichick achieved his 200th career head coaching win (regular season and playoffs) on November 22, 2012, defeating the Jets 49 -- 19; it was his 163rd such win as Patriots coach. The Patriots defeated the Jets in Week seven of the 2015 season by a score of 30 -- 23, to give them a 6 -- 0 record to date.
The Patriots rivalry with the Baltimore / Indianapolis Colts ran through the two clubs ' tenure together in the AFC East (1970 -- 2001). The two clubs clashed in several close games, such as on December 19, 1971, as a late Patriots touchdown decided a 21 -- 17 New England win; on September 18, 1978, the Colts rallied to defeat the Patriots 34 -- 27 on Monday Night Football on a virtual one - man scoring rampage by running back Joe Washington; on September 4, 1983, the Colts defeated the Patriots in overtime 29 -- 23 in their final season in Baltimore. The Patriots defeated the Colts in back - to - back overtime games, 23 -- 17 on December 8, 1991, and 37 -- 34 on November 15, 1992.
Even though the two clubs were placed in separate divisions in the NFL 's 2002 divisional realignment, their rivalry did not diminish. At that time, both teams were among the best in the AFC, and both were led by likely Hall of Fame quarterbacks, Peyton Manning (for the Colts) and Tom Brady (for the Patriots) The teams met three times in four years (2003, 2004, 2006) in the playoffs, with the winner going on to win that season 's Super Bowl each time. The Manning portion of the rivalry began in Manning 's rookie season, 1998; in 1999 Manning suffered a bitter 31 -- 28 loss in September as the Patriots behind Drew Bledsoe erased a 28 -- 7 Colts lead, then defeated the Patriots 20 -- 15 in Indianapolis on December 12. The Brady -- Manning portion of the rivalry began on September 30, 2001, as Brady made his first NFL start in a 44 -- 13 Patriots win at Foxboro; on October 21 the Patriots defeated the Colts at the RCA Dome 38 -- 17.
After the Colts left the AFC East in 2002, they first met on November 30, 2003, in a 38 -- 34 Patriots win decided on a last - second goal line stand by the Patriots. The Colts broke a six - game Patriot winning streak in the rivalry in November 2005, then won twice in 2006; in the AFC Championship Game the Colts erased a 21 -- 6 halftime lead; the game lead tied or changed seven times in the second half before a late touchdown led to a 38 -- 34 Colts win. The November 4, 2007, meeting involved both teams being unbeaten to that point; the 8 -- 0 Patriots and the 7 -- 0 Colts. The Patriots rallied to win 24 -- 20. The Colts won again in 2008 and then erased a large Patriots lead in 2009 's 4th and 2 game. Manning 's final meeting with the Patriots as a Colt came in November 2010; a late interception sealed a 31 -- 28 Patriots win. In 2012, the Patriots faced the Colts, quarterbacked now by Andrew Luck, on November 18; the Patriots defeated the Colts 59 -- 24. The Patriots also beat the Colts on January 12, 2014, 43 -- 22. The Patriots played the Colts in the playoffs again on January 18, 2015, in the AFC title game, winning 45 -- 7.
The Patriots and the Bills were both charter members of the AFL, and even competed with each other in an AFL playoff game. They have remained divisional rivals since the NFL - AFL merger. Prior to the rise of Tom Brady, the two teams shared a mellow, yet occasionally competitive rivalry, featuring highlights from players such as O.J. Simpson, Steve Grogan, Joe Ferguson, Jim Kelly, and Drew Bledsoe. However, Brady has dominated the Bills ever since taking over as the Patriots ' franchise quarterback, holding a 26 - 3 regular season record over them. Though Patriots fans usually feel apathetic towards the Bills, Bills fans have come to despise the Patriots more than any other rival. The rivalry has remained somewhat intense in recent years with multiple players having played for both teams, the Bills usually giving their all when playing the Patriots, and the presence of Rex Ryan, who coached both the Bills and Jets and was known for his trash - talk.
The Patriots first played the Miami Dolphins in 1966 in the AFL, when Miami was one of two expansion teams to debut that year in that league. The Dolphins dominated the Patriots in the 1970s and 1990s, but the two teams remained competitive with each other for years before the rise of Tom Brady. Brady, however, struggled occasionally against the Dolphins in the 2000s before reasserting dominance in the 2010s. The Patriots and Dolphins are the only two teams in the Super Bowl era to post undefeated regular season records, with Miami going 14 - 0 in 1972 and the Patriots going 16 - 0 in 2007. Notable moments between the clubs include the Snowplow Game, three playoff matchups, and the Dolphins revealing their Wildcat offense against the Patriots.
The Ravens first met the New England Patriots in 1996, but the rivalry truly started in 2007 when the Ravens suffered a bitter 27 -- 24 loss in the Patriots ' quest for perfection. The rivalry began to escalate in 2009 when the Ravens lost to the Patriots 27 -- 21 in a game that involved a confrontation between Patriots quarterback Tom Brady and Ravens linebacker Terrell Suggs. Both players would go on to take verbal shots at each other through the media after the game. The Ravens defeated the Patriots in the 2009 AFC Wild Card playoff game, 33 -- 14. This was the first time the Ravens had ever defeated the Patriots. The Ravens faced the Patriots in week six of the 2010 season. The Patriots ended up winning 23 -- 20 in overtime; the game caused controversy from a hit to the helmet of tight end Todd Heap by Patriots safety Brandon Meriweather.
The Ravens played the Patriots for the third consecutive season in the 2012 AFC championship game, which the Ravens lost 23 -- 20. The rivalry reached a new level of friction with this, the second career playoff game between the two clubs. The Ravens clawed to a 20 -- 16 lead in the fourth quarter, but Patriots quarterback Tom Brady dove into the end zone to make the score 23 -- 20 with around 11 minutes remaining; this proved to be the winning touchdown. On the Ravens ' last possession of the game, quarterback Joe Flacco threw a pass to wide receiver Lee Evans in the corner of the end zone which looked to be the game - winning touchdown, before a last - second strip by Sterling Moore forced the ball from the hands of Evans, forcing the game to be decided on a last - minute field goal by Ravens placekicker Billy Cundiff. With 11 seconds remaining on the clock, the kicker missed the 32 - yard field goal attempt, allowing the Patriots to kill the clock on their way to Super Bowl XLVI for a rematch with the New York Giants.
The Ravens ' first regular - season win over the Patriots came on September 23, 2012. The game was emotional as receiver Torrey Smith was competing following the death of his brother in a motorcycle accident just the night before. Smith caught two touchdowns in a back and forth game; the Ravens erased a 13 -- 0 lead in the first half and led 14 -- 13, but the Patriots scored at the end of the second quarter for a 20 -- 14 lead. The lead changed twice in the third quarter and the Patriots led 30 -- 21 in the fourth, but the Ravens scored on Smith 's second touchdown catch. The Ravens were stopped on fourth down but the Patriots had to punt; in the final two minutes a pass interference penalty on Devin McCourty put the ball at the Patriots 7 - yard line; new Ravens kicker Justin Tucker booted a 27 - yard field goal on the final play; the ball sailed directly over the upright and was ruled good; the quality of officiating by replacement referees caused controversy as Bill Belichick angrily reached for one of the referees as they were leaving the field, leading to a $50,000 fine later that week.
The two teams met again on January 20, 2013, in the AFC Championship, where the Ravens won 28 -- 13. The Patriots led at halftime, 13 -- 7, but the Ravens defense gave up no points in the 2nd half. It was the first time ever that Tom Brady lost a game at home after leading at halftime, and the first time a road team beat the Patriots in the AFC Championship.
The two teams met once again at Gillette Stadium in the playoffs on January 10, 2015. The Patriots trailed by as much as 14 twice, before beating the Ravens 35 -- 31 to advance to the AFC Championship.
The Patriots NFL Cheerleaders are simply known as the Patriots Cheerleaders. In 2005, cheerleader Kristin Gauvin won Miss Massachusetts, in part from her local commitment with the Patriots.
The Patriots ' mascot is Pat Patriot, a revolutionary minuteman wearing a Patriots home jersey.
The Patriots also employ a corps known as the End Zone Militia. During each game, about ten men dressed as minutemen line the back of each end zone. When the Patriots score a touchdown, field goal, point - after - touchdown or safety, the militia behind the opposite end zone fire a volley of blanks from flintlock muskets. Per an interview with the Loren & Wally Show on WROR 105.7 FM in and around the time of Super Bowl XLIX, said shots use double the load of black powder than a regular historical reenactor does, specifically 200 grains, in order to be heard throughout the stadium. ESPN writer Josh Pahigian named this one of the top ten celebrations in the league in 2007.
Since 2002, the Patriots ' home stadium has been Gillette Stadium, a $350 million facility privately financed by Kraft. It houses all administrative offices for the team and its owning entity, The Kraft Group, as well as the Kraft - owned Major League Soccer team, the New England Revolution. The field, which was originally natural grass, was replaced with a FieldTurf surface during the 2006 season. The area around the stadium was developed, beginning in 2007, into a $375 million "lifestyle and entertainment center '' called Patriot Place; among its largest structures is a multi-floor restaurant and bar called CBS Scene.
Prior to 2002, the Patriots played in Foxboro Stadium dating back to 1971, the team 's second year in the NFL after the AFL -- NFL merger. During the team 's days in the American Football League, the Boston Patriots were hosted by a number of fields in or around Boston -- they played at Braves Field, Harvard Stadium, Fenway Park, and Alumni Stadium.
Under head coach Bill Belichick, the Patriots have employed specific on - field and off - field strategies. On the field, the Patriots have typically utilized an "Erhardt -- Perkins '' offense and a "Fairbanks -- Bullough '' 3 -- 4 defense, referred to commonly as a two - gap 3 -- 4 defensive system. Their philosophy in making personnel decisions and in game planning has focused on the "team '' concept, stressing preparation, strong work ethic, versatility, and lack of individual ego. This approach, which has led to five Super Bowl victories under Belichick, was analyzed in the 2004 book Patriot Reign.
When owner Robert Kraft purchased the team in 1994, he did so for $175 million. Since then, the Patriots have sold out every home game in both Foxboro Stadium and Gillette Stadium. By 2009, the value of the franchise had increased by over $1 billion, to a Forbes magazine estimated value of $1.361 billion, third highest in the NFL only behind the Dallas Cowboys and Washington Redskins. As of July 2015, the Patriots are the seventh most valuable sports franchise in the world according to Forbes magazine.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Roster updated July 5, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 89 Active, 1 Inactive, 1 Unsigned
The New England Patriots feature 22 former players and two contributors in their team hall of fame, established in 1991. A committee of media and staff selected 11 players for enshrinement between 1991 and 2001, before a six - year span of no selections. In 2007, in advance of the 2008 opening of The Hall at Patriot Place, the Patriots introduced a new nomination committee to select three candidates, with the winner of an Internet fan vote being enshrined in the hall of fame. In order to be eligible, players and coaches must be retired for at least four years. Beginning in 2011, and meeting every five years, a senior selection committee has the option of voting a player who has been retired for at least 25 seasons into the hall of fame.
Former owner Billy Sullivan was inducted by owner Robert Kraft in March 2009, the Patriots ' 50th season, as a contributor.
Additionally, four of these Patriots players have also been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame. The Patriots have officially retired seven uniform numbers.
In November 1971, fans voted on a 10 - year Patriots anniversary team, which coincided with the team 's 10 years in the then - defunct American Football League: Additional selections for returner, special teamer, and coach were added in 2009:
In March 2009, as part of the Patriots ' 50th anniversary, a group of local media and other team figures selected all - decade teams for the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s:
On March 16, 2010, the Patriots Hall of Fame selection committee selected an all - decade team for the 2000s:
In 1994, a group of local media selected a 35th anniversary team:
In 2009, the Patriots Hall of Fame selection committee selected a 50th anniversary team:
The Patriots have had 14 coaches through their history. Their first coach was Lou Saban, who coached them to a 7 -- 12 -- 0 record in 1960. Bill Belichick has the longest term as head coach with the Patriots.
→ Coaching staff → Management → More NFL staffs
During the 2007 season, the New England Patriots were disciplined by the league for videotaping New York Jets ' defensive coaches ' signals from an unauthorized location during a September 9, 2007 game. Videotaping opposing coaches is not illegal in the NFL de jure, but there are designated areas allowed by the league to do such taping. After an investigation, the NFL fined Patriots head coach Bill Belichick $500,000 for his role in the incident, fined the Patriots $250,000, and docked the team their original first - round selection in the 2008 NFL Draft which would have been the 31st pick of the draft.
During the 2015 AFC Championship Game against the Indianapolis Colts, allegations arose that the Patriots were utilizing under - inflated footballs. It was even suggested that the Patriots ' staff themselves deliberately deflated the footballs to give their team an unfair advantage during the playoffs. A lengthy investigation and heated debate commenced shortly afterwards, with a full report being published in May 2015. The Wells Report found that balls provided by the Patriots, who were the home team, indeed had less pressure on average than the balls provided by the Colts. Also notable was the findings of some suggestions of communication between Tom Brady and two Patriots locker room attendants, indicating Brady was likely "generally aware '' of the situation and that the Patriots staff intentionally deflated the footballs. A later study by the American Enterprise Institute called the evidence and methodology of the Wells report "deeply flawed '' and "unreliable ''.
In the aftermath of the incident, the NFL suspended Brady without pay for the first four games of the 2015 season, fined the Patriots $1 million, and forced them to forfeit their 2016 first round draft pick and 2017 fourth round draft pick. Brady appealed his suspension, which was eventually vacated by the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, only for the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit to reinstate it a year later for the 2016 NFL season. Brady eventually agreed to serve the suspension in 2016, but led the Patriots to win Super Bowl LI in spite of it.
The Patriots ' flagship radio station is WBZ - FM 98.5 FM, owned by CBS Radio. The larger radio network is called the New England Patriots Radio Network, whose 37 affiliate stations span seven states. Gil Santos and Gino Cappelletti were the longtime announcing team until their retirement following the conclusion of the 2012 NFL season. Santos was replaced by Bob Socci. Former Patriots QB Scott Zolak joined the radio team in the 2011 season as a sideline analyst, and in 2013, he replaced Cappelletti as color commentator.
Any preseason games not on national television are shown on CBS 's O&O WBZ - TV, who also airs the bulk of Patriots regular season games by virtue of CBS having the rights to most AFC games; CBS also has a presence at the nearby Patriot Place with the "CBS Scene '' bar / restaurant. During the regular season whenever the Patriots host an NFC team, the games are aired on Fox affiliate WFXT - TV, and NBC Sunday Night Football games are carried by the "NBC Boston '' network of stations led by WBTS - LD. Preseason games were broadcast on ABC affiliate WCVB - TV from 1995 until the change to WBZ in 2009. Don Criqui was play - by - play announcer for the 1995 -- 2012 seasons, with Randy Cross as a color commentator and Mike Lynch as a sideline reporter. Lynch was replaced by WBZ reporter Steve Burton in 2009.
|
why do we use stem and leaf diagrams | Stem - and - leaf display - wikipedia
A stem - and - leaf display is a device for presenting quantitative data in a graphical format, similar to a histogram, to assist in visualizing the shape of a distribution. They evolved from Arthur Bowley 's work in the early 1900s, and are useful tools in exploratory data analysis. Stemplots became more commonly used in the 1980s after the publication of John Tukey 's book on exploratory data analysis in 1977. The popularity during those years is attributable to their use of monospaced (typewriter) typestyles that allowed computer technology of the time to easily produce the graphics. Modern computers ' superior graphic capabilities have meant these techniques are less often used.
A stem - and - leaf display is often called a stemplot, but the latter term often refers to another chart type. A simple stem plot may refer to plotting a matrix of y values onto a common x axis, and identifying the common x value with a vertical line, and the individual y values with symbols on the line.
Unlike histograms, stem - and - leaf displays retain the original data to at least two significant digits, and put the data in order, thereby easing the move to order - based inference and non-parametric statistics.
A basic stem - and - leaf display contains two columns separated by a vertical line. The left column contains the stems and the right column contains the leaves.
To construct a stem - and - leaf display, the observations must first be sorted in ascending order: this can be done most easily if working by hand by constructing a draft of the stem - and - leaf display with the leaves unsorted, then sorting the leaves to produce the final stem - and - leaf display. Here is the sorted set of data values that will be used in the following example:
Next, it must be determined what the stems will represent and what the leaves will represent. Typically, the leaf contains the last digit of the number and the stem contains all of the other digits. In the case of very large numbers, the data values may be rounded to a particular place value (such as the hundreds place) that will be used for the leaves. The remaining digits to the left of the rounded place value are used as the stem.
In this example, the leaf represents the ones place and the stem will represent the rest of the number (tens place and higher).
The stem - and - leaf display is drawn with two columns separated by a vertical line. The stems are listed to the left of the vertical line. It is important that each stem is listed only once and that no numbers are skipped, even if it means that some stems have no leaves. The leaves are listed in increasing order in a row to the right of each stem.
It is important to note that when there is a repeated number in the data (such as two 72s) then the plot must reflect such (so the plot would look like 7 2 2 5 6 when it has the numbers 72 72 75 76)
Rounding may be needed to create a stem - and - leaf display. Based on the following set of data, the stem plot below would be created:
For negative numbers, a negative is placed in front of the stem unit, which is still the value X / 10. Non-integers are rounded. This allowed the stem and leaf plot to retain its shape, even for more complicated data sets. As in this example below:
Stem - and - leaf displays are useful for displaying the relative density and shape of the data, giving the reader a quick overview of distribution. They retain (most of) the raw numerical data, often with perfect integrity. They are also useful for highlighting outliers and finding the mode. However, stem - and - leaf displays are only useful for moderately sized data sets (around 15 - 150 data points). With very small data sets a stem - and - leaf displays can be of little use, as a reasonable number of data points are required to establish definitive distribution properties. A dot plot may be better suited for such data. With very large data sets, a stem - and - leaf display will become very cluttered, since each data point must be represented numerically. A box plot or histogram may become more appropriate as the data size increases.
The ease with which histograms can now be generated on computers has meant that stem - and - leaf displays are less used today than in the 1980s, when they first became widely utilized as a quick method of displaying information graphically by hand.
|
when did the chicago bears last win the super bowl | Chicago Bears - wikipedia
National Football League (1920 -- present)
Navy blue, burnt orange, white
League championships (9)
Conference championships (4)
Division championships (18)
The Chicago Bears are a professional American football team based in Chicago, Illinois. The Bears compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) North division. The Bears have won nine NFL Championships, including one Super Bowl, and hold the NFL record for the most enshrinees in the Pro Football Hall of Fame and the most retired jersey numbers. The Bears have also recorded more victories than any other NFL franchise.
The franchise was founded in Decatur, Illinois, on September 17, 1920, and moved to Chicago in 1921. It is one of only two remaining franchises from the NFL 's founding in 1920, along with the Arizona Cardinals, which was originally also in Chicago. The team played home games at Wrigley Field on Chicago 's North Side through the 1970 season; they now play at Soldier Field on the Near South Side, next to Lake Michigan. The Bears have a long - standing rivalry with the Green Bay Packers.
The team headquarters, Halas Hall, is in the Chicago suburb of Lake Forest, Illinois. The Bears practice at adjoining facilities there during the season. Since 2002, the Bears have held their annual training camp, from late July to mid-August, at Ward Field on the campus of Olivet Nazarene University in Bourbonnais, Illinois.
In March of 1920 a man telephoned me... George Chamberlain and he was general superintendent of the A.E. Staley Company... In 1919, (the company 's Fellowship Club) had formed a football team. It had done well against other local teams but Mr. Staley wanted to build it into a team that could compete successfully with the best semi-professional and industrial teams in the country... Mr. Chamberlain asked if I would like to come to Decatur and work for the Staley Company.
Originally named the Decatur Staleys, the club was established by the A.E. Staley food starch company of Decatur, Illinois in 1919 as a company team. This was the typical start for several early professional football franchises. The company hired George Halas and Edward "Dutch '' Sternaman in 1920 to run the team. The 1920 Decatur Staleys season was their inaugural regular season completed in the newly formed American Professional Football Association (later renamed the National Football League (NFL) in 1922).
Full control of the team was turned over to Halas and Sternaman in 1921. Official team and league records cite Halas as the founder as he took over the team in 1920 when it became a charter member of the NFL.
The team relocated to Chicago in 1921, where the club was renamed the Chicago Staleys. Under an agreement reached by Halas and Sternaman with Staley, Halas purchased the rights to the club from Staley for US $100.
In 1922, Halas changed the team name from the Staleys to the Bears. The team moved into Wrigley Field, which was home to the Chicago Cubs baseball franchise. As with several early NFL franchises, the Bears derived their nickname from their city 's baseball team (some directly, some indirectly -- like the Bears, whose young are called "cubs ''). Halas liked the bright orange - and - blue colors of his alma mater, the University of Illinois, and the Bears adopted those colors as their own, albeit in a darker shade of each (the blue is Pantone 5395, navy blue, and the orange is Pantone 1665, similar to burnt orange).
The Staleys / Bears dominated the league in the early years. Their rivalry with the Chicago Cardinals, the oldest in the NFL (and a crosstown rival from 1920 to 1959), was key in four out of the first six league titles. During the league 's first six years, the Bears lost twice to the Canton Bulldogs (who took two league titles over that span), and split with their crosstown rival Cardinals (going 4 -- 4 -- 2 against each other over that span), but no other team in the league defeated the Bears more than a single time. During that span, the Bears posted 34 shutouts.
The Bears ' rivalry with the Green Bay Packers is one of the oldest and most storied in American professional sports, dating back to 1921 (the Green Bay Packers were an independent team until they joined the NFL in 1921). In one infamous incident that year, Halas got the Packers expelled from the league in order to prevent their signing a particular player, and then graciously got them re-admitted after the Bears had closed the deal with that player.
The franchise was an early success under Halas, capturing the NFL Championship in 1921 and remaining competitive throughout the decade. In 1924 the Bears claimed the Championship after defeating the Cleveland Bulldogs on December 7, even putting the title "World 's Champions '' on their 1924 team photo. But the NFL had ruled that games after November 30 did not count towards league standings, and the Bears had to settle for second place behind Cleveland. Their only losing season came in 1929.
During the 1920s the club was responsible for triggering the NFL 's long - standing rule that a player could not be signed until his college 's senior class had graduated. The NFL took that action as a consequence of the Bears ' aggressive signing of famous University of Illinois player Red Grange within a day of his final game as a collegian.
Despite much of the on - field success, the Bears were a team in trouble. They faced the problem of increased operating costs and flatlined attendance. The Bears would only draw roughly 5,000 -- 6,000 fans a game, while a University of Chicago game would draw 40,000 -- 50,000 fans a game. By adding top college football draw Red Grange to the roster, the Bears knew that they found something to draw more fans to their games. C.C. Pyle was able to secure a $2,000 per game contract for Grange, and in one of the first games, the Bears defeated the Green Bay Packers, 21 -- 0. However, Grange remained on the sidelines while learning the team 's plays from Bears quarterback Joey Sternaman. Later in 1925, The Bears would go on a barnstorming tour, showing off the best football player of the day. 75,000 people paid to see Grange lead the Bears to a 17 -- 7 victory over the Los Angeles Tigers, who were a quickly put together team of West Coast college all - stars. After a loss to San Francisco, the Bears cruised to a 60 -- 3 over a semi-pro team called the Portland All Stars.
Any hopes that Grange would lead the Bears to glory in 1926 were quickly dashed. A failed contract talk led to Grange bolting to the AFL 's New York Yankees, owned by Pyle. The Bears also lost star quarterback Joey Sternaman, who joined the Chicago Bulls of the AFL. The Bears replaced Grange with Paddy Driscoll, a star football player in his own right. The Bears used the money made from the Grange barn - storming tour to sign the man that replaced him. Grange split his time between making movies and playing football. However, the time was not right to have two competing pro football leagues, and the AFL folded after only one season. Grange would return to the Bears.
After the financial losses of the 1932 Championship season, Halas ' partner Dutch Sternaman left the organization. Halas maintained full control of the Bears until his death in 1983. He also coached the team off - and - on for forty seasons, an NFL record. In the 1932 "Unofficial '' NFL Championship, the Bears defeated the Portsmouth Spartans in the first indoor American football game at Chicago Stadium.
The success of the playoff game led the NFL to institute a championship game. In the very first NFL Championship, the Bears played against the New York Giants, defeating them 23 -- 21. The teams met again in the 1934 NFL Championship where the Giants, wearing sneakers defeated the Bears 30 -- 13 on a cold, icy day at the Polo Grounds.
From 1940 -- 1947, quarterback Sid Luckman led the Bears to victories in four out of the five NFL Championship Games in which they appeared. The team acquired the University of Chicago 's discarded nickname "Monsters of the Midway '' and their now - famous helmet wishbone "C '', as well as a newly penned theme song that declared them "The Pride and Joy of Illinois ''. One famous victory during that period was their 73 -- 0 victory over the favored Washington Redskins at Griffith Stadium in the 1940 NFL Championship Game; the score is still an NFL record for lopsided results. The secret behind the one - sided outcome was the introduction of a new offensive formation by Halas. The T - formation, as Halas named it, involved two running backs instead of the traditional one in the backfield. Luckman established himself as one of the franchise 's most elite quarterbacks. Between 1939 and 1950, He set the Bears ' passing records for most career touchdowns, yards, and completions. Many of Luckman 's records stood for decades before they were eclipsed by Jay Cutler in 2014. Cutler then went on to break Luckman 's franchise record for most career passing touchdowns a year later in 2015.
After declining throughout the 1950s, the team rebounded in 1963 to capture its eighth NFL Championship, which would be its last until 1985. The late 1960s and early - 1970s produced notable players like Dick Butkus, Gale Sayers, and Brian Piccolo, who died of embryonal carcinoma in 1970. The American television network ABC aired a movie about Piccolo in 1971 entitled Brian 's Song, starring James Caan and Billy Dee Williams in the roles of Piccolo and Sayers respectively; Jack Warden won an Emmy Award for his performance as Halas. The movie was later released for theater screenings after first being shown on television. Despite Hall of Fame careers, Butkus and Sayers would also have their careers cut short due to injuries, hamstringing the Bears of this era.
Halas retired as coach in 1967 and spent the rest of his days in the front office. He became the only person to be involved with the NFL throughout the first 60 years of its existence. He was also a member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame 's first induction class in 1963. As the only living founder of the NFL at the February 1970 merger between the NFL and the American Football League, the owners honored Halas by electing him the first President of the National Football Conference, a position that he held until his death in 1983. In his honor, the NFL named the NFC Championship trophy as the George Halas Memorial Trophy.
After the merger, the Bears finished the 1970 season last place in their division, a repeat of their placing in the 1969 season. In 1975, the Bears drafted Walter Payton from Jackson State University with their first pick. He won the NFL Most Valuable Player Award in the 1977 -- 78 season. Payton would go on to eclipse Jim Brown 's NFL career rushing record in 1984 before retiring in 1987, and would hold the mark until 2002, when Emmitt Smith of the Dallas Cowboys surpassed it. Payton 's career and personality would capture the hearts of Bear fans, who called him "Sweetness ''. He died from a rare form of liver cancer in 1999 at the age of 45.
On November 1, 1983, a day after the death of George Halas, his oldest daughter, Virginia McCaskey, took over as the majority owner of the team. Her husband, Ed McCaskey, succeeded her father as the Chairman of the Board. Their son Michael became the third president in team history. Mrs. McCaskey holds the honorary title of "secretary of the board of directors '', but the 90 - year -- old matriarch has been called the glue that holds the franchise together. Mrs. McCaskey 's reign as the owner of the Bears was not planned, as her father originally earmarked her brother, George "Mugs '' Halas Jr. as the heir apparent to the franchise. However, he died of a massive heart attack in 1979. Her impact on the team is well - noted as her own family has dubbed her "The First Lady of Sports '', and the Chicago Sun - Times has listed her as one of Chicago 's most powerful women.
Mike Ditka, a tight end for the Bears from 1961 to 1966, was hired to coach the team by George Halas in 1982. His gritty personality earned him the nickname "Iron Mike ''. The team reached the NFC Championship game in 1984. In the 1985 season the fire in the Bears -- Packers rivalry was re-lit when Ditka used 315 pound defensive tackle "Refrigerator '' Perry as a running back in a touchdown play at Lambeau Field, against the Packers. The Bears won their ninth NFL Championship, first since the AFL - NFL merger, in Super Bowl XX after the 1985 season in which they dominated the NFL with their then - revolutionary 46 defense and a cast of characters that recorded the novelty rap song "The Super Bowl Shuffle ''. The season was notable in that the Bears had only one loss, the "unlucky 13th '' game of the season, a Monday night affair in which they were defeated by the Miami Dolphins. At the time, much was made of the fact that the 1972 Dolphins were the only franchise in history to have had an undefeated season and post-season. The Dolphins came close to setting up a rematch in the Super Bowl, but lost to the New England Patriots in the AFC title game. "The Super Bowl Shuffle '' was videotaped the day after that Monday night loss in Miami.
After the 1985 Championship season, the Bears remained competitive throughout the 1980s but failed to return to the Super Bowl under Ditka. Between the firing of Ditka and the hiring of Lovie Smith, the Bears had two head coaches, Dick Jauron and Dave Wannstedt. While both head coaches led the team to the playoffs once (Wannstedt in 1994 and Jauron in 2001), neither was able to accumulate a winning record or bring the Bears back to the Super Bowl. Therefore, the 1990s was largely considered to be a disappointment.
Before the Bears hired Jauron in January 1999, Dave McGinnis (Arizona 's defensive coordinator, and a former Bears assistant under Ditka and Wannstedt) backed out of taking the head coaching position. The Bears scheduled a press conference to announce the hiring before McGinnis agreed to contract terms. Soon after Jauron 's hiring, Mrs. McCaskey fired her son Michael as president, replacing him with Ted Phillips and promoting Michael to chairman of the board. Phillips, the current Bears president, became the first man outside of the Halas - McCaskey family to run the team.
Lovie Smith, hired on January 15, 2004, is the third post-Ditka head coach. Joining the Bears as a rookie head coach, Smith brought the highly successful Tampa 2 defensive scheme with him to Chicago. Before his second season with the Bears, the team rehired their former offensive coordinator and then Illinois head coach Ron Turner to improve the Bears ' struggling offense. In 2005, the Bears won their division and reached the playoffs for the first time in four years. Their previous playoff berth was earned by winning the NFC Central in 2001. The Bears improved upon their success the following season, by clinching their second consecutive NFC North title during Week 13 of the 2006 season, winning their first playoff game since 1995, and earning a trip to Super Bowl XLI. However, they fell short of the championship, losing 29 -- 17 to the Indianapolis Colts. Following the 2006 season, the club decided to give Smith a contract extension through 2011, at roughly $5 million per year. This comes a season after being the lowest paid head coach in the National Football League.
The club has played in over a thousand games since becoming a charter member of the NFL in 1920. Through the 2010 season, they led the NFL in overall franchise wins with 704 and had an overall record of 704 -- 512 -- 42 (going 687 -- 494 -- 42 during the regular season and 17 -- 18 in the playoffs). On November 18, 2010 the Bears recorded franchise win number 700 in a win against the Miami Dolphins.
The Bears made one of the biggest trades in franchise history, acquiring Pro Bowl quarterback Jay Cutler from the Denver Broncos in exchange for Kyle Orton and draft picks on April 2, 2009. After a disappointing 2009 campaign with the team going 7 -- 9, Mike Martz was hired as the team 's offensive coordinator on February 1, 2010. On March 5, 2010, the Bears signed defensive end Julius Peppers, running back Chester Taylor, and tight end Brandon Manumaleuna, spending over $100 million on the first day of free agency. Also during the 2010 offseason, Michael McCaskey was replaced by brother George McCaskey as chairman of the Bears. With a 38 -- 34 win against the New York Jets, the Bears clinched the No. 2 seed and a first - round bye for the 2010 -- 11 NFL playoffs. In their first Playoff game since Super Bowl XLI, The Bears defeated the No. 4 seed Seattle Seahawks 35 -- 24 in the Divisional Round. The Bears reached the NFC Championship Game, where they played Green Bay Packers at Soldier Field -- only the second playoff meeting between the two storied rivals, the only other game played in 1941. The Bears lost the game, 21 -- 14.
The team started the 2011 season strong with a 7 -- 3 record, and running back Matt Forté led the NFL in total yards from scrimmage. Eventually, quarterback Jay Cutler fractured his thumb, and Forté also was lost for the season against the Kansas City Chiefs after spraining his MCL, and the Bears, with Caleb Hanie playing, lost five straight before winning against the Minnesota Vikings with Josh McCown starting in favor over Hanie. At season 's end, general manager Jerry Angelo was fired, and former Chiefs director of scouting and former Bears scout Phil Emery was brought in. Offensive coordinator Mike Martz resigned, and eventually retired, and was replaced by offensive line coach Mike Tice. The Bears made another notable move by trading for Miami Dolphins receiver and Pro Bowl MVP Brandon Marshall. The Bears became the first team in NFL history to return six interceptions for touchdowns in the first seven games of the season, with another pick - six by Brian Urlacher in Week 9 bringing Chicago two behind the record set by the 1961 San Diego Chargers. However, the Bears missed the playoffs with a record of 10 -- 6 (after starting the season 7 -- 1, the first team to start with the record and miss the playoffs since the 1996 Washington Redskins), and Smith was fired on December 31.
Then - CFL head coach and former NFL journeyman Marc Trestman was hired to succeed Smith after an exhaustive search that included at least 13 known candidates. On March 20, 2013, Brian Urlacher 's 13 - year tenure with the Bears ended when both sides failed to agree on a contract. The Trestman era began on September 8 with a 24 -- 21 win over the Cincinnati Bengals, making Trestman the fourth head coach in Bears history to win in his coaching debut, after George Halas (1920), Neill Armstrong (1978) and Dick Jauron (1999). The Bears ended the 2013 season 8 -- 8, barely missing the playoffs after losing in the final week of the season to the Packers. Despite having a second - ranked offense that set numerous franchise records, the defense greatly worsened as it set franchise worsts in categories like yards allowed (6,313).
The following season was a disaster for the Bears, with the offense regressing to outside the top 20 in scoring. The team also allowed 50 - point games in two straight weeks against the Patriots and Packers, including a franchise - high 42 points and NFL - record six touchdowns allowed in the first half against the latter, to become the first team since the 1923 Rochester Jeffersons to allow at least 50 points in consecutive games. The Bears ended the year 5 -- 11 and last in the NFC North. Trestman and Emery were fired after the season ended.
The Bears hired Ryan Pace of the New Orleans Saints to be their new general manager on January 8, 2015. On January 16, 2015, John Fox accepted a four - year deal to become head coach. In Fox 's first season as head coach, the Bears saw improvements from 2014; after USA Today projected the Bears to win three games, they doubled that total and finished the season with a 6 -- 10 record, including a Thanksgiving win over the Packers at Lambeau Field.
However, during the 2016 season, the Bears regressed heavily, compiling a 3 -- 13 record, their worst since the NFL 's change to 16 - game seasons in 1978. The season included several injuries to starters and secondary players, including Jay Cutler, who only played five games as a result of two separate injuries. The team 's backup quarterback Brian Hoyer would then start the next three games before being out for the season with a broken arm and was replaced by Matt Barkley, who made his first career start with the Bears. None of the three quarterbacks returned for the 2017 season.
In the 2017 NFL Draft, the team selected quarterback Mitchell Trubisky with the second - overall pick, who sat behind newly - signed quarterback Mike Glennon for the first four games before taking over. The Bears ended the season 5 -- 11 and again finished last in the NFC North. On January 1, 2018, Fox was fired, ending his tenure in Chicago with a 14 -- 34 record.
In January of 2018, Kansas City Chiefs offensive coordinator Matt Nagy was hired as the new head coach of the Bears. The week before the regular season began, the Bears acquired disgruntled linebacker Khalil Mack in a trade with the Oakland Raiders, sending 2019 and 2020 first round picks in return and signed him to a 6 - year contract worth $141 million, making Mack the highest - paid defensive player in NFL history at the time.
Virginia Halas McCaskey, her children, and grandchildren control 80 percent of the team, and Mrs. McCaskey votes her children 's stock as well as her own. Patrick Ryan, executive chairman of Aon Corp., and Aon director Andrew McKenna own 19.7 % of the club. In a Crain 's Chicago Business article, one businessman described his wishes for the team to maximize its potential. In 2009, Yahoo! Sports listed the McCaskeys as the third worst owner in the NFL, stating "(T) hey get less for what they 've got than any team in our league. '' There have been rumors that the McCaskey family might split up over the team.
In 2012, Forbes magazine reported that the franchise is worth $1.19 billion, making it the eighth richest franchise in the NFL. Chicago is the third largest media market in the United States.
The team has major sponsorship deals with Dr Pepper Snapple Group, Miller Brewing Company, PNC Financial Services, United Airlines, Verizon, Xfinity and Proven IT. The team was the first in the NFL to have a presenting sponsor, with the 2004 season advertised as "Bears Football presented by BankOne (now Chase) ''. Additionally, the Bears have an agreement with WFLD (the Fox owned - and - operated station in Chicago) to broadcast pre-season football games.
Before the 2003 season, the team had two unofficial mascots named "Rocky '' and "Bearman ''. "Rocky '' was a man who donned a # 1 Bears jersey, carried a megaphone, and started chants all over Soldier Field during the 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s, in a fashion similar to Fireman Ed. There is no known source of who "Rocky '' was, and presumably currently lives in Northwestern Indiana. Don Wachter, also known as "Bearman '', is a season ticket holder who decided in 1995 that he could also assist the team by cheerleading, similar to Rocky. The club allowed him to run across the field with a large Bears flag during player introductions and each team score (a role currently done by the Bears 4th Phase and Bears captains). In 1996, he donned his "costume '' of face paint, bear head and arms, and a number 46 jersey. "Bearman '' was forced to stop wearing his costume with the introduction of Staley Da Bear in 2003; however, in 2005, Wachter was allowed in costume again.
Staley Da Bear is an anthropomorphic bear with a customized No. 00 jersey, with blue and orange eyes, synonymous with the team 's main colors. His name is eponymous to corn processing company A.E. Staley, who founded the Bears ' franchise in 1919. Like Rocky and Bearman, he entertains Bears fans, but like other NFL mascots, and mascots in general, Staley also makes various visits to charity events, parties, Chicago Rush AFL games, and other Bears - related events, as well as taking part in various games with his "furballs '' against youth football teams at halftime.
The team also formerly had their own cheerleading squad called the Chicago Honey Bears. However, Bears owner Virginia Halas McCaskey terminated them after the 1985 season. The squad 's uniforms have changed 3 times: from 1977 -- 1979 was a white bodysuit with navy blue sleeves, from 1980 -- 1984 was also a white bodysuit, but with orange sleeves and the navy was moved to the trim, and in the squad 's final season in 1985, the uniform was redesigned with an orange sequin vest.
Since 1998, the Bears have partnered with ' A Safe Place, ' a domestic violence shelter in Waukegan, Illinois. In June 2017, current and former Bears employees helped with renovations at the shelter by ripping up carpet, painting walls, demolishing a kitchen and building a fence. The Bears have also provided financial support throughout the years.
The Green Bay Packers are the Bears ' biggest rivals since their team 's inception in 1920. The Green Bay Packers currently have the lead at 95 -- 94 -- 6, and the teams have met twice in the postseason. The Bears won the 1941 meeting, 33 -- 14, and eventually defeated the New York Giants in the 1941 NFL Championship Game, and the Packers won the 2011 meeting, 21 -- 14, en route to a Super Bowl XLV win over the Pittsburgh Steelers. The teams ' first meeting was a victory for the Bears (known as the Staleys at the time) in 1921 in a shutout, 20 -- 0. The Packers claimed their first win over the Bears in 1925, 14 -- 10. The 1924 matchup (which ended in a 3 -- 0 win for Chicago) was notable for featuring the first ever ejection of players in a game in NFL history, as Frank Hanny of the Bears and Walter Voss of the Packers were ejected for punching each other. The rivalry also featured one of the last successful fair catch kicks in 1968, when Bears kicker Mac Percival kicked the game - winning field goal.
Chicago and Minnesota took each other on in the Vikings ' inaugural game, with the Vikings defeating the Bears in a 37 -- 13 rout, and Minnesota currently holds the series lead 54 -- 50 -- 2.
The Detroit Lions and Bears have faced off since the Lions ' inception in 1930, when they were known as the Portsmouth Spartans, with the Spartans winning, 7 -- 6, and Chicago winning the second meeting, 14 -- 6. Since then, the Bears have led the series, 95 -- 66 -- 5. The rivalry grew in 1932, when the Bears and Spartans met in the first ever postseason game in NFL history, with the Bears winning the game 9 -- 0. The game also was known as the first "indoor football '' game, as the game took place in indoor Chicago Stadium due to a blizzard at the time. The game also started the forward pass.
Soldier Field, located on Lake Shore Drive in Chicago, is the current home of the Bears. The Bears moved to Soldier Field in 1971 after outgrowing Wrigley Field, the team 's home for 50 years. Northwestern University 's residential neighbors objected to their playing at Dyche Stadium, now called Ryan Field. After the AFL - NFL Merger, the newly merged league wanted their teams to play in stadiums that could hold at least 50,000 fans. Even with the portable bleachers that the team brought into Wrigley, the stadium could still only hold 46,000. Soldier Field 's playing turf was changed from natural grass to astroturf before the 1971 season, and then back to natural grass in time for the start of the 1988 season. The stadium was the site of the infamous Fog Bowl playoff game between the Bears and Philadelphia Eagles.
In 2002, the stadium was closed and rebuilt with only the exterior wall of the stadium being preserved. It was closed on Sunday, January 20, 2002, a day after the Bears lost in the playoffs. It reopened on September 27, 2003 after a complete rebuild (the second in the stadium 's history). Many fans refer to the rebuilt stadium as "New Soldier Field ''. During the 2002 season, the Bears played their home games at the University of Illinois ' Memorial Stadium in Champaign, where they went 3 -- 5.
Many critics have negative views of the new stadium. They believe that its current structure has made it more of an eyesore than a landmark; some have dubbed it the "Mistake on the Lake ''. Soldier Field was stripped of its National Historic Landmark designation on February 17, 2006.
In the 2005 season, the Bears won the NFC North Division and the No. 2 Seed in the NFC Playoffs, entitling them to play at least one home game in the postseason. The team hosted (and lost) their divisional round match on January 15, 2006 against the Carolina Panthers. This was the first playoff game at Soldier Field since the stadium reopened.
The stadium 's end zones and midfield were not painted until the 1982 season. The design sported on the field included the bolded word "Chicago '' rendered in Highway Gothic in both end zones. In 1983, the end zone design returned, with the addition of a large wishbone "C '' Bears logo painted at midfield. These field markings remained unchanged until the 1996 season. In 1996 the midfield wishbone "C '' was changed to a large blue Bears head, and the end zone design were painted with "Bears '' in cursive. This new design remained until the 1999 season, at which point the artwork was returned to the classic "Chicago '' and the "C ''. In the new Soldier Field, the artwork was tweaked to where one end zone had the word "Chicago '' bolded and the other had "Bears ''.
While the Super Bowl XX Champion Bears were a fixture of mainstream American pop culture in the 1980s, the Bears made a prior mark with the 1971 American TV movie Brian 's Song starring Billy Dee Williams as Gale Sayers and James Caan as Brian Piccolo. The film told of how Piccolo helped Sayers recover from a devastating knee injury to return to his status as one of the league 's best players, and how Sayers in turn helped the Piccolo family through Brian 's fatal illness. A 2001 remake of the movie for ABC starred Sean Maher as Piccolo and Mekhi Phifer as Sayers.
The 1985 team is also remembered for recording the song "The Super Bowl Shuffle '', which reached number forty - one on the Billboard Hot 100 and was nominated for a Grammy Award. The music video for the song depicts the team rapping that they are "not here to start no trouble '' but instead "just here to do the Super Bowl Shuffle ''. The team took a risk by recording and releasing the song before the playoffs had even begun, but were able to avoid embarrassment by going on to win Super Bowl XX by a then - record margin of 46 -- 10. That game was one of the most watched television events in history according to the Nielsen ratings system; the game had a rating of 48.3, ranking it 7th in all - time television history.
In addition to the "Super Bowl Shuffle '' rap song, the Bears ' success in the 1980s -- and especially the personality of head coach Mike Ditka -- inspired a recurring sketch on the American sketch comedy program Saturday Night Live, called "Bill Swerski 's Superfans ''. The sketch featured Cheers co-star George Wendt, a Chicago native, as host of a radio talk - show (similar in tone to WGN radio 's "The Sportswriters ''), with co-panelists Carl Wollarski (Robert Smigel), Pat Arnold (Mike Myers) and Todd O'Connor (Chris Farley). To hear them tell it, "Da Bears '' and Coach Ditka could do no wrong. The sketch stopped after Ditka was fired in 1993. The sketch usually showed the panelists drinking lots of beer and eating lots of Polish sausage, and often featured Todd getting so agitated about what was happening with the Bears that he suffered a heart attack, but quickly recovered (through self - administered CPR). The sketch also features the cast predicting unrealistic blowout victories for Bears games. Da Super Fan sketch has not been brought back by SNL, with the exception of a single appearance by Horatio Sanz as a Super Fan for the Cubs on "Weekend Update '' in 2003. Outside of SNL, George Wendt reprised his role of Swerski in the opening promo of Super Bowl XL on ABC.
On TV shows based in Chicago such as The Bob Newhart Show, Married... with Children, Family Matters, Still Standing, According to Jim, Early Edition and The Bernie Mac Show, the main characters are all Bears fans, and have worn Bears ' jerseys and T - shirts on some occasions. Some episodes even show them watching Bears games. Roseanne is another TV show based in Illinois (albeit not in Chicago itself) to feature the Bears as the consensus household favorite, as ' Dan Connor ' John Goodman is seen wearing Bears hats in several episodes. That ' 70s Show featured several Bears references, as it was based in Wisconsin, home of the Packers. On one episode while the gang is at a Bears vs. Packers game, Eric comes to the seat in a Walter Payton jersey and is booed by the surrounding Packers fans. In an episode of the Disney Channel show Shake It Up, based in Chicago, recurring character Dina Garcia (Ainsley Bailey) sold scalped Chicago Bears tickets. More recently, Modern Family character Cameron Tucker has been shown as a Bears fan. In an episode of the Disney Channel show "I Did n't Do It '', based in Chicago, Lindy Watson (Olivia Holt) and Logan Watson (Austin North) try to get a football signed by NFL Hall of Famer Dick Butkus after destroying their fathers Butkus signed ball, Alshon Jeffery also makes a cameo appearance as well.
Ditka 's success and popularity in Chicago has led him to land analyst roles on various American football pregame shows. Ditka worked for both the NFL on NBC and CBS 's The NFL Today, and he currently works on ESPN 's Sunday NFL Countdown and provided Friday night analysis on the Bears on WBBM - TV 's 2 on Football with former WBBM - TV sports director Mark Malone. He is also the color analyst for all local broadcasts of Bears preseason games. Ditka also co-starred himself alongside actor Will Ferrell in the 2005 comedy film Kicking & Screaming.
Also, Ditka, Dick Butkus, Walter Payton, Jim McMahon, William "Refrigerator '' Perry and Brian Urlacher are among Bears figures known for their appearances in TV commercials. Urlacher, whose jersey was among the league 's best - selling in 2002, was featured on Nike commercials with former Atlanta Falcons quarterback Michael Vick.
In the 1961 Hanna - Barbera animated short "Rah Rah Bear '', Yogi Bear helps the Bears beat the New York Giants. The Bears were later depicted in an episode of the 1985 cartoon version of the NBC sitcom Punky Brewster, where the Bears are playing the Green Bay Packers.
Clark Griswold (Chevy Chase) from the National Lampoon 's Vacation series appears in some scenes wearing a navy blue with burnt orange scripting Chicago Bears ball cap. He wears the same Chicago Bears cap throughout all four Vacation movies.
Currently, WBBM (780 AM) and its simulcasting partner, WCFS - FM (105.9 FM) broadcast Bears games with Jeff Joniak doing the play - by - play, along with color commentator Tom Thayer, who played for the Bears from 1985 -- 1992, and sideline reporter Zach Zaidman. Over the years, many Bears play - by - play broadcasters have included play - by - play announcers Jack Brickhouse, Joe McConnell and Wayne Larrivee, and color commentators Hub Arkush, Dick Butkus, Jim Hart and Irv Kupcinet.
Spanish radio station WLEY - FM aired the Bears games from 2012 to 2014. Since 2015, WRTO and WVIV - FM air Bears games in Spanish.
Their current preseason TV announcers on WFLD (channel 32), which also carries the majority of the team 's regular season games through the NFL on Fox, are Sam Rosen (play - by - play), Erik Kramer (color commentary) and Lou Canellis (sideline reporter). When the games are played against an AFC team, it can be aired on the CBS O&O station, WBBM - TV. Sunday Night games are broadcast on WMAQ - TV, the NBC O&O station.
Patrick Mannelly holds the record for the most seasons in a Bears uniform with 16. On the other hand, Steve McMichael holds the record for most consecutive games played by a Bear with 191; he accomplished the feat from 1981 to 1993. In second place is Payton, who played 186 games from 1975 to 1987 at running back, a position considered to be conducive to injury, only missing one game in a span of 13 seasons.
Kicker Robbie Gould became the Bears ' all - time scoring leader in Week 5 of 2015 season overtaking placekicker Kevin Butler who previously held the club record for scoring the most points in his ten - year Bear career. He scored 1,116 points as the Bears kicker from 1985 to 1995. He is followed by running back Walter Payton, with 750 points. Payton holds the team record for career rushing yards with 16,726. That was an NFL record until Emmitt Smith of the Dallas Cowboys broke it in 2002. Former Bears running back Matt Forte, who started playing for the Bears in 2008, is the closest to Payton 's record with 6,985 yards. Forte also holds the team 's single season record for rookies in rushing attempts, rushing yards and receptions. Mark Bortz holds the record for most Bear playoff appearances, with 13 between 1983 and 1994, and is followed by Kevin Butler, Dennis Gentry, Dan Hampton, Jay Hilgenberg, Steve McMichael, Ron Rivera, Mike Singletary, and Keith Van Horne, who have each played in 12 playoff games.
The 1940 Chicago Bears team holds the record for the biggest margin of victory in an NFL game (playoff or regular season) with a 73 -- 0 victory over the Washington Redskins in the 1940 NFL Championship Game. The largest home victory for the Bears came in a 61 -- 7 result against the Green Bay Packers in 1980. The largest defeat in club history was a 52 -- 0 loss against the Baltimore Colts in 1964. The club recorded undefeated regular seasons in 1934 and 1942, but (unlike the 1972 Dolphins) did not win the championship game in either season. In 1934, the club completed a 13 -- 0 record but were defeated by the New York Giants, and in 1942 the club completed an 11 -- 0 record but were defeated by the Redskins. Had the Bears won either championship, the club would have completed a championship three - peat -- a feat completed only by the Packers (twice), although no team has done it since the AFL - NFL merger. Halas holds the team record for coaching the most seasons with 40 and for having the most career victories of 324. Halas ' victories record stood until Don Shula surpassed Halas in 1993. Ditka is the closest Bears coach to Halas, with 112 career victories. No other Bears coach has recorded over 100 victories with the team.
During the 2006 season, return specialist Devin Hester set several kick return records. He currently holds the franchise record for most return yards with 2,261. He had six touchdown returns, setting a record for most returns in a single season. In 2007, he recorded another six touchdown season from returns. One of the most notable of these returns came on November 12, 2006, when he returned a missed field goal for a 108 - yard touchdown. The record tied former teammate Nathan Vasher 's previous record, which was set almost a year earlier. Additionally, Hester set a Super Bowl record by becoming the first player to return an opening kick of a Super Bowl for a touchdown. On December 20, 2010, Hester set an NFL record for most touchdowns on a punt or kickoff return with his 14th career return coming against the Minnesota Vikings. In 2011, Hester broke the record for the most punt returns against the Carolina Panthers.
In 2012, Charles Tillman set the record for most forced fumbles in a single game with 4 against the Tennessee Titans. Also against the Titans, Chicago became the first team in league history to score a touchdown pass, a touchdown run, an interception return for a touchdown, and a blocked kick / punt for a score in the same quarter. Tillman and teammate Lance Briggs became the first pair in NFL history to return an interception for a touchdown in consecutive games against the Jacksonville Jaguars and Dallas Cowboys.
This is a partial list of the Bears ' last five completed seasons. For the full season - by - season franchise results, see List of Chicago Bears seasons.
Note: The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play.
As of December 31, 2017
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated October 17, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 4 Inactive, 10 Practice squad
In the Pro Football Hall of Fame, the Bears have the most enshrined primary members with 28, however the club also have had five Hall of Famers spend a minor portion of their career with the franchise. Founder, owner, head coach, and player George Halas, halfback Bronko Nagurski, and Red Grange were a part of the original class of inductees in 1963. The franchise saw 14 individuals inducted into the Hall of Fame from 1963 to 1967. Middle linebacker Brian Urlacher, who spent his entire career with the team, is the most recent Chicago Bear inductee, a part of the Class of 2018.
The Bears have retired 14 uniform numbers, which is the most in the NFL, and ranks fourth behind the basketball Boston Celtics (22), baseball New York Yankees (21), and hockey Montreal Canadiens (15) for the most in North American professional sports. The Bears retired Mike Ditka 's number 89 jersey on December 9, 2013. It is the last number that the Bears retired.
→ Coaching staff → Management → More NFL staffs
† = Never played in the league
|
when did new mexico became a territory of the united states | New Mexico Territory - wikipedia
The Territory of New Mexico was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed (with varying boundaries) from September 9, 1850, until January 6, 1912, when the remaining extent of the territory was admitted to the Union as the State of New Mexico, making it the longest - lived organized incorporated territory of the United States, lasting approximately 62 years.
In 1846, during the Mexican - American War, the U.S. provisional government of New Mexico was established. Territorial boundaries were somewhat ambiguous. After the Mexican Republic formally ceded the region to the U.S.A. in 1848, this temporary wartime / military government persisted until September 9, 1850.
Earlier in the year 1850, a bid for New Mexico statehood was underway under a proposed state constitution prohibiting slavery. The request was approved at the same time that the Utah Territory was created to the north. The proposed state boundaries were to extend as far east as the 100th meridian West and as far north as the Arkansas River, thus encompassing the present - day Texas and Oklahoma panhandles and parts of present - day Kansas, Colorado, Utah, and Arizona, as well as most of present - day New Mexico. Texas raised great opposition to this plan, as it claimed much of the same territory, although it did not control these lands. In addition, slaveholders worried about not being able to expand slavery to the west of their current slave states.
The Compromise of 1850 put an end to the push for immediate New Mexico statehood. Approved by the United States Congress in September 1850, the legislation provided for the establishment of New Mexico Territory and Utah Territory. It also firmly established the disputed western boundary of Texas.
The status of slavery during the territorial period provoked considerable debate. The granting of statehood was up to a Congress sharply divided on the slavery issue. Some (including Stephen A. Douglas) maintained that the territory could not restrict slavery, as under the earlier Missouri Compromise, while others (including Abraham Lincoln) insisted that older Mexican Republic legal traditions of the territory, which abolished black, but not Indian, slavery in 1834, took precedence and should be continued. Regardless of its official status, slavery was rare in antebellum New Mexico. Black slaves never numbered more than about a dozen.
As one of the final attempts at compromise to avoid the Civil War, in December 1860, a U.S. House of Representatives committee proposed to admit New Mexico as a slave state immediately. Although the measure was approved by the committee on December 29, 1860, Southern representatives did not take up this offer, as many of them had already left Congress due to imminent declarations of secession by their states.
On February 24, 1863, during the Civil War, Congress passed the "Arizona Organic Act '', which split off the western portion of the then 12 - year - old New Mexico Territory as the new Arizona Territory, and abolished slavery in the new Territory. As in New Mexico, slavery was already extremely limited, due to earlier Mexican traditions, laws, and patterns of settlement. The northwestern corner of New Mexico Territory was included in Arizona Territory until it was added to the southernmost part of the newly admitted State of Nevada in 1864. Eventually, Arizona Territory was organized as the State of Arizona.
The Purchase treaty defines the new border as "up the middle of that river (the Rio Grande) to the point where the parallel of 31 ° 47 ' north latitude crosses the same 31 ° 47 ′ 0 '' N 106 ° 31 ′ 41.5 '' W / 31.78333 ° N 106.528194 ° W / 31.78333; - 106.528194; thence due west one hundred miles; thence south to the parallel of 31 ° 20 ' north latitude; thence along the said parallel of 31 ° 20 ' to the 111th meridian of longitude west of Greenwich 31 ° 20 ′ N 111 ° 0 ′ W / 31.333 ° N 111.000 ° W / 31.333; - 111.000; thence in a straight line to a point on the Colorado River twenty English miles below the junction of the Gila and Colorado rivers; thence up the middle of the said river Colorado until it intersects the present line between the United States and Mexico. '' The new border included a few miles of the Colorado River at the western end; the remaining land portion consisted of line segments between points, including 32 ° 29 ′ 38 '' N 114 ° 48 ′ 47 '' W / 32.49399 ° N 114.813043 ° W / 32.49399; - 114.813043 at the Colorado River, west of Nogales at 31 ° 19 ′ 56 '' N 111 ° 04 ′ 27 '' W / 31.33214 ° N 111.07423 ° W / 31.33214; - 111.07423, near AZ - NM - Mexico tripoint at 31 ° 19 ′ 56 '' N 109 ° 03 ′ 02 '' W / 31.332099 ° N 109.05047 ° W / 31.332099; - 109.05047, the eastern corners of NM southern bootheel (Hidalgo County) at 31 ° 47 ′ 02 '' N 108 ° 12 ′ 31 '' W / 31.78378 ° N 108.20854 ° W / 31.78378; - 108.20854, and the west bank of Rio Grande at 31 ° 47 ′ 02 '' N 106 ° 31 ′ 43 '' W / 31.78377 ° N 106.52864 ° W / 31.78377; - 106.52864.
The boundaries of the New Mexico Territory at the time of establishment (September 9, 1850) contained most of the present - day State of New Mexico, more than half of the present - day State of Arizona, and portions of the present - day states of Colorado and Nevada. Although this area was smaller than what had been included in the failed statehood proposal of early 1850, the boundary disputes with Texas had been dispelled by the Compromise of 1850.
The Gadsden Purchase was acquired by the United States from Mexico in 1853 / 1854 (known as the "Venta de La Mesilla '' or the "Sale of La Mesilla ''), arranged by the then - American ambassador to Mexico, James Gadsden. This added today 's southern strip of Arizona and a smaller area in today 's southwestern New Mexico to the New Mexico Territory, bringing its land area to the maximum size achieved in its history as an organized territory. The land of 29,640 square miles (76,800 km) provided a more easily constructed route for a future southern transcontinental railroad line (second of the routes) for the future Southern Pacific Railroad, constructed later in 1881 / 1883.
The Colorado Territory was established by the "Colorado Organic Act '' on February 28, 1861, with the same boundaries that would ultimately constitute the State of Colorado. This Act removed the Colorado lands from the New Mexico Territory.
The creation of the Union Arizona Territory (two years after the ill - fated Confederate Arizona Territory) by the "Arizona Organic Act '' on February 24, 1863, removed all the land west of the 109th meridian from the New Mexico Territory, i.e. the entire present - day State of Arizona plus the land that would become the southern part of the State of Nevada in 1864. This Act left the New Mexico Territory with boundaries identical to the eventual State of New Mexico for a half - century until admitted to the Union in 1912 as the 47th state (followed just under six weeks later by the Arizona Territory / State of Arizona, which became the 48th state, finally filling out the coast - to - coast continental expanse of the United States).
As the route to California, New Mexico Territory was disputed territory during the American Civil War. Settlers in the southern part of the Territory willingly joined the Confederate States in 1861 as the newly organized Confederate Territory of Arizona, with a representative delegate to the Confederate Congress in the capital of Richmond. This territory consisted of the southern half of the earlier Federal New Mexico Territory of 1851 and was in contrast to the later Federal Arizona Territory established by the Union in 1863, which was the western half split off from the original U.S. New Mexico Territory. The short - lived Confederate Arizona Territory was the first American territorial entity to be called "Arizona ''.
The Battle of Glorieta Pass in May 1862, following the retreat of Texan Confederate forces back south to El Paso, placed the area of the Rio Grande valley and eastern New Mexico Territory with the capital of Santa Fe under the control of the Federals with their Union Army. However, the government and leadership of the Confederate Arizona Territory persisted until the end of the Civil War in June 1865 with the surrender of the Trans - Mississippi Department, living in exile in El Paso, Texas with its delegate still in Richmond.
|
who has won the australian grand prix this year | Australian Grand Prix - wikipedia
The Australian Grand Prix is a motor race held annually in Australia currently under contract to host Formula One until 2023. The Grand Prix is the oldest surviving motor racing competition held in Australia having been contested 83 times since it was first run at Phillip Island in 1928. It is currently sponsored with naming rights by the Swiss watchmaker Rolex.
Prior to its inclusion in the World Championship, it was held at a multitude of venues in every state of Australia. It was a centrepiece of the Tasman Series in most years between 1964 and 1972 and was a round of the Australian Drivers ' Championship on many occasions between 1957 and 1983.
The race became part of the Formula One World Championship in 1985 and was held at the Adelaide Street Circuit in Adelaide, South Australia, from that year to 1995. From 1996 it has been held at the Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit at Albert Park in Melbourne. The winner of the race is presented with a circular plate, recently named the Jack Brabham trophy in a design based on the steering wheel of one of Brabham 's racing cars and a perpetual trophy, the Lex Davison trophy. These trophies each date back to the 1960s.
Since moving to Melbourne, the Australian Grand Prix has been the first race of the F1 World Championship excluding 2006 and 2010. Previously in Adelaide, it was the final round of the Championship, hosting numerous racing memorable for deciding Championship results, most notably the 1986 and 1994 races which saw the 1986 and 1994 World Drivers ' Championships decided.
Australian driver Lex Davison and German driver Michael Schumacher are the most successful drivers in the 86 - year history of the event taking four wins each, while McLaren has been the most successful constructor with twelve victories. Frenchman Alain Prost is the only driver to win the Australian Grand Prix in both Australian domestic and World Championship formats, having won the race in 1982 driving a Formula Pacific Ralt RT4 and in Formula One in 1986 and 1988.
While an event called the Australian Grand Prix is believed to have been staged in 1927 near Sydney, it is generally accepted that the Australian Grand Prix began as the 100 Miles Road Race held at the Phillip Island road circuit in 1928. The inaugural race was won by Arthur Waite in what was effectively an entry supported by the Austin Motor Company, a modified Austin 7. For eight years, races, first called the Australian Grand Prix in 1929, continued on the rectangular dirt road circuit. This was the era of the Australian "special '', mechanical concoctions of disparate chassis and engine that were every bit as capable as the Grand Prix machines imported from Europe. For all the ingenuity of the early Australian mechanic - racers, Bugattis dominated the results, taking four consecutive wins from 1929 -- 1932. The last Phillip Island race was in 1935 and the title lapsed for three years. An AGP style event was held on Boxing Day, 1936 at the South Australian town of Victor Harbor for a centennial South Australian Grand Prix before the Australian Grand Prix title was revived in 1938 for the grand opening of what would become one of the world 's most famous race tracks, Mount Panorama just outside the semi-rural town of Bathurst. Only just completed, with a tar seal for the circuit still a year away, the race was won by Englishman Peter Whitehead racing a new voiturette ERA B - Type that was just too fast for the locally developed machinery. One more race was held, at the Lobethal Circuit near the South Australian town of Lobethal in 1939, before the country was plunged into World War II.
In the immediate post-war era, racing was sparse with competitors using pre-war cars with supplies cobbled together around the rationing of fuel and tyres. Mount Panorama held the first post-war Grand Prix in 1947, beginning a rotational system between the Australian States, as fostered by the Australian Automobile Association. A mixture of stripped - down production sports cars and Australian "specials '' were to take victories as the race travelled amongst temporary converted airfield circuits and street circuits like Point Cook, Leyburn, Nuriootpa and Narrogin before, on the races return to Mount Panorama in 1952, the way to the future was pointed by Doug Whiteford racing a newly imported Talbot - Lago Formula One car to victory. Grand Prix machinery had already been filtering through in the shape of older Maserati and OSCAs and smaller Coopers but had yet to prove to be superior to the locally developed cars. The end of the Australian "specials '' was coming, but the magnificent Maybach - based series of specials driven exuberantly by Stan Jones would give many hope for the next few years.
Lex Davison, who for several years would experiment with sports car engines in smaller Formula 2 chassis, took his first of four victories in a Jaguar engined Formula 2 HWM in 1954, while the previous year Whiteford won his third and final Grand Prix as for the first time racing cars thundered around the streets surrounding the Albert Park Lake in inner Melbourne. That circuit, which for four brief years gave Australia the strongest taste of the grandeur surrounding European Grand Prix racing, was 40 years later very much modified, used to host the 1996 Australian Grand Prix as the modern Formula One world championship venue. Jack Brabham took his first of three AGP wins in 1955 at the short Port Wakefield Circuit in South Australia. The race is significant in that Brabham was driving a Bristol powered Cooper T40, the first ever rear - engine car to win the Grand Prix.
The Grand Prix returned to Albert Park in 1956, Melbourne 's Olympic Games year to play host to a group of visiting European teams, led by Stirling Moss and the factory Maserati racing team who brought a fleet of 250F Grand Prix cars and 300S sports racing cars. Moss won the Grand Prix from Maserati teammate Jean Behra. That 1956 race would inspire the next great era of the Grand Prix.
The growing influence of engineer - drivers Jack Brabham and a couple of years behind him New Zealander Bruce McLaren would transform the race. Brabham, who first won the Grand Prix in 1955 in an obsolete Cooper T40 Bristol he had brought home from his first foray into English racing, would test new developments for Cooper during the European winter, beginning a flood of Cooper - Climax Grand Prix machinery into Australia and New Zealand before Brabham started building his own cars, as well as the appearance of Lotus chassis as well, finally killing off the Australian "specials ''. With European Formula One restricted by the 1.5 - litre regulations and big powerful 2.5 - litre Australian cars were tremendously attractive to the European teams and when BRM Grand Prix team toured Australia during the summer of 1962, the seed grew that became the Tasman Series.
The top European Formula One teams and drivers raced the European winters in Australia and New Zealand from 1963 to 1969 playing host to a golden age for racing in the region for which the Australian Grand Prix (and the New Zealand Grand Prix) became jewels of the summer. The popularity of the Tasman formulae was directly responsible for 1966 's "return to power '' in Formula One, and having spent years developing with Repco the Brabham cars and eventually the Oldsmobile - based Repco V8s in the Tasman series gave Jack Brabham the opportunity to unexpectedly dominate Formula One in his Brabhams with a ready - proven lightweight car that left Ferrari and the British "garagistes '' struggling with their heavy, technically fragile or underpowered cars until the appearance of the Lotus - Cosworth in 1967.
The Formula One stars of the era all visited the Tasman Series, including World Champions Jim Clark, John Surtees, Phil Hill, Jackie Stewart, Graham Hill and Jochen Rindt, while other F1 regulars Timmy Mayer, Pedro Rodriguez, Piers Courage, leading teams from Cooper, Lotus, Lola, BRM, even the four wheel drive Ferguson P99 and finally, Ferrari, racing against the local stars, Jack Brabham, Bruce McLaren, Denny Hulme, Chris Amon, Frank Gardner, Frank Matich, Leo Geoghegan and Kevin Bartlett. Brabham won the Grand Prix three times, McLaren twice, Clark twice, the second was his last major victory before his untimely death, winning a highly entertaining battle with Chris Amon at the 1968 Australian Grand Prix at Sandown Raceway. Graham Hill won the 1966 race, with Amon winning the final Tasman formulae race in 1969 leading home Ferrari teammate Derek Bell for a dominant 1 -- 2 at Lakeside Raceway.
By the end of the decade, European teams were increasingly reluctant to commit to the Tasman Series in the face of longer home seasons, but also having to develop 2.5 - litre versions of their 3.0 litre F1 engines. Local Tasman cars were declining as well and after originally opting a 2.0 litre version of Tasman to be the future of the Australia Grand Prix, the overwhelming support for the already well established Formula 5000 saw natural selection force CAMS ' hand.
For the first half of the 1970s, the Tasman Series continued purely as a local series for Formula 5000 racers, but by 1976, the Australian and New Zealand legs fractured apart and the Australian Grand Prix separated from the remnants and became a stand - alone race once more. During this era, the former Tasman stars, Matich, Geoghegan and Bartlett would continue on as a new generation of drivers emerged, some like Garrie Cooper (Elfin) and Graham McRae developing their own cars while others like Max Stewart, John McCormack and Alfredo Costanzo using European - built cars, mostly Lolas. Matich won two Grands Prix is his own cars before Stewart and McRae each took a pair of wins. Towards the end of the 1970s, the race again became a home to returning European - based antipodeans like Alan Jones and Larry Perkins with Warwick Brown winning the 1977 race, while in 1976, touring car racer John Goss completed a remarkable double becoming the only driver to win the Grand Prix and the Bathurst 1000 touring car race.
Declining economy and the dominance of the local scene by Group C touring cars towards the latter part of the 1970s saw Formula 5000 gradually fall out of favour. By 1980, the decision to replace was once again imminent; however, the form of Alan Jones in Formula One saw entrepreneur Bob Jane seize an opportunity to bring Formula One back as the Grand Prix Formula. The 1980 extravaganza held at Jane 's Calder Park Raceway saw a combined field of Formula One and Formula 5000 padded out with the Australised version of Formula Atlantic cars, Formula Pacific. The newly crowned world champion, Jones swept the field aside in his Williams - Ford, but with only two F1 cars entering (the other being the Alfa Romeo 179 driven by Bruno Giacomelli).
The continuing disintegration of F5000 saw Jane concentrate the next four Grands Prix on the Formula Pacific (later rebadged as Formula Mondial) category and importing Formula One drivers to race the locals in fields almost entirely made up of Ralt RT4s. Brazilian Roberto Moreno dominated this era, winning three of the four races, ceding only the 1982 race to future four - time World Champion Alain Prost.
Jane 's attempt to bring the World Championship to Calder Park ultimately failed, as did a bid by Melbourne 's other circuit Sandown (though Sandown was able to attract a round of the World Sportscar Championship to its upgraded track in 1984). As it turned out, F1 would be tempted away from Melbourne by a far more attractive option.
The Australian Grand Prix became a round of the FIA Formula One World Championship in 1985 with the last race of the season held on the street circuit in Adelaide. The Adelaide Street Circuit, which held its last Formula One race in 1995, was known as a challenging, demanding and tricky circuit that often produced races of attrition, and the whole event was very popular with drivers, teams and fans. Whenever the teams came to Adelaide they enjoyed the party atmosphere.
The first ever Australian Grand Prix to be included as part of the Formula One World Championship was also the 50th AGP. The new 3.78 km Adelaide Street Circuit saw Brazilian Ayrton Senna on pole with a time of 1: 19.843 in his Lotus -- Renault. The race itself was a battle between Senna and Finland 's Keke Rosberg driving a Williams -- Honda for the last time. Run in oppressively hot conditions, the last race of the 1985 season ran to its 2 - hour time limit, though all scheduled 82 laps were run. Rosberg ultimately prevailed finishing 43 seconds in front of the Ligier -- Renaults of Frenchmen Jacques Laffite and Philippe Streiff who actually collided at the hairpin at the end of Brabham Straight with only one lap to go when Streiff tried a passing move that resulted in his car suffering broken suspension, though not bad enough to cause retirement. Three time World Champion Austrian Niki Lauda drove his last Formula One race at this event. After starting 16th in his McLaren, he made his way to the lead by lap 57, but a lack of brakes cause him to crash into a wall in a sad end to his Formula One career. Australia had its own driver in the race with 1980 World Champion Alan Jones driving a Lola -- Hart. Jones, who started 19th, stalled at the start but fought his way to sixth by lap 20 before retiring later in the lap with electrical failure. The 1986 event was a three - way race for the Drivers ' Championship. Briton Nigel Mansell and Brazilian Nelson Piquet in Williams -- Hondas and Frenchman Alain Prost, in a comparatively underpowered McLaren -- TAG / Porsche, were competing for the drivers ' title. Mansell needed only third to guarantee the title, whilst Prost and Piquet needed to win and for Mansell to finish fourth or lower to take the title. Finn Keke Rosberg led for 62 laps before a puncture that caused damage to his McLaren; this was the 1982 champion 's last Formula One race. Whilst comfortably in the top three with 20 laps to go, Mansell 's Williams suffered a spectacular mechanical failure, with a rear tyre puncture at 180 mph (290 km / h) on the Brabham Straight, creating a huge shower of sparks as the floor of the vehicle dragged along the bitumen surface. Mansell fought to control the violently veering car and steered it to a safe stop. Prost took the lead, as Mansell 's teammate Piquet had pitted as a pre-cautionary measure, and the Frenchman won the race and the championship. Prost had to fight back after a mid-race puncture, and stopped soon after the finish so as not to waste fuel, something he had done at every race he finished since his disqualification from the 1985 San Marino Grand Prix for being underweight after his McLaren ran out of fuel on his slow down lap after crossing the line first. 1987 saw Gerhard Berger win in his Ferrari while Ayrton Senna finished second but was then disqualified for technical irregularities in his last race for Lotus; Berger 's teammate Michele Alboreto was then moved up to second place to make the final result a Ferrari 1 -- 2.
1988, the last ever Grand Prix of the turbo era, saw Alain Prost win his seventh race of the season from McLaren teammate and newly crowned World Champion Ayrton Senna with outgoing champion Nelson Piquet third for Lotus, giving Honda turbo 's all three podium positions. The race was also the 15th win and 15th pole in 16 races in a season of total dominance for McLaren - Honda, a domination not seen before or since in Formula One. 1989 was hit by a deluge of rain and the drivers, notably Prost, who did not want to start the race because of the very wet conditions, particularly on the Brabham straight. This event came after controversial events 2 weeks before at the Japanese Grand Prix at Suzuka, where Prost crashed into his hated teammate Senna, and Senna got going again and finished 1st on the road but after a lot of political ramifications, he was disqualified for cutting the chicane before the pit straight at Suzuka; the repercussions of which dawned on the race. McLaren decided to appeal Senna 's disqualification; so Senna still had a chance of winning the championship. The race was delayed for sometime and there were discussions about whether the race should be started. Senna qualified on pole position, and had every intention of starting the race. The circuit was still being hammered by rain and was covered by water, but the drivers, including Prost relented and they started. But an unconvinced Prost came in after one lap and withdrew; and Senna - who was in an awful mental state, immediately began driving as fast as he could. By the end of the first lap, due to Pierluigi Martini 's slow Minardi holding up the two faster Williams cars of Belgian Thierry Boutsen and Italian Riccardo Patrese, Senna was an astonishing nine seconds ahead of Martini; the Williams cars soon passed Martini but by the end of the third lap, Senna was 23 seconds ahead of second - placed Boutsen. But even with such a huge lead which extended even further, Senna continued to push very hard - taking very daring chances even for himself; the psychological dominance F1 had exuded over the Brazilian meant that he was known to take chances that most other drivers would not. But going down the Brabham straight on lap 13, Senna came up behind Briton Martin Brundle 's Brabham - Judd, and Brundle decided to move over to let Senna pass. But Senna was blinded by thick spray; and the Brazilian did not let up and then he hit the back of Brundle 's car and it tore off his front left wheel and suspension, so the Brazilian had to retire; effectively handing Prost his third Drivers ' Championship; McLaren 's appeal had not been decided yet; and it was not only overturned but Senna received a $100,000 fine and a six - month ban, both of which were rescinded. Boutsen won the race in the unimproved conditions, the race was called after it reached the two - hour time limit.
1990 was the 500th World Championship Grand Prix ever held; and it came after yet more controversial events at Suzuka. Senna had crashed into Prost at the very first corner on the first lap of the race; and he won the Drivers ' Championship for the second time. The Australian Grand Prix that year was an incredibly exciting race: Senna led for 61 laps, but crashed near the entrance to the permanent race course because of gearbox problems. The race then turned into a dead - heat sprint between Nelson Piquet in his Benetton - Ford and Nigel Mansell in his Ferrari. Mansell charged through the field and repeatedly broke the lap record in pursuit of his former Williams teammate. This almost ended in disaster when the Ferrari almost hit the Benetton at the end of the Brabham Straight in a last - ditch overtaking move on the last lap. Piquet won from the Ferrari 's of Mansell and Prost. There was pre-race controversy when Prost refused to take part in both the annual end of season drivers ' photo and the special photo shoot with the World Champions in attendance (including legendary five - time champion Juan Manuel Fangio, three - time champions Sir Jack Brabham, Jackie Stewart, Niki Lauda, and Nelson Piquet; and other world champions James Hunt, Alan Jones, Denny Hulme and Senna), as Prost was still disgusted and angry did not wish to appear in the photos with Senna following their controversial first corner crash in the previous race in Japan which gave the 1990 World Championship to Senna. The 1991 race was notable for being held in extremely wet and tricky conditions and the race was eventually stopped after 14 of the scheduled 82 laps and Ayrton Senna was declared the winner. Prost had been fired from Ferrari for making unsavory comments about the car after Suzuka; he did not compete in this race. The Drivers ' Championship had already been decided in Senna 's favour; but the Constructors ' Championship was still yet to be decided between McLaren and Williams. Senna 's victory plus his teammate Gerhard Berger 's third gave McLaren its fourth consecutive Constructors ' Championship; Williams (which was behind McLaren in points) drivers Mansell finished second (but crashed near the race 's end at the chicane after the pits) and Riccardo Patrese finished fifth. This race has the record of being the shortest ever Formula One race as it only lasted 52 kilometres (33 miles) / 24 minutes. Triple World Champion Nelson Piquet, who finished fifth, retired from Grand Prix racing following the race. 1992 saw Senna drive very hard to try to stay with new world champion Mansell 's dominant Williams; this ended in Senna running into the back of Mansell at the last corner. Mansell retired from Formula One and went to compete in CART in the United States; Senna 's teammate Gerhard Berger won the race. 1993 saw Senna win what was to be his 41st and final victory and final race for McLaren ahead of Alain Prost, who was competing in his final Formula One race in a Williams before he too retired. Senna embraced his once extremely bitter rival Prost on the podium. It was announced around this time that the Australian Grand Prix would be moving to Melbourne for 1996.
The 1994 was to see yet another memorable weekend. Following his win at the Japanese Grand Prix, Damon Hill was now one point behind championship leader Michael Schumacher. Nigel Mansell, returning to Formula One in place of the late Senna, was on pole but a poor start resulted in the two championship rivals Hill and Schumacher battling for the lead. But on lap 36, Schumacher went off the track, a result of oversteer, and this allowed Hill to catch up with Schumacher and take the inside line for the next corner. Schumacher turned in on Hill 's Williams (whether on purpose or accidentally remains unknown) which sent the Benetton up on two wheels and into the tyre barrier, Schumacher retiring on the spot. Hill came out of the incident with a broken wishbone on his front - left suspension, he pitted and retired from the race, handing the title to Schumacher. The sister Williams of the 41 - year - old Nigel Mansell went on to win the race, becoming the oldest Grand Prix winner since Jack Brabham in 1970. In 1995, Mika Häkkinen suffered a tyre failure at the early part of the first qualifying session at the high speed Brewery Bend between Jones and Brabham Straights, which resulted in him crashing heavily into the outside wall. He was critically injured in the crash and was saved only due to an emergency cricothyroidotomy that was performed by the side of the track by Sid Watkins. This incident forged a strong bond between Häkkinen and team principal Ron Dennis, and also sent forth a new movement for extra safety in the sport. Luckily, Häkkinen recovered fully and was fit to race again in 1996, thus missing only one race. Häkkinen climbed back into a Formula One car at Paul Ricard three months after the accident. The final F1 race at Adelaide was won by Damon Hill in a Williams, almost all of his main rivals including Schumacher retired, and Hill finished two laps ahead of second - placed Olivier Panis.
In 1993 prominent Melbourne businessman Ron Walker began working with the Kennett government to make Melbourne the host of the event. After the government of Jeff Kennett spent an undisclosed amount, it was announced in late 1993 (days after the South Australian election) that the race would be shifted to a rebuilt Albert Park street circuit in Melbourne. The race moved to Melbourne in 1996. The decision to hold the race there was controversial. A series of protests were organised by the "Save Albert Park '' group, which claimed that the race turned a public park into a private playground for one week per year. Additionally, they claimed that the race cost a great deal of money that would be better spent, if it were to be spent on motor racing, on a permanent circuit elsewhere. Finally, they said that the claimed economic benefits of the race were false or exaggerated. The race organisers and the government claimed that the economic benefits to the state, although unquantifiable, outweighed the costs, and highlighted that the park 's public amenities have been greatly improved from the World War II vintage facilities previously located at Albert Park; the Melbourne Sports and Aquatic Centre (scene of many Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games events) being the centre piece and best known of the revitalised facilities. Opponents of holding the race in the park point out that the Aquatic Centre adds nothing to the Grand Prix, is effectively closed for weeks surrounding the event and could have been built independent of the car race.
Bernie Ecclestone, the president of Formula One Management, the group that runs modern - day Formula One in conjunction with the Federation Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), once famously said that it took 10 minutes to do the deal with Melbourne that would see the Victorian capital host the Australian Grand Prix from 1996. It is thought that Melbourne 's unsuccessful quest to stage the 1996 Olympic Games, and the subsequently successful bid by northern rival city Sydney to host the 2000 Summer Olympics, was a driving force behind Melbourne 's motivation to wrest the Australian Grand Prix away from Adelaide. The Australian Grand Prix at Adelaide from 1985 -- 1995 was always the last event in the Formula One calendar - but from 1996 onwards, it was usually the first event or early in the season.
Albert Park, within easy reach of the Melbourne central business district, became home to the Australian Grand Prix in Melbourne. A 16 - turn circuit, which measures 5.3 kilometres in its current guise, was built utilising a combination of public roads and a car park within the park. The circuit is renowned as being a smooth and high - speed test for Formula One teams and drivers. Its characteristics are similar to the only other street circuit set in a public park used in the Formula One World Championship, the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve in Montreal which hosts the Canadian Grand Prix. The promotional theme for the first race in Melbourne was "Melbourne -- What a Great Place for the Race ''. Some 401,000 people turned out for the first race in 1996, which remains a record for the event. The logistics of creating a temporary circuit and hosting an event of the magnitude of a Formula One Grand Prix from scratch were n't lost on the international visitors, with Melbourne winning the F1 Constructors ' Association Award for the best organised Grand Prix of the year in its first two years of 1996 and 1997.
It took just three corners for the Australian Grand Prix at Albert Park to gain worldwide attention. On the first lap of the first race in 1996, Jordan 's Martin Brundle was launched into the air in an enormous accident. Footage of the crash, and Brundle 's subsequent rush back to the pits to take the spare car for the restart, ensured the first race in Melbourne gained widespread coverage. The race was won by Williams 's Damon Hill.
The 1997 race saw McLaren, through David Coulthard, break a drought of 50 races without a victory. The next year was a McLaren benefit, with Mika Häkkinen and Coulthard lapping the entire field en route to a dominant 1 -- 2 finish. The result was clouded by controversy when Coulthard pulled over with two laps remaining to allow Häkkinen to win, honouring a pre-race agreement between the pair that whoever made it to the first corner in the lead on lap one would be allowed to win. Ferrari won its first Grand Prix in Melbourne in 1999, but it was not with team number one Michael Schumacher. Northern Irishman Eddie Irvine took his maiden victory after the all - conquering McLarens of Häkkinen and Coulthard retired before half - distance. Schumacher broke his Melbourne drought the following year when he headed a dominant Ferrari 1 -- 2 with new teammate Rubens Barrichello. The 2001 event, won by Michael Schumacher, was marked by tragedy when 52 - year - old volunteer marshal Graham Beveridge was killed after a high - speed accident involving Ralf Schumacher and Jacques Villeneuve on lap five. Villeneuve 's B.A.R rode up across the back of Schumacher 's Williams and crashed into the fence, behind which Beveridge was standing; Beveridge was hit by a tyre that flew off of Villeneuve 's car.
The start of the 2002 race saw pole - sitter Barrichello and Williams 's Ralf Schumacher come together at Turn One in a spectacular accident that saw 11 of the 22 cars eliminated before the end of the opening lap. Michael Schumacher dominated thereafter to post a third straight Melbourne win, but his achievements were overshadowed by the fifth place of Australian Mark Webber on his Formula One debut. Webber, in an underpowered and underfunded Minardi, had to recover from a botched late pit stop and resist the challenges of Toyota 's Mika Salo in the closing stages, and took to the podium after the race with Australian team owner Paul Stoddart in one of Melbourne 's more memorable Grand Prix moments. The next year, 2003, saw Coulthard again win for McLaren in a race held in variable conditions. Normal service was resumed in 2004 with the Ferraris of Schumacher and Barrichello running rampant -- within two laps of Friday practice, Schumacher had obliterated the Albert Park lap record, and sailed to a crushing win. In 2005, the race was won by Renault 's Giancarlo Fisichella after a storm during Saturday qualifying produced a topsy - turvy grid. Barrichello and Fisichella 's teammate Fernando Alonso came through the field from 11th and 13th on the grid respectively to join pole - sitter Fisichella on the podium. In 2006, Alonso took his first Australian win in an accident - marred race that featured four safety car periods. In 2007 Kimi Räikkönen in his first race for Ferrari, while Lewis Hamilton became first driver in 11 years to finish on the podium in debut, as he was third behind his teammate Alonso. Hamilton won the 2008 race which had three safety car periods. In 2009 Jenson Button took the victory, driving for Brawn GP, which was having first race after Ross Brawn had bought the team following Honda 's withdrawal from Formula One. The team was formed from the remnants of Honda Racing F1 who had withdrawn from the sport following the 2008 season. The race ended with Button, who had led from the start, leading the field over the line after the safety car had been deployed with three laps remaining following a crash between Sebastian Vettel and Robert Kubica, who had been fighting for second place. Toyota 's Jarno Trulli was given a 25 - second penalty for passing Lewis Hamilton for third place under yellow flags during that safety car period, which promoted Hamilton into that position. However, Hamilton was later disqualified and docked his points for "deliberately misleading stewards '', with Trulli reinstated in third. The results earned by Brawn, Williams, and Toyota were awarded, despite an appeal being held two weeks later against a ruling on the legality of the teams ' diffuser design. The outcome of the appeal was in favour of the teams and that their diffusers were legal under the new rules and there were no changes to the results of the race. 2010 again saw Jenson Button win at Melbourne. Starting from fourth, he gambled on an early change to slick tires under drying conditions that let him move up to second place after losing several positions at the start. Sebastian Vettel retired with mechanical issues after qualifying on pole and leading until his retirement, handing Button the victory.
The move of the Australian Grand Prix to Melbourne saw a change in the time of year that the F1 teams and personnel made their annual voyage Down Under. Adelaide, for each of its 11 years, was the final race of the F1 season, usually in October or November, while Melbourne has been the first race of the season in every year since 1996 with the exception of 2006 -- when it was the third race of the year to allow for the Commonwealth Games to take place in the city -- and 2010. As such, the Albert Park circuit has seen the Formula One debuts of many drivers. 1997 World Champion Jacques Villeneuve made his race debut in Melbourne 's first year of 1996, and became one of three men to secure pole position in his maiden Grand Prix. Other prominent names to debut in Melbourne are two - time World Champion Fernando Alonso and one - time champions Kimi Räikkönen (both in 2001) and Lewis Hamilton (2007); former Australian F1 driver, Mark Webber, also made his debut there in 2002.
As part of celebrations for the tenth running of the event at Albert Park in 2005, Webber drove his Williams F1 car over the Sydney Harbour Bridge in a promotional event, and the Melbourne city streets hosted a parade of F1 machinery and Supercars, Australia 's highest - profile domestic motor sport category. For over thirty years, Supercars as they have become known, have competed in the Supercars Challenge non-championship event at the Australian Grand Prix. In 2018, the event was contested for championship points for the first time, and was known as the Melbourne 400.
Following the move of the Australian Grand Prix to Melbourne, spectator attendance peaked at a controversially estimated 401,000 in 1996, but have never reached that of the last Adelaide race in 1995.
In 2009, the global financial crisis, higher unemployment and a snap public transport strike were cited by Victorian Premier John Brumby as a reason for a slight drop in crowds. Attendance numbers improved in 2010 to an estimate of 305,000 -- the largest since the 2005 race.
Official attendance numbers, which are inexact and have been frequently challenged as gross overestimates, have been as follows:
Embolded drivers have competed in the Formula One championship in the current season Wins which did not count towards the Formula One World Championship are indicated by a pink background.
As of the 2018 edition, four times World Drivers ' Champion Alain Prost from France remains the only driver to win the AGP in both World Championship and domestic formats winning the Australian Drivers ' Championship 1982 race before winning in Adelaide in 1986 and 1988.
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.
Embolded constructors have competed in the Formula One championship in the current season A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.
Events which were not part of the Formula One World Championship are indicated by a pink background.
Coordinates: 37 ° 50 ′ 49 '' S 144 ° 58 ′ 26 '' E / 37.847 ° S 144.974 ° E / - 37.847; 144.974
|
when was the last time the steelers went to the superbowl | Pittsburgh Steelers - wikipedia
National Football League (1933 -- present)
Black, Gold
League championships (6)
Conference championships (8)
Division championships (22)
The Pittsburgh Steelers are a professional American football team based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The Steelers compete in the National Football League (NFL), as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) North division. Founded in 1933, the Steelers are the oldest franchise in the AFC.
In contrast with their status as perennial also - rans in the pre-merger NFL, where they were the oldest team never to win a league championship, the Steelers of the post-merger (modern) era are one of the most successful NFL franchises. Pittsburgh has won more Super Bowl titles (6) and hosted more conference championship games (11) than any other NFL team. The Steelers have won 8 AFC championships, tied with the Denver Broncos, but behind the New England Patriots record 9 AFC championships. They share the record for most conference championship games played in with the San Francisco 49ers (15). The Steelers share the record for second most Super Bowl appearances with the Broncos, and Dallas Cowboys (8), but again behind by the Patriots (9). The Steelers lost their most recent championship appearance, Super Bowl XLV, on February 6, 2011.
The Steelers, whose history traces to a regional pro team that was established in the early 1920s, joined the NFL as the Pittsburgh Pirates on July 8, 1933, owned by Art Rooney and taking its original name from the baseball team of the same name, as was common practice for NFL teams at the time. To distinguish them from the baseball team, local media took to calling the football team the Rooneymen, an unofficial nickname which persisted for decades after the team adopted its current nickname. The ownership of the Steelers has remained within the Rooney family since its founding. Art 's son, Dan Rooney owned the team from 1988 until his death in 2017. Much control of the franchise has been given to Dan 's son Art Rooney II. The Steelers enjoy a large, widespread fanbase nicknamed Steeler Nation. The Steelers currently play their home games at Heinz Field on Pittsburgh 's North Side in the North Shore neighborhood, which also hosts the University of Pittsburgh Panthers. Built in 2001, the stadium replaced Three Rivers Stadium which hosted the Steelers for 31 seasons. Prior to Three Rivers, the Steelers had played their games in Pitt Stadium and Forbes Field.
The Pittsburgh Steelers of the NFL first took to the field as the Pittsburgh Pirates on September 20, 1933, losing 23 -- 2 to the New York Giants. Through the 1930s, the Pirates never finished higher than second place in their division, or with a record better than. 500 (1936). Pittsburgh did make history in 1938 by signing Byron White, a future Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, to what was at the time the biggest contract in NFL history, but he played only one year with the Pirates before signing with the Detroit Lions. Prior to the 1940 season, the Pirates renamed themselves the Steelers.
During World War II, the Steelers experienced player shortages. They twice merged with other NFL franchises to field a team. During the 1943 season, they merged with the Philadelphia Eagles forming the "Phil - Pitt Eagles '' and were known as the "Steagles ''. This team went 5 -- 4 -- 1. In 1944, they merged with the Chicago Cardinals and were known as Card - Pitt (or, mockingly, as the "Carpets ''). This team finished 0 -- 10, marking the only winless team in franchise history.
The Steelers made the playoffs for the first time in 1947, tying for first place in the division at 8 -- 4 with the Philadelphia Eagles. This forced a tie - breaking playoff game at Forbes Field, which the Steelers lost 21 -- 0. That would be Pittsburgh 's only playoff game for the next 25 years; they did qualify for a "Playoff Bowl '' in 1962 as the second - best team in their conference, but this was not considered an official playoff.
In 1970, the year they moved into Three Rivers Stadium and the year of the AFL -- NFL merger, the Pittsburgh Steelers were one of three old - guard NFL teams to switch to the newly formed American Football Conference (the others being the Cleveland Browns and the Baltimore Colts), in order to equalize the number of teams in the two conferences of the newly merged league. The Steelers also received a $3 million ($18.5 million today) relocation fee, which was a windfall for them; for years they rarely had enough to build a true contending team.
The Steelers ' history of bad luck changed with the hiring of coach Chuck Noll for the 1969 season. Noll 's most remarkable talent was in his draft selections, taking Hall of Famers "Mean '' Joe Greene in 1969, Terry Bradshaw and Mel Blount in 1970, Jack Ham in 1971, Franco Harris in 1972, and finally, in 1974, pulling off the incredible feat of selecting four Hall of Famers in one draft year, Lynn Swann, Jack Lambert, John Stallworth, and Mike Webster. The Pittsburgh Steelers ' 1974 draft was their best ever; no other team has ever drafted four future Hall of Famers in one year, and only very few (including the 1970 Steelers) have drafted two or more in one year.
The players drafted in the early 1970s formed the base of an NFL dynasty, making the playoffs in eight seasons and becoming the only team in NFL history to win four Super Bowls in six years, as well as the first to win more than two. They also enjoyed a regular season streak of 49 consecutive wins (1971 -- 1979) against teams that would finish with a losing record that year.
The Steelers suffered a rash of injuries in the 1980 season and missed the playoffs with a 9 -- 7 record. The 1981 season was no better, with an 8 -- 8 showing. The team was then hit with the retirements of all their key players from the Super Bowl years. "Mean '' Joe Greene retired after the 1981 season, Lynn Swann and Jack Ham after 1982 's playoff berth, Terry Bradshaw and Mel Blount after 1983 's divisional championship, and Jack Lambert after 1984 's AFC Championship Game appearance.
After those retirements, the franchise skidded to its first losing seasons since 1971. Though still competitive, the Steelers would not finish above. 500 in 1985, 1986, and 1988. In 1987, the year of the players ' strike, the Steelers finished with a record of 8 -- 7, but missed the playoffs. In 1989, they would reach the second round of the playoffs on the strength of Merrill Hoge and Rod Woodson before narrowly missing the playoffs in each of the next two seasons.
Noll 's career record with Pittsburgh was 209 -- 156 -- 1.
In 1992, Chuck Noll retired and was succeeded by Kansas City Chiefs defensive coordinator Bill Cowher, a native of the Pittsburgh suburb of Crafton.
Cowher led the Steelers to the playoffs in each of his first six seasons, a feat that had been accomplished only by legendary coach Paul Brown of the Cleveland Browns. In those first six seasons, Cowher coached them as deep as the AFC Championship Game three times and following the 1995 season an appearance in Super Bowl XXX on the strength of the "Blitzburgh '' defense. However, the Steelers lost to the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowl XXX, two weeks after a thrilling AFC Championship victory over the Indianapolis Colts. Cowher produced the franchise 's record - tying fifth Super Bowl win in Super Bowl XL over the National Football Conference champion Seattle Seahawks ten years later. With that victory, the Steelers became the third team to win five Super Bowls, and the first sixth - seeded playoff team to reach and win the Super Bowl since the NFL expanded to a 12 - team post-season tournament in 1990. He coached through the 2006 season which ended with an 8 -- 8 record, just short of the playoffs. Overall Cowher 's teams reached the playoffs 10 of 15 seasons with six AFC Championship Games, two Super Bowl berths and a championship.
Cowher 's career record with Pittsburgh was 149 -- 90 -- 1 in the regular season and 161 -- 99 -- 1 overall, including playoff games.
On January 7, 2007, Cowher resigned from coaching the Steelers, citing a need to spend more time with his family. He did not use the term "retire '', leaving open a possible return to the NFL as coach of another team. A three - man committee consisting of Art Rooney II, Dan Rooney, and Kevin Colbert was set up to conduct interviews for the head coaching vacancy. The candidates interviewed included: offensive coordinator Ken Whisenhunt, offensive line coach Russ Grimm, former offensive coordinator Chan Gailey, Minnesota Vikings defensive coordinator Mike Tomlin, and Chicago Bears defensive coordinator Ron Rivera. On January 22, 2007, Mike Tomlin was announced as Cowher 's successor as head coach. Tomlin is the first African - American to be named head coach of the Pittsburgh Steelers in its 75 - year history. Tomlin became the third consecutive Steelers Head Coach to go to the Super Bowl, equaling the Dallas Cowboys (Tom Landry, Jimmy Johnson and Barry Switzer) in this achievement. He was named the Motorola 2008 Coach of the Year. On February 1, 2009, Tomlin led the Steelers to their second Super Bowl of this decade, and went on to win 27 -- 23 against the Arizona Cardinals. At age 36, he was the youngest head coach to ever win the Super Bowl, and he is only the second African - American coach to ever win the Super Bowl (Tony Dungy was the first). The 2010 season made Tomlin the only coach to reach the Super Bowl twice before the age of 40. Tomlin led the team to his second Super Bowl (Super Bowl XLV) on Feb. 6, 2011. However, the Steelers were defeated in their eighth Super Bowl appearance by the Green Bay Packers by the score of 31 -- 25. The Steelers recorded their 400th victory in 2012 after defeating the Washington Redskins.
Through the 2016 season, Tomlin 's record is 111 -- 63, including playoffs. He is the first Pittsburgh coach without a losing season. The 2013 -- 2017 seasons were noted for record performances from the "killer B 's ''. This trio consisted of Antonio Brown, Ben Roethlisberger and Le'Veon Bell.
Since the NFL merger in 1970, the Pittsburgh Steelers have compiled a regular season record of 444 -- 282 -- 2 (. 635) and an overall record of 480 - 305 - 2 (. 635) including the playoffs, reached the playoffs 30 times, won their division 22 times, played in 16 AFC championship games, and won six of eight Super Bowls. They are also the only NFL team not to have a season with twelve or more losses since the league expanded to a 16 - game schedule in 1978.
Since 2008, the Rooney family has brought in several investors for the team while retaining control of the team itself. This came about so that the team could comply with NFL ownership regulations. Dan Rooney, and his son, Art Rooney II, president of the franchise, wanted to stay involved with the franchise, while two of the brothers -- Timothy and Patrick -- wanted to further pursue racetracks that they own in Florida and New York. Since 2006, many of the racetracks have added video slot machines, causing them to violate "NFL policy that prohibits involvement with racetrack and gambling interests ''.
Upon Dan Rooney 's death in 2017, he and Art Rooney II retained control of the team with the league - minimum 30 %, the following make up the other investors:
Through the end of the 2015 season, the Steelers have an all - time record of 624 -- 552 -- 21, including playoffs. In recent seasons the Steelers have generally performed well, qualifying for the playoffs six times in the past ten seasons and winning the Super Bowl twice since 2005.
In the NFL 's "modern era '' (since the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970) the Steelers have posted the best record in the league. The franchise has won the most regular season games, the most playoff games (33 playoff wins; the Dallas Cowboys are second with 32), won the most divisional titles (20), has played in the most conference championship games (15), hosted the most conference championship games (11), and is tied with the Dallas Cowboys, the Denver Broncos and the New England Patriots for the most Super Bowl appearances (8). The Steelers have the best winning percentage (including every expansion team), earned the most All - Pro nominations, and have accumulated the most Super Bowl wins (6) since the modern game started in 1970. Since the merger, the team 's playoff record is 33 -- 19 (. 635), which is second best in terms of playoff winning percentage behind the Green Bay Packers ' playoff record of 28 -- 16 (. 636), through January 23, 2011.
The franchise, along with the Rooney family have for generations been strong advocates for equality of opportunity for both minorities and women. Among these achievements of the Steelers was the first to hire an African - American Assistant Coach (September 29, 1957 with Lowell Perry), the first to start an African - American quarterback (December 3, 1973 with Joe Gilliam), the first team to boast of an African - American Super Bowl MVP (January 12, 1975 with Franco Harris), the first to hire an African - American Coordinator (September 2, 1984 with Tony Dungy), the first owner to push for passage of an "equal opportunity '' mandating that at least one minority candidate is given an interview in all head coach hiring decisions throughout the league (the Rooney Rule in the early 2000s), and the first to hire a female as full - time athletic trainer (Ariko Iso on July 24, 2002). Note: Although Marlin Briscoe is sometimes erroneously cited as the first African - American starting quarterback in 1968, this was not for an NFL team and not in an NFL game, additionally the vast majority of Briscoe 's career was not as quarterback.
The Steelers have used black and gold as their colors since the club 's inception, the lone exception being the 1943 season when they merged with the Philadelphia Eagles and formed the "Steagles ''; the team 's colors at that time were green and white as a result of wearing Eagles uniforms. Originally, the team wore solid gold - colored helmets and black jerseys. The Steelers ' black and gold colors are now shared by all major professional teams in the city, including the Pittsburgh Pirates in baseball and the Pittsburgh Penguins in ice hockey, and also the Pittsburgh Power of the re-formed Arena Football League, and the Pittsburgh Passion of the Independent Women 's Football League. The shade of gold differs slightly among teams: the Penguins have previously used "Vegas Gold '', a color similar to metallic gold, and the Pirates ' gold is a darker mustard yellow - gold, while the Steelers "gold '' is more of a bright canary yellow. Black and gold are also the colors of the city 's official flag.
The Steelers logo was introduced in 1962 and is based on the "Steelmark '', originally designed by Pittsburgh 's U.S. Steel and now owned by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). In fact, it was Cleveland - based Republic Steel that suggested the Steelers adopt the industry logo. It consists of the word "Steelers '' surrounded by three astroids (hypocycloids of four cusps). The original meanings behind the astroids were, "Steel lightens your work, brightens your leisure, and widens your world. '' Later, the colors came to represent the ingredients used in the steel - making process: yellow for coal, red for iron ore, and blue for scrap steel. While the formal Steelmark logo contains only the word "Steel '', the team was given permission to add "ers '' in 1963 after a petition to AISI.
The Steelers are the only NFL team that puts its logo on only one side of the helmet (the right side). Longtime field and equipment manager Jack Hart was instructed to do this by Art Rooney as a test to see how the logo appeared on the gold helmets; however, its popularity led the team to leave it that way permanently. A year after introducing the logo, they switched to black helmets to make it stand out more.
The Steelers, along with the New York Giants, are one of only two teams in the National Football League to have the players ' uniform numbers on both the front and back of the helmets.
The current uniform designs were introduced in 1968. The design consists of gold pants and either black jerseys or white jerseys, except for the 1970 and 1971 seasons when the Steelers wore white pants with their white jerseys. In 1997, the team switched to rounded numbers on the jersey to match the number font (Futura Condensed) on the helmets, and a Steelers logo was added to the left side of the jersey.
The 2007 -- 2011 third uniform, consisting of a black jersey with gold lettering, white pants with black and gold stripes, and a gold helmet were first used during the Steelers ' 75th anniversary season in 2007. They were meant to evoke the memory of the 1963 -- 1964 era uniforms. The uniforms were so popular among fans that the Steelers ' organization decided to keep them and use them as a third option during home games only.
In 2012, the Steelers introduced a new third uniform, consisting of a yellow jersey with black horizontal lines (making a bumble bee like pattern) with black lettering and black numbers placed inside a white box, to represent the jerseys worn by the Steelers in their 1933 season. The rest of the uniform consists of beige pants, yellow with black horizontal stripped socks, and the Steelers regular black helmet. The uniforms were used for the Steelers ' 80th anniversary season. Much like the previous alternate these jerseys were so popular that they were used up through the 2016 season. The jerseys were nicknamed the "bumblebee jerseys '' due to looking like the pattern of a bumble bee. The jerseys were retired after the 2016 season.
In 2008 -- 2009, the Steelers became the first team in NFL history to defeat an opponent three times in a single season using three different uniforms. They defeated the Baltimore Ravens in Pittsburgh in Week 4 in their third jerseys, again Week 15 in Baltimore in their road whites, and a final time in the AFC Championship in Pittsburgh in their home black jerseys.
In 1979, the team owners were approached by then - Iowa Hawkeyes Head Coach Hayden Fry about designing his fading college team 's uniforms in the image of the Steelers. Three days later, the owners sent Fry the reproduction jerseys (home and away versions) of then quarterback Terry Bradshaw. Today, the Hawkeyes still retain the 1979 Steelers uniforms as their home, and away colors.
The Pittsburgh Steelers have three primary rivals, all within their division: (Cleveland Browns, Baltimore Ravens, and Cincinnati Bengals). They also have rivalries with other teams that arose from post-season battles in the past, most notably the New England Patriots, Oakland Raiders, Tennessee Titans and Dallas Cowboys. They also have an intrastate rivalry with the Philadelphia Eagles, but under the current scheduling the teams play each other only once every four years.
Prior to the 2007 season, the Steelers introduced Steely McBeam as their official mascot. As part of the 75th anniversary celebrations of the team, his name was selected from a pool of 70,000 suggestions submitted by fans of the team. Diane Roles of Middlesex Township, Butler County, Pennsylvania submitted the winning name which was "meant to represent steel for Pittsburgh 's industrial heritage, "Mc '' for the Rooney family 's Irish roots, and Beam for the steel beams produced in Pittsburgh, as well as for Jim Beam, her husband 's favorite alcoholic beverage. '' Steely McBeam is visible at all home games and participates in the team 's charitable programs and other club - sponsored events. Steely 's autograph is known to be drawn with an oversized ' S ' and the "L '' is drawn to look like a beam of steel.
The Steelers have a tradition of having a large fanbase, which has spread from Pittsburgh. In August 2008, ESPN.com ranked the Steelers ' fans as the best in the NFL, citing their "unbelievable '' sellout streak of 299 consecutive games. The team gained a large fan base nationally based on its success in the 1970s, but many consider the collapse of the city 's steel industry at the end of the 1970s dynasty into the 1980s (and the resulting diaspora) to be a large catalyst for the size of the fan base in other cities. The Steelers have sold out every home game since the 1972 season.
The Pittsburgh Steelers have numerous unofficial fan clubs in many cities throughout the country, that typically meet in bars or taverns on game days. This phenomenon is known to occur for other NFL teams as well, but "Steeler bars '' are more visible than most, including representative establishments even in cities that field their own NFL teams.
The Terrible Towel has been described by the Associated Press as "arguably the best - known fan symbol of any major pro sports team ''. Conceived of by broadcaster Myron Cope in 1975, the towel 's rights have since been given to the Allegheny Valley School in Coraopolis, Pennsylvania, which cares for over 900 people with intellectual disability and physical disabilities, including Cope 's autistic son. Since 1996, proceeds from the Terrible Towel have helped raise more than $2.5 million for the school.
The Steelers have no official fight song, but many fan versions of Here we go Steelers and the Steelers Polka (the latter a parody of Pennsylvania Polka) by ethnic singer Jimmy Pol, both originating in the 1970s, have been recorded. Since 1994, the song Here We Go by local singer Roger Wood has been popular among fans. During Steelers games, Styx 's Renegade is often used to rally the crowd.
During the offseason, the Steelers have long participated in charity basketball games throughout Western Pennsylvania and neighboring areas. The games usually feature six active players as well as their player - coach playing against a group of local civic leaders. The players, whose participants are n't announced until the day the game, sign free autographs for fans during halftime.
In 2001, the Steelers moved into Heinz Field. The franchise dating back to 1933 has had several homes. For thirty - one seasons, the Steelers shared Forbes Field with the Pittsburgh Pirates from 1933 to 1963. In 1958, though they started splitting their home games at Pitt Stadium three blocks away at the University of Pittsburgh. From 1964 to 1969, the Steelers played exclusively at the on campus facility before moving with the Pirates to Three Rivers Stadium on the city 's Northside. Three Rivers is remembered fondly by the Steeler Nation as where Chuck Noll and Dan Rooney turned the franchise into a powerhouse, winning four Super Bowls in just six seasons and making the playoffs 11 times in 13 seasons from 1972 to 1984, the AFC title game seven times. Since 2001 however a new generation of Steeler greats has made Heinz Field legendary with multiple AFC Championship Games being hosted and two Super Bowl championships.
The Steelers hold training camp east of the city at Saint Vincent College in Latrobe, Pennsylvania. The site is one of the most storied in the league with Peter King of SI.com describing it as: "... I love the place. It 's the perfect training - camp setting, looking out over the rolling hills of the Laurel Highlands in west - central Pennsylvania, an hour east of Pittsburgh. On a misty or foggy morning, standing atop the hill at the college, you feel like you 're in Scotland. Classic, wonderful slice of Americana. If you can visit one training camp, this is the one to see.
The team has its headquarters and practice facilities at the state - of - the - art University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Sportsplex on Pittsburgh 's Southside. Constructed in 2000, the facility combines the vast expertise of sports medical professionals and researchers as well as hosting the University of Pittsburgh Panthers football team.
The Rooney family has long had a close relationship with Duquesne University in the city and from the teams founding in the 1930s to the late 1990s used Art Rooney Field and other facilities on campus as either its primary or secondary in - season training site as well as Greenlee Field during the 1930s.
In the 1970s and 1980s, the team had season scrimmages at South Park in the suburban south hills of Pittsburgh. During various seasons including the strike season of 1987, the Steelers used Point Stadium in nearby Johnstown, Pennsylvania for game week practices. During the 1950s St. Bonaventure University and suburban Ligonier also served as a pre-season training camp sites.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated September 26, 2017 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 6 Inactive, 10 Practice squad
The Steelers retired Stautner 's # 70 in 1964 before creating a 50 - year tradition of not retiring numbers. The team retired Greene 's # 75 in 2014 and left the possibility open that they would retire other players ' jersey numbers at later dates. Other numbers are no longer issued since the retirement of the players who wore them, including:
The Steelers boast the third most "primary '' inductees into the Pro Football Hall of Fame, i.e. inductees that spent most or all of their NFL careers in Pittsburgh. They also can claim the most honorees of any franchise founded on or after 1933 and the only franchise with three members of ownership in the Hall.
The following Steelers players have been named to the Pro Bowl:
The following Steelers were named to NFL All - Decade Teams (and 75th Anniversary All - Time Team selected in 1994). Only those who spent time with Pittsburgh during the respective decades are listed.
NFL 1930s All - Decade Team Johnny "Blood '' McNally, HB (1934, 1937 -- 38)
NFL 1940s All - Decade Team Bill Dudley, HB (1942, 1945 -- 46) Bucko Kilroy, T (1943) Vic Sears, T (1943) Al Wistert, T (1943)
NFL 1950s All - Decade Team Bobby Layne, QB (1958 -- 62) Ernie Stautner, DT (1950 -- 63) Jack Butler, DB (1951 -- 59)
NFL 1960s All - Decade Team No players selected
NFL 1970s All - Decade Team Terry Bradshaw, QB (1970 -- 83) Franco Harris, RB (1972 -- 83) Lynn Swann, WR (1974 -- 82) Mike Webster, C (1974 -- 88) L.C. Greenwood, DE (1969 -- 81) Joe Greene, DT (1969 -- 81) Jack Lambert, MLB (1974 -- 84) Jack Ham, OLB (1971 -- 82) Chuck Noll, Coach (1969 -- 91)
NFL 1980s All - Decade Team Mike Webster, C (1974 -- 88) Jack Lambert, MLB (1974 -- 84) Mel Blount, CB (1970 -- 83) Gary Anderson, K (1982 -- 94) Chuck Noll, Coach (1969 -- 91)
NFL 1990s All - Decade Team Dermontti Dawson, C (1988 -- 2000) Kevin Greene, LB (1993 -- 95) Hardy Nickerson, LB (1987 -- 92) Levon Kirkland, LB (1992 -- 2000) Rod Woodson, CB (1987 -- 96) Carnell Lake, S (1989 -- 98) Gary Anderson, K (1982 -- 94)
NFL 75th Anniversary All - Time Team Johnny Unitas, QB (1955) Marion Motley, FB (1955) Mike Webster, C (1974 -- 88) Joe Greene, DT (1969 -- 81) Jack Lambert, LB (1974 -- 84) Jack Ham, LB (1971 -- 82) Mel Blount, CB (1970 -- 83) Rod Woodson, CB (1987 -- 96)
NFL 2000s All - Decade Team Alan Faneca, G (1998 -- 2007) Joey Porter, LB (1999 -- 2006) Troy Polamalu, S (2003 -- 14)
In 2007, in celebration of the franchise 's 75th season, the team announced an updated All - Time team of the 33 best players who have ever played for the Steelers. This team supplanted the previous All - Time team of 24 players named as part of the 50th anniversary commemoration in 1982.
A "Legends team '' consisting of the club 's best pre-1970s players was released concurrently with the latest All - Time team.
The regional Dapper Dan Charities has since 1939 named the "Sportsman of the Year '' in the Pittsburgh region. 18 Steelers have won the award in 22 events:
The Pittsburgh Steelers Hall of Honor was established on August 1, 2017. There have been 27 inductees.
The Steelers have had 16 coaches through their history. They have cycled through the least amount of head coaches in the modern NFL history. Their first coach was Forrest Douds, who coached them to a 3 -- 6 -- 2 record in 1933. Chuck Noll had the longest term as head coach with the Steelers; he is one of only four coaches to coach a single NFL team for 23 years. Hired prior to the 2007 season, the Steelers current coach is Mike Tomlin.
→ Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs
Source:
Source:
As of 2006, the Steelers ' flagship radio stations were WDVE 102.5 FM and WBGG 970 AM. Both stations are owned by iHeartMedia. Games are also available on 51 radio stations in Pennsylvania, Western Maryland, Ohio, and Northern West Virginia. The announcers are Bill Hillgrove and Tunch Ilkin. Craig Wolfley is the sideline reporter. Myron Cope, the longtime color analyst and inventor of the "Terrible Towel '', retired after the 2004 season, and died in 2008.
Pre-season games not shown on one of the national broadcasters are seen on CBS O&O KDKA - TV, channel 2; sister CW O&O WPCW, channel 19; and AT&T SportsNet Pittsburgh. KDKA - TV 's Bob Pompeani and former Steelers quarterback Charlie Batch do the announcing for the pre-season games, as well as the two hosting the pre-game program Steelers Kickoff during the regular season prior to the national airing of The NFL Today. Pompeani and former Steelers lineman Chris Hoke also host the Xfinity Xtra Point following the game on days when CBS does not have that week 's NFL doubleheader. When CBS has a week 's doubleheader, the show airs on WPCW. Coach Mike Tomlin 's weekly press conference is shown live on AT&T SportsNet Pittsburgh. Both Batch and Hoke replaced former Steelers lineman Edmund Nelson, who retired from broadcasting in 2015.
Thursday Night Football broadcasts are shown locally on KDKA, while national ESPN broadcasts are shown locally on WTAE - TV, channel 4. (WTAE - TV is owned by the Hearst Corporation, which owns a 20 % stake in ESPN.) By virtue of being members of the AFC, most of the Steelers ' games air on CBS except for home games against NFC opponents, which air locally on WPGH - TV, which is a Fox affiliate. NBC Sunday Night Football games are carried by WPXI, channel 11, in the market.
The Steelers hold a national contract with Grupo Imagen for radio rights to their games in Mexico; Imagen broadcasts the Steelers on their stations in 17 Mexican cities.
The Steelers franchise has a rich history of producing well - known sportscasters over the years. The most famous of these is probably Myron Cope, who served as a Steelers radio color commentator for 35 seasons (1970 -- 2004).
Several former Steelers players have gone on to careers in media after completing their playing careers.
The Steelers Digest is the only official newspaper for the Pittsburgh Steelers. It has been published for 22 years and is currently published by Dolphin / Curtis Publishing in Miami, Florida, which also handles several other publications. The newspaper is very widely acknowledged by Steelers fans. Issues are mailed out to paying subscribers weekly through the season after every regular season game and continues through playoffs as long as the Steelers do. After a Super Bowl victory, a bonus issue is published, which is followed by a draft preview, draft recap, and training camp edition every other month, then leading into the pre-season. There are typically 24 issues of the paper within a publishing year. The newspaper is listed on the official Steelers.com page.
The Steelers success over several decades has permeated film and literature. The Steelers are portrayed in the following big - budget Hollywood films:
The protagonist of John Grisham 's novel "The Associate '' is a staunch Steelers fan.
The Steelers helped launch the Chuck Noll Foundation for Brain Injury Research in November 2016 by donating $1 million. The Foundation, started by Steelers president Art Rooney II, focuses on education and research regarding brain injuries and sports - related concussions.
In June 2017, the Steelers announced an inaugural charity walk to raise money for the foundation.
|
when did the first scrooge movie come out | History of film - wikipedia
Although the start of the history of film is not clearly defined, the commercial, public screening of ten of Lumière brothers ' short films in Paris on 28 December 1895 can be regarded as the breakthrough of projected cinematographic motion pictures. There had been earlier cinematographic results and screenings but these lacked either the quality or the momentum that propelled the cinématographe Lumière into a worldwide success.
Soon film production companies were established all over the world. The first decade of motion picture saw film moving from a novelty to an established mass entertainment industry.
The earliest films were in black and white, under a minute long and without recorded sound.
During the 1890s films became several minutes long and started to consist of several shots. The first film studios were built in 1897. The first rotating camera for taking panning shots was built in 1898. Special effects were introduced and film continuity, involving action moving from one sequence into another, began to be used.
In the 1900s, continuity of action across successive shots was achieved and the first close - up shot was introduced (that some claim D.W. Griffith invented). Most films of this period were what came to be called "chase films ''. The first successful permanent theatre showing only films was "The Nickelodeon '' in Pittsburgh in 1905. The first feature length multi-reel film was a 1906 Australian production. By 1910, actors began to receive screen credit for their roles and the way to the creation of film stars was opened. Regular newsreels were exhibited from 1910 and soon became a popular way for finding out the news. From about 1910, American films had the largest share of the market in Australia and in all European countries except France.
New film techniques were introduced in this period including the use of artificial lighting, fire effects and low - key lighting (i.e. lighting in which most of the frame is dark) for enhanced atmosphere during sinister scenes. As films grew longer, specialist writers were employed to simplify more complex stories derived from novels or plays into a form that could be contained on one reel and be easier to be understood by the audience -- an audience that was new to this form of storytelling. Genres began to be used as categories; the main division was into comedy and drama but these categories were further subdivided. During the First World War there was a complex transition for the film industry. The exhibition of films changed from short one - reel programs to feature films. Exhibition venues became larger and began charging higher prices. By 1914, continuity cinema was the established mode of commercial cinema. One of the advanced continuity techniques involved an accurate and smooth transition from one shot to another.
D.W. Griffith had the highest standing among American directors in the industry, because of the dramatic excitement he conveyed to the audience through his films. The American film industry, or "Hollywood '', as it was becoming known after its new geographical center in Hollywood, a neighborhood in Los Angeles, California, gained the position it has held, more or less, ever since: film factory for the world and exporting its product to most countries. By the 1920s, the United States reached what is still its era of greatest - ever output, producing an average of 800 feature films annually, or 82 % of the global total (Eyman, 1997). During late 1927, Warner 's released The Jazz Singer, with the first synchronized dialogue (and singing) in a feature film. By the end of 1929, Hollywood was almost all - talkie, with several competing sound systems (soon to be standardized). Sound saved the Hollywood studio system in the face of the Great Depression (Parkinson, 1995).
The desire for wartime propaganda created a renaissance in the film industry in Britain, with realistic war dramas. The onset of American involvement in World War II also brought a proliferation of films as both patriotism and propaganda. The House Un-American Activities Committee investigated Hollywood in the early 1950s. During the immediate post-war years the cinematic industry was also threatened by television and the increasing popularity of the medium meant that some film theatres would bankrupt and close. The 1950s was a ' Golden Age ' for non-English world cinema.
Roundhay Garden Scene is an 1888 short silent film recorded by French inventor Louis Le Prince. It is believed to be the oldest surviving film in existence, as noted by the Guinness Book of Records. The film Sortie de l'usine Lumière de Lyon (1895) by French Louis Lumière is considered the "first true motion picture ''
Much of film as an art form grew out of several earlier traditions in the fields of (oral) storytelling, literature, theatre and visual art. Examples of quite similar forms of art and entertainment that already featured moving and / or projected images include:
Some ancient sightings of gods and spirits are thought to have been conjured up by means of (concave) mirrors, camera obscura or unknown projectors. By the 16th century necromantic ceremonies and the conjuring of ghostly apparitions by charlatan "magicians '' and "witches '' seemed commonplace. The very first magic lantern shows seem to have continued this tradition with images of Death, monsters and other scary figures. Around 1790 this was developed into multi-media ghost shows known as phantasmagoria that could feature mechanical slides, rear projection, mobile projectors, superimposition, dissolves, live actors, smoke (sometimes to project images upon), odors, sounds and even electric shocks. Similar spooky subject matter would form the basis of the horror film genre that emerged very soon after the introduction of cinema.
Moving images were possibly projected with the magic lantern since its invention; Christiaan Huygens ' 1659 sketches for slides show a skeleton taking his skull off his neck and placing it back. Techniques to add motion to the painted glass slides were described since circa 1700. These usually involved parts (for instance limbs) painted on one or more extra pieces of glass, moved by hand or small mechanisms across a stationary slide which showed the rest of the picture. While the first magic lantern images seem to have been intended to scare audiences, soon all sorts of subjects appeared and the lantern was not only used for storytelling but also for education. In the 19th century several new and popular magic lantern techniques were developed, including dissolving views and several types of mechanical slides that created dazzling abstract effects (chromatrope, et cetera) or that showed for instance falling snow, or the planets and their moons revolving.
In the 1890s, films were seen mostly via temporary storefront spaces and traveling exhibitors or as acts in vaudeville programs. A film could be under a minute long and would usually present a single scene, authentic or staged, of everyday life, a public event, a sporting event or slapstick. There was little to no cinematic technique, the film was usually black and white and it was without sound.
The novelty of realistic moving photographs was enough for a motion picture industry to blossom before the end of the century, in countries around the world. "The Cinema '' was to offer a cheaper, simpler way of providing entertainment to the masses. Filmmakers could record actors ' performances, which then could be shown to audiences around the world. Travelogues would bring the sights of far - flung places, with movement, directly to spectators ' hometowns. Movies would become the most popular visual art form of the late Victorian age.
The Berlin Wintergarten theater hosted an early movie presentation in front of an audience, shown by the Skladanowsky brothers in 1895. The Melbourne Athenaeum started to screen movies in 1896. Movie theaters became popular entertainment venues and social hubs in the early 20th century, much like cabarets and other theaters.
Until 1927, motion pictures were produced without sound. This era is referred to as the silent era of film. To enhance the viewers ' experience, silent films were commonly accompanied by live musicians in an orchestra, a theatre organ, and sometimes sound effects and even commentary spoken by the showman or projectionist. In most countries, intertitles came to be used to provide dialogue and narration for the film, thus dispensing with narrators, but in Japanese cinema human narration remained popular throughout the silent era. The technical problems were resolved by 1923.
Illustrated songs were a notable exception to this trend that began in 1894 in vaudeville houses and persisted as late as the late 1930s in film theaters. Live performance or sound recordings were paired with hand - colored glass slides projected through stereopticons and similar devices. In this way, song narrative was illustrated through a series of slides whose changes were simultaneous with the narrative development. The main purpose of illustrated songs was to encourage sheet music sales, and they were highly successful with sales reaching into the millions for a single song. Later, with the birth of film, illustrated songs were used as filler material preceding films and during reel changes.
The 1914 The Photo - Drama of Creation was a non-commercial attempt to combine the motion picture with a combination of slides and synchronize the resulting moving picture with audio. The film included hand - painted slides as well as other previously used techniques. Simultaneously playing the audio while the film was being played with a projector was required. Produced by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania (Jehovah 's Witnesses), this eight -- hour bible drama was being shown in 80 cities every day and almost eight million people in the United States and Canada saw the presentation.
The first eleven years of motion pictures show the cinema moving from a novelty to an established large - scale entertainment industry. The films represent a movement from films consisting of one shot, completely made by one person with a few assistants, towards films several minutes long consisting of several shots, which were made by large companies in something like industrial conditions.
The year 1900 marks the emergence of the first motion pictures that can be considered as "films '' -- at this point, film - makers begin to introduce basic editing techniques and film narrative.
Early movie cameras were fastened to the head of their tripod with only simple levelling devices provided. These cameras were thus effectively fixed during the course of the shot, and hence the first camera movements were the result of mounting a camera on a moving vehicle. The Lumière brothers shot a scene from the back of a train in 1896.
The first rotating camera for taking panning shots was built by Robert W. Paul in 1897, on the occasion of Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee. He used his camera to shoot the procession in one shot. His device had the camera mounted on a vertical axis that could be rotated by a worm gear driven by turning a crank handle, and Paul put it on general sale the next year. Shots taken using such a "panning '' head were also referred to as ' panoramas ' in the film catalogues of the first decade of the cinema.
Georges Méliès built one of the first film studios in May 1897. It had a glass roof and three glass walls constructed after the model of large studios for still photography, and it was fitted with thin cotton cloths that could be stretched below the roof to diffuse the direct rays of the sun on sunny days. Beginning in 1896, Méliès would go on to produce, direct, and distribute over 500 short films. The majority of these films were short, one - shot films completed in one take. Méliès drew many comparisons between film and the stage, which was apparent in his work. He realized that film afforded him the ability (via his use of timelapse photography) to "produce visual spectacles not achievable in the theater.
The Execution of Mary Stuart, produced by the Edison Company for viewing with the Kinetoscope, showed Mary Queen of Scots being executed in full view of the camera. The effect was achieved by replacing the actor with a dummy for the final shot. Georges Méliès also utilized this technique in the making of Escamotage d'un dame chez Robert - Houdin (The Vanishing Lady). The woman is seen to vanish through the use of stop motion techniques.
The other basic technique for trick cinematography was the double exposure of the film in the camera. This was pioneered by George Albert Smith in July 1898 in England. The set was draped in black, and after the main shot, the negative was re-exposed to the overlaid scene. His The Corsican Brothers was described in the catalogue of the Warwick Trading Company in 1900: "By extremely careful photography the ghost appears * quite transparent *. After indicating that he has been killed by a sword - thrust, and appealing for vengeance, he disappears. A ' vision ' then appears showing the fatal duel in the snow. ''
G.A. Smith also initiated the special effects technique of reverse motion. He did this by repeating the action a second time, while filming it with an inverted camera, and then joining the tail of the second negative to that of the first. The first films made using this device were Tipsy, Topsy, Turvy and The Awkward Sign Painter. The earliest surviving example of this technique is Smith 's The House That Jack Built, made before September 1900.
Cecil Hepworth took this technique further, by printing the negative of the forwards motion backwards frame by frame, so producing a print in which the original action was exactly reversed. To do this he built a special printer in which the negative running through a projector was projected into the gate of a camera through a special lens giving a same - size image. This arrangement came to be called a "projection printer '', and eventually an "optical printer ''.
The use of different camera speeds also appeared around 1900 in the films of Robert W. Paul and Hepworth. Paul shot scenes from On a Runaway Motor Car through Piccadilly Circus (1899) with the camera turning very slowly. When the film was projected at the usual 16 frames per second, the scenery appeared to be passing at great speed. Hepworth used the opposite effect in The Indian Chief and the Seidlitz Powder (1901). The Chief 's movements are sped up by cranking the camera much faster than 16 frames per second. This gives what we would call a "slow motion '' effect.
The first films to consist of more than one shot appeared toward the end of the 19th century, a notable example was the French film of the life of Jesus Christ, by Alice Guy. These were n't represented as a continuous film, the separate scenes were interspersed with lantern slides, a lecture, and live choral numbers, to increase the running time of the spectacle to about 90 minutes. Another example of this is the reproductions of scenes from the Greco - Turkish war, made by Georges Méliès in 1897. Although each scene was sold separately, they were shown one after the other by the exhibitors. Even Méliès ' Cendrillon (Cinderella) of 1898 contained no action moving from one shot to the next one. To understand what was going on in the film the audience had to know their stories beforehand, or be told them by a presenter.
Real film continuity, involving action moving from one sequence into another, is attributed to British film pioneer Robert W. Paul 's Come Along, Do!, made in 1898 and one of the first films to feature more than one shot. In the first shot, an elderly couple is outside an art exhibition having lunch and then follow other people inside through the door. The second shot shows what they do inside. Paul 's ' Cinematograph Camera No. 1 ' of 1895 was the first camera to feature reverse - cranking, which allowed the same film footage to be exposed several times and thereby to create super-positions and multiple exposures. This technique was first used in his 1901 film Scrooge, or, Marley 's Ghost.
The further development of action continuity in multi-shot films continued in 1899 at the Brighton School in England. In the latter part of that year, George Albert Smith made The Kiss in the Tunnel. This started with a shot from a "phantom ride '' at the point at which the train goes into a tunnel, and continued with the action on a set representing the interior of a railway carriage, where a man steals a kiss from a woman, and then cuts back to the phantom ride shot when the train comes out of the tunnel. A month later, the Bamforth company in Yorkshire made a restaged version of this film under the same title, and in this case they filmed shots of a train entering and leaving a tunnel from beside the tracks, which they joined before and after their version of the kiss inside the train compartment.
In 1900, continuity of action across successive shots was definitively established by George Albert Smith and James Williamson, who also worked in Brighton. In that year Smith made As Seen Through a Telescope, in which the main shot shows street scene with a young man tying the shoelace and then caressing the foot of his girlfriend, while an old man observes this through a telescope. There is then a cut to close shot of the hands on the girl 's foot shown inside a black circular mask, and then a cut back to the continuation of the original scene. Even more remarkable is James Williamson 's Attack on a China Mission Station (1900). The first shot shows Chinese Boxer rebels at the gate; it then cuts to the missionary family in the garden, where a fight ensues. The wife signals to British sailors from the balcony, who come and rescue them. The film also used the first "reverse angle '' cut in film history.
G.A Smith pioneered the use of the close - up shot in his 1900 films As Seen Through a Telescope and Grandma 's Reading Glass. He further developed the ideas of breaking a scene shot in one place into a series of shots taken from different camera positions over the next couple of years, starting with The Little Doctors of 1901. In a series of films he produced at this time, he also introduced the use of subjective and objective point - of - view shots, the creation of dream - time and the use of reversing. He summed up his work in Mary Jane 's Mishap of 1903, with repeated cuts in to a close shot of a housemaid fooling around, along with superimpositions and other devices, before abandoning film - making to invent the Kinemacolor system of colour cinematography. His films were the first to establish the basics of coherent narrative and what became known as film language, or "film grammar ''.
James Williamson concentrated on making films taking action from one place shown in one shot to the next shown in another shot in films like Stop Thief!, made in 1901, and many others. He also experimented with the close - up, and made perhaps the most extreme one of all in The Big Swallow, when his character approaches the camera and appears to swallow it. These two film makers of the Brighton School also pioneered the editing of the film; they tinted their work with color and used trick photography to enhance the narrative. By 1900, their films were extended scenes of up to 5 minutes long.
Most films of this period were what came to be called "chase films ''. These were inspired by James Williamson 's Stop Thief! of 1901, which showed a tramp stealing a leg of mutton from a butcher 's boy in the first shot, then being chased through the second shot by the butcher 's boy and assorted dogs, and finally being caught by the dogs in the third shot. Several British films made in the first half of 1903 extended the chase method of film construction. These included An Elopement à la Mode and The Pickpocket: A Chase Through London, made by Alf Collins for the British branch of the French Gaumont company, Daring Daylight Burglary, made by Frank Mottershaw at the Sheffield Photographic Company, and Desperate Poaching Affray, made by William Haggar. Haggar in particular innovated the first extant panning shots; the poachers are chased by gamekeepers and police officers and the camera pans along, creating a sense of urgency and speed. His films were also recognised for their intelligent use of depth of staging and screen edges, while film academic Noël Burch praised Haggar 's effective use of off - screen space. He was also one of the first film makers to purposefully introduce violence for entertainment; in Desperate Poaching Affray the villains are seen firing guns at their pursuers.
Other filmmakers took up all these ideas including the American Edwin S. Porter, who started making films for the Edison Company in 1901. Porter, a projectionist, was hired by Thomas Edison to develop his new projection model known as the Vitascope. Porter wanted to develop a style of filmmaking that would move away from the one - shot short films into a "story - telling (narrative) '' style. When he began making longer films in 1902, he put a dissolve between every shot, just as Georges Méliès was already doing, and he frequently had the same action repeated across the dissolves. His film, The Great Train Robbery (1903), had a running time of twelve minutes, with twenty separate shots and ten different indoor and outdoor locations. He used cross-cutting editing method to show simultaneous action in different places. The time continuity in The Great Train Robbery was actually more confusing than that in the films it was modeled on, but nevertheless it was a greater success than them due to its Wild West violence. The Great Train Robbery served as one of the vehicles that would launch the film medium into mass popularity.
The Pathé company in France also made imitations and variations of Smith and Williamson 's films from 1902 onwards using cuts between the shots, which helped to standardize the basics of film construction. An influential French film of the period was Méliès 's 14 - minute - long A Trip to the Moon. It was extremely popular at the time of its release, and is the best - known of the hundreds of films made by Méliès. It was one of the first known science fiction films, and used innovative animation and special effects, including the well - known image of the spaceship landing in the Moon 's eye. The sheer volume of Pathé 's production led to their filmmakers giving a further precision and polish to the details of film continuity.
The first use of animation in movies was in 1899, with the production of the short film Matches: An Appeal by British film pioneer Arthur Melbourne - Cooper - a thirty - second long stop - motion animated piece intended to encourage the audience to send matches to British troops fighting the Boer War. The film contains an appeal to send money to Bryant and May who would then send matches to the troops fighting in South Africa. It was shown in December 1899 at The Empire Theatre in London. This film is the earliest known example of stop - motion animation. Little puppets, constructed of matchsticks, are writing the appeal on a black wall. Their movements are filmed frame by frame, movement by movement.
The relative sophistication of this piece was not followed up for some time, with subsequent works in animation being limited to short, two or three frame effects, such as appeared in Edwin Stanton Porter 's 1902 short Fun in a Bakery Shop, where a lump of dough was made to smile over the course of a three - frame sequence. Works rivaling the British short in length did not appear until 1905, when Edwin Porter made How Jones Lost His Roll, and The Whole Dam Family and the Dam Dog. Both of these films had intertitles which were formed by the letters moving into place from a random scattering to form the words of the titles. This was done by exposing the film one frame at a time, and moving the letters a little bit towards their final position between each exposure. This is what has come to be called "single frame animation '' or "object animation '', and it needs a slightly adapted camera that exposes only one frame for each turn of the crank handle, rather than the usual eight frames per turn.
In 1906, Albert Edward Smith and James Stuart Blackton at Vitagraph Studios took the next step, and in their Humorous Phases of Funny Faces, what appear to be cartoon drawings of people move from one pose to another. This is done for most of the length of this film by moving jointed cut - outs of the figures frame by frame between the exposures, just as Porter moved his letters. However, there is a very short section of the film where things are made to appear to move by altering the drawings themselves from frame to frame, which is how standard animated cartoons have since been made up to today.
The technique of single frame animation was further developed in 1907 by Edwin S. Porter in The Teddy Bears and by J. Stuart Blackton with Work Made Easy. In the first of these the toy bears were made to move, apparently on their own, and in the latter film building tools were made to perform construction tasks without human intervention, by using frame - by - frame animation. The technique got to Europe almost immediately, and Segundo de Chomon and others at Pathé took it further, adding clay animation, in which sculptures were deformed from one thing into another thing frame by frame in Sculpture moderne (1908), and then Pathé made the next step to the animation of silhouette shapes. Also in France, Émile Cohl fully developed drawn animation in a series of films starting with Fantasmagorie (1908), in which humans and objects drawn as outline figures went though a series of remarkable interactions and transformations. In the United States the response was from the famous strip cartoon artist Winsor McCay, who drew much more realistic animated figures going through smoother, more naturalistic motion in a series of films starting with the film Little Nemo, made for Vitagraph in 1911. In the next few years various others took part in this development of animated cartoons in the United States and elsewhere.
The world 's first animated feature film was El Apóstol (1917), made by Italian - Argentine cartoonist Quirino Cristiani utilizing cutout animation. Cristiani also directed the first animated feature film with sound, Peludópolis, released with a vitaphone sound - on - disc synchronization system soundtrack. Unfortunately, a fire that destroyed producer Federico Valle 's film studio incinerated the only known copies of the movies, and they are now considered as lost films.
In 1932, the first short animated film created entirely with technicolor (the trichromatic procedure (green, red, blue), whose use required a triple photographic impression, incorporation of chromatic filters and cameras of enormous dimensions) was Walt Disney 's Flowers and Trees, directed by Burt Gillett.
Films at the time were no longer than one reel, although some multi-reel films had been made on the life of Christ in the first few years of cinema. The first feature length multi-reel film in the world was the 1906 Australian production called The Story of the Kelly Gang.
It traced the life of the legendary infamous outlaw and bushranger Ned Kelly (1855 -- 1880) and ran for more than an hour with a reel length of approximately 4,000 feet (1,200 m). It was first shown at the Athenaeum Hall in Collins Street, Melbourne, Australia on 26 December 1906 and in the UK in January 1908.
The first successful permanent theatre showing only films was "The Nickelodeon '', which was opened in Pittsburgh in 1905. By then there were enough films several minutes long available to fill a programme running for at least half an hour, and which could be changed weekly when the local audience became bored with it. Other exhibitors in the United States quickly followed suit, and within a couple of years there were thousands of these nickelodeons in operation. The American experience led to a worldwide boom in the production and exhibition of films from 1906 onwards.
By 1907 purpose - built cinemas for motion pictures were being opened across the United States, Britain and France. The films were often shown with the accompaniment of music provided by a pianist, though there could be more musicians. There were also a very few larger cinemas in some of the biggest cities. Initially, the majority of films in the programmes were Pathé films, but this changed fairly quickly as the American companies cranked up production. The programme was made up of just a few films, and the show lasted around 30 minutes. The reel of film, of maximum length 1,000 feet (300 m), which usually contained one individual film, became the standard unit of film production and exhibition in this period. The programme was changed twice or more a week, but went up to five changes of programme a week after a couple of years. In general, cinemas were set up in the established entertainment districts of the cities. In 1907, Pathé began renting their films to cinemas through film exchanges rather than selling the films outright.
By about 1910, actors began to receive screen credit for their roles, and the way to the creation of film stars was opened. Films were increasingly longer, and began to feature proper plots and development.
The litigation over patents between all the major American film - making companies led to the formation of a trust to control the American film business, with each company in the trust being allocated production quotas (two reels a week for the biggest ones, one reel a week for the smaller). However, although 6,000 exhibitors signed up to the trust, about 2,000 others did not and began to fund new film producing companies. By 1912 the independents had nearly half of the market and the government defeated the trust by initiating anti-trust action at the same time.
In the early 20th century, before Hollywood, the motion picture industry was based in Fort Lee, New Jersey across the Hudson River from New York City. In need of a winter headquarters, moviemakers were attracted to Jacksonville, Florida due to its warm climate, exotic locations, excellent rail access, and cheaper labor, earning the city the title of "The Winter Film Capital of the World. '' New York - based Kalem Studios was the first to open a permanent studio in Jacksonville in 1908. Over the course of the next decade, more than 30 silent film companies established studios in town, including Metro Pictures (later MGM), Edison Studios, Majestic Films, King Bee Film Company, Vim Comedy Company, Norman Studios, Gaumont Studios and the Lubin Manufacturing Company. Comedic actor and Georgia native Oliver "Babe '' Hardy began his motion picture career here in 1914. He starred in over 36 short silent films his first year acting. With the closing of Lubin in early 1915, Oliver moved to New York then New Jersey to find film jobs. Acquiring a job with the Vim Company in early 1915, he returned to Jacksonville in the spring of 1917 before relocating to Los Angeles in October 1917. The first motion picture made in Technicolor and the first feature - length color movie produced in the United States, The Gulf Between, was also filmed on location in Jacksonville in 1917.
Jacksonville was especially important to the African American film industry. One notable individual in this regard is the European American producer Richard Norman, who created a string of films starring black actors in the vein of Oscar Micheaux and the Lincoln Motion Picture Company. In contrast to the degrading parts offered in certain white films such as The Birth of a Nation, Norman and his contemporaries sought to create positive stories featuring African Americans in what he termed "splendidly assuming different roles. ''
Jacksonville 's mostly conservative residents, however, objected to the hallmarks of the early movie industry, such as car chases in the streets, simulated bank robberies and fire alarms in public places, and even the occasional riot. In 1917, conservative Democrat John W. Martin was elected mayor on the platform of taming the city 's movie industry. By that time, southern California was emerging as the major movie production center, thanks in large part to the move of film pioneers like William Selig and D.W. Griffith to the area. These factors quickly sealed the demise of Jacksonville as a major film destination.
Another factor for the industry 's move west was that up until 1913, most American film production was still carried out around New York, but due to the monopoly of Thomas A. Edison, Inc. 's film patents and its litigious attempts to preserve it, many filmmakers moved to Southern California, starting with Selig in 1909. The sunshine and scenery was important for the production of Westerns, which came to form a major American film genre with the first cowboy stars, G.M. Anderson ("Broncho Billy '') and Tom Mix. Selig pioneered the use of (fairly) wild animals from a zoo for a series of exotic adventures, with the actors being menaced or saved by the animals. Kalem Company sent film crews to places in America and abroad to film stories in the actual places they were supposed to have happened. Kalem also pioneered the female action heroine from 1912, with Ruth Roland playing starring roles in their Westerns.
In France, Pathé retained its dominant position, followed still by Gaumont, and then other new companies that appeared to cater to the film boom. A film company with a different approach was Film d'Art. This was set up at the beginning of 1908 to make films of a serious artistic nature. Their declared programme was to make films using only the best dramatists, artists and actors. The first of these was L'Assassinat du Duc de Guise (The Assassination of the Duc de Guise), a historical subject set in the court of Henri III. This film used leading actors from the Comédie - Française, and had a special accompanying score written by Camille Saint - Saëns. The other French majors followed suit, and this wave gave rise to the English - language description of films with artistic pretensions aimed at a sophisticated audience as "art films ''. By 1910, the French film companies were starting to make films as long as two, or even three reels, though most were still one reel long. This trend was followed in Italy, Denmark, and Sweden.
In Britain, the Cinematograph Act 1909 was the first primary legislation to specifically regulate the film industry. Film exhibitions often took place in temporary venues and the use of highly flammable cellulose nitrate for film, combined with limelight illumination, created a significant fire hazard. The Act specified a strict building code which required, amongst other things, that the projector be enclosed within a fire resisting enclosure.
Regular newsreels were exhibited from 1910 and soon became a popular way for finding out the news -- the British Antarctic Expedition to the South Pole was filmed for the newsreels as were the suffragette demonstrations that were happening at the same time. F. Percy Smith was an early nature documentary pioneer working for Charles Urban and he pioneered the use of time lapse and micro cinematography in his 1910 documentary on the growth of flowers.
With the worldwide film boom, yet more countries now joined Britain, France, Germany and the United States in serious film production. In Italy, production was spread over several centres, with Turin being the first and biggest. There, Ambrosio was the first company in the field in 1905, and remained the largest in the country through this period. Its most substantial rival was Cines in Rome, which started producing in 1906. The great strength of the Italian industry was historical epics, with large casts and massive scenery. As early as 1911, Giovanni Pastrone 's two - reel La Caduta di Troia (The Fall of Troy) made a big impression worldwide, and it was followed by even bigger spectacles like Quo Vadis? (1912), which ran for 90 minutes, and Pastrone 's Cabiria of 1914, which ran for two and a half hours.
Italian companies also had a strong line in slapstick comedy, with actors like André Deed, known locally as "Cretinetti '', and elsewhere as "Foolshead '' and "Gribouille '', achieving worldwide fame with his almost surrealistic gags.
The most important film - producing country in Northern Europe up until the First World War was Denmark. The Nordisk company was set up there in 1906 by Ole Olsen, a fairground showman, and after a brief period imitating the successes of French and British filmmakers, in 1907 he produced 67 films, most directed by Viggo Larsen, with sensational subjects like Den hvide Slavinde (The White Slave), Isbjørnenjagt (Polar Bear Hunt) and Løvejagten (The Lion Hunt). By 1910, new smaller Danish companies began joining the business, and besides making more films about the white slave trade, they contributed other new subjects. The most important of these finds was Asta Nielsen in Afgrunden (The Abyss), directed by Urban Gad for Kosmorama, This combined the circus, sex, jealousy and murder, all put over with great conviction, and pushed the other Danish filmmakers further in this direction. By 1912, the Danish film companies were multiplying rapidly.
The Swedish film industry was smaller and slower to get started than the Danish industry. Here, the important man was Charles Magnusson, a newsreel cameraman for the Svenskabiografteatern cinema chain. He started fiction film production for them in 1909, directing a number of the films himself. Production increased in 1912, when the company engaged Victor Sjöström and Mauritz Stiller as directors. They started out by imitating the subjects favoured by the Danish film industry, but by 1913 they were producing their own strikingly original work, which sold very well.
Russia began its film industry in 1908 with Pathé shooting some fiction subjects there, and then the creation of real Russian film companies by Aleksandr Drankov and Aleksandr Khanzhonkov. The Khanzhonkov company quickly became much the largest Russian film company, and remained so until 1918.
In Germany, Oskar Messter had been involved in film - making from 1896, but did not make a significant number of films per year till 1910. When the worldwide film boom started, he, and the few other people in the German film business, continued to sell prints of their own films outright, which put them at a disadvantage. It was only when Paul Davidson, the owner of a chain of cinemas, brought Asta Nielsen and Urban Gad to Germany from Denmark in 1911, and set up a production company, Projektions - AG "Union '' (PAGU), for them, that a change - over to renting prints began. Messter replied with a series of longer films starring Henny Porten, but although these did well in the German - speaking world, they were not particularly successful internationally, unlike the Asta Nielsen films. Another of the growing German film producers just before World War I was the German branch of the French Éclair company, Deutsche Éclair. This was expropriated by the German government, and turned into DECLA when the war started. But altogether, German producers only had a minor part of the German market in 1914.
Overall, from about 1910, American films had the largest share of the market in all European countries except France, and even in France, the American films had just pushed the local production out of first place on the eve of World War I. So even if the war had not happened, American films may have become dominant worldwide. Although the war made things much worse for European producers, the technical qualities of American films made them increasingly attractive to audiences everywhere.
New film techniques that were introduced in this period include the use of artificial lighting, fire effects and Low - key lighting (i.e. lighting in which most of the frame is dark) for enhanced atmosphere during sinister scenes.
Continuity of action from shot to shot was also refined, such as in Pathé 's le Cheval emballé (The Runaway Horse) (1907) where cross-cutting between parallel actions is used. D.W. Griffith also began using cross-cutting in the film The Fatal Hour, made in July 1908. Another development was the use of the Point of View shot, first used in 1910 in Vitagraph 's Back to Nature. Insert shots were also used for artistic purposes; the Italian film La mala planta (The Evil Plant), directed by Mario Caserini had an insert shot of a snake slithering over the "Evil Plant ''.
As films grew longer, specialist writers were employed to simplify more complex stories derived from novels or plays into a form that could be contained on one reel. Genres began to be used as categories; the main division was into comedy and drama, but these categories were further subdivided.
Intertitles containing lines of dialogue began to be used consistently from 1908 onwards, such as in Vitagraph 's An Auto Heroine; or, The Race for the Vitagraph Cup and How It Was Won. The dialogue was eventually inserted into the middle of the scene and became commonplace by 1912. The introduction of dialogue titles transformed the nature of film narrative. When dialogue titles came to be always cut into a scene just after a character starts speaking, and then left with a cut to the character just before they finish speaking, then one had something that was effectively the equivalent of a present - day sound film.
The years of the First World War were a complex transitional period for the film industry. The exhibition of films changed from short one - reel programmes to feature films. Exhibition venues became larger and began charging higher prices.
In the United States, these changes brought destruction to many film companies, the Vitagraph company being an exception. Film production began to shift to Los Angeles during World War I. The Universal Film Manufacturing Company was formed in 1912 as an umbrella company. New entrants included the Jesse Lasky Feature Play Company, and Famous Players, both formed in 1913, and later amalgamated into Famous Players - Lasky. The biggest success of these years was David Wark Griffith 's The Birth of a Nation (1915). Griffith followed this up with the even bigger Intolerance (1916), but, due to the high quality of film produced in the US, the market for their films was high.
In France, film production shut down due to the general military mobilization of the country at the start of the war. Although film production began again in 1915, it was on a reduced scale, and the biggest companies gradually retired from production. Italian film production held up better, although so called "diva films '', starring anguished female leads were a commercial failure. In Denmark, the Nordisk company increased its production so much in 1915 and 1916 that it could not sell all its films, which led to a very sharp decline in Danish production, and the end of Denmark 's importance on the world film scene.
The German film industry was seriously weakened by the war. The most important of the new film producers at the time was Joe May, who made a series of thrillers and adventure films through the war years, but Ernst Lubitsch also came into prominence with a series of very successful comedies and dramas.
Because of the large local market for films in Russia, the industry there was not harmed by the war at first, although the isolation of the country led many Russian films to develop peculiarly distinctive features. In 1919, after the Bolshevik Revolution, an exodus of talent from the country took place and film production was drastically curtailed.
At this time, studios were blacked out to allow shooting to be unaffected by changing sunlight. This was replaced with floodlights and spotlights. The widespread adoption of irising - in and out to begin and end scenes caught on in this period. This is the revelation of a film shot in a circular mask, which gradually gets larger till it expands beyond the frame. Other shaped slits were used, including vertical and diagonal apertures.
A new idea taken over from still photography was "soft focus ''. This began in 1915, with some shots being intentionally thrown out of focus for expressive effect, as in Mary Pickford starrer Fanchon the Cricket.
It was during this period that camera effects intended to convey the subjective feelings of characters in a film really began to be established. These could now be done as Point of View (POV) shots, as in Sidney Drew 's The Story of the Glove (1915), where a wobbly hand - held shot of a door and its keyhole represents the POV of a drunken man. The use of anamorphic (in the general sense of distorted shape) images first appears in these years with Abel Gance directed la Folie du Docteur Tube (The Madness of Dr. Tube). In this film the effect of a drug administered to a group of people was suggested by shooting the scenes reflected in a distorting mirror of the fair - ground type.
Symbolic effects taken over from conventional literary and artistic tradition continued to make some appearances in films during these years. In D.W. Griffith 's The Avenging Conscience (1914), the title "The birth of the evil thought '' precedes a series of three shots of the protagonist looking at a spider, and ants eating an insect. Symbolist art and literature from the turn of the century also had a more general effect on a small number of films made in Italy and Russia. The supine acceptance of death resulting from passion and forbidden longings was a major feature of this art, and states of delirium dwelt on at length were important as well.
The use of insert shots, i.e. close - ups of objects other than faces, had already been established by the Brighton school, but were infrequently used before 1914. It is really only with Griffith 's The Avenging Conscience that a new phase in the use of the Insert Shot starts. As well as the symbolic inserts already mentioned, the film also made extensive use of large numbers of Big Close Up shots of clutching hands and tapping feet as a means of emphasizing those parts of the body as indicators of psychological tension.
Atmospheric inserts were developed in Europe in the late 1910s. This kind of shot is one in a scene which neither contains any of the characters in the story, nor is a Point of View shot seen by one of them. An early example is in Maurice Tourneur directed The Pride of the Clan (1917), in which there is a series of shots of waves beating on a rocky shore to demonstrate the harsh lives of the fishing folk. Maurice Elvey 's Nelson; The Story of England 's Immortal Naval Hero (1919) has a symbolic sequence dissolving from a picture of Kaiser Wilhelm II to a peacock, and then to a battleship.
By 1914, continuity cinema was the established mode of commercial cinema. One of the advanced continuity techniques involved an accurate and smooth transition from one shot to another. Cutting to different angles within a scene also became well - established as a technique for dissecting a scene into shots in American films. If the direction of the shot changes by more than ninety degrees, it is called a reverse - angle cutting. The leading figure in the full development of reverse - angle cutting was Ralph Ince in his films, such as The Right Girl and His Phantom Sweetheart
The use of flash - back structures continued to develop in this period, with the usual way of entering and leaving a flash - back being through a dissolve. The Vitagraph company 's The Man That Might Have Been (William J. Humphrey, 1914), is even more complex, with a series of reveries and flash - backs that contrast the protagonist 's real passage through life with what might have been, if his son had not died.
After 1914, cross cutting between parallel actions came to be used -- more so in American films than in European ones. Cross-cutting was often used to get new effects of contrast, such as the cross-cut sequence in Cecil B. DeMille 's The Whispering Chorus (1918), in which a supposedly dead husband is having a liaison with a Chinese prostitute in an opium den, while simultaneously his unknowing wife is being remarried in church.
The general trend in the development of cinema, led from the United States, was towards using the newly developed specifically filmic devices for expression of the narrative content of film stories, and combining this with the standard dramatic structures already in use in commercial theatre. D.W. Griffith had the highest standing amongst American directors in the industry, because of the dramatic excitement he conveyed to the audience through his films. Cecil B. DeMille 's The Cheat (1915), brought out the moral dilemmas facing their characters in a more subtle way than Griffith. DeMille was also in closer touch with the reality of contemporary American life. Maurice Tourneur was also highly ranked for the pictorial beauties of his films, together with the subtlety of his handling of fantasy, while at the same time he was capable of getting greater naturalism from his actors at appropriate moments, as in A Girl 's Folly (1917).
Sidney Drew was the leader in developing "polite comedy '', while slapstick was refined by Fatty Arbuckle and Charles Chaplin, who both started with Mack Sennett 's Keystone company. They reduced the usual frenetic pace of Sennett 's films to give the audience a chance to appreciate the subtlety and finesse of their movement, and the cleverness of their gags. By 1917 Chaplin was also introducing more dramatic plot into his films, and mixing the comedy with sentiment.
In Russia, Yevgeni Bauer put a slow intensity of acting combined with Symbolist overtones onto film in a unique way.
In Sweden, Victor Sjöström made a series of films that combined the realities of people 's lives with their surroundings in a striking manner, while Mauritz Stiller developed sophisticated comedy to a new level.
In Germany, Ernst Lubitsch got his inspiration from the stage work of Max Reinhardt, both in bourgeois comedy and in spectacle, and applied this to his films, culminating in his die Puppe (The Doll), die Austernprinzessin (The Oyster Princess) and Madame DuBarry.
At the start of the First World War, French and Italian cinema had been the most globally popular. The war came as a devastating interruption to European film industries. The American industry, or "Hollywood '', as it was becoming known after its new geographical center in California, gained the position it has held, more or less, ever since: film factory for the world and exporting its product to most countries on earth.
By the 1920s, the United States reached what is still its era of greatest - ever output, producing an average of 800 feature films annually, or 82 % of the global total (Eyman, 1997). The comedies of Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton, the swashbuckling adventures of Douglas Fairbanks and the romances of Clara Bow, to cite just a few examples, made these performers ' faces well - known on every continent. The Western visual norm that would become classical continuity editing was developed and exported -- although its adoption was slower in some non-Western countries without strong realist traditions in art and drama, such as Japan.
This development was contemporary with the growth of the studio system and its greatest publicity method, the star system, which characterized American film for decades to come and provided models for other film industries. The studios ' efficient, top - down control over all stages of their product enabled a new and ever - growing level of lavish production and technical sophistication. At the same time, the system 's commercial regimentation and focus on glamorous escapism discouraged daring and ambition beyond a certain degree, a prime example being the brief but still legendary directing career of the iconoclastic Erich von Stroheim in the late teens and the ' 20s.
During late 1927, Warners released The Jazz Singer, which was mostly silent but contained what is generally regarded as the first synchronized dialogue (and singing) in a feature film; but this process was actually accomplished first by Charles Taze Russell in 1914 with the lengthy film The Photo - Drama of Creation. This drama consisted of picture slides and moving pictures synchronized with phonograph records of talks and music. The early sound - on - disc processes such as Vitaphone were soon superseded by sound - on - film methods like Fox Movietone, DeForest Phonofilm, and RCA Photophone. The trend convinced the largely reluctant industrialists that "talking pictures '', or "talkies '', were the future. A lot of attempts were made before the success of The Jazz Singer, that can be seen in the List of film sound systems.
The change was remarkably swift. By the end of 1929, Hollywood was almost all - talkie, with several competing sound systems (soon to be standardized). Total changeover was slightly slower in the rest of the world, principally for economic reasons. Cultural reasons were also a factor in countries like China and Japan, where silents co-existed successfully with sound well into the 1930s, indeed producing what would be some of the most revered classics in those countries, like Wu Yonggang 's The Goddess (China, 1934) and Yasujirō Ozu 's I Was Born, But... (Japan, 1932). But even in Japan, a figure such as the benshi, the live narrator who was a major part of Japanese silent cinema, found his acting career was ending.
Sound further tightened the grip of major studios in numerous countries: the vast expense of the transition overwhelmed smaller competitors, while the novelty of sound lured vastly larger audiences for those producers that remained. In the case of the U.S., some historians credit sound with saving the Hollywood studio system in the face of the Great Depression (Parkinson, 1995). Thus began what is now often called "The Golden Age of Hollywood '', which refers roughly to the period beginning with the introduction of sound until the late 1940s. The American cinema reached its peak of efficiently manufactured glamour and global appeal during this period. The top actors of the era are now thought of as the classic film stars, such as Clark Gable, Katharine Hepburn, Humphrey Bogart, Greta Garbo, and the greatest box office draw of the 1930s, child performer Shirley Temple.
Creatively, however, the rapid transition was a difficult one, and in some ways, film briefly reverted to the conditions of its earliest days. The late ' 20s were full of static, stagey talkies as artists in front of and behind the camera struggled with the stringent limitations of the early sound equipment and their own uncertainty as to how to utilize the new medium. Many stage performers, directors and writers were introduced to cinema as producers sought personnel experienced in dialogue - based storytelling. Many major silent filmmakers and actors were unable to adjust and found their careers severely curtailed or even ended.
This awkward period was fairly short - lived. 1929 was a watershed year: William Wellman with Chinatown Nights and The Man I Love, Rouben Mamoulian with Applause, Alfred Hitchcock with Blackmail (Britain 's first sound feature), were among the directors to bring greater fluidity to talkies and experiment with the expressive use of sound (Eyman, 1997). In this, they both benefited from, and pushed further, technical advances in microphones and cameras, and capabilities for editing and post-synchronizing sound (rather than recording all sound directly at the time of filming).
Sound films emphasized black history and benefited different genres more so than silents did. Most obviously, the musical film was born; the first classic - style Hollywood musical was The Broadway Melody (1929) and the form would find its first major creator in choreographer / director Busby Berkeley (42nd Street, 1933, Dames, 1934). In France, avant - garde director René Clair made surreal use of song and dance in comedies like Under the Roofs of Paris (1930) and Le Million (1931). Universal Pictures begin releasing gothic horror films like Dracula and Frankenstein (both 1931). In 1933, RKO Pictures released Merian C. Cooper 's classic "giant monster '' film King Kong. The trend thrived best in India, where the influence of the country 's traditional song - and - dance drama made the musical the basic form of most sound films (Cook, 1990); virtually unnoticed by the Western world for decades, this Indian popular cinema would nevertheless become the world 's most prolific. (See also Bollywood.)
At this time, American gangster films like Little Caesar and Wellman 's The Public Enemy (both 1931) became popular. Dialogue now took precedence over "slapstick '' in Hollywood comedies: the fast - paced, witty banter of The Front Page (1931) or It Happened One Night (1934), the sexual double entrendres of Mae West (She Done Him Wrong, 1933) or the often subversively anarchic nonsense talk of the Marx Brothers (Duck Soup, 1933). Walt Disney, who had previously been in the short cartoon business, stepped into feature films with the first English - speaking animated feature Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs; released by RKO Pictures in 1937. 1939, a major year for American cinema, brought such films as The Wizard of Oz and Gone with The Wind.
Previously, it was believed that color films were first projected in 1909 at the Palace Theatre in London (the main problem with the color being that the technique, created by George Smith, (Kinemacolor) only used two colors: green and red, which were mixed additively). But in fact, it was in 1901 when the first color film in history was created. This untitled film was directed by photographer Edward Raymond Turner and his patron Frederick Marshall Lee. The way they did it was to use black and white film rolls, but have green, red, and blue filters go over the camera individually as it shot. To complete the film, they joined the original footage and filters on a special projector. However, both the shooting of the film and its projection suffered from major unrelated issues that, eventually, sank the idea.
Subsequently, in 1916, the technicolor technique arrived (trichromatic procedure (green, red, blue). Its use required a triple photographic impression, incorporation of chromatic filters and cameras of enormous dimensions). The first audiovisual piece that was completely realized with this technique was the short of Walt Disney "Flowers and Trees '', directed by Burt Gillett in 1932. Even so, the first film to be performed with this technique will be "The Vanities Fair '' (1935) by Rouben Mamoulian. Later on, the technicolor was extended mainly in the musical field as "The Wizard of Oz '' or "Singing in the rain '', in films such as "The Adventures of Robin Hood '' or the animation film, "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ''.
The desire for wartime propaganda against the opposition created a renaissance in the film industry in Britain, with realistic war dramas like 49th Parallel (1941), Went the Day Well? (1942), The Way Ahead (1944) and Noël Coward and David Lean 's celebrated naval film In Which We Serve in 1942, which won a special Academy Award. These existed alongside more flamboyant films like Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger 's The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp (1943), A Canterbury Tale (1944) and A Matter of Life and Death (1946), as well as Laurence Olivier 's 1944 film Henry V, based on the Shakespearean history Henry V. The success of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs allowed Disney to make more animated features like Pinocchio (1940), Fantasia (1940), Dumbo (1941) and Bambi (1942).
The onset of US involvement in World War II also brought a proliferation of films as both patriotism and propaganda. American propaganda films included Desperate Journey (1942), Mrs. Miniver (1942), Forever and a Day (1943) and Objective, Burma! (1945). Notable American films from the war years include the anti-Nazi Watch on the Rhine (1943), scripted by Dashiell Hammett; Shadow of a Doubt (1943), Hitchcock 's direction of a script by Thornton Wilder; the George M. Cohan biopic, Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942), starring James Cagney, and the immensely popular Casablanca, with Humphrey Bogart. Bogart would star in 36 films between 1934 and 1942 including John Huston 's The Maltese Falcon (1941), one of the first films now considered a classic film noir. In 1941, RKO Pictures released Citizen Kane made by Orson Welles. It is often considered the greatest film of all time. It would set the stage for the modern motion picture, as it revolutionized film story telling.
The strictures of wartime also brought an interest in more fantastical subjects. These included Britain 's Gainsborough melodramas (including The Man in Grey and The Wicked Lady), and films like Here Comes Mr. Jordan, Heaven Can Wait, I Married a Witch and Blithe Spirit. Val Lewton also produced a series of atmospheric and influential small - budget horror films, some of the more famous examples being Cat People, Isle of the Dead and The Body Snatcher. The decade probably also saw the so - called "women 's pictures '', such as Now, Voyager, Random Harvest and Mildred Pierce at the peak of their popularity.
1946 saw RKO Radio releasing It 's a Wonderful Life directed by Frank Capra. Soldiers returning from the war would provide the inspiration for films like The Best Years of Our Lives, and many of those in the film industry had served in some capacity during the war. Samuel Fuller 's experiences in World War II would influence his largely autobiographical films of later decades such as The Big Red One. The Actor 's Studio was founded in October 1947 by Elia Kazan, Robert Lewis, and Cheryl Crawford, and the same year Oskar Fischinger filmed Motion Painting No. 1.
In 1943, Ossessione was screened in Italy, marking the beginning of Italian neorealism. Major films of this type during the 1940s included Bicycle Thieves, Rome, Open City, and La Terra Trema. In 1952 Umberto D was released, usually considered the last film of this type.
In the late 1940s, in Britain, Ealing Studios embarked on their series of celebrated comedies, including Whisky Galore!, Passport to Pimlico, Kind Hearts and Coronets and The Man in the White Suit, and Carol Reed directed his influential thrillers Odd Man Out, The Fallen Idol and The Third Man. David Lean was also rapidly becoming a force in world cinema with Brief Encounter and his Dickens adaptations Great Expectations and Oliver Twist, and Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger would experience the best of their creative partnership with films like Black Narcissus and The Red Shoes.
The House Un-American Activities Committee investigated Hollywood in the early 1950s. Protested by the Hollywood Ten before the committee, the hearings resulted in the blacklisting of many actors, writers and directors, including Chayefsky, Charlie Chaplin, and Dalton Trumbo, and many of these fled to Europe, especially the United Kingdom.
The Cold War era zeitgeist translated into a type of near - paranoia manifested in themes such as invading armies of evil aliens, (Invasion of the Body Snatchers, The War of the Worlds); and communist fifth columnists, (The Manchurian Candidate).
During the immediate post-war years the cinematic industry was also threatened by television, and the increasing popularity of the medium meant that some film theatres would bankrupt and close. The demise of the "studio system '' spurred the self - commentary of films like Sunset Boulevard (1950) and The Bad and the Beautiful (1952).
In 1950, the Lettrists avante - gardists caused riots at the Cannes Film Festival, when Isidore Isou 's Treatise on Slime and Eternity was screened. After their criticism of Charlie Chaplin and split with the movement, the Ultra-Lettrists continued to cause disruptions when they showed their new hypergraphical techniques. The most notorious film is Guy Debord 's Howls for Sade of 1952.
Distressed by the increasing number of closed theatres, studios and companies would find new and innovative ways to bring audiences back. These included attempts to widen their appeal with new screen formats. Cinemascope, which would remain a 20th Century Fox distinction until 1967, was announced with 1953 's The Robe. VistaVision, Cinerama, and Todd - AO boasted a "bigger is better '' approach to marketing films to a dwindling US audience. This resulted in the revival of epic films to take advantage of the new big screen formats. Some of the most successful examples of these Biblical and historical spectaculars include The Ten Commandments (1956), The Vikings (1958), Ben - Hur (1959), Spartacus (1960) and El Cid (1961). Also during this period a number of other significant films were produced in Todd - AO, developed by Mike Todd shortly before his death, including Oklahoma! (1955), Around the World in 80 Days (1956), South Pacific (1958) and Cleopatra (1963) plus many more.
Gimmicks also proliferated to lure in audiences. The fad for 3 - D film would last for only two years, 1952 -- 1954, and helped sell House of Wax and Creature from the Black Lagoon. Producer William Castle would tout films featuring "Emergo '' "Percepto '', the first of a series of gimmicks that would remain popular marketing tools for Castle and others throughout the 1960s.
In the U.S., a post-WW2 tendency toward questioning the establishment and societal norms and the early activism of the civil rights movement was reflected in Hollywood films such as Blackboard Jungle (1955), On the Waterfront (1954), Paddy Chayefsky 's Marty and Reginald Rose 's 12 Angry Men (1957). Disney continued making animated films, notably; Cinderella (1950), Peter Pan (1953), Lady and the Tramp (1955), and Sleeping Beauty (1959). He began, however, getting more involved in live action films, producing classics like 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954), and Old Yeller (1957). Television began competing seriously with films projected in theatres, but surprisingly it promoted more filmgoing rather than curtailing it.
Limelight is probably a unique film in at least one interesting respect. Its two leads, Charlie Chaplin and Claire Bloom, were in the industry in no less than three different centuries. In the 19th Century, Chaplin made his theatrical debut at the age of eight, in 1897, in a clog dancing troupe, The Eight Lancaster Lads. In the 21st Century, Bloom is still enjoying a full and productive career, having appeared in dozens of films and television series produced up to and including 2013. She received particular acclaim for her role in The King 's Speech (2010).
Following the end of World War II in the 1940s, the following decade, the 1950s, marked a ' golden age ' for non-English world cinema, especially for Asian cinema. Many of the most critically acclaimed Asian films of all time were produced during this decade, including Yasujirō Ozu 's Tokyo Story (1953), Satyajit Ray 's The Apu Trilogy (1955 -- 1959) and Jalsaghar (1958), Kenji Mizoguchi 's Ugetsu (1954) and Sansho the Bailiff (1954), Raj Kapoor 's Awaara (1951), Mikio Naruse 's Floating Clouds (1955), Guru Dutt 's Pyaasa (1957) and Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959), and the Akira Kurosawa films Rashomon (1950), Ikiru (1952), Seven Samurai (1954) and Throne of Blood (1957).
During Japanese cinema 's ' Golden Age ' of the 1950s, successful films included Rashomon (1950), Seven Samurai (1954) and The Hidden Fortress (1958) by Akira Kurosawa, as well as Yasujirō Ozu 's Tokyo Story (1953) and Ishirō Honda 's Godzilla (1954). These films have had a profound influence on world cinema. In particular, Kurosawa 's Seven Samurai has been remade several times as Western films, such as The Magnificent Seven (1960) and Battle Beyond the Stars (1980), and has also inspired several Bollywood films, such as Sholay (1975) and China Gate (1998). Rashomon was also remade as The Outrage (1964), and inspired films with "Rashomon effect '' storytelling methods, such as Andha Naal (1954), The Usual Suspects (1995) and Hero (2002). The Hidden Fortress was also the inspiration behind George Lucas ' Star Wars (1977). Other famous Japanese filmmakers from this period include Kenji Mizoguchi, Mikio Naruse, Hiroshi Inagaki and Nagisa Oshima. Japanese cinema later became one of the main inspirations behind the New Hollywood movement of the 1960s to 1980s.
During Indian cinema 's ' Golden Age ' of the 1950s, it was producing 200 films annually, while Indian independent films gained greater recognition through international film festivals. One of the most famous was The Apu Trilogy (1955 -- 1959) from critically acclaimed Bengali film director Satyajit Ray, whose films had a profound influence on world cinema, with directors such as Akira Kurosawa, Martin Scorsese, James Ivory, Abbas Kiarostami, Elia Kazan, François Truffaut, Steven Spielberg, Carlos Saura, Jean - Luc Godard, Isao Takahata, Gregory Nava, Ira Sachs, Wes Anderson and Danny Boyle being influenced by his cinematic style. According to Michael Sragow of The Atlantic Monthly, the "youthful coming - of - age dramas that have flooded art houses since the mid-fifties owe a tremendous debt to the Apu trilogy ''. Subrata Mitra 's cinematographic technique of bounce lighting also originates from The Apu Trilogy. Other famous Indian filmmakers from this period include Guru Dutt, Ritwik Ghatak, Mrinal Sen, Raj Kapoor, Bimal Roy, K. Asif and Mehboob Khan.
The cinema of South Korea also experienced a ' Golden Age ' in the 1950s, beginning with director Lee Kyu - hwan 's tremendously successful remake of Chunhyang - jon (1955). That year also saw the release of Yangsan Province by the renowned director, Kim Ki - young, marking the beginning of his productive career. Both the quality and quantity of filmmaking had increased rapidly by the end of the 1950s. South Korean films, such as Lee Byeong - il 's 1956 comedy Sijibganeun nal (The Wedding Day), had begun winning international awards. In contrast to the beginning of the 1950s, when only 5 films were made per year, 111 films were produced in South Korea in 1959.
The 1950s was also a ' Golden Age ' for Philippine cinema, with the emergence of more artistic and mature films, and significant improvement in cinematic techniques among filmmakers. The studio system produced frenetic activity in the local film industry as many films were made annually and several local talents started to earn recognition abroad. The premiere Philippine directors of the era included Gerardo de Leon, Gregorio Fernández, Eddie Romero, Lamberto Avellana, and Cirio Santiago.
During the 1960s, the studio system in Hollywood declined, because many films were now being made on location in other countries, or using studio facilities abroad, such as Pinewood in the UK and Cinecittà in Rome. "Hollywood '' films were still largely aimed at family audiences, and it was often the more old - fashioned films that produced the studios ' biggest successes. Productions like Mary Poppins (1964), My Fair Lady (1964) and The Sound of Music (1965) were among the biggest money - makers of the decade. The growth in independent producers and production companies, and the increase in the power of individual actors also contributed to the decline of traditional Hollywood studio production.
There was also an increasing awareness of foreign language cinema in America during this period. During the late 1950s and 1960s, the French New Wave directors such as François Truffaut and Jean - Luc Godard produced films such as Les quatre cents coups, Breathless and Jules et Jim which broke the rules of Hollywood cinema 's narrative structure. As well, audiences were becoming aware of Italian films like Federico Fellini 's La Dolce Vita and the stark dramas of Sweden 's Ingmar Bergman.
In Britain, the "Free Cinema '' of Lindsay Anderson, Tony Richardson and others lead to a group of realistic and innovative dramas including Saturday Night and Sunday Morning, A Kind of Loving and This Sporting Life. Other British films such as Repulsion, Darling, Alfie, Blowup and Georgy Girl (all in 1965 -- 1966) helped to reduce prohibitions sex and nudity on screen, while the casual sex and violence of the James Bond films, beginning with Dr. No in 1962 would render the series popular worldwide.
During the 1960s, Ousmane Sembène produced several French - and Wolof - language films and became the "father '' of African Cinema. In Latin America, the dominance of the "Hollywood '' model was challenged by many film makers. Fernando Solanas and Octavio Getino called for a politically engaged Third Cinema in contrast to Hollywood and the European auteur cinema.
Further, the nuclear paranoia of the age, and the threat of an apocalyptic nuclear exchange (like the 1962 close - call with the USSR during the Cuban missile crisis) prompted a reaction within the film community as well. Films like Stanley Kubrick 's Dr. Strangelove and Fail Safe with Henry Fonda were produced in a Hollywood that was once known for its overt patriotism and wartime propaganda.
In documentary film the sixties saw the blossoming of Direct Cinema, an observational style of film making as well as the advent of more overtly partisan films like In the Year of the Pig about the Vietnam War by Emile de Antonio. By the late 1960s however, Hollywood filmmakers were beginning to create more innovative and groundbreaking films that reflected the social revolution taken over much of the western world such as Bonnie and Clyde (1967), The Graduate (1967), 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), Rosemary 's Baby (1968), Midnight Cowboy (1969), Easy Rider (1969) and The Wild Bunch (1969). Bonnie and Clyde is often considered the beginning of the so - called New Hollywood.
In Japanese cinema, Academy Award winning director Akira Kurosawa produced Yojimbo (1961), which like his previous films also had a profound influence around the world. The influence of this film is most apparent in Sergio Leone 's A Fistful of Dollars (1964) and Walter Hill 's Last Man Standing (1996). Yojimbo was also the origin of the "Man with No Name '' trend.
The New Hollywood was the period following the decline of the studio system during the 1950s and 1960s and the end of the production code, (which was replaced in 1968 by the MPAA film rating system). During the 1970s, filmmakers increasingly depicted explicit sexual content and showed gunfight and battle scenes that included graphic images of bloody deaths -- a good example of this is Wes Craven 's The Last House on the Left (1972).
Post-classical cinema is the changing methods of storytelling of the New Hollywood producers. The new methods of drama and characterization played upon audience expectations acquired during the classical / Golden Age period: story chronology may be scrambled, storylines may feature unsettling "twist endings '', main characters may behave in a morally ambiguous fashion, and the lines between the antagonist and protagonist may be blurred. The beginnings of post-classical storytelling may be seen in 1940s and 1950s film noir films, in films such as Rebel Without a Cause (1955), and in Hitchcock 's Psycho. 1971 marked the release of controversial films like Straw Dogs, A Clockwork Orange, The French Connection and Dirty Harry. This sparked heated controversy over the perceived escalation of violence in cinema.
During the 1970s, a new group of American filmmakers emerged, such as Martin Scorsese, Francis Ford Coppola, George Lucas, Woody Allen, Terrence Malick, and Robert Altman. This coincided with the increasing popularity of the auteur theory in film literature and the media, which posited that a film director 's films express their personal vision and creative insights. The development of the auteur style of filmmaking helped to give these directors far greater control over their projects than would have been possible in earlier eras. This led to some great critical and commercial successes, like Scorsese 's Taxi Driver, Coppola 's The Godfather films, William Friedkin 's The Exorcist, Altman 's Nashville, Allen 's Annie Hall and Manhattan, Malick 's Badlands and Days of Heaven, and Polish immigrant Roman Polanski 's Chinatown. It also, however, resulted in some failures, including Peter Bogdanovich 's At Long Last Love and Michael Cimino 's hugely expensive Western epic Heaven 's Gate, which helped to bring about the demise of its backer, United Artists.
The financial disaster of Heaven 's Gate marked the end of the visionary "auteur '' directors of the "New Hollywood '', who had unrestrained creative and financial freedom to develop films. The phenomenal success in the 1970s of Spielberg 's Jaws originated the concept of the modern "blockbuster ''. However, the enormous success of George Lucas ' 1977 film Star Wars led to much more than just the popularization of blockbuster film - making. The film 's revolutionary use of special effects, sound editing and music had led it to become widely regarded as one of the single most important films in the medium 's history, as well as the most influential film of the 1970s. Hollywood studios increasingly focused on producing a smaller number of very large budget films with massive marketing and promotional campaigns. This trend had already been foreshadowed by the commercial success of disaster films such as The Poseidon Adventure and The Towering Inferno.
During the mid-1970s, more pornographic theatres, euphemistically called "adult cinemas '', were established, and the legal production of hardcore pornographic films began. Porn films such as Deep Throat and its star Linda Lovelace became something of a popular culture phenomenon and resulted in a spate of similar sex films. The porn cinemas finally died out during the 1980s, when the popularization of the home VCR and pornography videotapes allowed audiences to watch sex films at home. In the early 1970s, English - language audiences became more aware of the new West German cinema, with Werner Herzog, Rainer Werner Fassbinder and Wim Wenders among its leading exponents.
In world cinema, the 1970s saw a dramatic increase in the popularity of martial arts films, largely due to its reinvention by Bruce Lee, who departed from the artistic style of traditional Chinese martial arts films and added a much greater sense of realism to them with his Jeet Kune Do style. This began with The Big Boss (1971), which was a major success across Asia. However, he did n't gain fame in the Western world until shortly after his death in 1973, when Enter the Dragon was released. The film went on to become the most successful martial arts film in cinematic history, popularized the martial arts film genre across the world, and cemented Bruce Lee 's status as a cultural icon. Hong Kong action cinema, however, was in decline due to a wave of "Bruceploitation '' films. This trend eventually came to an end in 1978 with the martial arts comedy films, Snake in the Eagle 's Shadow and Drunken Master, directed by Yuen Woo - ping and starring Jackie Chan, laying the foundations for the rise of Hong Kong action cinema in the 1980s.
While the musical film genre had declined in Hollywood by this time, musical films were quickly gaining popularity in the cinema of India, where the term "Bollywood '' was coined for the growing Hindi film industry in Bombay (now Mumbai) that ended up dominating South Asian cinema, overtaking the more critically acclaimed Bengali film industry in popularity. Hindi filmmakers combined the Hollywood musical formula with the conventions of ancient Indian theatre to create a new film genre called "Masala '', which dominated Indian cinema throughout the late 20th century. These "Masala '' films portrayed action, comedy, drama, romance and melodrama all at once, with "filmi '' song and dance routines thrown in. This trend began with films directed by Manmohan Desai and starring Amitabh Bachchan, who remains one of the most popular film stars in South Asia. The most popular Indian film of all time was Sholay (1975), a "Masala '' film inspired by a real - life dacoit as well as Kurosawa 's Seven Samurai and the Spaghetti Westerns.
The end of the decade saw the first major international marketing of Australian cinema, as Peter Weir 's films Picnic at Hanging Rock and The Last Wave and Fred Schepisi 's The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith gained critical acclaim. In 1979, Australian filmmaker George Miller also garnered international attention for his violent, low - budget action film Mad Max.
During the 1980s, audiences began increasingly watching films on their home VCRs. In the early part of that decade, the film studios tried legal action to ban home ownership of VCRs as a violation of copyright, which proved unsuccessful. Eventually, the sale and rental of films on home video became a significant "second venue '' for exhibition of films, and an additional source of revenue for the film industries.
The Lucas -- Spielberg combine would dominate "Hollywood '' cinema for much of the 1980s, and lead to much imitation. Two follow - ups to Star Wars, three to Jaws, and three Indiana Jones films helped to make sequels of successful films more of an expectation than ever before. Lucas also launched THX Ltd, a division of Lucasfilm in 1982, while Spielberg enjoyed one of the decade 's greatest successes in E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial the same year. 1982 also saw the release of Disney 's Tron which was one of the first films from a major studio to use computer graphics extensively. American independent cinema struggled more during the decade, although Martin Scorsese 's Raging Bull (1980), After Hours (1985), and The King of Comedy (1983) helped to establish him as one of the most critically acclaimed American film makers of the era. Also during 1983 Scarface was released, which was very profitable and resulted in even greater fame for its leading actor Al Pacino. Probably the most successful film commercially was vended during 1989: Tim Burton 's version of Bob Kane 's creation, Batman, exceeded box - office records. Jack Nicholson 's portrayal of the demented Joker earned him a total of $60,000,000 after figuring in his percentage of the gross.
British cinema was given a boost during the early 1980s by the arrival of David Puttnam 's company Goldcrest Films. The films Chariots of Fire, Gandhi, The Killing Fields and A Room with a View appealed to a "middlebrow '' audience which was increasingly being ignored by the major Hollywood studios. While the films of the 1970s had helped to define modern blockbuster motion pictures, the way "Hollywood '' released its films would now change. Films, for the most part, would premiere in a wider number of theatres, although, to this day, some films still premiere using the route of the limited / roadshow release system. Against some expectations, the rise of the multiplex cinema did not allow less mainstream films to be shown, but simply allowed the major blockbusters to be given an even greater number of screenings. However, films that had been overlooked in cinemas were increasingly being given a second chance on home video.
During the 1980s, Japanese cinema experienced a revival, largely due to the success of anime films. At the beginning of the 1980s, Space Battleship Yamato (1973) and Mobile Suit Gundam (1979), both of which were unsuccessful as television series, were remade as films and became hugely successful in Japan. In particular, Mobile Suit Gundam sparked the Gundam franchise of Real Robot mecha anime. The success of Macross: Do You Remember Love? also sparked a Macross franchise of mecha anime. This was also the decade when Studio Ghibli was founded. The studio produced Hayao Miyazaki 's first fantasy films, Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) and Castle in the Sky (1986), as well as Isao Takahata 's Grave of the Fireflies (1988), all of which were very successful in Japan and received worldwide critical acclaim. Original video animation (OVA) films also began during this decade; the most influential of these early OVA films was Noboru Ishiguro 's cyberpunk film Megazone 23 (1985). The most famous anime film of this decade was Katsuhiro Otomo 's cyberpunk film Akira (1988), which although initially unsuccessful at Japanese theaters, went on to become an international success.
Hong Kong action cinema, which was in a state of decline due to endless Bruceploitation films after the death of Bruce Lee, also experienced a revival in the 1980s, largely due to the reinvention of the action film genre by Jackie Chan. He had previously combined the comedy film and martial arts film genres successfully in the 1978 films Snake in the Eagle 's Shadow and Drunken Master. The next step he took was in combining this comedy martial arts genre with a new emphasis on elaborate and highly dangerous stunts, reminiscent of the silent film era. The first film in this new style of action cinema was Project A (1983), which saw the formation of the Jackie Chan Stunt Team as well as the "Three Brothers '' (Chan, Sammo Hung and Yuen Biao). The film added elaborate, dangerous stunts to the fights and slapstick humor, and became a huge success throughout the Far East. As a result, Chan continued this trend with martial arts action films containing even more elaborate and dangerous stunts, including Wheels on Meals (1984), Police Story (1985), Armour of God (1986), Project A Part II (1987), Police Story 2 (1988), and Dragons Forever (1988). Other new trends which began in the 1980s were the "girls with guns '' subgenre, for which Michelle Yeoh gained fame; and especially the "heroic bloodshed '' genre, revolving around Triads, largely pioneered by John Woo and for which Chow Yun - fat became famous. These Hong Kong action trends were later adopted by many Hollywood action films in the 1990s and 2000s.
The early 1990s saw the development of a commercially successful independent cinema in the United States. Although cinema was increasingly dominated by special - effects films such as Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), Jurassic Park (1993) and Titanic (1997), the latter of which became the highest - grossing film of all time at the time up until Avatar (2009), also directed by James Cameron, independent films like Steven Soderbergh 's Sex, Lies, and Videotape (1989) and Quentin Tarantino 's Reservoir Dogs (1992) had significant commercial success both at the cinema and on home video. Filmmakers associated with the Danish film movement Dogme 95 introduced a manifesto aimed to purify filmmaking. Its first few films gained worldwide critical acclaim, after which the movement slowly faded out.
Major American studios began to create their own "independent '' production companies to finance and produce non-mainstream fare. One of the most successful independents of the 1990s, Miramax Films, was bought by Disney the year before the release of Tarantino 's runaway hit Pulp Fiction in 1994. The same year marked the beginning of film and video distribution online. Animated films aimed at family audiences also regained their popularity, with Disney 's Beauty and the Beast (1991), Aladdin (1992), and The Lion King (1994). During 1995, the first feature length computer - animated feature, Toy Story, was produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Disney. After the success of Toy Story, computer animation would grow to become the dominant technique for feature length animation, which would allow competing film companies such as DreamWorks Animation and 20th Century Fox to effectively compete with Disney with successful films of their own. During the late 1990s, another cinematic transition began, from physical film stock to digital cinema technology. Meanwhile, DVDs became the new standard for consumer video, replacing VHS tapes.
The documentary film also rose as a commercial genre for perhaps the first time, with the success of films such as March of the Penguins and Michael Moore 's Bowling for Columbine and Fahrenheit 9 / 11. A new genre was created with Martin Kunert and Eric Manes ' Voices of Iraq, when 150 inexpensive DV cameras were distributed across Iraq, transforming ordinary people into collaborative filmmakers. The success of Gladiator led to a revival of interest in epic cinema, and Moulin Rouge! renewed interest in musical cinema. Home theatre systems became increasingly sophisticated, as did some of the special edition DVDs designed to be shown on them. The Lord of the Rings trilogy was released on DVD in both the theatrical version and in a special extended version intended only for home cinema audiences.
In 2001, the Harry Potter film series began, and by its end in 2011, it had become the highest - grossing film franchise of all time until the Marvel Cinematic Universe passed it in 2015.
More films were also being released simultaneously to IMAX cinema, the first was in 2002 's Disney animation Treasure Planet; and the first live action was in 2003 's The Matrix Revolutions and a re-release of The Matrix Reloaded. Later in the decade, The Dark Knight was the first major feature film to have been at least partially shot in IMAX technology.
There has been an increasing globalization of cinema during this decade, with foreign - language films gaining popularity in English - speaking markets. Examples of such films include Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (Mandarin), Amélie (French), Lagaan (Hindi), Spirited Away (Japanese), City of God (Brazilian Portuguese), The Passion of the Christ (Aramaic), Apocalypto (Mayan) and Inglourious Basterds (multiple European languages). Italy is the most awarded country at the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, with 14 awards won, 3 Special Awards and 31 nominations.
Recently there has been a revival in 3D film popularity the first being James Cameron 's Ghosts of the Abyss which was released as the first full - length 3 - D IMAX feature filmed with the Reality Camera System. This camera system used the latest HD video cameras, not film, and was built for Cameron by Emmy nominated Director of Photography Vince Pace, to his specifications. The same camera system was used to film Spy Kids 3D: Game Over (2003), Aliens of the Deep IMAX (2005), and The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3 - D (2005).
After James Cameron 's 3D film Avatar became the highest - grossing film of all time, 3D films have gained increasing popularity with many other films being released in 3D, with the best critical and financial successes being in the field of feature film animation such as Universal Pictures / Illumination Entertainment 's Despicable Me and DreamWorks Animation 's How To Train Your Dragon, Shrek Forever After and Megamind. Avatar is also note - worthy for pioneering highly sophisticated use of motion capture technology and influencing several other films such as Rise of the Planet of the Apes.
As of 2010, the largest film industries by number of feature films produced are those of India, the United States, China, Nigeria and Japan. Beginning in 2008 with Iron Man and The Dark Knight, superhero films have greatly increased in popularity and financial success, with films based on Marvel and DC comics regularly being released every year up to the present.
\ Jones. Based on the book (above); written by Basten & Jones. Documentary, (1998).
|
who does the voiceover for ice road truckers | Thom Beers - Wikipedia
Thom Beers (born c. July 20, 1952) is an American television producer and narrator / voice - over artist.
Beers, a former producer and executive with Turner Broadcasting and Paramount Syndicated Television, has produced more than 40 television series since the mid-1990s, most under the banner of his own production company formed in 1999, Original Productions, for which he serves as CEO and Executive Producer. Beers produces some of the shows on the Discovery Channel family of networks, including Deadliest Catch (for which he received Emmy nominations in 2006 and 2007), Lobster Wars, Monster Garage, Monster House, and Plastic Surgery: Before and After. He is the former chairman & CEO of FremantleMedia 's US division, FremantleMedia North America.
Beers narrates for many of the shows he produces. He narrated for several Discovery Channel series like Swords: Life on the Line, and Verminators; in addition to narrating most of Original Productions ' shows (Beers narrated the pilot for Deadliest Catch but turned over series narration duties to fellow Discovery Channel personality Mike Rowe after the series was picked up), he can be heard narrating many shows on Discovery Health Channel, including Impact: Stories of Survival. In 2007, he produced and narrated Ice Road Truckers for the History Channel and narrated Ax Men in 2008 about logging. Like Deadliest Catch, both shows had their roots in a special about a dangerous occupation. In 2010 he was also the executive producer and narrator of Storage Wars on A&E.
Most recently, truTV has enlisted Beers and Original Productions for their own "dangerous occupation '' series: Black Gold, a documentary about oil drillers. Beers is also executive producer and narrator for Tornado Road, a mini-series on The Weather Channel and Whisker Wars which airs on IFC.
Also, he narrates for the show America 's Port, narrates and is an executive producer for Wild Justice both on the National Geographic Channel, the pilot episodes of 1,000 Ways to Die on Spike, Pitchmen, and The Colony on the Discovery Channel. Beers was also the supervising producer for the cartoon Captain Planet and the Planeteers on TBS from 1990 - 1991 for 26 episodes. He is working on the latest the night in the life of Jimmie Honberger
Beers is married to Leslie Beers, president of Amygdala Music, which produces all the music for Original Productions shows as well as licensing music for other production companies. They have one son named Max who attends Highland Hall, a Waldorf School.
|
what is mean free path of a gas molecule on which factors does the mean free path depend | Mean free path - wikipedia
In physics, the mean free path is the average distance traveled by a moving particle (such as an atom, a molecule, a photon) between successive impacts (collisions), which modify its direction or energy or other particle properties.
The following table lists some typical values for air at different pressures at room temperature.
In gamma - ray radiography the mean free path of a pencil beam of mono - energetic photons is the average distance a photon travels between collisions with atoms of the target material. It depends on the material and the energy of the photons:
where μ is the linear attenuation coefficient, μ / ρ is the mass attenuation coefficient and ρ is the density of the material. The Mass attenuation coefficient can be looked up or calculated for any material and energy combination using the NIST databases
In X-ray radiography the calculation of the mean free path is more complicated, because photons are not mono - energetic, but have some distribution of energies called a spectrum. As photons move through the target material, they are attenuated with probabilities depending on their energy, as a result their distribution changes in process called spectrum hardening. Because of spectrum hardening, the mean free path of the X-ray spectrum changes with distance.
Sometimes one measures the thickness of a material in the number of mean free paths. Material with the thickness of one mean free path will attenuate 37 % (1 / e) of photons. This concept is closely related to half - value layer (HVL): a material with a thickness of one HVL will attenuate 50 % of photons. A standard x-ray image is a transmission image, an image with negative logarithm of its intensities is sometimes called a number of mean free paths image.
In particle physics the concept of the mean free path is not commonly used, being replaced by the similar concept of attenuation length. In particular, for high - energy photons, which mostly interact by electron -- positron pair production, the radiation length is used much like the mean free path in radiography.
Independent - particle models in nuclear physics require the undisturbed orbiting of nucleons within the nucleus before they interact with other nucleons. Blatt and Weisskopf, in their 1952 textbook "Theoretical Nuclear Physics '' wrote: "The effective mean free path of a nucleon in nuclear matter must be somewhat larger than the nuclear dimensions in order to allow the use of the independent particle model. This requirement seems to be in contradiction to the assumptions made in the theory... We are facing here one of the fundamental problems of nuclear structure physics which has yet to be solved. '' (quoted by Norman D. Cook in "Models of the Atomic Nucleus '' Ed. 2 (2010) Springer, in Chapter 5 "The Mean Free Path of Nucleons in Nuclei '').
If one takes a suspension of non-light - absorbing particles of diameter d with a volume fraction Φ, the mean free path of the photons is:
where Q is the scattering efficiency factor. Q can be evaluated numerically for spherical particles using Mie theory.
In an otherwise empty cavity, the mean free path of a single particle bouncing off the walls is:
where V is volume of the cavity, S is total inside surface area of cavity and F a constant related to the shape of the cavity. For most simple cavity shapes F is approximately 4.
This relation is used in the derivation of the Sabine equation in acoustics, using a geometrical approximation of sound propagation.
Electrical mobility, a value directly related to electrical conductivity, is:
where e is the charge, τ (\ displaystyle \ tau) is the mean free time, m is the mass, d is the mean free path, and v is the Fermi velocity of the charge carrier. The Fermi velocity can easily be derived from the Fermi energy via the non-relativistic kinetic energy equation. In thin films, however, the film thickness can be smaller than the predicted mean free path, making surface scattering much more noticeable, effectively increasing the resistivity.
The mean free path is used in the design of chemical apparatus, e.g., systems for distillation. The sizes of atoms and molecules can be estimated from their mean free path. MFP can be used to estimate the resistivity of a material from the mean free path of its electrons.
In aerodynamics, the mean free path has the same order of magnitude as the shockwave thickness at Mach numbers greater than one.
Imagine a beam of particles being shot through a target, and consider an infinitesimally thin slab of the target (see the figure). The atoms (or particles) that might stop a beam particle are shown in red. The magnitude of the mean free path depends on the characteristics of the system. An expression for the MFP is
where l is the mean free path, n is the number of target particles per unit volume, and σ is the effective cross-sectional area for collision.
The area of the slab is L, and its volume is L dx. The typical number of stopping atoms in the slab is the concentration n times the volume, i.e., n L dx. The probability that a beam particle will be stopped in that slab is the net area of the stopping atoms divided by the total area of the slab:
where σ is the area (or, more formally, the "scattering cross-section '') of one atom.
The drop in beam intensity equals the incoming beam intensity multiplied by the probability of the particle being stopped within the slab:
This is an ordinary differential equation:
whose solution is known as Beer - Lambert law and has the form I = I 0 e − x / l (\ displaystyle I = I_ (0) e ^ (- x / \ ell)), where x is the distance traveled by the beam through the target, and I is the beam intensity before it entered the target; l is called the mean free path because it equals the mean distance traveled by a beam particle before being stopped. To see this, note that the probability that a particle is absorbed between x and x + dx is given by
Thus the expectation value (or average, or simply mean) of x is
The fraction of particles that are not stopped (attenuated) by the slab is called transmission T = I / I 0 = e − x / l (\ displaystyle T = I / I_ (0) = e ^ (- x / \ ell)), where x is equal to the thickness of the slab x = dx.
In kinetic theory the mean free path of a particle, such as a molecule, is the average distance the particle travels between collisions with other moving particles. The formula l = (n σ) − 1 (\ displaystyle \ ell = (n \ sigma) ^ (- 1)) still holds for a particle with a high velocity relative to the velocities of an ensemble of identical particles with random locations. If, on the other hand, the velocities of the identical particles have a Maxwell distribution, the following relationship applies:
and using n = N / V = p / (k B T) (\ displaystyle n = N / V = p / (k_ (\ text (B)) T)) (ideal gas law) and σ = π (2 r) 2 = π d 2 (\ displaystyle \ sigma = \ pi (2r) ^ (2) = \ pi d ^ (2)) (effective cross-sectional area for spherical particles with radius r (\ displaystyle r)), it may be shown that the mean free path is
where k is the Boltzmann constant.
In practice, the diameter of gas molecules is not well defined. In fact, the kinetic diameter of a molecule is defined in terms of the mean free path. Typically, gas molecules do not behave like hard spheres, but rather attract each other at larger distances and repel each other at shorter distances, as can be described with a Lennard - Jones potential. One way to deal with such "soft '' molecules is to use the Lennard - Jones σ parameter as the diameter. Another way is to assume a hard - sphere gas that has the same viscosity as the actual gas being considered. This leads to a mean free path
where m is the molecular mass, and μ is the viscosity.
These different definitions of the molecular diameter can lead to slightly different values of the mean free path.
|
who sang theme tune to casino royale 2006 | You Know My Name (Chris Cornell song) - wikipedia
"You Know My Name '', performed by Soundgarden singer Chris Cornell, is the theme song to the 2006 James Bond film, Casino Royale. Cornell wrote it jointly with David Arnold, the soundtrack 's composer. The film producers chose Cornell because they wanted a strong male singer. Cornell and Arnold tried to make the song a replacement theme for the character instead of the "James Bond theme '' reflecting the agent 's inexperience in Casino Royale, as well as an introduction to Daniel Craig 's grittier and more emotional portrayal of Bond. The single sold 148,000 copies in 2006 in the UK, peaked at number 7 in the UK singles chart, and has sold 323,000 digital copies and 3.5 million streams in the U.S. as of 2017.
The track was leaked onto the Internet on September 20, 2006, and released as a single on November 13, 2006, charting in many countries. Reviews for "You Know My Name '' were positive, and the song won the Satellite Award and the World Soundtrack Award, and was nominated for a Grammy Award. While not included in the Casino Royale soundtrack, "You Know My Name '' appeared on Cornell 's second solo album, Carry On.
Lia Vollack, Sony Pictures 's President of Music, called Chris Cornell inviting him to make a song for the new Bond movie, which would "reflect the dramatic new direction of James Bond '', with a "strong male singer ''. Cornell thought it was a strange offer, considering that he is American, and imagined that he would perform a secondary song in the film instead of the main theme. Cornell declared he liked the Bond movies, particularly the ones with Sean Connery, but that he "was n't really a big fan of the last several movies ''. But Daniel Craig 's casting as James Bond intrigued the musician, and he decided to accept the job. Cornell then went to Prague to visit the film 's shooting, and was much impressed with the film 's emotional content after he was shown a rough cut of Casino Royale. In Prague he also met the score composer, David Arnold, who suggested writing a song "that echoed the film score ''.
The composers started their writing separately, Cornell in his apartment in Paris, and Arnold in his house in London. Cornell stated that he had some difficulties with composing: "It is difficult, I think, to write lyrics for a character, so really I just kind of wandered around for about a month not thinking about it too much, until I sort of formulated some idea of a way that I could approach it, where I 'm kind of relating to what 's in the character in the movie. And because this particular Bond is very edgy, but also has a lot of emotional depth, it 's a lot easier. '' Later the two musicians met and showed each other 's ideas, and according to Arnold "it was almost like we wrote two parts of the same song. '' Cornell wrote lyrics, to which Arnold added some lines and later music. Some of Arnold 's ideas included the song 's title, the heavy introduction, and "having the same genetic material as the Bond theme, but in a different order and in a different shape ''.
After a demo of the song was approved by the film 's producers, both musicians recorded the full version in AIR Studios London. Cornell and Arnold recorded the guitar and bass parts themselves and hired a session musician for the drums. The recordings were finished by the time Casino Royale finished its principal photography on July 21, 2006, and Arnold played it at the wrap party. Afterwards he mixed in the orchestra parts.
Speaking to film music fan site Maintitles, Arnold said he wanted "You Know My Name '' to act as a substitute for the James Bond theme, to represent Bond 's immaturity. The song 's main notes are played throughout the film, and the classic theme only plays during the end credits to signal the end of his character arc. Arnold felt the song should tie closer to the score, and have the "DNA of the James Bond music ''. The musical arrangement tried to create "the right blend of rock aggression and sophisticated instrumentation '', with Cornell describing it as "more uptempo and a little more aggressive than any other Bond theme has been, maybe since Paul McCartney ('s ' Live and Let Die ') ''.
Cornell stated that the biggest two influences on "You Know My Name '' were Tom Jones, who performed the theme for Thunderball, and Paul McCartney, who composed and performed the theme for Live and Let Die. "I decided that I was going to sing it like Tom Jones, in that crooning style. I wanted people to hear my voice, '' Cornell said. "And ' Live and Let Die ' is a fantastic song. Paul McCartney would n't have written it if not for that movie. I (also) wanted to write a song in its own universe. I knew I 'd never have it again -- a big orchestra -- so I wanted to have fun with it. '' Cornell did not put the film 's title in the lyrics, because he "could n't imagine it fitting into a song lyric that would come out of my mouth ''. And he jokingly stated "Casino Royale did n't make a good rock title, but I would write a song named Octopussy just for fun ''.
Before producers Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli announced on July 26, 2006, that Cornell was performing the theme for Casino Royale, various names were reported in the media, some reports going so far as to have the performers apparently claim they were working on the song. This list includes Tina Turner, who previously sang "GoldenEye '' for the 1995 Bond film of the same name, and Tony Christie.
The lyrics try to illustrate Bond 's psyche in Casino Royale, described by Cornell as a conflicted and tough spy with more emotional depth, not the "superconfident, seemingly invincible, winking kinda ladies ' man superspy '' of the previous incarnations. Cornell tried to focus on the existential dilemmas and possible sacrifices of secret agents - "There 's an isolation in that; the stakes are very high. I 've done a lot of living in my 42 years, and it was n't hard for me to relate to that. '' The song also served as an introduction to the character, even though he was featured in many other movies before - hence the title "You Know My Name '' - dealing with Bond 's action such as his first assassination, "introducing himself to what may be the rest of his life and how he will live it and what it will mean. ''
Three versions of the song were produced:
The song was leaked on the internet on September 20, 2006. The first version of the song, the grittier one which was leaked and not used in the movie, was made available for download on iTunes Store on November 13, 2006. This version debuted on the UK Single Download Chart at number 20 on November 22, 2006. It was released as a stand - alone single on December 14, 2006. The single features a new acoustic version of the Soundgarden song "Black Hole Sun '' as a B - side. The German, Dutch and Australian versions of the single offer a second version of "You Know My Name '' (called the Pop Mix) as a B - side. This version is the one used for the song 's music video, and is available on Chris Cornell 's solo album, Carry On.
The song is the first Bond theme not to be included on its film 's soundtrack album. Cornell declared that it happened because he wanted the song to be "his '', and since he wrote "You Know My Name '' in midst of recording the solo album Carry On, he felt that the song belonged to the album. In 2008, the song was included in the compilation The Best of Bond... James Bond.
The song 's music video was directed by Michael Haussman, who tried to compare "the lives of a professional spy and a rock star ''. The video premiered on MTV 's Making the Video on October 31, 2006.
"You Know My Name '' was released in the winter of 2006 and became the most successful song from Chris Cornell on the rock charts and arguably Cornell 's most recognizable and popular song. The song peaked at number 79 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 64 on the Billboard Pop 100 chart. In Europe, "You Know My Name '' charted in several markets and peaked at number 7 in the UK Singles Chart. Chris Cornell won both the Satellite Award and the World Soundtrack Award for "You Know My Name '' in 2007, and garnered a Grammy Award nomination for Best Song Written For Motion Picture, Television Or Other Visual Media the following year. The song also received a first - round nomination in the Best Original Song category for the 2006 Academy Awards, but did not qualify for the final list of nominees.
The song received enthusiastic reviews, with critics praising the song 's ability to fit well with the context of the film. Film reviewer James Berardinelli considered "You Know My Name '' to "sound eerily like something by John Barry ''; DVD Verdict 's review praised the song, describing it as "working remarkably well in the film 's context, lyrically and sonically '', and Cinefantastique called it "the best Bond theme song in years, (that) captures the full - blooded glory of classics like ' Goldfinger ' ''. Entertainment Weekly listed "You Know My Name '' on a list of Academy Award snubs for Best Song, describing it as "a musically suave, lyrically ominous rock tune that is perfect for Casino Royale 's dark reboot of the spy franchise ''. Among music critics, Billboard described it as "the best Bond theme since ' A View to a Kill ' '', praising the minimal production; on its review of Carry On, the magazine considered "You Know My Name '' to be the best track of the album, describing it as "some of Cornell 's most uncomplicated and accessible music to date ''; the BBC 's unnamed reviewer considered that Cornell 's voice "weighs down '' the song;
|
who did jack black play in shark tale | Shark Tale - Wikipedia
Shark Tale is a 2004 American computer - animated comedy film produced by DreamWorks Animation and directed by Vicky Jenson, Bibo Bergeron and Rob Letterman. The first computer - animated film by DreamWorks Animation to be produced at the Glendale studio, the film stars Will Smith, Robert De Niro, Renée Zellweger, Angelina Jolie, Jack Black, and Martin Scorsese. Other voices were provided by Ziggy Marley, Doug E. Doug, Michael Imperioli, Vincent Pastore and Peter Falk. It tells the story of a fish named Oscar (Smith) who falsely claims to have killed the son of a shark mob boss (De Niro) to advance his own community standing.
Shark Tale opened at # 1 with $47.6 million, which was the second - highest opening for a DreamWorks Animation film at the time, behind Shrek 2 ($108 million). It remained as the # 1 film in the U.S. and Canada for its second and third weekends, and made $367 million worldwide against its $75 million budget. It was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.
In Reef City, an underachieving bluestreak cleaner wrasse named Oscar fantasizes about being rich and famous. Soon after arriving for work at the Whale Wash, he is called to the office of his boss, a pufferfish named Sykes, to discuss the fact that he owes a large sum of money and must pay it back by the next day. His angelfish best friend Angie offers him a pink pearl that was a gift from her grandmother to pawn and pay his debt. Oscar brings the money to the race track to meet Sykes, but hears that the race is rigged and bets it all on a horse named "Lucky Day ''. Sykes is furious that Oscar bet the money but agrees to see how the race turns out. Moments before Lucky Day crosses the finish line, he trips and loses.
Meanwhile, a family of criminally - inclined great white sharks has a problem with one of their sons, Lenny, who is a vegetarian and refuses to act the part of a killer. His crime lord father, Don Edward Lino, orders Lenny 's more savage older brother Frankie to tutor Lenny in the family business. Frankie sees Oscar being electrocuted by Sykes ' two jellyfish enforcers Ernie and Bernie and charges at Oscar. However, Frankie is killed when an anchor falls on him. Lenny flees, overcome with grief and guilt. As there were no other witnesses and Oscar was seen near the body, everyone comes to believe that he killed Frankie, an opportunity that Oscar decides to exploit for fame.
Oscar returns to the city with a new title of "Sharkslayer ''. Sykes becomes his manager and Oscar moves to the "top of the reef '' to live in luxury. At the same time, Don Lino has everyone search for Lenny. When several sharks approach Oscar 's neighborhood, his neighbors expect him to drive them away so he goes and runs into Lenny. Since he does not wish to return home, Lenny begs Oscar to let him stay at Oscar 's house. Soon, Angie finds out about the lie and threatens to tell everyone. Oscar and Lenny stage an event in which Lenny pretends to terrorize the town and Oscar defeats him. Though this further cements Oscar 's reputation, it greatly angers Don Lino.
Oscar buys some Valentine 's Day gifts for Angie, but before he can present them to her, he finds that Don Lino has kidnapped Angie to force a sit - down. Lenny attends disguised as a dolphin named Sebastian. Don Lino threatens to eat Angie if Oscar does not comply. Lenny grabs Angie into his mouth, but later regurgitates her. When Don Lino realizes that "Sebastian '' is really Lenny, he chases Oscar through the reef. Oscar heads for the Whale Wash and ends up trapping both sharks. He is given an ovation by the other fish, but Oscar confesses that he is not a "Sharkslayer '' and reveals the truth behind Frankie 's death. He then tells Don Lino that everyone likes Lenny for who he is and urges him not to prejudge people before he knows them properly. Realizing that Oscar is right, Don Lino makes peace with him and Lenny, stating that he and his gang bear him no ill will. Oscar forsakes all the wealth he has acquired, makes peace with the sharks, becomes co-manager of the Whale Wash (now frequented by sharks, killer whales, and swordfish), and starts dating Angie.
The film was originally developed under the title of Sharkslayer. By September 2003, however, it had been retitled Shark Tale, to make the title sound less violent and more family friendly. Bill Damaschke, the producer of the film, explained the change of the title: "We set out to make a movie a little more noir, perhaps a little darker than where we 've landed. '' In April 2002, production officially began.
The film was produced concurrently with Finding Nemo, another animated film set underwater, which was released a year and a half before Shark Tale. DreamWorks Animation 's CEO, Jeffrey Katzenberg, defended the film, saying that "any similarities are mere coincidence. We 've been open with the Pixar people so we do n't step on each other 's toes. ''
Shark Tale was originally scheduled to be released on November 5, 2004, but was pushed back to October 1 in order to avoid competition with Disney / Pixar 's The Incredibles. The film had its worldwide premiere on September 10, 2004 in Piazza San Marco in Venice, Italy. Screening as part of the Venice Film Festival, it marked the first time that Piazza San Marco was closed for a premiere of a major feature film. The film was projected on the largest inflatable screen in the world, measuring more than six stories tall and over 3,900 square feet (360 m). It required 20,000 cubic feet (570 m) of air to inflate and more than 50 tons of water for stabilization. The premiere was attended by 6,000 visitors, including Will Smith, Angelina Jolie, Robert De Niro, and Michael Imperioli. Jeffrey Katzenberg, the executive producer of the film, explained that they "wanted to find a unique way to introduce this movie to the world. We needed a big idea.... More than anything, we are in showbusiness. This is the show part. ''
Shark Tale opened at # 1 with $47.6 million, which was, at the time, the second - highest opening for a DreamWorks Animation film behind Shrek 2 ($108 million). It remained as the # 1 film in the U.S. and Canada for its second and third weekends.
Overall, the movie grossed $160,861,908 in North America and $206,413,111 internationally, bringing its worldwide total to $367,275,019.
The film received a 35 % "Rotten '' rating at the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, with the consensus: "Derivative and full of pop culture in - jokes. '' On another review aggregator, Metacritic, the film holds a 48 out of 100 rating or "mixed or average reviews. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A - '' on an A+ to F scale.
John Mancini, the founder of the Italic Institute of America, protested Shark Tale for perpetuating negative stereotypes of Italian - Americans. DreamWorks reacted by changing the name of Peter Falk 's character from Don Brizzi to Don Feinberg. However, Mancini demanded that everything Italian -- character names, the mannerisms, the forms of speech -- be dropped. The American Family Association, a Christian conservative organization, raised concerns about Shark Tale, suggesting that it was designed to promote the acceptance of gay rights by children.
Roger Ebert gave Shark Tale two out of four stars, observing, "Since the target audience for Shark Tale is presumably kids and younger teenagers, how many of them have seen the R - rated Godfather and will get all the inside jokes? Not a few, I suppose, and some of its characters and dialogue have passed into common knowledge. But it 's strange that a kid - oriented film would be based on parody of a 1972 gangster movie for adults. '' He also opined that younger viewers would have trouble enjoying a film about adult characters with adult problems, such as an elaborate love triangle and a main character wanting to clear his debt with loan sharks, and compared it to more successful fish - focused animated features like Pixar Animation Studios ' Finding Nemo, which Ebert felt featured a simpler plot that audiences could more easily identify with. However, Richard Roeper commented that although the film was n't on the same level as Finding Nemo, it was definitely a film worth seeing.
Shark Tale was released on DVD and VHS on February 8, 2005, accompanied with a DVD - exclusive animated short film Club Oscar. The three - and - a-half - minute short film continues where the main film ends, showing the characters of Shark Tale dancing at the whale wash to a spoof of Saturday Night Fever. It was also released on Game Boy Advance Video in October 2005.
Shark Tale: Motion Picture Soundtrack was released on September 21, 2004. The soundtrack features newly recorded music by various artists, including Justin Timberlake with Timbaland, Christina Aguilera, JoJo, Ludacris, Mary J. Blige, and Will Smith, and also features the first song recorded by pop group The Pussycat Dolls as well as the film 's closing theme composed by Hans Zimmer.
Janet Jackson and Beyoncé initially planned to record a duet for the film 's soundtrack. Jackson 's frequent collaborator Jimmy Jam, who had recently worked with Beyoncé for The Fighting Temptations soundtrack, commented "Obviously we 'd love to have the involvement of Janet and Beyonce, who we just worked with on Fighting Temptations. They 've already expressed interest '', adding "There are a lot of opportunities with an animated piece to work with some different people. '' Jeffrey Katzenberg, CEO of DreamWorks ' Animations, had appointed Jackson 's producers Jam & Lewis to be involved with the soundtrack, though the duo only ended up producing only one song for the film, with Jam saying "We worked for DreamWorks before on the Bryan Adams song for Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron and the Boyz II Men tune for The Prince of Egypt, and Katzenberg is a fan of what we do. He thought we would be perfect to do the music for Shark Tale. ''
In April 2011, Jeffrey Katzenberg commented that the studio did not have plans to produce future movie genre parodies, like Shark Tale, Monsters vs. Aliens, and Megamind, saying that these films "all shared an approach and tone and idea of parody, and did not travel well internationally. We do n't have anything like that coming on our schedule now. ''
A video game based on the film was released on September 29, 2004 for Microsoft Windows, Xbox, GameCube, PlayStation 2, and Game Boy Advance. Published by Activision, Edge of Reality developed the console versions of the game, while Vicarious Visions developed the Game Boy Advance version, and Amaze Entertainment developed the PC version. The cast from the film did not reprise their roles in the game.
|
where was the first special economic zone set of in asia | Special economic zones of China - wikipedia
Special economic zones of China (SEZs) are special economic zones located in mainland China. The government of China gives SEZs special (more free market - oriented) economic policies and flexible governmental measures. This allows SEZs to utilize an economic management system that is more attractive for foreign and domestic firms to do business in than the rest of mainland China. In SEZs, "... foreign and domestic trade and investment are conducted without the authorization of the Chinese central government in Beijing. '' SEZs offer "tax and business incentives to attract foreign investment and technology ''.
In the late 1970s, and especially at the 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China in December 1978, the Chinese government initiated its policy of reform and opening up. Officials in Guangdong led by Provincial Party Secretary Xi Zhongxun seized the initiative, starting with an investment project in Shekou prepared by Yuan Geng on behalf of the Hong Kong - based China Merchants Steam Navigation Company. This project, initially a ship breaking facility, was approved by Li Xiannian on January 31, 1979. In April 1979, Xi Zhongxun and other Guangdong officials presented in Beijing a proposal to give broader flexibility to the coastal provinces of Guangdong and Fujian to attract foreign investment, with additional exemptions in four locations, namely Shenzhen, Zhuhai and Shantou in Guangdong and Xiamen in Fujian. For these, Deng Xiaoping coined the name "special zones '' with reference to the designation of another border region during China 's Civil War. The proposal was approved on July 15 and the four special zones were officially established on August 26, 1979.
In 1984, China further opened 14 coastal cities to overseas investment: Dalian, Qinhuangdao, Tianjin, Yantai, Qingdao, Lianyungang, Nantong, Shanghai, Ningbo, Wenzhou, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Zhanjiang and Beihai. Since 1988, mainland China 's opening to the outside world has been extended to its border areas, areas along the Yangtze River and inland areas. First, the state decided to turn Hainan Island into mainland China 's biggest special economic zone (approved by the 1st session of the 7th NPC in 1988) and to enlarge the other four special economic zones.
Shortly afterwards, the State Council expanded the open coastal areas, extending into an open coastal belt the open economic zones of the Yangtze River Delta, Pearl River Delta, Xiamen - Zhangzhou - Quanzhou Triangle in south Fujian, Shandong Peninsula, Liaodong Peninsula (Liaoning Province), Hebei and Guangxi. In June 1990, the Chinese government opened the Pudong New Area in Shanghai to overseas investment, and additional cities along the Yangtze River valley, with Shanghai 's Pudong New Area as its "dragon head. ''
Since 1992, the State Council has opened a number of border cities, and in addition, opened all the capital cities of inland provinces and autonomous regions. In addition, 15 free trade zones, 32 state - level economic and technological development zones, and 53 new and high - tech industrial development zones have been established in large and medium - sized cities. As these open areas adopt different preferential policies, they play the dual roles of "windows '' in developing the foreign - oriented economy, generating foreign exchanges through exporting products and importing advanced technologies and of "radiators '' in accelerating inland economic development.
Primarily geared to exporting processed goods, the five SEZs are foreign trade - oriented areas which integrate science, innovation and industry with trade. Foreign firms benefit from preferential policies such as lower tax rates, reduced regulations and special managerial systems. In 1999, Shenzhen 's new - and high - tech industry reached an output value of high - tech products of 81.98 billion yuan, making up 40.5 % of the city 's total industrial output value.
Since its founding in 1992, the Shanghai Pudong New Zone has made progress in both absorbing foreign capital and accelerating the economic development of the Yangtze River valley. The government has extended special preferential policies to the Pudong New Zone that are not yet enjoyed by the special economic zones. For instance, in addition to the preferential policies of reducing or eliminating Customs duties and income tax common to the economic and technological development zones, the state also permits the zone to allow foreign business people to open financial institutions and run tertiary industries. In addition, the state has given Shanghai permission to set up a stock exchange, expand its examination and approval authority over investments and allow foreign - funded banks to engage in RMB business. In 1999, the GDP of the Pudong New Zone came to 80 billion yuan, and the total industrial output value, 145 billion yuan.
In May 2010, the PRC designated the city of Kashgar in Xinjiang a SEZ. Kashgar 's annual growth rate was 17.4 percent from 2009, and Kashgar 's designation has since increased tourism and real estate prices in the city. Kashgar is close to China 's border with the independent states of former Soviet Central Asia and the SEZ seeks to capitalize on international trade links between China and those states.
As part of its economic reforms and policy of opening to the world, between 1980 and 1984 China established special economic zones (SEZs) in Shantou, Shenzhen, and Zhuhai in Guangdong Province and Xiamen in Fujian Province and designated the entire island province of Hainan a special economic zone.
In 1984, China opened 14 other coastal cities to overseas investment (listed north to south): Dalian, Qinhuangdao, Tianjin, Yantai, Qingdao, Lianyungang, Nantong, Shanghai, Ningbo, Wenzhou, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Zhanjiang, and Beihai.
Then, beginning in 1985, the central government expanded the coastal area by establishing the following open economic zones (listed north to south): Liaodong Peninsula, Hebei Province (which surrounds Beijing and Tianjin), Shandong Peninsula, Yangtze River Delta, Xiamen - Zhangzhou - Quanzhou Triangle in southern Fujian Province, Pearl River Delta, and Guangxi.
In 1990, the Chinese government decided to open the Pudong New Zone in Shanghai to overseas investment, as well as more cities in the Yang Zi River Valley.
Since 1992, the State Council has opened a number of border cities and all the capital cities of inland provinces and autonomous regions.
In addition, 15 free - trade zones, 32 state - level economic and technological development zones, and 53 new and high - tech industrial development zones have been established in large and medium - sized cities. As a result, a multilevel diversified pattern of opening and integrating coastal areas with river, border, and inland areas has been formed in China.
SEZs are listed separately in the national planning (including financial planning) and have province - level authority on economic administration. SEZs local congress and government have legislation authority.
Leong (2012) investigates the role of special economic zones (SEZs) in liberalizing the Chinese and Indian economies and their impact on economic growth. The policy change to a more liberalized economy is identified using SEZ variables as instrumental variables. The results indicate that export and FDI growth have positive and statistically significant effects on economic growth in these countries. The presence of SEZs increases regional growth but increasing the number of SEZs has negligible effect on growth. The key to faster economic growth appears to be a greater pace of liberalization.
|
the what is the extreme point on half of a hyperbola | Saddle point - wikipedia
In mathematics, a saddle point or minimax point is a point on the surface of the graph of a function where the slopes (derivatives) of orthogonal function components defining the surface become zero (a stationary point) but are not a local extremum on both axes. The saddle point will always occur at a relative minimum along one axial direction (between peaks) and at a relative maximum along the crossing axis.
The name derives from the fact that the prototypical example in two dimensions is a surface that curves up in one direction, and curves down in a different direction, resembling a riding saddle or a mountain pass between two peaks forming a landform saddle. In terms of contour lines, a saddle point in two dimensions gives rise to a contour graph or trace that appears to intersect itself -- such conceptually might form a ' figure eight ' around both peaks; assuming the contour graph is at the very ' specific altitude ' of the saddle point in three dimensions.
A simple criterion for checking if a given stationary point of a real - valued function F (x, y) of two real variables is a saddle point is to compute the function 's Hessian matrix at that point: if the Hessian is indefinite, then that point is a saddle point. For example, the Hessian matrix of the function z = x 2 − y 2 (\ displaystyle z = x ^ (2) - y ^ (2)) at the stationary point (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0) (\ displaystyle (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0)) is the matrix
which is indefinite. Therefore, this point is a saddle point. This criterion gives only a sufficient condition. For example, the point (0, 0, 0) (\ displaystyle (0, 0, 0)) is a saddle point for the function z = x 4 − y 4, (\ displaystyle z = x ^ (4) - y ^ (4),) but the Hessian matrix of this function at the origin is the null matrix, which is not indefinite.
In the most general terms, a saddle point for a smooth function (whose graph is a curve, surface or hypersurface) is a stationary point such that the curve / surface / etc. in the neighborhood of that point is not entirely on any side of the tangent space at that point.
In a domain of one dimension, a saddle point is a point which is both a stationary point and a point of inflection. Since it is a point of inflection, it is not a local extremum.
A saddle surface is a smooth surface containing one or more saddle points.
Classical examples of two - dimensional saddle surfaces in the Euclidean space are second order surfaces, the hyperbolic paraboloid z = x 2 − y 2 (\ displaystyle z = x ^ (2) - y ^ (2)) (which is often referred to as "the saddle surface '' or "the standard saddle surface '') and the hyperboloid of one sheet. The Pringles potato chip or crisp is an everyday example of a hyperbolic paraboloid shape.
Saddle surfaces have negative Gaussian curvature which distinguish them from convex / elliptical surfaces which have positive Gaussian curvature. A classical third - order saddle surface is the monkey saddle.
In a two - player zero sum game defined on a continuous space, the equilibrium point is a saddle point.
For a second - order linear autonomous system, a critical point is a saddle point if the characteristic equation has one positive and one negative real eigenvalue.
In optimization subject to equality constraints, the first - order conditions describe a saddle point of the Lagrangian.
In dynamical systems, if the dynamic is given by a differentiable map f then a point is hyperbolic if and only if the differential of ƒ (where n is the period of the point) has no eigenvalue on the (complex) unit circle when computed at the point. Then a saddle point is a hyperbolic periodic point whose stable and unstable manifolds have a dimension that is not zero.
A saddle point of a matrix is an element which is both the largest element in its column and the smallest element in its row.
|
when was new hampshire made a seperate colony | History of New Hampshire - wikipedia
New Hampshire is a state located in the New England region of the northeastern United States. New Hampshire was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution.
The colony that became the state of New Hampshire was founded on the division in 1629 of a land grant given in 1622 by the Council for New England to Captain John Mason (former governor of Newfoundland) and Sir Ferdinando Gorges (who founded Maine). The colony was named New Hampshire by Mason after the English county of Hampshire, one of the first Saxon shires. Hampshire was itself named after the port of Southampton, which was known previously as simply "Hampton ''.
New Hampshire was first settled by Europeans at Odiorne 's Point in Rye (near Portsmouth) by a group of fishermen from England under David Thompson in 1623, just three years after the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth. Early historians believed the first native - born New Hampshirite, John Thompson, was born there.
Fisherman David Thompson had been sent by Mason, to be followed a few years later by Edward and William Hilton. They led an expedition to the vicinity of Dover, which they called Northam. Mason died in 1635 without ever seeing the colony he founded. Settlers from Pannaway, moving to the Portsmouth region later and combining with an expedition of the new Laconia Company (formed 1629) under Captain Neal, called their new settlement Strawbery Banke. In 1638 Exeter was founded by John Wheelwright.
In 1631, Captain Thomas Wiggin served as the first governor of the Upper Plantation (comprising modern - day Dover, Durham and Stratham). All the towns agreed to unite in 1639, but meanwhile Massachusetts had claimed the territory. In 1641 an agreement was reached with Massachusetts to come under its jurisdiction. Home rule of the towns was allowed. In 1653 Strawbery Banke petitioned the General Court of Massachusetts to change its name to Portsmouth, which was granted.
The relationship between Massachusetts and the independent New Hampshirites was controversial and tenuous, and complicated by land claims maintained by the heirs of John Mason. In 1679 King Charles II separated New Hampshire from Massachusetts, issuing a charter for the royal Province of New Hampshire, with John Cutt as governor. New Hampshire was absorbed into the Dominion of New England in 1686, which collapsed in 1689. After a brief period without formal government (the settlements were de facto ruled by Massachusetts) William III and Mary II issued a new provincial charter in 1691. From 1699 to 1741 the governors of Massachusetts were also commissioned as governors of New Hampshire.
The province 's geography placed it on the frontier between British and French colonies in North America, and it was for many years subjected to native claims, especially in the central and northern portions of its territory. Because of these factors it was on the front lines of many military conflicts, including King William 's War, Queen Anne 's War, Father Rale 's War, and King George 's War. By the 1740s most of the native population had either been killed or driven out of the province 's territory.
Because New Hampshire 's governorship was shared with that of Massachusetts, border issues between the two colonies were not properly adjudicated for many years. These issues principally revolved around territory west of the Merrimack River, which issuers of the Massachusetts and New Hampshire charters had incorrectly believed to flow primarily from west to east. In the 1730s New Hampshire political interest led by Lieutenant Governor John Wentworth were able to raise the profile of these issues to colonial officials and the crown in London, even while Governor and Massachusetts native Jonathan Belcher preferentially granted land to Massachusetts interests in the disputed area. In 1741 King George II ruled that the border with Massachusetts was approximately what it is today, and also separated the governorships of the two provinces. Benning Wentworth in 1741 became the first non-Massachusetts governor since Edward Cranfield succeeded John Cutt in the 1680s.
Wentworth promptly complicated New Hampshire 's territorial claims by interpreting the provincial charter to include territory west of the Connecticut River, and began issuing land grants in this territory, which was also claimed by the Province of New York. The so - called New Hampshire Grants area became a subject of contention from the 1740s until the 1790s, when it was admitted to the United States as the state of Vermont.
New Hampshire was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted with the British rule in the American Revolution. In January 1776, it became the first colony to set up an independent government and the first to establish a constitution, but the latter explicitly stated "we never sought to throw off our dependence on Great Britain '', meaning that it was not the first to actually declare its independence (that distinction instead belongs to Rhode Island). The historic attack on Fort William and Mary (now Fort Constitution) helped supply the cannon and ammunition for the Continental Army that was needed for the Battle of Bunker Hill that took place north of Boston a few months later. New Hampshire raised three regiments for the Continental Army, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd New Hampshire regiments. New Hampshire Militia units were called up to fight at the Battle of Bunker Hill, Battle of Bennington, Saratoga Campaign and the Battle of Rhode Island. John Paul Jones ' ship the Sloop - of - war USS Ranger and the frigate USS Raleigh were built in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, along with other naval ships for the Continental Navy and privateers to hunt down British merchant shipping.
Concord was named the state capital in 1808.
In the 1830s, New Hampshire saw a major news story: the founding of the Republic of Indian Stream on its northern border with Canada over the unresolved post-revolutionary war border issue.
Abolitionists from Dartmouth College founded the experimental, interracial Noyes Academy in Canaan, New Hampshire in 1835. Rural opponents of the school eventually dragged the school away with oxen before lighting it ablaze to protest integrated education, within months of the school 's founding.
Abolitionist sentiment was a strong undercurrent in the state, with significant support given the Free Soil Party of John P. Hale. However the conservative Jacksonian Democrats usually maintained control, under the leadership of editor Isaac Hill. In 1856 the new Republican Party headed by Amos Tuck produced a political revolution.
After Abraham Lincoln gave speeches in March 1860, he was well regarded. However, the radical wing of the Republican Party increasingly took control. As early as January 1861, top officials were secretly meeting with Governor John A. Andrew of Massachusetts to coordinate plans in case the war came. Plans were made to rush militia units to Washington in an emergency.
New Hampshire fielded 31,650 enlisted men and 836 officers during the American Civil War; of these, 1,803 enlisted men and 131 officers were killed or wounded. The state provided eighteen volunteer infantry regiments (thirteen of which were raised in 1861 in response to Lincoln 's call to arms), three rifle regiments (who served in the 1st United States Sharpshooters and 2nd United States Sharpshooters), one cavalry battalion (the 1st New Hampshire Volunteer Cavalry, which was attached to the 1st New England Volunteer Cavalry), and two artillery units (the 1st New Hampshire Light Battery and 1st New Hampshire Heavy Artillery), as well as additional men for the Navy and Marine Corps.
Among the most celebrated of New Hampshire 's units was the 5th New Hampshire Volunteer Infantry, commanded by Colonel Edward Ephraim Cross. Called the "Fighting Fifth '' in newspaper accounts, the regiment was considered among the Union 's best both during the war (Major General Winfield Scott called the regiment "refined gold '' in 1863) and by historians afterward. The Civil War veteran and early Civil War historian William F. Fox determined that this regiment had the highest number of battle - related deaths of any Union regiment. The 20th - century historian Bruce Catton said that the Fifth New Hampshire was "one of the best combat units in the army '' and that Cross was "an uncommonly talented regimental commander. ''
The critical post of state Adjutant General was held in 1861 - 64 by elderly politician Anthony C. Colby (1792 - 1873) and his son Daniel E. Colby (1816 - 1891). They were patriotic, but were overwhelmed with the complexity of their duties. The state had no track of men who enlisted after 1861; no personnel records or information on volunteers, substitutes, or draftees. There was no inventory of weaponry and supplies. Nathaniel Head (1828 - 1883) took over in 1864, obtained an adequate budget and office staff, and reconstructed the missing paperwork. As a result, widows, orphans, and disabled veterans received the postwar payments they had earned.
Between 1884 and 1903, New Hampshire attracted many immigrants. French Canadian migration to the state was significant, and at the turn of the century, French Canadians represented 16 percent of the state 's population, and one - fourth the population of Manchester. Polish immigration to the state was also significant; there were about 850 Polish Americans in Manchester in 1902.
The textile industry was hit hard by the depression and growing competition from southern mills. The closing of the Amoskeag Mills in 1935 was a major blow to Manchester, as was the closing of the former Nashua Manufacturing Company mill in Nashua in 1949 and the bankruptcy of the Brown Company paper mill in Berlin in the 1940s, which led to new ownership.
The post-World War II decades have seen New Hampshire increase its economic and cultural links with the greater Boston, Massachusetts, region. This reflects a national trend, in which improved highway networks have helped metropolitan areas expand into formerly rural areas or small nearby cities.
The replacement of the Nashua textile mill with defense electronics contractor Sanders Associates in 1952 and the arrival of minicomputer giant Digital Equipment Corporation in the early 1970s helped lead the way toward southern New Hampshire 's role as a high - tech adjunct of the Route 128 corridor.
The postwar years saw the rise of New Hampshire 's political primary for President of the United States, which as the first primary in the quadrennial campaign season draws enormous attention.
|
where are bed bath and beyond products made | Bed Bath & Beyond - wikipedia
$ 12.215 billion (FY 2016)
Bed Bath & Beyond Inc. is an American - owned chain of domestic merchandise retail stores in the United States, Puerto Rico, Canada and Mexico. Formed in 1971, the stores sell goods primarily for the bedroom and bathroom, as well as kitchen and dining room. The company is included in the S&P 400 and Global 1200 Indices. It is also counted among the Fortune 500 and the Forbes Global 2000 as well.
In 1971, Warren Eisenberg and Leonard Feinstein opened a store in Springfield, New Jersey called Bed ' n Bath. By 1985, Eisenberg and Feinstein were operating 17 stores in the New York metropolitan area and California. Also in 1985, the first superstore was opened, as an attempt to remain competitive with Linens ' n Things, Pacific Linen, and Luxury Linens. In order to properly represent the size increase in its retail stores, the company changed its name to Bed Bath & Beyond.
Bed Bath and Beyond has few major retail competitors Walmart, Target, JCPenney and some mid-sized players like Pier 1 Imports. Companies such as Crate & Barrel, IKEA, and the numerous Williams - Sonoma companies like Pottery Barn and West Elm are competitors as well.
There is a New Zealand chain with the name "Bed Bath & Beyond '', which has no corporate connection with the American company.
|
what book is the first season of jack ryan based on | Jack Ryan (TV series) - Wikipedia
Tom Clancy 's Jack Ryan, or simply Jack Ryan, is an American action political thriller web television series, based on characters from the fictional "Ryanverse '' created by Tom Clancy, that premiered on August 31, 2018 on Amazon Video. The series was created by Carlton Cuse and Graham Roland. Cuse serves as an executive producer alongside John Krasinski, Michael Bay and Mace Neufeld, among others. Krasinski also stars in the series as the titular character, making him the fifth actor to portray the character after Alec Baldwin, Harrison Ford, Ben Affleck and Chris Pine from the film series. In April 2018, it was announced that Amazon had renewed the series for a second season.
The first season follows the titular CIA analyst as he is wrenched from the security of his desk job into the field after discovering a string of dubious bank transfers, which are being carried out by a rising Islamic terrorist named Suleiman.
The upcoming second season has been described as following Ryan as he confronts "the forces in power in a dangerous, declining democratic regime in South America. ''
On September 22, 2015, it was announced that Carlton Cuse and Graham Roland were developing a television series adaptation of Tom Clancy 's Jack Ryan series of novels. The potential series was described as "a new contemporary take on the character using the novels as source material ''. Production companies involved with the project were slated to include Paramount Television, Platinum Dunes and Skydance Media. A week later, following a bidding war among multiple television networks, it was announced that streaming service Amazon Video had purchased the rights to the series.
Amazon proceeded to put the production into development during which time they ordered three scripts written by Cuse and Roland. On August 16, 2016, it was announced that the production had been given a straight - to - series order for a first season consisting of ten episodes.
In January 2017, it was announced that Morten Tyldum would direct the pilot and that Daniel Sackheim would direct multiple episodes and produce the series.
On April 24, 2018, it was reported that Amazon had renewed the series. The second season will be set in South America, where Ryan takes on "a dangerous, declining democratic regime. '' On May 14, 2018, it was reported that Richard Rutkowski had served as cinematographer for the pilot and that Checco Varese had acted in the role for the following seven episodes of season one. On August 14, 2018, it was announced that Phil Abraham was joining the series as an executive producer and would direct the first two episodes of the second season. On September 4, 2018, it was reported that Dennie Gordon would direct three episodes of season two and serve as an executive producer.
On April 29, 2016, it was announced that John Krasinski had been cast in the series ' title role. On November 3, 2016, it was reported that Abbie Cornish had been cast as Ryan 's fiancee Cathy Mueller. On December 16, 2016, it was announced that Wendell Pierce, Ali Suliman, and Dina Shihabi had been cast in series regular roles. In March 2017, it was announced that Peter Fonda, Mena Massoud, Timothy Hutton, and Al Sapienza had been cast in recurring roles. On June 5, 2017, it was reported that Amir El - Masry had joined the series in a supporting role.
Alongside the announcement of the series ' renewal, it was confirmed that Krasinski and Pierce would return for the second season. On May 4, 2018, it was reported John Hoogenakker had been promoted to a series regular for season two after previously appearing in season one in a recurring capacity. On July 20, 2018, it was announced during Amazon 's San Diego Comic - Con panel that Noomi Rapace had joined the main cast for season two. In August 2018, it was announced that Michael Kelly, Jovan Adepo, Jordi Molla, Cristina Umaña, and Francisco Denis had joined the cast of season two as series regulars. On September 25, 2018, it was reported that Tom Wlaschiha had been cast in a recurring role for season two.
Jack Ryan was filmed in multiple locations. On May 10, 2017, Krasinski was spotted filming his scenes in Washington, D.C. For the next several days the TV series was also shot in Maryland, Virginia, Quebec, and Morocco. Production for season two is set to begin in the summer of 2018 in Europe, South America, and the United States.
During September 2017, a series of promotional teasers were uploaded across the TV series 's official social media accounts, culminating with the final teaser showing first footage of John Krasinski as Jack Ryan which was released on October 3, 2017. On October 7, 2017, the series made its debut at the New York Comic Con coinciding with the release of a new teaser trailer. Krasinski, Cornish and creators Cuse and Roland attended the NYCC panel, where they also debuted the first seven minutes of the pilot episode.
On January 30, 2018, the Super Bowl trailer for the series was released online, five days before the football event and marking the first time that Prime Video has released a Super Bowl ad for one of its original shows. In a statement, Amazon Studios ' head of marketing Mike Benson said, "Given the colossal scope and scale of the series coupled with the popularity of Tom Clancy 's novels, we knew Tom Clancy 's Jack Ryan would be a natural fit for Prime Video 's first Super Bowl ad. The global nature of the audience provides us with a unique opportunity to give viewers a look at this thrilling new series coming to Prime. '' It also announced the show 's release date for August 31. On June 11, 2018, the official trailer for the series was released. On July 4, 2018, a trailer entitled "Presidents '', featuring quotes from U.S. Presidents Bill Clinton, Donald Trump, and John F. Kennedy, was released in tandem with U.S. Independence Day.
On June 16, 2018, the series held its world premiere at the 58th Annual Monte - Carlo Television Festival at the Grimaldi Forum in Monte Carlo, Monaco. The event included a screening of the series ' pilot episode that was attended by cast members John Krasinski, Dina Shihabi and Wendell Pierce, alongside series creators, showrunners and executive producers Carlton Cuse and Graham Roland.
The series has been met with a positive critical response upon its premiere. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 74 % with an average rating of 6.22 out of 10, based on 73 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Though not as thematically rich as some of its geopolitical predecessors, Jack Ryan is a satisfying addition to the genre buoyed by exceptional action sequences and a likable cast. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the series a score of 66 out of 100 based on 28 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
In a positive review, RogerEbert.com 's Nick Allen praised the series saying, "Expertly plotted by creators Carlton Cuse and Graham Roland, Tom Clancy 's Jack Ryan is all the more impactful for its restraint and scope, offering excellent character - based drama that 's concerned with much more than just its namesake. '' Similarly favorable, The Gazette 's Terry Terrones awarded the series a grade of "A − '' and directed specific approval towards Krasinski 's performance saying, "This version of Jack Ryan is relatable, but also admirable because the actor portraying him can balance so many aspects of the character with ease. Krasinski plays him so naturally I could n't tell where he ended and Ryan began. '' In another enthusiastic appraisal, Rolling Stone 's Alan Sepinwall accorded the series three and a half stars out of five and complimented it saying, "Like Jack Ryan himself, the Amazon show is smart and confident and thorough. That 's enough to get the job done. ''
In a more mixed assessment, TVLine 's Dave Nemetz gave the series a grade of "C + '' and offered the series restrained commendation saying, "Amazon 's awkwardly titled Tom Clancy 's Jack Ryan is at its best when things are exploding, delivering a number of impressively high - octane action sequences on a scale rarely seen on television. The rest of the series, though, is disappointingly mediocre... and its choice of leading man may be a major stumbling block. '' In a negative critique, Vanity Fair 's Sonia Saraiya chastised the show saying "Tom Clancy 's Jack Ryan is hysterical. Hysterical as in histrionic; hysterical as in somehow funny; hysterical as in you wish its team had worked harder to take the temperature of the world around us before sending this highly charged and obscenely blinkered James Bond manqué into the world. '' Equally dismissive, Paste 's Amy Amatangelo criticized the series saying, "But more often than not, the show plods along with no real sense of urgency. I often had to restrain myself from scrolling through my phone. I was that bored while I was watching. Those indoctrinated into the Jack Ryan canon via the books or the movies will find the eight - episode series is faithful to the spirit of all that preceded it. I 'm just not sure we needed it at all. ''
The series has been criticized for a scene in the episode "Black 22 '' that features the use of a transphobic slur and, as alleged by LGBT activist Eliel Cruz, treats a major cause of violence against trans women as "a throwaway joke. '' Similarly, the series has also received criticism in French publications for its depiction of the country, specifically in the episodes "French Connection '' and "Black 22 '', where various scenes have been condemned. Stéphanie Guerrin of Le Parisien expressed her concern for the dialogue spoken by and about the French saying, "This series of dangerously caricatural comments leaves one wondering. '' Le Point 's Bastien Haugel specifically took grievance, in an otherwise positive review, with the portrayal of a French policeman who espoused anti-Muslim views calling it a "dangerously caricatural ''.
|
who went home on masterchef september 5 2018 | MasterChef (U.S. season 9) - wikipedia
Season 9 of the American competitive reality TV series MasterChef premiered on Fox on May 30, 2018.
Gordon Ramsay and Aarón Sanchez return from last season as judges, while former judge Joe Bastianich returns to the show as the third judge, replacing Christina Tosi. This season introduced a new format to the show, as the three judges each selected eight contestants to give aprons to, and then the judges mentor their respective contestants throughout the competition.
Gerron Hurt was announced the winner, with Ashley Mincey and Cesar Cano as co-runners - up.
Except where noted, source for all names, hometowns, and occupations: All ages and nicknames as given on air.
|
where did the supreme box logo come from | Supreme (brand) - Wikipedia
11
Supreme is an American skateboarding shop and clothing brand established in New York City in April 1994. The brand caters to the skateboarding, hip hop, and rock cultures, as well as to the youth culture in general. The brand produces clothes and accessories and also manufactures skateboards. Its shoes, clothing, and accessories are sold extensively in the secondary market.
The distinctive red box logo with "Supreme '' in white Futura Heavy Oblique is largely based on Barbara Kruger 's propaganda art.
The brand was founded by James Jebbia. Although he was born in the United States, he lived in England until he was 19. The first Supreme store opened on Lafayette Street in downtown Manhattan in April of 1994. It was designed with skaters in mind with a unique design for the store layout: by arranging the clothes around the perimeter of the store, a large central space permitted skaters with backpacks to skate into the store and still feel comfortable. In 2004, a second location was opened on North Fairfax Ave in Los Angeles, California, which is nearly double the size of the original New York City store and features an indoor skate bowl. Other locations include Paris Opening in March 2016, London Opening in September 2011, Tokyo (Harajuku, Daikanyama and Shibuya), Nagoya, Osaka, and Fukuoka. The additional locations emulate the original Lafayette Street store 's design. Supreme stocks its own clothing label and Vans, Nike SB, Spitfire, Thrasher and Girl Distribution Company.
On October 5, 2017, Supreme opened their 11th store, the second one in New York City. On October 6, 2017, Supreme founder Jebbia confirmed that the label had sold a significant stake in the company of roughly 50 % (around $500 million) to private equity firm The Carlyle Group.
Supreme has a line of collaborations with brands such as Nike / Air Jordan, Vans, Clarks, The North Face, Hanes, Playboy, Levi 's, Timberland, Comme des Garçons, and Stone Island.. On January 18, 2017, luxury fashion company Louis Vuitton held a fashion show where a collaboration between the two brands was confirmed. Pop - up stores featuring the collaboration were opened on June 30, 2017, in Sydney, Seoul, Tokyo, Paris, London, Miami, and Los Angeles. Louis Vuitton 's proposal for a pop - up store in New York City was denied by Manhattan 's Community Board No. 2 after residents expressed their "outrage that such an event was being proposed for (Bond Street) ''. In 2017, The Dapifer reported that Lacoste partnered with Supreme for a limited men 's capsule collection..
Supreme regularly release t - shirts and boxer shorts in collaboration with Hanes, as well as skateboard parts with skate brands Independent Trucks and Spitfire Wheels.
Supreme has released skateboard decks featuring the artworks of Harmony Korine, Rammellzee, Ryan McGinness, KAWS, Larry Clark, Jeff Koons, Richard Prince, Christopher Wool, Nate Lowman, Damien Hirst, and John Baldessari. In addition, they have collaborated with other photographers, artists, and designers such as David Lynch, Robert Crumb, Marilyn Minter, Takashi Murakami, Daniel Johnston, Peter Saville, Futura, Bad Brains, Public Enemy, H.R. Giger, Mark Gonzales, M.C. Esher, Dash Snow, and Nan Goldin.
In 2017 Supreme asked Circlemakers, a group of crop circle makers from the UK founded by the artist John Lundberg, to create a massive crop circle of the Supreme box logo at a secret location in California. The crop circle can be seen in the short film produced by Supreme called Crop Fields.
Fashion photographer Terry Richardson has produced some of the brand 's most notable photographs, including of Michael Jordan, Kermit the Frog, Three 6 Mafia, Lou Reed, Lady Gaga, Neil Young, Gucci Mane, Nas, and Morrissey. Kenneth Cappello made some of Supreme 's most notable photo tees like Mike Tyson, Dipset, Michael Jackson, and Raekwon.
Notable people who have worn Supreme clothing in public include members of the group Odd Future, Odell Beckham Jr, Justin Bieber, DJ SchwambiFlexx, Bad Bunny, BTS 's J - Hope, and EXO 's Baekhyun.
Other celebrities who have been seen on or wearing the brand include Shane Macgowan, Kate Moss, Prodigy, Slick Rick, Diddy, Lady Gaga, and David Blaine.
Supreme 's first New York store had its core group of skaters who served as its team in 1994, which included late actors Justin Pierce and Harold Hunter. In 1995, Alleged Films International helped Supreme create a skateboarding - centric promo video called "A Love Supreme. '' In 2014, Supreme released their first full - length skate video called "cherry '' filmed by William Strobeck.
|
where is shanghai located on the world map | Shanghai - wikipedia
Shanghai (Chinese: 上海; Wu Chinese: Wu pronunciation; Mandarin: (ʂâŋ. xài) (listen)) is one of the four municipalities under the direct administration of the central government of China, the largest city in China by population, and the second most populous city proper in the world, with a population of more than 24 million as of 2017. It is a global financial centre and transport hub, with the world 's busiest container port. Located in the Yangtze River Delta, it sits on the south edge of the estuary of the Yangtze in the middle portion of the East China coast. The municipality borders the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the north, south and west, and is bounded to the east by the East China Sea.
As a major administrative, shipping and trading city, Shanghai grew in importance in the 19th century due to trade and recognition of its favourable port location and economic potential. The city was one of five treaty ports forced open to foreign trade following the British victory over China in the First Opium War. The subsequent 1842 Treaty of Nanking and 1844 Treaty of Whampoa allowed the establishment of the Shanghai International Settlement and the French Concession. The city then flourished as a centre of commerce between China and other parts of the world (predominantly the Occident), and became the primary financial hub of the Asia - Pacific region in the 1930s. However, with the Communist Party takeover of the mainland in 1949, trade was limited to other socialist countries, and the city 's global influence declined. In the 1990s, the economic reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping resulted in an intense re-development of the city, aiding the return of finance and foreign investment to the city. It has since re-emerged as a hub for international trade and finance; it is the home of the Shanghai Stock Exchange, one of the world 's largest by market capitalization.
Shanghai has been described as the "showpiece '' of the booming economy of mainland China; renowned for its Lujiazui skyline, and museums and historic buildings, such as those along The Bund, as well as the City God Temple and the Yu Garden.
The two Chinese characters in the city 's name are 上 (shàng / zan, "upon '') and 海 (hǎi / hae, "sea ''), together meaning "Upon - the - Sea ''. The earliest occurrence of this name dates from the 11th - century Song Dynasty, at which time there was already a river confluence and a town with this name in the area. There are disputes as to exactly how the name should be understood, but Chinese historians have concluded that during the Tang dynasty Shanghai was literally on the sea.
Shanghai is officially abbreviated 沪 (Hù / Wu) in Chinese, a contraction of 沪 渎 (Hù Dú / Vu Doh, lit "Harpoon Ditch ''), a 4th - or 5th - century Jin name for the mouth of Suzhou Creek when it was the main conduit into the ocean. This character appears on all motor vehicle license plates issued in the municipality today.
Another alternative name for Shanghai is Shēn (申) or Shēnchéng (申 城, "Shen City ''), from Lord Chunshen, a third - century BC nobleman and prime minister of the state of Chu, whose fief included modern Shanghai. Sports teams and newspapers in Shanghai often use Shen in their names, such as Shanghai Shenhua F.C. and Shen Bao.
Huating (华 亭) was another early name for Shanghai. In AD 751, during the mid-Tang dynasty, Huating County was established by the Governor of Wu Commandery Zhao Juzhen at modern - day Songjiang, the first county - level administration within modern - day Shanghai. Today, Huating appears as the name of a four - star hotel in the city.
The city also has various nicknames in English, including "Pearl of the Orient '' and "Paris of the East ''.
During the Spring and Autumn period (approximately 771 to 476 BC), the Shanghai area belonged to the Kingdom of Wu, which was conquered by the Kingdom of Yue, which in turn was conquered by the Kingdom of Chu. During the Warring States period (475 BC), Shanghai was part of the fief of Lord Chunshen of Chu, one of the Four Lords of the Warring States. He ordered the excavation of the Huangpu River. Its former or poetic name, the Chunshen River, gave Shanghai its nickname of "Shen ''. Fishermen living in the Shanghai area then created a fishing tool called the hu, which lent its name to the outlet of Suzhou Creek north of the Old City and became a common nickname and abbreviation for the city.
Songjiang Square Pagoda, built in the 11th century
The walled Old City of Shanghai in the 17th century
Section of the old city walls of Shanghai
During the Tang and Song dynasties, Qinglong Town (青龙 镇) in modern Qingpu District was a major trading port. Established in 746 (fifth year of the Tang Tianbao era), it developed into what contemporary sources called a "giant town of the Southeast '', with thirteen temples and seven pagodas. The famous Song scholar and artist Mi Fu served as its mayor. The port had a thriving trade with provinces along the Yangtze River and the Chinese coast, as well as foreign countries such as Japan and Silla.
By the end of the Song dynasty, the center of trading had moved downstream of the Wusong River to Shanghai, which was upgraded in status from a village to a market town in 1074, and in 1172 a second sea wall was built to stabilize the ocean coastline, supplementing an earlier dike. From the Yuan dynasty in 1292 until Shanghai officially became a municipality in 1927, central Shanghai was administered as a county under Songjiang Prefecture, whose seat was at the present - day Songjiang District.
Two important events helped promote Shanghai 's development in the Ming dynasty. A city wall was built for the first time in 1554 to protect the town from raids by Japanese pirates. It measured 10 metres (33 feet) high and 5 kilometres (3 miles) in circumference. During the Wanli reign (1573 -- 1620), Shanghai received an important psychological boost from the erection of a City God Temple in 1602. This honour was usually reserved for prefectural capitals and not normally given to a mere county seat such as Shanghai. It probably reflected the town 's economic importance, as opposed to its low political status.
During the Qing dynasty, Shanghai became one of the most important sea ports in the Yangtze Delta region as a result of two important central government policy changes: In 1684, the Kangxi Emperor reversed the Ming dynasty prohibition on oceangoing vessels -- a ban that had been in force since 1525; and in 1732 the Yongzheng Emperor moved the customs office for Jiangsu province (江 海 关; see Customs House, Shanghai) from the prefectural capital of Songjiang to Shanghai, and gave Shanghai exclusive control over customs collections for Jiangsu 's foreign trade. As a result of these two critical decisions, by 1735 Shanghai had become the major trade port for all of the lower Yangtze region, despite still being at the lowest administrative level in the political hierarchy.
The Bund in 1928; the WWI monument in the foreground was destroyed by the Japanese during WWII
Nanking Road (modern - day East Nanjing Road) in the 1930s
Shanghai filmed in 1937
Tallest building of Asia for decades - Shanghai Park Hotel
International attention to Shanghai grew in the 19th century due to European recognition of its economic and trade potential at the Yangtze. During the First Opium War (1839 -- 1842), British forces occupied the city. The war ended with the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, which allowed the British to dictate opening the treaty ports, Shanghai included, for international trade. The Treaty of the Bogue signed in 1843, and the Sino - American Treaty of Wanghia signed in 1844 forced Chinese concession to European and American desires for visitation and trade on Chinese soil. Britain, France (under the 1844 Treaty of Whampoa), and the United States all carved out concessions outside the walled city of Shanghai, which was still ruled by the Chinese.
The Chinese - held old city of Shanghai fell to the rebels of the Small Swords Society in 1853 but was recovered by the Qing government in February 1855. In 1854, the Shanghai Municipal Council was created to manage the foreign settlements. Between 1860 -- 1862, the Taiping rebels twice attacked Shanghai and destroyed the city 's eastern and southern suburbs, but failed to take the city. In 1863, the British settlement to the south of Suzhou Creek (northern Huangpu District) and the American settlement to the north (southern Hongkou District) joined in order to form the Shanghai International Settlement. The French opted out of the Shanghai Municipal Council and maintained its own concession to the south and southwest.
Citizens of many countries and all continents came to Shanghai to live and work during the ensuing decades; those who stayed for long periods -- some for generations -- called themselves "Shanghailanders ''. In the 1920s and 1930s, almost 20,000 White Russians and Russian Jews fled the newly established Soviet Union and took up residence in Shanghai. These Shanghai Russians constituted the second - largest foreign community. By 1932, Shanghai had become the world 's fifth largest city and home to 70,000 foreigners. In the 1930s, some 30,000 Jewish refugees from Europe arrived in the city.
The Sino - Japanese War concluded with the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which elevated Japan to become another foreign power in Shanghai. Japan built the first factories in Shanghai, which were soon copied by other foreign powers. Shanghai was then the most important financial center in the Far East. All this international activity gave Shanghai the nickname "the Great Athens of China ''.
Under the Republic of China, Shanghai 's political status was raised to that of a municipality on 14 July 1927. Although the territory of the foreign concessions was excluded from their control, this new Chinese municipality still covered an area of 828.8 square kilometres (320.0 sq mi), including the modern - day districts of Baoshan, Yangpu, Zhabei, Nanshi, and Pudong. Headed by a Chinese mayor and municipal council, the new city government 's first task was to create a new city center in Jiangwan town of Yangpu district, outside the boundaries of the foreign concessions. The "Greater Shanghai Plan '' included a public museum, library, sports stadium, and city hall, which were partially constructed when the plan was interrupted by the Japanese invasion.
On 28 January 1932, Japanese forces invaded Shanghai and the Chinese resisted, fighting to a standstill; a ceasefire was brokered in May. The Battle of Shanghai in 1937 resulted in the occupation of the Chinese administered parts of Shanghai outside of the International Settlement and the French Concession. The foreign concessions were ultimately occupied by the Japanese on 8 December 1941 and remained occupied until Japan 's surrender in 1945, during which time many war crimes were committed.
On 27 May 1949, the People 's Liberation Army took control of Shanghai. Under the new People 's Republic of China (PRC), Shanghai was one of only three municipalities not merged into neighboring provinces over the next decade (the others being Beijing and Tianjin). Shanghai underwent a series of changes in the boundaries of its subdivisions over the next decade. After 1949, most foreign firms moved their offices from Shanghai to Hong Kong, as part of a foreign divestment due to the Communist victory.
On 17 January 1958, Jiading, Baoshan, and Shanghai County in Jiangsu Province became part of Shanghai Municipality, which expanded to 86,300 hectares. The following December, the land area of Shanghai was further expanded to 591,000 hectares when more surrounding suburban areas in Jiangsu were added: Chongming, Jinshan, Qingpu, Fengxian, Chuansha and Nanhui. In 1960 the urban districts were reduced to 10.
During the 1950s and 1960s, Shanghai became the center for radical leftism since it was the industrial centre of China with most skilled industrial workers. The radical leftist Jiang Qing and her three allies, together the Gang of Four, were based in the city. Yet, even during the most tumultuous times of the Cultural Revolution, Shanghai was able to maintain high economic productivity and relative social stability. During most of the history of the PRC, Shanghai has been a comparatively heavy contributor of tax revenue to the central government, with Shanghai in 1983 contributing more in tax revenue to the central government than Shanghai had received in investment in the prior 33 years combined. This came at the cost of severely crippling welfare of Shanghainese people and Shanghai 's infrastructural and capital development. Its importance to the fiscal well - being of the central government also denied it economic liberalizations begun in 1978. Shanghai was finally permitted to initiate economic reforms in 1991, starting the massive development still seen today and the birth of Lujiazui in Pudong.
Shanghai lies on China 's east coast roughly equidistant from Beijing and Guangzhou. The Old City and modern downtown Shanghai are now located in the center of an expanding peninsula between the Yangtze River Delta to the north and Hangzhou Bay to the south, formed by the Yangtze 's natural deposition and by modern land reclamation projects. The provincial - level Municipality of Shanghai administers both the eastern area of this peninsula and many of its surrounding islands. It is bordered on the north and west by Jiangsu, on the south by Zhejiang, and on the east by the East China Sea. Its northernmost point is on Chongming Island, now the second - largest island in mainland China after its expansion during the 20th century. The municipality does not, however, include an exclave of Jiangsu on northern Chongming or the two islands forming Shanghai 's Yangshan Port, which are part of Zhejiang 's Shengsi County. This deep - water port was made necessary by the increasing size of container ships but also the silting of the Yangtze, which narrows to less than 20 meters (66 ft) as far out as 45 miles (70 km) from Hengsha.
Downtown Shanghai is bisected by the Huangpu River, a man - made tributary of the Yangtze that was created by order of Lord Chunshen during the Warring States period. The historic center of the city was located on the west bank of the Huangpu (Puxi), near the mouth of Suzhou Creek, connecting it with Lake Tai and the Grand Canal. The central financial district Lujiazui has grown up on the east bank of the Huangpu (Pudong). The destruction of local wetlands occasioned by the creation of Pudong International Airport along the peninsula 's eastern shore has been somewhat offset by the protection and expansion of the nearby shoals of Jiuduansha as a nature preserve.
Shanghai 's location on an alluvial plain means that the vast majority of its 6,340.5 km (2,448.1 sq mi) land area is flat, with an average elevation of 4 m (13 ft). Its sandy soil has required its skyscrapers to be built with deep concrete piles to stop them from sinking into the soft ground of the central area. The few hills such as She Shan lie to the southwest and the highest point is the peak of Dajinshan Island in Hangzhou Bay (103 m or 338 ft). The city has many rivers, canals, streams and lakes and is known for its rich water resources as part of the Lake Tai drainage area.
Shanghai has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) and experiences four distinct seasons. Winters are chilly and damp, with northwesterly winds from Siberia can cause nighttime temperatures to drop below freezing, although most years there are only one or two days of snowfall. Summers are hot and humid, with an average of 8.7 days exceeding 35 ° C (95 ° F) annually; occasional downpours or freak thunderstorms can be expected. The city is also susceptible to typhoons in summer and the beginning of autumn, none of which in recent years has caused considerable damage. The most pleasant seasons are spring, although changeable and often rainy, and autumn, which is generally sunny and dry. The city averages 4.8 ° C (40.6 ° F) in January and 28.6 ° C (83.5 ° F) in July, for an annual mean of 17.1 ° C (62.8 ° F). With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 34 % in March to 54 % in August, the city receives 1,895 hours of bright sunshine annually. Extremes since 1951 have ranged from − 10.1 ° C (14 ° F) on 31 January 1977 (unofficial record of − 12.1 ° C (10 ° F) was set on 19 January 1893) to 39.9 ° C (104 ° F) on 6 and 8 August 2013. A highest record of 40.9 ° C (106 ° F) was registered in Xujiahui, a downtown station on 21 July 2017.
Like virtually all governing institutions in the mainland People 's Republic of China, the politics of Shanghai is structured in a dual party - government system, in which the Party Committee Secretary, officially termed the Communist Party of China Shanghai Municipal Committee Secretary (currently Li Qiang), outranks the Mayor (currently Ying Yong).
Political power in Shanghai is widely seen as a stepping stone to higher positions in the national government. Since Jiang Zemin became the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China in June 1989, all former Shanghai party secretaries but one were elevated to the Politburo Standing Committee, the de facto highest decision - making body in China, including Jiang himself (Party General Secretary), Zhu Rongji (Premier), Wu Bangguo (Chairman of the National People 's Congress), Huang Ju (Vice Premier), Xi Jinping (current General Secretary), and Yu Zhengsheng. Zeng Qinghong, a former deputy party secretray of Shanghai, also rose to the Politburo Standing Committee and became the Vice President and an influential power broker. The only exception is Chen Liangyu, who was fired in 2006 and later convicted of corruption. Officials with ties to the Shanghai administration form a powerful faction in the national government, the so - called Shanghai Clique, which was often thought to compete against the rival Youth League Faction over personnel appointments and policy decisions. Xi Jinping, successor to Hu Jintao as General Secretary and President, was a compromise candidate between the two groups with supporters in both camps.
Dong Yunhu was elected chairman of the 13th Shanghai municipal CPPCC in January 2018.
Shanghai is administratively equal to a province and is divided into 16 county - level districts. Even though every district has its own urban core, the real city center is between Bund to the east, Nanjing Rd to the north, Old City Temple and Huaihai Road to the south. Prominent central business areas include Lujiazui on the east bank of the Huangpu River, and The Bund and Hongqiao areas in the west bank of the Huangpu River. The city hall and major administration units are located in Huangpu District, which also serve as a commercial area, including the famous Nanjing Road. Other major commercial areas include Xintiandi and the classy Huaihai Road (previously Avenue Joffre) in Huangpu District and Xujiahui (formerly Romanized as Zikawei or Siccawei, reflecting the Shanghainese pronunciation) in Xuhui District. Many universities in Shanghai are located in residential areas of Yangpu District and Putuo District.
Seven of the districts govern Puxi (lit. "The West Bank ''), the older part of urban Shanghai on the west bank of the Huangpu River. These seven districts are collectively referred to as Shanghai Proper (上海 市 区) or the core city (市 中心), which comprise Huangpu, Xuhui, Changning, Jing'an, Putuo, Hongkou, and Yangpu.
Pudong (lit. "The East Bank ''), the newer part of urban and suburban Shanghai on the east bank of the Huangpu River, is governed by Pudong New Area (Chuansha County until 1992, merged with Nanhui District in 2009 and with oversight of the Jiuduansha shoals).
Seven of the districts govern suburbs, satellite towns, and rural areas further away from the urban core: Baoshan (Baoshan County until 1988), Minhang (original Minhang District & Shanghai County until 1992), Jiading (Jiading County until 1992), Jinshan (Jinshan County until 1997), Songjiang (Songjiang County until 1998), Qingpu (Qingpu County until 1999), and Fengxian (Fengxian County until 2001).
The islands of Changxing and Hengsha and most (but not all) of Chongming Island form Chongming.
The former district of Nanhui was absorbed into Pudong District in 2009. In 2011 Luwan District merged with Huangpu District.
As of 2015, these county - level divisions are further divided into the following 210 township - level divisions: 109 towns, 2 townships, 99 subdistricts. Those are in turn divided into the following village - level divisions: 3,661 neighborhood committees and 1,704 village committees.
Shanghai is the commercial and financial center of China, and ranks 13th in the 2017 edition of the Global Financial Centres Index (and fourth most competitive in Asia after Singapore, Hong Kong, and Tokyo) published by the Z / Yen Group and Qatar Financial Centre Authority. It also ranks the most expensive city to live in Mainland China, according to the study of Economist Intelligence Unit in 2017. It was the largest and most prosperous city in East Asia during the 1930s, and rapid re-development began in the 1990s. This is exemplified by the Pudong District, a former swampland reclaimed to serve as a pilot area for integrated economic reforms. By the end of 2009, there were 787 financial institutions, of which 170 were foreign - invested. In 2009, the Shanghai Stock Exchange ranked third among worldwide stock exchanges in terms of trading volume and sixth in terms of the total capitalization of listed companies, and the trading volume of six key commodities including rubber, copper and zinc on the Shanghai Futures Exchange all ranked first in the world. In September 2013, with the backing of Chinese Premier Li Keqiang the city launched the China (Shanghai) Pilot Free - Trade Zone - the first free - trade zone in mainland China. The Zone introduced a number of pilot reforms designed to create a preferential environment for foreign investment. In April 2014, The Banker reported that Shanghai "has attracted the highest volumes of financial sector foreign direct investment in the Asia - Pacific region in the 12 months to the end of January 2014 ''. In August 2014, Shanghai was named FDi magazine 's Chinese Province of the Future 2014 / 15 due to "particularly impressive performances in the Business Friendliness and Connectivity categories, as well as placing second in the Economic Potential and Human Capital and Lifestyle categories ''.
In the last two decades Shanghai has been one of the fastest developing cities in the world. Since 1992 Shanghai has recorded double - digit growth almost every year except during the global recession of 2008 and 2009. In 2011, Shanghai 's total GDP grew to 1.92 trillion yuan (US $297 billion) with GDP per capita of 82,560 yuan (US $12,784). The three largest service industries are financial services, retail, and real estate. The manufacturing and agricultural sectors accounted for 39.9 percent and 0.7 percent of the total output respectively. Average annual disposable income of Shanghai residents, based on the first three quarters of 2009, was 21,871 RMB.
Located at the heart of the Yangtze River Delta, Shanghai has the world 's busiest container port, which handled 29.05 million TEUs in 2010. Shanghai aims to be an international shipping center in the near future.
Shanghai is one of the main industrial centers of China, playing a key role in China 's heavy industries. A large number of industrial zones, including Shanghai Hongqiao Economic and Technological Development Zone, Jinqiao Export Economic Processing Zone, Minhang Economic and Technological Development Zone, and Shanghai Caohejing High - Tech Development Zone, are backbones of Shanghai 's secondary industry. Heavy industries accounted for 78 % of the gross industrial output in 2009. China 's largest steelmaker Baosteel Group, China 's largest shipbuilding base -- Hudong - Zhonghua Shipbuilding Group, and the Jiangnan Shipyard, one of China 's oldest shipbuilders are all located in Shanghai. Auto manufacture is another important industry. The Shanghai - based SAIC Motor is one of the three largest automotive corporations in China, and has strategic partnerships with Volkswagen and General Motors.
The conference and meeting sector is also growing. In 2012, the city hosted 780 international gatherings, up from 754 in 2011. The high supply of hotel rooms has kept room rates lower than expected, with the average room rate for four - and five - star hotels in 2012 at just RMB950 (US $153).
As of September 2013, Shanghai is also home to the largest free - trade zone in mainland China, the China (Shanghai) Pilot Free - Trade Zone. The zone covers an area of 29 km (11 sq mi) and integrates four existing bonded zones -- Waigaoqiao Free Trade Zone, Waigaoqiao Free Trade Logistics Park, Yangshan Free Trade Port Area and Pudong Airport Comprehensive Free Trade Zone. Several preferential policies have been implemented to attract foreign investment in various industries to the FTZ. Because the Zone is not technically considered PRC territory for tax purposes, commodities entering the zone are not subject to duty and customs clearance as would otherwise be the case.
The 2010 census put Shanghai 's total population at 23,019,148, a growth of 37.53 % from 16,737,734 in 2000. 20.6 million of the total population, or 89.3 %, are urban, and 2.5 million (10.7 %) are rural. Based on the population of its total administrative area, Shanghai is the second largest of the four municipalities of China, behind Chongqing, but is generally considered the largest Chinese city because Chongqing 's urban population is much smaller.
Shanghai also has 150,000 officially registered foreigners, including 31,500 Japanese, 21,000 Americans and 20,700 Koreans, but the real number of foreign citizens in the city is probably much higher. Shanghai is also a domestic immigration city, which means a huge population of citizens come from other cities in China.
The encompassing metropolitan area was estimated by the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) to have, as of 2010, a population of 34 million.
In 2017 the Chinese Government implemented population controls for Shanghai. Latest statistics show that from this policy, Shanghai population declined by 10,000.
Religion in Shanghai (2012)
Due to its cosmopolitan history, Shanghai has a blend of religious heritage as shown by the religious buildings and institutions still scattered around the city. According to a 2012 survey only around 13 % of the population of Shanghai belongs to organised religions, the largest groups being Buddhists with 10.4 %, followed by Protestants with 1.9 %, Catholics with 0.7 % and other faiths with 0.1 %. Around 87 % of the population may be either irreligious or involved in worship of nature deities and ancestors, Confucian churches, Taoism and folk religious sects.
There are folk religious temples such as a Temple of the Chenghuangshen (City God), at the heart of the old city, and a temple dedicated to the Three Kingdoms general Guan Yu. The White Cloud Temple of Shanghai is an important Taoist centre in the city. The Wenmiao (Temple of the God of Culture) is dedicated to Confucius.
Buddhism, in its Chinese varieties, has had a presence in Shanghai since ancient times. The Longhua Temple, the largest temple in Shanghai, and the Jing'an Temple, were first founded in the Three Kingdoms period. Another important temple is the Jade Buddha Temple, which is named after a large statue of Buddha carved out of jade in the temple. In recent decades, dozens of modern temples have been built throughout the city.
Islam came into Shanghai 700 years ago and a mosque was built in 1295 in Songjiang. In 1843, a teachers ' college was also set up. The Shanghai Muslim Association is located in the Xiaotaoyuan Mosque in Huangpu.
Shanghai has one of the largest proportions of Catholics in China (2003). Among Catholic churches, St Ignatius Cathedral in Xujiahui is one of the largest, while She Shan Basilica is an active pilgrimage site.
Other forms of Christianity in Shanghai include Eastern Orthodox minorities and, since 1996, registered Christian Protestant churches. During World War II thousands of Jews descended upon Shanghai in an effort to flee Hitler 's regime. The Jews lived side - by - side in a designated area called Shanghai Ghetto and formed a vibrant community centered on the Ohel Moishe Synagogue, which is preserved remnant of this portion of Shanghai 's complex religious past.
Shanghai ranked first in the 2009 and 2012 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), a worldwide study of academic performance of 15 - year - old students conducted by the OECD. Shanghai students, including migrant children, scored highest in every aspect (math, reading and science) in the world. The study concludes that public - funded schools in Shanghai have the highest educational quality in the world. Critics of PISA results counter that, in Shanghai and other Chinese cities, most children of migrant workers can only attend city schools up to the ninth grade, and must return to their parents ' hometowns for high school due to hukou restrictions, thus skewing the composition of the city 's high school students in favor of wealthier local families.
Shanghai is the first city in the country to implement 9 - year mandatory education. The 2010 census shows that out of Shanghai 's total population, 22.0 % had a college education, double the level from 2000, while 21.0 % had high school, 36.5 % middle school, and 1.35 % primary school education. 2.74 % of residents age 15 and older were illiterate.
Shanghai has more than 930 kindergartens, 1,200 primary and 850 middle schools. Over 760,000 middle schools students and 871,000 primary school students are taught by 76,000 and 64,000 teaching staff respectively.
Shanghai is a major center of higher education in China with over 30 universities and colleges. A number of China 's most prestigious universities are based in Shanghai, including Fudan University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Tongji University, East China Normal University (these universities are selected as "985 universities '' by the Chinese Government in order to build world - class universities). In 2012 NYU Shanghai was established in Pudong by New York University in partnership with East China Normal University as the first Sino - US joint venture university. In 2013 the Shanghai Municipality and the Chinese Academy of Sciences founded the ShanghaiTech University in the Zhangjiang Hi - Tech Park in Pudong. This new research university is aiming to be a first - class institution on a national and international level. The cadre school China Executive Leadership Academy in Pudong is also located in Shanghai, as well as the China Europe International Business School.
Children with foreign passports are permitted to attend any public school in Shanghai. Prior to 2007 they were permitted to attend 150 select public schools. In 2006 about 2,000 non-Chinese nationals under 18 years of age attended Shanghai public schools. Students with Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi (HSK) above 3 or 4 may attend public schools using Mandarin Chinese as the medium of instruction, while students below HSK 3 -- 4 may attend international divisions of public schools or private international schools.
Shanghai has the largest number of international schools of any city in China. In November 2015 Christopher Cottrell of the Global Times wrote that Shanghai "prides itself on its international schools ''.
Shanghai has an extensive public transport system, largely based on metros, buses and taxis. Payment of all these public transportation tools can be made by using the Shanghai Public Transportation Card.
Shanghai 's rapid transit system, the Shanghai Metro, incorporates both subway and light metro lines and extends to every core urban district as well as neighboring suburban districts. As of 2017, there are 16 metro lines (excluding the Shanghai Maglev Train and Jinshan Railway), 395 stations and 673 km (418 mi) of lines in operation, making it the longest network in the world. On 31 December 2016, it set a record of daily ridership of 11.7 million. The fare depends on the length of travel distance starting from 3 RMB.
In 2010, Shanghai reintroduced trams, this time as a modern rubber tyred Translohr system, in Zhangjiang area of East Shanghai as Zhangjiang Tram. A separate conventional tram system is being constructed in Songjiang District. Additional tram lines are under study in Hongqiao Subdistrict and Jiading District.
Shanghai also has the world 's most extensive network of urban bus routes, with nearly one thousand bus lines, operated by numerous transportation companies. The system includes the world 's oldest continuously operating trolleybus system. Bus fare normally costs 2 RMB.
Taxis are plentiful in Shanghai. The base fare is currently ¥ 14 (sedan) / ¥ 16 (MPV) (inclusive of a ¥ 1 fuel surcharge; ¥ 18 between 11: 00 pm and 5: 00 am) which covers the first 3 km (2 mi). Additional km cost ¥ 2.4 each (¥ 3.2 between 11: 00 pm and 5: 00 am).
Shanghai is a major hub of China 's expressway network. Many national expressways (prefixed with G) pass through or terminate in Shanghai, including G2 Beijing -- Shanghai Expressway (overlapping G42 Shanghai -- Chengdu), G15 Shenyang -- Haikou, G40 Shanghai -- Xi'an, G50 Shanghai -- Chongqing, G60 Shanghai -- Kunming (overlapping G92 Shanghai -- Ningbo), and G1501 Shanghai Ring Expressway. In addition, there are also numerous municipal expressways prefixed with S (S1, S2, S20, etc.). Shanghai has one bridge - tunnel crossing spanning the mouth of the Yangtze to the north of the city.
In the city center, there are several elevated expressways to lessen traffic pressure on surface streets, but the growth of car use has made demand far outstrip capacity, with heavy congestion being commonplace. There are bicycle lanes separate from car traffic on many surface streets, but bicycles and motorcycles are banned from many main roads including the elevated expressways. Recently, cycling has seen a resurgence in popularity thanks to the emergence of a large number of dockless app based bikeshares such as Mobike, Bluegogo and Ofo.
Private car ownership in Shanghai has been rapidly increasing in recent years, but a new private car can not be driven until the owner buys a license in the monthly private car license plate auction. Around 11,500 license plates are auctioned each month and the average price is about 84,000 RMB ($12,758). According to the municipal regulation in 2016, only those who are Shanghai registered residents or have paid social insurance or individual incomer tax for over 3 years in a row. The purpose of this policy is to limit the growth of automobile traffic and to alleviate congestion.
Shanghai has four major railway stations: Shanghai Railway Station, Shanghai South Railway Station, Shanghai West Railway Station, and Shanghai Hongqiao Railway Station. All are connected to the metro network and serve as hubs in the railway network of China. Two main railways terminate in Shanghai: Jinghu Railway from Beijing, and Huhang Railway from Hangzhou. Hongqiao Station also serves as the main Shanghai terminus of three high - speed rail lines: the Shanghai -- Hangzhou High - Speed Railway, the Shanghai -- Nanjing High - Speed Railway, and the Beijing -- Shanghai High - Speed Railway.
Shanghai is one of the leading air transport gateways in Asia. The city has two commercial airports: Shanghai Pudong International Airport and Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport. Pudong Airport is the main international airport, while Hongqiao Airport mainly operates domestic flights with limited short - haul international flights. In 2010 the two airports served 71.7 million passengers (Pudong 40.4 million, Hongqiao 31.3 million), and handled 3.7 million tons of cargo (Pudong 3.22 million tons, Hongqiao 480 thousand tons).
Shanghai has a rich collection of buildings and structures of various architectural styles. The Bund, located by the bank of the Huangpu River, is home to a row of early 20th - century architecture, ranging in style from the neoclassical HSBC Building to the art deco Sassoon House. Many areas in the former foreign concessions are also well - preserved, the most notable being the French Concession. Shanghai has one of the world 's largest number of Art Deco buildings as a result of the construction boom during the 1920s and 1930s. One of the most famous architects working in Shanghai was László Hudec, a Hungarian - Slovak architect who lived in the city between 1918 and 1947. Some of his most notable Art Deco buildings include the Park Hotel and the Grand Theater. Other prominent architects who contributed to the Art Deco style are Parker & Palmer, who designed the Peace Hotel, Metropole Hotel, and the Broadway Mansions, and Austrian architect GH Gonda, who designed the Capital Theatre. The Bund 's first revitalization started in 1986, with a new promenade by the Dutch Architect Paulus Snoeren, and was completed in the mid-1990s.
In recent years, a great deal of architecturally distinctive and even eccentric buildings have sprung up throughout Shanghai. Notable examples of contemporary architecture include the Shanghai Museum, Shanghai Grand Theatre in the People 's Square precinct, and the Shanghai Oriental Art Center. Despite rampant redevelopment, the old city still retains some traditional architecture and designs, such as the Yuyuan Garden, an elaborate traditional garden in the Jiangnan style.
One uniquely Shanghainese cultural element is the shikumen (石 库 门) residences, which are two - or three - story townhouses, with the front yard protected by a high brick wall. Each residence is connected and arranged in straight alleys, known as a longtang (弄堂), pronounced longdang in Shanghainese. The entrance to each alley is usually surmounted by a stylistic stone arch. The whole resembles terrace houses or townhouses commonly seen in Anglo - American countries, but distinguished by the tall, heavy brick wall in front of each house. The name "shikumen '' means "stone storage door '', referring to the strong gateway to each house.
The shikumen is a cultural blend of elements found in Western architecture with traditional Lower Yangtze (Jiangnan) Chinese architecture and social behavior. All traditional Chinese dwellings had a courtyard, and the shikumen was no exception. Yet, to compromise with its urban nature, it was much smaller and provided an "interior haven '' to the commotions in the streets, allowing for raindrops to fall and vegetation to grow freely within a residence. The courtyard also allowed sunlight and adequate ventilation into the rooms.
Less than Beijing, the city also has some examples of Soviet neoclassical architecture or Stalinist architecture. These buildings were mostly erected during the period from the founding of the People 's Republic in 1949 until the Sino - Soviet Split in the late 1960s. During this decade, large numbers of Soviet experts, including architects, poured into China to aid the country in the construction of a communist state. Examples of Soviet neoclassical architecture in Shanghai include what is today the Shanghai Exhibition Centre.
The Pudong district of Shanghai is home to a number of skyscrapers, many of which rank among the tallest in the world. Among the most prominent examples are the Jin Mao Tower and the taller Shanghai World Financial Center, which at 492 metres (1,614 ft) tall is the third tallest skyscraper in mainland China and ranks tenth in the world. The Shanghai Tower, completed in 2015, is the tallest building in China, as well as the second tallest in the world. With a height of 632 metres (2,073 ft), the building has 128 floors and a total floor area of 380,000 square metres (4,100,000 sq ft) above ground. The distinctive Oriental Pearl Tower, at 468 metres (1,535 ft), is located nearby, as is One Lujiazui, standing at 269 metres (883 ft).
The extensive public park system in Shanghai offers the citizens some reprieve from the urban jungle. By the year 2012, the city had 157 parks, with 138 of them free of charge. Some of the parks, aside from offering a green public space to locals, became popular tourist attractions due to their unique location, history or architecture. The former racetrack turned central park, People 's Square park, located in the heart of downtown Shanghai, is especially well known for its proximity to other major landmarks in the city. Fuxing Park, located in the former French Concession of Shanghai, features formal French - style gardens and is surrounded by high end bars and cafes. Zhongshan Park in northwestern central Shanghai is famous for its monument of Chopin, the tallest statue dedicated to the composer in the world. Built in 1914 as Jessfield Park, it once contained the campus of St. John 's University, Shanghai 's first international college; today, it is known for its extensive rose and peony gardens, a large children 's play area, and as the location of an important transfer station on the city 's metro system. Shanghai Botanical Garden is located 12 km (7 mi) southwest of the city center and was established in 1978. One of the newest parks is in the Xujiahui area -- Xujiahui Park, built in 1999 on the former grounds of the Great Chinese Rubber Works Factory and the EMI Recording Studio (now La Villa Rouge restaurant). The park has a man - made lake with a sky bridge running across the park, and offers a pleasant respite for Xujiahui shoppers. Other well - known Shanghai parks include: People 's Square Park, Gongqing Forest Park, Fuxing Park, Zhongshan Park, Lu Xun Park, Century Park, and Jing'an Park.
The Shanghai Disney Resort Project was approved by the government on 4 November 2009, and opened in 2016. The $4.4 billion theme park and resort in Pudong features a castle that is the biggest among Disney 's resorts.
Public awareness of the environment is growing, and the city is investing in a number of environmental protection projects. A 10 - year, US $1 billion cleanup of Suzhou Creek, which runs through the city - center, was expected to be finished in 2008, and the government also provides incentives for transportation companies to invest in LPG buses and taxis. Additionally, the government has moved almost all the factories within the city center to either the outskirts or other provinces in the recent decades.
Air pollution in Shanghai is low compared to other Chinese cities, but still substantial by world standards. During the December 2013 Eastern China smog, air pollution rates reached between 23 and 31 times the international standard. On 6 December 2013, levels of PM particulate matter in Shanghai rose above 600 micrograms per cubic meter and in the surrounding area, above 700 micrograms per cubic metre. Levels of PM in Putuo District reached 726 micrograms per cubic meter. As a result, the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission received orders to suspend students ' outdoor activities. Authorities pulled nearly one - third of government vehicles from the roads, while a mass of construction work was halted. Most of inbound flights were cancelled, and more than 50 flights were diverted at Pudong International Airport.
On 23 January 2014, Yang Xiong, the mayor of Shanghai municipality announced that three main measures would be taken to manage the air pollution in Shanghai, along with surrounding Anhui, Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces. The measures involved delivery of the 2013 air cleaning program, linkage mechanism with the three surrounding provinces and improvement of the ability of early warning of emergency situation. On 12 February 2014, China 's cabinet announced that a 10 - billion - renminbi (US $1.7 - billion) fund will be set up to help companies to meet new environmental standards.
Shanghai is sometimes considered a center of innovation and progress in China. It was in Shanghai, for example, that the first motor car was driven and (technically) the first train tracks and modern sewers were laid. It was also the intellectual battleground between socialist writers who concentrated on critical realism, which was pioneered by Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Nien Cheng and the famous French novel by André Malraux, Man 's Fate, and the more "bourgeois '', more romantic and aesthetically inclined writers, such as Shi Zhecun, Shao Xunmei, Ye Lingfeng and Eileen Chang.
In the past years Shanghai has been widely recognized as a new influence and inspiration for cyberpunk culture. Futuristic buildings such as the Oriental Pearl Tower and the neon - illuminated Yan'an Elevated Road are a few examples that have helped to boost Shanghai 's cyberpunk image.
The vernacular language spoken in the city is Shanghainese, a dialect of the Taihu Wu subgroup of the Wu Chinese family. This makes it a different language from the official language nationwide, which is Mandarin, itself completely mutually unintelligible with Wu Chinese. Most Shanghai residents are the descendants of immigrants from the two adjacent provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang who moved to Shanghai in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The population of those regions speak different Wu Chinese dialects. From the 1990s, many migrants outside of the Wu - speaking region have come to Shanghai for work and education. They often can not speak or learn the local language and therefore use Mandarin as a lingua franca.
Modern Shanghainese is based on different dialects of Taihu Wu: Suzhounese, Ningbonese and dialects of Shanghai 's traditional areas (now lying within the Hongkou, Baoshan and Pudong districts). The prestige dialect of Wu Chinese is spoken within the city of Shanghai prior to its modern expansion. Known as "the local tongue '' (本 地 話), it is influenced to a lesser extent by the languages of other nearby regions from which large numbers of people have migrated to Shanghai since the 20th century, and includes a significant number of terms borrowed from European languages. The prevalence of Mandarin fluency is generally higher for those born after 1949 than those born before, while the prevalence of English fluency is higher for people who received their secondary and tertiary education before 1949 than those who did so after 1949 and before the 1990s. On the other hand, however, Shanghainese started to decline and fluency amongst young speakers weakened, as Mandarin and English are being favoured and taught over the native language. In recent years though, there have been movements within the city to protect and promote the local language from ever fading out.
Cultural curation in Shanghai has seen significant growth since 2013, with several new museums having been opened in the city. This is in part due to the city 's most recently released city development plans, with aims in making the city "an excellent global city ''. As such, Shanghai has several museums of regional and national importance. The Shanghai Museum has one of the best collections of Chinese historical artifacts in the world, including a large collection of ancient Chinese bronzes. The China Art Museum, located in the former China Pavilion of Expo 2010, is the largest art museum in Asia. Power Station of Art is built in a converted power station, similar to London 's Tate Modern. The Shanghai Natural History Museum and the Shanghai Science and Technology Museum are major natural history and science museums. In addition, there is a variety of smaller, specialist museums housed in important archaeological and historical sites such as the Songze Museum, the Museum of the First National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party, the site of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, the former Ohel Moshe Synagogue (Shanghai Jewish Refugees Museum), and the General Post Office Building (Shanghai Postal Museum). The Rockbund Art Museum is also in Shanghai. There are also many art galleries, concentrated in the M50 Art District and Tianzifang. Shanghai is also home to one of China 's largest aquariums, the Shanghai Ocean Aquarium. MoCA, Museum of Contemporary Art of Shanghai, is a private museum centrally located in People 's Park on West Nanjing Road, and is committed to promote contemporary art and design.
Shanghai was the birthplace of Chinese cinema and theater. China 's first short film, The Difficult Couple (1913), and the country 's first fictional feature film, An Orphan Rescues His Grandfather (孤儿 救 祖 记, Gu'er Jiu Zuji, 1923) were both produced in Shanghai. These two films were very influential, and established Shanghai as the center of Chinese film - making. Shanghai 's film industry went on to blossom during the early 1930s, generating great stars such as Hu Die, Ruan Lingyu, Zhou Xuan, Jin Yan, and Zhao Dan. Another film star, Jiang Qing, went on to become Madame Mao Zedong. The exile of Shanghainese filmmakers and actors as a result of the Second Sino - Japanese War and the Communist revolution contributed enormously to the development of the Hong Kong film industry. Many aspects of Shanghainese popular culture ("Shanghainese Pops '') were transferred to Hong Kong by the numerous Shanghainese emigrants and refugees after the Communist Revolution. The movie In the Mood for Love, which was directed by Wong Kar - wai (a native Shanghainese himself), depicts a slice of the displaced Shanghainese community in Hong Kong and the nostalgia for that era, featuring 1940s music by Zhou Xuan.
The "Shanghai School '' was an important Chinese school of traditional arts during the Qing Dynasty and the 20th century. Under the masters from this school, traditional Chinese art developed into the modern style of "Chinese painting ''. The Shanghai School challenged and broke the elitist tradition of Chinese art, while also paying technical homage to the ancient masters and improving on existing traditional techniques. Members of this school were themselves educated literati who had come to question their very status and the purpose of art and had anticipated the impending modernization of Chinese society. In an era of rapid social change, works from the Shanghai School were widely innovative and diverse and often contained thoughtful yet subtle social commentary. The best known figures from this school include Qi Baishi, Ren Xiong, Ren Bonian, Zhao Zhiqian, Wu Changshuo, Sha Menghai, Pan Tianshou, Fu Baoshi, Xie Zhiliu, He Tianjian, and Wang Zhen. In literature, the term was used in the 1930s by some May Fourth Movement intellectuals -- notably Zhou Zuoren and Shen Congwen -- as a derogatory label for the literature produced in Shanghai at the time. They argued that Shanghai School literature was merely commercial and therefore did not advance social progress. This became known as the Jingpai versus Haipai (Beijing v. Shanghai School) debate.
The "Songjiang School '' (淞 江 派) was a small painting school during the Ming Dynasty. It is commonly considered as a further development of the Wu or Wumen School in the then - cultural center of the region, Suzhou. The Huating School (华亭 派) was another important art school during the middle to late Ming Dynasty. Its main achievements were in traditional Chinese painting, calligraphy, and poetry. It was especially famous for its Renwen painting (人文 画). Dong Qichang was one of the masters from this school.
Other Shanghainese cultural artifacts include the cheongsam (Shanghainese: zansae), a modernization of the traditional Manchurian qipao. This contrasts sharply with the traditional qipao, which was designed to conceal the figure and be worn regardless of age. The cheongsam went along well with the western overcoat and the scarf, and portrayed a unique East Asian modernity, epitomizing the Shanghainese population in general. As Western fashions changed, the basic cheongsam design changed, too, introducing high - neck sleeveless dresses, bell - like sleeves, and the black lace frothing at the hem of a ball gown. By the 1940s, cheongsams came in transparent black, beaded bodices, matching capes and even velvet. Later, checked fabrics became also quite common. The 1949 Communist Revolution ended the cheongsam and other fashions in Shanghai. However, the Shanghainese styles have seen a recent revival as stylish party dresses. The fashion industry has been rapidly revitalizing in the past decade. Like Shanghai 's architecture, local fashion designers strive to create a fusion of western and traditional designs, often with innovative if controversial results.
In recent times Shanghai has established its own fashion week called Shanghai Fashion Week. It is held twice every year in October and April. The April session is a part of Shanghai International Fashion Culture Festival which usually lasts for a month, while Shanghai Fashion Week lasts for seven days, and the main venue is in Fuxing Park, Shanghai, while the opening and closing ceremony is in Shanghai Fashion Center. Supported by the People 's Republic Ministry of Commerce, Shanghai Fashion Week is a major business and culture event of national significance hosted by the Shanghai Municipal Government. Shanghai Fashion Week is aiming to build up an international and professional platform, gathering all of the top design talents of Asia. The event features international designers but the primary purpose is to showcase Chinese designers. The international presence has included many of the most promising young British fashion designers.
In regard to foreign publications in Shanghai, Hartmut Walravens of the IFLA Newspapers Section said that when the Japanese controlled Shanghai in the 1940s "it was very difficult to publish good papers -- one either had to concentrate on emigration problems, or cooperate like the Chronicle ''.
Newspapers include:
Newspapers formerly published in Shanghai include:
Broadcasters:
Shanghai is home to several football teams, including two in the Chinese Super League -- Shanghai Greenland Shenhua and Shanghai SIPG. Another professional team, Shanghai Shenxin, is currently in China League One. China 's top tier basketball team, the Shanghai Sharks of the Chinese Basketball Association, developed Yao Ming before he entered the NBA. Shanghai also has an ice hockey team, China Dragon, and a baseball team, the Shanghai Golden Eagles, which plays in the China Baseball League.
Shanghai is the hometown of many outstanding and well - known Chinese professional athletes, such as Yao Ming, the 110 - meter hurdler Liu Xiang, the table - tennis player Wang Liqin and the former world women 's single champion and current Olympic silver medalist badminton player Wang Yihan.
Beginning in 2004, Shanghai started hosting the Chinese Grand Prix, one round of the Formula One World Championship. The race was staged at the Shanghai International Circuit. In 2010, Shanghai also became the host city of German Touring Car Masters (DTM), which raced in a street circuit in Pudong.
Shanghai also holds the Shanghai Masters tennis tournament which is part of ATP World Tour Masters 1000, and the BMW Masters and WGC - HSBC Champions golf tournaments.
The Shanghai Cricket Club is a cricket club based in Shanghai. The club dates back to 1858 when the first recorded cricket match was played between a team of British Naval officers and a Shanghai 11. Following a 45 - year dormancy after the founding of the People 's Republic of China in 1949, the club was re-established in 1994 by expatriates living in the city and has since grown to over 300 members. The Shanghai cricket team was a cricket team that played various international matches between 1866 and 1948. With cricket in the rest of China almost non-existent, for that period they were the de facto Chinese national side.
On 21 September 2017, Shanghai will be one of two cities to host an National Hockey League (NHL) ice hockey exhibition game that will feature the Los Angeles Kings vs. the Vancouver Canucks as an effort to garner fan interest in China before the start of the 2017 -- 18 season.
The city is the home of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), a Eurasian political, economic, and security organisation.
Shanghai is twinned with:
Direct - controlled Municipalities. Sub-provincial cities as provincial capitals. Separate state - planning cities. Special Economic Zone Cities. Coastal development cities. Prefecture capital status established by Heilongjiang Province and not recognized by Ministry of Civil Affairs. Disputed by Oroqen Autonomous Banner, Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia as part of it. Only administers islands and waters in South China Sea and have no urban core comparable to typical cities in China. The claimed province of Taiwan no longer have any internal division announced by Ministry of Civil Affairs of PRC, due to lack of actual jurisdiction. See Template: Administrative divisions of the Republic of China instead.
|
where do they use the 24 hour clock | 24 - hour clock - wikipedia
The 24 - hour clock is the convention of time keeping in which the day runs from midnight to midnight and is divided into 24 hours, indicated by the hours passed since midnight, from 0 to 23. This system is the most commonly used time notation in the world today, and is used by international standard ISO 8601.
A limited number of countries, particularly English - speaking, use the 12 - hour clock, or a mixture of the 24 - and 12 - hour time systems. In countries where the 12 - hour clock is still dominant, some professions prefer to use the 24 - hour clock. For example, in the practice of medicine the 24 - hour clock is generally used in documentation of care as it prevents any ambiguity as to when events occurred in a patient 's medical history. In the United States and a handful of other countries, it is popularly referred to as military time.
A time of day is written in the 24 - hour notation in the form hh: mm (for example 01: 23) or hh: mm: ss (for example, 01: 23: 45), where hh (00 to 23) is the number of full hours that have passed since midnight, mm (00 to 59) is the number of full minutes that have passed since the last full hour, and ss (00 to 59) is the number of seconds since the last full minute. In the case of a leap second, the value of ss may extend to 60. A leading zero is added for numbers under 10, but it is optional for the hours. The leading zero is very commonly used in computer applications, and always used when a specifications require it (for example, ISO 8601).
Where subsecond resolution is required, the seconds can be a decimal fraction; that is, the fractional part follows a decimal dot or comma, as in 01: 23: 45.678. The most commonly used separator symbol between hours, minutes and seconds is the colon, which is also the symbol used in ISO 8601. In the past, some European countries used the dot on the line as a separator, but most national standards on time notation have since then been changed to the international standard colon. In some contexts (including the U.S. military and some computer protocols), no separator is used and times are written as, for example, "2359 ''.
In the 24 - hour time notation, the day begins at midnight, 00: 00, and the last minute of the day begins at 23: 59. Where convenient, the notation 24: 00 may also be used to refer to midnight at the end of a given date -- that is, 24: 00 of one day is the same time as 00: 00 of the following day.
The notation 24: 00 mainly serves to refer to the exact end of a day in a time interval. A typical usage is giving opening hours ending at midnight (e.g. "00: 00 -- 24: 00 '', "07: 00 -- 24: 00 ''). Similarly, some railway timetables show 00: 00 as departure time and 24: 00 as arrival time. Legal contracts often run from the start date at 00: 00 until the end date at 24: 00.
While the 24 - hour notation unambiguously distinguishes between midnight at the start (00: 00) and end (24: 00) of any given date, there is no commonly accepted distinction among users of the 12 - hour notation. Style guides and military communication regulations in some English - speaking countries discourage the use of 24: 00 even in the 24 - hour notation, and recommend reporting times near midnight as 23: 59 or 00: 01 instead. Sometimes the use of 00: 00 is also avoided. In variance with this, the correspondence manual for the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps formerly specified 0001 to 2400. The manual was updated in June 2015 to use 0000 to 2359.
Time - of - day notations beyond 24: 00 (such as 24: 01 or 25: 00 instead of 00: 01 or 01: 00) are not commonly used and not covered by the relevant standards. However, they have been used occasionally in some special contexts in the UK, Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong and China where business hours extend beyond midnight, such as broadcast television production and scheduling.
In most countries, computers by default show the time in 24 - hour notation. For example, Microsoft Windows and macOS activate the 12 - hour notation by default only if a computer is in a handful of specific language and region settings. The 24 - hour system is commonly used in text - based interfaces. Programs such as ls default to displaying timestamps in 24 hour format.
In American and Canadian English, the term military time is a synonym for the 24 - hour clock. In these dialects, the time of day is customarily given almost exclusively using the 12 - hour clock notation, which counts the hours of the day as 12, 1,..., 11 with suffixes a.m. and p.m. distinguishing the two diurnal repetitions of this sequence. The 24 - hour clock is commonly used there only in some specialist areas (military, aviation, navigation, tourism, meteorology, astronomy, computing, logistics, emergency services, hospitals), where the ambiguities of the 12 - hour notation are deemed too inconvenient, cumbersome, or dangerous.
Military usage, as agreed between the United States and allied English - speaking military forces, differs in some respects from other twenty - four - hour time systems:
The 24 - hour time system has its origins in the Egyptian astronomical system of decans, and has been used for centuries by scientists, astronomers, navigators, and horologists. In East Asia, time notation was 24 - hour before westernization in modern times. Western - made clocks were changed into 12 dual - hours style when they were shipped to China in the Qing dynasty. There are many surviving examples of clocks built using the 24 - hour system, including the famous Orloj in Prague, and the Shepherd Gate Clock at Greenwich.
The first mechanical public clocks introduced in Italy were mechanical 24 - hour clocks which counted the 24 hours of the day from one half hour after sundown to the evening of the following day. The 24th hour was the last hour of day time. However, striking clocks had to produce 300 strokes each day which required a lot of rope, and wore out the mechanism quickly, so some localities switched to ringing sequences of 1 to 12 twice (156 strokes), or even 1 to 6 repeated 4 times (84 strokes).
After missing a train while travelling in Ireland in 1876 because a printed schedule listed p.m. instead of a.m., Sir Sandford Fleming proposed a single 24 - hour clock for the entire world, located at the centre of the Earth, not linked to any surface meridian -- a predecessor to Coordinated Universal Time. He was an early proponent of using the 24 - hour clock as part of a programme to reform timekeeping, which also included establishing time zones and a standard prime meridian. The Canadian Pacific Railway was among the first organizations to adopt the 24 - hour clock, at midsummer 1886.
At the International Meridian Conference in 1884, Lewis M. Rutherfurd proposed:
That this universal day is to be a mean solar day; is to begin for all the world at the moment of midnight of the initial meridian coinciding with the beginning of the civil day and date of that meridian, and is to be counted from zero up to twenty - four hours.
This resolution was adopted by the conference.
A report by a government committee in the United Kingdom noted Italy as the first country among those mentioned to adopt 24 - hour time nationally, in 1893. Other European countries followed: France adopted it in 1912 (the French army in 1909), followed by Denmark (1916), and Greece (1917). By 1920, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, and Switzerland had switched, followed by Turkey (1925), and Germany (1927). By the early 1920s, many countries in Latin America had also adopted the 24 - hour clock. Some of the railways in India had switched before the outbreak of the war.
During World War I, the British Royal Navy adopted the 24 - hour clock in 1915, and the Allied armed forces followed soon after, with the British Army switching officially in 1918. The Canadian armed forces first started to use the 24 - hour clock in late 1917. In 1920, the US Navy was the first US organization to adopt the system; the US Army, however, did not officially adopt the 24 - hour clock until World War II, on July 1, 1942.
The use of the 24 - hour clock in the United Kingdom has grown steadily since the beginning of the 20th century, although attempts to make the system official failed more than once. In 1934, the BBC switched to the 24 - hour clock for broadcast announcements and programme listings. The experiment was halted after five months following a lack of enthusiasm from the public, and the BBC continued using the 12 - hour clock. In the same year, the US airlines Pan American World Airways Corporation and Western Airlines both adopted the 24 - hour clock. In modern times, the BBC uses a mixture of both the 12 - hour and the 24 - hour clock. British Rail and London Transport switched to the 24 - hour clock for timetables in 1964. A mixture of the 12 - and 24 - hour clocks similarly prevails in other English - speaking Commonwealth countries: French speakers have adopted the 24 - hour clock in Canada much more broadly than English speakers, and Australia also uses both systems.
|
who dies in season 5 once upon a time | Once Upon a Time (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the American ABC fantasy - drama Once Upon a Time was ordered on May 7, 2015. It began airing on September 27, 2015, and ended on May 15, 2016. On June 9, 2015, the promotion of Rebecca Mader and Sean Maguire to series regulars was announced for the fifth season, portraying their characters Zelena / Wicked Witch of the West and Robin Hood, respectively, while a few days later, Michael Socha was confirmed to not be returning as a series regular as Will Scarlet / Knave of Hearts. The fifth season also saw the series reach its 100th episode, which aired on March 6, 2016 as the mid-season premiere.
New characters introduced to the series include the main antagonists for the two volumes, King Arthur, Nimue, and Hades. In addition, Guinevere, Merlin, Merida, Percival, Hercules, Megara, Zeus, Poole, Jekyll, and Hyde are also introduced to the series. The season also saw the return of numerous deceased characters from the first four seasons, including the Blind Witch, Queen of Hearts, Peter Pan, Cruella De Vil, Baelfire / Neal Cassidy, Milah, Prince Henry, Liam Jones, Prince James, Gaston, Claude, and Stealthy.
With Emma as the new Dark One, her family travels to Camelot to find the sorcerer Merlin to help remove the darkness from her vessel. The heroes are met with King Arthur and Queen Guinevere of Camelot, with both on the hunt of the Dark One 's dagger to make Excalibur whole. The trip to Camelot is cut short when another Dark Curse is cast, returning everyone to Storybrooke, where it 's revealed that Hook had also become a Dark One and is responsible for the new curse. The battle to destroy the darkness leads to the death of Hook, prompting Emma and the heroes to take a trip to the Underworld where Hades, as well as most of the deceased villains have plans of their own to get back to the land of the living. Hook is eventually resurrected, but results in the arrival of Mr. Hyde and refugees from the Land of Untold Stories to Storybrooke, as well as the separation of Regina Mills and her evil self, who wages war on Regina.
The season has been confirmed to be split into two halves, with the mid-season premiere being the 100th episode. In October 2015, Horowitz announced that the episode set to air on November 15, 2015 was set to be a two - hour episode. He later clarified that the season 's twelfth episode would be considered the 100th episode of the show, stating "it 's all semantics. But yes, we 're considering 512 the 100th! '' when discussing the fourth - season episode, Smash the Mirror, being two separate episodes.
On June 9, 2015, it was announced that Rebecca Mader and Sean Maguire had been promoted to series regulars for the fifth season, portraying their characters Zelena / Wicked Witch of the West and Robin Hood, respectively, while it was later revealed that Michael Socha would not be returning as a series regular as Will Scarlet / Knave of Hearts although further appearances as a recurring or guest star were hinted. Adam Horowitz confirmed via Twitter that Emilie de Ravin would return as Belle, while Vine Report confirmed the return of Jennifer Morrison as Emma Swan. On June 26, 2015, Josh Dallas confirmed his return as Prince Charming / David Nolan and Horowitz confirmed that there would be ten series regulars for the season. During Comic - Con 2015, Ginnifer Goodwin, Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue and Robert Carlyle were confirmed to return as Snow White / Mary Margaret Blanchard, Evil Queen / Regina Mills, Captain Killian "Hook '' Jones and Rumplestiltskin / Mr. Gold respectively, while Morrison 's character was confirmed to take on the moniker "Dark Swan ''. Jared S. Gilmore also returned as Henry Mills.
On June 26, 2015, it was revealed that Sinqua Walls would return as Lancelot. On July 1, 2015, it was announced that Liam Garrigan would play King Arthur during the first half of the season, while Gabe Khouth and Lee Arenberg confirmed via social media that they would be returning as Sneezy / Tom Clark and as Grumpy / Dreamy / Leroy respectively. On July 10, Beverley Elliott and Keegan Connor Tracy confirmed via their Twitter accounts that they would be returning as Widow Lucas / Granny and Blue Fairy / Mother Superior respectively while it was also confirmed that Elliot Knight, Joana Metrass and Andrew Jenkins had been cast as Merlin, Guinevere and Percival respectively.
Adam Horowitz announced on Twitter that Amy Manson had been cast in the role of the Scottish archer Princess Merida from Brave. Addressing rumours surrounding the characters origins Kitsis and Horowitz stated, "we are sticking to the canon of the movie Brave in terms of who her parents are and where she came from, but post-movie is where our Once Upon a Time spin comes into play ''. On September 8, Meghan Ory was confirmed to be returning for multiple episodes of the season as Little Red Riding Hood / Ruby, while on September 15, Horowitz revealed that Jamie Chung would be returning as Mulan. Both Chung and Ory will first appear in the season 's two - parter on November 15, 2015.
The premiere episode of the season, "The Dark Swan '', saw the return of David - Paul Grove as Doc, Faustine Di Bauda as Sleepy, Jeffrey Kaiser as Dopey, Michael Coleman as Happy, Mig Macario as Bashful, Raphael Alejandro as Roland, Timothy Weber as the Apprentice and Ingrid Torrance as the Severe Nurse who is revealed during the episode to be the show 's version of Nurse Ratched from Ken Kesey 's One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest, and introduced Lee Majdoub as Sir Kay and Mckenna Grace as Young Emma. Towards the end of the month, David Anders was confirmed to be returning as Dr. Victor Frankenstein / Dr. Whale. The second episode of the season, "The Price '', introduced Olivia Steele Falconer as Violet, a love interest for Henry.
On October 14, it was announced that Adam Croasdell was cast as Hook 's father, who will appear in a flashback before the midseason finale, and was later revealed to be called Brennan. The fifth episode, "Dreamcatcher '', saw the introduction of Ryan Robbins as Sir Morgan, Violet 's father, and Guy Fauchon as Vortigan. The sixth episode of the season, "The Bear and the Bow '', introduced Paul Telfer as Lord Macintosh, Marco D'Angelo as Lord MacGuffin and Josh Hallem as Lord Dingwall while the seventh episode, "Nimue '', saw the introductions of Jason Simpson as Adda, Caroline Ford as Nimue, Darren Moore as Vortigan and Graham Verchere as a young version of Merlin 's Apprentice.
On October 27, Glenn Keogh and Caroline Morahan were cast as Merida 's parents King Fergus and Queen Elinor respectively. During October and November 2015, multiple recurring characters from previous seasons were confirmed to be returning for the 100th episode, "Souls of the Departed '', these include Barbara Hershey as Cora, Robbie Kay as Peter Pan, Giancarlo Esposito would return as Magic Mirror / Sidney Glass, and Emma Caulfield as the Blind Witch who was last seen during the first season episode "True North ''. The episode will also introduce a recurring character, Hades (initially dubbed "The Distinguished Gentleman ''), who will be portrayed by Greg Germann. On February 22, it was announced that Michael Raymond - James will also return in the 100th episode as the deceased Neal Cassidy.
On November 10, it was announced that Victoria Smurfit would return as Cruella De Vil for numerous episodes during the second half of the season, beginning with the thirteenth episode, "Labor of Love ''. On November 16, it was announced that Bailee Madison would be returning in the same episode to reprise her role as a young Snow White, joined by newcomers Jonathan Whitesell and Kacey Rohl, who will be portraying Hercules and Megara, respectively. On December 3, 2015, the cast of the mid-season finale, "Swan Song '', was revealed with Eric Keenleyside returning as Maurice, Belle 's father and Oliver Bell being introduced as a Young Killian. On December 4, it was announced that Rachel Shelley would be reprising her role as Milah, Rumplestiltskin 's ex-wife and Hook 's ex-lover, for at least one episode in the second half of the season. On December 8, it was announced that the character of Dorothy Gale (previously portrayed by Matreya Scarrwener) will be returning midway through the second half of the season to be portrayed by a new actress, as the character will be aged up to her late 20s - early 30s. On December 18, it was revealed that the recurring role had been recast to Teri Reeves, who will be making her first appearance in the 16th episode of the season. On January 8, 2016, it was announced that the character of Gaston from Beauty and the Beast will be reappearing in an upcoming episode in the back - half of the 5B arc. This marks his first appearance since the season one episode "Skin Deep. '' Wes Brown will be taking over the role from Sage Brocklebank. On February 9, it was announced that Ava Acres and Isabella Blake - Thomas were cast as young versions of Regina and Zelena, respectively. They will appear via flashbacks in the nineteenth episode, "Sisters. '' On February 18, it was announced that Costas Mandylor will be appearing as Captain Silver, a pirate from Hook 's past. On February 23, it was announced that Rya Kihlstedt had been cast as Cleo, Emma 's former mentor, in a flashback to a time before Emma became a bail bonds woman. On March 15, it was announced that Sam Witwer and Hank Harris will be appearing in the recurring roles of Jacob and Nathaniel for a mental hospital arc, starting at the end of this season and into the sixth season.
|
qualitative data analysis (qda) computer software | Computer - assisted qualitative data analysis software - Wikipedia
Computer Assisted / Aided Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) offers tools that assist with qualitative research such as transcription analysis, coding and text interpretation, recursive abstraction, content analysis, discourse analysis, grounded theory methodology, etc.
CAQDAS is used in psychology, marketing research, ethnography, public health and other social sciences. The CAQDAS networking project lists the following tools a CAQDAS program should have:
Such software helps to organize, manage and analyse information. The advantages of using this software include saving time, managing huge amounts of qualitative data, having increased flexibility, having improved validity and auditability of qualitative research, and being freed from manual and clerical tasks. Concerns include increasingly deterministic and rigid processes, privileging of coding, and retrieval methods; reification of data, increased pressure on researchers to focus on volume and breadth rather than on depth and meaning, time and energy spent learning to use computer packages, increased commercialism, and distraction from the real work of analysis.
|
who dies on how to get away with a murderer season 3 | How to Get Away with Murder (season 3) - Wikipedia
The third season of the ABC American television drama series How to Get Away with Murder was ordered on March 3, 2016, by ABC. It began airing on September 22, 2016, with 15 episodes like the previous seasons and concluded on February 23, 2017. This was made in a deal with Viola Davis that the series would be a limited series with only 15 or 16 episodes per season.
Annalise Keating, law professor and criminal defense attorney at Middleton University, selects five students to intern at her firm: Wes Gibbins, Connor Walsh, Michaela Pratt, Asher Millstone, and Laurel Castillo -- along with Annalise 's employees Frank Delfino and Bonnie Winterbottom, an associate lawyer.
The first nine episodes focuses on Annalise teaching Criminal Law and her students being defense attorneys, each one proving their cases to be the representation. However, Annalise 's position at the university is threatened, after an unknown person is targeting her with a series of flyers identifying her as a killer. Frank has also gone missing with Annalise and Nate trying to find him, while the murder of Wallace Mahoney is still under investigation. In the mid-season finale, Annalise is arrested after Wes ' corpse has been retrieved from her burning house. However, Nate discovers that Wes was already dead before the fire started.
The second part of the season focuses on the investigation about Wes ' death, and the identity of his murderer. While Annalise is having a hard time in jail, tensions rise within the remaining Keating 4, as they do not agree to consider if Annalise is really guilty or being framed. Soon, it appears the DA 's office wants to keep Annalise in prison at any cost, so Bonnie and Frank team up to save her and eventually manage to get her free.
The students start their second year of law school and attend a class where Annalise is teaching a pro-bono law clinic. The "Keating 5 '' struggle with their academic reputations after getting low test scores and, at the same time, worry about an unknown person who is targeting Annalise with a series of flyers identifying her as a killer. For the pro-bono deportation case, Wes is given first chair until Michaela finds evidence that could win the case. Ultimately, however, they lose the case. Oliver secures a job with Annalise after revealing he deleted Connor 's Stanford acceptance letter and has the ability to hack Annalise. After Connor reacts understandingly, Oliver sees his lack of justified anger as a sign that they have an unhealthy relationship and breaks up with him. Meanwhile, Annalise has hired an investigator to track down Frank, but Frank overpowers and kills him instead.
Flashback: During the summer, the students cope with what they have been going through. Immediately after his father 's murder, Wes is picked up by Annalise, who tells him that Frank set them up. In May, Laurel gets into an argument with Annalise and they both agree to cut Frank out of their lives. In June, Asher asks Annalise for a loan after going broke. In July, Connor asks Annalise not to hire Oliver. In August, a depressed Michaela is saved from getting a DUI by Annalise.
Frank stages a fiery car accident to hide the body of Annalise 's investigator, while Annalise destroys her burner phone so that he can not contact her. The clinic takes the case of Irene Crawley, a woman who has spent 32 years in jail for murdering her abusive husband and is applying for parole for the seventh time. Connor and Oliver deal with the deterioration of their relationship, as Oliver begins working for Annalise. Asher struggles with the revelation that Michaela is just using him for sex, while the university attempts to suspend Annalise from teaching as the story of the flyers begins to make national news. Laurel discovers that Annalise has asked Eve to keep an eye on the Mahoney murder investigation and drunkenly admits to Bonnie that she loved Frank even though he was a murderer.
Annalise 's clinic takes the case of a sexual offender / murderer, seemingly restoring her reputation in the process. Laurel visits her seemingly - tactless father in Miami to seek his help in pinpointing Frank 's location; later, she receives a call from Frank and, after returning to Middleton, lies to Annalise and Bonnie about getting her father 's help. Meanwhile, Connor and Oliver 's relationship is tested.
Annalise 's clinic represents a teenage boy named Tristan accused of credit card theft. At the start of the trial, Annalise learns that her license was suspended after a university board member, Barry Lewinston, sent a video of her slapping her last client to the bar association 's disciplinary panel. She agrees to a rehab program for her alcoholism in exchange for getting her license back. After breaking up with Annalise due to a vicious fight, Nate sleeps with ADA Rene Atwood. In Coalport, PA, Frank kills Bonnie 's father at the prison in which he was serving time, avenging her mistreatment as a child. Listed as his next of kin, Bonnie informs Annalise of his death and warns Laurel not to tell Annalise that she lied about not knowing Frank 's whereabouts.
Annalise attends only one AA meeting, where she finds the university president, Soraya Hargrove, who is also a recovering alcoholic. After suddenly reminiscing over her memories of Sam, she starts drinking again. She later finds out that one of her students, Simon Drake, is the one behind the flyers. She threatens Hargrove with a lawsuit for neglecting of the flyer investigation among various other charges, strong - arming her into reinstating her teaching position. Meanwhile, Bonnie heads to Coalport to have her father 's corpse cremated and thank Frank for killing him. Frank wants Bonnie to join him in his escape and they later have sex. The next morning, Bonnie finds Frank gone and cries. Wes reveals to Laurel that he 's considering breaking up with Meggy upon realizing that the group is too complicated for him to involve her. Laurel later confronts Annalise about Frank just as Bonnie walks in.
Flashback: It is shown the Keating couple 's first encounter with Frank, who served an unspecified sentence for attempting to kill his father when he was 13 years old.
As the Keating Five defend an Army Vet accused of attempted murder, the NYPD come looking for Wes to question him on the murder of his father, Wallace Mahoney. Asher and Michaela confirm their commitment to each other. Oliver meets someone new. Wes breaks up with Meggy and sleeps with Laurel. Frank frames Wallace Mahoney 's other son and makes his way back to Philadelphia.
The clinic defends two brothers and a sister charged with the attempted murder of their mother. Although she portrays an elderly woman, frail and sick, things are not always what they seem. Wes lies to the NYPD after believing that Eve is still on the case. Oliver is turned down by his date Thomas after revealing that he 's HIV positive and he runs back to Connor for comfort. Frank returns to Philadelphia and goes to see Laurel and Bonnie. Bonnie, furious that he both left her in Coalport and went to go see Laurel first, throws him out after a vicious exchange of words.
Annalise threatens to kill Frank if he approaches her house, but, as Wes is subpoenaed by Charles Mahoney 's lawyer to give testimony, she instead asks Frank to find Charles ' alibi. Frank finds out that the Mahoneys ' employee who gave him the suitcase of money 10 years ago is the alibi. To clear Wes of the charge, Annalise decides to frame up the woman (who claims herself to be Charles ' one - night stand once and that she met him on the day of his (and Wes ') father 's murder and before he was arrested) with Nate 's help. In the meantime, Annalise and Hargrove discuss the latter 's child custody battle with her husband due to her history of alcoholism. Later, Connor and Oliver fight again after spending their time together, culminating in the latter 's opinion that Connor has emotional damage. Frank visits Annalise; trying to fix everything bad he caused to Annalise, he is prepared to kill himself with a gun, which Bonnie objects, and Annalise encourages, and a heated argument ensues.
After discovering that the body is Wes, Laurel suffers from post-traumatic stress disorder and is admitted to the hospital. For the first investigation report, she tells the police that she heard something in the basement but, before she could determine what, the house exploded. While visiting Laurel, Connor insults Wes, advising Laurel to get an abortion for her child, and is severely beaten by an enraged Asher. Meanwhile, Annalise and Bonnie discover the anonymous source that was ready to testify against Annalise was likely Hannah Keating, someone with ample motive to destroy Annalise. In the trial, Annalise is denied bail when the prosecutor reveals the unsigned testimony of Wes.
Flashback: The Keating Five are shown with Wes during happier times, reaffirming his connection to everyone.
After Annalise is denied bail and police look into the investigation from the perspective of street cameras that show Frank with Wes in a car, they affirm the possibility of Frank murdering Wes. In the meanwhile, Laurel is visited by Nate and informed that Frank confessed to murdering Wes because of the love triangle between the three and because he knew that Laurel was pregnant with Wes ' child, which makes Laurel realize that Frank lied to the police as Laurel herself did not know she was pregnant at the time. Laurel says to the police that she saw Frank at the house and that he must have killed Wes. Frank is later indicted of Wes ' murder, giving Annalise a hope for acquittal. However, the police decide to continue investigating Annalise with Frank as her co-conspirator. No deal is signed with the prosecutor, forcing a hopeless Annalise to stay in prison.
Annalise has another hearing in which Bonnie tries, unsuccessfully, to argue that Annalise 's trial should be severed from Frank 's. Annalise is embarrassed to find that her parents have come to the trial after finding out she was in jail. Meanwhile, the Keating 4 are unable to attend the hearing because they need to attend Wes ' memorial. Michaela picks up a now discharged Laurel from the hospital and takes her to the memorial, where Laurel breaks down and berates the attendees for their insincere grief. Afterwards, the rest of the gang ca n't find Laurel, who goes to the morgue and demands to see Wes ' body, enlisting Nate 's help to secure a viewing, but discovers that Wes ' body has been lost by the morgue. Back in the prison, Annalise confronts her parents and discovers that her mother is suffering from dementia. She thinks that Annalise is taking the blame for her regarding the house fire set by herself that killed Annalise 's abusive uncle, leading to a private confrontation between Annalise and her father about his neglect during that situation. Resolved to get out and help her mother, Annalise provokes a fight with her inmate to provide fodder for an abuse claim. Nate finds out that his signature is on the papers instructing Wes ' body be moved.
Nate believes that Atwood is framing him and is remorseful that he saw Wes at Annalise 's house the night of the fire and left him there. Laurel hires a private investigator and finds out the Mahoneys knew that Wes was a blood relative. Frank fires his lawyer and represents himself. Annalise finally reveals why the Mahoneys are so dangerous. Oliver goes through the copy of Annalise 's phone and learns from Thomas that Connor left hours before the fire, and realizes he was at the house that night. Bonnie and Annalise collude with Frank and Atwood is forced to turn over her personal communication records from the day in question. It is revealed that Atwood not only moved Wes ' body and tried to frame Nate and Annalise for it, but also had his body cremated, making it impossible for a second autopsy to clear Annalise.
Just as Connor finds Denver 's burner phone, Denver walks in. Wes ' unknown killer gives Wes ' phone to Denver, who can now claim that it was found in Connor 's car. Denver threatens Connor to get him to sign the immunity deal or else he 'll be charged with murder. The immunity deal eventually expires but, to save himself from being arrested, Connor discloses that Oliver has a copy of Annalise 's phone on his computer. Elsewhere, Annalise confronts Sylvia Mahoney about her family 's involvement in Wes ' death. Sylvia admits that Wes was not Wallace 's son; rather, he was Charles '. Despite Laurel 's protests, Annalise pins Rebecca and Sam 's deaths on Wes, using a voicemail found on Oliver 's computer that she received the night of the fire that incriminates Wes, prompting Denver to drop his charges against her and Frank. Meanwhile, Laurel, certain that Charles killed Wes, prepares to kill him, when she is intercepted by the man who was revealed to have been Wes ' killer: Dominic, a family friend.
ABC renewed the series for a third season on March 3, 2016, along with several other shows. It was announced that the third season would premiere on September 22, 2016. Production began on May 27, 2016, when showrunner Peter Nowalk announced, on Twitter, that the writing staff was in full swing mapping and writing the third season. The table read for the premiere happened on July 6, 2016, and filming started a week later. A promotional poster, showcasing Viola Davis as Annalise Keating, was released on August 9, 2016. ABC released a promo for the third season on August 29, 2016.
The season began airing on September 22, 2016 and aired nine episodes in the fall, just like the rest of ABC 's primetime Thursday - lineup, Grey 's Anatomy and Notorious. The remaining fall schedule for ABC was announced on October 22, 2016: How to Get Away with Murder would air nine episodes in the fall with the fall finale to air on November 17, 2016, just like the rest of ABC 's primetime lineup, which was the same last year. The remaining six episodes would air after the winter break, on January 26, 2017.
In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, showrunner Peter Nowalk talked about what would happen in the third season regarding Frank 's disappearance and commented: "Yes, I can see the three - piece suits and the hair product all falling apart. It 's more what Frank feels about himself ''. When talking about the trust between Annalise and Frank, Nowalk said: "... Frank has two choices: To run away and hope she never catches him, just to cut bait; or he can try to win his way back. That 's a long road. '' Charlie Weber commented on Frank 's whereabouts to Entertainment Weekly: "I think he 's hiding, and I think he 's alone. If he does have a lifeline, I do n't think it 's Laurel. ''
Nowalk said Laurel 's backstory with her family would be explored in the upcoming season, "I feel like it 's very present. The promise of our show is that we wo n't dangle things out too long. The likelihood is yes. We 've raised that question too many times not to answer it sooner than later. '' Michaela 's backstory will also be explored; Nowalk said: "We have so much to explore with her. Aja is so talented. I 'm just excited to really delve into her personal life next year. '' Norwalk told The Hollywood Reporter the show would explore Annalise and Nate 's relationship, as well as both their families.
The third season will have ten roles receiving star billing, with all of them returning from the previous season. Viola Davis will play the protagonist of the series, Professor Annalise Keating, a high - profile defense attorney, teaching a class at Middleton University. Billy Brown will play Detective Nate Lahey, Annalise 's boyfriend. There are five students who work at Annalise 's law firm. Alfred Enoch would portray Wes Gibbins, Jack Falahee will portray Connor Walsh, the ruthless student. Aja Naomi King will play Michaela Pratt, the ambitious student who wants to be as successful as Annalise. Matt McGorry will continue portraying Asher Millstone, a student who comes from a privileged background. Karla Souza will play Laurel Castillo, an idealistic student. Charlie Weber will portray Frank Delfino, an employee of Annalise 's firm who is not a lawyer but handles special duties requiring discretion. Liza Weil will play Bonnie Winterbottom, who is an associate attorney in Annalise 's firm. Conrad Ricamora will portray Oliver Hampton, a hacker who is in a relationship with Connor.
After the second - season finale, it was confirmed that every series regular was expected to return for the third season. TVLine announced on March 18, 2016, that Conrad Ricamora playing Oliver Hampton had been upgraded to a series - regular for the third season. On July 20, 2016, it was announced that Dexter - alum Lauren Vélez had been cast in a recurring role as the President of Middleton University. The role was described as "self - assured, friendly, warm and diplomatic. '' It was reported on August 6, 2016, that Esai Morales and Amy Madigan had been added to the show as guest stars for the third season. It was later revealed that Morales would be replacing José Zúniga as Jorge Castillo, Laurel 's father. Deadline announced on August 31, 2016, that Mary J. Blige had landed a guest role in the third season. On September 13, 2016, it was reported that Brett Butler will appear in a guest role during the third season.
The third season received positive reviews from critics. The season has a rating of 90 % fresh on Rotten Tomatoes based on 30 reviews. The season premiere was watched by 5.11 million in total viewership, a decline of 39 percent compared to the second - season premiere, and a 1.4 in the key demographic Adults 18 -- 49, a decline of 46 percent from the previous premiere.
|
who is the cast on this is us | This Is Us (TV series) - wikipedia
This Is Us is an American television drama series created by Dan Fogelman that premiered on NBC on September 20, 2016. The series stars an ensemble cast featuring Milo Ventimiglia, Mandy Moore, Sterling K. Brown, Chrissy Metz, Justin Hartley, Susan Kelechi Watson, Chris Sullivan, Ron Cephas Jones, Jon Huertas, Alexandra Breckenridge, Niles Fitch, Logan Shroyer, Hannah Zeile, Mackenzie Hancsicsak, Parker Bates, Lonnie Chavis, Eris Baker, and Faithe Herman. The program details the lives and families of two parents, and their three children born on the same day as their father 's birthday. This Is Us is filmed in Los Angeles.
The series has received positive reviews and has been nominated for Best Television Series -- Drama at the 74th Golden Globe Awards and Best Drama Series at the 7th Critics ' Choice Awards, as well as being chosen as a Top Television Program by the American Film Institute. Sterling K. Brown has received an Emmy, a Golden Globe, a Critics ' Choice Award, and an NAACP Image Award for his acting in the series. Mandy Moore and Chrissy Metz received Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actress. In 2017, the series received ten Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, with Brown winning for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series.
On September 27, 2016, NBC picked up the series for a full season of 18 episodes. In January 2017, NBC renewed the series for two additional seasons of 18 episodes each. The second season premiered on September 26, 2017.
The series follows the lives of siblings Kevin, Kate, and Randall (known as the "Big Three ''), and their parents Jack and Rebecca Pearson. It takes place in the present and using flashbacks, at various times in the past. Kevin and Kate are the two surviving members of a triplet pregnancy, born six weeks premature on Jack 's 36th birthday in 1980; their brother is stillborn. Believing they were meant to have three children, Jack and Rebecca, who are white, decide to adopt Randall, a black child born the same day and brought to the same hospital after his biological father abandoned him at a fire station. Jack dies when his children are 17.
Most episodes feature a storyline taking place in the present (2016 -- 2018, contemporaneous with airing) and a storyline taking place at a set time in the past; but some episodes are set in one time period or use multiple flashback time periods. Flashbacks often focus on Jack and Rebecca c. 1980 both before and after their babies ' birth, or on the family when the Big Three are children (at least ages 8 -- 10) or adolescents; these scenes usually take place in Pittsburgh, where the Big Three are born and raised. Various other time periods and locations have also served a settings. As adults, Kate lives in Los Angeles, Randall and his family are in New Jersey, and Kevin relocates from Los Angeles to New York City.
In May 2017, Hulu acquired the SVOD rights to new and past episodes of the series to air exclusively on Hulu, in addition to NBC.com and the NBC app.
The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 89 % approval rating for the first season with an average rating of 7.72 / 10 based on 63 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Featuring full - tilt heartstring - tugging family drama, This Is Us will provide a suitable surrogate for those who have felt a void in their lives since Parenthood went off the air. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 76 out of 100 based on 34 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Season 2 received a 94 % approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes based on 17 reviews.
Entertainment Weekly gave the first few episodes of This Is Us a rating of B, calling it "a refreshing respite from the relational violence and pessimism that marks the other buzz soaps that have bubbled forth from a culture of divisiveness ''. Moreover, they praised all the actors, specifically Sterling K. Brown, for being able to navigate "his scenes with such intelligence, authenticity, and charisma ''.
|
when was the last time dallas mavericks won a championship | 2011 NBA Finals - wikipedia
The 2011 NBA Finals was the championship series of the National Basketball Association (NBA) 's 2010 -- 11 season, and the conclusion of the season 's playoffs. The Western Conference champion Dallas Mavericks defeated the Eastern Conference champion Miami Heat 4 games to 2 to win their first NBA championship. Dallas became the last NBA team from Texas to win its first title, after the Houston Rockets won back - to - back titles in 1994 and 1995, and the San Antonio Spurs won four NBA championships in 1999, 2003, 2005 and 2007, and a fifth one subsequently in 2014; all three Texas NBA teams have now won at least one NBA championship. It was also the first time in four years that the Los Angeles Lakers did not make the Finals, having been swept in the Western Conference semifinals by the eventual champion Dallas Mavericks.
The series was held from May 31 to June 12, 2011 -- the first to start before June 1 since the 1986 NBA Finals. Under the 2 -- 3 -- 2 rotation, the Miami Heat had home - court advantage; the Heat hosted Games 1, 2, and 6, and was set to host a deciding Game 7, had one been necessary. German player Dirk Nowitzki was named the Finals MVP. Nowitzki was the second European to win the award after Tony Parker (2007); he is the first German to win the award.
Going into the series, the Heat were heavy favorites with their newly acquired superstars LeBron James and Chris Bosh along with returning superstar Dwyane Wade. The series was a rematch of the 2006 NBA Finals, which was won by the Heat in six games after Dallas blew a 2 -- 0 series lead.
The Dallas Mavericks became the first team in NBA history since the institution of the 2 -- 3 -- 2 format to enter Game 3 tied at one, lose Game 3 and still win the Finals. The previous 11 times this occurred, the Game 3 winner went on to win the series.
The Dallas Mavericks also became just the 7th team, and the first since 1988, to come back and win the Finals after being down in the series two or more separate times (one game to none, and later two games to one). The previous six times this happened, the Finals ended in seven games; Dallas became the first team in NBA history to do it in six games.
ABC averaged a 10.1 rating, 11.7 million households and nearly 17.3 million viewers with the 2011 Finals, according to Nielsen.
Both the Mavericks and Heat made their second appearance in the NBA Finals, the first for both teams being the 2006 NBA Finals. This Finals marked a rematch of the 2006 Finals, won by Miami in six games, after the Mavericks were up 2 -- 0.
It was also the first time since 2006 that neither the Los Angeles Lakers nor the San Antonio Spurs represented the Western Conference in the Finals and only the second time since 1998, and also the thirteenth consecutive NBA Finals to feature a Western Conference Champion from either the states of California or Texas.
This was the first finals since 1998 not to feature, Kobe Bryant (2000, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2008, 2009, 2010), Shaquille O'Neal (2000, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2006) or Tim Duncan (1999, 2003, 2005, 2007)
The Mavericks ' appearance also meant that three of North America 's four major professional sports championships were played in the Dallas - Fort Worth Metroplex in a span of eight months, with the 2010 World Series and Super Bowl XLV both occurring in nearby Arlington.
The Heat had home - court advantage by virtue of a better regular - season record than the Mavericks. This was only the second time that the Eastern Conference had home court advantage during the Finals since the end of the Michael Jordan era in 1998. It also marks the first time since 1995 that the Eastern Conference team lost in the Finals despite having home court advantage.
The 2011 series marked the first time a Finals match (Game 1) was played in the month of May since 1986.
Among the players from both teams, only Dirk Nowitzki and Jason Terry of Dallas, and Dwyane Wade and Udonis Haslem of Miami, appeared in the 2006 series with the same team. Heat center Erick Dampier played for the Mavericks in 2006. Aside from Dampier, Caron Butler, Juwan Howard and Shawn Marion are the only other players who have played for both the Mavericks and Heat. Eddie House, Žydrūnas Ilgauskas, LeBron James and Jason Kidd have appeared in the Finals with different teams, with House (as a member of Boston 's 2008 championship team), Wade and Haslem winning a championship ring. Mavericks head coach Rick Carlisle won a championship as a reserve for Boston 's 1986 championship team making him only the eleventh person in NBA history to win a Finals as both a player and a coach.
The Dallas Mavericks won both games in the regular season.
The Heat made only 28.6 percent of their shots during the first quarter, and this low scoring percentage early on left the Mavs with an 8 - point lead early into the 3rd quarter. The Heat changed course from this point on, outscoring the Mavs 22 -- 10 and taking a 65 -- 61 lead going into the 4th quarter. Mavs power forward Dirk Nowitzki injured his finger within the last four minutes of the game, but remained in play, wearing a splint to support the torn tendon. Despite having a below - average performance early in the game, Heat shooting guard Dwyane Wade and small forward LeBron James collaborated on both defensive and offensive ends of the court in the fourth quarter, leading the Heat to win Game 1 over the Mavs 92 -- 84.
The Mavs ' 15 - point comeback was the biggest in an NBA Finals game since the 24 - point comeback the Celtics made against the Lakers in Game 4 of the 2008 NBA Finals. Dirk Nowitzki hit a 3 with 26.7 seconds left to give the Mavericks a 93 -- 90 lead. However, Mario Chalmers tied it with a 3 of his own with 24.5 seconds left when Jason Terry left him wide open. After Jason Kidd ran the clock down, Nowitzki then made a driving layup with his injured left hand with 3.6 seconds left. The Heat had no timeouts left, and Dwyane Wade 's potential game - winning 3 hit the back rim at the buzzer as he fell to the ground in an attempt to draw a foul on Nowitzki. The Mavs win broke the Heat 's 9 - game home winning streak in the playoffs, costing them a chance to tie the 1996 Bulls ' mark of 10 straight. This was the second straight Finals with a 1 -- 1 split after two games, after five straight years with one team leading 2 -- 0 (2005 -- 09).
The Heat led most of the game, but the Mavericks fought back from a 14 - point deficit. With 39.6 seconds left in the 4th, LeBron James found Chris Bosh for a 20 - foot baseline jumper; Dirk Nowitzki had a chance to force OT, but missed a well - defended fadeaway jumper at the buzzer as the Heat handed Dallas another defeat to go up 2 -- 1 in the series. It was Miami 's 6th win in its last 7 NBA Finals games, 4 by 3 points or less.
Game 4 was a back - and - forth affair, with 12 lead changes and 15 ties. Miami went up 74 -- 65 early in the fourth quarter on a baseline jumpshot by Udonis Haslem, tallying their largest lead of the game. After a timeout, Dallas answered with 4 straight points by Jason Terry, similar to the 6 straight he scored with Dallas down 15 halfway through the fourth quarter of Game 2. Dallas would take their first lead of the fourth quarter with 5: 15 left on a fastbreak layup by Terry. They held the lead for the rest of the game, although Miami cut the lead to 1 twice in the final minute. Up 82 -- 81 with 20 seconds left after Wade missed 1 of 2 free throws, Dirk Nowitzki hit a driving layup with 14.4 seconds left to extend the lead to 3. After a dunk by Wade with 9 seconds left, 2 free throws by Terry pushed the lead back up to 3. With a chance to tie the game with a 3, Wade fumbled the inbounds pass with 6.7 seconds left, only to make a diving save to prevent a backcourt violation. The ball landed in Mike Miller 's hands, whose desperation 3 airballed at the buzzer, preserving Dallas 's 86 -- 83 win. LeBron James scored just eight total points in Game 4.
After four low - scoring games, Game 5 saw the first time either team would break 100 points in this series. Dallas connected 13 times out of their 19 tries from three - point range. Jason Terry, Jason Kidd, and J.J. Barea combined to make 10 of those 13 made threes. Late in the first quarter, Dwyane Wade ran into Brian Cardinal and had to go to the locker room with a hip injury; he eventually returned and hit a 3 to cap a 9 -- 0 run that put Miami in front 99 -- 95 with less than 5 minutes left in the game. Unhappy with Terry for missing a defensive assignment and setting a poor cross-screen, Mavs coach Rick Carlisle pulled Terry from the game, telling him, "Refocus. I 'm putting you right back in. '' After less than a minute, Carlisle subbed in Terry and made the crucial decision to run the offense through him for the rest of the game. This move ignited Dallas ' offense, leading them on a game - winning 15 -- 3 run in which Terry scored or assisted on 11 points. With Miami leading 100 -- 97, Terry passed to Dirk Nowitzki, who drew a double team and then kicked it back out to Terry for a game - tying 3. Nowitzki then drove baseline on Chris Bosh for a two - handed dunk (assisted by Terry) with 2: 44 left in the game to give the Mavs a 102 -- 100 lead they would not relinquish. After LeBron James was called for an offensive foul (Tyson Chandler drew the charge), Terry found Kidd for another wide - open 3 that gave the Mavs a 105 -- 100 lead with 1: 26 left. After Chandler blocked Dwyane Wade with 1: 04 left, Chris Bosh made 1 of 2 free throws to cut the Mavs ' lead to 105 -- 101. On the Mavs ' next possession, Terry knocked down a 28 - foot 3 with LeBron James closely guarding him to give the Mavs an insurmountable 108 -- 101 lead with 33.3 seconds left. The Mavericks won 112 -- 103 and grabbed a 3 -- 2 series lead going back to Miami.
Lebron James made his first four shots to contribute to the Heat taking a 20 -- 11 lead. The Mavericks went to a zone defense that perplexed Miami and Dallas went on a 21 -- 4 run in a span of 5 1⁄2 minutes. They made 9 of 12 shots during this stretch with DeShawn Stevenson making two 3 's in a 24 - second duration to give Dallas a 40 -- 28 lead with 9: 42 left in the first half. Dallas turned Miami 's first six turnovers into 14 points. The Heat then went on a 14 -- 0 run to take a 42 -- 40 lead. With 6: 25 left in the half, Stevenson along with Udonis Haslem and Mario Chalmers received technical fouls after a scuffle occurred at midcourt during a timeout. In the second half, James did not score until making a layup with 1: 49 remaining in the third. The Mavericks led by nine going into the 4th quarter after Ian Mahinmi hit a buzzer beater to give Dallas an 81 -- 72 lead. The Mavericks took a 12 - point lead with 8: 12 remaining. With 2: 27 left, Nowitzki made a jump shot to help build the Mavericks ' lead to 99 -- 89. The Mavericks, who led for the final 22 minutes in the game, won their first championship in franchise history. Nowitzki was named Finals MVP. He had a poor shooting performance in the first half but managed to score 18 points in the second half. When the final buzzer sounded, an emotional Nowitzki went straight to the locker room in tears, although he re-emerged for the trophy presentation.
The Finals were originally projected to begin on Thursday, June 9, but (along with the entire NBA schedule) were pushed up ahead one week to Thursday, June 2 due to negotiations on an impending league - wide lockout at the end of the season. They were again pushed ahead to a start date of May 31 as both conference finals series ended in five games.
This series marked the first time since 2002 (or the last game of the NBA 's coverage on NBC) that the NBA Finals ended before the NHL 's Stanley Cup Finals.
The Finals were televised in the United States through ABC, with Mike Breen, Mark Jackson and Jeff Van Gundy as announcers. Doris Burke was the sideline reporter, while Stuart Scott hosted the championship presentation. Scott also hosted the pre-game and halftime shows along with Jon Barry, Michael Wilbon and Magic Johnson. ESPN Radio aired the Finals nationally on radio, with Mike Tirico, Hubie Brown and Jack Ramsay announcing.
Weeks after the NBA Finals ended, the league went to a lockout after the expiration of the previous collective bargaining agreement on July 1. The lockout would last until December 8, after which the league played an abbreviated 66 - game season beginning on Christmas Day.
On Opening Day, the Heat beat the Mavericks 105 -- 94 in Dallas, on the afternoon the Mavericks raised their championship banner. Dallas fielded a virtually different team from the previous year, letting free agents Tyson Chandler, JJ Barea, Caron Butler and DeShawn Stevenson go. The Mavericks struggled with their makeshift lineup, which included Lamar Odom and Vince Carter, finishing with 36 wins. The seventh - seeded Mavericks were swept in the first round of the playoffs by the Oklahoma City Thunder, who went on to make the 2012 NBA Finals.
The Heat would maintain the momentum of their opening day win, starting the season with five straight wins, before finishing second in the Eastern Conference behind the Chicago Bulls with 46 wins. The Heat returned to the Finals by beating the New York Knicks, Indiana Pacers and Boston Celtics in five, six, and seven games respectively. After losing Game 1 to the Thunder, the Heat would win four straight games to capture their second NBA championship.
|
who is the voice of leah in big mouth | Big Mouth (tv series) - wikipedia
Big Mouth is an American adult animated sitcom created by Nick Kroll, Andrew Goldberg, Mark Levin, and Jennifer Flackett based on Kroll and Goldberg 's tweenage years growing up in Westchester County, New York, with Kroll voicing his fictional self. The first season consisting of ten episodes premiered on Netflix on September 29, 2017. On October 24, 2017, it was confirmed that a second season has been ordered to air in 2018.
The series follows 7th grade best friends Nick Birch and Andrew Glouberman as they navigate their way through puberty, masturbation, and sexual arousal. Acting as sex - based shoulder angels are the hormone monsters; Maurice (who pesters Andrew and occasionally Nick and Jay), and Connie (who pesters Jessi and occasionally Missy). Throughout the series, the kids interact with people and objects who are personified in one way or another and offer helpful, albeit confusing, advice in their puberty - filled lives including the ghost of Duke Ellington, a French accented Statue of Liberty, a pillow capable of getting pregnant, and even Jessi 's own vagina.
Big Mouth has received critical acclaim since its official release. On Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 100 % based on 17 reviews, with the critical consensus reading, "Big Mouth 's simplistic animation and scatalogical humor belie its finely sketched characters and smart, empathetic approach to the messiness of adolescence. '' At Metacritic, the show currently holds a rating of 80 out of 100, based on 6 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Vox described the show as sharp, and as jarringly depicting the awkwardness of pubescence, postpubescence and prepubescence.
|
who sings i wish that i knew what i know now | Ooh La La (Faces song) - wikipedia
"Ooh La La '' is a 1973 song by the band Faces, written by Ronnie Lane and Ronnie Wood. It was the title song for the band 's last studio album, Ooh La La.
The lead vocals were provided by Wood, a rarity in the band 's catalog, as most lead vocals were by Rod Stewart or less often by Ronnie Lane. Stewart and Lane recorded lead vocals for it; however, their producer suggested Wood give it a try, and that was the version that was used for the track which appeared on the record.
Lane recorded his own version after leaving the Faces in 1973 with his new group, Slim Chance. Lane 's version featuring lyrics slightly altered from those he wrote for the Faces. Although Lane 's version was never released during his lifetime, it appeared as the title track of the 2014 Slim Chance compilation Ooh La La: An Island Harvest. Lane performed his version of the song right up until he retired from the music business in 1992.
Wood performed the song in his solo concerts between 1987 -- 2012.
The lyrics describe a dialogue between a grandfather and grandson, with the elder man warning the younger about the perils of relationships with women: "Poor old granddad, I laughed at all his words / I thought he was a bitter man; he spoke of women 's ways. '' The chorus laments, "I wish that I knew what I know now, when I was younger. ''
In addition to being the closing title track of the Faces ' final studio album, the song also appeared as a US single in May 1973. The first compilation the song appeared on was the album Snakes and Ladders / The Best of Faces, and was one of the few songs that represented Ronnie Lane 's songwriting. It appeared again on the 1999 Faces retrospective Good Boys... When They 're Asleep and another time on the four - disc Five Guys Walk Into A Bar... It even appeared on the Ronnie Wood greatest hits compilation Ronnie Wood Anthology: The Essential Crossexion, where Wood stated in the liner notes that he always thinks of Lane when he plays it.
Rod Stewart covered the song himself on his 1998 solo album When We Were the New Boys in tribute to the recently deceased Lane. It was released as the first single from the album and became a top 40 hit in the US and top 20 in the UK.
Indie rock band Silkworm covered the song for their 2000 LP Lifestyle. Banjo player Danny Barnes covered the song on his 2003 release Dirt on the Angel. The song was covered by Counting Crows as a B - side for their 2003 single "If I Could Give All My Love (Richard Manuel Is Dead) '' and re-released on their 2012 studio - album "Underwater Sunshine ''. In late 2012, punk rocker Tim Armstrong, best known as frontman of Rancid, recorded a ska - flavored cover of the song under the moniker Tim Timebomb and Friends. Included in the recording, and featured in the video, were drummer Travis Barker of Blink - 182, bassist J Bonner, and keyboardist Kevin Bivona of The Transplants. American indie rock band Manchester Orchestra performed a version of the song in July 2013 for The A.V. Club 's A.V. Undercover series.
"Ooh La La '' was featured in the 1998 film Rushmore, played over the film 's final shot and closing credits. It was also included in the film 's 1999 soundtrack album. It was also used as the theme song for the 2003 BBC sitcom Grass. It was also featured in the 2004 movie Without a Paddle. "Ooh La La '' was performed live by Ronnie Wood at the 50th birthday celebration of the Fender Stratocaster in 2004. Episode 4 of the 2004 BBC miniseries Blackpool featured the Faces recording, accompanied on screen by the singing and dancing of the characters, as part of the story. The song is used in the HBO series Entourage in the fifth - season episode "ReDOMption ''. It is used in the Showtime series Californication in the third - season finale "Mia Culpa ''. It is the favorite song of Red Hot Chili Peppers ' vocalist Anthony Kiedis. It was played at the funeral of FBI Agent Elizabeth Keen, on the NBC series The Blacklist, season 3, episode 20 "The Artax Network ''. Used as background music during the "fish '' scene of season 1 episode 20 Young Sheldon.
|
michael jackson they don't care about us song meaning | They Do n't Care About Us - wikipedia
"They Do n't Care About Us '' is the fifth single from Michael Jackson 's album HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I, released on March 31, 1996. The song remains one of the most controversial pieces Jackson ever composed. In the US, media scrutiny surrounding allegations of antisemitic lyrics were the catalyst for Jackson issuing multiple apologies and re-recording the song with altered lyrics. The singer countered allegations of antisemitism, arguing that reviews had misinterpreted the context of the song, either unintentionally or deliberately.
The song was accompanied by two music videos directed by Spike Lee. The first was shot in two locations in Brazil, in Pelourinho, the historic city center of Salvador, and in a favela of Rio de Janeiro called Dona Marta, where the state authorities had tried to ban all production over fears the video would damage their image, the area and prospects of Rio de Janeiro staging the 2004 Olympics. Still, the residents of the area were happy to see the singer, hoping their problems would be made visible to a wider audience. The second video was shot in a prison and contained video footage of multiple references to human rights abuses.
Commercially, the song became a top ten hit in all European countries and number one in Germany for three weeks. In the US, radio stations were reluctant to play the controversial composition; it, however, managed to peak at number 30 on the Billboard Hot 100.
The song was remixed with parts of songs such as "Privacy '' (from the album Invincible) and "Tabloid Junkie '', and released on the Immortal album, in November, 2011.
The song was performed during Jackson 's third and final concert series, the HIStory World Tour which ran from 1996 to 1997 as part of a medley with "Scream '' and "In the Closet ''. The song was set to be performed on Jackson 's This Is It comeback concert series at The O2 Arena in London from July 2009 to March 2010 but the shows were cancelled due to his sudden death on June 25, 2009.
The song begins with a group of children singing the chorus, "All I wan na say is that they do n't really care about us ''. In between the chorus lines, one child chants, "Do n't worry what people say, we know the truth. '' after which another child says, "Enough is enough of this garbage! '' According to the sheet music published on Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing "They Do n't Care About Us '' is played in the key of D minor and the track 's time signature is common time. The song, which is cited as being a pop song, has a moderately slow tempo of 90 beats per minute. Instruments used include a piano and guitar. Jon Pareles stated that Jackson was calling himself "a victim of police brutality '' and a "victim of hate ''. He continued, "A listener might wonder just who ' Us ' is supposed to be... To make the songs lodge in the ear, Jackson uses elementary singsong melodies -- a ' nyah, nyah ' two - note motif in ' They Do n't Care About Us '... and he comes up with all kinds of surprises in the arrangements ''.
James Hunter of Rolling Stone magazine noted that musically, Jackson was no longer trying to hide any eccentricities he had, he expressed the opinion that in "They Do n't Care About Us '', the pop musician sounded more embattled than ever. Jim Farber of New York Daily News said that Jackson "snarled '' while singing, that the song "clicked '' and has an "original clattering rhythm ''. The review of HIStory in The Washington Times noted of "They Do n't Care About Us '': "(it) follows fast, inviting more pathos -- and more controversy. With haunting clapping and a police scanner in the background ''. The Sacramento Bee described it as a "looped reggae - lite dance beat ''.
The song gained renewed attention and relevance due to its use during Black Lives Matter protests in 2014 and 2015.
In the UK, it peaked at number four and stayed on the chart for three months. The song found particular success in Europe, peaking within the top ten in all countries, except in Spain, where peaked at number 11, and remained in the chart for just one week. European highlights came in Austria, Switzerland, France, Belgium and Sweden, in these countries the song became a top five hit and stayed in their respective charts for a minimum of 21 weeks. The song reached the top of the charts for three weeks in Germany and stayed a full 30 weeks in the survey. It is the longest consecutive chart run of a Michael Jackson song in the German charts. The lyrical controversy surrounding "They Do n't Care About Us '' brought partial commercial disappointment in the US; radio stations were reluctant to play the song. It peaked at number 30 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, falling short of the record breaking success of the two previous singles "Scream / Childhood '' and "You Are Not Alone '', yet the song peaked at number 10 on the US Billboard Hot R&B Singles chart.
Producing the first video proved to be a difficult task for Jackson. State authorities unsuccessfully tried to ban the singer filming in Salvador (Pelourinho) and in Rio de Janeiro. Officials in the state of Rio feared images of poverty might affect tourism and accused Jackson of exploiting the poor. Ronaldo Cezar Coelho, the state secretary for Industry, Commerce and Tourism demanded editing rights over the finished product, stating, "I do n't see why we should have to facilitate films that will contribute nothing to all our efforts to rehabilitate Rio 's image ''. Some were concerned that scenes of poverty and human rights abuses would affect their chances of hosting the Olympics in 2004. Others supported Jackson 's wish to highlight the problems of the region, arguing that the government were embarrassed by their own failings.
A judge banned all filming but this ruling was overturned by an injunction. Although officials were angry, the residents were not and Jackson was surrounded by crowds of enthusiastic onlookers during filming. One woman managed to push through security to hug Jackson who continued dancing while hugging her. Another woman appeared and hugged him from behind. He then fell to the ground as police pulled the two women off him and escorted them away. After the director helped Jackson get up off the street, he continued to sing and dance. This incident made it into the music video. 1,500 policemen and 50 residents acting as security guards effectively sealed off the Dona Marta favela. Some residents and officials found it offensive that Jackson 's production team had negotiated with drug dealers in order to gain permission to film in one of the city 's shantytowns.
The music video was directed by Spike Lee. Asked why he chose Lee to direct the video, Jackson responded, "' They Do n't Care About Us ' has an edge, and Spike Lee had approached me. It 's a public awareness song and that 's what he is all about. It 's a protest kind of song... and I think he was perfect for it ''.
Jackson also collaborated with 200 members of the cultural group Olodum, who "swayed to the heavy beat of Salvador 's ' samba - reggae ' music ''. The media interest surrounding the music video exposed Olodum to 140 countries around the world. It brought them worldwide fame and increased their credibility in Brazil. At the beginning of the video, a Brazilian woman says "Michael, eles não ligam pra gente '' which means "Michael, they do n't care about us ''.
Speaking of the music video, in The New Brazilian Cinema, Lúcia Nagib observed:
When Michael Jackson decided to shoot his new music video in a favela of Rio de Janeiro... he used the favela people as extras in a visual super-spectacle... All the while there is a vaguely political appeal in there... The interesting aspect of Michael Jackson 's strategy is the efficiency with which it gives visibility to poverty and social problems in countries like Brazil without resorting to traditional political discourse. The problematic aspect is that it does not entail a real intervention in that poverty.
In 2009, Billboard described the area as "now a model for social development '' and claimed that Jackson 's influence was partially responsible for this improvement.
For the first time in his career, Jackson made a second music video for a single. This second version was filmed in a prison with cell mates; in the video Jackson is seen handcuffed. It also contains real footage of police attacking African Americans, the military crackdown of the protest in the Tiananmen Square, the Ku Klux Klan, war crimes, genocide, execution, martial law, and other human rights abuses.
The first music video of the song appears on the box set Visionary: The Video Singles, and the video albums HIStory on Film, Volume II and Vision; the latter additionally includes the prison version.
The voice intro, "Michael, Michael, eles não ligam pra gente '' (Portuguese for "they do n't care about us ''), was recorded by Angélica Vieira, producer of Manhattan Connection.
"They Do n't Care About Us '' was only performed as part of the opening medley for the HIStory World Tour, along with "Scream '' and "In the Closet ''. The segment for "They Do n't Care About Us '' began with a short, military - style dance sequence and contained an excerpt of "HIStory ''. A short unedited video clip released after Jackson 's death of the June 23, 2009 rehearsal for the This Is It concert series shows Jackson performing the song as the main song in a medley with parts of "HIStory '' song as well as "Why You Wanna Trip On Me '' and "She Drives Me Wild '' from Dangerous. The song was later remixed and featured as part of Cirque du Soleil 's Michael Jackson: The Immortal World Tour.
The New York Times reported the song contained racist and anti-Semitic content on June 15, 1995, just a day before the album 's release. The publication highlighted the lyrics, "Jew me, sue me, everybody do me / Kick me, kike me, do n't you black or white me. '' Jackson responded directly to the publication, stating:
When questioned further about the lyrics on the ABC News program Prime Time Live, Jackson stated, "It 's not anti-Semitic because I 'm not a racist person... I could never be a racist. I love all races. '' The singer also said that some of his closest employees and friends were Jewish. That same day, Jackson received support from his manager and record label, who described the lyrics as "brilliant '', that they were about opposition to prejudice and taken out of context. The following day, two leading members of the Jewish community stated that Jackson 's attempt to make a song critical of discrimination had backfired. They expressed the opinion that the lyrics used were unsuitable for a teenage audience that might not understand the song 's context, adding that the song was too ambiguous for some listeners to understand. They accepted that Jackson meant well and suggested that the entertainer write an explanation in the album booklet.
On June 17, Jackson issued another public apology for his choice of words. He promised that future copies of the album would include an apology. By this point, however, two million copies of the record had already been shipped. The singer concluded, "I just want you all to know how strongly I am committed to tolerance, peace and love, and I apologize to anyone who might have been hurt. '' The next day, in his review of HIStory, Jon Pareles of The New York Times alleged, "In... ' They Do n't Care About Us ', he gives the lie to his entire catalogue of brotherhood anthems with a burst of anti-Semitism. ''
On June 21, Patrick Macdonald of The Seattle Times criticized Jackson, stating, "He may have lived a sheltered life, but there really is no excuse for using terms like ' Jew me ' and ' kike ' in a pop song, unless you make it clear you are denouncing such terms, and do so in an artful way. '' Two days later, Jackson decided, despite the cost incurred, he would return to the studio and alter the offending wording on future copies of the album; "Jew me '' and "Kike me '' would be substituted with "do me '' and "strike me ''. The music video and some copies of the album still carry the original words, but with loud, abstract noises partially drowning them out. He reiterated his acceptance that the song was offensive to some. Spike Lee said there was some kind of double standard in the music industry. "While the New York Times asserted the use of racial slurs in "They Do n't Care About Us '', they were silent on other racial slurs in the album. The Notorious B.I.G. says "nigga '' on "This Time Around, '' another song on the HIStory album, but it did not attract media attention, as well as, many years before, use in lyrics of word "nigger '' by John Lennon.
CD side
DVD side
|
who was seated by my side in jingle bells | Jingle Bells - wikipedia
"Jingle Bells '' is one of the best - known and commonly sung American songs in the world. It was written by James Lord Pierpont (1822 -- 1893) and published under the title "One Horse Open Sleigh '' in the autumn of 1857. It has been claimed that it was originally written to be sung by a Sunday school choir; however, historians dispute this, stating that it was much too "racy '' (and secular) to be sung by a children 's church choir in the days it was written.
Although originally intended for the Thanksgiving season, and having no connection to Christmas, it became associated with Christmas music and the holiday season in general decades after it was first performed on Washington Street in Boston in 1857. Some area choirs adopted it as part of their repertoire in the 1860s and 1870s, and it was featured in a variety of parlor song and college anthologies in the 1880s. It was first recorded in 1889 on an Edison cylinder.
It is an unsettled question where and when Pierpont originally composed the song that would become known as "Jingle Bells ''. A plaque at 19 High Street in the center of Medford Square in Medford, Massachusetts commemorates the "birthplace '' of "Jingle Bells, '' and claims that Pierpont wrote the song there in 1850, at what was then the Simpson Tavern. According to the Medford Historical Society, the song was inspired by the town 's popular sleigh races during the 19th century.
"Jingle Bells '' was originally copyrighted with the name "One Horse Open Sleigh '' on September 16, 1857. Mrs. Otis Waterman, one of Pierpoint 's friends, described the song as a "merry little jingle '', which became part of its new name when published in 1859 under the revised title of "Jingle Bells, or the One Horse Open Sleigh. '' The song has since passed into the public domain.
The date of the song 's copyright casts some doubt on the theory that Pierpont wrote the song in Medford, since by that date he was the organist and music director of the Unitarian Church in Savannah, Georgia, where his brother, Rev. John Pierpont Jr., was employed. In August of the same year, James Pierpont married the daughter of the mayor of Savannah. He stayed on in the city even after the church closed due to its abolitionist leanings.
"Jingle Bells '' was often used as a drinking song at parties: people would jingle the ice in their glasses as they sang. The double - meaning of "upsot '' was thought humorous, and a sleigh ride gave an unescorted couple a rare chance to be together, unchaperoned, in distant woods or fields, with all the opportunities that afforded.
Music historian James Fuld notes that "the word jingle in the title and opening phrase is apparently an imperative verb. '' In the winter in New England in pre-automobile days, it was common to adorn horses ' harnesses with straps bearing bells as a way to avoid collisions at blind intersections, since a horse - drawn sleigh in snow makes almost no noise. The rhythm of the tune mimics that of a trotting horse 's bells. However, "jingle bells '' is commonly taken to mean a certain kind of bell.
Jingle Bells
Dashing through the snow In a one - horse open sleigh O'er the fields we go Laughing all the way Bells on bob tail ring Making spirits bright What fun it is to ride and sing A sleighing song tonight! Jingle bells, jingle bells, Jingle all the way. Oh! what fun it is to ride In a one - horse open sleigh. Jingle bells, jingle bells, Jingle all the way; Oh! what fun it is to ride In a one - horse open sleigh.
Although less well - known than the opening, the remaining verses depict high - speed youthful fun. In the second verse, the narrator takes a ride with a girl and loses control of the sleigh:
A day or two ago I thought I 'd take a ride And soon, Miss Fanny Bright Was seated by my side, The horse was lean and lank Misfortune seemed his lot He got into a drifted bank And then we got upsot.: chorus:|
In the next verse (which is often skipped), he falls out of the sleigh and a rival laughs at him:
A day or two ago, The story I must tell I went out on the snow, And on my back I fell; A gent was riding by In a one - horse open sleigh, He laughed as there I sprawling lie, But quickly drove away.: chorus:|
In the last verse, after relating his experience, he gives advice to a friend to pick up some girls, find a faster horse, and take off at full speed:
Now the ground is white Go it while you 're young, Take the girls tonight and sing this sleighing song; Just get a bobtailed bay Two forty as his speed Hitch him to an open sleigh And crack! you 'll take the lead.: chorus:|
Notes to lyrics
The two first stanzas and chorus of the original 1857 lyrics differed slightly from those we know today. It is unknown who replaced the words with those of the modern version.
Dashing thro ' the snow, In a one - horse open sleigh, O'er the hills we go, Laughing all the way; Bells on bob tail ring, Making spirits bright, Oh what sport to ride and sing A sleighing song tonight.: chorus:| Jingle bells, jingle bells, Jingle all the way; Oh! what joy it is to ride In a one - horse open sleigh. A day or two ago I tho 't I 'd take a ride And soon Miss Fannie Bright Was seated by my side. The horse was lean and lank Misfortune seemed his lot He got into a drifted bank And we -- we got upsot.
The original 1857 "Jingle Bells '' had a slightly different chorus featuring a more classical - style melody. The "IV vi iii IV IV I '' chord progression is a common theme in classical music; except for the final two chord changes, the melody as originally written follows the same chord progression as Pachelbel 's Canon; the tune would later become more closely associated with another Christmas song, "Jolly Old Saint Nicholas, '' which appeared about twenty years after "Jingle Bells ''.
The "Jingle Bells '' tune is used in French and German songs, although the lyrics are unrelated to the English lyrics. Both songs celebrate winter fun, as in the English version. The French song, titled "Vive le vent '' ("Long Live the Wind ''), was written by Francis Blanche and contains references to Father Time, Baby New Year, and New Year 's Day. There are several German versions of "Jingle Bells '', including the popular Roy Black versions of Christkindl and Christmastime.
In Spanish, the lyrics reference Christmas. Religious and secular lyrics both exist for the same melody, though the chorus in both contexts remains the same: Navidad, Navidad / hoy es Navidad / Es un día de alegría / y felicidad ("Christmas, Christmas / today is Christmas / it is a day of joy and happiness. '')
The Swedish version titled Bjällerklang (Bell Clang) contains a few extra lines, eight bars long, in the chorus which are followed by a repetition of the last two lines of the chorus. Those were added by the Swedish lyricists, Eric Sandström and Gösta Westerberg.
Bjällerklang, bjällerklang, hör dess dingelidong Flingor som det virvlar om i munter vintersång Följ oss ut, följ oss ut, Blacken travar på I hans spår vår släde går där höga furor står Vi sitter under fällen och snön omkring oss yr Och inte förr'n till kvällen vi färden hemåt styr Bjällerklang, bjällerklang, hör dess dingelidong Flingor som det virvlar om i munter vintersång
Bell clang, bell clang, hear its dingelidong Snow flakes that twirl around in joyous winter song Follow us out, follow us out, Blackie trots on In his trails, our sleigh goes where tall pines stand We sit under our pelt and the snow whirls around us And it is not until the evening, that we will be going home Bell clang, bell clang, hear its dingelidong Snow flakes that twirl around in joyous winter song
James Lord Pierpont 's 1857 composition "Jingle Bells '' became one of the most performed and most recognizable secular holiday songs ever written, not only in the United States, but around the world. In recognition of this achievement, James Lord Pierpont was voted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.
"Jingle Bells '' was first recorded by Will Lyle on October 30, 1889 on an Edison cylinder however no surviving copies are known. The earliest surviving recording was made by the Edison Male Quartette in 1898, also on an Edison cylinder as part of a Christmas medley entitled "Sleigh Ride Party. '' In 1902, the Hayden Quartet recorded "Jingle Bells ''. The song became a Christmas favorite in the early twentieth century.
In 1943, Bing Crosby and the Andrews Sisters recorded "Jingle Bells '' as Decca 23281 which reached No. 19 on the charts and sold over a million copies. In 1941, Glenn Miller and His Orchestra with Tex Beneke, Marion Hutton, Ernie Caceres, and the Modernaires on vocals had a No. 5 hit with "Jingle Bells '' on RCA Victor, as Bluebird 11353. In 1935, Benny Goodman and His Orchestra reached No. 18 on the charts with their recording of "Jingle Bells. '' In 1951, Les Paul had a No. 10 hit with a multi-tracked version on guitar. In 2006, Kimberley Locke had a No. 1 hit on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart with a recording of the song.
"Jingle Bells '' has been performed and recorded by a wide variety of musical artists, including Louis Armstrong, The Beatles, The Chipmunks, Judy Collins, Nat King Cole (also using the melody at the end of his hit song "The Christmas Song ''), Perry Como, Plácido Domingo, Duke Ellington, Ella Fitzgerald, Jo Stafford, Spike Jones, Barry Manilow, The Million Dollar Quartet (Johnny Cash, Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins, and Elvis Presley), NSync, Luciano Pavarotti, Laura Pausini, Smokey Robinson and the Miracles, Frank Sinatra, Gwen Stefani, Barbra Streisand, Fats Waller, and Yello, among many others.
In 1955, Don Charles, from Copenhagen, Denmark, recorded a novelty version with dogs barking to the melody of "Jingle Bells '' as RCA 6344, and a version credited simply to "St. Nick '' called "Jingle Bells (Laughing All the Way) '' features someone laughing, rather than singing, the entire song.
"Jingle Bells '' was the first song broadcast from space, in a Christmas - themed prank by Gemini 6 astronauts Tom Stafford and Wally Schirra. While in space on December 16, 1965, they sent this report to Mission Control:
Gemini VII, this is Gemini VI. We have an object, looks like a satellite going from north to south, up in a polar orbit. He 's in a very low trajectory traveling from north to south and has a very high climbing ratio. It looks like it might even be a... Very low. Looks like he might be going to reenter soon. Stand by one... You might just let me try to pick up that thing.
The astronauts then produced a smuggled harmonica and sleigh bells and broadcast a rendition of "Jingle Bells. '' The harmonica, shown to the press upon their return, was a Hohner "Little Lady '', a tiny harmonica approximately one inch long, by 3 / 8 of an inch wide.
Like many simple, catchy, and popular melodies, "Jingle Bells '' is often the subject of parody. "Jingle Bells, Batman Smells '' has been a well - known parody since the mid-1960s, with many variations on the lyrics. Bart Simpson sings this version on The Simpsons, the first time being on "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire ''. The Joker himself also sings it in the Batman: The Animated Series episode "Christmas With the Joker '' right before he "got away ''. These lyrics were included in the 2013 film Prisoners starring Hugh Jackman; also Mike Nelson, Tom Servo, and Crow sang those lyrics over the opening credits of Santa Claus in episode # 521 of Mystery Science Theater 3000. Comedian Phil Snyder recorded a full - length version of the song, adding new verses utilising other comic superheroes. This same parody was also done in an episode of SpongeBob SquarePants with the lyrics being changed to refer to the characters Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy.
Parodies or novelty versions of "Jingle Bells '' have been recorded by many artists, and include Yogi Yorgesson 's "Yingle Bells, '' Da Yoopers ' "Rusty Chevrolet, '' Bucko and Champs ' "Aussie Jingle Bells, '' The Three Stooges ' "Jingle Bell Drag '', and Jeff Dunham 's "Jingle Bombs, '' performed in his "Achmed the Dead Terrorist '' sketch. Another popular spoof of the song is "Pumpkin Bells, '' a "Pumpkin Carol '' which celebrates Halloween and the "Great Pumpkin. '' It originated in The Peanuts Book of Pumpkin Carols, a booklet based on the "Peanuts '' comic strip and published by Hallmark Cards in the 1960s.
The Australian "Aussie Jingle Bells '' broadly translates the idea of the original song to the summertime Christmas of the Southern hemisphere:
Aussie Jingle Bells
Dashing through the bush, in a rusty Holden ute, Kicking up the dust, esky (thermal cooler - box) in the boot (trunk), Kelpie (an Australian sheep herding dog breed) by my side, singing Christmas songs, It 's Summer time and I am in my singlet (undershirt), shorts and thongs (sandals) Oh! Jingle bells, jingle bells, jingle all the way, Christmas in Australia on a scorching summers day, Hey! Jingle bells, jingle bells, Christmas time is beaut!, Oh what fun it is to ride in a rusty Holden ute.
Other verses add further details about what happens when the Ute arrives at the family Christmas.
"Jingle Bell Rock '' by Bobby Helms pays homage to "Jingle Bells '', directly referencing the source song 's lyrics, but with a different melody. Originally recorded and released by Helms in a rockabilly style, "Jingle Bell Rock '' has itself since become a Christmas standard.
In the Brian Setzer Orchestra version of the song, the first occurrence of "one - horse open sleigh '' in the chorus is changed to "' 57 Chevrolet '', most likely to better suit the band 's throwback rock ' n ' roll / big band style.
The first notes in the chorus have become a motif that has been inserted into recordings other Christmas songs, most notably a guitar passage at the end of Nat King Cole 's "The Christmas Song '' and Clarence Clemons performing a saxophone solo in the middle of Bruce Springsteen 's "Merry Christmas Baby ''; a piano is also heard playing these notes at the end of Springsteen 's version of "Santa Claus is Coming to Town. '' A slow version of the chorus opening forms the conclusion of Stan Freberg 's 1957 "Green Chri $ tma $, '' interspersed with cash - register noises. Mariah Carey utilizes a bit of the melody in her song "When Christmas Comes ''. The Tijuana Brass version of "America '', which is not a Christmas song, nonetheless begins with the first few notes of "Jingle Bells ''.
This song was sung as "Dingillerrr '' ("The prick '' in Turkish slang) by Grup Vitamin in 2015 album, Endoplazmik Retikulum, for satirizing such as consequences of Istanbul 's enormous growth; Turks gradually get the jitters; and deforestation of Turkish cities.
In 2010 the Israeli satirical website Latma produced a parody titled "Jihad Bells '', where the Palestinian Minister of Uncontrollable Rage explains the persecution of Christians in the Muslim world.
|
song when will i see you again by the three degrees | When Will I See You Again - wikipedia
"When Will I See You Again '' is a song released in 1974 by American soul group The Three Degrees, from their third album The Three Degrees. The song was written and produced by Kenny Gamble and Leon Huff. Sheila Ferguson sang the lead, accompanied by Fayette Pinkney and Valerie Holiday.
It was one of the most successful recordings of the "Philly Soul '' era. In the U.S., the song reached number one on the adult contemporary chart, number two on the pop singles chart, and number four on the R&B chart in the autumn of 1974. In the UK, it fared even better, spending two weeks at the top of the UK Singles Chart in August 1974. The Three Degrees performed the song at Prince Charles ' 30th birthday party at Buckingham Palace in 1978.
Sheila Ferguson recalled that "the song was played to me by Kenny Gamble at the piano in 1973 and I threw a tantrum. I screamed and yelled and said I would never sing it. I thought it was ridiculously insulting to be given such a simple song and that it took no talent to sing it. We did do it and several million copies later, I realized that he knew more than me. '' She would later have a # 60 hit with a solo remake of the track in 1994. The song is unique in that every sentence is a question, heightening the overall effect and emotion. In the film Kill Bill: Volume 2, Bill cites this song as his "favorite soul song of the 70s ''.
Billboard named the song # 67 on their list of 100 Greatest Girl Group Songs of All Time.
|
for an angle of 10 degrees what is the percent difference in sin θ and θ in radians | Small - angle approximation - wikipedia
The small - angle approximation is a useful simplification of the basic trigonometric functions which is approximately true in the limit where the angle approaches zero. They are truncations of the Taylor series for the basic trigonometric functions to a second - order approximation. This truncation gives:
where θ is the angle in radians.
The small angle approximation is useful in many areas of engineering and physics, including mechanics, electromagnetics, optics (where it forms the basis of the paraxial approximation), cartography, astronomy, and so on.
The accuracy of the approximations can be seen below in Figure 1 and Figure 2. As the angle approaches zero, it is clear that the gap between the approximation and the original function quickly vanishes.
Figure 1. A comparison of the basic odd trigonometric functions to θ. It is seen that as the angle approaches 0 the approximations become better.
Figure 2. A comparison of cos θ to 1 − θ / 2. It is seen that as the angle approaches 0 the approximation becomes better.
The red section on the right, d, is the difference between the lengths of the hypotenuse, H, and the adjacent side, A. As is shown, H and A are almost the same length, meaning cos θ is close to 1 and θ / 2 helps trim the red away.
The opposite leg, O, is approximately equal to the length of the blue arc, s. Gathering facts from geometry, s = Aθ, from trigonometry, sin θ = O / H and tan θ = O / A, and from the picture, O ≈ s and H ≈ A leads to:
Simplifying leaves,
The Maclaurin expansion (the Taylor expansion about 0) of the relevant trigonometric function is
where θ is the angle in radians. In clearer terms,
It is readily seen that the second most significant (third - order) term falls off as the cube of the first term; thus, even for a not - so - small argument such as 0.01, the value of the second most significant term is on the order of 6994100000000000000 ♠ 0.000 001, or 1 / 7004100000000000000 ♠ 10 000 the first term. One can thus safely approximate:
By extension, since the cosine of a small angle is very nearly 1, and the tangent is given by the sine divided by the cosine,
Figure 3 shows the relative errors of the small angle approximations. The angles at which the relative error exceeds 1 % are as follows:
In astronomy, the angle subtended by the image of a distant object is often only a few arcseconds, so it is well suited to the small angle approximation. The linear size (D) is related to the angular size (X) and the distance from the observer (d) by the simple formula
where X is measured in arcseconds.
The number 7005206265000000000 ♠ 206 265 is approximately equal to the number of arcseconds in a circle (7006129600000000000 ♠ 1296000), divided by 2π.
The exact formula is
and the above approximation follows when tan X is replaced by X.
The second - order cosine approximation is especially useful in calculating the potential energy of a pendulum, which can then be applied with a Lagrangian to find the indirect (energy) equation of motion.
When calculating the period of a simple pendulum, the small - angle approximation for sine is used to allow the resulting differential equation to be solved easily by comparison with the differential equation describing simple harmonic motion.
The small - angle approximation also appears in structural mechanics, especially in stability and bifurcation analyses (mainly of axially - loaded columns ready to undergo buckling). This leads to significant simplifications, though at a cost in accuracy and insight into the true behavior.
The 1 in 60 rule used in air navigation has its basis in the small - angle approximation, plus the fact that one radian is approximately 60 degrees.
|
when did the world population hit 7 billion | World population - wikipedia
In demographics, the world population is the total number of humans currently living. The world population was estimated to have reached 7.6 billion as of October 2017. The United Nations estimates it will further increase to 11.2 billion by the year 2100.
World population has experienced continuous growth since the end of the Great Famine of 1315 -- 17 and the Black Death in 1350, when it was near 370 million. The highest population growth rates -- global population increases above 1.8 % per year -- occurred between 1955 and 1975, peaking to 2.06 % between 1965 and 1970. The growth rate has declined to 1.18 % between 2010 and 2015 and is projected to decline to 0.13 % by the year 2100. Total annual births were highest in the late 1980s at about 139 million, and are now expected to remain essentially constant at their 2011 level of 135 million, while deaths number 56 million per year and are expected to increase to 80 million per year by 2040. The median age of the world 's population was estimated to be 30.1 years in 2016, with the male median age estimated at 29.4 years and female at 30.9 years.
The 2012 UN projections show a continued increase in population in the near future with a steady decline in population growth rate; the global population is expected to reach between 8.3 and 10.9 billion by 2050. 2003 UN Population Division population projections for the year 2150 range between 3.2 and 24.8 billion. One of many independent mathematical models supports the lower estimate, while a 2014 estimate forecasts between 9.3 and 12.6 billion in 2100, and continued growth thereafter. Some analysts have questioned the sustainability of further world population growth, highlighting the growing pressures on the environment, global food supplies, and energy resources.
Estimates of the total number of humans who have ever lived range from 106 to 108 billion.
Six of the Earth 's seven continents are permanently inhabited on a large scale. Asia is the most populous continent, with its 4.3 billion inhabitants accounting for 60 % of the world population. The world 's two most populated countries, China and India, together constitute about 37 % of the world 's population. Africa is the second most populated continent, with around 1 billion people, or 15 % of the world 's population. Europe 's 733 million people make up 12 % of the world 's population as of 2012, while the Latin American and Caribbean regions are home to around 600 million (9 %). Northern America, primarily consisting of the United States and Canada, has a population of around 352 million (5 %), and Oceania, the least - populated region, has about 35 million inhabitants (0.5 %). Though it is not permanently inhabited by any fixed population, Antarctica has a small, fluctuating international population based mainly in polar science stations. This population tends to rise in the summer months and decrease significantly in winter, as visiting researchers return to their home countries.
Estimates of world population by their nature are an aspect of modernity, possible only since the Age of Discovery. Early estimates for the population of the world date to the 17th century: William Petty in 1682 estimated world population at 320 million (modern estimates ranging close to twice this number); by the late 18th century, estimates ranged close to one billion (consistent with modern estimates). More refined estimates, broken down by continents, were published in the first half of the 19th century, at 600 to 1000 million in the early 1800s and at 800 to 1000 million in the 1840s.
Estimates of the population of the world at the time agriculture emerged in around 10,000 BCE have ranged between 1 million and 15 million. Even earlier, genetic evidence suggests humans may have gone through a population bottleneck of between 1,000 and 10,000 people about 70,000 BCE, according to the Toba catastrophe theory. By contrast, it is estimated that around 50 -- 60 million people lived in the combined eastern and western Roman Empire in the 4th century CE.
The Plague of Justinian, which first emerged during the reign of the Roman emperor Justinian, caused Europe 's population to drop by around 50 % between the 6th and 8th centuries CE. The population of Europe was more than 70 million in 1340. The Black Death pandemic of the 14th century may have reduced the world 's population from an estimated 450 million in 1340 to between 350 and 375 million in 1400; it took 200 years for population figures to recover. The population of China decreased from 123 million in 1200 to 65 million in 1393, presumably due to a combination of Mongol invasions, famine, and plague.
Starting in 2 AD, the Han Dynasty of ancient China kept consistent family registers in order to properly assess the poll taxes and labor service duties of each household. In the year 2 AD the population of Western Han was recorded as 57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households, decreasing to 47,566,772 individuals in 9,348,227 households by 146 AD, towards the End of the Han Dynasty. At the founding of the Ming Dynasty in 1368, China 's population was reported to be close to 60 million; toward the end of the dynasty in 1644, it may have approached 150 million. England 's population reached an estimated 5.6 million in 1650, up from an estimated 2.6 million in 1500. New crops that were brought to Asia and Europe from the Americas by Portuguese and Spanish colonists in the 16th century are believed to have contributed to population growth. Since their introduction to Africa by Portuguese traders in the 16th century, maize and cassava have similarly replaced traditional African crops as the most important staple food crops grown on the continent.
Around 300 BCE, the population of India was between 100 million and 140 million. The population of India in 1600 was around 100 million. Hence, from 300 BCE to 1600 CE India 's population was more or less stable.
The pre-Columbian North American population probably numbered somewhere between 2 million and 18 million. Encounters between European explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced local epidemics of extraordinary virulence. According to the most extreme scholarly claims, as many as 90 % of the Native American population of the New World died due to Old World diseases such as smallpox, measles and influenza. Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no such immunity.
During the European Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5 % in 1730 -- 1749 to 31.8 % in 1810 -- 1829. Between 1700 and 1900, Europe 's population increased from about 100 million to over 400 million. Altogether, the areas populated by people of European descent comprised 36 % of the world 's population in 1900.
Population growth in the West became more rapid after the introduction of vaccination and other improvements in medicine and sanitation. Improved material conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to 40 million in the 19th century. The population of the United Kingdom reached 60 million in 2006. The United States saw its population grow from around 5.3 million in 1800 to 106 million in 1920, exceeding 307 million in 2010.
The first half of the 20th century in Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union was marked by a succession of major wars, famines and other disasters which caused large - scale population losses (approximately 60 million excess deaths). After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia 's population declined significantly -- from 150 million in 1991 to 143 million in 2012 -- but by 2013 this decline appeared to have halted.
Many countries in the developing world have experienced extremely rapid population growth since the early 20th century, due to economic development and improvements in public health. China 's population rose from approximately 430 million in 1850 to 580 million in 1953, and now stands at over 1.3 billion. The population of the Indian subcontinent, which was about 125 million in 1750, increased to 389 million in 1941; today, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are collectively home to about 1.63 billion people. Java had about 5 million inhabitants in 1815; its present - day successor, Indonesia, now has a population of over 140 million. In just one hundred years, the population of Brazil decoupled (x10), from about 17 million in 1900, or about 1 % of the world population in that year, to about 176 million in 2000, or almost 3 % of the global population in the very early 21st century. Mexico 's population grew from 13.6 million in 1900 to about 112 million in 2010. Between the 1920s and 2000s, Kenya 's population grew from 2.9 million to 37 million.
It is estimated that the world population reached one billion for the first time in 1804. It was another 123 years before it reached two billion in 1927, but it took only 33 years to reach three billion in 1960. Thereafter, the global population reached four billion in 1974, five billion in 1987, six billion in 1999 and, according to the United States Census Bureau, seven billion in March 2012. The United Nations, however, estimated that the world population reached seven billion in October 2011.
According to current projections, the global population will reach eight billion by 2024, and will likely reach around nine billion by 2042. Alternative scenarios for 2050 range from a low of 7.4 billion to a high of more than 10.6 billion. Projected figures vary depending on underlying statistical assumptions and the variables used in projection calculations, especially the fertility variable. Long - range predictions to 2150 range from a population decline to 3.2 billion in the "low scenario '', to "high scenarios '' of 24.8 billion. One extreme scenario predicted a massive increase to 256 billion by 2150, assuming the global fertility rate remained at its 1995 level of 3.04 children per woman; however, by 2010 the global fertility rate had declined to 2.52.
There is no estimation for the exact day or month the world 's population surpassed one or two billion. The points at which it reached three and four billion were not officially noted, but the International Database of the United States Census Bureau placed them in July 1959 and April 1974 respectively. The United Nations did determine, and commemorate, the "Day of 5 Billion '' on July 11, 1987, and the "Day of 6 Billion '' on October 12, 1999. The Population Division of the United Nations declared the "Day of 7 Billion '' to be October 31, 2011.
As of 2012, the global sex ratio is approximately 1.01 males to 1 female. The greater number of men is possibly due to the significant sex imbalances evident in the Indian and Chinese populations. Approximately 26.3 % of the global population is aged under 15, while 65.9 % is aged 15 -- 64 and 7.9 % is aged 65 or over. The median age of the world 's population was estimated to be 29.7 years in 2014, and is expected to rise to 37.9 years by 2050.
According to the World Health Organization, the global average life expectancy is 70.5 years as of 2012, with women living an average of 73 years and men approximately 68 years. In 2010, the global fertility rate was estimated at 2.52 children per woman. In June 2012, British researchers calculated the total weight of Earth 's human population as approximately 287 million tonnes, with the average person weighing around 62 kilograms (137 lb).
The CIA estimated nominal 2013 gross world product at US $74.31 trillion, giving an annual global per capita figure of around US $10,500. Around 1.29 billion people (18.4 % of the world population) live in extreme poverty, subsisting on less than US $1.25 per day; approximately 870 million people (12.25 %) are undernourished. 83 % of the world 's over-15s are considered literate. In June 2014, there were around 3.03 billion global Internet users, constituting 42.3 % of the world population.
The Han Chinese are the world 's largest single ethnic group, constituting over 19 % of the global population in 2011. The world 's most - spoken first languages are Mandarin Chinese (spoken by 12.44 % of the world 's population), Spanish (4.85 %), English (4.83 %), Arabic (3.25 %) and Hindustani (2.68 %). The world 's largest religion is Christianity, whose adherents account for 33.35 % of the global population; Islam is the second - largest religion, accounting for 22.43 %, and Hinduism the third, accounting for 13.78 %. In 2005, around 16 % of the global population were reported to be non-religious.
Approximately 4.3 billion people live in these ten countries, representing around 58 % of the world 's population as of March 2016. Approximately 3.7 billion people, or half of the world population, live in the six most populous countries.
The tables below list the world 's most densely populated countries, both in absolute terms and in comparison to their total populations.
Population size fluctuates at differing rates in differing regions. Nonetheless, population growth is the long - standing trend on all inhabited continents, as well as in most individual states. During the 20th century, the global population saw its greatest increase in known history, rising from about 1.6 billion in 1900 to over 6 billion in 2000. A number of factors contributed to this increase, including the lessening of the mortality rate in many countries by improved sanitation and medical advances, and a massive increase in agricultural productivity attributed to the Green Revolution.
In 2000, the United Nations estimated that the world 's population was growing at an annual rate of 1.14 % (equivalent to around 75 million people), down from a peak of 88 million per year in 1989. By 2000, there were approximately ten times as many people on Earth as there had been in 1700. Globally, the population growth rate has been steadily declining from its peak of 2.19 % in 1963, but growth remains high in Latin America, the Middle East, and Sub-Saharan Africa.
During the 2010s, Japan and some countries in Europe began to encounter negative population growth (i.e. a net decrease in population over time), due to sub-replacement fertility rates.
In 2006, the United Nations stated that the rate of population growth was visibly diminishing due to the ongoing global demographic transition. If this trend continues, the rate of growth may diminish to zero by 2050, concurrent with a world population plateau of 9.2 billion. However, this is only one of many estimates published by the UN; in 2009, UN population projections for 2050 ranged between around 8 billion and 10.5 billion. An alternative scenario is given by the statistician Jorgen Randers, who argues that traditional projections insufficiently take into account the downward impact of global urbanization on fertility. Randers ' "most likely scenario '' reveals a peak in the world population in the early 2040s at about 8.1 billion people, followed by decline. Adrian Raftery, a University of Washington professor of statistics and of sociology, states that "there 's a 70 percent probability the world population will not stabilize this century. Population, which had sort of fallen off the world 's agenda, remains a very important issue. ''
Estimated world population figures, 10,000 BCE -- 2000 CE
Estimated world population figures, 10,000 BC -- 2000 CE (in log y scale)
World population figures, 1950 -- 2000
Estimated global growth rates, 1950 -- 2050
Estimated and projected populations of the world and its continents (except Antarctica) from 1950 to 2100. The shaded regions correspond to the range of projections by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
The table below shows historical and predicted regional population figures in millions. The availability of historical population figures varies by region.
The following table gives estimates of population in the past. The data for 1750 to 1900 are from the UN report "The World at Six Billion '' whereas the data from 1950 to 2015 are from a UN data sheet.
Using the above figures, the change in population from 2010 to 2015 was:
Long - term global population growth is difficult to predict. The United Nations and the US Census Bureau both give different estimates -- according to the UN, the world population reached seven billion in late 2011, while the USCB asserted that this occurred in March 2012. The UN has issued multiple projections of future world population, based on different assumptions. From 2000 to 2005, the UN consistently revised these projections downward, until the 2006 revision, issued on March 14, 2007, revised the 2050 mid-range estimate upwards by 273 million.
Average global birth rates are declining fast, but vary greatly between developed countries (where birth rates are often at or below replacement levels) and developing countries (where birth rates typically remain high). Different ethnicities also display varying birth rates. Death rates can change rapidly due to disease epidemics, wars and other mass catastrophes, or advances in medicine.
In 1975, Sebastian von Hoerner proposed a formula for population growth which represented hyperbolic growth with an infinite population in 2025. The hyperbolic growth of the world population observed until the 1970s was later correlated to a non-linear second order positive feedback between demographic growth and technological development. This feedback can be described as follows: technological advance → increase in the carrying capacity of land for people → demographic growth → more people → more potential inventors → acceleration of technological advance → accelerating growth of the carrying capacity → faster population growth → accelerating growth of the number of potential inventors → faster technological advance → hence, the faster growth of the Earth 's carrying capacity for people, and so on. The transition from hyperbolic growth to slower rates of growth is related to the demographic transition.
According to the Russian demographer Sergey Kapitsa, the world population grew between 67,000 BCE and 1965 according to the following formula:
where
According to linear interpolation and extrapolation of UNDESA population estimates, the world population has doubled, or will double, in the years listed in the tables below (with two different starting points). During the 2nd millennium CE, each doubling took roughly half as long as the previous doubling, fitting the hyperbolic growth model mentioned above. However, after 2024, it is unlikely that there will be another doubling of the global population in the 21st century.
In his 1798 work An Essay on the Principle of Population, the British scholar Thomas Malthus incorrectly predicted that continued population growth would exhaust the global food supply by the mid-19th century. Malthus wrote the essay to refute what he considered the unattainable utopian ideas of William Godwin and Marquis de Condorcet, as presented in Political Justice and The Future Progress of the Human Mind. In 1968, Paul R. Ehrlich reprised Malthus ' argument in The Population Bomb, predicting that mass global famine would occur in the 1970s and 1980s.
The predictions of Ehrlich and other neo-Malthusians were vigorously challenged by a number of economists, notably Julian Lincoln Simon, and advances in agriculture, collectively known as the Green Revolution, forestalled any potential global famine in the late 20th century. Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the world, grain production increased by over 250 %. The world population has grown by over four billion since the beginning of the Green Revolution, but food production has so far kept pace with population growth. Most scholars believe that, without the Revolution, there would be greater levels of famine and malnutrition than the UN presently documents. However, neo-Malthusians point out that fossil fuels provided the energy for the Green Revolution, in the form of natural gas - derived fertilizers, oil - derived pesticides, and hydrocarbon - fueled irrigation, and that many crops have become so genetically uniform that a crop failure in any one country could potentially have global repercussions.
In 2004, a meta - analysis of 70 quantitative studies estimating a sustainable limit to the world population generated a meta - estimate of 7.7 billion people.
In May 2008, the price of grain was pushed up severely by the increased cultivation of biofuels, the increase of world oil prices to over $140 per barrel ($880 / m), global population growth, the effects of climate change, the loss of agricultural land to residential and industrial development, and growing consumer demand in the population centres of China and India. Food riots subsequently occurred in some countries. However, oil prices then fell sharply. Resource demands are expected to ease as population growth declines, but it is unclear whether mass food wastage and rising living standards in developing countries will once again create resource shortages.
David Pimentel, professor of ecology and agriculture at Cornell University, estimates that the sustainable agricultural carrying capacity for the United States is about 200 million people; its population as of 2015 is over 300 million. In 2009, the UK government 's chief scientific advisor, Professor John Beddington, warned that growing populations, falling energy reserves and food shortages would create a "perfect storm '' of shortages of food, water, and energy by 2030. According to a 2009 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the world will have to produce 70 % more food by 2050 to feed a projected extra 2.3 billion people.
The observed figures for 2007 showed an actual increase in absolute numbers of undernourished people in the world, with 923 million undernourished in 2007, versus 832 million in 1995. The 2009 FAO estimates showed an even more dramatic increase, to 1.02 billion.
A number of scientists have argued that the current global population expansion and accompanying increase in resource consumption threatens the world 's ecosystem. The InterAcademy Panel Statement on Population Growth, which was ratified by 58 member national academies in 1994, states that "unprecedented '' population growth aggravates many environmental problems, including rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, global warming, and pollution. Indeed, some analysts claim that overpopulation 's most serious impact is its effect on the environment. The situation has continued to worsen, as at the time of the 1994 IAP statement, the world population stood at 5.5 billion and lower - bound scenarios predicted a peak of 7.8 billion by 2050, a number that current estimates state will be reached in the late 2020s.
Scientists contend that human overpopulation, continued human population growth and overconsumption, particularly by the wealthy, are the primary drivers of mass species extinction. By 2050 population growth, along with profligate consumption, could result in oceans containing more plastic than fish by weight.
Human population control is the practice of intervening to alter the rate of population growth. Historically, human population control has been implemented by limiting a region 's birth rate, by voluntary contraception or by government mandate. It has been undertaken as a response to factors including high or increasing levels of poverty, environmental concerns, and religious reasons. The use of abortion in some population control strategies has caused controversy, with religious organizations such as the Roman Catholic Church explicitly opposing any intervention in the human reproductive process.
The University of Nebraska publication Green Illusions argues that population control to alleviate environmental pressures need not be coercive. It states that "Women who are educated, economically engaged, and in control of their own bodies can enjoy the freedom of bearing children at their own pace, which happens to be a rate that is appropriate for the aggregate ecological endowment of our planet. '' The book Fatal Misconception by Matthew Connelly similarly points to the importance of supporting the rights of women in bringing population levels down over time.
The Population Research Institute (PRI), an anti-abortion, anti-contraception advocacy group, has criticised predictions of overpopulation and attendant resource scarcity, with some describing overpopulation as a "myth ''. The PRI argues that advances in agricultural, medical, and industrial technology have allowed global economic productivity to keep pace with rising populations despite Malthusian predictions to the contrary. PRI further says that family sizes are naturally declining worldwide due to higher living standards, increased availability of contraception and better economic opportunities for women. However, other commentators have described PRI 's arguments on overpopulation as deceptive.
Estimates of the total number of humans who have ever lived range in the order of 100 billion. It is difficult for estimates to be better than rough approximations, as even modern population estimates are fraught with uncertainties on the order of 3 % to 5 %. Kapitza (1996) cites estimates ranging between 80 and 150 billion. Haub (1995) prepared another figure, updated in 2002 and 2011; the 2011 figure was approximately 107 billion. Haub characterized this figure as an estimate that required "selecting population sizes for different points from antiquity to the present and applying assumed birth rates to each period ''.
One problem is in regard to the semantic difficulty of deciding the precise meaning of "human ''. A population of, say, 4 million, with an average lifespan of, say, 10 years (see below), implies a birthrate of 0.4 million per year, which over a period of 100 000 years represents 40 000 million people. Also, robust population data only exists for the last two or three centuries. Until the late 18th century, few governments had ever performed an accurate census. In many early attempts, such as in Ancient Egypt and the Persian Empire, the focus was on counting merely a subset of the population for purposes of taxation or military service. Thus, there is a significant margin of error when estimating ancient global populations.
Another critical factor for such an estimate is the question of pre-modern infant mortality rates; these figures are very difficult to estimate for ancient times due to a lack of accurate records. Haub (1995) estimates that around 40 % of those who have ever lived did not survive beyond their first birthday. Haub also stated that "life expectancy at birth probably averaged only about ten years for most of human history ''.
Lists:
Historical:
|
where is the layer of skin called the subcutaneous layer located | Subcutaneous tissue - wikipedia
The subcutaneous tissue (from Latin subcutaneous, meaning ' beneath the skin '), also called the hypodermis, hypoderm (from Greek, meaning ' beneath the skin '), subcutis, or superficial fascia, is the lowermost layer of the integumentary system in vertebrates. The types of cells found in the hypodermis are fibroblasts, adipose cells, and macrophages. The hypodermis is derived from the mesoderm, but unlike the dermis, it is not derived from the dermatome region of the mesoderm. In arthropods, the hypodermis is an epidermal layer of cells that secretes the chitinous cuticle. The term also refers to a layer of cells lying immediately below the epidermis of plants.
The hypodermis is beneath dermis which is beneath epidermis. It is used mainly for fat storage.
A layer of tissue lies immediately below the dermis of vertebrate skin. It is often referred to as subcutaneous tissue though this is a less precise and anatomically inaccurate term. The hypodermis consists primarily of loose connective tissue and lobules of fat. It contains larger blood vessels and nerves than those found in the dermis.
Subcutaneous tissue consists of:
In some animals, such as whales and hibernating mammals, the hypodermis forms an important insulating layer and / or food store.
In some plants, the hypodermis is a layer of cells immediately below the epidermis of leaves. It is often mechanically strengthened, for example, in pine leaves, forming an extra protective layer or a water storage tissue.
Subcutaneous fat is the layer of subcutaneous tissue that is most widely distributed. It is composed of adipocytes, which are grouped together in lobules separated by connective tissue. The number of adipocytes varies among different areas of the body, while their size varies according to the body 's nutritional state. It acts as padding and as an energy reserve, as well as providing some minor thermoregulation via insulation. Subcutaneous fat is found just beneath the skin, as opposed to visceral fat, which is found in the peritoneal cavity, and can be measured using body fat calipers to give a rough estimate of total body adiposity.
Injection into the subcutaneous tissue is a route of administration used for drugs such as insulin: because it is highly vascular, the tissue absorbs drugs quickly. Subcutaneous injection is believed to be the most effective manner to administer some drugs, such as human growth hormones. Just as the subcutaneous tissue can store fat, it can also provide good storage space for drugs that need to be released gradually because there is limited blood flow. "Skin popping '' is a slang term that includes this method of administration, and is usually used in association with recreational drugs.
|
where was the curse of the golden flower filmed | Curse of the Golden Flower - wikipedia
Curse of the Golden Flower (Chinese: 满 城 尽 带 黄金 甲; pinyin: Mǎnchéngjìndàihuángjīnjiǎ) is a 2006 Chinese epic wuxia drama film written and directed by Zhang Yimou. The Mandarin Chinese title of the movie is taken from the last line of Qi Dynasty poem written by the rebel leader Emperor Huang Chao who was also the Emperor of the Qi Dynasty that was at war against the Later Tang Dynasty.
With a budget of US $45 million, it was at the time of its release the most expensive Chinese film to date, surpassing Chen Kaige 's The Promise. It was chosen as China 's entry for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film for the year 2006; but did not receive the nomination. The film was, however, nominated for Costume Design. In 2007 it received fourteen nominations at the 26th Hong Kong Film Awards and won Best Actress for Gong Li, Best Art Direction, Best Costume and Make Up Design and Best Original Film Song for "菊花 台 '' (Chrysanthemum Terrace) by Jay Chou.
The plot is based on Cao Yu 's 1934 play Thunderstorm (雷雨 pinyin: Léiyǔ), but is set in the Imperial court in ancient China. The plot could also be based on King Lear, but set in Tang Dynasty China instead of Medieval Europe.
On the eve of the Double Ninth Festival, the Emperor (Chow Yun - fat) and the second of his three sons, Prince Jai (Jay Chou), return from their military campaign to Nanjing so they can celebrate the holiday with their family. However, the Empress has been in an affair with the first son, Crown Prince Wan (Liu Ye), who was born of the Emperor 's previous wife. At the same time, Crown Prince Wan has been in an affair with Jiang Chan (Li Man), daughter of the Imperial Doctor, and is keen on rejecting the throne so that he may run away with her.
Prince Jai notices the declining health of his mother, and is confused by her sudden interest in golden flowers. The Empress explains that the tea she drinks has been poisoned for some time by the Emperor, but that she is planning a rebellion to overthrow him. Prince Jai agrees to be the leader of the rebellion. The Empress hires a mysterious woman to discover the type of poison which she is suffering from, but the woman is captured by Crown Prince Wan and taken to the Emperor. As it happens, the woman is Jiang Shi (Chen Jin), the Imperial Doctor 's wife, whom the Emperor imprisoned a while ago and was believed dead, but who somehow escaped. The Emperor decides to pardon her and to promote the Imperial Doctor to governor of Suzhou. When Crown Prince Wan meets with Jiang Chan to say goodbye, she informs him that the Empress has woven 10,000 scarves with golden flower sigils. Crown Prince Wan confronts the Empress, and when she admits to planning a rebellion, he is anguished, and tries to kill himself with a knife, but survives.
On the way to Suzhou, the Imperial Doctor 's household is betrayed and attacked by the Emperor 's black assassins, resulting in his death. Jiang Shi and Jiang Chan run back to Nanjing and confront the Emperor, who refuses to answer, whereupon the Empress explains to Jiang Chan that Jiang Shi was the Emperor 's first wife and Crown Prince Wan 's mother, meaning that Jiang Chan and Crown Prince Wan are half - siblings. Jiang Chan is horrified by this news and runs from the palace. Jiang Shi chases after her, whereupon both are murdered by more assassins. At this point, the third son, Prince Yu, suddenly murders Crown Prince Wan and reveals he has been aware of the corruption of both the Emperor and the Empress. Prince Yu summons a group of his own soldiers to murder the Emperor and to seize the throne. However, even more assassins descend from the ceiling, and they easily defeat Prince Yu 's soldiers. The Emperor proceeds to whip Prince Yu to death using his belt.
Meanwhile, the outer square of the palace is assaulted by 10,000 soldiers wearing golden armor and golden flower sigils, with Prince Jai in the lead. They overpower the assassins and proceed to the inner square of the palace, trampling upon the bed of golden flowers arranged for the ceremony. However, thousands of silver armored soldiers appear, being the reserve army of the Emperor, bearing shields, pikes, and bow - and - arrows, and they slaughter the golden soldiers down to the last man. Prince Jai rises from the sea of bodies and is taken captive. Behind him, the courtyard is cleaned with mechanical efficiency by a legion of servants, with bodies being removed, floors being scrubbed and laid with carpets, and pots of yellow flowers being replaced, making it seem as if the entire rebellion never even happened. At midnight, the Double Ninth Festival begins as scheduled. At the table, the Emperor expresses disappointment with Prince Jai, saying that he was already planning to give Prince Jai the throne. He offers to pardon Prince Jai if the latter cooperates with the Empress 's poisoning. Prince Jai refuses and kills himself, and as he does so, his blood spills into another cup of poisoned tea that has been brought to the Empress, turning the tea red. Horrified, the Empress slaps the tea away, and the liquid is shown to corrode the table 's wood, along with the golden flower image engraved into the wood.
The Chinese title of the movie is taken from the last line of a Qi dynasty poem written by the rebel leader Huang Chao who was also the Emperor of the Qi Dynasty that was at war with the Later Tang Dynasty. Huang Chao had composed the poem "On the Chrysanthemum, after failing the Imperial Examination '' (不 第 後 賦 菊 / 不 第 后 赋 菊) or simply "Chrysanthemum '':
Due to the film 's high - profile while it was still in production, its title, which can be literally translated as "The Whole City is Clothed in Golden Armor '', became a colorful metaphor for the spring 2006 sandstorms in Beijing and the term "golden armor '' (黄金 甲, huángjīnjiǎ) has since become a metaphor for sandstorms among the locals.
The screenplay is based on Thunderstorm, a renowned Chinese play written by Cao Yu in the 1930s. The plot could also be possibly based on King Lear.
The English language version states that this movie is set in the "Tang dynasty '' in the year 928. The Chinese version does n't specify a time period. The film 's published screenplay indicates it is set during Later Shu of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Neither the Tang dynasty (618 -- 907) nor Later Shu (934 -- 965) existed in the year 928, although another state named "Tang '' -- known as Later Tang in history -- was, as well as other Chinese states Wu, Chu, Min, Southern Han, Jingnan and Wuyue, in addition to the Khitan - ruled Liao dynasty (known as just Khitan in 928). However, Later Tang rulers were known as "Emperor '' (皇帝) and never "King '' (大王), and of all the states mentioned above, only Chu, Wuyue, Min and Jingnan rulers could be called "King '' by their subjects in 928.
The US release garnered a generally positive reception.
Richard Corliss of Time magazine praised the film 's lurid operatic aspect: "this is high, and high - wire, melodrama... where matters of love and death are played at a perfect fever pitch. And grand this Golden Flower is. '' Jeannette Catsoulis of The New York Times states: "In Curse of the Golden Flower Mr. Zhang achieves a kind of operatic delirium, opening the floodgates of image and melodrama until the line between tragedy and black comedy is all but erased. '' Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times described the film as: "A period spectacle, steeped in awesome splendor and lethal palace intrigue, it climaxes in a stupendous battle scene and epic tragedy '' and "director Zhang Yimou 's lavish epic celebrates the gifts of actress Gong Li while weaving a timeless tale of intrigue, corruption and tragedy. '' Andrew O'Hehir of Salon said: "the morbid grandiosity of Curse of the Golden Flower is its own distinctive accomplishment, another remarkable chapter in the career of Asia 's most important living filmmaker. ''
Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post wrote: "Zhang Yimou 's Curse of the Golden Flower is a kind of feast, an over-the - top, all - stops - pulled - out lollapalooza that means to play kitschy and grand at once '' and Hunter further states: "It 's just a great old wild ride at the movies. ''
Matt Brunson of Creative Loafing felt that the film was a poor reflection of director Zhang Yimou 's acclaimed previous works. Bruce Westbrook of The Houston Chronicle though praising the film 's spectacular visuals, stated "Visuals alone ca n't make a story soar, and too often this one becomes bogged down by spectacle... '' Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter wrote the film is "A disappointing misfire from a great director. '' Gene Seymour of Newsweek said: "Curse of the Golden Flower is to the feudal costumed adventure what Nicholas Ray 's Johnny Guitar is to the Western. Both bend their genres to the extremes of operatic grandeur with such force as to pull up just below the level of High Camp. '' However Seymour wrote that the film was overly melodramatic and ludicrous to absorb.
The film received a score of 70 out of 100 from film critics according to the review aggregator Metacritic and holds an average rating of 66 % by film critics on the review ranking site Rotten Tomatoes. Yahoo! Movies gave the film a B grade based on critical consensus. It has grossed over $78 million worldwide. It was also the third highest grossing non-English language film in 2006 after Apocalypto and Pan 's Labyrinth.
Besides starring in the film, Jay Chou has also recorded two songs to accompany the film, one titled "Chrysanthemum Terrace '' (Chinese: 菊花 台; pinyin: Júhuā tái), released on his 2006 album Still Fantasy and one included in his Curse of the Golden Flower (EP). The EP includes Jay Chou 's song "Golden Armor '' (Chinese: 黄金 甲; pinyin: Huángjīn jiǎ).
Curse of the Golden Flower won four awards out of 14 nominations from the 26th Hong Kong Film Awards in 2007.
|
give reason why is india called an information technology superpower | India as an emerging superpower - wikipedia
The Republic of India is considered as one of the emerging superpowers of the world. This potential is attributed to several indicators, the primary ones being its demographic trends and a rapidly expanding economy and by GDP India became world 's fastest growing economy in 2015 with 7.3 % GDP rate. The country must overcome many of the economic, social, and political problems before it can be considered a superpower. It is also not yet as influential on the international stage when compared to the United States or the former Soviet Union.
India lies in the cultural region of Indian Ocean - a zone with unprecedented potential for growth in the scale of transoceanic commerce, with many Eurasian and increasingly Afro - Asian sea - trade routes passing through or close to Indian territorial waters. The subcontinent 's land and water resources, though strained, are still sustaining its massive population. According to George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston of the British Empire:
The central position of India, its magnificent resources, its teeming multitude of men, its great trading harbors, its reserve of military strength, supplying an army always in a high state of efficiency and capable of being hurled at a moment 's notice upon any point either of Asia or Africa -- all these are assets of precious value. On the West, India must exercise a predominant influence over the destinies of Persia and Afghanistan; on the north, it can veto any rival in Tibet; on the north - east... it can exert great pressure upon China, and it is one of the guardians of the autonomous existence of Siam. Possession of India gave the British Empire its global reach.
In the future, the world is expected to exit the "fossil fuel age '', and perhaps the "nuclear energy age '', and enter the "renewable - energy age '' or even further into the "fusion power age '', if and whenever these technologies become economically sustainable. Being a region in the sunny tropical belt, the Indian subcontinent could greatly benefit from a renewable energy trend, as it has the ideal combination of both - high solar insolation and a big consumer base density. For example, considering the costs of energy consumed for temperature control (a major factor influencing a region 's energy intensity) and the fact that - cooling load requirements, unlike heating, are roughly in phase with the sun 's intensity, cooling from the excessive solar radiation could make great energetic (and hence economic) sense in the subcontinent, whenever the required technology becomes competitively cheaper. India also has 25 % of the world 's thorium resources.
India has the world 's second largest population. The PGR for the country is 1.25. A very large number of India 's population, about 50 %, is below the age group of 24. This provides the nation with a large workforce for many decades, helping in its growth. The government is training a 400 million - workforce, which is larger than the population of the United States and Brazil combined.
Due to its high birth rate India has a young population compared to most aging nations. It has approximately 65 % of its population below the age of 35. In addition, declining fertility is beginning to reduce the youth dependency rate which may produce a demographic dividend. In the coming decades, while some of the powerful nations will witness a decrease in workforce numbers, India is expected to have an increase. For example, while Europe is well past its demographic window, the United States entered its own in 1970 (lasting until 2015), China entered its own in 1990 (and will last until 2025), India would not enter its own window until 2010 (and it will last until 2050). In the words of Indian Scholar Rejaul Karim Laskar, "when greying population will be seen inhibiting economic growth of major countries, India will be brimming with youthful energy ''. Regionally, South Asia is supposed to maintain the youngest demographic profile after Africa and the Middle East, with the window extending up to the 2070s.
More than 35 million Indians live across the globe. Under fair opportunities, they have become socio - economically successful.
The importance of the English language in the 21st century is a topic of debate, nonetheless the growing pool of non-native English speakers makes it the best contender for "Global language '' status. Incidentally, India has the world 's largest English speaking / understanding population. It claims one of the largest workforce of engineers, doctors and other key professionals, all comfortable with English. It has the 2nd largest population of "fluent English '' speakers, second only to the United States, with estimates ranging from 150 to 250 million speakers, and is expected to have the largest in coming decades. Indians are also learning Dutch, Italian, French, Japanese, Korean, Mandarin Chinese, Russian, and Spanish.
India is the world 's largest democratic republic, more than three times bigger than the next largest (the United States). It has so far been successful politically, especially considering its functionality despite its difficult ethnic composition. The fact that India is a democracy has improved its relations with other democratic nations and significantly improved its ties with the majority of the nations in the developed world.
India has been pressing for permanent membership of the United Nations Security Council (as part of the G4 nations) but with a clause that it wo n't exercise its veto for the next 15 years. It has received backing from France, Russia, and the United Kingdom. However, China and the United States have not been supportive of the bid. With improved India -- United States relations, the United States is expected to reconsider its stand.
As of 2016, India is said to have received support from all the five permanent members of United Nations Security Council for its candidacy.
India has developed relationships with the world powers like the European Union, Japan, Russia, and the United States. It also developed relationships with the African Union (particularly South Africa), the Arab World, Southeast Asia, Israel and South American nations (particularly Brazil). In order to make the environment favourable for economic growth, India is investing on its relations with China. It has significantly boosted its image among Western nations and signed a civilian nuclear deal with the United States in March 2006. It is also working for better relationships with Pakistan.
Historically, India was one of the founding members of Non-Aligned Movement, and had good relationships with Soviet Union and other parts of western world. It played regional roles in South Asian affairs, e.g. its use of the Indian Peace Keeping Force in the Bangladesh Liberation War and in Sri Lanka. It took a leading initiative to improve relations between African and Asian countries. India is an active member of the Commonwealth and the WTO. The evolving economic integration politics in the West and in Asia is influencing the Indian mood to slowly swing in favour of integration with global economy. Currently, India 's political moves are being influenced by economic imperatives. New Delhi is also being observed to slowly, cautiously, and often hesitantly, step into the uncharted role of becoming one of the two major seats of political power in Asia, the other being at Beijing. Some enlightened thinkers from the subcontinent have also envisioned, over the long run, of a South Asian version of free trade zone and even a Union, where the South Asian nations relinquish all past animosities and move to make economic growth a pan subcontinental phenomenon.
A new and highly controversial geopolitical strategy, being debated in the West, is whether India should be trusted / helped to become an economically strong democratic citizen of the world and be used to balance the powerful but non-democratic forces, to insure a more stable world. Generally speaking it is discussed in the context of adopting a policy of offshore balancing on the part of the United States. A new American strategy towards India has been indicated in George W. Bush 's recent visit to the subcontinent.
India 's current economic growth (as the world 's fastest - growing major economy as of 2015) has improved its standing on the world 's political stage, even though it is still a developing country, but one that is showing strong development. Many nations are moving to forge better relationships with India.
The economy of India is currently the world 's third largest in terms of real GDP (PPP) after the USA and the People 's Republic of China. According to the World Bank India overtook China to become the fastest - growing major economy in the world as of 2015 Its record growth was in the third quarter of 2003, when it grew higher than any other emerging economy at 10.4 %. Interestingly, estimates by the IMF show that in 2011 (see List of countries by future GDP estimates (PPP)), India became the third largest economy in the world, overtaking the Japanese economy and the Seventh largest economy by GDP (Nominal). India has grown at 7.5 % in 2015.
India, growing at 9 % per year, is the world 's second largest producer of food next to China. Food processing accounts for USD 69.4 billion as gross income.
India is still relatively a small player in manufacturing when compared to many world leaders. Some new trends suggest an improvement in future, since the manufacturing sector is growing at 11 - 12 %.
India currently has an expanding IT industry which is considered one of the best in the world. Some have begun to describe India as a technology superpower. It is considered the World 's Office and is leading in the Services Industry. This is mainly due to the availability of a large pool of highly skilled, low cost, English speaking workforce.
India is trying to develop more highly skilled, English speaking people to fit in the future knowledge economy. India is becoming one of the world 's leading producers of computer software and with mushrooming R&D centres it is experiencing a steady revolution in science and technology. A typical example of India 's rising scientific endeavours is that it was the 3rd nation to found a National Space Agency called ISRO, after the USSR and the U.S. It was the third Asian nation to send satellites into space after China and Japan in 1970, starting with Aryabhata in 1975. In January 2007, India became the fourth nation to complete atmospheric reentry In October 2008, India launched its first unmanned lunar probe, Chandrayaan 1, which operated until August 2009. On 14 November 2008, the Moon Impact Probe separated from the Chandrayaan orbiter at 20: 06 and was deliberately made to strike the Moon near the south pole, making India the fourth country to reach the Moon 's surface. Among its many achievements was the discovery of the widespread presence of water molecules in lunar soil. On 24 September 2014 India became the fourth nation to have a satellite orbiting Mars. India is the first Asian nation to achieve this and the first to do so in its first try. India and the United States have increased mutual cooperation in space - travel related technologies, such as increasing the interoperability between Indian and US systems, and prospects for a commercial space launch agreement with India that would allow US satellites to be launched on Indian vehicles. India is among the world leaders in remote sensing, a technology coming to great use, among others, to Indian fishermen & farmers. India is also trying to join international R&D projects - e.g. it has recently joined the European Galileo GPS Project and the ITER for fusion energy club. Some Indian educational and research institutions like IIT, IISER, NIT, BITS Pilani, IIM, IISc, TIFR and AIIMS are among the world 's best.
To reduce the energy crisis, India is presently constructing ~ 9 civilian nuclear power reactors and several hydro - power stations. On 25 January 2007, Russian president Vladimir Putin offered to build 4 more reactors on a visit to India and India is expected to clinch this deal of strategical importance. Recently it also made a civilian nuclear energy deal with the US and EU. In recent years, India joined China to launch a vigorous campaign to acquire oil fields around the world and now has stake in several oil fields (in the Middle East and Russia).
India is in the process of developing modern mass rapid transit systems to replace its existing system which is seen as inadequate to cater to present and future urban requirements. A modern metro rail system is already in place in the cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore, Kolkata and Kochi. Work is in progress or would be commencing shortly for developing similar mass transit system in cities of NOIDA, Hyderabad, Indore and Ahmedabad. Indore is leading the track by implementing world class GPS enabled, low floor buses in a Rapid Transport System. With growth in economy and technology, India is welcoming modernisation. The Indian rail network traverses the length and breadth of the country, covering a total length of 63,140 km (39,200 miles). It is one of the largest and busiest rail networks in the world, transporting over 9 billion passengers and over 350 million tonnes of freight annually. Its operations covers twenty - seven states and three Union territories and also links the neighbouring countries of Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan. However, other public transport systems, such as buses are often not up to the standards followed in developed countries. India is heading towards implementation of high - speed rail in the country.
India, with its diverse and fascinating history, arts, music, culture, spiritual & social models has witnessed the growth of a booming tourism industry. India is a historic place with a diverse history of over five millennia. About 3.9 million tourists travelled to India in 2005, each spending approximately $1,470 per person, higher than that of France (the leading tourist destination in the world). Foreign visitors in 2005 spent more than US $15.4 billion annually in India. Many travellers find the cultural diversity an enriching experience, despite the hassles inefficiency, pollution and overcrowding. Monuments like the Taj Mahal are among the many attractions of this land. As of 2006, Conde Nast Traveller ranked India the 4th most preferred travel destination. The Planning Commission expects 5.8 million tourists travelling to India by 2010. The World Travel and Tourism Council believes India 's tourism industry will grow at 10 % per annum in the next decade, making it lead the world in terms of growth. Tourism contributes 6 % of India 's GDP and employed 40 million people, making it an important factor in India 's economic growth. More than 8 million foreign tourists arrived in the year 2015 against 7.68 million in 2014 recording a growth of 4.4 percent over 2014.
"First World medical services at Third World prices '' - Indian Metros have emerged as the leading destination of medical tourism. Last year, an estimated 150,000 foreigners visited India for medical procedures, and the number is increasing at the rate of about 15 percent a year.
The Indian Armed Forces, India 's main defence organisation, consists of two main branches: the core Military of India and the Indian Paramilitary Forces. The Military of India maintains the third largest active duty force in the world after China and the United States, while the Indian Paramilitary Forces, over a million strong, is the second largest paramilitary force in the world. Combined, the total armed forces of India are 2,414,700 strong, the world 's third largest defence force.
The Army of India, as the Indian army was called under British rule before 1947, played a crucial role in checking the advance of Imperial Japan into South Asia during World War II. It also played a leading role in the liberation of Bangladesh in 1971. Today, the Indian Army is the world 's third largest army after United States Army and Chinese People 's Liberation Army.
The Indian Air Force is the fourth largest air force in the world. India recently inducted its second indigenously manufactured combat aircraft. India is also developing the fifth generation stealth aircraft.
The Indian Navy is the world 's fifth largest navy. It is considered to have blue - water capabilities with sophisticated missile - capable warships, aircraft carrier, minesweepers, advanced submarines and the latest aircraft in its inventory, along with a significant use of state of the art technology that is indigenously manufactured. It operates two aircraft carriers and also plans to induct the INS Vikrant by 2018 followed by a larger INS Vishal.
India started the IGMDP to be a self - reliant nation in missile development. The IGMDP program includes five missiles like the Prithvi and Agni of ballistic missiles, surface to air missiles Trishul and Akash and also the anti tank Nag missile. Prithvi and Agni missiles are inducted into the armed forces and form the basis of Indian nuclear second strike capability. Trishul missile is declared a technology demonstrator. The Akash (Sky) is in service with the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force. While Nag and Helina missiles are undergoing user trials. Recently, a new weapons system, the beyond visual range air - to - air Astra missile was added to the project. Also India has fielded many modern missiles like the anti ballistic missiles like the AAD and PAD along with submarine launched ballistic missiles for its Arihant class of nuclear ballistic submarines. The expertise in developing these missiles has helped Indian scientists to contribute to joint weapon development programs like the Brahmos and Barak - II. India is also developing long range cruise missiles similar to the Tomahawk class of missiles called Nirbhay. There are reports of India developing an intercontinental ballistic missile beyond the range of ten thousand kilometers. India is self - reliant in missile technology.
India has possessed nuclear weapons since 1974, when it did the Pokharan I nuclear tests, and the means to deliver them over long distances. However, India is not a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (on grounds of security concerns and that India condemns the NPT as discriminatory).
India is currently world 's largest arms importer, spending an estimated US $16.97 billion in 2004. India has made military technology deals with the Russian Federation, the U.S., Israel and the EU.
The Indian Armed Forces plays a crucial role in anti-terrorist activities and maintaining law and order in the disputed Kashmir region. India has also participated in several United Nations peace - keeping missions, currently being the largest contributor to UN peace keeping force and is the second - largest contributor to the United Nations Democracy Fund behind the USA.
India is one of two ancient civilizations, dating back to at least 5,000 years, which have stood the test of time and survived against all odds. Indians invented the numbering system (introduced into the West by Arabic mathematicians, Arabic numerals), the concept of zero, logic, geometry, basic algebra, calculus, probability, astronomy etc. India has a long history of cultural intercourse with many regions of the world, especially within Asia, where its cultural influence has spread through the philosophy of religions like Buddhism, Hinduism, Sikhism, etc. - particularly in East and Southeast Asia. Many religions with origins outside the Indian subcontinent - Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Bahá'í Faith - have found followers in India. Indian culture has spread to foreign lands through wandering traders, philosophers, migration and less through conquest. According to Chinese ambassador to the United States, Hu Shih:
India conquered and dominated China culturally for 20 centuries without ever having to send a single soldier across her border. - Hu Shih
India 's film industry produces more feature films than any other. In a year, it sold 3.6 billion tickets, more than any other film industry in the world (In comparison, Hollywood sold 2.6 billion tickets). The cinemas play a major role in spreading Indian culture worldwide. Indian cinema transcended its boundaries from the days of film Awara, a great hit in Russia. Bollywood films are seen in central and west Asia. Indian films have also found audience in eastern societies. India 's film industry is now becoming increasingly popular in Western society, with Bollywood festivals occurring numerous cities and Bollywood dance groups performing in New Years Eve celebrations, treatment which other non-English film industries generally do not receive.
India has a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual and multi-religious society living together. The subcontinent 's long and diverse history has given it a unique eclectic culture. It is often associated with spirituality. Thanks to its history of both indigenous and foreign influences - like the ancient Indian religions (Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism and the ancient Middle East Asian schools of thought (Abrahamic - Islam, Christianity, Judaism etc.) - the current Indian civilizational psyche is evolving into a complex mix of them - sometimes a superposition of religious philosophies with acceptance of the conflicting cosmologies, sometimes striking a middle ground, and sometimes taking the practical attitude - popular with the young - of "filtering the common best, and leaving the rest '', thus leading to the creation of many syncretic mix of faiths (such as Sai Baba of Shirdi). Since Independence, India has regained its more progressive schools of thought, like - democracy, secularism, rule of law, esteem for human rights, rational deductive reasoning, development of Science and Technology, etc. - are making slow but steady inroads into the collective modern Indian psyche. India 's diversity forces it to evolve strong foundations of tolerance and pluralism, or face breakup. The Indian public is now also accepting modern western influences in their society and media - and what is emerging is a confluence of its past local culture with the new western culture ("Social Globalisation ''). For some futuristic social thinkers, the miscegenation of diverse ancient culture with modernity, spirituality with science / technology, Eastern with Western world - view is potentially making India a social laboratory for the evolution of futuristic global - unity consciousness.
Democratic republicanism has its value, more so in a multi-ethnic country like India. However, the applicability of the "theoretical '' virtues of republicanism on a country like India is sometimes questioned. Some thinkers consider India 's diverse democracy to levy a huge tax on its economy. The Indian government has to consider many interest groups before decision making. However, it should be noted that India is relatively a much younger republic when compared to other major democracies. Moreover, it is predicted that in the long run, India being a democracy will provide it an edge over non-democratic competitors like China.
India has had significant successes with quelling many insurgencies, most prominently the Punjab insurgency (Khalistan) and the surrender of large sections of insurgent outfits like the United Liberation Front of Asom in 1992 and National Liberation Front of Tripura in 2000 - 2001. However the Indian government has acknowledged that there has been a dramatic increase in support for the Maoists (Naxalite) insurgency in the last decade. Maoist rebels have increased their influence over the last 10 years, especially in regions near Nepal, particularly by targeting and gaining support from poor villages in India. The boom in support appears to have been also boosted by the successes of the nearly 10 - year - old Maoist rebellion in Nepal. The maoist insurgency exploits the poor by forced conscription. India 's government has recently taken a new stance on the Maoist insurgency, pulling the affected states together to coordinate their response. It says it will combine improved policing with socio - economic measures to defuse grievances that fuel the Maoist cause.
India 's growth is impeded by disputes with its neighboring China and Pakistan (over historical border and ideological issues) and disputes with Bangladesh (over water availability and the Farakka Dam). Hence, India 's neighbors such as China and Pakistan remain distrustful towards India. It is also occasionally burdened with instability issues within some localised - regions of the subcontinent. In an effort to reduce political tension and increase economic cooperation, in recent years, India has improved its relations with its neighbors.
India is not a permanent member of the UNSC, although currently it is one of the four - nations group actively seeking a permanent seat in the council. Thus India lacks the ability to extend its influence or ideas on international events in the way superpowers do.
As of 2011, approximately 21.9 % of India 's population lived below poverty line. Poverty also begets child labour. Various reforms, including mass employment schemes have been undertaken by the government to tackle this problem, and India has been quite successful in reducing its share of poverty. The number of people living on $1 a day is expected to fall in South Asia from 41.5 per cent in 1990 to 16.4 per cent until 2015. However, the issue of poverty in India is not fully resolved. There is consensus among economists that overall poverty in India has declined, the extent of poverty reduction is often debated. The economic reforms of the early 1990s were followed by rates of high economic growth. Its effect on poverty remain controversial, and the official numbers published by the Government of India, showing a reduction of poverty from 36 % (1993 -- 94) to 26 % (1999 -- 00), to 22 % (2004 -- 05), have been challenged both for allegedly showing too little and too much poverty reduction. While there is a consensus on the fact that liberalization has led to a reduction of income poverty, the picture is not so clear if one considers other non-pecuniary dimensions (such as health, education, crime and access to infrastructure). With the rapid economic growth that India is experiencing, it is likely that a significant fraction of the rural population will continue to migrate toward cities, making the issue of urban poverty more significant in the long run. Economist Pravin Visaria has defended the validity of many of the statistics that demonstrated the reduction in overall poverty in India. He insisted that the 1999 - 2000 survey was well designed and supervised, and he further defended that just because the numbers did not appear to fit preconceived notions about poverty in India, they should not be dismissed outright. Nicholas Stern, vice president of the World Bank, has published defenses of the poverty reduction statistics. He argues that increasing globalization and investment opportunities have contributed significantly to the reduction of poverty in the country. India, has shown one of the clearest co-relation trends of globalization with the accelerated rise in per - capita income.
The social infrastructure in India such as roads, power grid, water, communications infrastructure, housing and education are often below standards, and not catching up with the tune of its economic progress. Continued poor infrastructure might serve as a bottleneck to further economic development. The 2012 India blackouts, which affected millions, was a result of such problems. The government is, however, improving the infrastructure, such as expanding the freeway and highway system and bringing it up to global standards. As of 2005, India only had 4,885 km of central - divided expressways, while the U.S. and China have 90,000 km and 41,000 km of expressways, respectively.
India 's continual economic prosperity is also hindered by bad governance and ubiquitous red tape (' Bureaucratic Raj '). Retrogressive government regulations affect many areas. For example, in some states, black outs and power rationing are common due to underinvestment, differing state and local regulations, etc.
Despite India 's growth spurt of 8 % p.a. in recent years, its sustainable pace is still much lower than China 's, which puts its economy more at risk of overheating and rising inflation. The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has acknowledged the risk of overheating and has been tightening monetary policy steadily. It is debatable whether this alone will be sufficient to ease inflationary pressures. The economy is running near or above capacity, and the RBI has noted that production must rise at a pace sufficient to match overall GDP growth if further inflationary pressures are to be avoided. The Indian government has said that much of the rise in inflation recently can be attributed to short - term supply constraints, such as a shortage of key foodstuffs thanks to an erratic summer monsoon.
India heavily depends on foreign oil - a phenomenon likely to continue until non-fossil / renewable energy technology becomes economically viable in the country. To avert an energy crisis, India is desperately seeking alternate means of energy. India can sustain its growth to higher trajectories only by the co-operation of other countries. As for now, India is energetically expensive since India has to import over 70 % of its energy, thus making costs of comforts - like personal car or even air conditioning - extremely high. It is however, steadily combating its energy issues.
Unless India finds a quick way to generate jobs, its population of unemployed youths could be a reason for instability. India 's growth in the services sector and Information Technology sector has not been matched by growth in manufacturing which can provide more jobs. Some claim that this sector may lose importance in the future. India is leveraging on new sectors like the KPO (Knowledge Process Outsourcing).
Though, unemployment rate on February 2017 was claimed to be around halved to 4.8 % against 9.5 % estimates at August 2016. (4)
India 's health scenario is dismal with diseases and malnutrition constantly affecting the poorest quarter of the populace. Mortality is still relatively high and the bane of AIDS is spreading quickly. According to a report of United Nations Development Programme, India has the highest population living with AIDS / HIV and its economy might suffer a setback if it does not check the problem of the virus ' spread. It is estimated that India 's economic growth will decline by 0.86 percentage annually if the AIDS problem is not properly dealt with. To improve the situation, a number of projects such as the building of hospital chains (like the Apollo Hospitals, amongst others) has laid the foundation for a health system that matches global standards. However, these hospitals are sometimes used by foreigners as a cheap yet effective source of health services and much remains to be done for India 's very poor.
As per the 2011 India census, India 's national literacy is only 74.04 % (2011). Literacy drive is spreading slowly to other states. India 's youth (age 15 to 24) literacy rate was 76.4 % between 2000 and 2004. At current rates India will take no less than 20 years for a literacy of 95 %. Literacy in India is not homogeneous, some states in India have more impressive literacy rates than others. Kerala, a south - Indian state widely recognized as the most well - educated state in India, recorded an impressive 93.9 % literacy rate in 2011. On the other hand, the north - Indian state of Bihar lags behind with 63.8 %. India 's adult literacy rates (61.3 % in 2002), is just a little better compared to other nations in South Asia except Sri Lanka 's 92 %, with Nepal next at 44 %, Pakistan at 41.5 % and Bangladesh the lowest at 41.1 %.
The majority of India lies in the tropical climate zone, which may have a negative impact on its agricultural and overall economic development. The climate thesis of economic development was first argued by Adam Smith and recently by David Landes in his The Wealth and Poverty of Nations. Tropical areas generally average enough rainfall, but the timing is often irregular and unpredictable. The rain drops are large and the rate of fall often torrential. One answer to irregular moisture is storage and irrigation, but this is countered in these regions by incredibly high rates of evaporation. In the Agra region of India, for example, rainfall exceeds the needs of local agriculture for only two months in the year, and the excess held in the soil in those wet months dries up in only three weeks. Tropical zones are also more prone to endemic water - borne and parasitic diseases such as cholera and malaria. As a result of climate change, the Gangotri Glacier, among others, is receding. Also, of the 3 million premature deaths in the world that occur each year due to outdoor and indoor air pollution, the highest number are assessed to occur in India.
India has a diverse mix of various religions and races. The majority are Hindus by religion, followed by Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Jains, Buddhists, Bahaii and many more. Though most religions in India have been practising religious tolerance in their histories, the partition and subsequent terrorism had created some degree of uneasiness among some. However, in recent years, relations between the different religious groups have considerably changed for better. For instance, a real chunk of India 's celebrities - sporting legends, film stars, industrialists, artists, politicians, scientists, head - of - state, etc. - have come from various non-majority roots, representing the true diversity of India.
The problem of India 's social divide is often linked to its centuries - old caste system. In an attempt to eliminate the caste system, the Indian government has introduced special quotas for low - caste Indians in educational institutions and jobs. The measure is with the motive of helping lower - caste Indians to pursue higher education and thereby elevate their standard of life. However, the system is often criticised about its effectiveness as so called creamy layer (rich among the lower caste) get non-needed advantage & leave other lower caste groups poor only. There also have been cases of reverse - discrimination and persecution of upper castes by lower castes.
|
sing goddess of the anger of peleus' son achilles | English translations of Homer - wikipedia
This is a list of English translations of the main works attributed to Homer, the Iliad and Odyssey. Translations are ordered chronologically by date of first publication, with first lines often provided to illustrate the style of the translation.
Not all translators translated both the Iliad and Odyssey; in addition to the complete translations listed here are numerous partial translations, ranging from several lines to complete books, which have appeared in a variety of publications.
The "original '' text cited below is that of "the Oxford Homer. ''
μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί _̓ Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε _̓ ἔθηκε,
πολλὰς δ _̓ ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι, Διὸς δ _̓ ἐτελείετο βουλή, ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. -- τίς τ _̓ ἄρ σφωε θεῶν ἔριδι ξυνέηκε μάχεσθαι; Λητοῦς καὶ Διὸς υἱός: ὃ γὰρ βασιλῆϊ χολωθεὶς νοῦσον ἀνὰ στρατὸν ὄρσε κακήν, ὀλέκοντο δὲ λαοί, οὕνεκα τὸν Χρύσην ἠτίμασεν ἀρητῆρα Ἀτρεΐδης: ὃ γὰρ ἦλθε θοὰς ἐπὶ νῆας Ἀχαιῶν λυσόμενός τε θύγατρα φέρων τ _̓ ἀπερείσι _̓ ἄποινα, στέμματ _̓ ἔχων ἐν χερσὶν ἑκηβόλου Ἀπόλλωνος χρυσέῳ ἀνὰ σκήπτρῳ, καὶ λίσσετο πάντας Ἀχαιούς, Ἀτρεΐδα δὲ μάλιστα δύω, κοσμήτορε λαῶν: Ἀτρεΐδαι τε καὶ ἄλλοι ἐϋκνήμιδες Ἀχαιοί, ὑμῖν μὲν θεοὶ δοῖεν Ὀλύμπια δώματ _̓ ἔχοντες ἐκπέρσαι Πριάμοιο πόλιν, εὖ δ _̓ οἴκαδ _̓ ἱκέσθαι: παῖδα δ _̓ ἐμοὶ λύσαιτε φίλην, τὰ δ _̓ ἄποινα δέχεσθαι, ἁζόμενοι Διὸς υἱὸν ἑκηβόλον Ἀπόλλωνα.
Romanization:
mēnin aeide thea Pēlēiadeō Achilēos oulomenēn, hē myri ' Achaiois alge ' ethēke, pollas d ' iphthimous psychas Aidi proiapsen hērōōn, autous de helōria teuche kynessin oiōnoisi te pasi, Dios d ' eteleieto boulē, ex ohy dē ta prōta diastētēn erisante Atreidēs te anax andrōn kai dios Achilleus. -- tis t ' ar sphōe theōn eridi xyneēke machesthai? Lētous kai Dios yhios: ho gar basilēi cholōtheis nouson ana straton orse kakēn, olekonto de laoi, ohyneka ton Chrysēn ētimasen arētēra Atreidēs: ho gar ēlthe thoas epi nēas Achaiōn lysomenos te thygatra pherōn t ' apereisi ' apoina, stemmat ' echōn en chersin hekēbolou Apollōnos chryseō ana skēptrō, kai lisseto pantas Achaious, Atreida de malista dyō, kosmētore laōn: Atreidai te kai alloi euknēmides Achaioi, hymin men theoi doien Olympia dōmat ' echontes ekpersai Priamoio polin, eu d ' oikad ' hikesthai: paida d ' emoi lysaite philēn, ta d ' apoina dechesthai, hazomenoi Dios yhion hekēbolon Apollōna.
I Thee beseech, O Goddesse milde, the hatefull hate to plaine, Whereby Achilles was so wroong, and grewe in suche disdaine,
That thousandes of the Greekish Dukes, in hard and heauie plight, To Plutoes Courte did yeelde their soules, and gaping lay vpright, Those senceless trunckes of buriall voide, by them erst gaily borne, By rauening curres, and carreine foules, in peeces to be torne. Gainst Agamemn of Ioue his wrath, so kindled was the fire, That he Achil to deere, and crosse so deepely did conspire.
Achilles ' banefull wrath resound, O Goddesse, that imposd Infinite sorrowes on the Greekes, and many brave soules losd
From breasts Heroique -- sent them farre, to that invisible cave. That no light comforts; and their lims to dogs and vultures gave. To all which Jove 's will gave effect; from whom first strife begunne Betwixt Atrides, king of men, and Thetis ' godlike Sonne.
Achilles Peleus Son 's destructive Rage, Great Goddess, sing, which did the Greeks engage
In many Woes, and mighty Hero 's Ghosts Sent down untimely to the Stygian Coasts: Devouring Vultures on their Bodies prey 'd, And greedy Dogs (so was Jove 's Will obey 'd;) Because Great Agamemnon fell at odds With stern Achilles, Off - spring of the Gods.
O Goddess sing what woe the discontent Of Thetis ' son brought to the Greeks; what souls Of heroes down to Erebus it sent,
Leaving their bodies unto dogs and fowls; Whilst the two princes of the army strove, King Agamemnon and Achilles stout. That so it should be was the will of Jove,
The Wrath of Peleus Son, O Muse, resound; Whose dire Effects the Grecian Army found:
And many a Heroe, King, and hardy Knight, Were sent, in early Youth, to Shades of Night: Their Limbs a Prey to Dogs and Vultures made; So was the Sov'reign Will of Jove obey 'd: From that ill - omen 'd Hour when Strife begun, Betwixt Atrides Great, and Thetis God - like Son.
Achilles ' wrath, to Greece the direful spring Of woes unnumber 'd, heavenly goddess, sing!
That wrath which hurl 'd to Pluto 's gloomy reign The souls of mighty chiefs untimely slain; Whose limbs unburied on the naked shore, Devouring dogs and hungry vultures tore. Since great Achilles and Atrides strove, Such was the sovereign doom, and such the will of Jove!
Achilles ' fatal wrath, whence discord rose, That brought the sons of Greece unnumber 'd woes,
O goddess, sing. Full many a hero 's ghost Was driven untimely to th ' infernal coast, While in promiscuous heaps their bodies lay, A feast for dogs, and every bird of prey. So did the sire of gods and men fulfil His steadfast purpose, and almighty will; What time the haughty chiefs their jars begun, Atrides, king of men, and Peleus ' godlike son.
The wrath of the son of Peleus, -- O goddess of song, unfold! The deadly wrath of Achilles: To Greece the source of many woes!
Which peopled the regions of death, -- with shades of heroes untimely slain: While pale they lay along the shore: Torn by beasts and birds of prey: But such was the will of Jove! Begin the verse, from the source of rage, -- between Achilles and the sovereign of men.
Achilles sing, O Goddess! Peleus ' son; His wrath pernicious, who ten thousand woes
Caused to Achaia 's host, sent many a soul Illustrious into Ades premature, And Heroes gave (so stood the will of Jove) To dogs and to all ravening fowls a prey, When fierce dispute had separated once The noble Chief Achilles from the son of Atreus, Agamemnon, King of men.
The stern resentment of Achilles, son Of Peleus, Muse record, -- dire source of woe;
Which caus 'd unnumber 'd ills to Greece, and sent Many brave souls of heroes to the shades Untimely, and their bodies gave a prey To dogs and every ravenous bird: so will 'd The all - ruling providence of Jove, when first In fierce dissension strove the king of men, Atrides, and Achilles Goddess - born.
Sing Muse the deadly wrath of Peleus ' son Achilles, source of many thousand woes
To the Achaian host, which num'rous souls Of heroes sent to Ades premature, And left their bodies to devouring dogs And birds of Heav'n (so Jove his will perform 'd) From that dread hour when discord first embroil 'd Achilles and Atrides king of men.
Sing, Muse, the fatal wrath of Peleus ' son, Which to the Greeks unnumb'red evils brought,
And many heroes to the realms of night Sent premature; and gave their limbs a prey To dogs and birds: for such the will of Jove, When fierce contention rose between the chiefs, Achilles, and Atrides king of men.
Sing, Goddess, the destructive wrath of Achilles, son of Peleus, which brought many disasters upon the Greeks,
and sent before their time many gallant souls of heroes to the infernal regions, and made them a prey to the dogs and to all the fowls of the air (for so the counsel of Jove was fulfilled) from the period at which Atrides, king of men, and the godlike Achilles first stood apart, contended (contending).
Achillies wrath accurst, O Goddess, sing, Which caused ten thousand sorrows to the Greeks,
And many valiant souls of heroes sent To Pluto, and their bodies made a prey To dogs and birds; -- but Jove 's will was performed -- From that day, when at first contending strove Atrides, king of men, and Peleus ' son.
Sing, O goddess, the destructive wrath of Achilles, son of Peleus, which brought countless woes upon the Greeks,
and hurled many valiant souls of heroes down to Hades, and made themselves a prey to dogs and to all birds (but the will of Jove was being accomplished), from the time when Atrides, king of men, and noble Achilles, first contending, were disunited.
Of Peleus ' son, Achilles, sing, oh goddess, the resentment Accursed, which with countless pangs Achaia 's army wounded,
And forward flung to Aïdes full many a gallant spirit Of heroes, and their very selves did toss to dogs that ravin, And unto every fowl, (for so would Jove 's device be compass 'd); From that first day when feud arose implacable, and parted The son of Atreus, prince of men, and Achileus the godlike.
Sing, O goddess, the destructive wrath of Achilles son of Peleus, which caused ten thousand thousand griefs to the Achæans
and sent before their time many valiant souls of heroes to Hades, and made themselves prey to dogs and to (all kinds of) birds; but the will of Jupiter was being accomplished; from the time when indeed, at first having quarrelled (those two) separated, both the son of Atreus king of men, and divine Achilles.
Sing, divine Muse, sing the implacable wrath of Achilleus! Heavy with death and with woe to the banded sons of Achaia!
Many the souls of the mighty, the souls of redoubtable heroes, Hurried by it prematurely to Hades. The vultures and wild - dogs Tore their tombless limbs. Yet thus did the will of the Highest Work to an end -- from the day when strife drove madly asunder, Atreus ' son, king of men; and the Godlike leader Achilleus.
The wrath of Peleus ' son Achilles sing, O goddess, wrath destructive, that did on
Th ' Achæans woes innumerable bring, And many mighty souls of heroes down To Hades hurl untimely, themselves thrown To dogs a prey and all the birds obscene. But so in sooth the will of Zeus was down, Since parted first in strife those chieftains twain, Divine Achilles, and Atrides lord of men.
Goddess! O sing the wrath of Pêleus ' son, Achillès ' wrath, -- baneful, -- that on the Achaians
Brought countless woes; and sent untimely down Full many a chieftain 's mighty soul to Hadès; And gave their bodies for a prey to dogs, And to all manner of birds: (but Jove 's high will Was on achievement) from the time when first Atreidès, chief of chiefs, and prince Achillès Quarrelled and were at strife. And who of the gods, --
Of Peleus ' son, Achilles, sing, O Muse, The vengeance, deep and deadly; whence to Greece
Unnumbered ills arose; which many a soul Of mighty warriors to the viewless shades Untimely sent; they on the battle plain Unburied lay, a prey to rav'ning dogs, And carrion birds; but so had Jove decreed, From that sad day when first in wordy war, The mighty Agamemnon, King of men, Confronted stood by Peleus ' godlike son.
Wrath of Achilleus, son of Peleus, sing, O heavenly Muse, which in its fatal sway
Thousands of griefs did on the Achaians bring, And many a hero - spirit ere his day To Hades hurled, and left their limbs a prey To dogs and fowls of heaven: so the design Of Zeus meanwhile was working forth its way: Since to fell strife did at the first incline Atrides, lord of men, and Peleus ' son divine.
The baneful wrath, O goddess, sing, of Peleus ' son, the source Of sorrows dire, and countless woes to all the Grecian force;
That wrath which many a stout heroic soul from joyful day To gloomy Hades hurled, and left their mangled limbs a prey To dogs and vultures: thus the will of mightiest Jove was done; Since first contention keen arose, and slumbering strife begun Between Atrides king of men, and Peleus ' godlike son.
The wrath of Peleus ' son, that evil wrath Which on Achaia piled a myriad woes,
Oh Goddess, sing: which down to darkness hurled Brave souls of mighty men, and made their flesh A prey to dogs and every ravening fowl. Yet Zeus his will was working: since the day When first ' twixt Atreus ' son, the King of men, And proud Achilles there arose up war.
Sing, celestial Muse! the destroying wrath of Achilles, Peleus ' son: which myriad mischiefs heaped on the Grecians,
Many a valiant hero 's soul dismissing to Hades; Flinging their corses abroad for a prey to dogs and to vultures, And to each bird of the air. Thus Jove 's high will was accomplished. Ev'n from that fatal hour when opposed in angry contention Stood forth Atreides, King of men, and god - like Achilles.
Sing, Muse, Achilles ' scathing wrath, which bore A thousand sorrows to Achaia 's shore --
Which souls heroic prematurely gave To dogs a prey -- to vultures -- and the grave! This Jove 's decree: since jarring strife arose To make Atrides and Achilles foes. --
Sing, O heavenly goddess, the wrath of Peleides Achilles, Ruinous wrath, whence numberless woes came down to Achaia,
Many a valiant soul of her sons untimely dismissing, Sending to Hades; their mangled bodies a prey to vultures Left, and the dogs: but the counsels of Jove were meanwhile evolving E'en from the time, when contention arising ' tween King Agamemnon Ruler of heroes, and godlike Achilles, they stood disunited.
Peleïdes Achilles, his anger, Goddess, sing; Fell anger, fated on the Greeks ten thousand woes to bring;
Which forth to Hades hurried full many valiant souls Of heroes, but themselves she gave to dogs and carrion fowls Of every wing for ravin: so wrought the rede of Jove, Since first contentious disaccord the chiefs asunder rove. Then when Atrides, king of men, with great Achilles strove.
Sing, Goddess, the pernicious wrath of Achilles the son of Peleus, which caused innumerable woes to the Greeks,
and prematurely sent to Hades many brave souls of heroes, and made themselves to become a prey to dogs and all birds of prey: but the will of Jupiter was being accomplished: from the time indeed, that both the son of Atrus, King of men, and noble Achilles, contending, were first separated.
O goddess! sing the wrath of Peleus ' son, Achilles; sing the deadly wrath that brought
Woes unnumbered upon the Greeks, and swept To Hades many a valiant soul, and gave Their limbs a prey to dogs and birds of air -- For so had Jove appointed -- from the time When the two chiefs Atrides, king of men, And great Achilles, parted as foes.
Sing of Achilles ' wrath, oh heavenly muse, Which brought upon the Greeks unnumbered woes,
And sent so many heroes to their doom; Whose bodies, strewed unburied o'er the plain, Became the prey of vultures and of dogs; So Jove decreed, when first a quarrel rose Betwixt the godlike warrior Achilles And Agamemnon, sovereign of men.
Muse, of Pelidéan Achilles sing the resentment Ruinous, who brought down many thousand griefs on Achaians,
And untimely banish 'd many souls to the mansion of Hades Of warriors puissant, them making a booty for hounds and All manner of prey - birds, wherein Jove 's will was accomplish 'd From that time forward, when first was in enmity parted Atrides, king of hosts, from Jove - exampling Achilles.
Sing, goddess, the deadly wrath of Achilles, Peleus ' son, which caused for the Achæans countless woes,
and hurled to the house of Hades headlong many sturdy souls of warriors, and made men a prey to dogs and every fowl, while the plan of Zeus was being fulfilled, ever since the son of Atreus king of men and goodly Achilles were parted when they had quarreled.
Sing, goddess, the wrath of Achilles Peleus ' son, the ruinous wrath that brought on the Achaians woes innumerable,
and hurled down into Hades many strong souls of heroes, and gave their bodies to be a prey to dogs and all winged fowls; and so the counsel of Zeus was wrought out its accomplishments from the day when first strife parted Atreides king of men and noble Achilles.
The wrath of Achilles, the Peleus - begotten, O Song - queen, sing, Fell wrath, that dealt the Achaians woes past numbering;
Yea, many a valiant spirit to Hades ' halls did it send, Spirits of heroes, and cast their bodies to dogs to rend, And to fowls of ravin, -- yet aye Zeus ' will wrought on to its end Even from the hour when first that feud of the mighty began, Of Atreides, King of Men, and Achilles the godlike man.
Sing for me, goddess, the wrath, the wrath of Peleian Achilles Ruinous wrath, which laid unnumbered woes on the Grecians;
Many mighty souls of heroes he sent down to Hades, Giving their bodies up to be but the prey of devouring Dogs and all the ravenous birds, -- but thsu Jove 's will was accomplished, Ever now since first with hot words were estranged from each other, Atreus ' son, the king of men and the noble Achilles.
The wrath, that rose accursèd, and that laid Unnumbered sorrows on Achaia 's host,
Sing, heavenly Muse -- the wrath of Peleus ' son! Of many heroes in their flower of strength It flung the souls to Hades, and themselves Prey to the dogs and all the fowls of heaven: Yet was the will of Zeus being wrought thereby; Then first when Atreus ' son, the king of men, And great Achilles, sunder 'd, stood at strife.
Sing, Goddess, how Pelides ' wrath arose, Disastrous, working Greece unnumbered woes,
And many a hero 's soul to Hades sped, And glutted dogs and vultures with the dead. So the design of Zeus was compassed, when Achilles braved Atrides, king of men.
Sing, O goddess, the fatal wrath of Peleus ' son Achilles, which brought ten thousand troubles on the Achæans,
and sent to Hades many valiant souls of heroes, and made themselves a prey to dogs and every fowl -- such was the will of Zeus -- after that day when first Atrides, king of men, and divine Achilles, quarrelled and were parted.
Goddess, sing the destroying wrath of Achilles, Peleus ' son, which brought woes unnumbered on the Achæans,
and sent down to Hades many brave spirits of heroes, while it consigned their corses a prey to the dogs, and to all manner of birds -- and thus the will of Zeus was being fulfilled -- from what time Atreidês, Lord of men, and Godlike Achilles, having quarrelled, were first divided.
Sing, O goddess, the anger of Achilles son of Peleus, that brought countless ills upon the Achaeans.
Many a brave soul did it send hurrying down to Hades, and many a hero did it yield a prey to dogs and vultures, for so were the counsels of Jove fulfilled from the day on which the son of Atreus, king of men, and great Achilles, first fell out with one another.
The wrath sing, goddess, of Peleus ' son, Achilles, that destructive wrath which brought the countless woes upon the Achaeans,
and sent forth to Hades many valiant souls of heroes, and made them themselves spoil for dogs and every bird; thus the plan of Zeus came to fulfillment, from the time when first they parted in strife Atreus ' son, king of men, and brilliant Achilles.
An angry man -- there is my story: the bitter rancour of Achillês, prince of the house of Peleus, which brought a thousand troubles upon the Achaian host.
Many a strong soul it sent down to Hadês, and left the heroes themselves a prey to dogs and carrion birds, while the will of God moved on to fulfillment. It began first of all with the quarrel between my lord King Agamemnon of Atreus ' line and the Prince Achillês.
The Wrath of Achilles is my theme, that fatal wrath which, in fulfillment of the will of Zeus, brought the Achaeans so much suffering and sent the gallant souls of many noblemen to Hades
Sing, O Goddess, of the wrath of Peleus ' son Achilles, the deadly wrath that brought upon the Achaeans countless woes
and sent many mighty souls of heroes down to the house of Death and made their bodies prey for dogs and all the birds, as the will of Zeus was done, from the day when first the son of Atreus, king of men, and godlike Achilles parted in strife.
Sing, goddess, the anger of Peleus ' son Achilleus and its devastation, which put pains thousandfold upon the Achaians,
hurled in their multitudes to the house of Hades strong souls of heroes, but gave their bodies to be the delicate feasting of dogs, of all birds, and the will of Zeus was accomplished since that time when first there stood in division of conflict Atreus ' son the lord of men and brilliant Achilleus.
Sing, MOUNTAIN GODDESS, sing through me That anger which most ruinously
Inflamed Achilles, Peleus ' son And which, before the tale was done Had glutted Hell with champions -- bold, Stern spirits by the thousandfold; Ravens and dogs their corpses ate For thus did ZEUS, who watched their fate, See his resolve, first taken when Proud Agamemnon, king of men, An insult on Achilles cast, Achieve accomplishment at last.
Sing, O goddess, the ruinous wrath of Achilles, Son of Peleus, the terrible curse that brought
Unnumbered woes upon the Achaeans and hurled To Hades so many heroic souls, leaving Their bodies the prey of dogs and carrion birds The will of Zeus was done from the moment they quarreled, Agamemon, son Atreus, and godlike Achilles.
Anger be now your song, immortal one, Akhilleus ' anger, doomed and ruinous,
that caused the Akhaians loss on bitter loss and crowded brave souls into the undergloom, leaving so many dead men -- carrion for dogs and birds; and the will of Zeus was done. Begin it when the two men first contending broke with one another -- the Lord Marshall Agamémnon, Atreus ' son, and Prince Akhilleus.
Sing, goddess, of the anger of Achilleus, son of Peleus, the accursed anger which brought uncounted anguish on the Achaians
and hurled down to Hades many mighty souls of heroes, making their bodies the prey to dogs and the birds ' feasting: and this was the working of Zeus ' will. Sing from the time of the first quarrel which divided Atreus ' son, the lord of men, and godlike Achilleus.
Rage -- Goddess, sing the rage of Peleus ' son Achilles, murderous, doomed, that cost the Achaeans countless losses,
hurling down to the House of Death so many sturdy souls, great fighters ' souls, but made their bodies carrion, feasts for the dogs and birds, and the will of Zeus was moving toward its end. Begin, Muse, when the two first broke and clashed, Agamemnon lord of men and brilliant Achilles.
Sing, Goddess, Achilles ' maniac rage: ruinous thing! it roused a thousand sorrows
and hurled many souls of mighty warriors to Hades, made their bodies food to dogs and carrion birds -- as Zeus 's will foredoomed -- from the time relentless strife came between Atreus 's son, king, and brave Achilles.
Rage: Sing, Goddess, Achilles ' rage, Black and murderous, that cost the Greeks
Incalculable pain, pitched countless souls Of heroes into Hades ' dark, And left their bodies to rot as feasts For dogs and birds, as Zeus ' will was done. Begin with the clash between Agamemnon -- The Greek warlord -- and godlike Achilles.
Sing, Goddess, sing of the rage of Achilles, son of Peleus -- that murderous anger which condemned Achaeans
to countless agonies and threw many warrior souls deep into Hades, leaving their dead bodies carrion food for dogs and birds -- all in fulfillment of the will of Zeus. Start at the point where Agamemnon, son of Atreus, that king of men, quarrelled with noble Achilles.
Anger -- sing, goddess, the anger of Achilles son of Peleus, that accursed anger, which brought the Greeks endless sufferings
and sent the mighty souls of many warriors to Hades, leaving their bodies as carrion for the dogs and a feast for the birds; and Zeus ' purpose was fulfilled. It all began when Agamemnon lord of men and godlike Achilles quarrelled and parted.
Sing now, goddess, the wrath of Achilles the scion of Peleus, ruinous rage which brought the Achaians uncounted afflictions;
many the powerful souls it sent to the dwelling of Hades, those of the heroes, and spoil for the dogs it made of their bodies, plunder for all of the birds, and the purpose of Zeus was accomplished -- sing from the time when first stood hostile, starting the conflict, Atreus ' scion, the lord of the people, and noble Achilles.
Sing, goddess, of Peleus ' son Achilles ' anger, ruinous, that caused the Greeks untold ordeals,
consigned to Hades countless valiant souls, heroes, and left their bodies prey for dogs or feasts for vulures. Zeus 's will was done from when those two first quarreled and split apart, the king, Agememnon, and matchless Achilles.
Goddess, sing me the anger, of Achilles Peleus ' son, that fatal anger that brought countless sorrows on the Greeks,
and sent many valiant souls of warriors down to Hades, leaving their bodies as spoil for dogs and carrion birds: for thus was the will of Zeus brought to fulfilment. Sing of it from the moment when Agamemnon, Atreus ' son, that king of men, parted in wrath from noble Achilles.
The rage of Achilles -- sing it now, goddess, sing through me the deadly rage that caused the Achaeans such grief
and hurled down to Hades the souls of so many fighters, leaving their naked flesh to be eaten by dogs and carrion birds, as the will of Zeus was accomplished. Begin at the time when bitter words first divided that king of men, Agamemnon, and godlike Achilles.
Sing, goddess, the anger of Achilles, Peleus ' son, the accursed anger which brought the Achaeans countless
agonies and hurled many mighty shades of heroes into Hades, causing them to become the prey of dogs and all kinds of birds; and the plan of Zeus was fulfilled. Sing from the time the two men were first divided in strife -- Atreus ' son, lord of men, and glorious Achilles.
Sing of rage, Goddess, that bane of Akhilleus, Peleus ' son, which caused untold pain for Akhaians,
sent down throngs of powerful spirits to Aides, war - chiefs rendered the prize of dogs and every sort of bird. So the plan of Zeus was accomplished right from the start when two men parted in anger -- Atreus ' son, ruler of men, and godlike Akhilleus.
The rage sing, O goddess, of Achilles the son of Peleus, the destructive anger that brought ten - thousand pains to the
Achaeans and sent many brave souls of fighting men to the house of Hades and made their bodies a feast for dogs and all kinds of birds. For such was the will of Zeus. Sing the story from the time when Agamemnon, the son of Atreus, and godlike Achilles first stood apart in contention.
Wrath -- sing, goddess, of the ruinous wrath of Peleus ' son Achilles, that inflicted woes without number upon the Achaeans,
hurled forth to Hades many strong souls of warriors and rendered their bodies prey for the dogs, for all birds, and the will of Zeus was accomplished; sing from when they two first stood in conflict -- Atreus ' son, lord of men, and godlike Achilles.
Sing, goddess, of the wrath of Achilles Peleusson, the ruinous wrath that brought immense pain to the Acheans
and propelled many valiant souls of heroes down to Hades, and made them pickings for dogs and birds of all kinds, that the plan of Zeus might be brought to completion. Tell why they were first separated in quarreling, the son of Atreus, the Supreme Commander -- Agamemnon -- and noble Achilles.
Wrath, goddess, sing of Achilles Pēleus ' son 's calamitous wrath, which hit the Achaians with countless ills --
many the valiant souls it saw off down to Hādēs, souls of heroes, their selves left as carrion for dogs and all birds of prey, and the plan of Zeus was fulfilled -- from the first moment those two men parted in fury, Atreus ' son, king of men, and the godlike Achilles.
ἄνδρα μοι ἔννεπε, μοῦσα, πολύτροπον, ὃς μάλα πολλὰ πλάγχθη, ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον ἔπερσεν:
πολλῶν δ _̓ ἀνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα καὶ νόον ἔγνω, πολλὰ δ _̓ ὅ γ _̓ ἐν πόντῳ πάθεν ἄλγεα ὃν κατὰ θυμόν, ἀρνύμενος ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον ἑταίρων. ἀλλ _̓ οὐδ _̓ ὣς ἑτάρους ἐρρύσατο, ἱέμενός περ: αὐτῶν γὰρ σφετέρῃσιν ἀτασθαλίῃσιν ὄλοντο, νήπιοι, οἳ κατὰ βοῦς Ὑπερίονος Ἠελίοιο ἤσθιον: αὐτὰρ ὁ τοῖσιν ἀφείλετο νόστιμον ἦμαρ. τῶν ἁμόθεν γε, θεά, θύγατερ Διός, εἰπὲ καὶ ἡμῖν.
Romanization:
andra moi ennepe, mousa, polytropon, hos mala polla planchthē, epei troiēs hieron ptoliethron epersen: pollōn d ' anthrōpōn iden astea kai noon egnō, polla d ' ho g ' en pontō pathen algea hon kata thymon, arnymenos hēn te psychēn kai noston hetairōn. all ' oud ' hōs hetarous errysato, hiemenos per: autōn gar spheterēsin atasthaliēsin olonto, nēpioi, ohi kata bous Hyperionos Ēelioio ēsthion: autar ho toisin apheileto nostimon ēmar. tōn hamothen ge, thea, thygater Dios, eipe kai hēmin.
The man, O Muse, inform, that many a way Wound with his wisdom to his wished stay;
That wandered wondrous far, when he the town Of sacred Troy had sack 'd and shivered down; The cities of a world of nations, With all their manners, minds, and fashions, He saw and knew; at sea felt many woes, Much care sustained, to save from overthrows Himself and friends in their retreat for home; But so their fates he could not overcome, Though much he thirsted it. O men unwise, They perish 'd by their own impieties, That in their hunger 's rapine would not shun The oxen of the lofty - going Sun, Who therefore from their eyes the day bereft Of safe return. These acts, in some part left, Tell us, as others, deified Seed of Jove.
That prudent Hero 's wandering, Muse, rehearse, Who (Troy b'ing sack 'd) coasting the Universe,
Saw many Cities, and their various Modes; Much suffering, tost by Storms on raging Floods, His Friends conducting to their Native Coast: But all in vain, for he his Navy lost, And they their Lives, prophanely feasting on Herds consecrated to the glorious Sun; Who much incens 'd obstructed so their way, They ne'er return 'd: Jove 's Daughter this display.
Tell me, O Muse, th ' adventures of the man That having sack 'd the sacred town of Troy,
Wander 'd so long at sea; what course he ran By winds and tempests driven from his way: That saw the cities, and the fashions knew Of many men, but suffer 'd grievous pain To save his own life, and bring home his crew; Though for his crew, all he could do was vain, They lost themselves by their own insolence, Feeding, like fools, on the Sun 's sacred kine; Which did the splendid deity incense To their dire fate. Begin, O Muse divine.
The man for wisdom 's various arts renown 'd, Long exercised in woes, O Muse! resound;
Who, when his arms had wrought the destined fall Of sacred Troy, and razed her heaven - built wall, Wandering from clime to clime, observant stray 'd, Their manners noted, and their states survey 'd, On stormy seas unnumber 'd toils he bore, Safe with his friends to gain his natal shore: Vain toils! their impious folly dared to prey On herds devoted to the god of day; The god vindictive doom 'd them never more (Ah, men unbless 'd!) to touch that natal shore. Oh, snatch some portion of these acts from fate, Celestial Muse! and to our world relate.
Muse make the man thy theme, for shrewdness famed And genius versatile, who far and wide
A Wand'rer, after Ilium overthrown, Discover 'd various cities, and the mind And manners learn 'd of men, in lands remote. He num'rous woes on Ocean toss 'd, endured, Anxious to save himself, and to conduct His followers to their home; yet all his care Preserved them not; they perish 'd self - destroy 'd By their own fault; infatuate! who devoured The oxen of the all - o'erseeing Sun, And, punish 'd for that crime, return 'd no more. Daughter divine of Jove, these things record, As it may please thee, even in our ears.
O Muse, inspire me to tell of the crafty man, who wandered very much after he
had brought to destruction the sacred city of Tioy, and saw the cities of many men, and became acquainted with their disposition. He suffered many griefs in his mind on the sea, to preserve his own life, and to obtain a return for his companions; but not even thus, although anxious, did he save his companions: for they perished by their own wickedness, fools who consumed the cattle of the Sun who journeys above; but he deprived them of their return. O Goddess, daughter of Jove, relate even to us some of these things at least.
Muse! sing the Man by long experience tried, Who, fertile in resources, wander 'd wide,
And when Troy 's sacred walls in dust were laid, Men 's varying moods and many a realm survey 'd. He much endured on ocean 's stormy wave, Intent his followers, and himself to save, In vain: -- they perish 'd by their guilt undone; Fools! who devour 'd the bullocks of the Sun -- The God, in vengeance for his cattle slain, In their return destroy 'd them on the main. Daughter of Jove! deign thou to us disclose, Celestial Muse, a portion of their woes.
O Muse, sing to me of the man full of resources, who wandered very much
after he had destroyed the sacred city of Troy, and saw the cities of many men, and learned their manners. Many griefs also in his mind did he suffer on the sea, although seeking to preserve his own life, and the return of his companions; but not even thus, although anxious, did he extricate his companions: for they perished by their own infatuation, fools! who devoured the oxen of the Sun who journeys on high; but he deprived them of their return. O goddess, daughter of Jove, relate to us also some of these things.
Sing me, O Muse, that all - experienced Man, Who, after he Troy 's sacred town o'erthrew,
Did tossing wander much, and cities scan Of men a many, and their genius knew; Woes manifold by sea he suffer 'd too While life and friends ' return he ' d fain have won. Nathless he rescued not his comrades, who By their own wilful folly were undone; The fools! that ate the beeves of the o'ergoing Sun. And from them verily he took away The day of their return. These things to me, Daughter of Zeus, O goddess, somewhat say.
Tell of the man, thou Muse, much versed, who widely Wandered, when he had sacked Troy 's sacred fortress;
Many men 's town he saw, and knew their manners; Many the woes he suffered on the ocean, To win his life, and safety for his comrades. But them he might not rescue, though he loved them; For they were slain amidst their impious daring, Fools, who the cattle of the mighty Sun - god Devoured, -- and He cut short their homeward journey. Of all this, Goddess, what thou wilt, inform us.
Sing me. O Muse, that hero wandering, Who of men 's minds did much experience reap,
And knew the citied realms of many a king, Even from the hour he smote the Trojan keep. Also a weight of sorrows in the deep, Brooding he bore, in earnest hope to save, ' Mid hard emprise and labour all to keep, Himself and comrades from a watery grave -- Whom yet he rescued not with zeal nor yeareings brave; For they were slain in their own foolishness. Self - blinded, feasting on Hyperion 's kine. He, the great Sun, in vengeance merciless, Wroth for the slaughter of his herds divine, Did bend their fortunes to a stern decline. And raze out wholly their returning day With disadventure and destroying tyne -- These even to me, who hearken as I may, Great goddess, child of Zeus, unfold in verse, I pray!
Εννεπε declare μοιI to me, Мουσα Muse, ανδρα the man πολυτροπον of many
fortunes, ός whoπλαγχθη wandered μαλα πολλα very much, επει when επερσεν he had destroyed ιερον πτολιεθρον the sacred city Τροιης of Troy: ιδε δε and saw αστεα towns και and εγνων learnt νοον the mood πολλων ανθρωπων of many men, πολλα δε αλγεα but many sorrows όγε he indeed παθε suffered όν κατα θυμον in his soul, αρνυμενος while grasping ήν τε ψυχην both his own life και and νοστον the return έταιρων of his companions. Αλλα but ουδε not even ώς thus ερρυσατο did he save έταρους his companions ίεμενος περ though bent upon it: ολοντο γαρ for they perished σφετερησιν ατασσθαλιησι by their own phrensies, νηπιοι fools, όι who κατα ησθιον ate up βους the oxen Ήελιοιο of the SunΎπερινος who rolls above us: αυταρ but ό he αφειλετο took away τοισι from them νοστιμον ημαρ the day of their return: των of these things άμοθεν γε from whatever source, θεα O goddess, θυγατερ daughter Διος of Jupiter, ειπε tell και ημιν to us also.
The travelled Man of many a turn, -- driven far, Far wandering, when he had sacked Troy 's sacred Town;
Tell me, O Muse, his tale; how too he conned The manners of mankind, and visited Full many a City, and how on the deep he suffered Many a heart - pang, striving to secure His own and comrades ' lives and safe return, Yet them he rescued not, howe'er desirous; For by their own blind folly they all perished: Fools that they were! to eat the Sun - god 's herds; So, Hyperion, he who Walks above, Bereft them of their day of home - return! Whereof, from whatsoever source, O goddess, Daughter of Zeus, vouchsafe to tell e'en Us! --
Tell me, O Muse, declare to me that man Tost to and fro by fate, who, when his arms
Had laid Troy 's holy city in the dust, Far wand'ring roam 'd on many a tribe of men To bend his gaze, their minds and thoughts to learn. Grief upon grief encounter 'd he, when, borne On ocean - waves, his life he carried off A prize from perils rescued, and would fain Have homeward led his brethren in arms; But, not to him, -- not to his anxious zeal Was giv'n their rescue; destin 'd as they were In their mad arrogance to perish; fools! That dared to seize, and to consume for food, Hyperion 's herds, the oxen of the Sun That walks on high, by whose behest the day Of their return was evermore denied. And thou, too, goddess daughter of great Jove, The theme pursue, and thine own record bear!
Tell me, oh Muse, of - the - many - sided man, Who wandered far and wide full sore bestead,
When he had razed the mighty town of Troy: And - of - many - a-race of human - kind he saw The cities; and he learned their mind and ways: And on the deep full many - a-woe he bore In his own hosom, while he strove to save His proper life, and - his - comrades ' home - return. But them not so he saved with all his zeal; For they in their own wilful folly perished: Infatuates! to devour Hyperion 's kine! So he bereft them of their home - return. Of these things, Goddess, where thou wilt beginning, Daughter of Zeus, the tale tell e'en to us!
Sing, Muse, of that deep man, who wander 'd much, When he had raz 'd the walls of sacred Troy,
And many towns saw, many customs learnt, And many griefs endur 'd upon the sea; Anxious to save his comrades and himself: But them he sav 'd not, though desiring it: But through their rash deeds perish 'd of that band Those foolish men, who ate Apollo 's kine: That god depriv 'd them of return 's glad day. Of these men, goddess, tell us too in part!
Tell me, 0 Muse, of that sagacious man Who, having overthrown the sacred town
Of Ilium, wandered far and visited The capitals of many notians, learned The customs of their dwellers, and endured Great suffering on the deep; his life was oft In peril, as he labored to bring back His comrades to their homes. He saved them not, Though earnestly he strove; for they perished all Through their own folly; for they banqueted, Madmen! upon the oxen of the Sun, -- The all - o'erlooking Sun, who cut them off, From their return. O goddess, virgin child Of Jove, relate some'part of this to me.
Muse! tell me of the man with much resource, Who wandered far, when sacred Troy he sacked;
Saw towns of many men, learned all they knew, Winning his own life and his friends ' return. Yet them he saved not, earnest though he was, For by their own temerity they died. Fools! who devoured the oxen of the sun, Who from them took the day of their return. (Muse, child of Jove! from some source tell us this.)
-- Note: not a translation, per se, but the Greek text with commentary --
O Muse! inspire me to tell of the man, skilled in sxpedients, who wandered
very much after he had brought to destruction the sacred city of Troy, and saw the cities of many men, and become acquainted with their dispositions. And he, indeed, on the deep, endured in bis mind many sufferings, whilst endeavoring to secure his own life and the return of his companions; but not even thus, although anxious, did he save his companions: for they perished by their own infatuation; foolish (men that they were), who did eat up the Sun who journeys above; but he deprived them of their return (the day of return). Of these events, arising from whatever cause, O goddess! daughter of Jove, inform us also.
Tell me, Muse, of that man, so ready at need, who wandered far and wide, after he had sacked
the sacred citadel of Troy, and many were the men whose towns he saw and whose mind he learnt, yea, and many the woes he suffered in his heart upon the deep, striving to win his own life and the return of his company. Nay, but even so he saved not his company, though he desired it sore. For through the blindness of their own hearts they perished, fools, who devoured the oxen of Helios Hyperion: but the god took from them their day of returning. Of these things, goddess, daughter of Zeus, whencesoever thou hast heard thereof, declare thou even unto us.
Sing Muse the hero versatile, who roved So far, so long, after he overthrew
Troy 's holy citadel; of many men He saw the cities, and their manners learned; And woes he suffered on the deep; he strove To win his comrades ' lives, and safe return. But all his strivings failed to rescue them: They perished for their witless sacrilege, Who ate the oxen of Hyperion Sun; Hence nevermore saw they their native land. Daughter of Jove, help us to tell the tale.
Muse! of that hero versatile indite to me the song, Doomed, when he sacred Troy had sacked, to wander far and long.
Who saw the towns of many men, much knowledge did obtain Anent their ways, and with much woe was heart - wrung on the main, Seeking his own life to preserve, his friends ' return to gain. E'en so he rescued not his friends, though eagerly he strove, For them their own infatuate deeds to direful ending drove. Fools, who the sun - god 's sacred beeves dared madly to devour, Doomed by his anger ne'er to see of glad return the hour. Sing, goddess, child of mighty Jove, of these events, I pray, And from what starting - point thou wilt begin with me the lay.
The Hero of craft - renown, O Song - goddess, chant me his fame, Who, when low he had laid Troy town, unto many a far land came,
And many a city beheld he, and knew the hearts of their folk, And by woes of the sea was unquelled, o'er the rock of his spirit that broke, When he fain would won for a prey his life, and his friends ' return, Yet never they saw that day, howsoever his heart might yearn, But they perished every one, by their own mad deeds did they fall, For they slaughtered the kine of the Sun, and devoured them -- fools were they all. So the God in his wrath took awav their day of return for their guilt. ((1903 edition): So in anger their home - coming day did the God take away for their guilt.) O Goddess, inspire my lay, with their tale; take it up as thou wilt.
-- Note: not a translation, per se, but the Greek text with "marginal references, various readings, notes and appendices. '' --
-- Note: Not a translation, per se, but a commentary. Edition inclusive of Books 11 -- 24 --
Sing, goddess Muse, the wrath of Peleus ' son, The wrath of Achilleus with ruin fraught,
That to Achaians brought unnumbered woes, And many mighty souls of heroes hurled To Hades ' home but gave themselves a prey To dogs and every fowl. For thus its end The will of Zeus worked out, since at the first Parted in strife those twain, the king of men Atrides and the godlike Achileus.
Speak to me, Muse, of the adventurous man who wandered long after he sacked the sacred
citadel of Troy. Many the men whose towns he
saw, whose ways he proved; and many a pang he bore in his own breast at sea while struggling for his ' life and his men 's safe return. Yet even so, by all his zeal, he did not save his men; for through their own perversity they perished -- fools! who devoured the kine of the exhalted Sun. Wherefore he took away the day of their return. Of this, O goddess, daughter of Zeus,
beginning where thou wilt, speak to us also.
Tell me, O Muse, of the Shifty, the man who wandered afar. After the Holy Burg, Troy town, he had wasted with war;
He saw the towns of menfolk, and the mind of men did he learn; As he warded his life in the world, and his fellow - farers ' return, Many a grief of heart on the deep - sea flood he bore, Nor yet might he save his fellows, for all that he longed for it sore They died of their own soul 's folly, for witless as they were They ate up the beasts of the Sun, the Rider of the air, And he took away from them all their dear returning day; O goddess, O daughter of Zeus, from whencesoever ye may, Gather the tale, and tell it, yea even to us at the last!
Tell me, O Muse, of the man of many resources, who many Ills was made to endure, when he Troy 's sacred city had wasted;
Many the people whose cities he saw, and learned of their customs, Many also the sorrows he suffered at sea in his spirit, Striving to save his own life and secure the return of his comrades But not thus his comrades he saved, however he wished it, For by their own presumptuous deeds they foolishly perished: Madmen they, who devoured the sun god, Hyperion 's oxen, And in revenge he took from them their day of returning. Of these things, thou goddess, daughter of Jove, tell us also.
Sing through my lips, O Goddess, sing the man Resourceful, who, storm - buffeted far and wide,
After despoiling of Troy 's sacred tower, Beheld the cities of mankind, and knew Their various temper! Many on the sea The sorrows in his inmost heart he bore For rescue of his comrades and his life; Those not for all his effort might he save; Fools, of their own perversities they fell, Daring consume the cattle of the Sun Hyperion, who bereft them of return! That we too may have knowledge, sing these things, Daughter of Zeus, beginning whence thou wilt!
Tell me, O muse, of that ingenious hero who travelled far and wide after he had sacked the
famous town of Troy. Many cities did he visit, and many were the nations with whose manners and customs he was acquainted; moreover he suffered much by sea while trying to save his own life and bring his men safely home; but do what he might he could not save his men, for they perished through their own sheer folly in eating the cattle of the Sun - god Hyperion; so the god prevented them from ever reaching home. Tell me, too, about all these things, O daughter of Jove, from whatsoever source you may know them.
-- Note: translation inclusive of Books 13 -- 24 --
O Muse, instruct me of the man who drew His changeful course through wanderings not a few
After he sacked the holy town of Troy, And saw the cities and the counsel knew Of many men, and many a time at sea Within his heart he bore calamity, While his own life he laboured to redeem And bring his fellows back from jeopardy. Yet not his fellows thus from death he won, Fain as he was to save them: who undone By their own hearts ' infatuation died, Fools, that devoured the oxen of the Sun, Hyperion: and therefore he the day Of their returning homeward reft away. Goddess, God 's daughter, grant that now thereof We too may hear, such portion as we may.
Sing, O Muse, of the man so wary and wise, who in far lands Wandered whenas he had wasted the sacred town of the Trojans.
Many a people he saw and beheld their cities and customs, Many a woe he endured in his heart as he tossed on the ocean, Striving to win him his life and to bring home safely his comrades. Ah but he rescued them not, those comrades, much as he wished it. Ruined by their own act of infatuate madness they perished, Fools that they were -- who the cows of the sun - god, lord Hyperion, Slaughtered and ate; and he took from the men their day of returning. Sing -- whence - ever the lay -- sing, Zeus - born goddess, for us too!
Tell me, O Muse, of the man of many devices, who wandered full many ways after he had
sacked the sacred citadel of Troy. Many were the men whose cities he saw and whose mind he learned, aye, and many the woes he suffered in his heart upon the sea, seeking to win his own life and the return of his comrades. Yet even so he saved not his comrades, though he desired it sore, for through their own blind folly they perished -- fools, who devoured the kine of Helios Hyperion; but he took from them the day of their returning. Of these things, goddess, daughter of Zeus, beginning where thou wilt, tell thou even unto us.
Sing me the Restless Man, O Muse, who roamed the world over, When, by his wondrous guile, he had sacked Troy 's sacred fortress.
Cities of various men he saw: their thoughts he discernéd. Many a time, in the deep, his heart was melted for trouble. Striving to win his life, and eke return for his comrades: Yet, though he strove full sore, he could not save his companions, For, as was meet and just, through deeds of folly they perished: Fools! who devoured the oxen of Him who rides in the heavens, Helios, who, in his course, missed out their day of returning. Yet, how they fared and died, be gracious, O Goddess, to tell us.
Māny a tĩme in the deēp (-- (pause or ' cæsura ')) hĩs heārt was mēlted for trōublē,
Tell me, O Muse, of that Great Traveller Who wandered far and wide when he had sacked
The sacred town of Troy. Of many men He saw the cities and he learned the mind; Ay, and at heart he suffered many woes Upon the sea, intent to save his life And bring his comrades home. Yet even so His men he could not save for all his efforts, For through their own blind wilfulness they perished; The fools! who ate up Hyperion 's kine; And he bereft them of their homing day. Touching these things, beginning where thou wilt, Tell even us, O goddess, child of Zeus.
Tell me, O Muse, of that clever hero who wandered far after capturing the
sacred city of Troy. For he saw the towns and learned the ways of many peoples. Many hardships too he suffered on the sea while struggling for his own life and for the safe return of his men. Yet all his zeal did not save his companions. They perished through their own rashness -- the fools! -- because they ate the cattle of the Sun, and he therefore kept them from reaching home. Tell us also of this, 0 goddess, daughter of Zeus, beginning where you will.
Tell me the tale, Muse, of that man Of many changes, he who went
Wandering so far when he had plundered Troy 's sacred citadel. And many The men whose cities he beheld, Whose minds he learned to know, and many The sorrows that his soul endured Upon the deep the while he strove To save himself from death and bring His comrades home. Of these things now, Daughter of Zeus, O goddess, tell us, Even as thou wilt, the tale.
This song of the various - minded man Who after he had plundered The innermost citadel of hallowed Troy Was made to stray grievously About the coasts of men The sport of their customs good or bad While his heart Through all the sea - faring Ached in an agony to redeem himself And bring his company safe home Vain hope -- for them For his fellows he strove in vain Their own witlessness cast them away The fools To destroy for meat The oxen of the most exalted sun Wherefore the Sun - God blotted out The day of their return Make the tale live for us In all its many bearings
This is the story of a man, one who was never at a loss. He had travelled
far in the world, after the sack of Troy, the virgin fortress; he saw many cities of men, and learnt their mind; he endured many troubles and hardships in the struggle to save his own life and to bring back his men safe to their homes. He did his best, but he could not save his companions. For they perished by their own madness, because they killed and ate the cattle of Hyperion the Sun - god, and the god took care that they should never see home again.
The hero of the tale which I beg the Muse to help me tell is that resourceful
man who roamed the wide world after he had sacked the holy citadel of Troy. He saw the cities of many peoples and he learnt their ways. He suffered many hardships on the high seas in his struggles to preserve his life and bring his comrades home. But he failed to save those comrades, in spite of all his efforts. It was their own sin that brought them to their doom, for in their folly they devoured the oxen of Hyperion the Sun, and the god saw to it that they should never return. This is the tale I pray the divine Muse to unfold to us. Begin it, goddess, at whatever point you will.
Tell me, O muse, of the hero fated to roam So long and so far when Ilion 's keep he had sack 'd,
And the city and mind of many a people he knew, And many a woe he endur 'd on the face of the deep To win both life for himself and his comrades ' return; Yet for all his striving he brought not his company home, For they by their own blindness at last were stroy 'd, Fools! who ate of the sacred beeves of the Sun And he, Hyperion, ras 'd out their day of return: Sing, then, O daughter of Zeus, that Wanderer 's tale.
Tell me, Muse, of the man of many ways, who was driven far journeys, after he had
sacked Troy 's sacred citadel. Many were they whose cities he saw, whose minds he learned of, many the pains he suffered in his spirit on the wide sea, struggling for his own life and the homecoming of his companions. Even so he could not save his companions, hard though he strove to; they were destroyed by their own wild recklessness, fools, who devoured the oxen of Helios, the Sun God, and he took away the day of their homecoming. From some point here, goddess, daughter of Zeus, speak, and begin our story.
Of that versatile man, O Muse, tell me the story, How he wandered both long and far after sacking
The city of holy Troy. May were the towns He saw and many the men whose minds he knew, And many were the woes his stout heart suffered at sea As he fought to return alive with living comrades. Them he could not save, though much he longed to, For through their own thoughtless greed they died -- blind fools Who slaughtered the Sun 's own cattle, Hyperion 's herd, For food, and so by him were kept from returning. Of all these things, O Goddess, daughter of Zeus, Beginning wherever you swish, tell even us.
Sing in me, Muse, and through me tell the story of that man skilled in all ways of contending,
the wanderer, harried for years on end, after he plundered the stronghold on the proud height of Troy. He saw the townlands and learned the minds of many distant men, and weathered many bitter nights and days in his deep heart at sea, while he fought only to save his life, to bring his shipmates home. But not by will nor valor could he save them, for their own recklessness destroyed them all -- children and fools, they killed and feasted on the cattle of Lord Hêlios, the Sun, and he who moves all day through heaven took from their eyes the dawn of their return. Of these adventures, Muse, daughter of Zeus, tell us in our time, lift up great song again.
Tell me, Muse, about the man of many turns, who many Ways wandered when he had sacked Troy 's holy citadel;
He saw the cities of many men, and he knew their thought; On the ocean he suffered many pains within his heart, Striving for his life and his companions ' return. But he did not save his companions, though he wanted to: They lost their own lives because of their recklessness. The fools, they devoured the cattle of Hyperion, The Sun, and he took away the day of their return. Begin the tale somewhere for us also, goddess, daughter of Zeus.
Goddess of song, teach me the story of a hero. This was the man of wide - ranging spirit who had sacked the sacred town of Troy and who wandered afterwards long and far.
Many were those cities he viewed and whose minds he came to know, many the troubles that vexed his heart as he sailed the seas, labouring to save himself and to bring his comrades home. But his comrades he could not keep from ruin, strive as he might; they perished instead by their own presumptuousness. Fools, they devoured the cattle of Hyperion, and he, the sun - god, cut off from them the day of their homecoming. Goddess, daughter of Zeus, to me in turn impart some knowledge of all these things, beginning where you will.
Muse, tell me of a man -- a man of much resource, who was made
to wander far and long, after he had sacked the sacred city of Troy. Many were the men whose lands he saw and came to know their thinking, many too the miseries at sea which he suffered in his heart as he sought to win his own life and the safe return of his companions. They perished through their own arrant folly -- the fools, they ate the cattle of Hyperion the Sun, and he took away the day of their return. Start the story where you will, goddess, daughter of Zeus, and share it now with us.
Muse, tell me of the man of many wiles, the man who wandered many paths of exile
after he sacked Troy 's sacred citadel. He saw the cities -- mapped the minds -- of many; and on the sea, his spirit suffered every adversity -- to keep his life intact, to bring his comrades back. In that last task, his will was firm and fast, and yet he failed: he could not save his comrades. Fools, they foiled themselves: they ate the oxen of the Sun, the herd of Hélios Hypérion; the lord of light requited their transgression -- he took away the day of their return. Muse, tell us of these matters. Daughter of Zeus, my starting point is any point you choose.
Tell me, Muse of that resourceful man who was driven to wander far
and wide after he had sacked the holy citadel of Troy. He saw the cities of many people and he learnt their ways. He suffered great anguish on the high seas in his struggles to preserve life and bring his comrades home. But he failed to save those comrades, in spite of all his efforts. It was their own transgression that brought them to their doom, for in their folly they devoured the oxen of Hyperion the Sun - god and he saw to it that they would never return. Tell us this story, goddess daughter of Zeus, beginning at whatever point you will.
Sing to me of the man, Muse, the man of twists and turns driven time and again off course, once he had plundered
the hallowed heights of Troy. Many cities of men he saw and learned their minds, many pains he suffered, heartsick on the open sea, fighting to save his life and bring his comrades home. But he could not save them from disaster, hard as he strove -- the recklessness of their own ways destroyed them all, the blind fools, they devoured the cattle of the Sun and the Sungod blotted out the day of their return. Launch out on his story, Muse, daughter of Zeus, start from where you will -- sing for our time too.
Tell me, O Muse, of a man of resourceful spirit who wandered Far, having taken by storm Troy 's sacred city and sacked it.
Many the men whose cities he saw, whose thoughts he discovered; Many the grievous troubles he suffered at sea in his spirit, Striving to save his life and restore his friends to their homeland. Yet he failed in the end to save his friends by his efforts. By their folly they perished, by their own folly and blindness, Fools, who elected to feed on great Hyperion 's oxen; So that God of the Sun denied their day of returning. Tell us the tale, goddess, daughter of Zeus, and choose the beginning.
Tell me, Muse, of the versatile man who was driven off course many times after he had sacked the holy citadel of Troy.
Many were the
peoples whose cities he saw, and whose minds he got to know; and at sea many were the pains he felt in his heart as he tried to secure his own life and his comrades ' return home. Even so he did not save them, much as he wanted to. Instead they perished through their own outrageous, foolish men who ate up the cattle of Hyperion the Sun; and he took from them the day of their homecoming. From some point or other, goddess, daughter of Zeus,
tell us too about these things.
Speak, Memory -- Of the cunning hero
The wanderer, blown off course time and again After he plundered Troy 's sacred heights. Speak Of all the cities he saw, the minds he grasped, The suffering deep in his heart at sea As he struggled to survive and bring his men home But could not save them, hard as he tried -- The fools -- destroyed by their own recklessness When they ate the oxen of Hyperion the Sun, And that god snuffed out their day of return. Of these things, Speak, Immortal One, And tell the tale once more in our time.
Muse, speak to me now of that resourceful man who wandered far and wide after ravaging
the sacred citadel of Troy. He came to see many people 's cities, where he learned their customs, while on the sea his spirit suffered many torments, as he fought to save his life and lead his comrades home. But though he wanted to, he could not rescue them -- they all died from their own stupidity, the fools. They feasted on the cattle of Hyperion, god of the sun -- that 's why he snatched away their chance of getting home someday. So now, daughter of Zeus, tell us his story, starting anywhere you wish.
Tell me, Muse, of the man versatile and resourceful, who wandered many a sea - mile after he ransacked Troy 's holy city.
Many the men whose towns he observed, whose minds he discovered, many the pains in his heart he suffered, traversing the seaway, fighting for his own life and a way back home for his comrades. Not even so did he save his companions, as much as he wished to, for by their own mad recklessness they were brought to destruction, childish fools -- they decided to eat up the cows of the High Lord, Helios: he then took from the men their day of returning. Even for us, holy daughter of Zeus, start there to recount this.
Tell me, Muse, of that man of many resources, who wandered far and wide, after sacking the holy citadel of Troy.
Many the men whose cities he saw, whose ways he learned. Many the sorrows he suffered at sea, while trying to bring himself and his friends back alive. Yet despite his wishes he failed to save them, because of their own un-wisdom, foolishly eating the cattle of Helios, the Sun, so the god denied them their return. Tell us of these things, beginning where you will, Goddess, Daughter of Zeus.
The man, my Muse, resourceful, driven a long way after he sacked the holy city of Trojans:
tell me all the men 's cities he saw and the men 's minds, how often he suffered heartfelt pain on the broad sea, striving for life and a way back home for his war friends. Yet he saved no friends, much as he longed to: they lost their lives through their own reckless abandon, fools who ate the cattle of Helios the Sun - God. Huperion seized the day they might have arrived home. Tell us, Goddess, daughter of Zeus, start in your own place.
Speak through me, O Muse, of that man of many devices
who wandered much once he 'd sacked the sacred citadel of Troy. He saw the cities of many men and knew their minds, suffering many sorrows in order to win back his life - soul and the return of his companions. In the end he failed to save them, in spite of his longing to do so, for through their own heedlessness they perished. Fools -- who ate the cows of Helios - Hyperion, and the day of their return was taken from them. Of these matters, goddess, daughter of Zeus, speak through us beginning wherever you will.
Sing to me, Muse, of that endlessly cunning man who was blown off course to the ends of the earth, in the years
after he plundered Troy. He passed through the cities of many people and learned how they thought, and he suffered many bitter hardships upon the high seas as he tried to save his own life and bring his companions back to their home. But however bravely he struggled, he could not rescue them, fools that they were -- their own recklessness brought disaster upon them all; they slaughtered and ate the cattle of Hélios, so the sun god destroyed them and blotted out their homecoming. Goddess, daughter of Zeus, begin now, wherever you wish to, and tell the story again, for us.
Sing to me of the resourceful man, O Muse, who wandered far after he had sacked the sacred city of Troy. He saw
the cities of many men and learned their minds. He suffered many pains on the sea in his spirit, seeking to save his life and the homecoming of his companions. But even so he could not save his companions, though he wanted to, for they perished of their own folly -- the fools! They ate the cattle of Helios Hyperion, who took from them the day of their return. Of these matters, beginning where you want, O daughter of Zeus, tell to us.
Tell me, Muse, of the man of many turns, who was driven far and wide after he had sacked the sacred city of Troy.
Many were the men whose cities he saw, and learnt their minds, many the sufferings on the open sea he endured in his heart, struggling for his own life and his companions ' homecoming. Even so he could not protect them, though he desired it, since they perished by reason of their own recklessness, the fools, because they ate the cattle of the Sun, Hyperion, and he took away the day of their homecoming. Tell us, too, goddess daughter of Zeus, starting from where you will.
Tell me about a complicated man. Muse, tell me how he wandered and was lost
when he had wrecked the holy town of Troy, and where he went, and who he met, the pain he suffered in the storms at sea, and how he worked to save his life and bring his men back home. He failed to keep them safe; poor fools, they ate the Sun God 's cattle, and the god kept them from home. Now goddess, child of Zeus, tell the old story for our modern times.
The man, Muse -- tell me about that resourceful man, who wandered far and wide, when he 'd sacked Troy 's sacred citadel:
many men 's townships he saw, and learned their ways of thinking, many the griefs he suffered at heart on the open sea, battling for his own life and his comrades ' homecoming. Yet no way could he save his comrades, much though he longed to -- it was through their own blind recklessness that they perished, the fools, for they slaughtered the cattle of Hēlios the sun god and ate them: for that he took from them their day of returning. Tell us this tale, goddess, child of Zeus; start anywhere in it!
|
how many years does a silver anniversary celebration | Wedding anniversary - wikipedia
A wedding anniversary is the anniversary of the date a marriage took place.
Traditional names exist for all of them: for instance, 50 years of marriage is called a "golden wedding anniversary '' or simply a "golden anniversary ''.
The historic origins of wedding anniversaries date back to the Holy Roman Empire, where husbands crowned their wives with a silver wreath on their twenty - fifth anniversary, and a gold wreath on the fiftieth. Later, principally in the twentieth century, commercialism led to the addition of more anniversaries being represented by a named gift.
In the Commonwealth realms, one can receive a message from the monarch for 60th, 65th, and 70th wedding anniversaries, and any wedding anniversary after that, currently sent as a greeting card. This is done by applying to Buckingham Palace in the United Kingdom, or to the Governor - General 's office in the other Commonwealth realms.
In Australia, where one can receive a letter of congratulations from the Governor - General on the 50th and all subsequent wedding anniversaries; the Prime Minister, the federal Opposition leader, local members of both state and federal parliaments, and state Governors may also send salutations for the same anniversaries.
In Canada, one can also receive a message from the Governor - General for the 50th anniversary, and every fifth anniversary after that.
In the United States, a couple can receive a greeting from the President for any wedding anniversary on or after the 50th.
Roman Catholics may apply to the Office of Papal Charities for a papal blessing for wedding anniversaries of a special nature (25th, 50th, 60th, etc.); however, Archbishop Konrad Krajewski stated that after 1 January 2015 blessings will not be available to stores or businesses outside the Vatican, but by applying, scrolls can be shipped anywhere.
In Denmark and the Netherlands, a couple 's copper anniversary is 12.5 years (half of 25).
The names of some anniversaries provide guidance for appropriate or traditional gifts for the spouses to give each other; if there is a party these can be brought by the guests or influence the theme or decoration. These gifts vary in different countries, but some years have well - established connections now common to most nations: 5th Wood, 10th Tin, 15th Crystal, 20th China, 25th Silver, 30th Pearl, 40th Ruby, 50th Gold, 60th Diamond, 70th Platinum. In English speaking countries the first, wooden, gift was cut on the day of celebration and then presented to the wife as a finished article before the next two quarter days had passed. The tradition may have originated in medieval Germany where, if a married couple lived to celebrate the 25th anniversary of their wedding, the wife was presented by her friends and neighbors with a silver wreath to congratulate them for the good fortune that had prolonged the lives of the couple. Over time the number of symbols expanded and the German tradition came to assign gifts that had direct connections with each stage of married life. The symbols have changed over time. For example, in the United Kingdom, diamond was a well known symbol for the 75th anniversary, but this changed to the now more common 60th anniversary after the Diamond Anniversary of Queen Victoria. The current monarch Queen Elizabeth II 's 60th year on the throne was widely marked as her Diamond Jubilee and commemorated in 2012.
Lists of wedding anniversary gifts vary by country. The traditional and modern U.S. versions were compiled by librarians at the Chicago Public Library.
The Jewelry Anniversary list with gemstone jewelry for each anniversary year was established by The American Gem Society, The Gemological Institute of America, The American Gem Trade Association, Jewelers of America, and the International Colored Gemstone Association.
|
that '70s show season 8 episode 19 | That ' 70s show (season 8) - wikipedia
The eighth and final season of the American comedy television series That ' 70s Show premiered November 2, 2005 on Fox in the United States. The season ended on May 18, 2006 with an hour - long series finale. The eighth season was the only season without the show 's star Topher Grace who portrayed Eric Forman, the central character, since he left the series at the end of the previous season. Eric was often mentioned throughout the season, even being an important off - stage character central to an episode 's plot upon occasion. Topher Grace returned as Eric for the final episode, although his role was brief and uncredited.
This season also marked a major change in the series, as a new character was introduced to take Eric 's place named Randy Pearson (portrayed by new cast member Josh Meyers) and the departure of Michael Kelso, who was portrayed by Ashton Kutcher. Kutcher had quit the show at the end of season seven but remained on the series for five episodes during the eighth season. He appeared in the first four episodes to give closure to Kelso and he appeared again in the final episode titled "That ' 70s Finale ''. Also, Leo (Tommy Chong) returned as a main character since his return to the series in the seventh season (in a special guest role).
Many plots of the season involved Donna 's new relationship with Randy, Jackie falling in love with Fez, Hyde getting married to a stripper named Samantha, Kelso getting a new job and moving to Chicago, and the Formans adjusting to an empty nest which is too empty for Kitty and not empty enough for Red due to the kids ' presence despite Eric 's absence.
This season is set entirely in 1979, with the final seconds of the series being the final seconds of the decade. The very last seconds of the series show the license plate of Eric 's Vista Cruiser for the final time, now featuring a tag with the year "80 '' on it, signaling that the 1980s have begun.
All episodes of season 8, except the finale, are named after songs by Queen.
The region 1 DVD was released on April 1, 2008.
|
when is tranquility base hotel and casino released | Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino - wikipedia
Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino is the sixth studio album by English indie rock band Arctic Monkeys. It was released on 11 May 2018 by Domino Recording Company, and produced by frequent Arctic Monkeys collaborator James Ford and band frontman Alex Turner. The album was written by Turner on a piano, and features a lush sound, categorised as lounge pop, space pop and glam rock, with elements of jazz; a departure from the band 's previous guitar - heavy work. Its lyrical content draws heavily from science fiction and film, exploring consumerism, politics, religion, technology.
The album 's stylistic deviation polarised listeners. However, it was released to generally positive reviews and became the band 's sixth consecutive number - one debut in the UK, as well as the country 's fastest - selling vinyl record in 25 years.
The band 's fifth studio album AM was released on 9 September 2013. The album was critically acclaimed, and brought the group new levels of commercial success. On 1 April 2016, Alex Turner 's psychedelic pop side project the Last Shadow Puppets released their second studio album Everything You 've Come to Expect. In April 2017, Turner co-produced Alexandra Savior 's debut album Belladonna of Sadness with James Ford. This was Turner 's first foray into record production, with the two proceeding to produce Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino. Meanwhile, drummer Matt Helders joined Iggy Pop 's band for Post Pop Depression, as well as contributing to "Diamond Heart '' from Lady Gaga 's Joanne, and marrying actress Breana McDow.
Following the international success of AM, Turner suffered from writer 's block, struggling to find a direction for a new album. Having written "Sweet Dreams, TN '' from Everything You 've Come to Expect, he lost interest in writing love songs, with a friend suggesting "not doing that for a moment ''. In early 2016, upon watching Federico Fellini 's 1963 film 81⁄2, Turner was inspired by its depiction of writer 's block, childhood memories and the science fiction genre. He began writing songs for the album on a Steinway Vertegrand piano he received as a 30th birthday gift from the band 's manager Ian McAndrew, in a spare room of his Los Angeles home dubbed "Lunar Surface ''. During the process Turner recalled piano lessons he had received from his father at the age of eight, commenting that he "never thought (his father 's influence) would find its way into (his) compositions as much as it has on this record ''. Many of the vocal takes on the album remain from Turner 's home demos on a Tascam 388 8 - track recording machine.
Guitarist Jamie Cook commented that he "was blown away by the direction Alex had gone in '' when Turner played the band the demos in February 2017. Initially unsure how they would record the songs, Cook suggested Turner release it as a solo album, but Turner was uninterested. Cook began recording guitar ideas to complement the demo, with bassist Nick O'Malley particularly approving of the track "Star Treatment ''.
In September 2017 the band began recording material at Vox Studios in Hollywood and La Frette in Paris, with long - time collaborator James Ford co-producing the album with Turner. During these sessions "the piano and guitar started to jell '', with O'Malley and drummer Matt Helders joining. Helders commented that during recording he played with more restraint than on previous records, noting that "it 's about playing for the songs ''. Further recording sessions took place with Ford in London.
The group employed a wider array of guest musicians than on previous albums, with contributors including Ford, guitarist Tom Rowley (who serves as a touring member of the band), Guards drummer Loren Humphrey, Zach Dawes and Tyler Parkford of Mini Mansions, and Cam Avery, who contributes backing vocals to "She Looks Like Fun ''. The musicians all played together in the same room, inspired by the sessions for the Beach Boys ' Pet Sounds and Phil Spector 's Wall of Sound production method. Avery and Parkford both joined the band as touring members following the album 's release.
The album is a departure from the band 's previous guitar riff - driven work, resultant of Turner 's usage of the piano over the guitar in its composition. It has been characterised as lounge pop, space pop and glam rock, as well as incorporating influences from jazz. Its sound has been described as "subdued, but warm and classic in the way that musicians who seek out storied mixing consoles aspire to '', as well as "lush and claustrophobic ''.
The album has been compared to the works of Father John Misty, David Bowie, Serge Gainsbourg, Leonard Cohen, Nick Cave and Jarvis Cocker, as well as Pet Sounds by the Beach Boys. Turner has cited Gainsbourg 's Histoire de Melody Nelson, Cohen 's Death of a Ladies ' Man, Dion 's Born to Be with You and François de Roubaix 's score for Le Samouraï as key influences.
Lyrically the album refers frequently to science fiction, exploring "the role of entertainment -- the desire to escape into it, and the desire to create it -- during periods of societal upheaval and crisis '', influenced by current politics in the United States, as well as consumerism, religion and technology. The album 's lyrics have been described as "absurdist suave '', in oppose to the "witty sleaze '' of Turner 's previous work. Turner has labelled the album 's narrator as "a lounge - y character '', with the "dense '' and "self - aware '' lyrics described as "endlessly quotable '', written in a "rambling, stream - of - conciousness style ''. "Turner cited various films as influencing the album 's lyrics, including Spirits of the Dead, World on a Wire and the works of Jean - Pierre Melville.
-- Alex Turner
Turner commented that he took a different approach to writing lyrics than on previous albums, noting that he "became less concerned on this album (with) compartmentalising every idea to the point where each song became this episode that starts and ends in three minutes '', with Leonard Cohen inspiring a different perspective on each lyric 's relationship with its context. He further noted that his writing on the album was "blunt '', in a way he considered similar to the band 's debut Whatever People Say I Am, That 's What I 'm Not. On the connections between the two albums, Turner commented that "it 's set in a completely different place, obviously, but there 's something in the lyrics that reminds me of something in that writing. I 'm tempted to say that it 's something to do with how blunt it is. I think that was something I was trying to get away from, and perhaps I 've returned to it now ''.
"Star Treatment '', the album 's opening track, begins with a reference to The Strokes ' influence on the band 's early work, with Turner commenting that their arrival "changed what music I was listening to, what shoes I was wearing. I grew my hair out and borrowed my mum 's blazer. I was a huge fan ''. Its chorus describes a fictional band named "the Martini Police ''. The track 's narrator expresses surprise that an acquaintance has never seen the science fiction film Blade Runner. Turner has stated that this was based on real - life interactions, noting his interest in the fact that "it goes beyond: ' What do you mean you 've never seen Blade Runner? ' and gets to: ' Oh my God, I envy you! ' ''. Musically, Turner "glams up like David Bowie descending on a lunar wedding ''. "One Point Perspective '' is built around a "sweet piano figure '', containing "lavish '' strings and a "super-simple hip - hop beat ''. Lyrically the track explores social media, with a "jaded narrator '' mocking "rock - star ennui '', and joking "I 'm gon na run for government. I 'm gon na form a covers band an ' all ''. Turner has noted that the track 's jazz elements were influenced by his father, commenting that "the sort of jazzy bit of that, that every time it comes around, when I sit there, it feels like something he would play ''.
On "American Sports '', the album takes "a dark turn '', with Turner 's vocals described as "sinister ''. The album 's titular track mocks the "sterility of our modern world '', with Turner sarcastically singing "technological advances really bloody get me in the mood ''. The track also contains political references, on which Turner has commented that "more of those ideas have certainly found a way into this record than anything I 've done before ''. "Golden Trunks '' has been described as "unsettling '', and contains a "raw and brooding '' guitar riff that has been compared to the album 's predecessor AM, with Turner 's vocals containing "rakish charm, in the form of falsetto ''. The line "the leader of the free world reminds you of a wrestler wearing tight golden trunks '' has caused attention, with many believing the lyrics to be in reference to Donald Trump.
"Four Out of Five '' has been described as a "Bowie - ish glam song '', as well as being likened to the band 's Suck It and See and Everything You 've Come to Expect by Turner 's side - project the Last Shadow Puppets. It has been labelled as the album 's "only singalong anthem '', and describes an acclaimed taqueria on the moon named the "Information - Action Ratio '', in reference to Neil Postman 's concept, exploring gentrification. The taqueria 's name was a coincidental result of Matt Helders ' backing vocals, with Turner commenting that "phonetically it 's quite alluring ''. On "The World 's First Ever Monster Truck Front Flip '', Turner "flips with ease from a Bowie - style drawl to the falsetto and to a gruff murmur ''. Its "reverb and sparse touches of bass and percussion '' has been compared to Pet Sounds.
"Science Fiction '' is "driven by a slinky riff '', and has been compared stylistically to Humbug, while "She Looks Like Fun '' has been described as a "' 60s - style novelty track '' lyrically similar to the works of Morrissey. "Batphone '' has also been compared to Humbug and AM, musically featuring a "heavier thump ''. The track has been described as "comical '' and "jaunty '', specifically in the line "Have I told you all about the time I got sucked into a hole through a handheld device? ''. Turner explores a "capitalist ennui '', singing "I launch my fragrance called Integrity. I sell the fact that I ca n't be bought ''. "The Ultracheese '' has been compared to "Que Sera, Sera '' and the vocal melody of Patsy Cline 's "Leavin ' on Your Mind '', with a "gorgeous '' guitar solo and descending piano chords that "symbol a kind of final bow ''.
The album 's artwork was designed by Alex Turner using cardboard cut - outs and a Revox A77 tape machine. On the artwork, Turner stated that "In the past I 've definitely had record covers that do n't, to me, represent what 's on the wax, and I certainly do n't feel that way about this one. By the end of it, I think I 'd forgotten there even was a record. I 'd just gotten obsessed with cardboard. '' Turner began by drawing a hexagon, to reflect the band 's sixth studio album, eventually drawing influence from architects Eero Saarinen and John Lautner, becoming "quite consumed '' by the process. In an interview with Radio X he said: "The album artwork started from a picture that I saw of someone in the art department of 2001: A Space Odyssey, building the set for the Hilton on the moon. At this point, we 'd already decided to call the album Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino, so we began to think of things that may be in the lobby of this place. The thing that I became most obsessed with that there was a model of the place inside the lobby. ''
In September 2017, bassist Nick O'Malley announced that the band had begun recording a follow - up to 2013 's AM, stating that if the album was not released in 2018 they 've "got problems ''. In 2018, the band announced an extensive global tour to begin later that year.
The release of Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino was first announced on 5 April 2018, through a short video directed by Ben Chappell. The video depicted a spinning model of the album 's artwork, and featured snippets of "Four Out of Five ''. No singles were released before the album, although the songs "American Sports '', "Four Out of Five '', "One Point Perspective '' and "She Looks Like Fun '' were performed live in San Diego on 2 May, in what was their first show in nearly four years. The band announced pop - up shops for the weekend of the album 's release, in their native Sheffield, New York, Paris, Berlin, Tokyo, and Sydney. The Sydney pop - up venue included a mini film festival curated by the band.
On 13 May, following the release of the album, "Four Out of Five '' was issued as the album 's lead single, with an accompanying music video. On 6 June, the band performed live at BBC 's Maida Vale Studios, with their performance being broadcast four days later as a Live at the BBC special. Their setlist primarily consisted of songs from the album, as well as earlier singles.
Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino has received generally positive reviews from music critics, despite polarising listeners. On Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 74, based on 31 reviews. Thomas Smith of NME noted that the album was likely to be "divisive '', describing it as "the band 's most intriguing record to date ''. He promised the album would "reward deep - diving listeners '', concluding that "depending on where you 're sitting, this album will likely either be a bitter disappointment or a glorious step forward ''. Q described it as "a strange, wonderful album, one that almost feels like Arctic Monkeys have embarked on their own full - band side - project ''. Uncut praised the album as "low - key but engrossing '', but noted that "it can be a little one - paced, and a little withholding ''. Roisin O'Connor of The Independent described the album as "creative, intriguing and completely different ''. Spin 's Larry Fitzmaurice described the album as the group 's "strangest and most alluring '', writing that a "sense of heading into the unknown -- of charting new and strange artistic territory, accessibility be damned -- pervades Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino as a whole, its own adventurousness proving a successful gambit ''. Cosette Schulz from Exclaim! said the album is worth a second and third listen, writing "Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino feels like poetic social and fantasy - world commentary penned by Turner, who then fancied having a go at the piano and then brought the whole band in for good measure. Turner is clever and cheeky, as he 's been known to be, switching up his singing style from deep to falsetto, and even testing out different tones as he embodies certain characters. ''
For The Guardian, Alexis Petridis praised the album 's humour, but criticised its occasional smugness, noting that "a smart guy is sometimes all Turner seems to be '', with the album 's tracks "feel (ing) like less than the sum of their parts ''. He concluded that "at turns thrilling, smug, clever and oddly cold, Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino is only a qualified success '' and is "evidence -- albeit flawed -- of a certain musical restlessness ''. In a mixed review for Rolling Stone, Jon Dolan praised the album 's ambition but wrote that "the meandering LP ca n't bear the weight of the man at the piano 's indulgences '', concluding that the band "tried a stylistic change up that does n't quite work '' and that "sometimes restless artistry has a price ''. Annie Zaleski of The A.V. Club noted that the album 's lack of "obvious hooks '' was its key flaw, resulting in it feeling "unmoored and even plodding ''.
The album debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart, with combined sales of 86,000 copies, becoming the group 's sixth consecutive album to debut at number one in the UK. In addition, with 24,500 vinyl copies sold in the first week, the album became the UK 's fastest selling vinyl record in 25 years. A week following its release, the album was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry. The album also debuted at number one in Australia, Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands, Scotland and Switzerland, as well as reaching number two in Denmark, Ireland, New Zealand and Norway, and the top ten in Austria, the Czech Republic, Italy, Canada, Germany, Mexico, Finland, Sweden and Poland. In the United States, the album debuted at number eight on the Billboard 200 chart, selling 47,000 units, of which 37,000 were in traditional album sales.
All tracks written by Alex Turner.
Credits adapted from liner notes.
Arctic Monkeys
Technical
Additional musicians
Artwork
shipments figures based on certification alone
|
total seats in government engineering colleges in kerala | List of Engineering colleges in Kerala - wikipedia
The following is a list of Government, Govt. sponsored Self - financing and Private self - financing Engineering Colleges in kerala. Most of these colleges participate in Kerala Engineering Agricultural Medical Entrance Test.
All the engineering colleges in the state except Central Government engineering colleges and colleges under direct control of other universities are affiliated to APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University. There are 12 government engineering colleges in the state (Including Govt - Aided).
Engineering colleges were affiliated to various universities till 2014 - 15. From 2015 - 16 all engineering colleges in Kerala state are affiliated to KTU.
|
who held the most seats in the senate in 1818 | United States Senate elections, 1818 and 1819 - wikipedia
Democratic - Republican
Democratic - Republican
The United States Senate elections of 1818 and 1819 were elections for the United States Senate that had the Democratic - Republican Party gain two seats. The Federalists had only three seats being contested, of which they lost two and the third was left vacant due to a failure to elect.
As these elections were prior to ratification of the seventeenth amendment, Senators were chosen by State legislatures.
Senate Party Division, 16th Congress (1819 -- 1821)
Composition after the September 5, 1818 special election in Tennessee.
Bold states link to specific election articles.
In these special elections, the winners were seated during 1818 or before March 4, 1819; ordered by election date.
In these general elections, the winner was seated on March 4, 1819 (except where noted due to late election); ordered by state.
All of the elections involved the Class 3 seats.
In these special elections, the winners were seated in 1819 after March 4; ordered by election date.
|
i'm sorry i let you down let you down | Let You Down (NF song) - wikipedia
"Let You Down '' is written and performed by American hip hop artist and songwriter NF. It serves as the third single from his third studio album, Perception, and was released on September 14, 2017, for digital download and streaming, including an audio video. It is his first No. 1 single on the Hot Christian Songs chart. It is his first song to be certified Gold by the RIAA.
"Let You Down '' was produced by David Garcia and Tommee Profitt. NF wrote the song about his relationship with his father and how he did not want to disappoint him. This is the first time he has publicly spoken about his relationship with his dad, who raised him as a child. His parents went through a divorce, and his mother overdosed years later. The track is similar to some of his songs like "Got You On My Mind '' and "Wish You Would n't ''.
The official music video was released on November 9, 2017 on NF 's Vevo channel.
The music video was directed and produced by Nathan Feuerstein and Patrick Tohill. Given the song 's lyrical content, the visual focus is on the relationship between a father and his son. The clip shows an older man, presumably his father, standing on a dock looking at a lake, while a fully clothed NF drowns right in front of him. As he flails and tries to keep from going under, the man just looks at him, and does n't help. Then, we see the same man, staring at NF who is trapped in a burning car. As it 's engulfed in flames, the man again makes no move to help. Then we see the older man in a field, staring into a freshly dug grave. Inside the grave is a coffin, and NF is inside, dead. The older man seems upset by this, and falls to his knees. In the final shot, the older man is back on the dock, looking at NF drowning once again. But then a woman approaches him on the dock and says, "Nathan? ''
"Let You Down '' reached No. 1 on the Hot Christian Songs chart, as well as No. 1 on the Mainstream Top 40 chart. It has also reached No. 12 on the US Billboard Hot 100, NF 's first entry on the chart. The song has achieved international success, charting in the UK, Australia, Belgium, Canada, Norway, the Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, New Zealand and Ireland.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
|
which event allowed britain to focus its military resources on fighting the united states | Military History of the United States - wikipedia
The military history of the United States spans a period of over two centuries. During those years, the United States evolved from a new nation fighting Great Britain for independence (1775 -- 1783), through the monumental American Civil War (1861 -- 1865) and, after collaborating in triumph during World War II (1941 -- 1945), to the world 's sole remaining superpower from the late 20th century to present.
The Continental Congress in 1775 established the Continental Army, Continental Navy, and Continental Marines and named General George Washington its commander. This newly formed military, along with state militia forces, the French Army and Navy, and the Spanish Navy defeated the British in 1781. The new Constitution in 1789 made the president the commander in chief, with authority for the Congress to levy taxes, make the laws, and declare war.
As of 2017, the U.S. Armed Forces consists of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy and Air Force, all under the command of the United States Department of Defense. There also is the United States Coast Guard, which is controlled by the Department of Homeland Security.
The President of the United States is the commander - in - chief, and exercises the authority through the Secretary of Defense and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which supervises combat operations. Governors have control of each state 's Army and Air National Guard units for limited purposes. The president has the ability to federalize National Guard units, bringing them under the sole control of the Department of Defense.
The beginning of the United States military lies in civilian frontier settlers, armed for hunting and basic survival in the wilderness. These were organized into local militias for small military operations, mostly against Native American tribes but also to resist possible raids by the small military forces of neighboring European colonies. They relied on the British regular Army and Navy for any serious military operation.
In major operations outside the locality involved, the militia was not employed as a fighting force. Instead the colony asked for (and paid) volunteers, many of whom were also militia members.
In the early years of the British colonization of North America, military action in the thirteen colonies that would become the United States were the result of conflicts with Native Americans, such as in the Pequot War of 1637, King Philip 's War in 1675, the Yamasee War in 1715 and Father Rale 's War in 1722.
Beginning in 1689, the colonies became involved in a series of wars between Great Britain and France for control of North America, the most important of which were Queen Anne 's War, in which the British conquered French colony Acadia, and the final French and Indian War (1754 -- 63) when Britain was victorious over all the French colonies in North America. This final war was to give thousands of colonists, including Virginia colonel George Washington, military experience which they put to use during the American Revolutionary War.
In the struggle for control of North America, the contest between Great Britain and France was the vital one, the conflict with Spain, a declining power, important but secondary. This latter conflict reached its height in the "War of Jenkins Ear, '' a prelude to the War of Austrian Succession, which began in 1739 and pitted the British and their American colonists against the Spanish.
In the colonies the war involved a seesaw struggle between the Spanish in Florida and the West Indies and the English colonists in South Carolina and Georgia. Its most notable episode, however, was a British expedition mounted in Jamaica against Cartagena, the main port of the Spanish colony in Colombia. The mainland colonies furnished a regiment to participate in the assault as British Regulars under British command. The expedition ended in disaster, resulting from climate, disease, and the bungling of British commanders, and only about 600 of over 3,000 Americans who participated ever returned to their homes.
Ongoing political tensions between Great Britain and the thirteen colonies reached a crisis in 1774 when the British placed the province of Massachusetts under martial law after the Patriots protested taxes they regarded as a violation of their constitutional rights as Englishmen. When shooting began at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, militia units from across New England rushed to Boston and bottled up the British in the city. The Continental Congress appointed George Washington as commander - in - chief of the newly created Continental Army, which was augmented throughout the war by colonial militia. In addition to the Army, Congress also created the Continental Navy and Continental Marines He drove the British out of Boston but in late summer 1776 they returned to New York and nearly captured Washington 's army. Meanwhile, the revolutionaries expelled British officials from the 13 states, and declared themselves an independent nation on 4 July 1776.
The British, for their part, lacked both a unified command and a clear strategy for winning. With the use of the Royal Navy, the British were able to capture coastal cities, but control of the countryside eluded them. A British sortie from Canada in 1777 ended with the disastrous surrender of a British army at Saratoga. With the coming in 1777 of General von Steuben, the training and discipline along Prussian lines began, and the Continental Army began to evolve into a modern force. France and Spain then entered the war against Great Britain as Allies of the US, ending its naval advantage and escalating the conflict into a world war. The Netherlands later joined France, and the British were outnumbered on land and sea in a world war, as they had no major allies apart from Indian tribes, Loyalists and Hessians.
A shift in focus to the southern American states in 1779 resulted in a string of victories for the British, but General Nathanael Greene engaged in guerrilla warfare and prevented them from making strategic headway. The main British army was surrounded by Washington 's American and French forces at Yorktown in 1781, as the French fleet blocked a rescue by the Royal Navy. The British then sued for peace.
General George Washington (1732 -- 99) proved an excellent organizer and administrator, who worked successfully with Congress and the state governors, selecting and mentoring his senior officers, supporting and training his troops, and maintaining an idealistic Republican Army. His biggest challenge was logistics, since neither Congress nor the states had the funding to provide adequately for the equipment, munitions, clothing, paychecks, or even the food supply of the soldiers. As a battlefield tactician Washington was often outmaneuvered by his British counterparts. As a strategist, however, he had a better idea of how to win the war than they did. The British sent four invasion armies. Washington 's strategy forced the first army out of Boston in 1776, and was responsible for the surrender of the second and third armies at Saratoga (1777) and Yorktown (1781). He limited the British control to New York and a few places while keeping Patriot control of the great majority of the population. The Loyalists, on whom the British had relied too heavily, comprised about 20 % of the population but were never well organized. As the war ended, Washington watched proudly as the final British army quietly sailed out of New York City in November 1783, taking the Loyalist leadership with them. Washington astonished the world when, instead of seizing power, he retired quietly to his farm in Virginia.
Patriots had a strong distrust of a permanent "standing army '', so the Continental Army was quickly demobilized, with land grants to veterans. General Washington, who throughout the war deferred to elected officials, averted a potential coup d'état and resigned as commander - in - chief after the war, establishing a tradition of civil control of the U.S. military.
Following the American Revolutionary War, the United States faced potential military conflict on the high seas as well as on the western frontier. The United States was a minor military power during this time, having only a modest army, marine corps, and navy. A traditional distrust of standing armies, combined with faith in the abilities of local militia, precluded the development of well - trained units and a professional officer corps. Jeffersonian leaders preferred a small army and navy, fearing that a large military establishment would involve the United States in excessive foreign wars, and potentially allow a domestic tyrant to seize power.
In the Treaty of Paris after the Revolution, the British had ceded the lands between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River to the United States, without consulting the Shawnee, Cherokee, Choctaw and other smaller tribes who lived there. Because many of the tribes had fought as allies of the British, the United States compelled tribal leaders to sign away lands in postwar treaties, and began dividing these lands for settlement. This provoked a war in the Northwest Territory in which the U.S. forces performed poorly; the Battle of the Wabash in 1791 was the most severe defeat ever suffered by the United States at the hands of American Indians. President Washington dispatched a newly trained army to the region led by General Anthony Wayne, which decisively defeated the Indian confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794.
When revolutionary France declared war on Great Britain in 1793, the United States sought to remain neutral, but the Jay Treaty, which was favorable to Great Britain, angered the French government, which viewed it as a violation of the 1778 Treaty of Alliance. French privateers began to seize U.S. vessels, which led to an undeclared "Quasi-War '' between the two nations. Fought at sea from 1798 to 1800, the United States won a string of victories in the Caribbean. George Washington was called out of retirement to head a "provisional army '' in case of invasion by France, but President John Adams managed to negotiate a truce, in which France agreed to terminate the prior alliance and cease its attacks.
The Berbers along the Barbary Coast (modern day Libya) sent pirates to capture merchant ships and hold the crews for ransom. The U.S. paid protection money until 1801, when President Thomas Jefferson refused to pay and sent in the Navy to challenge the Barbary States, the First Barbary War followed. After the U.S.S. Philadelphia was captured in 1803, Lieutenant Stephen Decatur led a raid which successfully burned the captured ship, preventing Tripoli from using or selling it. In 1805, after William Eaton captured the city of Derna, Tripoli agreed to a peace treaty. The other Barbary states continued to raid U.S. shipping, until the Second Barbary War in 1815 ended the practice.
By far the largest military action in which the United States engaged during this era was the War of 1812. With Britain locked in a major war with Napoleon 's France, its policy was to block American shipments to France. The United States sought to remain neutral while pursuing overseas trade. Britain cut the trade and impressed seamen on American ships into the Royal Navy, despite intense protests. Britain supported an Indian insurrection in the American Midwest, with the goal of creating an Indian state there that would block American expansion. The United States finally declared war on the United Kingdom in 1812, the first time the U.S. had officially declared war. Not hopeful of defeating the Royal Navy, the U.S. attacked the British Empire by invading British Canada, hoping to use captured territory as a bargaining chip. The invasion of Canada was a debacle, though concurrent wars with Native Americans on the western front (Tecumseh 's War and the Creek War) were more successful. After defeating Napoleon in 1814, Britain sent large veteran armies to invade New York, raid Washington and capture the key control of the Mississippi River at New Orleans. The New York invasion was a fiasco after the much larger British army retreated to Canada. The raiders succeeded in the burning of Washington on 25 August 1814, but were repulsed in their Chesapeake Bay Campaign at the Battle of Baltimore and the British commander killed. The major invasion in Louisiana was stopped by a one - sided military battle that killed the top three British generals and thousands of soldiers. The winners were the commanding general of the Battle of New Orleans, Major General Andrew Jackson, who became president and the Americans who basked in a victory over a much more powerful nation. The peace treaty proved successful, and the U.S. and Britain never again went to war. The losers were the Indians, who never gained the independent territory in the Midwest promised by Britain.
With the rapid expansion of the farming population, Democrats looked to the west for new lands, an idea which became known as "Manifest Destiny. '' In the Texas Revolution (1835 -- 36), the settlers declared independence and defeated the Mexican army, but Mexico was determined to reconquer the lost province and threatened war with the U.S. if it annexed Texas. The U.S., much larger and more powerful, did annex Texas in 1845 and war broke out in 1846 over boundary issues.
In the Mexican -- American War 1846 -- 48, the U.S. Army under Generals Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott and others, invaded and after a series of victorious battles (and no major defeats) seized New Mexico and California, and also blockaded the coast, invaded northern Mexico, and invaded central Mexico, capturing the national capital. The peace terms involved American purchase of the area from California to New Mexico for $10 million.
Long - building tensions between the Northern and Southern States over slavery suddenly reached a climax after the 1860 election of Abraham Lincoln of the new anti-slavery Republican Party as U.S. President. Southern states seceded from the U.S. and formed a separate Confederacy. Within the Confederate states, many U.S. forts with garrisons still loyal to the Union were cut off. Fighting started in 1861 when Fort Sumter was fired upon.
The American Civil War caught both sides unprepared. Neither the North 's small standing army nor the South 's scattered state militias were capable of winning a civil war. Both sides raced to raise armies -- larger than any U.S. forces before -- first with repeated calls for volunteers, but eventually resorting to unpopular large - scale conscription for the first time in U.S. history.
The North initially sought a quick victory by trying to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, Virginia, not far from the U.S. capital at Washington, D.C. The South hoped to win by getting Britain and France to intervene, or else by exhausting the North 's willingness to fight. The Confederates under General Robert E. Lee skillfully and tenaciously defended their capital until the very end, while the North struggled to find any general to match.
As the fighting between the two capitals stalled, the North found more success in campaigns elsewhere, using rivers, railroads, and the seas to help move and supply their larger forces, putting a stranglehold on the South -- the Anaconda Plan. The war spilled across the continent, and even to the high seas. After four years of appallingly bloody conflict, with more casualties than all other U.S. wars combined, the North 's larger population and industrial might slowly ground the South down. The resources and economy of the South were ruined, while the North 's factories and economy prospered filling government wartime contracts.
The American Civil War is sometimes called the "first modern war '' due to the mobilization and destruction of the civilian base -- total war -- and due to by many technical military innovations involving railroads, telegraphs, rifles, trench warfare, and ironclad warships with turret guns.
After the Civil War, population expansion, railroad construction, and the disappearance of the buffalo herds heightened military tensions on the Great Plains. Several tribes, especially the Sioux and Comanche, fiercely resisted confinement to reservations. The main role of the Army was to keep indigenous peoples on reservations and to end their wars against settlers and each other, William Tecumseh Sherman and Philip Sheridan were in charge. A famous victory for the Plains Nations was the Battle of the Little Big Horn in 1876, when Col. George Armstrong Custer and two hundred plus members of the 7th Cavalry were killed by a force consisting of Native Americans from the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho nations. The last significant conflict came in 1891.
The Spanish -- American War was a short decisive war marked by quick, overwhelming American victories at sea and on land against Spain. The Navy was well - prepared and won laurels, even as politicians tried (and failed) to have it redeployed to defend East Coast cities against potential threats from the feeble Spanish fleet. The Army performed well in combat in Cuba. However, it was too oriented to small posts in the West and not as well - prepared for an overseas conflict. It relied on volunteers and state militia units, which faced logistical, training and food problems in the staging areas in Florida. The United States freed Cuba (after an occupation by the U.S. Army). By the peace treaty Spain ceded to the United States its colonies of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The Navy set up coaling stations there and in Hawaii (which voluntarily joined the U.S. in 1898). The U.S. Navy now had a major forward presence across the Pacific and (with the lease of Guantánamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba) a major base in the Caribbean guarding the approaches to the Gulf Coast and the Panama Canal.
To win its first colonies, the U.S. had lost 385 KIA (369 Army, 10 Navy, 6 Marines); 1,662 WIA (1,594 Army, 47 Navy, 21 Marines); and 2,061 dead of disease in the combat zones (a total of 5,403 died of disease at all locations, including stateside posts). Total Spanish combat deaths in action against U.S. forces were about 900.
The Philippine -- American War (1899 -- 1902) was an armed conflict between a group of Filipino revolutionaries and the American forces following the ceding of the Philippines to the United States after the defeat of Spanish forces in the Battle of Manila. The Army sent in 100,000 soldiers (mostly from the National Guard) under General Elwell Otis. Defeated in the field and losing its capital in March 1899, the poorly armed and poorly led rebels broke into armed bands. The insurgency collapsed in March 1901 when the leader Emilio Aguinaldo was captured by General Frederick Funston and his Macabebe allies. Casualties included 1,037 Americans killed in action and 3,340 who died from disease; 20,000 rebels were killed.
The Navy was modernized in the 1880s, and by the 1890s had adopted the naval power strategy of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan -- as indeed did every major navy. The old sailing ships were replaced by modern steel battleships, bringing them in line with the navies of Britain and Germany. In 1907, most of the Navy 's battleships, with several support vessels, dubbed the Great White Fleet, were featured in a 14 - month circumnavigation of the world. Ordered by President Theodore Roosevelt, it was a mission designed to demonstrate the Navy 's capability to extend to the global theater.
Secretary of War Elihu Root (1899 -- 1904) led the modernization of the Army. His goal of a uniformed chief of staff as general manager and a European - type general staff for planning was stymied by General Nelson A. Miles but did succeed in enlarging West Point and establishing the U.S. Army War College as well as the General Staff. Root changed the procedures for promotions and organized schools for the special branches of the service. He also devised the principle of rotating officers from staff to line. Root was concerned about the Army 's role in governing the new territories acquired in 1898 and worked out the procedures for turning Cuba over to the Cubans, and wrote the charter of government for the Philippines.
Rear Admiral Bradley A. Fiske was at the vanguard of new technology in naval guns and gunnery, thanks to his innovations in fire control 1890 -- 1910. He immediately grasped the potential for air power, and called for the development of a torpedo plane. Fiske, as aide for operations in 1913 -- 15 to Assistant Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt, proposed a radical reorganization of the Navy to make it a war - fighting instrument. Fiske wanted to centralize authority in a chief of naval operations and an expert staff that would develop new strategies, oversee the construction of a larger fleet, coordinate war planning including force structure, mobilization plans, and industrial base, and ensure that the US Navy possessed the best possible war machines. Eventually, the Navy adopted his reforms and by 1915 started to reorganize for possible involvement in the World War then underway.
"Banana Wars '' is an informal term for the minor intervention in Latin America from 1898 until 1934. These include military presence in Cuba, Panama with the Panama Canal Zone, Haiti (1915 -- 1935), Dominican Republic (1916 -- 1924) and Nicaragua (1912 -- 1925) & (1926 -- 1933). The U.S. Marine Corps began to specialize in long - term military occupation of these countries, primarily to safeguard customs revenues which were the cause of local civil wars.
Banditry and guerrilla resistance was endemic throughout the period of occupation. U.S. Marine losses in the Dominican Republic, 1916 -- 22, totaled 17 killed, 54 dead of disease, 55 wounded (from a peak strength of 3,000). The Marines inflicted about 1,000 Dominican casualties. The most serious insurgencies occurred in Haiti, where some 5,000 rough mountaineers of the north, called Cacos, rebelled in 1915 -- 17, losing 200 killed, to Marine losses of 3 KIA, 18 WIA, of 2,029 deployed. In 1918, the Cacos, angered by the Marine - enforced practice of corvée (forced labor), followed the leadership of Charlemagne Peralte and Benoit Batraville into rebellion again, against the 1,500 - man 1st Marine Brigade and the 2,700 - man Haitian Gendarmerie. The rebellion lasted for more than 19 months, October 17, 1918 -- May 19, 1920. Both Caco leaders were killed in battle, along with at least 2,004 of their men. The Marines lost 28 slain in action and the Gendarmerie lost 70 killed.
The Moro Rebellion was an armed insurgency between Muslim Filipino tribes in the southern Philippines between 1899 and 1913. Pacification was never complete as sporadic antigovernment insurgency continues into the 21st century, with American advisors helping the Philippine government forces.
The Mexican Revolution involved a civil war with hundreds of thousands of deaths and large numbers fleeing combat zones. Tens of thousands fled to the U.S. President Wilson sent U.S. forces to occupy the Mexican city of Veracruz for six months in 1914. It was designed to show the U.S. was keenly interested in the civil war and would not tolerate attacks on Americans, especially the 9 April 1914, "Tampico Affair '', which involved the arrest of American sailors by soldiers of the regime of Mexican President Victoriano Huerta. In early 1916 Pancho Villa a Mexican general ordered 500 soldiers on a murderous raid on the American city of Columbus New Mexico, with the goal of robbing banks to fund his army.
The German Secret Service encouraged Pancho Villa in his attacks to involve the United States in an intervention in Mexico which would distract the United States from its growing involvement in the war and divert aid from Europe to support the intervention. Wilson called up the state militias (National Guard) and sent them and the U.S. Army under General John J. Pershing to punish Villa in the Pancho Villa Expedition. Villa fled, with the Americans in pursuit deep into Mexico, thereby arousing Mexican nationalism. By early 1917 President Venustiano Carranza had contained Villa and secured the border, so Wilson ordered Pershing to withdraw.
The United States originally wished to remain neutral when World War I broke out in August 1914. However, it insisted on its right as a neutral party to immunity from German submarine attack, even though its ships carried food and raw materials to Britain. In 1917 the Germans resumed submarine attacks, knowing that it would lead to American entry. When the United States declared war in early April 1917, the United States Army was still small by European standards (most of which had conscription) and mobilization would take at least a year. Meanwhile, the United States continued to provide supplies and money to Britain and France, and initiated the first peacetime draft. Industrial mobilization took longer than expected, so divisions were sent to Europe without equipment, relying instead on the British and French to supply them.
By summer 1918, a million American soldiers, or "doughboys '' as they were often called, of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) were in Europe, serving on the Western Front under the command of General John Pershing, with 25,000 more arriving every week. The failure of the German Army 's Spring Offensive exhausted its manpower reserves and they were unable to launch new offensives. The Imperial German Navy and home front then revolted and a new German government signed a conditional surrender, the Armistice, ending the war on the Western Front on 11 November 1918.
The so - called Polar Bear Expedition was the involvement of 5,000 U.S. troops, during the Russian Revolution, in blocking the Bolsheviks in Arkhangelsk, Russia as part of the greater Allied military expedition in the Russian Civil War.
The U.S. sponsored a major world conference to limit the naval armaments of world powers, including the U.S., Britain, Japan, and France, plus smaller nations. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes made the key proposal of each country to reduce its number of warships by a formula that was accepted. The conference enabled the great powers to reduce their navies and avoid conflict in the Pacific. The treaties remained in effect for ten years, but were not renewed as tensions escalated.
After the costly U.S. involvement in World War I, isolationism grew within the nation. Congress refused membership in the League of Nations, particularly due to Article X of the League 's charter. Pursuant to Article X, the charter would have required by contract the United States Military to intervene if a member of the League were attacked; this prompted the United States Senate to vehemently oppose the Treaty of Versailles. Isolationism further grew after the events of the Nye Committee, which investigated corrupt military spending and fueled the Merchants of death argument, thus increasing anti-war opinions.
In response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia, the gradually more restrictive Neutrality Acts were passed, which were intended to prevent the U.S. from supporting either side in a war. President Franklin D. Roosevelt sought to support Britain, however, and in 1940 signed the Lend - Lease Act, which permitted an expansion of the "cash and carry '' arms trade to develop with Britain, which controlled the Atlantic sea lanes.
Roosevelt favored the Navy (he was in effective charge in World War I), and used relief programs such as the PWA to support Navy yards and build warships. For example, in 1933 he authorized $238 million in PWA funds for thirty - two new ships. The Army Air Corps received only $11 million, which barely covered replacements and allowed no expansion.
Due to the underlying pressure against military involvement by both citizens and politicians, the United States was reluctant to intervene in any overseas conflicts. The involvement that the United States had toward the Japanese Invasion of Manchuria in 1931 only extended as far as non-recognition. Other events such as Benito Mussolini 's Italian Conquest of Ethiopia went ignored by the U.S. along with the League of Nations being unable to act upon the usage of chemical weapons by the Italian fascists. No official involvement was waged during the Spanish Civil War and the Second Sino - Japanese War, though both wars utilized loopholes for U.S. involvement, such as volunteering and using British ships as a middleman for delivering provisions (since the Neutrality Acts only specified American ships). This, along with Roosevelt 's Quarantine Speech, produced mixed opinions among Americans that were still anxious about military involvement. Non-interventionists were mainly constituent in the Republican Party, but other Democratic politicians, such as Louis Ludlow, attempted to pass bills to compromise and even amend the United States Constitution for the purpose of calling for public Referendum to decide military involvement in cases that do not immediately follow an attack on the United States. This amendment was introduced many times, but failed to gain enough support, including opposition even by Roosevelt.
The overall neglect for military involvement eventually resulted in appeasement in the early stages of World War II, at the distress of Roosevelt (who wanted to continue cash - and - carry for the European theatres and the Pacific). After being rebuffed by Congress for attempting to reinstate cash - and - carry for the European theatres, Roosevelt eventually won the favor of restoring the arms trade with belligerent nations after Germany 's invasion of Poland, which is said by many to have fixed the United States economy. Total involvement in the war began after the Attack on Pearl Harbor, where isolationism began to cede.
Starting in 1940 (18 months before Pearl Harbor), the nation mobilized, giving high priority to air power. American involvement in World War II in 1940 -- 41 was limited to providing war material and financial support to Britain, the Soviet Union, and the Republic of China. The U.S. entered officially on 8 December 1941 following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Japanese forces soon seized American, Dutch, and British possessions across the Pacific and Southeast Asia, except for Australia, which became a main American forward base along with Hawaii.
The loss of eight battleships and 2,403 Americans at Pearl Harbor forced the U.S. to rely on its remaining aircraft carriers, which won a major victory over Japan at Midway just six months into the war, and on its growing submarine fleet. The Navy and Marine Corps followed this up with an island hopping campaign across the central and south Pacific in 1943 -- 45, reaching the outskirts of Japan in the Battle of Okinawa. During 1942 and 1943, the U.S. deployed millions of men and thousands of planes and tanks to the UK, beginning with the strategic bombing of Nazi Germany and occupied Europe and leading up to the Allied invasions of occupied North Africa in November 1942, Sicily and Italy in 1943, France in 1944, and the invasion of Germany in 1945, parallel with the Soviet invasion from the east. That led to the surrender of Nazi Germany in May 1945. While the final European Axis Powers were defeated within a year of Operation Overlord, the fighting in Central Europe was especially bloody for the United States, with more US military deaths occurring in Germany than in any other country during the war.
In the Pacific, the U.S. experienced much success in naval campaigns during 1944, but bloody battles at Iwo Jima and Okinawa in 1945 led the U.S. to look for a way to end the war with minimal loss of American lives. The U.S. used atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki to destroy the Japanese war effort and to shock the Japanese leadership, which quickly caused the surrender of Japan. Following the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan surrendered to the Allied forces on 15 August 1945, ending 35 years of Japanese occupation of Korean Peninsula. American forces under General John R. Hodge arrived at the southern part of the Korean Peninsula on 8 September 1945, while the Soviet Army and some Korean Communists had stationed themselves in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula.
The United States was able to mobilize quickly, eventually becoming the dominant military power in most theaters of the war (excepting only eastern Europe), and the industrial might of the U.S. economy became a major factor in the Allies ' mobilization of resources. Strategic and tactical lessons learned by the U.S., such as the importance of air superiority and the dominance of the aircraft carrier in naval actions, continue to guide U.S. military doctrine into the 21st century.
World War II holds a special place in the American psyche as the country 's greatest triumph, and the U.S. military personnel of World War II are frequently referred to as "the Greatest Generation. '' Over 16 million served (about 11 % of the population), and over 400,000 died during the war. The U.S. emerged as one of the two undisputed superpowers along with the Soviet Union, and unlike the Soviet Union, the U.S. homeland was virtually untouched by the ravages of war. During and following World War II, the United States and Britain developed an increasingly strong defense and intelligence relationship. Manifestations of this include extensive basing of U.S. forces in the UK, shared intelligence, shared military technology (e.g. nuclear technology), and shared procurement.
Following World War II, the United States emerged as a global superpower vis - a-vis the Soviet Union in the Cold War. In this period of some forty years, the United States provided foreign military aid and direct involvement in proxy wars against the Soviet Union. It was the principal foreign actor in the Korean War and Vietnam War during this era. Nuclear weapons were held in ready by the United States under a concept of mutually assured destruction with the Soviet Union.
The National Security Act of 1947, meeting the need for a military reorganization to complement the U.S. superpower role, combined and replaced the former Department of the Navy and War Department with a single cabinet - level Department of Defense. The act also created the National Security Council, the Central Intelligence Agency, and the Air Force.
The Korean War was a conflict between the United States and its United Nations allies and the communist powers under influence of the Soviet Union (also a UN member nation) and the People 's Republic of China (which later also gained UN membership). The principal combatants were North and South Korea. Principal allies of South Korea included the United States, Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, although many other nations sent troops under the aegis of the United Nations. Allies of North Korea included the People 's Republic of China, which supplied military forces, and the Soviet Union, which supplied combat advisors and aircraft pilots, as well as arms, for the Chinese and North Korean troops.
The war started badly for the US and UN. North Korean forces struck massively in the summer of 1950 and nearly drove the outnumbered US and ROK defenders into the sea. However the United Nations intervened, naming Douglas MacArthur commander of its forces, and UN-US - ROK forces held a perimeter around Pusan, gaining time for reinforcement. MacArthur, in a bold but risky move, ordered an amphibious invasion well behind the front lines at Inchon, cutting off and routing the North Koreans and quickly crossing the 38th Parallel into North Korea. As UN forces continued to advance toward the Yalu River on the border with Communist China, the Chinese crossed the Yalu River in October and launched a series of surprise attacks that sent the UN forces reeling back across the 38th Parallel. Truman originally wanted a Rollback strategy to unify Korea; after the Chinese successes he settled for a Containment policy to split the country. MacArthur argued for rollback but was fired by President Harry Truman after disputes over the conduct of the war. Peace negotiations dragged on for two years until President Dwight D. Eisenhower threatened China with nuclear weapons; an armistice was quickly reached with the two Koreas remaining divided at the 38th parallel. North and South Korea are still today in a state of war, having never signed a peace treaty, and American forces remain stationed in South Korea as part of American foreign policy.
In the Lebanon crisis of 1958 that threatened civil war, Operation Blue Bat deployed several hundred Marines to bolster the pro-Western Lebanese government from 15 July to 25 October 1958.
On 28 April 1965, 400 Marines were landed in Santo Domingo to evacuate the American Embassy and foreign nationals after dissident Dominican armed forces attempted to overthrow the ruling civilian junta. By mid-May, peak strength of 23,850 U.S. soldiers, Marines, and Airmen were in the Dominican Republic and some 38 naval ships were positioned offshore. They evacuated nearly 6,500 men, women, and children of 46 nations, and distributed more than 8 million tons of food.
The intervention cost the U.S. 27 KIA and 172 WIA. Another 20 Americans died from non-hostile causes; 111 were seriously injured. Ten of the KIA were Marines; 13 were from the 82nd Airborne. Among the 2,850 Dominican dead were 325 National Police officers and 500 members of the armed forces. An estimated 600 rebels were killed. Civilians accounted for the remainder.
The Vietnam War was a war fought between 1955 and 1975 on the ground in South Vietnam and bordering areas of Cambodia and Laos (see Secret War) and in the strategic bombing (see Operation Rolling Thunder) of North Vietnam. American advisors came in the late 1950s to help the RVN (Republic of Vietnam) combat Communist insurgents known as "Viet Cong. '' Major American military involvement began in 1964, after Congress provided President Lyndon B. Johnson with blanket approval for presidential use of force in the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
Fighting on one side was a coalition of forces including the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam or the "RVN ''), the United States, supplemented by South Korea, Thailand, Australia, New Zealand, and the Philippines. The allies fought against the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) as well as the National Liberation Front (NLF, also known as Viet communists Viet Cong), or "VC '', a guerrilla force within South Vietnam. The NVA received substantial military and economic aid from the Soviet Union and China, turning Vietnam into a proxy war.
The military history of the American side of the war involved different strategies over the years. The bombing campaigns of the Air Force were tightly controlled by the White House for political reasons, and until 1972 avoided the main Northern cities of Hanoi and Haiphong and concentrated on bombing jungle supply trails, especially the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The most controversial Army commander was William Westmoreland whose strategy involved systematic defeat of all enemy forces in the field, despite heavy American casualties that alienated public opinion back home.
The U.S. framed the war as part of its policy of containment of Communism in south Asia, but American forces were frustrated by an inability to engage the enemy in decisive battles, corruption and incompetence in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, and ever increasing protests at home. The Tet Offensive in 1968, although a major military defeat for the NLF with half their forces eliminated, marked the psychological turning point in the war. With President Richard M. Nixon opposed to containment and more interested in achieving détente with both the Soviet Union and China, American policy shifted to "Vietnamization, '' -- providing very large supplies of arms and letting the Vietnamese fight it out themselves. After more than 57,000 dead and many more wounded, American forces withdrew in 1973 with no clear victory, and in 1975 South Vietnam was finally conquered by communist North Vietnam and unified.
Memories and lessons from the war are still a major factor in American politics. One side views the war as a necessary part of the Containment policy, which allowed the enemy to choose the time and place of warfare. Others note the U.S. made major strategic gains as the Communists were defeated in Indonesia, and by 1972 both Moscow and Beijing were competing for American support, at the expense of their allies in Hanoi. Critics see the conflict as a "quagmire '' -- an endless waste of American blood and treasure in a conflict that did not concern US interests. Fears of another quagmire have been major factors in foreign policy debates ever since. The draft became extremely unpopular, and President Nixon ended it in 1973, forcing the military (the Army especially) to rely entirely upon volunteers. That raised the issue of how well the professional military reflected overall American society and values; the soldiers typically took the position that their service represented the highest and best American values.
In October, 1983, a power struggle in Grenada, which had installed a communist - leaning government, led to increased tensions in the region. Neighboring nations asked the U.S. to intervene. The invasion was a hurriedly devised grouping of paratroopers, Marines, Rangers, and special operations forces in Operation Urgent Fury. Over a thousand Americans quickly seized the entire island, taking hundreds of military and civilian prisoners, especially Cubans, who were building a large military airstrip.
In 1983 fighting between Palestinian refugees and Lebanese factions reignited that nation 's long - running civil war. A UN agreement brought an international force of peacekeepers to occupy Beirut and guarantee security. US Marines landed in August 1982 along with Italian and French forces. On 23 October 1983, a suicide bomber driving a truck filled with 6 tons of TNT crashed through a fence and destroyed the Marine barracks, killing 241 Marines; seconds later, a second bomber leveled a French barracks, killing 58. Subsequently, the US Navy engaged in bombing of militia positions inside Lebanon. While US President Ronald Reagan was initially defiant, political pressure at home eventually forced the withdrawal of the Marines in February 1984.
Code - named "Operation El Dorado Canyon '', comprised the joint United States Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps air - strikes against Libya on 15 April 1986. The attack was carried out in response to the 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing, and resulted in the killing of 45 officers and 15 civilians.
On 20 December 1989 the United States invaded Panama, mainly from U.S. bases within the then - Canal Zone, to oust dictator and international drug trafficker Manuel Noriega. American forces quickly overwhelmed the Panamanian Defense Forces, Noriega was captured on 3 January 1990 and imprisoned in the U.S. and a new government was installed.
The Persian Gulf War was a conflict between Iraq and a coalition force of 34 nations led by the United States. The lead up to the war began with the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 which was met with immediate economic sanctions by the United Nations against Iraq. The coalition commenced hostilities in January 1991, resulting in a decisive victory for the U.S. led coalition forces, which drove Iraqi forces out of Kuwait with minimal coalition deaths. Despite the low death toll, over 180,000 US veterans would later be classified as "permanently disabled '' according to the US Department of Veterans Affairs (see Gulf War Syndrome). The main battles were aerial and ground combat within Iraq, Kuwait and bordering areas of Saudi Arabia. Land combat did not expand outside of the immediate Iraq / Kuwait / Saudi border region, although the coalition bombed cities and strategic targets across Iraq, and Iraq fired missiles on Israeli and Saudi cities.
Before the war, many observers believed the US and its allies could win but might suffer substantial casualties (certainly more than any conflict since Vietnam), and that the tank battles across the harsh desert might rival those of North Africa during World War II. After nearly 50 years of proxy wars, and constant fears of another war in Europe between NATO and the Warsaw Pact, some thought the Persian Gulf War might finally answer the question of which military philosophy would have reigned supreme. Iraqi forces were battle - hardened after 8 years of war with Iran, and they were well equipped with late model Soviet tanks and jet fighters, but the antiaircraft weapons were crippled; in comparison, the US had no large - scale combat experience since its withdrawal from Vietnam nearly 20 years earlier, and major changes in US doctrine, equipment and technology since then had never been tested under fire.
However, the battle was one - sided almost from the beginning. The reasons for this are the subject of continuing study by military strategists and academics. There is general agreement that US technological superiority was a crucial factor but the speed and scale of the Iraqi collapse has also been attributed to poor strategic and tactical leadership and low morale among Iraqi troops, which resulted from a history of incompetent leadership. After devastating initial strikes against Iraqi air defenses and command and control facilities on 17 January 1991, coalition forces achieved total air superiority almost immediately. The Iraqi air force was destroyed within a few days, with some planes fleeing to Iran, where they were interned for the duration of the conflict. The overwhelming technological advantages of the US, such as stealth aircraft and infrared sights, quickly turned the air war into a "turkey shoot ''. The heat signature of any tank which started its engine made an easy target. Air defense radars were quickly destroyed by radar - seeking missiles fired from wild weasel aircraft. Grainy video clips, shot from the nose cameras of missiles as they aimed at impossibly small targets, were a staple of US news coverage and revealed to the world a new kind of war, compared by some to a video game. Over 6 weeks of relentless pounding by planes and helicopters, the Iraqi army was almost completely beaten but did not retreat, under orders from Iraqi President Saddam Hussein, and by the time the ground forces invaded on 24 February, many Iraqi troops quickly surrendered to forces much smaller than their own; in one instance, Iraqi forces attempted to surrender to a television camera crew that was advancing with coalition forces.
After just 100 hours of ground combat, and with all of Kuwait and much of southern Iraq under coalition control, US President George H.W. Bush ordered a cease - fire and negotiations began resulting in an agreement for cessation of hostilities. Some US politicians were disappointed by this move, believing Bush should have pressed on to Baghdad and removed Hussein from power; there is little doubt that coalition forces could have accomplished this if they had desired. Still, the political ramifications of removing Hussein would have broadened the scope of the conflict greatly, and many coalition nations refused to participate in such an action, believing it would create a power vacuum and destabilize the region.
Following the Persian Gulf War, to protect minority populations, the US, Britain, and France declared and maintained no - fly zones in northern and southern Iraq, which the Iraqi military frequently tested. The no - fly zones persisted until the 2003 invasion of Iraq, although France withdrew from participation in patrolling the no - fly zones in 1996, citing a lack of humanitarian purpose for the operation.
US troops participated in a UN peacekeeping mission in Somalia beginning in 1992. By 1993 the US troops were augmented with Rangers and special forces with the aim of capturing warlord Mohamed Farrah Aidid, whose forces had massacred peacekeepers from Pakistan. During a raid in downtown Mogadishu, US troops became trapped overnight by a general uprising in the Battle of Mogadishu. Eighteen American soldiers were killed, and a US television crew filmed graphic images of the body of one soldier being dragged through the streets by an angry mob. Somali guerrillas paid a staggering toll at an estimated 1,000 -- 5,000 total casualties during the conflict. After much public disapproval, American forces were quickly withdrawn by President Bill Clinton. The incident profoundly affected US thinking about peacekeeping and intervention. The book Black Hawk Down was written about the battle, and was the basis for the later movie of the same name.
Operation Uphold Democracy (19 September 1994 -- 31 March 1995) was an intervention designed to reinstate the elected President Jean - Bertrand Aristide, who was reported to have died in office during the bombing of the presidential palace. The operation was effectively authorized by the 31 July 1994 United Nations Security Council Resolution 940.
During the war in Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, the US operated in Bosnia and Herzegovina as part of the NATO - led multinational implementation force (IFOR) in Operation Joint Endeavour. The USA was one of the NATO member countries who bombed Yugoslavia between 24 March and 9 June 1999 during the Kosovo War and later contributed to the multinational force KFOR.
The War on Terrorism is a global effort by the governments of several countries (primarily the United States and its principal allies) to neutralize international terrorist groups (primarily Islamic Extremist terrorist groups, including al - Qaeda) and ensure that countries considered by the US and some of its allies to be Rogue Nations no longer support terrorist activities. It has been adopted primarily as a response to the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States. Since 2001, terrorist motivated attacks upon service members have occurred in Arkansas and Texas.
The intervention in Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom -- Afghanistan) to depose that country 's Taliban government and destroy training camps associated with al - Qaeda is understood to have been the opening, and in many ways defining, campaign of the broader War on Terrorism. The emphasis on Special Operations Forces (SOF), political negotiation with autonomous military units, and the use of proxy militaries marked a significant change from prior U.S. military approaches.
In January 2002, the U.S. sent more than 1,200 troops (later raised to 2,000) to assist the Armed Forces of the Philippines in combating terrorist groups linked to al - Qaida, such as Abu Sayyaf, under Operation Enduring Freedom -- Philippines. Operations have taken place mostly in the Sulu Archipelago, where terrorists and other groups are active. The majority of troops provide logistics. However, there are special forces troops that are training and assisting in combat operations against the terrorist groups.
After the lengthy Iraq disarmament crisis culminated with an American demand that Iraqi President Saddam Hussein leave Iraq, which was refused, a coalition led by the United States and the United Kingdom fought the Iraqi army in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Approximately 250,000 United States troops, with support from 45,000 British, 2,000 Australian and 200 Polish combat forces, entered Iraq primarily through their staging area in Kuwait. (Turkey had refused to permit its territory to be used for an invasion from the north.) Coalition forces also supported Iraqi Kurdish militia, estimated to number upwards of 50,000. After approximately three weeks of fighting, Hussein and the Ba'ath Party were forcibly removed, followed by 9 years of military presence by the United States and the coalition fighting alongside the newly elected Iraqi government against various insurgent groups.
With the emergence of ISIL and its capture of large areas of Iraq and Syria, a number of crises resulted that sparked international attention. ISIL had perpetrated sectarian killings and war crimes in both Iraq and Syria. Gains made in the Iraq War were rolled back as Iraqi army units abandoned their posts. Cities were taken over by the terrorist group which enforced its brand of Sharia law. The kidnapping and decapitation of numerous Western journalists and aid - workers also garnered interest and outrage among Western powers. The US intervened with airstrikes in Iraq over ISIL held territories and assets in August, and in September a coalition of US and Middle Eastern powers initiated a bombing campaign in Syria aimed at degrading and destroying ISIL and Al - Nusra - held territory. By December 2017, ISIL had no remaining territory in Iraq, following the 2017 Western Iraq campaign. Airstrikes by US and Coalition forces have continued in Syria against the Assad government especially after the Douma chemical attack in 2018.
As a result of the Libyan Civil War, the United Nations enacted United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which imposed a no - fly zone over Libya, and the protection of civilians from the forces of Muammar Gaddafi. The United States, along with Britain, France and several other nations, committed a coalition force against Gaddafi 's forces. On 19 March 2011, the first U.S. action was taken when 114 Tomahawk missiles launched by US and UK warships destroyed shoreline air defenses of the Gaddafi regime. The U.S. continued to play a major role in Operation Unified Protector, the NATO - directed mission that eventually incorporated all of the military coalition 's actions in the theater. Throughout the conflict however, the U.S. maintained it was playing a supporting role only and was following the UN mandate to protect civilians, while the real conflict was between Gaddafi 's loyalists and Libyan rebels fighting to depose him. During the conflict, American drones were also deployed.
|
when is season 4 of the good witch coming out | Good Witch (TV series) - wikipedia
Good Witch is an American / Canadian fantasy comedy - drama television series that is based on the made - for - TV movie series of the same name, produced by Whizbang Films in association with ITV Studios and the Hallmark Channel. Catherine Bell, who played Cassie Nightingale, the "Good Witch '' in the movie series, both co-produces and stars in the series.
Good Witch premiered on February 28, 2015, and was consecutively renewed through a fourth season, which aired from April 29 to July 1, 2018. Immediately following the fourth season 's finale, Hallmark aired a teaser for a two - hour Halloween special to air in October 2018. On July 26, 2018, the series was renewed for a fifth season.
As with the previous seven TV movies, the series continues the spirited life of newly widowed Cassie Nightingale, the good - hearted enchantress of Middleton, United States, with her now - teenage daughter Grace. When new neighbors, the Radfords, move in next door, they become suspicious of Cassie and her daughter.
The series is filmed in Toronto, Ontario primarily at Cinespace Film Studios ' Kipling Avenue facility.
As producer Orly Adelson was president of ITV Studios America in 2014, ITV agreed to become the franchise 's TV series distributor outside of North America.
On October 13, 2015, Hallmark released the first season of Good Witch on DVD. Its packaging contains two discs. On October 11, 2016, Hallmark released the second season of Good Witch on DVD. Its packaging contains three discs, including the Halloween special, "Good Witch Halloween ''. The series is available internationally on Netflix.
|
how many of the subjects in the obedience study gave the highest level of shock | Milgram experiment - wikipedia
The Milgram experiment on obedience to authority figures was a series of social psychology experiments conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram. They measured the willingness of study participants, men from a diverse range of occupations with varying levels of education, to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal conscience; the experiment found, unexpectedly, that a very high proportion of people were prepared to obey, albeit unwillingly, even if apparently causing serious injury and distress. Milgram first described his research in 1963 in an article published in the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology and later discussed his findings in greater depth in his 1974 book, Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View.
The experiments began in July 1961, in the basement of Linsly - Chittenden Hall at Yale University, three months after the start of the trial of German Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem. Milgram devised his psychological study to answer the popular question at that particular time: "Could it be that Eichmann and his million accomplices in the Holocaust were just following orders? Could we call them all accomplices? '' The experiments have been repeated many times in the following years with consistent results within differing societies, although not with the same percentages around the globe.
Three individuals were involved: the one running the experiment, the subject of the experiment (a volunteer), and a confederate pretending to be a volunteer. These three people fill three distinct roles: the Experimenter (an authoritative role), the Teacher (a role intended to obey the orders of the Experimenter), and the Learner (the recipient of stimulus from the Teacher). The subject and the actor both drew slips of paper to determine their roles, but unknown to the subject, both slips said "teacher ''. The actor would always claim to have drawn the slip that read "learner '', thus guaranteeing that the subject would always be the "teacher ''. Next, the "teacher '' and "learner '' were taken into an adjacent room where the "learner '' was strapped into what appeared to be an electric chair. The experimenter told the participants this was to ensure that the "learner '' would not escape. The "teacher '' and "learner '' were then separated into different rooms where they could communicate but not see each other. In one version of the experiment, the confederate was sure to mention to the participant that he had a heart condition.
At some point prior to the actual test, the "teacher '' was given a sample electric shock from the electroshock generator in order to experience firsthand what the shock that the "learner '' would supposedly receive during the experiment would feel like. The "teacher '' was then given a list of word pairs that he was to teach the learner. The teacher began by reading the list of word pairs to the learner. The teacher would then read the first word of each pair and read four possible answers. The learner would press a button to indicate his response. If the answer was incorrect, the teacher would administer a shock to the learner, with the voltage increasing in 15 - volt increments for each wrong answer. If correct, the teacher would read the next word pair.
The subjects believed that for each wrong answer, the learner was receiving actual shocks. In reality, there were no shocks. After the confederate was separated from the subject, the confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the electroshock generator, which played prerecorded sounds for each shock level. After a number of voltage - level increases, the actor started to bang on the wall that separated him from the subject. After several times banging on the wall and complaining about his heart condition, all responses by the learner would cease.
At this point, many people indicated their desire to stop the experiment and check on the learner. Some test subjects paused at 135 volts and began to question the purpose of the experiment. Most continued after being assured that they would not be held responsible. A few subjects began to laugh nervously or exhibit other signs of extreme stress once they heard the screams of pain coming from the learner.
If at any time the subject indicated his desire to halt the experiment, he was given a succession of verbal prods by the experimenter, in this order:
If the subject still wished to stop after all four successive verbal prods, the experiment was halted. Otherwise, it was halted after the subject had given the maximum 450 - volt shock three times in succession.
The experimenter also gave special prods if the teacher made specific comments. If the teacher asked whether the learner might suffer permanent physical harm, the experimenter replied, "Although the shocks may be painful, there is no permanent tissue damage, so please go on. '' If the teacher said that the learner clearly wants to stop, the experimenter replied, "Whether the learner likes it or not, you must go on until he has learned all the word pairs correctly, so please go on. ''
Before conducting the experiment, Milgram polled fourteen Yale University senior - year psychology majors to predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical teachers. All of the poll respondents believed that only a very small fraction of teachers (the range was from zero to 3 out of 100, with an average of 1.2) would be prepared to inflict the maximum voltage. Milgram also informally polled his colleagues and found that they, too, believed very few subjects would progress beyond a very strong shock. He also reached out to honorary Harvard University graduate Chaim Homnick, who noted that this experiment would not be concrete evidence of the Nazis ' innocence, due to fact that "poor people are more likely to cooperate. '' Milgram also polled forty psychiatrists from a medical school, and they believed that by the tenth shock, when the victim demands to be free, most subjects would stop the experiment. They predicted that by the 300 - volt shock, when the victim refuses to answer, only 3.73 percent of the subjects would still continue and, they believed that "only a little over one - tenth of one percent of the subjects would administer the highest shock on the board. ''
In Milgram 's first set of experiments, 65 percent (26 of 40) of experiment participants administered the experiment 's final massive 450 - volt shock, though many were very uncomfortable doing so; at some point, every participant paused and questioned the experiment; some said they would refund the money they were paid for participating in the experiment. Throughout the experiment, subjects displayed varying degrees of tension and stress. Subjects were sweating, trembling, stuttering, biting their lips, groaning, digging their fingernails into their skin, and some were even having nervous laughing fits or seizures.
Milgram summarized the experiment in his 1974 article, "The Perils of Obedience '', writing:
The legal and philosophic aspects of obedience are of enormous importance, but they say very little about how most people behave in concrete situations. I set up a simple experiment at Yale University to test how much pain an ordinary citizen would inflict on another person simply because he was ordered to by an experimental scientist. Stark authority was pitted against the subjects ' (participants ') strongest moral imperatives against hurting others, and, with the subjects ' (participants ') ears ringing with the screams of the victims, authority won more often than not. The extreme willingness of adults to go to almost any lengths on the command of an authority constitutes the chief finding of the study and the fact most urgently demanding explanation.
Ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in a terrible destructive process. Moreover, even when the destructive effects of their work become patently clear, and they are asked to carry out actions incompatible with fundamental standards of morality, relatively few people have the resources needed to resist authority.
The original Simulated Shock Generator and Event Recorder, or shock box, is located in the Archives of the History of American Psychology.
Later, Milgram and other psychologists performed variations of the experiment throughout the world, with similar results. Milgram later investigated the effect of the experiment 's locale on obedience levels by holding an experiment in an unregistered, backstreet office in a bustling city, as opposed to at Yale, a respectable university. The level of obedience, "although somewhat reduced, was not significantly lower. '' What made more of a difference was the proximity of the "learner '' and the experimenter. There were also variations tested involving groups.
Thomas Blass of the University of Maryland, Baltimore County performed a meta - analysis on the results of repeated performances of the experiment. He found that while the percentage of participants who are prepared to inflict fatal voltages ranged from 28 % to 91 %, there was no significant trend over time and the average percentage for US studies (61 %) was close to the one for non-US studies (66 %).
The participants who refused to administer the final shocks neither insisted that the experiment be terminated, nor left the room to check the health of the victim without requesting permission to leave, as per Milgram 's notes and recollections, when fellow psychologist Philip Zimbardo asked him about that point.
Milgram created a documentary film titled Obedience showing the experiment and its results. He also produced a series of five social psychology films, some of which dealt with his experiments.
The Milgram Shock Experiment raised questions about the research ethics of scientific experimentation because of the extreme emotional stress and inflicted insight suffered by the participants. In Milgram 's defense, 84 percent of former participants surveyed later said they were "glad '' or "very glad '' to have participated; 15 percent chose neutral responses (92 % of all former participants responding). Many later wrote expressing thanks. Milgram repeatedly received offers of assistance and requests to join his staff from former participants. Six years later (at the height of the Vietnam War), one of the participants in the experiment sent correspondence to Milgram, explaining why he was glad to have participated despite the stress:
While I was a subject in 1964, though I believed that I was hurting someone, I was totally unaware of why I was doing so. Few people ever realize when they are acting according to their own beliefs and when they are meekly submitting to authority... To permit myself to be drafted with the understanding that I am submitting to authority 's demand to do something very wrong would make me frightened of myself... I am fully prepared to go to jail if I am not granted Conscientious Objector status. Indeed, it is the only course I could take to be faithful to what I believe. My only hope is that members of my board act equally according to their conscience...
Milgram argued (in Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View) that the ethical criticism provoked by his experiments was because his findings were disturbing and revealed unwelcome truths about human nature. Others have argued that the ethical debate has diverted attention from more serious problems with the experiment 's methodology. Australian psychologist Gina Perry found an unpublished paper in Milgram 's archives that shows Milgram 's own concern with how believable the experimental set - up was to subjects involved. Milgram asked his assistant to compile a breakdown of the number of participants who had seen through the experiments. This unpublished analysis indicated that many subjects suspected that the experiment was a hoax, a finding that casts doubt on the veracity of his results. In the journal Jewish Currents, Joseph Dimow, a participant in the 1961 experiment at Yale University, wrote about his early withdrawal as a "teacher '', suspicious "that the whole experiment was designed to see if ordinary Americans would obey immoral orders, as many Germans had done during the Nazi period. ''
Perry also conducted interviews with subjects that cast doubt over Milgram 's claims that he conducted a thorough debriefing to assure subjects they did not cause harm to the actors. She reported that three quarters of the former subjects she interviewed thought they had actually shocked the actor, and that the official debriefing specifications were only at the minimum level required at the time and so did not involve "telling subjects the true purpose of the experiment or interviewing them for their reactions. ''
Milgram sparked direct critical response in the scientific community by claiming that "a common psychological process is centrally involved in both (his laboratory experiments and Nazi Germany) events. '' James Waller, Chair of Holocaust and Genocide Studies at Keene State College, formerly Chair of Whitworth College Psychology Department, expressed the opinion that Milgram experiments do not correspond well to the Holocaust events:
In the opinion of Thomas Blass -- who is the author of a scholarly monograph on the experiment (The Man Who Shocked The World) published in 2004 -- the historical evidence pertaining to actions of the Holocaust perpetrators speaks louder than words:
My own view is that Milgram 's approach does not provide a fully adequate explanation of the Holocaust. While it may well account for the dutiful destructiveness of the dispassionate bureaucrat who may have shipped Jews to Auschwitz with the same degree of routinization as potatoes to Bremerhaven, it falls short when one tries to apply it to the more zealous, inventive, and hate - driven atrocities that also characterized the Holocaust.
After an investigation of the test, Australian psychologist Gina Perry re-evaluated Milgram 's data and stated that Milgram had manipulated his results. "Overall, over half disobeyed, '' Perry stated. She found, contrary to the popular version, that there is a "troubling mismatch between (published) descriptions of the experiment and evidence of what actually transpired ''. She concludes, that many subjects did n't in fact believe in the reality of the experiments, that "at some level, they 'd seen through the ruse '' and that it is "more truthful to say that only half of the people who undertook the experiment fully believed it was real, and of those, two - thirds (i.e. some 66 percent of all) disobeyed the experimenter ''. On the Holocaust connection, Perry writes: "You have this neat analogy (with the Holocaust). But without that rhetorical framework, Milgram 's experiments become no more than reality TV. It 's clothed as science and, once clothed as science, you can sell it as science. The rhetorical framing is crucial to the survival of the obedience studies. ''
That was an unexpected outcome for me, really. I regarded Stanley Milgram as a misunderstood genius who 'd been penalized in some ways for revealing something troubling and profound about human nature. By the end of my research I actually had quite a very different view of the man and the research...
Milgram elaborated two theories:
In his book Irrational Exuberance, Yale finance professor Robert Shiller argues that other factors might be partially able to explain the Milgram Experiments:
(People) have learned that when experts tell them something is all right, it probably is, even if it does not seem so. (In fact, it is worth noting that in this case the experimenter was indeed correct: it was all right to continue giving the "shocks '' -- even though most of the subjects did not suspect the reason.)
In a 2006 experiment, a computerized avatar was used in place of the learner receiving electrical shocks. Although the participants administering the shocks were aware that the learner was unreal, the experimenters reported that participants responded to the situation physiologically "as if it were real ''.
Another explanation of Milgram 's results invokes belief perseverance as the underlying cause. What "people can not be counted on is to realize that a seemingly benevolent authority is in fact malevolent, even when they are faced with overwhelming evidence which suggests that this authority is indeed malevolent. Hence, the underlying cause for the subjects ' striking conduct could well be conceptual, and not the alleged ' capacity of man to abandon his humanity... as he merges his unique personality into larger institutional structures. '' '
This last explanation receives some support from a 2009 episode of the BBC science documentary series Horizon, which involved replication of the Milgram experiment. Of the twelve participants, only three refused to continue to the end of the experiment. Speaking during the episode, social psychologist Clifford Stott discussed the influence that the idealism of scientific inquiry had on the volunteers. He remarked: "The influence is ideological. It 's about what they believe science to be, that science is a positive product, it produces beneficial findings and knowledge to society that are helpful for society. So there 's that sense of science is providing some kind of system for good. ''
Building on the importance of idealism, some recent researchers suggest the ' engaged followership ' perspective. Based on an examination of Milgram 's archive, in a recent study, social psychologists Alex Haslam, Stephen Reicher and Megan Birney, at the University of Queensland, discovered that people are less likely to follow the prods of an experimental leader when the prod resembles an order. However, when the prod stresses the importance of the experiment for science (i.e. ' The experiment requires you to continue '), people are more likely to obey. The researchers suggest the perspective of ' engaged followership ': that people are not simply obeying the orders of a leader, but instead are willing to continue the experiment because of their desire to support the scientific goals of the leader and because of a lack of identification with the learner. Also a neuroscientific study supports this perspective, namely watching the learner receive electric shocks, does not activate brain regions involving empathic concerns.
In Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View (1974), Milgram describes nineteen variations of his experiment, some of which had not been previously reported.
Several experiments varied the immediacy of the teacher and learner. Generally, when the victim 's physical immediacy was increased, the participant 's compliance decreased. The participant 's compliance also decreased when the authority 's physical immediacy decreased (Experiments 1 -- 4). For example, in Experiment 2, where participants received telephonic instructions from the experimenter, compliance decreased to 21 percent. Interestingly, some participants deceived the experimenter by pretending to continue the experiment. In the variation where the learner 's physical immediacy was closest, where participants had to hold the learner 's arm physically onto a shock plate, compliance decreased. Under that condition, 30 percent of participants completed the experiment.
In Experiment 8, an all - female contingent was used; previously, all participants had been men. Obedience did not significantly differ, though the women communicated experiencing higher levels of stress.
Experiment 10 took place in a modest office in Bridgeport, Connecticut, purporting to be the commercial entity "Research Associates of Bridgeport '' without apparent connection to Yale University, to eliminate the university 's prestige as a possible factor influencing the participants ' behavior. In those conditions, obedience dropped to 47.5 percent, though the difference was not statistically significant.
Milgram also combined the effect of authority with that of conformity. In those experiments, the participant was joined by one or two additional "teachers '' (also actors, like the "learner ''). The behavior of the participants ' peers strongly affected the results. In Experiment 17, when two additional teachers refused to comply, only 4 of 40 participants continued in the experiment. In Experiment 18, the participant performed a subsidiary task (reading the questions via microphone or recording the learner 's answers) with another "teacher '' who complied fully. In that variation, 37 of 40 continued with the experiment.
Around the time of the release of Obedience to Authority in 1973 -- 1974, a version of the experiment was conducted at La Trobe University in Australia. As reported by Perry in her 2012 book Behind the Shock Machine, some of the participants experienced long - lasting psychological effects, possibly due to the lack of proper debriefing by the experimenter.
In 2002, the British artist Rod Dickinson created The Milgram Re-enactment, an exact reconstruction of parts of the original experiment, including the uniforms, lighting, and rooms used. An audience watched the four - hour performance through one - way glass windows. A video of this performance was first shown at the CCA Gallery in Glasgow in 2002.
A partial replication of the experiment was staged by British illusionist Derren Brown and broadcast on UK 's Channel 4 in The Heist (2006).
Another partial replication of the experiment was conducted by Jerry M. Burger in 2006 and broadcast on the Primetime series Basic Instincts. Burger noted that "current standards for the ethical treatment of participants clearly place Milgram 's studies out of bounds. '' In 2009, Burger was able to receive approval from the institutional review board by modifying several of the experimental protocols. Burger found obedience rates virtually identical to those reported by Milgram found in 1961 -- 62, even while meeting current ethical regulations of informing participants. In addition, half the replication participants were female, and their rate of obedience was virtually identical to that of the male participants. Burger also included a condition in which participants first saw another participant refuse to continue. However, participants in this condition obeyed at the same rate as participants in the base condition.
In the 2010 French documentary Le Jeu de la Mort (The Game of Death), researchers recreated the Milgram experiment with an added critique of reality television by presenting the scenario as a game show pilot. Volunteers were given € 40 and told they would not win any money from the game, as this was only a trial. Only 16 of 80 "contestants '' (teachers) chose to end the game before delivering the highest - voltage punishment.
The experiment was performed on Dateline NBC on an episode airing April 25, 2010.
The Discovery Channel aired the "How Evil are You '' segment of Curiosity on October 30, 2011. The episode was hosted by Eli Roth, who produced results similar to the original Milgram experiment, though the highest - voltage punishment used was 165 volts, rather than 450 volts.
Due to increasingly widespread knowledge of the experiment, recent replications of the procedure have had to ensure that participants were not previously aware of it.
Charles Sheridan and Richard King (at the University of Missouri and the University of California, Berkeley, respectively) hypothesized that some of Milgram 's subjects may have suspected that the victim was faking, so they repeated the experiment with a real victim: a "cute, fluffy puppy '' who was given real, albeit apparently harmless, electric shocks. Their findings were dissimilar to those of Milgram: half of the male subjects and all of the females obeyed throughout. Many subjects showed high levels of distress during the experiment, and some openly wept. In addition, Sheridan and King found that the duration for which the shock button was pressed decreased as the shocks got higher, meaning that for higher shock levels, subjects were more hesitant.
|
who held the most wwe titles at one time | List of WWE champions - wikipedia
The WWE Championship is a professional wrestling world heavyweight championship in WWE, currently on the SmackDown brand. It is the first world title established in WWE, having been introduced in 1963 as the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF) World Heavyweight Championship. The promotion was renamed World Wrestling Federation (WWF) in 1979 and ended its affiliation with the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) in 1983, with the title also renamed to reflect the changes. In 2001, it was unified with the World Championship (formerly the WCW World Heavyweight Championship) following the WWF 's buyout of World Championship Wrestling (WCW) and became the Undisputed WWF Championship. In 2002, the WWF was renamed World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and split its roster into two brands, Raw and SmackDown. The title, now renamed WWE Championship, was then designated to the SmackDown brand while WWE established an alternate world title known as the World Heavyweight Championship for the Raw brand. A third alternate world title, the ECW World Heavyweight Championship, was reactivated for the ECW brand in 2006. It was vacated and decommissioned when the ECW brand disbanded in 2010.
When WWE Champion Randy Orton defeated World Heavyweight Champion John Cena at the TLC pay - per - view on December 15, 2013, the World Heavyweight Championship was unified with the WWE Championship, resulting in the retiring of the former and the renaming of the latter to the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. On June 27, 2016, the name was shortened back to the WWE Championship before assuming the WWE World Championship name on July 26, when the brand extension returned. It became designated to the SmackDown brand and WWE again established an alternate world title known as the WWE Universal Championship for the Raw brand. In December 2016, WWE again shortened the title 's name back to WWE Championship.
The championship is generally contested in professional wrestling matches, in which participants execute scripted finishes rather than contend in direct competition. Some reigns were held by champions using a ring name, while others use their real name. The first champion was Buddy Rogers, who won the championship in 1963. The champion with the single longest reign is Bruno Sammartino with a reign of 2,803 days, while the record for longest combined reign is also held by Sammartino at 4,040. The current champion is AJ Styles, who is in his second reign. He won the championship by defeating Jinder Mahal on SmackDown in Manchester, England on November 7, 2017.
Overall, there have been 50 different official champions, with John Cena having the most reigns at thirteen. Seven men in history have held the championship for a continuous reign of one year (365 days) or more: Bruno Sammartino (who achieved the feat on two separate occasions), Pedro Morales, Bob Backlund, Hulk Hogan, Randy Savage, John Cena, and CM Punk.
As of October 30, 2018.
As of October 30, 2018.
|
chief of staff of the armed forces of the philippines | Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines - wikipedia
The following is the list of Chiefs of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (CSAFP). The Armed Forces of the Philippines were created as a result of the December 21, 1935 National Defense Act, Commonwealth Act No. 1. However, the origin of the organization can be traced back to the establishment of the Philippine Constabulary, armed Filipino forces organized in 1901 by the United States to combat the Philippine Revolutionary Forces then led by General Emilio Aguinaldo.
The Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, usually the only soldier holding a rank of four - star general / admiral is the head of all military forces of the Philippines including all service branches under its command. Its direct equivalent in the United States Armed Forces is the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Unlike his / her United States counterpart which is merely supervisory, the AFP Chief of Staff has operational control over all military personnel of the Armed Forces.
|
list the qualifications for president (they are the same for vice president) | United States Presidential line of succession - wikipedia
The United States presidential line of succession is the order in which officials of the United States federal government discharge the powers and duties of the office of President of the United States if the incumbent president becomes incapacitated, dies, resigns, or is removed from office (by impeachment by the House of Representatives and subsequent conviction by the Senate) during their four - year term of office. Presidency succession is referred to multiple times in the U.S. Constitution -- Article II, Section 1, Clause 6, as well as the 12th Amendment, 20th Amendment, and 25th Amendment. The Article II succession clause authorizes Congress to provide for a line of succession beyond the vice president, which it has done on three occasions. The current Presidential Succession Act was adopted in 1947, and last revised in 2006.
The line of succession follows the order of Vice President, Speaker of the House of Representatives, President pro tempore of the Senate, and then the eligible heads of federal executive departments who form the president 's Cabinet. The Presidential Succession Act refers specifically to officers beyond the vice president acting as president rather than becoming president when filling a vacancy. The Cabinet currently has 15 members, of which the Secretary of State is first in line; the other Cabinet secretaries follow in the order in which their department (or the department of which their department is the successor) was created. Those heads of department who are constitutionally ineligible to be elected to the presidency are also disqualified from assuming the powers and duties of the presidency through succession. Since 1789, the vice president has succeeded to the presidency intra-term on nine occasions, eight times due to the incumbent 's death, and once due to resignation. No one lower in the line of succession has yet been called upon to act as president.
Widely considered a settled issue during the late 20th century, the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 demonstrated the potential for a decapitation strike that would kill or incapacitate multiple individuals in the presidential line of succession, in addition to many members of Congress and of the federal judiciary. In the years immediately following the attacks, there were numerous wide - ranging discussions in Congress, among academics, and within the public policy community about continuity of government concerns, including the existing constitutional and statutory provisions governing presidential succession. These discussions are ongoing. One effort, that of the Continuity of Government Commission, a nonpartisan think tank, produced three reports (in 2003, 2009, and 2011), the second of which focused on the implicit ambiguities and limitations in the current succession act, and contained recommendations for amending the laws for succession to the presidency.
The table below details the current presidential order of succession as established by the 1947 presidential succession statute as amended (3 U.S.C. § 19). The order is determined by the offices. However, the individual in an office must still satisfy the constitutional requirements for the office in order to serve as Acting President. In the table, the absence of a number in the first column indicates that the incumbent is ineligible, or is of uncertain eligibility. In such cases, a note explains the detail.
Article II, Section 1, Clause 5 of the Constitution sets three qualifications for holding the presidency. To serve as president, one must: be a natural - born citizen of the United States; be at least thirty - five years old; and be a resident in the United States for at least fourteen years.
A person who meets the above qualifications, however, would still be constitutionally disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:
The presidential line of succession is mentioned at four places in the Constitution:
The Presidential Succession Act of 1792 (Full text) provided for succession to the presidency, in the event both the office of the President and the Vice President were vacant, by, first, the president pro tempore of the Senate, followed by, if need be, the speaker of the House. Various framers of the Constitution, such as James Madison, criticized the arrangement as being contrary to their intent. The decision to build the line of succession around those two officials was made after a long and contentious debate. In addition to the president pro tempore and the speaker, both the secretary of state and the chief justice of the Supreme Court were also suggested. Including the secretary of state was unacceptable to most Federalists, who did not want the then secretary of state, Thomas Jefferson, who had become the leader of the opposition Democratic - Republicans, to follow the vice president in the succession, and many objected to including the chief justice due to separation of powers concerns.
The statute provided that the presidential successor would serve in an acting capacity, holding office only until a new president could be elected. A special election was to be held in November of the year in which dual vacancies occurred (unless the vacancies occurred after the first Wednesday in October, in which case the election would occur the following year; or unless the vacancies occurred within the last year of the presidential term, in which case the next election would take place as regularly scheduled). The persons elected president and vice president in such a special election would have served a full four - year term beginning on March 4 of the next year; no such election ever took place.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1886 (Full text) established a line of succession that included the members of the president 's cabinet, the order of the establishment of the various departments, beginning with the Secretary of State, and stipulated that any official discharging the powers and duties of the presidency must possess the constitutional qualifications to hold the office. The president pro tempore and speaker were excluded from the new line; also dropped was the provision mandating a special presidential election when a double vacancy arose.
The need for increasing the number of presidential successors was abundantly clear to Congress, for twice within the span of four years it happened that there was no one in the presidential line of succession. In September 1881, When Chester A. Arthur succeeded to the presidency following James A. Garfield 's death, there was no vice President, no president pro tempore of the Senate, and no Speaker of the House of Representatives. Then, in November 1885, Grover Cleveland faced a similar situation, following the death of Vice President Thomas A. Hendricks, as the Senate and the House had not convened yet to elect new officers.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1947 (Full text) restored the speaker of the House and president pro tempore of the Senate to the line of succession -- but in reverse - order from their 1792 positions -- and placed them ahead of the members of the Cabinet, who were positioned once more in the order of the establishment of their department. Placing the speaker and the president pro tempore (both elected officials) back in the succession and placing them ahead of cabinet members (all of whom are appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate), was Harry S. Truman 's idea. Personally conveyed to Congress in June 1945, two months after becoming president upon Franklin D. Roosevelt 's death, the proposal reflected Truman 's belief that the president should not have the power to appoint to office "the person who would be my immediate successor in the event of my own death or inability to act, '' and that the presidency should, whenever possible, "be filled by an elective officer. ''
The Act, which the president signed into law on July 18, 1947, has been modified several times, with changes being made as the face of the federal bureaucracy has changed over the ensuing years. Its most recent change came about in 2006, when the USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act added the secretary of Homeland Security to the presidential line of succession.
Although the Presidential Succession Clause in Article II of the Constitution clearly provided for the vice president to take over the "powers and duties '' of the presidency in the event of a president 's removal, death, resignation, or inability, left unclear was whether the vice president became president of the United States or simply temporarily acted as president in a case of succession. Some historians, including Edward Corwin and John D. Feerick, have argued that the framers ' intention was that the vice president would remain vice president while executing the powers and duties of the presidency until a new president could be elected.
The hypothetical debate about whether the office or merely the powers of the office devolve upon a vice president who succeeds to the presidency between elections became an urgent constitutional issue in 1841, when President William Henry Harrison died in office, only 31 days into his term. Vice President John Tyler claimed a constitutional mandate to carry out the full powers and duties of the presidency, asserting he was the president and not merely a temporary acting president, by taking the presidential oath of office.
Many around him -- including John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and other members of Congress, along with Whig party leaders, and even Tyler 's own cabinet -- believed that he was only acting as president and did not have the office itself. He was nicknamed "His Accidency '' and excoriated as a usurper. Nonetheless, Tyler adhered to his position, even returning, unopened, mail addressed to the "Acting President of the United States '' sent by his detractors. Tyler 's view ultimately prevailed when the Senate voted to accept the title "President, '' setting a momentous precedent for an orderly transfer of presidential power following a president 's death, one that was written into the Constitution as section 1 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment.
Even after the precedent regarding presidential succession due to the president 's death was set, the part of the Presidential Succession Clause that provided for replacing a disabled president remained unclear. What constituted an "inability ''? Who determined the existence of an inability? Did a vice president become president for the rest of the presidential term in the case of an inability; or was the vice president merely "acting as President ''? Due to this lack of clarity, later vice presidents were hesitant to assert any role in cases of presidential inability. Two situations are noteworthy:
When Dwight D. Eisenhower suffered a heart attack in September 1955, he and Vice President Richard Nixon developed an informal plan authorizing Nixon to assume some administrative duties during Eisenhower 's recovery. Although it did not have the force of law, the plan helped to reassure the nation. The agreement also contained a provision whereby Eisenhower could declare his own inability and, if unable to do so, empowered Nixon, with appropriate consultation, to make the decision. Had it been invoked, Nixon would have served as acting president until the president issued a declaration of his recovery. Moved forward as consequence of President Kennedy 's November 1963 assassination, this informal plan evolved into constitutional procedure a decade later through Sections 3 and 4 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment, which resolved the uncertainties surrounding presidential disability.
Nine vice presidents have succeeded to the presidency intra-term, eight due to the president 's death, and one due to the president 's resignation from office.
Additionally, two vice presidents have temporarily assumed the powers and duties of the presidency as acting president, as authorized by Section 3 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment: George H.W. Bush did so once, on July 13, 1985, and Dick Cheney did so twice, on June 29, 2002, and on July 21, 2007.
While several vice presidents have succeeded to the presidency upon the death or resignation of the president, and a number of them have died or resigned, the offices of President and Vice President have never been simultaneously vacant; thus no other officer in the presidential line of succession has ever been called upon to act as president. The prospect of such a double vacancy lurked in the shadows surrounding President Abraham Lincoln 's 1865 assassination, as Vice President Andrew Johnson (along with Secretary of State William Seward and possibly General Ulysses S. Grant) was also targeted as part of John Wilkes Booth 's plot to destabilize the Union government. It was also there three years later, when, as president and with the vice presidency vacant, Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives and faced removal from office if convicted at trial in the Senate. Johnson was acquitted by a one - vote margin.
Ratification of the 25th Amendment, with its mechanism for filling an intra-term vice presidential vacancy, has made calling on the speaker, president pro tempore, or a cabinet member to serve as acting president unlikely to happen, except in the aftermath of a catastrophic event. Only a few years after it went into effect, in October 1973, at the height of Watergate, Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned. With Agnew 's unexpected departure, and the state of Richard Nixon 's presidency, Speaker of the House Carl Albert was suddenly first in line to become acting president. The vacancy continued until Gerald Ford was sworn in as vice president on December 6, 1973. Albert was also next in line from the time Ford assumed the presidency on August 9, 1974, following Nixon 's resignation from office, until Ford 's choice to succeed him as vice president, Nelson Rockefeller, was confirmed by Congress four months later.
The vice presidency has been vacant on 18 occasions since 1789; during those periods, the following people have been next in line to serve as Acting President of the United States:
In 2003, the Continuity of Government Commission suggested that the current law has "at least seven significant issues... that warrant attention '', specifically:
In 2009, the Continuity of Government Commission commented on the use of the term "Officer '' in the 1947 statute,
The language in the current Presidential Succession Act is less clear than that of the 1886 Act with respect to Senate confirmation. The 1886 Act refers to "such officers as shall have been appointed by the advice and consent of the Senate to the office therein named... '' The current act merely refers to "officers appointed, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. '' Read literally, this means that the current act allows for acting secretaries to be in the line of succession as long as they are confirmed by the Senate for a post (even for example, the second or third in command within a department). It is common for a second in command to become acting secretary when the secretary leaves office. Though there is some dispute over this provision, the language clearly permits acting secretaries to be placed in the line of succession. (We have spoken to acting secretaries who told us they had been placed in the line of succession.)
In 2016 -- 17, the Second Fordham University School of Law Clinic on Presidential Succession developed a series of proposals to "resolve succession issues that have received little attention from scholars and commissions '' over the past several decades. The clinic 's recommendations included:
|
where is dunkirk beach located on a map | Dunkirk - wikipedia
French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers > 1 km (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries.
Dunkirk (/ dʌnˈkɜːrk, ˈdʌnkɜːrk /; French: Dunkerque (dœ̃kɛʁk); Dutch: Duinkerke (n) (ˈdœyŋkɛr (ə) kə (n)) (listen)) is a commune in the Nord department in northern France. It lies 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from the Belgian border. The population of the city (commune) at the 2016 census was 91,412 inhabitants.
The name of Dunkirk derives from West Flemish dun (e) ' dune ' or ' dun ' and kerke ' church ', which together means ' church in the dunes '. Until the middle of the 20th century, the city was situated in the French Flemish area; today the local Flemish variety of the Dutch language can still be heard, but has largely been supplanted by French.
Today Dunkirk is the world 's northernmost Francophone city (not counting minor Canadian settlements such as Fermont, Quebec, which does have French as a majority language, but is not classified as a city).
A fishing village arose late in the tenth century, in the originally flooded coastal area of the English Channel south of the Western Scheldt, when the area was held by the Counts of Flanders, vassals of the French Crown. About 960AD, Count Baldwin III had a town wall erected in order to protect the settlement against Viking raids. The surrounding wetlands were drained and cultivated by the monks of nearby Bergues Abbey. The name Dunkirka was first mentioned in a tithe privilege of 27 May 1067, issued by Count Baldwin V of Flanders. Count Philip I (1157 -- 1191) brought further large tracts of marshland under cultivation, laid out the first plans to build a Canal from Dunkirk to Bergues and vested the Dunkirkers with market rights.
In the late 13th century, when the Dampierre count Guy of Flanders entered into the Franco - Flemish War with his suzerain King Philippe IV of France, the citizens of Dunkirk sided with the French against their count, who at first was defeated at the 1297 Battle of Furnes, but reached de facto autonomy upon the victorious Battle of the Golden Spurs five years later and exacted vengeance. Guy 's son, Count Robert III (1305 -- 1322), nevertheless granted further city rights to Dunkirk; his successor Count Louis I (1322 -- 1346) had to face the Peasant revolt of 1323 -- 1328, which was crushed by King Philippe VI of France at the 1328 Battle of Cassel, whereafter the Dunkirkers again were affected by the repressive measures of their lord - paramount.
Count Louis remained a loyal liensman of the French king upon the outbreak of the Hundred Years ' War with England in 1337, and prohibited the maritime trade, which led to another revolt by the Dunkirk citizens. After the count had been killed in the 1346 Battle of Crécy, his son and successor Count Louis II of Flanders (1346 -- 1384) signed a truce with the English; the trade again flourished and the port was significantly enlarged. However, in the course of the Western Schism from 1378, English supporters of Pope Urban VI (the Roman claimant) disembarked at Dunkirk, captured the city and flooded the surrounding estates. They were ejected by King Charles VI of France, but left great devastations in and around the town.
Upon the extinction of the Counts of Flanders with the death of Louis II in 1384, Flanders was acquired by the Burgundian, Duke Philip the Bold. The fortifications were again enlarged, including the construction of a belfry daymark. As a strategic point, Dunkirk has always been exposed to political covetousness, by Duke Robert I of Bar in 1395, by Louis de Luxembourg in 1435 and finally by the Austrian archduke Maximilian I of Habsburg, who in 1477 married Mary of Burgundy, sole heiress of late Duke Charles the Bold. As Maximilian was the son of Emperor Frederick III, all Flanders was immediately seized by King Louis XI of France. However, the archduke defeated the French troops in 1479 at the Battle of Guinegate. When Mary died in 1482, Maximilian retained Flanders according to the terms of the 1482 Treaty of Arras. Dunkirk, along with the rest of Flanders, was incorporated into the Habsburg Netherlands and upon the 1581 secession of the Seven United Netherlands, remained part of the Southern Netherlands, which were held by Habsburg Spain (Spanish Netherlands) as Imperial fiefs.
The area remained much disputed between the Kingdom of Spain, the United Netherlands, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France. At the beginning of the Eighty Years ' War, Dunkirk was briefly in the hands of the Dutch rebels, from 1577. Spanish forces under Duke Alexander Farnese of Parma re-established Spanish rule in 1583 and it became a base for the notorious Dunkirkers. The Dunkirkers briefly lost their home port when the city was conquered by the French in 1646 but Spanish forces recaptured the city in 1652. In 1658, as a result of the long war between France and Spain, it was captured after a siege by Franco - English forces following the battle of the Dunes. The city along with Fort - Mardyck was awarded to England in the peace the following year as agreed in the Franco - English alliance against Spain. The English governors were Sir William Lockhart (1658 -- 60), Sir Edward Harley (1660 -- 61) and Lord Rutherford (1661 -- 62).
It came under French rule when King Charles II of England sold it to France for £ 320,000 on 17 October 1662. The French government developed the town as a fortified port. The town 's existing defences were adapted to create ten bastions. The port was expanded in the 1670s by the construction of a basin that could hold up to thirty warships with a double lock system to maintain water levels at low tide. The basin was linked to the sea by a channel dug through coastal sandbanks secured by two jetties. This work was completed by 1678. The jetties were defended a few years later by the construction of five forts, Château d'Espérance, Château Vert, Grand Risban, Château Gaillard, and Fort de Revers. An additional fort was built in 1701 called Fort Blanc. The jetties, their forts, and the port facilities were demolished in 1713 under the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht.
During the reign of King Louis XIV, a large number of commerce raiders once again made their base at Dunkirk. Jean Bart was the most famous. The main character (and possible real prisoner) in the famous novel Man in the Iron Mask by Alexandre Dumas was arrested at Dunkirk. The eighteenth - century Swedish privateers and pirates Lars Gathenhielm and his wife Ingela Hammar, are known to have sold their gains in Dunkirk. The Treaty of Paris (1763) between France and Great Britain ending the Seven Years ' War, included a clause restricting French rights to fortify Dunkirk, to allay British fears of it being used as an invasion base to cross the English Channel. This clause was overturned in the subsequent Treaty of Versailles of 1783.
In January, 1916, spy hysteria broke out in Dunkirk. The writer Robert W. Service, then a war correspondent for the Toronto Star, was mistakenly arrested as a spy and narrowly avoided being executed out of hand. On 1 January 1918, the United States Navy established a naval air station to operate seaplanes during the First World War (1914 -- 1918). The base closed shortly after the Armistice of 11 November 1918.
During the war, Dunkirk was heavily attacked by the largest gun of the world, the German ' Lange Max '. On a regular basis, heavy shells weighing approximately 750 kg were fired from Koekelare (Belgium) to Dunkirk, which is about 45 -- 50 km away.
During the Second World War (1939 -- 1945), in the May, 1940 Battle of France, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), while aiding the French and Belgian armies, were forced to retreat in the face of the overpowering German Panzer attacks. Fighting in Belgium and France, the BEF and a portion of the French Army became outflanked by the Germans and retreated to the area around the port of Dunkirk. More than 400,000 soldiers were trapped in the pocket as the German Army closed in for the kill. Unexpectedly, the German Panzer attack halted for several days at a critical juncture. For years, it was assumed that Adolf Hitler ordered the German Army to suspend the attack, favouring bombardment by the Luftwaffe. However, according to the Official War Diary of Army Group A, its commander, Generaloberst Gerd von Rundstedt, ordered the halt to allow maintenance on his tanks, half of which were out of service, and to protect his flanks which were exposed and, he thought, vulnerable. Hitler merely validated the order several hours after the fact. This lull in the action gave the British and French a few days to fortify their defences and evacuate by sea. Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, ordered any ship or boat available, large or small, to collect the stranded soldiers. 338,226 men (including 123,000 French soldiers) were evacuated -- the miracle of Dunkirk, as Churchill called it. It took over 900 vessels to evacuate the BEF, with two - thirds of those rescued embarking via the harbour, and over 100,000 taken off the beaches. More than 40,000 vehicles as well as massive amounts of other military equipment and supplies were left behind, their value being regarded as less than that of trained fighting men. The British evacuation of Dunkirk through the English Channel was codenamed Operation Dynamo. Forty thousand Allied soldiers (some who carried on fighting after the official evacuation) were captured or forced to make their own way home through a variety of routes including via neutral Spain. Many wounded who were unable to walk were also abandoned.
The city was again contested in 1944, with the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division attempting to liberate the city in September, as Allied forces surged northeast after their victory in the Battle of Normandy. However, German forces refused to relinquish their control of the city, which had been converted into a fortress. The German garrison there was "masked '' by Allied troops, notably 1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade. During the German occupation, Dunkirk was largely destroyed by Allied bombings. The artillery siege of Dunkirk was directed on the final day of the war by pilots from No. 652 Squadron RAF, and No. 665 Squadron RCAF. The fortress under command of German Admiral Friedrich Frisius eventually unconditionally surrendered to the commander of the Czechoslovak forces, Brigade General Alois Liška, on 9 May 1945.
On 14 December 2002, the Norwegian auto carrier Tricolor collided with the Bahamian - registered Kariba and sank off Dunkirk Harbour, causing a hazard to navigate in the English Channel.
Dunkirk has an oceanic climate, with cool winters and warm summers. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Dunkirk has a marine west coast climate, abbreviated "Cfb '' on climate maps. Summers are averaging around 21 ° C (70 ° F), being significantly influenced by the marine currents.
The commune has grown substantially by absorbing several neighbouring communes:
Dunkirk has the third - largest harbour in France, after those of Le Havre and Marseille. As an industrial city it depends heavily on the steel, food processing, oil - refining, ship - building and chemical industries.
The cuisine of Dunkirk closely resembles Flemish cuisine; perhaps one of the best known dishes is coq à la bière -- chicken in a creamy beer sauce.
In June 1792 the French astronomers Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre François André Méchain set out to measure the meridian arc distance from Dunkirk to Barcelona, two cities lying on approximately the same longitude as each other and also the longitude through Paris. The belfry was chosen as the reference point in Dunkirk.
Using this measurement and the latitudes of the two cities they could calculate the distance between the North Pole and the Equator in classical French units of length and hence produce the first prototype metre which was defined as being one ten millionth of that distance. The definitive metre bar, manufactured from platinum, was presented to the French legislative assembly on 22 June 1799.
Dunkirk was the most easterly cross-channel measuring point for the Anglo - French Survey (1784 -- 1790), which used trigonometry to calculate the precise distance between the Paris Observatory and the Royal Greenwich Observatory. Sightings were made of signal lights at Dover Castle from the Dunkirk Belfry, and vice versa.
The Tour du Leughenaer (fr) (the Liar 's Tower)
Dunkirk Town Hall
Carnival in Dunkirk
Malo - les - Bains beach front
Dunkirk Beach
Dunkirk has a ferry with the firm DFDS with regular services each day to England. The Gare de Dunkerque railway station offers connections to Gare de Calais - Ville, Gare de Lille Flandres, Arras and Paris, and several regional destinations in France. The railway line from Dunkirk to De Panne and Adinkerke, Belgium, is closed and has been dismantled in places.
Dunkirk 's public transit service offers free public transport on weekends; and starting in September 2018 it will be free every day.
Dunkirk is twinned with:
Dunkirk has co-operation agreements with:
|
when was a character by william wordsworth written | William Wordsworth - wikipedia
William Wordsworth (7 April 1770 -- 23 April 1850) was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication Lyrical Ballads (1798).
Wordsworth 's magnum opus is generally considered to be The Prelude, a semi-autobiographical poem of his early years that he revised and expanded a number of times. It was posthumously titled and published, before which it was generally known as "the poem to Coleridge ''. Wordsworth was Britain 's poet laureate from 1843 until his death from pleurisy on 23 April 1850.
The second of five children born to John Wordsworth and Ann Cookson, William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770 in Wordsworth House in Cockermouth, Cumberland, part of the scenic region in northwestern England known as the Lake District. His sister, the poet and diarist Dorothy Wordsworth, to whom he was close all his life, was born the following year, and the two were baptised together. They had three other siblings: Richard, the eldest, who became a lawyer; John, born after Dorothy, who went to sea and died in 1805 when the ship of which he was captain, the Earl of Abergavenny, was wrecked off the south coast of England; and Christopher, the youngest, who entered the Church and rose to be Master of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Wordsworth 's father was a legal representative of James Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale and, through his connections, lived in a large mansion in the small town. He was frequently away from home on business, so the young William and his siblings had little involvement with him and remained distant from him until his death in 1783. However, he did encourage William in his reading, and in particular set him to commit to memory large portions of verse, including works by Milton, Shakespeare and Spenser. William was also allowed to use his father 's library. William also spent time at his mother 's parents ' house in Penrith, Cumberland, where he was exposed to the moors, but did not get along with his grandparents or his uncle, who also lived there. His hostile interactions with them distressed him to the point of contemplating suicide.
Wordsworth was taught to read by his mother and attended, first, a tiny school of low quality in Cockermouth, then a school in Penrith for the children of upper - class families, where he was taught by Ann Birkett, who insisted on instilling in her students traditions that included pursuing both scholarly and local activities, especially the festivals around Easter, May Day and Shrove Tuesday. Wordsworth was taught both the Bible and the Spectator, but little else. It was at the school in Penrith that he met the Hutchinsons, including Mary, who later became his wife.
After the death of his mother, in 1778, Wordsworth 's father sent him to Hawkshead Grammar School in Lancashire (now in Cumbria) and sent Dorothy to live with relatives in Yorkshire. She and William did not meet again for another nine years.
Wordsworth made his debut as a writer in 1787 when he published a sonnet in The European Magazine. That same year he began attending St John 's College, Cambridge. He received his BA degree in 1791. He returned to Hawkshead for the first two summers of his time at Cambridge, and often spent later holidays on walking tours, visiting places famous for the beauty of their landscape. In 1790 he went on a walking tour of Europe, during which he toured the Alps extensively, and visited nearby areas of France, Switzerland, and Italy.
In November 1791, Wordsworth visited Revolutionary France and became enchanted with the Republican movement. He fell in love with a French woman, Annette Vallon, who in 1792 gave birth to their daughter Caroline. Financial problems and Britain 's tense relations with France forced him to return to England alone the following year. The circumstances of his return and his subsequent behaviour raised doubts as to his declared wish to marry Annette, but he supported her and his daughter as best he could in later life. The Reign of Terror left Wordsworth thoroughly disillusioned with the French Revolution and the outbreak of armed hostilities between Britain and France prevented him from seeing Annette and his daughter for some years.
With the Peace of Amiens again allowing travel to France, in 1802 Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy visited Annette and Caroline in Calais. The purpose of the visit was to prepare Annette for the fact of his forthcoming marriage to Mary Hutchinson. Afterwards he wrote the sonnet "It is a beauteous evening, calm and free, '' recalling a seaside walk with the 9 - year - old Caroline, whom he had never seen before that visit. Mary was anxious that Wordsworth should do more for Caroline and upon Caroline 's marriage, in 1816, when Wordsworth settled £ 30 a year on her (equivalent to £ 1360 as of the year 2000). The payments continued until 1835, when they were replaced by a capital settlement.
The year 1793 saw the first publication of poems by Wordsworth, in the collections An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches. In 1795 he received a legacy of 900 pounds from Raisley Calvert and became able to pursue a career as a poet.
It was also in 1795 that he met Samuel Taylor Coleridge in Somerset. The two poets quickly developed a close friendship. In 1797, Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy moved to Alfoxton House, Somerset, just a few miles away from Coleridge 's home in Nether Stowey. Together Wordsworth and Coleridge (with insights from Dorothy) produced Lyrical Ballads (1798), an important work in the English Romantic movement. The volume gave neither Wordsworth 's nor Coleridge 's name as author. One of Wordsworth 's most famous poems, "Tintern Abbey '', was published in this collection, along with Coleridge 's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner ''. The second edition, published in 1800, had only Wordsworth listed as the author, and included a preface to the poems. It was augmented significantly in the next edition, published in 1802. In this preface, which some scholars consider a central work of Romantic literary theory, Wordsworth discusses what he sees as the elements of a new type of verse, one that is based on the "real language of men '' and avoids the poetic diction of much 18th - century verse. Wordsworth also gives his famous definition of poetry as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility, '' and calls his own poems in the book "experimental ''. A fourth and final edition of Lyrical Ballads was published in 1805.
Between 1795 - 97, Wordsworth wrote his only play, The Borderers, a verse tragedy set during the reign of King Henry III of England, when Englishmen in the North Country came into conflict with Scottish rovers. He attempted to get the play staged in November 1797, but it was rejected by Thomas Harris, the manager of the Covent Garden Theatre, who proclaimed it "impossible that the play should succeed in the representation ''. The rebuff was not received lightly by Wordsworth and the play was not published until 1842, after substantial revision.
Wordsworth, Dorothy and Coleridge travelled to Germany in the autumn of 1798. While Coleridge was intellectually stimulated by the journey, its main effect on Wordsworth was to produce homesickness. During the harsh winter of 1798 -- 99 Wordsworth lived with Dorothy in Goslar, and, despite extreme stress and loneliness, began work on the autobiographical piece that was later titled The Prelude. He wrote a number of other famous poems in Goslar, including "The Lucy poems ''. In the Autumn of 1799, Wordsworth and his sister returned to England and visited the Hutchinson family at Sockburn. When Coleridge arrived back in England he travelled to the North with their publisher Joseph Cottle to meet Wordsworth and undertake a proposed tour of the Lake District. This was the immediate cause of the siblings settling at Dove Cottage in Grasmere in the Lake District, this time with another poet, Robert Southey nearby. Wordsworth, Coleridge and Southey came to be known as the "Lake Poets ''. Throughout this period many of Wordsworth 's poems revolved around themes of death, endurance, separation and grief.
In 1802 Lowther 's heir, William Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale, paid the 4,000 pounds owed to Wordsworth 's father through Lowther 's failure to pay his aide. It was this repayment that afforded Wordsworth the financial means to marry. On 4 October, following his visit with Dorothy to France to arrange matters with Annette, Wordsworth married his childhood friend Mary Hutchinson. Dorothy continued to live with the couple and grew close to Mary. The following year Mary gave birth to the first of five children, three of whom predeceased her and William:
Wordsworth had for years been making plans to write a long philosophical poem in three parts, which he intended to call The Recluse. In 1798 -- 99 he started an autobiographical poem, which he referred to as the "poem to Coleridge '' and which he planned would serve as an appendix to a larger work called The Recluse. In 1804 he began expanding this autobiographical work, having decided to make it a prologue rather than an appendix. He completed this work, now generally referred to as the first version of The Prelude, in 1805, but refused to publish such a personal work until he had completed the whole of The Recluse. The death of his brother John, also in 1805, affected him strongly and may have influenced his decisions about these works.
Wordsworth 's philosophical allegiances as articulated in The Prelude and in such shorter works as "Lines written a few miles above Tintern Abbey '' have been a source of critical debate. It was long supposed that Wordsworth relied chiefly on Coleridge for philosophical guidance, but more recently scholars have suggested that Wordsworth 's ideas may have been formed years before he and Coleridge became friends in the mid-1790s. In particular, while he was in revolutionary Paris in 1792 the 22 - year - old Wordsworth made the acquaintance of the mysterious traveler John "Walking '' Stewart (1747 -- 1822), who was nearing the end of his thirty years of wandering, on foot, from Madras, India, through Persia and Arabia, across Africa and Europe, and up through the fledgling United States. By the time of their association Stewart had published an ambitious work of original materialist philosophy entitled The Apocalypse of Nature (London, 1791), to which many of Wordsworth 's philosophical sentiments may well be indebted.
In 1807 Wordsworth published Poems in Two Volumes, including "Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood ''. Up to this point Wordsworth was known only for Lyrical Ballads, and he hoped that this new collection would cement his reputation. Its reception was lukewarm, however.
In 1810, Wordsworth and Coleridge were estranged over the latter 's opium addiction, and in 1812, his son Thomas died at the age of 6, six months after the death of 3 - year - old Catherine. The following year he received an appointment as Distributor of Stamps for Westmorland, and the stipend of £ 400 a year made him financially secure. In 1813, he and his family, including Dorothy, moved to Rydal Mount, Ambleside (between Grasmere and Rydal Water), where he spent the rest of his life.
In 1814 Wordsworth published The Excursion as the second part of the three - part work The Recluse, even though he had not completed the first part or the third part, and never did. He did, however, write a poetic Prospectus to "The Recluse '' in which he laid out the structure and intention of the whole work. The Prospectus contains some of Wordsworth 's most famous lines on the relation between the human mind and nature:
Some modern critics suggest that there was a decline in his work beginning around the mid-1810s, perhaps because most of the concerns that characterised his early poems (loss, death, endurance, separation and abandonment) has been resolved in his writings and his life. By 1820, he was enjoying considerable success accompanying a reversal in the contemporary critical opinion of his earlier works.
Following the death of his friend the painter William Green in 1823, Wordsworth also mended his relations with Coleridge. The two were fully reconciled by 1828, when they toured the Rhineland together. Dorothy suffered from a severe illness in 1829 that rendered her an invalid for the remainder of her life. Coleridge and Charles Lamb both died in 1834, their loss being a difficult blow to Wordsworth. The following year saw the passing of James Hogg. Despite the death of many contemporaries, the popularity of his poetry ensured a steady stream of young friends and admirers to replace those he lost.
Wordsworth remained a formidable presence in his later years. In 1837, the Scottish poet and playwright Joanna Baillie reflected on her long acquaintance with Wordsworth. "He looks like a man that one must not speak to unless one has some sensible thing to say. however he does occasionally converse cheerfully & well; and when one knows how benevolent & excellent he is, it disposes one to be very much pleased with him. ''
In 1838, Wordsworth received an honorary doctorate in Civil Law from the University of Durham and the following year he was awarded the same honorary degree by the University of Oxford. In 1842, the government awarded him a Civil List pension of £ 300 a year.
Following the death of Robert Southey in 1843 Wordsworth became Poet Laureate. He initially refused the honour, saying that he was too old, but accepted when the Prime Minister, Robert Peel, assured him that "you shall have nothing required of you ''. Wordsworth thus became the only poet laureate to write no official verses. The sudden death of his daughter Dora in 1847 at the age of only 42 was difficult for the aging poet to take and in his depression, he completely gave up writing new material.
William Wordsworth died at home at Rydal Mount from an aggravated case of pleurisy on 23 April 1850, and was buried at St Oswald 's Church, Grasmere. His widow Mary published his lengthy autobiographical "poem to Coleridge '' as The Prelude several months after his death. Though it failed to arouse much interest at that time, it has since come to be widely recognised as his masterpiece.
Wordsworth has appeared as a character in works of fiction, including:
General information and biographical sketches
Books
Wordsworth 's works
|
what do amyloplasts store in the potato cells | Amyloplast - wikipedia
Amyloplasts are non-pigmented organelles found in some plant cells. They are responsible for the synthesis and storage of starch granules, through the polymerization of glucose. Amyloplasts also convert this starch back into sugar when the plant needs energy. Large numbers of amyloplasts can be found in fruit and in underground storage tissues of some plants, such as in potato tubers.
Amyloplasts are plastids, specifically leucoplasts. Plastids are a specialized class of cellular organelles that carry their own genome and are believed to be descendants of cyanobacteria (blue - green algae) which formed a symbiotic relationship with the eukaryotic cell.
Starch synthesis and storage also takes place in chloroplasts, a type of pigmented plastid involved in photosynthesis. Amyloplasts and chloroplasts are closely related, and amyloplasts can turn into chloroplasts; this is for instance observed when potato tubers are exposed to light and turn green.
In the root cap (a tissue at the tip of the root) there is a special subset of cells, called statocytes. Inside the statocyte cells, some specialized amyloplasts are involved in the perception of gravity by the plant (gravitropism). These specialized amyloplasts -- called statoliths -- are denser than the cytoplasm and can sediment according to the gravity vector. The statoliths are enmeshed in a web of actin and it is thought that their sedimentation transmits the gravitropic signal by activating mechanosensitive channels. The gravitropic signal then leads to the reorientation of auxin efflux carriers and subsequent redistribution of auxin streams in the root cap and root as a whole. The changed relations in concentration of auxin leads to differential growth of the root tissues. Taken together, the root is then turning to follow the gravity stimuli. Statoliths are also found in the endodermic layer of the inflorescence stem. The redistribution of auxin causes the shoot to turn in a direction opposite that of the gravity stimuli.
|
natural rights are moral claims about certain things that belong to humans by | Natural and legal rights - wikipedia
Natural and legal rights are two types of rights. Natural rights are those that are not dependent on the laws or customs of any particular culture or government, and therefore universal and inalienable (i.e., rights that can not be repealed or restrained by human laws). Legal rights are those bestowed onto a person by a given legal system (i.e., rights that can be modified, repealed, and restrained by human laws).
The concept of natural law is related to the concept of natural rights. Natural law first appeared in ancient Greek philosophy, and was referred to by Roman philosopher Cicero. It was subsequently alluded to in the Bible, and was then developed in the Middle Ages by Catholic philosophers such as Albert the Great and his pupil Thomas Aquinas. During the Age of Enlightenment, the concept of natural laws was used to challenge the divine right of kings, and became an alternative justification for the establishment of a social contract, positive law, and government -- and thus legal rights -- in the form of classical republicanism. Conversely, the concept of natural rights is used by others to challenge the legitimacy of all such establishments.
The idea of human rights is also closely related to that of natural rights: some acknowledge no difference between the two, regarding them as synonymous, while others choose to keep the terms separate to eliminate association with some features traditionally associated with natural rights. Natural rights, in particular, are considered beyond the authority of any government or international body to dismiss. The 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights is an important legal instrument enshrining one conception of natural rights into international soft law. Natural rights were traditionally viewed as exclusively negative rights, whereas human rights also comprise positive rights. Even on a natural rights conception of human rights, the two terms may not be synonymous.
The proposition that animals have natural rights is one that gained the interest of philosophers and legal scholars in the 20th century and into the 21st.
The idea that certain rights are natural or inalienable also has a history dating back at least to the Stoics of late Antiquity and Catholic law of the early Middle Ages, and descending through the Protestant Reformation and the Age of Enlightenment to today.
The existence of natural rights has been asserted by different individuals on different premises, such as a priori philosophical reasoning or religious principles. For example, Immanuel Kant claimed to derive natural rights through reason alone. The United States Declaration of Independence, meanwhile, is based upon the "self - evident '' truth that "all men are... endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights ''.
Likewise, different philosophers and statesmen have designed different lists of what they believe to be natural rights; almost all include the right to life and liberty as the two highest priorities. H.L.A. Hart argued that if there are any rights at all, there must be the right to liberty, for all the others would depend upon this. T.H. Green argued that "if there are such things as rights at all, then, there must be a right to life and liberty, or, to put it more properly to free life. '' John Locke emphasized "life, liberty and property '' as primary. However, despite Locke 's influential defense of the right of revolution, Thomas Jefferson substituted "pursuit of happiness '' in place of "property '' in the United States Declaration of Independence.
Stephen Kinzer, a veteran journalist for The New York Times and the author of the book All The Shah 's Men, writes in the latter that:
The Zoroastrian religion taught Iranians that citizens have an inalienable right to enlightened leadership and that the duty of subjects is not simply to obey wise kings but also to rise up against those who are wicked. Leaders are seen as representative of God on earth, but they deserve allegiance only as long as they have farr, a kind of divine blessing that they must earn by moral behavior.
The Stoics held that no one was a slave by nature; slavery was an external condition juxtaposed to the internal freedom of the soul (sui juris). Seneca the Younger wrote:
It is a mistake to imagine that slavery pervades a man 's whole being; the better part of him is exempt from it: the body indeed is subjected and in the power of a master, but the mind is independent, and indeed is so free and wild, that it can not be restrained even by this prison of the body, wherein it is confined.
Of fundamental importance to the development of the idea of natural rights was the emergence of the idea of natural human equality. As the historian A.J. Carlyle notes: "There is no change in political theory so startling in its completeness as the change from the theory of Aristotle to the later philosophical view represented by Cicero and Seneca... We think that this can not be better exemplified than with regard to the theory of the equality of human nature. '' Charles H. McIlwain likewise observes that "the idea of the equality of men is the profoundest contribution of the Stoics to political thought '' and that "its greatest influence is in the changed conception of law that in part resulted from it. '' Cicero argues in De Legibus that "we are born for Justice, and that right is based, not upon opinions, but upon Nature. ''
One of the first Western thinkers to develop the contemporary idea of natural rights was French theologian Jean Gerson, whose 1402 treatise De Vita Spirituali Animae is considered one of the first attempts to develop what would come to be called modern natural rights theory.
Centuries later, the Stoic doctrine that the "inner part can not be delivered into bondage '' re-emerged in the Reformation doctrine of liberty of conscience. Martin Luther wrote:
Furthermore, every man is responsible for his own faith, and he must see it for himself that he believes rightly. As little as another can go to hell or heaven for me, so little can he believe or disbelieve for me; and as little as he can open or shut heaven or hell for me, so little can he drive me to faith or unbelief. Since, then, belief or unbelief is a matter of every one 's conscience, and since this is no lessening of the secular power, the latter should be content and attend to its own affairs and permit men to believe one thing or another, as they are able and willing, and constrain no one by force.
17th - century English philosopher John Locke discussed natural rights in his work, identifying them as being "life, liberty, and estate (property) '', and argued that such fundamental rights could not be surrendered in the social contract. Preservation of the natural rights to life, liberty, and property was claimed as justification for the rebellion of the American colonies. As George Mason stated in his draft for the Virginia Declaration of Rights, "all men are born equally free, '' and hold "certain inherent natural rights, of which they can not, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity. '' Another 17th - century Englishman, John Lilburne (known as Freeborn John), who came into conflict with both the monarchy of King Charles I and the military dictatorship of Oliver Cromwell governed republic, argued for level human basic rights he called "freeborn rights '' which he defined as being rights that every human being is born with, as opposed to rights bestowed by government or by human law.
The distinction between alienable and unalienable rights was introduced by Francis Hutcheson. In his Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue (1725), Hutcheson foreshadowed the Declaration of Independence, stating: "For wherever any Invasion is made upon unalienable Rights, there must arise either a perfect, or external Right to Resistance... Unalienable Rights are essential Limitations in all Governments. '' Hutcheson, however, placed clear limits on his notion of unalienable rights, declaring that "there can be no Right, or Limitation of Right, inconsistent with, or opposite to the greatest publick Good. '' Hutcheson elaborated on this idea of unalienable rights in his A System of Moral Philosophy (1755), based on the Reformation principle of the liberty of conscience. One could not in fact give up the capacity for private judgment (e.g., about religious questions) regardless of any external contracts or oaths to religious or secular authorities so that right is "unalienable. '' Hutcheson wrote: "Thus no man can really change his sentiments, judgments, and inward affections, at the pleasure of another; nor can it tend to any good to make him profess what is contrary to his heart. The right of private judgment is therefore unalienable. ''
In the German Enlightenment, Hegel gave a highly developed treatment of this inalienability argument. Like Hutcheson, Hegel based the theory of inalienable rights on the de facto inalienability of those aspects of personhood that distinguish persons from things. A thing, like a piece of property, can in fact be transferred from one person to another. According to Hegel, the same would not apply to those aspects that make one a person:
The right to what is in essence inalienable is imprescriptible, since the act whereby I take possession of my personality, of my substantive essence, and make myself a responsible being, capable of possessing rights and with a moral and religious life, takes away from these characteristics of mine just that externality which alone made them capable of passing into the possession of someone else. When I have thus annulled their externality, I can not lose them through lapse of time or from any other reason drawn from my prior consent or willingness to alienate them.
In discussion of social contract theory, "inalienable rights '' were said to be those rights that could not be surrendered by citizens to the sovereign. Such rights were thought to be natural rights, independent of positive law. Some social contract theorists reasoned, however, that in the natural state only the strongest could benefit from their rights. Thus, people form an implicit social contract, ceding their natural rights to the authority to protect the people from abuse, and living henceforth under the legal rights of that authority.
Many historical apologies for slavery and illiberal government were based on explicit or implicit voluntary contracts to alienate any "natural rights '' to freedom and self - determination. The de facto inalienability arguments of Hutcheson and his predecessors provided the basis for the anti-slavery movement to argue not simply against involuntary slavery but against any explicit or implied contractual forms of slavery. Any contract that tried to legally alienate such a right would be inherently invalid. Similarly, the argument was used by the democratic movement to argue against any explicit or implied social contracts of subjection (pactum subjectionis) by which a people would supposedly alienate their right of self - government to a sovereign as, for example, in Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes. According to Ernst Cassirer,
There is, at least, one right that can not be ceded or abandoned: the right to personality... They charged the great logician (Hobbes) with a contradiction in terms. If a man could give up his personality he would cease being a moral being.... There is no pactum subjectionis, no act of submission by which man can give up the state of free agent and enslave himself. For by such an act of renunciation he would give up that very character which constitutes his nature and essence: he would lose his humanity.
These themes converged in the debate about American Independence. While Jefferson was writing the Declaration of Independence, Richard Price in England sided with the Americans ' claim "that Great Britain is attempting to rob them of that liberty to which every member of society and all civil communities have a natural and unalienable title. '' Price again based the argument on the de facto inalienability of "that principle of spontaneity or self - determination which constitutes us agents or which gives us a command over our actions, rendering them properly ours, and not effects of the operation of any foreign cause. '' Any social contract or compact allegedly alienating these rights would be non-binding and void, wrote Price:
Neither can any state acquire such an authority over other states in virtue of any compacts or cessions. This is a case in which compacts are not binding. Civil liberty is, in this respect, on the same footing with religious liberty. As no people can lawfully surrender their religious liberty by giving up their right of judging for themselves in religion, or by allowing any human beings to prescribe to them what faith they shall embrace, or what mode of worship they shall practise, so neither can any civil societies lawfully surrender their civil liberty by giving up to any extraneous jurisdiction their power of legislating for themselves and disposing their property.
Price raised a furor of opposition so in 1777 he wrote another tract that clarified his position and again restated the de facto basis for the argument that the "liberty of men as agents is that power of self - determination which all agents, as such, possess. '' In Intellectual Origins of American Radicalism, Staughton Lynd pulled together these themes and related them to the slavery debate:
Then it turned out to make considerable difference whether one said slavery was wrong because every man has a natural right to the possession of his own body, or because every man has a natural right freely to determine his own destiny. The first kind of right was alienable: thus Locke neatly derived slavery from capture in war, whereby a man forfeited his labor to the conqueror who might lawfully have killed him; and thus Dred Scott was judged permanently to have given up his freedom. But the second kind of right, what Price called "that power of self - determination which all agents, as such, possess, '' was inalienable as long man remained man. Like the mind 's quest for religious truth from which it was derived, self - determination was not a claim to ownership which might be both acquired and surrendered, but an inextricable aspect of the activity of being human.
Meanwhile, in America, Thomas Jefferson "took his division of rights into alienable and unalienable from Hutcheson, who made the distinction popular and important '', and in the 1776 United States Declaration of Independence, famously condensed this to:
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights...
In the 19th century, the movement to abolish slavery seized this passage as a statement of constitutional principle, although the U.S. constitution recognized and protected slavery. As a lawyer, future Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase argued before the Supreme Court in the case of John Van Zandt, who had been charged with violating the Fugitive Slave Act, that:
The law of the Creator, which invests every human being with an inalienable title to freedom, can not be repealed by any interior law which asserts that man is property.
The concept of inalienable rights was criticized by Jeremy Bentham and Edmund Burke as groundless. Bentham and Burke, writing in 18th century Britain, claimed that rights arise from the actions of government, or evolve from tradition, and that neither of these can provide anything inalienable. (See Bentham 's "Critique of the Doctrine of Inalienable, Natural Rights '', and Burke 's Reflections on the Revolution in France). Presaging the shift in thinking in the 19th century, Bentham famously dismissed the idea of natural rights as "nonsense on stilts ''. By way of contrast to the views of British nationals Burke and Bentham, the leading American revolutionary scholar James Wilson condemned Burke 's view as "tyranny. ''
The signers of the Declaration of Independence deemed it a "self - evident truth '' that all men are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights ". In The Social Contract, Jean - Jacques Rousseau claims that the existence of inalienable rights is unnecessary for the existence of a constitution or a set of laws and rights. This idea of a social contract -- that rights and responsibilities are derived from a consensual contract between the government and the people -- is the most widely recognized alternative.
One criticism of natural rights theory is that one can not draw norms from facts. This objection is variously expressed as the is - ought problem, the naturalistic fallacy, or the appeal to nature. G.E. Moore, for example, said that ethical naturalism falls prey to the naturalistic fallacy. Some defenders of natural rights theory, however, counter that the term "natural '' in "natural rights '' is contrasted with "artificial '' rather than referring to nature. John Finnis, for example, contends that natural law and natural rights are derived from self - evident principles, not from speculative principles or from facts.
There is also debate as to whether all rights are either natural or legal. Fourth president of the United States James Madison, while representing Virginia in the House of Representatives, believed that there are rights, such as trial by jury, that are social rights, arising neither from natural law nor from positive law (which are the basis of natural and legal rights respectively) but from the social contract from which a government derives its authority.
Thomas Hobbes (1588 -- 1679) included a discussion of natural rights in his moral and political philosophy. Hobbes ' conception of natural rights extended from his conception of man in a "state of nature ''. Thus he argued that the essential natural (human) right was "to use his own power, as he will himself, for the preservation of his own Nature; that is to say, of his own Life; and consequently, of doing any thing, which in his own judgement, and Reason, he shall conceive to be the aptest means thereunto. '' (Leviathan. 1, XIV)
Hobbes sharply distinguished this natural "liberty '', from natural "laws '', described generally as "a precept, or general rule, found out by reason, by which a man is forbidden to do, that, which is destructive of his life, or taketh away the means of preserving his life; and to omit, that, by which he thinketh it may best be preserved. '' (Leviathan. 1, XIV)
In his natural state, according to Hobbes, man 's life consisted entirely of liberties and not at all of laws -- "It followeth, that in such a condition, every man has the right to every thing; even to one another 's body. And therefore, as long as this natural Right of every man to every thing endureth, there can be no security to any man... of living out the time, which Nature ordinarily allow men to live. '' (Leviathan. 1, XIV)
This would lead inevitably to a situation known as the "war of all against all '', in which human beings kill, steal and enslave others in order to stay alive, and due to their natural lust for "Gain '', "Safety '' and "Reputation ''. Hobbes reasoned that this world of chaos created by unlimited rights was highly undesirable, since it would cause human life to be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short ''. As such, if humans wish to live peacefully they must give up most of their natural rights and create moral obligations in order to establish political and civil society. This is one of the earliest formulations of the theory of government known as the social contract.
Hobbes objected to the attempt to derive rights from "natural law, '' arguing that law ("lex '') and right ("jus '') though often confused, signify opposites, with law referring to obligations, while rights refer to the absence of obligations. Since by our (human) nature, we seek to maximize our well being, rights are prior to law, natural or institutional, and people will not follow the laws of nature without first being subjected to a sovereign power, without which all ideas of right and wrong are meaningless -- "Therefore before the names of Just and Unjust can have place, there must be some coercive Power, to compel men equally to the performance of their Covenants..., to make good that Propriety, which by mutual contract men acquire, in recompense of the universal Right they abandon: and such power there is none before the erection of the Commonwealth. '' (Leviathan. 1, XV)
This marked an important departure from medieval natural law theories which gave precedence to obligations over rights.
John Locke (1632 -- 1704) was another prominent Western philosopher who conceptualized rights as natural and inalienable. Like Hobbes, Locke believed in a natural right to life, liberty, and property. It was once conventional wisdom that Locke greatly influenced the American Revolutionary War with his writings of natural rights, but this claim has been the subject of protracted dispute in recent decades. For example, the historian Ray Forrest Harvey declared that Jefferson and Locke were at "two opposite poles '' in their political philosophy, as evidenced by Jefferson 's use in the Declaration of Independence of the phrase "pursuit of happiness '' instead of "property. '' More recently, the eminent legal historian John Phillip Reid has deplored contemporary scholars ' "misplaced emphasis on John Locke, '' arguing that American revolutionary leaders saw Locke as a commentator on established constitutional principles. Thomas Pangle has defended Locke 's influence on the Founding, claiming that historians who argue to the contrary either misrepresent the classical republican alternative to which they say the revolutionary leaders adhered, do not understand Locke, or point to someone else who was decisively influenced by Locke. This position has also been sustained by Michael Zuckert.
According to Locke there are three natural rights:
In developing his concept of natural rights, Locke was influenced by reports of society among Native Americans, whom he regarded as "natural peoples '' who lived in a state of liberty and "near prefect freedom '', but not license. It also informed his conception of social contract.
The social contract is an agreement between members of a country to live within a shared system of laws. Specific forms of government are the result of the decisions made by these persons acting in their collective capacity. Government is instituted to make laws that protect these three natural rights. If a government does not properly protect these rights, it can be overthrown.
Thomas Paine (1731 -- 1809) further elaborated on natural rights in his influential work Rights of Man (1791), emphasizing that rights can not be granted by any charter because this would legally imply they can also be revoked and under such circumstances they would be reduced to privileges:
It is a perversion of terms to say that a charter gives rights. It operates by a contrary effect -- that of taking rights away. Rights are inherently in all the inhabitants; but charters, by annulling those rights, in the majority, leave the right, by exclusion, in the hands of a few.... They... consequently are instruments of injustice.
The fact therefore must be that the individuals themselves, each in his own personal and sovereign right, entered into a compact with each other to produce a government: and this is the only mode in which governments have a right to arise, and the only principle on which they have a right to exist.
While at first American individualist anarchists adhered to natural rights positions, later in this era led by Benjamin Tucker, some abandoned natural rights positions and converted to Max Stirner 's Egoist anarchism. Rejecting the idea of moral rights, Tucker said there were only two rights: "the right of might '' and "the right of contract ''. He also said, after converting to Egoist individualism, "In times past... it was my habit to talk glibly of the right of man to land. It was a bad habit, and I long ago sloughed it off... Man 's only right to land is his might over it. ''
According to Wendy McElroy:
In adopting Stirnerite egoism (1886), Tucker rejected natural rights which had long been considered the foundation of libertarianism. This rejection galvanized the movement into fierce debates, with the natural rights proponents accusing the egoists of destroying libertarianism itself. So bitter was the conflict that a number of natural rights proponents withdrew from the pages of Liberty in protest even though they had hitherto been among its frequent contributors. Thereafter, Liberty championed egoism although its general content did not change significantly.
Several periodicals were "undoubtedly influenced by Liberty 's presentation of egoism, including I published by C.L. Swartz, edited by W.E. Gordak and J.W. Lloyd (all associates of Liberty); The Ego and The Egoist, both of which were edited by Edward H. Fulton. Among the egoist papers that Tucker followed were the German Der Eigene, edited by Adolf Brand, and The Eagle and The Serpent, issued from London. The latter, the most prominent English - language egoist journal, was published from 1898 to 1900 with the subtitle ' A Journal of Egoistic Philosophy and Sociology ' ''. Among those American anarchists who adhered to egoism include Benjamin Tucker, John Beverley Robinson, Steven T. Byington, Hutchins Hapgood, James L. Walker, Victor Yarros and E.H. Fulton.
Many documents now echo the phrase used in the United States Declaration of Independence. The preamble to the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights asserts that rights are inalienable: "recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. '' Article 1, § 1 of the California Constitution recognizes inalienable rights, and articulated some (not all) of those rights as "defending life and liberty, acquiring, possessing, and protecting property, and pursuing and obtaining safety, happiness, and privacy. '' However, there is still much dispute over which "rights '' are truly natural rights and which are not, and the concept of natural or inalienable rights is still controversial to some.
Erich Fromm argued that some powers over human beings could be wielded only by God, and that if there were no God, no human beings could wield these powers.
Contemporary political philosophies continuing the liberal tradition of natural rights include libertarianism, anarcho - capitalism and Objectivism, and include amongst their canon the works of authors such as Robert Nozick, Ludwig von Mises, Ayn Rand, and Murray Rothbard. A libertarian view of inalienable rights is laid out in Morris and Linda Tannehill 's The Market for Liberty, which claims that a man has a right to ownership over his life and therefore also his property, because he has invested time (i.e. part of his life) in it and thereby made it an extension of his life. However, if he initiates force against and to the detriment of another man, he alienates himself from the right to that part of his life which is required to pay his debt: "Rights are not inalienable, but only the possessor of a right can alienate himself from that right -- no one else can take a man 's rights from him. ''
Various definitions of inalienability include non-relinquishability, non-salability, and non-transferability. This concept has been recognized by libertarians as being central to the question of voluntary slavery, which Murray Rothbard dismissed as illegitimate and even self - contradictory. Stephan Kinsella argues that "viewing rights as alienable is perfectly consistent with -- indeed, implied by -- the libertarian non-aggression principle. Under this principle, only the initiation of force is prohibited; defensive, restitutive, or retaliatory force is not. ''
Samuel P. Huntington, an American political scientist, wrote that the "inalienable rights '' argument from the Declaration of Independence was necessary because "The British were white, Anglo, and Protestant, just as we were. (Advocates for the Declaration 's adoption) had to have some other basis on which to justify independence ''.
Various philosophers have created different lists of rights they consider to be natural. Proponents of natural rights, in particular Hesselberg and Rothbard, have responded that reason can be applied to separate truly axiomatic rights from supposed rights, stating that any principle that requires itself to be disproved is an axiom. Critics have pointed to the lack of agreement between the proponents as evidence for the claim that the idea of natural rights is merely a political tool.
Hugh Gibbons has proposed a descriptive argument based on human biology. His contention is that Human Beings were other - regarding as a matter of necessity, in order to avoid the costs of conflict. Over time they developed expectations that individuals would act in certain ways which were then prescribed by society (duties of care etc.) and that eventually crystallized into actionable rights.
|
who plays the bad guy in silence of the lambs | Ted Levine - wikipedia
Frank Theodore "Ted '' Levine (born May 29, 1957) is an American actor. He is known for his roles as Buffalo Bill in The Silence of the Lambs and as Captain Leland Stottlemeyer in the television series Monk.
Levine was born in Bellaire, Ohio, the son of Charlotte Virginia (Clark) and Milton Dmitri Levine, who were both doctors and members of Physicians for Social Responsibility. Levine 's father was of Russian Jewish descent and his mother had Welsh ancestry. He describes himself as a "hillbilly Jew ''. He grew up in Oak Park, Illinois. In 1975, he enrolled at Marlboro College. He became a fixture in the Chicago theatre scene and joined the Remains Theatre which was co-founded by Gary Cole and William Petersen. After his stage experience, Levine began to devote most of his energy during the 1980s toward finding roles in film and television.
After his breakout role in The Silence of the Lambs (as primary antagonist Buffalo Bill), there was a period where he was typecast in villainous roles. Levine was able to remedy this by playing more positive characters, such as a member of Al Pacino 's police unit in Heat, astronaut Alan Shepard in the HBO mini-series From the Earth to the Moon, and Paul Walker 's police superior Sergeant Tanner in The Fast and the Furious. In the drama Georgia, he played Mare Winningham 's husband, one of his most sympathetic roles. His résumé also includes an uncredited role as the voice of the sociopathic trucker "Rusty Nail '' in 2001 's Joy Ride, and his performance as Detective Sam Nico in the 2003 film Wonderland, based on the gruesome murders in the Hollywood Hills. From 2002 to 2009, he co-starred as Captain Leland Stottlemeyer on USA Network 's detective series Monk, starring Tony Shalhoub.
Levine provided the voice of the supervillain Sinestro in Superman: The Animated Series, Static Shock, Justice League, and Justice League Unlimited. Levine also appeared as a patriarch whose family takes a turn for the worse in the remake of The Hills Have Eyes (2006). In 2007, he portrayed local Sheriff James Timberlake in The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford and appeared in Ridley Scott 's American Gangster, alongside Denzel Washington and Russell Crowe. In 2010, he appeared as the warden of the island prison in Shutter Island, starring Leonardo DiCaprio. In 2012, he appeared as Sheriff Bloom Towne in Deep Dark Canyon, alongside Spencer Treat Clark and Nick Eversman, who portray Sheriff Towne 's sons, Nate and Skylar, respectively. In 2013, he had a major supporting role in the FX murder mystery series The Bridge as Lieutenant Hank Wade, commander of a police homicide unit in a Texas border city. In 2014 he portrayed General Underwood in the British - Finnish action film Big Game. In February 2017, Levine was cast in Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom for an unspecified role.
|
list of governor of tamilnadu till now with photos | List of governors of Tamil Nadu - Wikipedia
The Governor of Tamil Nadu is the constitutional head of the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Like all states, the governor is a nominal head and representative of the President of India. The governor is appointed by the president for a five - year term. This list includes both nominated and acting heads of state in the history of the state of Tamil Nadu in India since 1946. The area under the present - day state of Tamil Nadu has been part of different territorial configurations under Madras Presidency and Madras State in its history.
The current governor is His Excellency Banwarilal Purohit
Headquartered in Fort St. George, Madras Presidency was a province of British India. It comprised present day Tamil Nadu, the Malabar region of North Kerala, the coastal and Rayalaseema regions of Andhra Pradesh, and the Bellary, Dakshina Kannada, and Udupi districts of Karnataka. It was established in 1653 to be the headquarters of the English settlements on the Coromandel Coast. After India 's independence in 1947, Madras State, the precursor to the present day state of Tamil Nadu, was carved out of Madras Presidency. It comprised present - day Tamil Nadu and parts of present - day Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala.
Madras State was renamed as Tamil Nadu (Tamil for Tamil country) on 14 January 1969. Governors have similar powers and functions at the state level as that of the President of India at the Central government level. The Governor acts as the nominal head of the state while the Chief Ministers of the states and the Chief Minister 's Council of Ministers are invested with most executive powers.
|
what is the full form of slr in banking | Statutory liquidity ratio - wikipedia
Statutory liquidity ratio (SLR) is the Indian government term for the reserve requirement that the commercial banks in India are required to maintain in the form of cash, gold reserves, government approved securities before providing credit to the customers. Statutory liquidity ratio is determined by Reserve Bank of India maintained by banks in order to control the expansion of bank credit.
The SLR is determined by a percentage of total demand and time liabilities. Time liabilities refer to the liabilities which the commercial banks are liable to pay to the customers after a certain period mutually agreed upon, and demand liabilities are such deposits of the customers which are payable on demand. An example of time liability is a six month fixed deposit which is not payable on demand but only after six months. An example of demand liability is a deposit maintained in a saving account or current account that is payable on demand through a withdrawal form such as a cheque.
The SLR is commonly used to control inflation and fuel growth, by increasing or decreasing it respectively. This counter acts by decreasing or increasing the money supply in the system respectively. Indian banks ' holdings of government securities are now close to the statutory minimum that banks are required to hold to comply with existing regulation. When measured in rupees, such holdings decreased for the first time in a little less than 40 years (since the nationalisation of banks in 1969) in 2005 -- 06. Currently it is 19.5 percent.
SLR is used by bankers and indicates the minimum percentage of deposits that the bank has to maintain in form of gold, cash or other approved securities. Thus, we can say that it is ratio of cash and some other approved liability (deposits). It regulates the credit growth in India.
The liabilities that the banks are liable to pay within one month 's time, due to completion of maturity period, are also considered as time liabilities. The maximum limit of SLR is 40 % and minimum limit of SLR is 0 In India, Reserve Bank of India always determines the percentage of SLR.
There are some statutory requirements for temporarily placing the money in government bonds. Following this requirement, Reserve Bank of India fixes the level of SLR. However, as most banks currently keep an SLR higher than required (> 26 %) due to lack of credible lending options, near term reductions are unlikely to increase liquidity and are more symbolic.
The SLR is fixed for a number of reasons. The chief driving force is increasing or decreasing liquidity which can result in a desired outcome. A few uses of mandating SLR are:
If any Indian bank fails to maintain the required level of the statutory liquidity ratio, then it becomes liable to pay penalty to Reserve Bank of India. The defaulter bank pays penal interest at the rate of 3 % per annum above the bank rate, on the shortfall amount for that particular day. However, according to the Circular released by the Department of Banking Operations and Development, Reserve Bank of India, if the defaulter bank continues to default on the next working day, then the rate of penal interest can be increased to 5 % per annum above the bank rate. This restriction is imposed by RBI on banks to make funds available to customers on demand as soon as possible. Gold and government securities (or gilts) are included along with cash because they are highly liquid and safe assets.
The RBI can increase the SLR to control inflation, suck liquidity in the market, to tighten the measure to safeguard the customers ' money. Decrease in SLR rate is done to encourage growth. In a growing economy banks would like to invest in stock market, not in government securities or gold as the latter would yield less returns. One more reason is long term government securities (or any bond) are sensitive to interest rate changes. However, in an emerging economy, interest rate change is a common activity.
The quantum is specified as some percentage of the total demand and time liabilities (i.e. the liabilities of the bank which are payable on demand anytime, and those liabilities which are accruing in one months time due to maturity) of a bank.
SLR rate = (liquid assets / (demand + time liabilities)) × 100 %
This percentage is fixed by the Reserve Bank of India. The maximum limit for the SLR was 40 % in India. Following the amendment of the Banking regulation Act (1949) in January 2017, the floor rate of 20.75 % for SLR was removed. Presently, the SLR is 19.5 %.
|
give the main causes of depletion of biodiversity in india | Biodiversity loss - wikipedia
Loss of biodiversity or biodiversity loss is the extinction of species (human, plant or animal) worldwide, and also the local reduction or loss of species in a certain habitat.
The latter phenomenon can be temporary or permanent, depending on whether the environmental degradation that leads to the loss is reversible through ecological restoration / ecological resilience or effectively permanent (e.g. through land loss). Global extinction has so far been proven to be irreversible.
Even though permanent global species loss is a more dramatic phenomenon than regional changes in species composition, even minor changes from a healthy stable state can have dramatic influence on the food web and the food chain insofar as reductions in only one species can adversely affect the entire chain (coextinction), leading to an overall reduction in biodiversity, possible alternative stable states of an ecosystem notwithstanding. Ecological effects of biodiversity are usually counteracted by its loss. Reduced biodiversity in particular leads to reduced ecosystem services and eventually poses an immediate danger for food security, also for humankind.
The current rate of global diversity loss is estimated to be a 1000 times higher than the (naturally occurring) background extinction rate and expected to still grow in the upcoming years.
Locally bounded loss rates can be measured using species richness and its variation over time. Raw counts may not be as ecologically relevant as relative or absolute abundances. Taking into account the relative frequencies, a considerable number of biodiversity indexes has been developed. Besides richness, evenness and heterogeneity are considered to be the main dimensions along which diversity can be measured.
As with all diversity measures, it is essential to accurately classify the spatial and temporal scope of the observation. "Definitions tend to become less precise as the complexity of the subject increases and the associated spatial and temporal scales widen. Biodiversity itself is not a single concept but can be split up into various scales (e.g. ecosystem diversity vs. habitat diversity or even biodiversity vs. habitat d.) or different subcategories (e.g. phylogenetic diversity, species diversity, genetic diversity, nucleotide diversity). The question of net loss in confined regions is often a matter of debate but longer observation times are generally thought to be beneficial to loss estimates.
To compare rates between different geographic regions latitudinal gradients in species diversity should also be considered.
Major factors for biotic stress and the ensuing accelerating loss rate are, amongst other threats:
In 2017, various publications describe the dramatic reduction in absolute insect biomass and number of species in Germany and North America over a period of 27 years. As possible reasons for the decline, the authors highlight neonicotinoids and other agrochemicals. Writing in the journal PLOS One, authors Hallman, Sorg, et al (2017), conclude that "the widespread insect biomass decline is alarming. ''
|
who sings the peter pan lost boy song | Lost Boy (Ruth B song) - wikipedia
"Lost Boy '' is the debut single by Canadian singer Ruth B. It was released on February 12, 2015. She first released it by singing a six - second video on Vine in January 2015.
The song is written in the key of G major in cut time with a tempo of 62 beats per minute. It follows a chord progression of Em -- G / D -- C -- G, and Berhe 's vocals span from F ♯ to B.
In November 2014, she posted a Vine of her singing a line that she had made up, which was inspired by the television series Once Upon a Time. It garnered around 84,000 likes within a week, which was unusual for her at the time. She took note of its popularity, with some of her followers commenting that she should make it into a full song. It became "Lost Boy '', which she posted on YouTube on January 18, 2015 and was released on iTunes on February 12, 2015. Dozens of Vine and YouTube users posted covers, which helped further its popularity and increased Berhe 's following on social media. Record labels took notice and she then signed with Columbia Records in July 2015.
Her debut EP, The Intro, was released on November 27, 2015. It has four songs including "Lost Boy ''.
A music video for the song was released on May 9, 2016. As of August 15, 2017, the video had garnered over 70 million views.
Mike Wass of Idolator called it a "pretty ballad '' and went on to say that "(Lost Boy) is nostalgic, more than a little bittersweet and aptly showcases Ruth 's smooth vocals. ''
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
|
new zealand is the 4th largest exporter of wine in the world | List of wine - producing countries - wikipedia
The following is a list of the top wine - producing countries and their volume of wine production for the year 2014 in metric tonnes, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), which is an agency of the United Nations; this is the latest information available from the FAO.
Their data show a total worldwide production of 31 million tonnes (1,000 kg) of wine (which roughly corresponds to 1,000 l) with the top 15 producing countries accounting for over 90 % of the total.
|
when did my beautiful dark twisted fantasy come out | My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy - wikipedia
My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy is the fifth studio album by American rapper Kanye West, released on November 22, 2010 by Roc - A-Fella Records. Following a period of public and legal controversy, West retreated to a "self - imposed exile '' in Hawaii in 2009. There, he worked on the album in a communal recording environment that involved numerous contributing musicians and producers. The album features guest appearances from Bon Iver, Jay - Z, Pusha T, Rick Ross, Kid Cudi, Nicki Minaj, John Legend, and Raekwon, among others.
Production was led by West himself alongside a variety of producers, including Mike Dean, No I.D., Jeff Bhasker, RZA, S1, Bink, and DJ Frank E. Noted by critics for its maximalist aesthetic, opulent production quality, and dichotomous themes, My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy incorporates various aspects of West 's previous releases, including soul, baroque, electro, and symphonic styles, as well as progressive rock. Lyrically, it deals with themes of excess and celebrity, and explores such issues as consumer culture, race, and the idealism of the American Dream.
To promote the album, West released free songs through his GOOD Fridays series and four singles: the Billboard hits "Power '', "Monster '', and "Runaway '', and the international hit "All of the Lights ''; it was also promoted with a short film titled Runaway. The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, and eventually sold over 1.3 million copies in the United States. A widespread critical success, it was named one of the best albums of 2010 by many publications, and has since appeared on several lists of the greatest albums of all time.
The album was conceived during West 's self - imposed exile in Oahu, Hawaii, following a period of legal and public image controversy amid an overworked mental state. West later said that his fatigue from overworking led to his controversial outburst at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, his disgust with its ensuing media response, and his hiatus from recording. Amid negative response to the incident, his scheduled tour with recording artist Lady Gaga in promotion of his previous album, 808s & Heartbreak, was cancelled on October 1, 2009, without citing a reason.
It was formerly known as Good Ass Job and tentatively Dark Twisted Fantasy. GOOD Music artist Big Sean was the second to announce the title of the album as Good Ass Job. On July 24, 2010, on Kanye West 's blog, a banner appeared reading "My Dark Twisted Fantasy Trailer ''. On July 28, 2010, West announced via his new official Twitter account that "The album is no longer called ' Good Ass Job ' I 'm bouncing a couple of titles around now. '' The official title, My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, was announced on October 5, 2010. In May 2017, former Def Jam intern Rory Farrell claimed that the album was instead going to be titled ' Donda 's Boy ', and consisted of ten guest-less tracks, nine of which were ten minutes long with "Runaway '' stretching to 20 minutes.
Recording sessions took place primarily at Avex Recording Studio in Honolulu, Hawaii, with additional recording at Glenwood Place Studios in Burbank, California, and at Electric Lady Studios and Platinum Sound Recording Studios in New York City. It was reported that West spent over $3 million in expenses from his record label Def Jam recording the album, making it one of the most expensive albums ever made. He later explained the initial recording process to Noah Callahan - Bever, Complex editor - in - chief and West 's confidant at the time, who said that "he 'd holed up in Hawaii and was importing his favorite producers and artists to work on and inspire his recording. Rap Camp! '' Artists who were reported to have participated in the sessions for My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy included Raekwon, RZA, Pusha T, Rick Ross, Charlie Wilson, Big Sean, Cyhi the Prynce, Swizz Beatz, Dwele, Nicki Minaj, T.I., Drake, Common, Jay - Z, John Legend, Fergie, Rihanna, The - Dream, Ryan Leslie, Elton John, M.I.A., Justin Vernon, Seal, Soulja Boy, Beyoncé, Kid Cudi, Mos Def, Santigold, Alicia Keys, Elly Jackson, and Tony Williams. Record producers who participated in the sessions with West included Q - Tip, RZA, DJ Premier, Madlib, and Pete Rock. Madlib said he made five beats for the album, while DJ Premier said his beats were ultimately discarded.
West, who had previously recorded at Avex for 808s & Heartbreak, block - booked the studio 's three session rooms simultaneously for 24 hours a day to work on My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy. According to Noah Callahan - Bever, who visited West during the recording sessions, "when he hits a creative wall... he heads to another studio room to make progress on another song ''. West never slept a full night at the "glass - enclosed mansion '' house he had rented, opting instead to take power naps in a studio chair or couch 90 minutes at a time. Engineers worked around the clock, as West bounced from room to room. This assiduous work ethic led to West employing two private chefs, one for hot food, and one for cold food. Before recording in the afternoon, West and most of his crew played games of 21 against locals at the Honolulu YMCA for leisure. Kid Cudi smoked marijuana in preparation and worked out on a treadmill, while RZA worked out in the weight room. West held breakfast each morning at his Diamond Head residence for his crew.
Throughout the album 's development, West elicited other producers and musicians to weigh in on its music with conversations and contributions at the studio. In observing discussions among them during his visit, Callahan - Bever noted: "Despite the heavyweights assembled, the egos rarely clash; talks are sprawling, enlightening, and productive... we are here to contribute, challenge, and inspire ''. In an interview with Callahan - Bever, Q - Tip described the process as "music by committee '' and elaborated on its significance to the sessions and West 's work ethic:
He 'll go, ' Check this out, tell me what you think. ' Which speaks volumes about who he is and how he sees and views people. Every person has a voice and an idea, so he 's sincerely looking to hear what you have to say -- good, bad, or whatever... When he has his beats or his rhymes, he offers them to the committee and we 're all invited to dissect, strip, or add on to what he 's already started. By the end of the sessions, you see how he integrates and transforms everyone 's contributions, so the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. He 's a real wizard at it. What he does is alchemy, really.
Pete Rock said of his studio experience with West, "He 's definitely hip - hop, his roots, I was testing him on joints... He takes it to another level which is dope. He had these musicians and this song, they played around my little raggedy beat and made it real. I love the way he works -- he goes from one room, writing rhymes then goes to another beat and goes to another room and does something else -- I love what he 's done ''. Rapper Pusha T characterized the album as "a collage of sounds '' and found West 's methods unorthodox when recording, saying that "We could easily be working on one song, thinking we 're in a mode, and he 'll hear a sound from someone like (producer) Jeff Bhasker and immediately turn his whole attention to that sound and go through his mental Rolodex to where that sound belongs on his album, and then it goes straight to that song, immediately ''. DJ Premier said of the production in comparison to West 's previous work, "Well, first of all, if you look at all of Kanye West 's output, he actually did a lot to bring back sampling and make it cool again, even though he 's more of a mainstream artist... but his new album is strictly hard beats and rhyme. He 's totally done with electro. You 're gon na be surprised what you hear ''.
To prevent any of the material from leaking onto the Internet, West made the recording of the album as secretive as he could; he instituted a "No tweeting, no talking, no e-mailing '' rule for others at the sessions to abide by. Pusha T recalled West 's attitude in an interview for Rolling Stone, saying that "then there happened to be a leak, and I remember Kanye ranting and raving, like, ' Fuck this! We 're not going to ever work there again! We 're going to work in hotel rooms! ' '' West subsequently recorded in hotel rooms for Watch the Throne, his 2011 album with Jay - Z.
-- Alex Denney, NME
My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy 's music has been noted by writers for incorporating elements from West 's previous four albums. Entertainment Weekly 's Simon Vozick - Levinson perceives that such elements "all recur at various points '', namely "the luxurious soul of 2004 's The College Dropout, the symphonic pomp of Late Registration, the gloss of 2007 's Graduation, and the emotionally exhausted electro of 2008 's 808s & Heartbreak ''. Sean Fennessey of The Village Voice writes that West "absorb (ed) the gifts of his handpicked collaborators, and occasionally elevat (ed) them '' on previous studio albums, noting collaborators and elements as Jon Brion for Late Registration ("arranging orchestral majesty ''), DJ Toomp for Graduation ("adapted DJ Toomp 's oozing menace ''), and Kid Cudi for 808s & Heartbreak ("Cudi 's moaning melodies became elemental '').
In a retrospective analysis for Noisey Phil Witmer characterised the album as embodying progressive rock of the 1970s, noting that "it was an unprecedented retreat by a hip - hop artist into the weird world of progressive rock ''. The music was described as maximalist by Jon Caramanica of The New York Times, who also took note of East Coast hip hop elements, and Ryan Dombal from Pitchfork, who deemed it a "culmination '' of West 's past work: "Musically, (the album) largely continues where 2007 's Graduation left off in its maximalist hip - hop bent, with flashes of The College Dropout 's comfort - food sampling and Late Registration 's baroque instrumentation weaved in seamlessly ''. AllMusic 's Andy Kellman views it as the "culmination '' of those albums, while noting that "it does not merely draw characteristics from each one of them. The 13 tracks... sometimes fuse them together simultaneously. Consequently, the sonic and emotional layers are often difficult to pry apart and enumerate ''. Kellman denotes "All of the Lights '' as most representative of the album 's "contrasting elements and maniacal extravagance ''. By contrast, Robert Christgau from MSN Music comments that the music eschews the "grace '' of The College Dropout and Late Registration for "grandiosity '' and "the sonic luxuries of this world - beating return to form ''.
The album 's themes deal primarily with excess and celebrity, and also touch on decadence, grandiosity, escapism, sex, wealth, romance, self - aggrandizement, and self - doubt. Andrew Martin of Prefix Magazine notes the album 's ethos as "more is more '' and describes it as "a meditation on fame '', in which West decries the burden that it entails. My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy also features more open references to drinking and drug use than on West 's previous albums. Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club describes it as "darkly funny, boldly introspective, and characteristically fame - obsessed '', noting "manic highs and depressive lows emotionally '' in the album. Christgau found the themes of insecurity and uncertainty on the album to be West 's "heart, his message, the reason he 's so major '', noting the tracks "Hell of a Life '' and "Runaway '' as examples. Greg Kot, writing in the Chicago Tribune, said West displayed a transparency and "almost pathological allegiance to expressing his emotions, unfiltered ''.
In the opinion of Pitchfork 's Ryan Dombal, My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy was "a hedonistic exploration into a rich and famous American id '', while Chris Martins from Spin said it was an alternately grandiose and eloquent production that "owed as much to the artist 's self - aggrandizing ego as to the voracious id that would destroy it publicly ''. Music writer Ann Powers interprets West 's predominant theme on My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy to be "the crisis of the jet - lagged cosmopolitan... the exhausted cry of one who 's always new in town, chasing whatever goal or girl is in the room, fueled by consumer culture 's relentless buzz, but finally left unsatisfied ''. Powers views the songs to work "as pornographic boasts, romantic disaster stories, devil - haunted dark nights of the soul '' and perceives West 's "uncertainty about his own place in the world '' to be connected to the subject of race, stating "The rootlessness West celebrates and despairs of on ' Fantasy ' belongs to someone who feels unwelcome everywhere. This is n't just a personal problem. It 's the curse of what the author Michael Eric Dyson has called ' the exceptional black man ', embraced for his talents but singled out for the color of his skin ''.
The album 's opening track, "Dark Fantasy '', is introduced with a narrative by Nicki Minaj, attempting an English accent, that serves as a retelling of writer Roald Dahl 's poetic rework of "Cinderella ''. It introduces My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy 's themes of decadence and hedonism, with West musing how "the plan was to drink until the pain was over / But what 's worse, the pain or the hangover? ''. His lyrics on the track contain various musical and popular culture references, including those to the song "Mercy Mercy Me (The Ecology) '', the Lamborghini Murciélago sports car, rapper Nas, fashion designer Phoebe Philo, short story "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow '', the song "Sex on Fire '', singer Leona Lewis, and television character Steve Urkel. "All of the Lights '' incorporates drum ' n ' bass breaks and brass fanfare. West 's lyrics contain a reference to the death of Michael Jackson in the opening lines and present a narrative of a character who abuses his lover, does prison time, scuffles with her new boyfriend, and subsequently mourns his absence from his child 's life. For the song, West enlisted 11 guest vocalists, including Alicia Keys, John Legend, Elton John, Tony Williams, Elly Jackson, and Rihanna, who sings the song 's hook. In an interview for MTV, Jackson said of the song 's vocal layering, "He got me to layer up all these vocals with other people, and he just basically wanted to use his favorite vocalists from around the world to create this really unique vocal texture on his record, but it 's not the kind of thing where you can pick it out ''.
"Devil in a New Dress '' is built on a sample of Smokey Robinson 's "Will You Love Me Tomorrow ''. Its lyrics are about lust and heartache, with sexual and religious imagery described by one critic as "part bedroom allure, part angelic prayer ''. It is the only track without production by West but features his characteristic style of manipulating the pitch and tempo of classic soul samples. "Runaway '' features a piano - based motif comprising a series of sustained descending half and whole notes, with a coda that incorporates light strings and vocoder - singing by West. The narrator 's self - critical lyrics reflect on his personality and character flaws. Sean Fennessey cites the song as the point in the album in which "self - laceration overtakes chest - beating '', noting West 's sung - line "I 'm so gifted at finding what I do n't like the most ''. Inspired by his two - year relationship with model Amber Rose, "Hell of a Life '' contains a psychedelic rock sample and a narrative about marrying a porn star. According to critic Ryan Dombal, the song "attempts to bend its central credo -- ' no more drugs for me, pussy and religion is all I need ' -- into a noble pursuit... The song blurs the line between fantasy and reality, sex and romance, love and religion, until no lines exist at all. It 's a zonked nirvana with demons underneath; a fragile state that ca n't help but break apart on the very next song ''. "Blame Game '' is a low - key track about a painful domestic dispute. It features piano by producer Mike Dean, additional vocals by John Legend, and a profane skit by comedian Chris Rock.
"Lost in the World '' features tribal drums and samples Bon Iver 's "Woods '', a song originally written about alienation, applied by West "as the centerpiece of a catchy, communal reverie. '' It features several musical changes, beginning with Bon Iver frontman Justin Vernon 's faint vocals, followed by 4 / 4 drums, gospel - styled chorus, and increased tempo, and a final measured tempo. "Lost in the World '' transitions into the closing track "Who Will Survive in America ''. It serves as the album 's coda and is built on a sample of Gil Scott - Heron 's "Comment No. 1 '', a blunt, surrealist piece delivered by Scott - Heron in spoken word about the African - American experience and the fated idealism of the American dream. Scott - Heron 's original speech, which criticized the 1960s Revolutionary Youth Movement for failing to recognize the more basic needs of the African - American community, is edited to a reduced version on the track that, according to music writer Greg Kot, "retains its essence, that of an African - American male who feels cut off from his country and culture ''. By contrast, Sean Fennessey interprets it as "a too - serious denouement for an album that is more about the self 's little nightmares than some aching societal rejection ''.
On October 4, 2010, the release date was announced as November 22, 2010. Prior to its release, West initiated the free music program GOOD Fridays through his website on August 20, 2010, offering a free download of previously unreleased songs each Friday of the week, a portion of which were included on the album. Titled after his imprint label GOOD Music, the program generated considerable publicity in the months leading up to the album 's release. Online marketing coordinator Karen Civil said of the program in retrospect, "It 's a genius idea. He did something no one had ever done before, and at a point when he was the most hated person in music, he brought excitement back with his Friday releases ''. G.O.O.D. Fridays was originally intended to continue through December, but was extended by West through January 2011. My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy was released as a digital download on Amazon.com at a list price of $3.99, which coincided with the site 's $3 discount promotional offer on MP3 purchases made valid through the release week.
Following the release of the album, West performed headlining sets at several large festivals, including SXSW 2011, Lollapalooza, Austin City Limits, and Coachella 2011; the latter was described by The Hollywood Reporter as "one of the great hip - hop sets of all time. '' To promote My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, West performed at Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade.
On May 28, 2010, an unfinished version of a speculative first single titled "Power '' was leaked onto the Internet. It features additional vocals by Dwele and was co-produced by Kanye West and S1. The official remix, featuring Jay - Z and Swizz Beatz, was premiered on August 20, 2010 on Hot 97 by DJ Kay Slay. The single spent eight weeks and peaked at number 22 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. The song was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance, presented at the 53rd Grammy Awards in 2011.
On September 12, West performed the second single "Runaway '' at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards. Three weeks later on October 2, West performed the song on Saturday Night Live, along with "Power ''. "Runaway '' was officially released to the iTunes Store on October 4, 2010. It spent 12 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number 12 on the chart. Rolling Stone named it the best single of 2010 in its year - end list. A 35 - minute short film of the same name, directed by West and containing the song 's official music video, was released on October 23, 2010. Filmed in Prague over a period of four days during Summer 2010, the film stars West and model Selita Ebanks and features the script written by Hype Williams with the story written by West. West described the video as an "overall representation of what (he dreams) '' and a parallel to his music career. At one of his screenings in Paris, the film seemed to represent a lot emotionally for him as he broke down in tears. Later after another screening, West states that his music and "art '' and how it affects people is the reasoning behind his continuance of music creation.
The third single "Monster '' was sent out to radio on September 21, and it was released to the iTunes Store on October 23, 2010. The song was originally released on August 27, 2010 as part of West 's music program G.O.O.D. Friday. It spent five weeks on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number 18 on the chart. Rolling Stone ranked it number 10 on its list of the Best Singles of 2010. The song was performed at Jay - Z 's and Eminem 's The Home & Home Tour on September 14, 2010, along with Nicki Minaj.
In October, West announced "All of the Lights '' as the fourth official single. Prior to its release as a single, it had debuted at number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100 upon the album 's release, and the track "Dark Fantasy '' entered the chart at number 60 the same week. The single was released on January 18, 2011, in the US and on February 21, 2011, in the UK. It reached number 18 and spent eight weeks on the Billboard Hot 100. By December 2011, it had sold over 1,561,000 digital units in the US. "All of the Lights '' also charted well worldwide, including number eight in Brazil, number 15 in the United Kingdom, number 13 in Ireland, number 14 in Scotland, and number 22 in South Korea. It was certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association, for shipments of 70,000 copies in Australia, Gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand, for shipments of 7,500 in New Zealand, and Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America, for shipments of one million in the US.
On October 17, 2010, Kanye West revealed through Twitter that My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy had been rejected by certain stores because of the cover art. The artwork, by George Condo, shows West being straddled by an armless winged female (a phoenix). Both are nude, and one nipple of the phoenix 's breasts and her buttocks are visible. Condo said that Kanye wanted a cover image that would be banned. The painting is centered with a thin yellow border on a red background. The artwork follows along the apparent theme of the album, as well as West 's music film Runaway. This is one of five covers; all of them were included with its purchase. A second cover, with a painting of a ballerina by Condo, was posted on the Amazon.com pre-order page. It was intended to be the original artwork for Runaway, but West used a photograph of a ballerina instead.
George Condo and Kanye West met for several hours and listened to tapes of his music. Over the next few days Condo made eight or nine paintings for the album. Two of them were portraits of West, one in extreme closeup, with mismatched eyes and four sets of teeth. Another showed his head, crowned and decapitated, placed sideways on a white slab, impaled by a sword. There was also a painting of a dyspeptic ballerina in a black tutu, a painting of the crown and the sword by themselves in a grassy landscape, and a scene of a naked West on a bed, straddled by a naked white female creature with fearsome features, wings, no arms, and a long, spotted tail, the last one being the original album cover. According to New York, a new painting for the album, "The Priest '', was completed by Condo, who described it as an attempt to bring depictions of religious figures into the modern world. In 2015 Billboard named it the 30th best album cover of all time. Elsewhere in 2017, NME listed it as the 7th best album artwork of the 21st Century so far.
My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 albums chart, selling 496,000 copies in the United States during its first week. It was West 's fourth consecutive US number - one album, and its debut week served as the fourth - best sales week of 2010, while its first - week digital sales of 224,000 copies served as the fourth - highest sales week for a digitally - downloaded album. It spent 85 weeks on the Billboard 200, and by July 2013, it had sold 1,351,000 copies in the United States, according to Nielsen SoundScan.
My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy received widespread acclaim from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 94, based on 45 reviews. Andy Gill from The Independent called it "one of pop 's gaudiest, most grandiose efforts of recent years, a no - holds - barred musical extravaganza in which any notion of good taste is abandoned at the door ''. In the Los Angeles Times, Ann Powers found the music "Picasso - like, fulfilling the Cubist mandate of rearranging form, texture, color and space to suggest new ways of viewing things ''. Time magazine 's David Browne viewed it as West 's most lavish record and said it proved again that few other artists shared his ability to adeptly combine diverse elements. Dan Vidal of URB highlighted West 's ability to bring the best out of his collaborators, finding it comparable to the work of Miles Davis. Writing for Rolling Stone, Rob Sheffield called the album West 's best and most wildly inspired album to date, claiming that no other artist was recording music as dark or uncanny, while Sputnikmusic critic Channing Freeman hailed it as "the first album in which he 's truly lived up to his potential in every way -- as a rapper, as a lyricist, as a songwriter ''. The Village Voice 's Sean Fennessey found the album overwhelming and skillfully produced because of how each song transitions over "like some long night out into the hazy morning after ''.
In a less enthusiastic review for The Guardian, Kitty Empire was critical of West 's lyrics regarding "women as ruthless money - grabbers '' on an otherwise "herculean '' and "flawed near - masterpiece ''. AllMusic 's Andy Kellman found his rapping inconsistent on what was nonetheless "a deeply fascinating accomplishment '' in West 's catalogue: "As fatiguing as it is invigorating, as cold - blooded as it is heart - rending, as haphazardly splattered as it is meticulously sculpted, (the album) is an extraordinarily complex 70 - minute set of songs... As the ego and ambition swells, so does the appeal, the repulsiveness, and -- most importantly -- the ingenuity ''.
My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy appeared on numerous year - end top albums lists. Many critics named it the best album of 2010, including Billboard, Time, Slant Magazine, Pitchfork, Rolling Stone, and Spin. My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy was voted best album in The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics ' poll for 2010, winning by the largest margin in the poll 's history. The singles "Power '', "Runaway '', and "Monster '' were voted in the top - 10 of the Pazz & Jop 's singles list. Metacritic, which collates reviews of music albums, named it the best - reviewed album of 2010.
According to Acclaimed Music, My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy is the 62nd most critically acclaimed album in history, the second - highest ranking for any hip hop album. In 2012, Rolling Stone placed it at number 353 on the magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, and Complex included it in their list of "25 Rap Albums From the Past Decade That Deserve Classic Status ''. Entertainment Weekly named it the 8th best album of all time on their 2013 list. In October 2013, Complex named it the best hip hop album of the last five years. NME ranked the album at 24 on their 500 Greatest Albums Of All Time list. In 2015, Billboard listed it first in the magazine 's ranking of the top 20 albums of the 2010s. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
In August 2014, the song "Runaway '' (featuring Pusha T) was ranked in the third position in Pitchfork 's list of the 200 "best tracks '' released since 2010. During the same week, the publication named it the best album of the 2010s decade -- between 2010 and 2014 -- commenting, "West broke the ground upon which the new decade 's most brilliant architects built their masterworks; Bon Iver, Take Care, Channel Orange, and Good Kid, M.A.A.D City do n't exist without the blueprint of My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy. The list ends here because it 's where the decade truly begins. '' In August 2014, GQ named it the best album of the 21st century. In 2016, Odyssey named it the best album of the decade so far. In 2017, Complex ranked it as West 's best album. In October 2017, DJ Booth named it the best Hip - Hop or R&B album of the decade thus far.
My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy won a Grammy Award for Best Rap Album, presented at the 54th Grammy Awards in 2012. The song "All of the Lights '' was nominated for Grammy Awards for Song of the Year, Best Rap Song, and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration, winning in the latter two categories. However, My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy was not nominated for Album of the Year, which was viewed as a "snub '' by several outlets, along with the rejection of Watch the Throne, West 's collaborative album with Jay - Z, for that category. In an article for Time, music journalist Touré elaborated on the album 's acclaim, called West 's nominations in minor categories "booby prizes '', and stated, "MBDTF is by far the best reviewed album in many years: the critical community flipped out over it like nothing since Radiohead 's zenith. And it sold well, over 1.2 million so far. So what happened? How is it Grammy overlooked Kanye 's magnum opus and gave noms to four sonic widgets and Adele 's 21? '' He explored possible reasons for The Recording Academy to snub him, including split votes between My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy and Watch the Throne, concerns over West 's past controversies, and more commercially appealing nominees, but ultimately stated:
What I think may be going on is a lack of respect for hip hop and its complexity from people who care about music but do n't know much about hip hop... Predictably, Grammy tends toward pop - friendly hip hop that 's easily understood by those who do n't understand hip hop. Pop in this regard is not meant as an insult, it 's merely music palatable to non-aficionados of the genre... But now that he 's released his most mature work, (West is) being ignored.
In the Los Angeles Times, music journalist Randall Roberts was critical of the nominations for the 54th Grammy Awards, particularly for the Album of the Year category, noting the exclusion of My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy, "the most critically acclaimed album of the year, a career - defining record '', as a snub in favor of nominating less substantial albums. West, who was vocal in his displeasure with past award snubs, responded onstage during a concert on the Watch the Throne Tour, saying "That 's my fault for dropping Watch the Throne and Dark Fantasy the same year. I should 've just spaced it out, just a little bit more. ''
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes.
shipments figures based on certification alone
|
what is the function of a photosynthetic cell | Photosynthesis - wikipedia
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms ' activities (energy transformation). This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water -- hence the name photosynthesis, from the Greek φῶς, phōs, "light '', and σύνθεσις, synthesis, "putting together ''. In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product. Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth 's atmosphere, and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.
Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. In these light - dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances, such as water, producing oxygen gas. The hydrogen freed by the splitting of water is used in the creation of two further compounds that serve as short - term stores of energy, enabling its transfer to drive other reactions: these compounds are reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the "energy currency '' of cells.
In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long - term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light - independent reactions called the Calvin cycle; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the reverse Krebs cycle, to achieve the same end. In the Calvin cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light - dependent reactions, the resulting compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates, such as glucose.
The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide, rather than water, as sources of electrons. Cyanobacteria appeared later; the excess oxygen they produced contributed directly to the oxygenation of the Earth, which rendered the evolution of complex life possible. Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts, which is about three times the current power consumption of human civilization. Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100 -- 115 thousand million tonnes of carbon into biomass per year.
Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from carbon dioxide and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis; photoheterotrophs use organic compounds, rather than carbon dioxide, as a source of carbon. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This is called oxygenic photosynthesis and is by far the most common type of photosynthesis used by living organisms. Although there are some differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, the overall process is quite similar in these organisms. There are also many varieties of anoxygenic photosynthesis, used mostly by certain types of bacteria, which consume carbon dioxide but do not release oxygen.
Carbon dioxide is converted into sugars in a process called carbon fixation; photosynthesis captures energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrate. Carbon fixation is an endothermic redox reaction. In general outline, photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration; in the latter, glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and water, and to release chemical energy (an exothermic reaction) to drive the organism 's metabolism. The two processes, reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate and then later oxidation of the carbohydrate, are distinct: photosynthesis and cellular respiration take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions and in different cellular compartments.
The general equation for photosynthesis as first proposed by Cornelis van Niel is therefore:
Since water is used as the electron donor in oxygenic photosynthesis, the equation for this process is:
This equation emphasizes that water is both a reactant in the light - dependent reaction and a product of the light - independent reaction, but canceling n water molecules from each side gives the net equation:
Other processes substitute other compounds (such as arsenite) for water in the electron - supply role; for example some microbes use sunlight to oxidize arsenite to arsenate: The equation for this reaction is:
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, light - dependent reactions or light reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy - storage molecules ATP and NADPH. During the second stage, the light - independent reactions use these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide.
Most organisms that utilize oxygenic photosynthesis use visible light for the light - dependent reactions, although at least three use shortwave infrared or, more specifically, far - red radiation.
Some organisms employ even more radical variants of photosynthesis. Some archaea use a simpler method that employs a pigment similar to those used for vision in animals. The bacteriorhodopsin changes its configuration in response to sunlight, acting as a proton pump. This produces a proton gradient more directly, which is then converted to chemical energy. The process does not involve carbon dioxide fixation and does not release oxygen, and seems to have evolved separately from the more common types of photosynthesis.
In photosynthetic bacteria, the proteins that gather light for photosynthesis are embedded in cell membranes. In its simplest form, this involves the membrane surrounding the cell itself. However, the membrane may be tightly folded into cylindrical sheets called thylakoids, or bunched up into round vesicles called intracytoplasmic membranes. These structures can fill most of the interior of a cell, giving the membrane a very large surface area and therefore increasing the amount of light that the bacteria can absorb.
In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in organelles called chloroplasts. A typical plant cell contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts. The chloroplast is enclosed by a membrane. This membrane is composed of a phospholipid inner membrane, a phospholipid outer membrane, and an intermembrane space. Enclosed by the membrane is an aqueous fluid called the stroma. Embedded within the stroma are stacks of thylakoids (grana), which are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids appear as flattened disks. The thylakoid itself is enclosed by the thylakoid membrane, and within the enclosed volume is a lumen or thylakoid space. Embedded in the thylakoid membrane are integral and peripheral membrane protein complexes of the photosynthetic system.
Plants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll. The green part of the light spectrum is not absorbed but is reflected which is the reason that most plants have a green color. Besides chlorophyll, plants also use pigments such as carotenes and xanthophylls. Algae also use chlorophyll, but various other pigments are present, such as phycocyanin, carotenes, and xanthophylls in green algae, phycoerythrin in red algae (rhodophytes) and fucoxanthin in brown algae and diatoms resulting in a wide variety of colors.
These pigments are embedded in plants and algae in complexes called antenna proteins. In such proteins, the pigments are arranged to work together. Such a combination of proteins is also called a light - harvesting complex.
Although all cells in the green parts of a plant have chloroplasts, the majority of those are found in specially adapted structures called leaves. Certain species adapted to conditions of strong sunlight and aridity, such as many Euphorbia and cactus species, have their main photosynthetic organs in their stems. The cells in the interior tissues of a leaf, called the mesophyll, can contain between 450,000 and 800,000 chloroplasts for every square millimeter of leaf. The surface of the leaf is coated with a water - resistant waxy cuticle that protects the leaf from excessive evaporation of water and decreases the absorption of ultraviolet or blue light to reduce heating. The transparent epidermis layer allows light to pass through to the palisade mesophyll cells where most of the photosynthesis takes place.
In the light - dependent reactions, one molecule of the pigment chlorophyll absorbs one photon and loses one electron. This electron is passed to a modified form of chlorophyll called pheophytin, which passes the electron to a quinone molecule, starting the flow of electrons down an electron transport chain that leads to the ultimate reduction of NADP to NADPH. In addition, this creates a proton gradient (energy gradient) across the chloroplast membrane, which is used by ATP synthase in the synthesis of ATP. The chlorophyll molecule ultimately regains the electron it lost when a water molecule is split in a process called photolysis, which releases a dioxygen (O) molecule as a waste product.
The overall equation for the light - dependent reactions under the conditions of non-cyclic electron flow in green plants is:
Not all wavelengths of light can support photosynthesis. The photosynthetic action spectrum depends on the type of accessory pigments present. For example, in green plants, the action spectrum resembles the absorption spectrum for chlorophylls and carotenoids with absorption peaks in violet - blue and red light. In red algae, the action spectrum is blue - green light, which allows these algae to use the blue end of the spectrum to grow in the deeper waters that filter out the longer wavelengths (red light) used by above ground green plants. The non-absorbed part of the light spectrum is what gives photosynthetic organisms their color (e.g., green plants, red algae, purple bacteria) and is the least effective for photosynthesis in the respective organisms.
In plants, light - dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts where they drive the synthesis of ATP and NADPH. The light - dependent reactions are of two forms: cyclic and non-cyclic.
In the non-cyclic reaction, the photons are captured in the light - harvesting antenna complexes of photosystem II by chlorophyll and other accessory pigments (see diagram at right). The absorption of a photon by the antenna complex frees an electron by a process called photoinduced charge separation. The antenna system is at the core of the chlorophyll molecule of the photosystem II reaction center. That freed electron is transferred to the primary electron - acceptor molecule, pheophytin. As the electrons are shuttled through an electron transport chain (the so - called Z - scheme shown in the diagram), it initially functions to generate a chemiosmotic potential by pumping proton cations (H) across the membrane and into the thylakoid space. An ATP synthase enzyme uses that chemiosmotic potential to make ATP during photophosphorylation, whereas NADPH is a product of the terminal redox reaction in the Z - scheme. The electron enters a chlorophyll molecule in Photosystem I. There it is further excited by the light absorbed by that photosystem. The electron is then passed along a chain of electron acceptors to which it transfers some of its energy. The energy delivered to the electron acceptors is used to move hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen. The electron is eventually used to reduce the co-enzyme NADP with a H to NADPH (which has functions in the light - independent reaction); at that point, the path of that electron ends.
The cyclic reaction is similar to that of the non-cyclic, but differs in that it generates only ATP, and no reduced NADP (NADPH) is created. The cyclic reaction takes place only at photosystem I. Once the electron is displaced from the photosystem, the electron is passed down the electron acceptor molecules and returns to photosystem I, from where it was emitted, hence the name cyclic reaction.
The NADPH is the main reducing agent produced by chloroplasts, which then goes on to provide a source of energetic electrons in other cellular reactions. Its production leaves chlorophyll in photosystem I with a deficit of electrons (chlorophyll has been oxidized), which must be balanced by some other reducing agent that will supply the missing electron. The excited electrons lost from chlorophyll from photosystem I are supplied from the electron transport chain by plastocyanin. However, since photosystem II is the first step of the Z - scheme, an external source of electrons is required to reduce its oxidized chlorophyll a molecules. The source of electrons in green - plant and cyanobacterial photosynthesis is water. Two water molecules are oxidized by four successive charge - separation reactions by photosystem II to yield a molecule of diatomic oxygen and four hydrogen ions; the electrons yielded are transferred to a redox - active tyrosine residue that then reduces the oxidized chlorophyll a (called P680) that serves as the primary light - driven electron donor in the photosystem II reaction center. That photo receptor is in effect reset and is then able to repeat the absorption of another photon and the release of another photo - dissociated electron. The oxidation of water is catalyzed in photosystem II by a redox - active structure that contains four manganese ions and a calcium ion; this oxygen - evolving complex binds two water molecules and contains the four oxidizing equivalents that are used to drive the water - oxidizing reaction (Dolai 's S - state diagrams). Photosystem II is the only known biological enzyme that carries out this oxidation of water. The hydrogen ions released contribute to the transmembrane chemiosmotic potential that leads to ATP synthesis. Oxygen is a waste product of light - dependent reactions, but the majority of organisms on Earth use oxygen for cellular respiration, including photosynthetic organisms.
In the light - independent (or "dark '') reactions, the enzyme RuBisCO captures CO from the atmosphere and, in a process called the Calvin - Benson cycle, it uses the newly formed NADPH and releases three - carbon sugars, which are later combined to form sucrose and starch. The overall equation for the light - independent reactions in green plants is
Carbon fixation produces the intermediate three - carbon sugar product, which is then converted to the final carbohydrate products. The simple carbon sugars produced by photosynthesis are then used in the forming of other organic compounds, such as the building material cellulose, the precursors for lipid and amino acid biosynthesis, or as a fuel in cellular respiration. The latter occurs not only in plants but also in animals when the energy from plants is passed through a food chain.
The fixation or reduction of carbon dioxide is a process in which carbon dioxide combines with a five - carbon sugar, ribulose 1, 5 - bisphosphate, to yield two molecules of a three - carbon compound, glycerate 3 - phosphate, also known as 3 - phosphoglycerate. Glycerate 3 - phosphate, in the presence of ATP and NADPH produced during the light - dependent stages, is reduced to glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate. This product is also referred to as 3 - phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) or, more generically, as triose phosphate. Most (5 out of 6 molecules) of the glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1, 5 - bisphosphate so the process can continue. The triose phosphates not thus "recycled '' often condense to form hexose phosphates, which ultimately yield sucrose, starch and cellulose. The sugars produced during carbon metabolism yield carbon skeletons that can be used for other metabolic reactions like the production of amino acids and lipids.
In hot and dry conditions, plants close their stomata to prevent water loss. Under these conditions, CO will decrease and oxygen gas, produced by the light reactions of photosynthesis, will increase, causing an increase of photorespiration by the oxygenase activity of ribulose - 1, 5 - bisphosphate carboxylase / oxygenase and decrease in carbon fixation. Some plants have evolved mechanisms to increase the CO concentration in the leaves under these conditions.
Plants that use the C carbon fixation process chemically fix carbon dioxide in the cells of the mesophyll by adding it to the three - carbon molecule phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), a reaction catalyzed by an enzyme called PEP carboxylase, creating the four - carbon organic acid oxaloacetic acid. Oxaloacetic acid or malate synthesized by this process is then translocated to specialized bundle sheath cells where the enzyme RuBisCO and other Calvin cycle enzymes are located, and where CO released by decarboxylation of the four - carbon acids is then fixed by RuBisCO activity to the three - carbon 3 - phosphoglyceric acids. The physical separation of RuBisCO from the oxygen - generating light reactions reduces photorespiration and increases CO fixation and, thus, the photosynthetic capacity of the leaf. C plants can produce more sugar than C plants in conditions of high light and temperature. Many important crop plants are C plants, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, and millet. Plants that do not use PEP - carboxylase in carbon fixation are called C plants because the primary carboxylation reaction, catalyzed by RuBisCO, produces the three - carbon 3 - phosphoglyceric acids directly in the Calvin - Benson cycle. Over 90 % of plants use C carbon fixation, compared to 3 % that use C carbon fixation; however, the evolution of C in over 60 plant lineages makes it a striking example of convergent evolution.
Xerophytes, such as cacti and most succulents, also use PEP carboxylase to capture carbon dioxide in a process called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). In contrast to C metabolism, which spatially separates the CO fixation to PEP from the Calvin cycle, CAM temporally separates these two processes. CAM plants have a different leaf anatomy from C plants, and fix the CO at night, when their stomata are open. CAM plants store the CO mostly in the form of malic acid via carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate, which is then reduced to malate. Decarboxylation of malate during the day releases CO inside the leaves, thus allowing carbon fixation to 3 - phosphoglycerate by RuBisCO. Sixteen thousand species of plants use CAM.
Cyanobacteria possess carboxysomes, which increase the concentration of CO around RuBisCO to increase the rate of photosynthesis. An enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, located within the carboxysome releases CO from the dissolved hydrocarbonate ions (HCO). Before the CO diffuses out it is quickly sponged up by RuBisCO, which is concentrated within the carboxysomes. HCO ions are made from CO outside the cell by another carbonic anhydrase and are actively pumped into the cell by a membrane protein. They can not cross the membrane as they are charged, and within the cytosol they turn back into CO very slowly without the help of carbonic anhydrase. This causes the HCO ions to accumulate within the cell from where they diffuse into the carboxysomes. Pyrenoids in algae and hornworts also act to concentrate CO around rubisco.
The overall process of photosynthesis takes place in four stages:
Plants usually convert light into chemical energy with a photosynthetic efficiency of 3 -- 6 %. Absorbed light that is unconverted is dissipated primarily as heat, with a small fraction (1 -- 2 %) re-emitted as chlorophyll fluorescence at longer (redder) wavelengths. This fact allows measurement of the light reaction of photosynthesis by using chlorophyll fluorometers.
Actual plants ' photosynthetic efficiency varies with the frequency of the light being converted, light intensity, temperature and proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and can vary from 0.1 % to 8 %. By comparison, solar panels convert light into electric energy at an efficiency of approximately 6 -- 20 % for mass - produced panels, and above 40 % in laboratory devices.
The efficiency of both light and dark reactions can be measured but the relationship between the two can be complex. For example, the ATP and NADPH energy molecules, created by the light reaction, can be used for carbon fixation or for photorespiration in C plants. Electrons may also flow to other electron sinks. For this reason, it is not uncommon for authors to differentiate between work done under non-photorespiratory conditions and under photorespiratory conditions.
Chlorophyll fluorescence of photosystem II can measure the light reaction, and Infrared gas analyzers can measure the dark reaction. It is also possible to investigate both at the same time using an integrated chlorophyll fluorometer and gas exchange system, or by using two separate systems together. Infrared gas analyzers and some moisture sensors are sensitive enough to measure the photosynthetic assimilation of CO, and of ΔH O using reliable methods CO is commonly measured in μmols / m / s, parts per million or volume per million and H 0 is commonly measured in mmol / m / s or in mbars. By measuring CO assimilation, ΔH O, leaf temperature, barometric pressure, leaf area, and photosynthetically active radiation or PAR, it becomes possible to estimate, "A '' or carbon assimilation, "E '' or transpiration, "gs '' or stomatal conductance, and Ci or intracellular CO. However, it is more common to used chlorophyll fluorescence for plant stress measurement, where appropriate, because the most commonly used measuring parameters FV / FM and Y (II) or F / FM ' can be made in a few seconds, allowing the measurement of larger plant populations.
Gas exchange systems that offer control of CO levels, above and below ambient, allow the common practice of measurement of A / Ci curves, at different CO levels, to characterize a plant 's photosynthetic response.
Integrated chlorophyll fluorometer -- gas exchange systems allow a more precise measure of photosynthetic response and mechanisms. While standard gas exchange photosynthesis systems can measure Ci, or substomatal CO levels, the addition of integrated chlorophyll fluorescence measurements allows a more precise measurement of C to replace Ci. The estimation of CO at the site of carboxylation in the chloroplast, or C, becomes possible with the measurement of mesophyll conductance or g using an integrated system.
Photosynthesis measurement systems are not designed to directly measure the amount of light absorbed by the leaf. But analysis of chlorophyll - fluorescence, P700 - and P515 - absorbance and gas exchange measurements reveal detailed information about e.g. the photosystems, quantum efficiency and the CO assimilation rates. With some instruments even wavelength - dependency of the photosynthetic efficiency can be analyzed.
A phenomenon known as quantum walk increases the efficiency of the energy transport of light significantly. In the photosynthetic cell of an algae, bacterium, or plant, there are light - sensitive molecules called chromophores arranged in an antenna - shaped structure named a photocomplex. When a photon is absorbed by a chromophore, it is converted into a quasiparticle referred to as an exciton, which jumps from chromophore to chromophore towards the reaction center of the photocomplex, a collection of molecules that traps its energy in a chemical form that makes it accessible for the cell 's metabolism. The exciton 's wave properties enable it to cover a wider area and try out several possible paths simultaneously, allowing it to instantaneously "choose '' the most efficient route, where it will have the highest probability of arriving at its destination in the minimum possible time. Because that quantum walking takes place at temperatures far higher than quantum phenomena usually occur, it is only possible over very short distances, due to obstacles in the form of destructive interference that come into play. These obstacles cause the particle to lose its wave properties for an instant before it regains them once again after it is freed from its locked position through a classic "hop ''. The movement of the electron towards the photo center is therefore covered in a series of conventional hops and quantum walks.
Early photosynthetic systems, such as those in green and purple sulfur and green and purple nonsulfur bacteria, are thought to have been anoxygenic, and used various other molecules as electron donors rather than water. Green and purple sulfur bacteria are thought to have used hydrogen and sulfur as electron donors. Green nonsulfur bacteria used various amino and other organic acids as an electron donor. Purple nonsulfur bacteria used a variety of nonspecific organic molecules. The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth 's early atmosphere was highly reducing at that time.
Fossils of what are thought to be filamentous photosynthetic organisms have been dated at 3.4 billion years old. More recent studies, reported in March 2018, also suggest that photosynthesis may have begun about 3.4 billion years ago.
The main source of oxygen in the Earth 's atmosphere derives from oxygenic photosynthesis, and its first appearance is sometimes referred to as the oxygen catastrophe. Geological evidence suggests that oxygenic photosynthesis, such as that in cyanobacteria, became important during the Paleoproterozoic era around 2 billion years ago. Modern photosynthesis in plants and most photosynthetic prokaryotes is oxygenic. Oxygenic photosynthesis uses water as an electron donor, which is oxidized to molecular oxygen (O) in the photosynthetic reaction center.
Several groups of animals have formed symbiotic relationships with photosynthetic algae. These are most common in corals, sponges and sea anemones. It is presumed that this is due to the particularly simple body plans and large surface areas of these animals compared to their volumes. In addition, a few marine mollusks Elysia viridis and Elysia chlorotica also maintain a symbiotic relationship with chloroplasts they capture from the algae in their diet and then store in their bodies. This allows the mollusks to survive solely by photosynthesis for several months at a time. Some of the genes from the plant cell nucleus have even been transferred to the slugs, so that the chloroplasts can be supplied with proteins that they need to survive.
An even closer form of symbiosis may explain the origin of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have many similarities with photosynthetic bacteria, including a circular chromosome, prokaryotic - type ribosome, and similar proteins in the photosynthetic reaction center. The endosymbiotic theory suggests that photosynthetic bacteria were acquired (by endocytosis) by early eukaryotic cells to form the first plant cells. Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic bacteria that adapted to life inside plant cells. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts possess their own DNA, separate from the nuclear DNA of their plant host cells and the genes in this chloroplast DNA resemble those found in cyanobacteria. DNA in chloroplasts codes for redox proteins such as those found in the photosynthetic reaction centers. The CoRR Hypothesis proposes that this Co-location of genes with their gene products is required for Redox Regulation of gene expression, and accounts for the persistence of DNA in bioenergetic organelles.
The biochemical capacity to use water as the source for electrons in photosynthesis evolved once, in a common ancestor of extant cyanobacteria. The geological record indicates that this transforming event took place early in Earth 's history, at least 2450 -- 2320 million years ago (Ma), and, it is speculated, much earlier. Because the Earth 's atmosphere contained almost no oxygen during the estimated development of photosynthesis, it is believed that the first photosynthetic cyanobacteria did not generate oxygen. Available evidence from geobiological studies of Archean (> 2500 Ma) sedimentary rocks indicates that life existed 3500 Ma, but the question of when oxygenic photosynthesis evolved is still unanswered. A clear paleontological window on cyanobacterial evolution opened about 2000 Ma, revealing an already - diverse biota of blue - green algae. Cyanobacteria remained the principal primary producers of oxygen throughout the Proterozoic Eon (2500 -- 543 Ma), in part because the redox structure of the oceans favored photoautotrophs capable of nitrogen fixation. Green algae joined blue - green algae as the major primary producers of oxygen on continental shelves near the end of the Proterozoic, but it was only with the Mesozoic (251 -- 65 Ma) radiations of dinoflagellates, coccolithophorids, and diatoms did the primary production of oxygen in marine shelf waters take modern form. Cyanobacteria remain critical to marine ecosystems as primary producers of oxygen in oceanic gyres, as agents of biological nitrogen fixation, and, in modified form, as the plastids of marine algae.
Although some of the steps in photosynthesis are still not completely understood, the overall photosynthetic equation has been known since the 19th century.
Jan van Helmont began the research of the process in the mid-17th century when he carefully measured the mass of the soil used by a plant and the mass of the plant as it grew. After noticing that the soil mass changed very little, he hypothesized that the mass of the growing plant must come from the water, the only substance he added to the potted plant. His hypothesis was partially accurate -- much of the gained mass also comes from carbon dioxide as well as water. However, this was a signaling point to the idea that the bulk of a plant 's biomass comes from the inputs of photosynthesis, not the soil itself.
Joseph Priestley, a chemist and minister, discovered that, when he isolated a volume of air under an inverted jar, and burned a candle in it, the candle would burn out very quickly, much before it ran out of wax. He further discovered that a mouse could similarly "injure '' air. He then showed that the air that had been "injured '' by the candle and the mouse could be restored by a plant.
In 1778, Jan Ingenhousz, repeated Priestley 's experiments. He discovered that it was the influence of sunlight on the plant that could cause it to revive a mouse in a matter of hours.
In 1796, Jean Senebier, a Swiss pastor, botanist, and naturalist, demonstrated that green plants consume carbon dioxide and release oxygen under the influence of light. Soon afterward, Nicolas - Théodore de Saussure showed that the increase in mass of the plant as it grows could not be due only to uptake of CO but also to the incorporation of water. Thus, the basic reaction by which photosynthesis is used to produce food (such as glucose) was outlined.
Cornelis Van Niel made key discoveries explaining the chemistry of photosynthesis. By studying purple sulfur bacteria and green bacteria he was the first to demonstrate that photosynthesis is a light - dependent redox reaction, in which hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide.
Robert Emerson discovered two light reactions by testing plant productivity using different wavelengths of light. With the red alone, the light reactions were suppressed. When blue and red were combined, the output was much more substantial. Thus, there were two photosystems, one absorbing up to 600 nm wavelengths, the other up to 700 nm. The former is known as PSII, the latter is PSI. PSI contains only chlorophyll "a '', PSII contains primarily chlorophyll "a '' with most of the available chlorophyll "b '', among other pigment. These include phycobilins, which are the red and blue pigments of red and blue algae respectively, and fucoxanthol for brown algae and diatoms. The process is most productive when the absorption of quanta are equal in both the PSII and PSI, assuring that input energy from the antenna complex is divided between the PSI and PSII system, which in turn powers the photochemistry.
Robert Hill thought that a complex of reactions consisting of an intermediate to cytochrome b (now a plastoquinone), another is from cytochrome f to a step in the carbohydrate - generating mechanisms. These are linked by plastoquinone, which does require energy to reduce cytochrome f for it is a sufficient reductant. Further experiments to prove that the oxygen developed during the photosynthesis of green plants came from water, were performed by Hill in 1937 and 1939. He showed that isolated chloroplasts give off oxygen in the presence of unnatural reducing agents like iron oxalate, ferricyanide or benzoquinone after exposure to light. The Hill reaction is as follows:
where A is the electron acceptor. Therefore, in light, the electron acceptor is reduced and oxygen is evolved.
Samuel Ruben and Martin Kamen used radioactive isotopes to determine that the oxygen liberated in photosynthesis came from the water.
Melvin Calvin and Andrew Benson, along with James Bassham, elucidated the path of carbon assimilation (the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle) in plants. The carbon reduction cycle is known as the Calvin cycle, which ignores the contribution of Bassham and Benson. Many scientists refer to the cycle as the Calvin - Benson Cycle, Benson - Calvin, and some even call it the Calvin - Benson - Bassham (or CBB) Cycle.
Nobel Prize - winning scientist Rudolph A. Marcus was able to discover the function and significance of the electron transport chain.
Otto Heinrich Warburg and Dean Burk discovered the I - quantum photosynthesis reaction that splits the CO, activated by the respiration.
In 1950, first experimental evidence for the existence of photophosphorylation in vivo was presented by Otto Kandler using intact Chlorella cells and interpreting his findings as light - dependent ATP formation. In 1954, Daniel I. Arnon et.al. discovered photophosphorylation in vitro in isolated chloroplasts with the help of P.
Louis N.M. Duysens and Jan Amesz discovered that chlorophyll a will absorb one light, oxidize cytochrome f, chlorophyll a (and other pigments) will absorb another light, but will reduce this same oxidized cytochrome, stating the two light reactions are in series.
In 1893, Charles Reid Barnes proposed two terms, photosyntax and photosynthesis, for the biological process of synthesis of complex carbon compounds out of carbonic acid, in the presence of chlorophyll, under the influence of light. Over time, the term photosynthesis came into common usage as the term of choice. Later discovery of anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria and photophosphorylation necessitated redefinition of the term.
After WWII at late 1940 at the University of California, Berkeley, the details of photosynthetic carbon metabolism were sorted out by the chemists Melvin Calvin, Andrew Benson, James Bassham and a score of students and researchers utilizing the carbon - 14 isotope and paper chromatography techniques. The pathway of CO2 fixation by the algae Chlorella in a fraction of a second in light resulted in a 3 carbon molecule called phosphoglyceric acid (PGA). For that original and ground - breaking work, a Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Melvin Calvin in 1961. In parallel, plant physiologists studied leaf gas exchanges using the new method of infrared gas analysis and a leaf chamber where the net photosynthetic rates ranged from 10 to 13 u mole CO2 / square metere. sec., with the conclusion that all terrestrial plants having the same photosynthetic capacities that were light saturated at less than 50 % of sunlight.
Later in 1958 - 1963 at Cornell University, field grown maize was reported to have much greater leaf photosynthetic rates of 40 u mol CO2 / square meter. sec and was not saturated at near full sunlight. This higher rate in maize was almost double those observed in other species such as wheat and soybean, indicating that large differences in photosynthesis exist among higher plants. At the University of Arizona, detailed gas exchange research on more than 15 species of monocot and dicot uncovered for the first time that differences in leaf anatomy are crucial factors in differentiating photosynthetic capacities among species. In tropical grasses, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, Bermuda grass and in the dicot amaranthus, leaf photosynthetic rates were around 38 − 40 u mol CO2 / square meter. sec., and the leaves have two types of green cells, i.e. outer layer of mesophyll cells surrounding a tightly packed cholorophyllous vascular bundle sheath cells. This type of anatomy was termed Kranz anatomy in the 19th century by the botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt while studying leaf anatomy of sugarcane. Plant species with the greatest photosynthetic rates and Kranz anatomy showed no apparent photorespiration, very low CO2 compensation point, high optimum temperature, high stomatal resistances and lower mesophyll resistances for gas diffusion and rates never saturated at full sun light. The research at Arizona was designated Citation Classic by the ISI 1986. These species was later termed C4 plants as the first stable compound of CO2 fixation in light has 4 carbon as malate and aspartate. Other species that lack Kranz anatomy were termed C3 type such as cotton and sunflower, as the first stable carbon compound is the 3 - carbon PGA acid. At 1000 ppm CO2 in measuring air, both the C3 and C4 plants had similar leaf photosynthetic rates around 60 u mole CO2 / square meter. sec. indicating the suppression of photorespiration in C3 plants.
There are three main factors affecting photosynthesis and several corollary factors. The three main are:
Total photosynthesis is limited by a range of environmental factors. These include the amount of light available, the amount of leaf area a plant has to capture light (shading by other plants is a major limitation of photosynthesis), rate at which carbon dioxide can be supplied to the chloroplasts to support photosynthesis, the availability of water, and the availability of suitable temperatures for carrying out photosynthesis.
The process of photosynthesis provides the main input of free energy into the biosphere, and is one of four main ways in which radiation is important for plant life.
The radiation climate within plant communities is extremely variable, with both time and space.
In the early 20th century, Frederick Blackman and Gabrielle Matthaei investigated the effects of light intensity (irradiance) and temperature on the rate of carbon assimilation.
These two experiments illustrate several important points: First, it is known that, in general, photochemical reactions are not affected by temperature. However, these experiments clearly show that temperature affects the rate of carbon assimilation, so there must be two sets of reactions in the full process of carbon assimilation. These are the light - dependent ' photochemical ' temperature - independent stage, and the light - independent, temperature - dependent stage. Second, Blackman 's experiments illustrate the concept of limiting factors. Another limiting factor is the wavelength of light. Cyanobacteria, which reside several meters underwater, can not receive the correct wavelengths required to cause photoinduced charge separation in conventional photosynthetic pigments. To combat this problem, a series of proteins with different pigments surround the reaction center. This unit is called a phycobilisome.
As carbon dioxide concentrations rise, the rate at which sugars are made by the light - independent reactions increases until limited by other factors. RuBisCO, the enzyme that captures carbon dioxide in the light - independent reactions, has a binding affinity for both carbon dioxide and oxygen. When the concentration of carbon dioxide is high, RuBisCO will fix carbon dioxide. However, if the carbon dioxide concentration is low, RuBisCO will bind oxygen instead of carbon dioxide. This process, called photorespiration, uses energy, but does not produce sugars.
RuBisCO oxygenase activity is disadvantageous to plants for several reasons:
The salvaging pathway for the products of RuBisCO oxygenase activity is more commonly known as photorespiration, since it is characterized by light - dependent oxygen consumption and the release of carbon dioxide.
|
who plays the wife on last man standing | Nancy Travis - wikipedia
Nancy Ann Travis (born September 21, 1961) is an American actress. She is known for her roles in the films Three Men and a Baby (1987) and its sequel, Three Men and a Little Lady (1990), Air America (1990), Internal Affairs (1990), So I Married an Axe Murderer (1993), Greedy (1994), and Fluke (1995). She also starred as Vanessa Baxter in the ABC sitcom Last Man Standing (2011 - 17).
Travis was born in New York City, the daughter of Theresa, a social worker, and Gordon Travis, a sales executive. Travis was raised in Boston, Massachusetts, and Baltimore, Maryland. She was raised Catholic.
Travis ' first job after graduating from high school was in a play, It 's Hard to be a Jew, at The American Jewish Theatre in NYC. After that, Travis appeared in a stage version of Neil Simon 's Brighton Beach Memoirs and was a founding member of the Off - Broadway theater company Naked Angels. She appeared in their Frank Pugliese play Aven U-Boys, as well as in King of Connecticut. She made her Broadway debut in I 'm Not Rappaport. She starred in Athol Fugard 's My Children, My Africa.
Travis has had roles in many films, including Three Men and a Baby and its sequel, Three Men and a Little Lady, plus Air America and Internal Affairs (as the wife of Andy García), So I Married an Axe Murderer as the bride of Mike Myers, thriller The Vanishing with Kiefer Sutherland, Greedy with Michael J. Fox, and in the action - comedy Destiny Turns on the Radio with Dylan McDermott. Other notable films include the 1995 box office bomb Fluke, 1996 Whoopi Goldberg 's comedy Bogus, political comedy / drama Running Mates with Three Men and a Baby co-star Tom Selleck, 2001 drama film Auggie Rose, 2005 comedy The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants and 2007 ensemble cast romantic drama The Jane Austen Book Club adapted from the 2004 novel of the same name by Karen Joy Fowler. She was featured in Chaplin opposite Robert Downey, Jr., portraying Joan Barry, the woman who filed a paternity suit against Chaplin.
Travis starred with Peter Gallagher and Isabella Rossellini in the Tom Cruise - directed episode of the Showtime series Fallen Angels in 1993. From 1995 -- 1997, Travis played a leading role in the CBS sitcom Almost Perfect. The show was canceled after two seasons. In 1999 she starred in the short - lived TV series Work with Me, Travis was also a producer. Due to low ratings, the show was cancelled after four episodes.
Travis had the leading role of psychology professor Dr. Joyce Reardon in 2002 's four - hour television adaptation of Stephen King 's Rose Red. In 2002, Travis joined the cast of the CBS sitcom Becker as Chris Connor. She starred in the show for its final two seasons, replacing the series ' original female lead, Terry Farrell. From 2007 to 2009 Travis appeared in the television sitcom The Bill Engvall Show as Bill 's wife Susan. In 2009 she starred in the Hallmark Channel film Safe Harbor, about a happily married couple, Doug (Treat Williams) and Robbie Smith (Travis) about to retire and spend their days cruising the world on their sailboat. In 2010, she starred in TV films The Pregnancy Pact, In My Shoes and was a guest star in two episodes of Desperate Housewives. In 2011, she guest starred in the television series Grey 's Anatomy and How I Met Your Mother.
In 2011, Travis was cast in the ABC sitcom Last Man Standing opposite Tim Allen. Travis also appeared in The CW medical drama series Hart of Dixie as Emmeline ' Mrs. H ' Hattenbarger.
In 1994, Travis married Robert N. Fried, the former president and CEO of Savoy Pictures and currently Founder & CEO of Feeln (formerly known as SpiritClips). They have two sons: Benjamin E. born in 1998, and Jeremy, born in 2001. She starred in the 2007 short film Sally, featuring Benjamin and written by her husband.
|
what south american countries do not have access to the oceans | Landlocked country - wikipedia
A landlocked state or landlocked country is a sovereign state entirely enclosed by land, or whose only coastlines lie on closed seas. There are currently 49 such countries, including five partially recognised states. Only two, Bolivia and Paraguay in South America, lie outside Afro - Eurasia (the Old World).
As a rule, being landlocked creates political and economic handicaps that access to the high seas avoids. For this reason, states large and small across history have striven to gain access to open waters, even at great expense in wealth, bloodshed, and political capital.
The economic disadvantages of being landlocked can be alleviated or aggravated depending on degree of development, language barriers, and other considerations. Some landlocked countries are quite affluent, such as Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, and Austria, all of which frequently employ neutrality to their political advantage. The majority, however, are classified as Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs). Nine of the twelve countries with the lowest Human Development Indices (HDI) are landlocked.
Historically, being landlocked has been disadvantageous to a country 's development. It cuts a nation off from important sea resources such as fishing, and impedes or prevents direct access to seaborne trade, a crucial component of economic and social advance. As such, coastal regions tended to be wealthier and more heavily populated than inland ones. Paul Collier in his book The Bottom Billion argues that being landlocked in a poor geographic neighborhood is one of four major development "traps '' by which a country can be held back. In general, he found that when a neighboring country experiences better growth, it tends to spill over into favorable development for the country itself. For landlocked countries, the effect is particularly strong, as they are limited in their trading activity with the rest of the world. He states, "If you are coastal, you serve the world; if you are landlocked, you serve your neighbors. '' Others have argued that being landlocked may actually be a blessing as it creates a "natural tariff barrier '' which protects the country from cheap imports. In some instances, this has led to more robust local food systems.
Landlocked developing countries have significantly higher costs of international cargo transportation compared to coastal developing countries (in Asia the ratio is 3: 1).
Countries thus have made particular efforts to avoid being landlocked, by acquiring land that reaches the sea:
Countries can make agreements on getting free transport of goods through neighbour countries:
Losing access to the sea is generally a great blow to a nation, politically, militarily, and economically. The following are examples of countries becoming landlocked.
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea now gives a landlocked country a right of access to and from the sea without taxation of traffic through transit states. The United Nations has a programme of action to assist landlocked developing countries, and the current responsible Undersecretary - General is Anwarul Karim Chowdhury.
Some countries have a long coastline, but much of it may not be readily usable for trade and commerce. For instance, in its early history, Russia 's only ports were on the Arctic Ocean and frozen shut for much of the year. The wish to gain control of a warm - water port was a major motivator of Russian expansion towards the Baltic Sea, Black Sea and Pacific Ocean. On the other hand, some landlocked countries can have access to the ocean along wide navigable rivers. For instance, Paraguay (and Bolivia to a lesser extent) have access to the ocean by the Paraguay and Parana rivers.
Several countries have coastlines on landlocked seas, such as the Caspian and the Dead. Since these seas are in effect lakes without access to wider seaborne trade, countries such as Kazakhstan are still considered landlocked. Although the Caspian Sea is connected to the Black Sea via the man - made Volga -- Don Canal, large oceangoing ships are unable to traverse it.
Landlocked countries may be bordered by a single country having direct access to the high seas, two or more such countries, or be surrounded by other landlocked countries, making a country doubly landlocked.
Three countries are landlocked by a single country (enclaved countries):
Seven landlocked countries are surrounded by only two mutually bordering neighbours (semi-enclaved countries):
To this group could be added three de facto states with no or limited international recognition:
A country is "doubly landlocked '' or "double - landlocked '' when it is surrounded entirely by one or more landlocked countries (requiring the crossing of at least two national borders to reach a coastline). There are two such countries:
There were no doubly landlocked countries from the unification of Germany in 1871 until the end of World War I. Liechtenstein bordered the Austro - Hungarian Empire, which had an Adriatic coastline, and Uzbekistan was then part of the Russian Empire, which had both ocean and sea access.
With the dissolution of Austria - Hungary in 1918 and creation of an independent, landlocked Austria, Liechtenstein became the sole doubly landlocked country until 1938. In the Nazi Anschluss that year, Austria was absorbed into the Third Reich, which possessed a border on the Baltic Sea and the North Sea. After World War II, Austria regained its independence and Liechtenstein once again became doubly landlocked.
Uzbekistan, which had been absorbed by the Soviet Union upon the toppling of the Russian throne in 1917, gained its independence with the dissolution of the U.S.S.R. in 1991 and became the second doubly landlocked country.
However, Uzbekistan 's doubly landlocked status depends on the Caspian Sea 's status dispute: some countries, especially Iran and Turkmenistan, claim that the Caspian Sea should be considered as a real sea (mainly because this way they would have larger oil and gas fields), which would make Uzbekistan only a simple landlocked country because its neighbours Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan have access to the Caspian Sea.
They can be grouped in contiguous groups as follows:
If Transnistria is included then Moldova and Transnistria form their own cluster, listed in parentheses in the table.
If it were not for the 40 km (25 mi) of coastline at Muanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo would join the two African clusters into one, making them the biggest contiguous group in the world. Also, the Central Asian and Caucasian clusters can be considered contiguous, joined by the landlocked Caspian Sea. Mongolia is almost part of this cluster too, being separated from Kazakhstan by only 30 km (19 mi), across Russian or Chinese territory.
There are the following "single '' landlocked countries (each of them borders no other landlocked country):
If the Caucasian countries and Kazakhstan are counted as part of Europe, then Europe has the most landlocked countries, at 20. If these transcontinental countries are included in Asia, then Africa has the most, at 16. Depending on the status of the three transcontinental countries, Asia has between 9 and 15, while South America has only 2. North America and Australia are the only continents with no landlocked countries (not including Antarctica, which has no countries).
|
which of the following is not a spanish autonomous community | Autonomous communities of Spain - wikipedia
In Spain, an autonomous community (Spanish: comunidad autónoma, Basque: autonomia erkidegoa, Catalan: comunitat autònoma, Galician: comunidade autónoma) is a first - level political and administrative division, created in accordance with the Spanish constitution of 1978, with the aim of guaranteeing limited autonomy of the nationalities and regions that make up Spain.
Spain is not a federation, but a highly decentralized unitary state. While sovereignty is vested in the nation as a whole, represented in the central institutions of government, the nation has asymmetrically devolved power to the communities, which, in turn, exercise their right to self - government within the limits set forth in the constitution and their autonomous statutes. Some scholars have referred to the resulting system as a federal system in all but name or a "federation without federalism ''. There are 17 autonomous communities and two autonomous cities that are collectively known as "autonomies ''. The two autonomous cities have the right to become autonomous communities, but neither has yet used this right. This unique framework of territorial administration is known as the "State of Autonomies ''.
The autonomous communities are governed according to the constitution and their own organic laws known as Statutes of Autonomy, which contain all the competences that they assume. Since devolution was intended to be asymmetrical in nature, the scope of competences vary for each community, but all have the same parliamentary structure.
(PDeCAT)
(Only seat of the institutions, but not officially capital)
Spain is a diverse country made up of several different regions with varying economic and social structures, as well as different languages and historical, political and cultural traditions. While the entire Spanish territory was united under one crown in 1479 this was not a process of national homogenization or amalgamation. The constituent territories -- be it crowns, kingdoms, principalities or dominions -- retained much of their former institutional existence, including limited legislative, judicial or fiscal autonomy. These territories also exhibited a variety of local customs, laws, languages and currencies until the mid nineteenth century.
From the 18th century onwards, the Bourbon kings and the government tried to establish a more centralized regime. Leading figures of the Spanish Enlightenment advocated for the building of a Spanish nation beyond the internal territorial boundaries. This culminated in 1833, when Spain was divided into 49 (now 50) provinces, which served mostly as transmission belts for policies developed in Madrid.
However, unlike in other European countries such as France, where regional languages were spoken in rural areas or less developed regions, two important regional languages of Spain were spoken in some of the most industrialized areas, which, moreover, enjoyed higher levels of prosperity, in addition to having their own cultures and historical consciousness. These were the Basque Country and Catalonia. This gave rise to peripheral nationalisms along with Spanish nationalism.
Therefore, economic and social changes that had produced a national cultural unification in France had the opposite effect in Spain. As such, Spanish history since the late 19th century has been shaped by a dialectical struggle between Spanish nationalism and peripheral nationalisms, mostly in Catalonia and the Basque Country, and to a lesser degree in Galicia.
In a response to Catalan demands, limited autonomy was granted to Catalonia in 1913, only to be abolished in 1920. It was granted again in 1932 during the Second Spanish Republic, when the Generalitat, Catalonia 's mediaeval institution of government, was restored. The constitution of 1931 envisaged a territorial division for all Spain in "autonomous regions '', which was never fully attained -- only Catalonia, the Basque Country and Galicia had approved "Statutes of Autonomy '' -- the process being thwarted by the Spanish Civil War that broke out in 1936, and the victory of the rebel Nationalist forces under Francisco Franco.
During General Franco 's dictatorial regime, centralism was most forcefully enforced as a way of preserving the "unity of the Spanish nation ''. Peripheral nationalism, along with communism and atheism were regarded by his regime as the main threats. His attempts to fight separatism with heavy - handed but sporadic repression, and his often severe suppression of language and regional identities backfired: the demands for democracy became intertwined with demands for the recognition of a pluralistic vision of the Spanish nationhood.
When Franco died in 1975, Spain entered into a phase of transition towards democracy. The most difficult task of the newly democratically elected Cortes Generales (the Spanish Parliament) in 1977 acting as a Constituent Assembly was to transition from a unitary centralized state into a decentralized state in a way that would satisfy the demands of the peripheral nationalists. The then Prime Minister of Spain, Adolfo Suárez, met with Josep Tarradellas, president of the Generalitat of Catalonia in exile. An agreement was made so that the Generalitat would be restored and limited competencies would be transferred while the constitution was still being written. Shortly after, the government allowed the creation of "assemblies of members of parliament '' integrated by deputies and senators of the different territories of Spain, so that they could constitute "pre-autonomic regimes '' for their regions as well.
The Fathers of the Constitution had to strike a balance between the opposing views of Spain -- on the one hand, the centralist view inherited from Franco 's regime, and on the other hand federalism and a pluralistic view of Spain as a "nation of nations ''; between a uniform decentralization of entities with the same competencies and an asymmetrical structure that would distinguish the nationalities. Peripheral nationalist parties wanted a multinational state with a federal or confederal model, whereas the governing Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) and the People 's Alliance (AP) wanted minimum decentralization; the Spanish Socialist Workers ' Party (PSOE) was sympathetic to a federal system.
In the end, the constitution, published and ratified in 1979, found a balance in recognizing the existence of "nationalities and regions '' in Spain, within the "indissoluble unity of the Spanish nation ''. In order to manage the tensions present in the Spanish transition to democracy, the drafters of the current Spanish constitution avoided giving labels such as ' federal ' to the territorial arrangements, while enshrining in the constitution the right to autonomy or self - government of the "nationalities and regions '', through a process of asymmetric devolution of power to the "autonomous communities '' that were to be created.
The starting point in the territorial organization of Spain was the second article of the constitution, which reads:
The Constitution is based on the indissoluble unity of the Spanish Nation, the common and indivisible homeland of all Spaniards; it recognizes and guarantees the right to self - government of the nationalities and regions of which it is composed and the solidarity among them all.
The constitution was rather ambiguous on how this was to take place. It does not define, detail, or impose the structure of the state; it does not tell the difference between "nation '' and "nationality ''; and it does not specify which are the "nationalities '' and which are the "regions '', or the territories they comprise. Rather than imposing, it enables a process towards a decentralized structure based on the exercise that these "nationalities and regions '' would make of the right to self - government that they were granted. As such, the outcome of this exercise was not predictable and its construction was deliberately open - ended; the constitution only created a process for an eventual devolution, but it was voluntary in nature: the "nationalities and regions '' themselves had the option of choosing to attain self - government or not.
In order to exercise this right, the constitution established an open process whereby the "nationalities and regions '' could be constituted as "autonomous communities ''. First, it recognized the pre-existing 50 provinces of Spain, a territorial division of the liberal centralizing regime of the 19th century created for purely administrative purposes (it also recognized the municipalities that integrated the provinces). These provinces would serve as the building blocks and constituent parts of the autonomous communities. The constitution stipulated that the following could be constituted as autonomous communities:
It also allowed for exceptions to the above criteria, in that the Spanish Parliament could:
The constitution also established two "routes '' to accede to autonomy. The "fast route '' or "fast track '', also called the "exception '', was established in article 151, and was implicitly reserved for the three "historical nationalities '' -- the Basque Country, Catalonia and Galicia -- in that the very strict requirements to opt for this route were waived via the second transitory disposition for those territories that had approved a "Statute of Autonomy '' during the Second Spanish Republic (otherwise, the constitution required the approval of three - fourths of the municipalities involved whose population would sum up at least the majority of the electoral census of each province, and required the ratification through a referendum with the affirmative vote of the absolute majority of the electoral census of each province -- that is, of all registered citizens, not only of those who would vote).
The constitution also explicitly established that the institutional framework for these communities would be a parliamentary system, with a Legislative Assembly elected by universal suffrage, a cabinet or "council of government '', a president of such a council, elected by the Assembly, and a High Court of Justice. They were also granted a maximum level of devolved competencies.
The "slow route '' or "slow track '', also called the "norm '', was established in article 143. This route could be taken -- via the first transitory disposition -- by the "pre-autonomic regimes '' that had been constituted in 1978, while the constitution was still being drafted, if approved by two - thirds of all municipalities involved whose population would sum up to at least the majority of the electoral census of each province or insular territory. These communities would assume limited competences during a provisional period of 5 years, after which they could assume further competences, upon negotiation with the central government. However, the constitution did not explicitly establish an institutional framework for these communities. They could have established a parliamentary system like the "historical nationalities '', or they could have not assumed any legislative powers and simply established mechanisms for the administration of the competences they were granted.
Once the autonomous communities were created, Article 145 prohibits the "federation of autonomous communities ''. This was understood as any agreement between communities that would produce an alteration to the political and territorial equilibrium that would cause a confrontation between different blocks of communities, an action incompatible with the principle of solidarity and the unity of the nation.
The so - called "additional '' and "transitory '' dispositions of the constitution allowed for some exceptions to the above - mentioned framework. In terms of territorial organization, the fifth transitory disposition established that the cities of Ceuta and Melilla, Spanish exclaves located on the northern coast of Africa, could be constituted as "autonomous communities '' if the absolute majority of the members of their city councils would agree on such a motion, and with the approval of the Spanish Parliament, which would exercise its prerogatives to grant autonomy to other entities besides provinces.
In terms of the scope of competences, the first additional disposition recognized the historical rights of the "chartered '' territories, namely the Basque - speaking provinces, which were to be updated in accordance with the constitution. This recognition would allow them to establish a financial "chartered regime '' whereby they would not only have independence to manage their own finances, like all other communities, but to have their own public financial ministries with the ability to levy and collect all taxes. In the rest of the communities, all taxes are levied and collected by or for the central government and then redistributed among all.
The Statutes of Autonomy of the Basque Country and Catalonia were sanctioned by the Spanish Parliament on 18 December 1979. The position of the party in government, the Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD), was that only the three "historical nationalities '' would assume full competences, while the rest would accede to autonomy via article 143, assuming fewer powers and perhaps not even establishing institutions of government. This was firmly opposed by the representatives of Andalusia, who demanded for their region the maximum level of competences granted to the "nationalities ''.
After a massive rally in support of autonomy, a referendum was organized for Andalusia to attain autonomy through the strict requirements of article 151, or the "fast route '' -- with UCD calling for abstention, and the main party in opposition in Parliament, the Spanish Socialist Workers ' Party (PSOE) calling for a vote in favour. These requirements were not met, as in one of the eight provinces, Almería, votes in favour -- although the majority -- did not amount to half of the electoral census as required. Yet, in general, the results of the referendum had been clear and unequivocal.
After several months of discussion, the then prime minister of Spain, Adolfo Suárez and the leader of the opposition, Felipe González, reached an agreement to resolve the Andalusian issue, whereby the Parliament approved an amendment to the law that regulated referendums, and used a prerogative of article 144c of the constitution, both actions which combined would allow Andalusia to take the fast route. They also agreed that no other region would take the "fast route '', but that all regions would establish a parliamentary system with all institutions of government. This opened a phase that was dubbed as café para todos, "coffee for all ''. This agreement was eventually put into writing in July 1981 in what has been called the "first autonomic pacts ''.
These "autonomic pacts '' filled in the gap left by the open character of the constitution. Among other things:
In the end, 17 autonomous communities were created:
Special provisions were made for the Valencian Community and the Canary Islands in that, although they took the "slow route '', through the subsequent approval of specific organic laws, they were to assume the maximum level of competences in less than 5 years, since they had started a process towards the "fast route '' prior to the approval of the "autonomic pacts ''.
On the other hand, Cantabria and La Rioja, although originally part of Old Castile -- and both originally included in the "pre-autonomic regime '' of Castile and León -- were granted autonomy as single provinces with historical identity, a move supported by the majority of their populations. The "autonomic pacts '' give both Cantabria and La Rioja the option of being incorporated into Castile and León in the future, and required that the Statutes of Autonomy of all three communities include such a provision. León, a historical kingdom and historical region of Spain, once joined to Old Castile to form Castile and León, was denied secession to be constituted as an autonomous community on its own right.
During the second half of the 1980s, the central government seemed reluctant to transfer all competences to the "slow route '' communities. After the five years set up by the constitution, all "slow route '' communities demanded the maximum transfer guaranteed by the constitution. This led to what has been called the "second autonomic pacts '' of 1992, between the then prime minister of Spain Felipe González from PSOE and the leader of the opposition, José María Aznar from the newly created People 's Party (PP) successor of the People 's Alliance party. Through these agreements new competences were transferred, with the reforms to many Statutes of Autonomy of the "slow - route '' communities with the aim of equalizing them to the "fast route '' communities. In 1995, the cities of Ceuta and Melilla were constituted as "autonomous cities '' without legislative powers, but with an autonomous assembly not subordinated to any other province or community.
The creation of the autonomous communities was a diverse process, that started with the constitution, was normalized with the autonomic pacts and was completed with the Statutes of Autonomy. It is, however, an ongoing process; further devolution -- or even the return of transferred competences -- is always a possibility. This has been evidenced in the 2000s, at the beginning with a wave of approval of new Statutes of Autonomy for many communities, and more recently with many considering the recentralization of some competences in the wake of the economic and financial crisis of 2008. Nonetheless Spain is now a highly decentralized country with a structure unlike any other, similar but not equal to a federation, even though in many respects the country can be compared to countries which are undeniably federal. The unique resulting system is referred to as "Autonomous state '', or more precisely "State of Autonomies ''.
With the implementation of the Autonomous Communities, Spain went from being one of the most centralized countries in the OECD to being one of the most decentralized; in particular, it has been the country where the incomes and outcomes of the decentralized bodies (the Autonomous Communities) has grown the most, leading this rank in Europe by 2015 and being fifth among OECD countries in tax devolution (after Canada, Switzerland, the United States and Austria). By means of the State of Autonomies implemented after the Spanish Constitution of 1978, Spain has been quoted to be "remarkable for the extent of the powers peacefully devolved over the past 30 years '' and "an extraordinarily decentralized country '', with the central government accounting for just 18 % of public spending, 38 % for the regional governments, 13 % for the local councils, and the remaining 31 % for the social security system.
In terms of personnel, by 2010 almost 1,350,000 people or 50.3 % of the total civil servants in Spain were employed by the autonomous communities; city and provincial councils accounted for 23.6 % and those employees working for the central administration (police and military included) represented 22.2 % of the total.
Peripheral nationalism continues to play a key role in Spanish politics. Some peripheral nationalists view that there is a vanishing practical distinction between the terms "nationalities '' and "regions '', as more competences are transferred to all communities in roughly the same degree and as other communities have chosen to identify themselves as "nationalities ''. In fact, it has been argued that the establishment of the State of Autonomies "has led to the creation of "new regional identities '', and "invented communities ''.
Many in Galicia, the Basque Country, and Catalonia view their communities as "nations '', not just "nationalities '', and Spain as a "plurinational state '' or a "nation of nations '', and they have made demands for further devolution or secession.
In 2004 the Basque Parliament approved the Ibarretxe Plan, whereby the Basque Country would approve a new Statute of Autonomy containing key provisions such as shared sovereignty with Spain, full independence of the judiciary, and the right to self - determination, and assuming all competences except that of the Spanish nationality law, defense, and monetary policy. The plan was rejected by the Spanish Parliament in 2005 and the situation has remained largely stable in that front so far.
A particularly contentious point - especially in Catalonia - has been the one of fiscal tensions, with Catalan nationalists intensifying their demand for further financing over the last few years. In this regard, the new rules for fiscal decentralisation in force since 2011 already make Spain one of the most decentralised countries in the world also in budgetary and fiscal matters, with the base for income tax split at 50 / 50 between the Spanish government and the regions (something unheard of in much bigger federal states such as Germany or the United States, which retain the income tax as an exclusively federal one). Besides, each region can also decide to set its own income tax bands and its own additional rates, higher or lower than the federal rates, with the corresponding income accruing to the region which no longer has to share it with other regions. This current level of fiscal decentralisation has been regarded by economists such as Thomas Piketty as troublesome since, in his view, "challenges the very idea of solidarity within the country and comes down to playing the regions against each other, which is particularly problematic when the issue is one of income tax as this is supposed to enable the reduction of inequalities between the richest and the poorest, over and above regional or professional identities ''.
The severe economic crisis in Spain that started in 2008 produced different reactions in the different communities. On one hand, some began to consider a return of some responsibilities to the central government. while, on the other hand, in Catalonia debate on the fiscal deficit -- Catalonia being one of the largest net contributors in taxes -- led many who are not necessarily separatist but who are enraged by the financial deficit to support secession. In September 2012, Artur Mas, then Catalonia 's president, requested from the central government a new "fiscal agreement '', with the possibility of giving his community powers equal to those of the communities of chartered regime, but prime minister Mariano Rajoy refused. Mas dissolved the Catalan Parliament, called for new elections, and promised to celebrate a referendum on independence within the next four years.
Rajoy 's government declared that they would use all "legal instruments '' -- current legislation requires the central executive government or the Congress of Deputies to call for or sanction a binding referendum -- to block any such attempt. The Spanish Socialist Workers ' Party and its counterpart in Catalonia proposed to reopen the debate on the territorial organization of Spain, changing the constitution to create a true federal system to "better reflect the singularities '' of Catalonia, as well as to modify the current taxation system.
On Friday 27 of October 2017 the Catalan Parliament voted the independence of Catalonia; the result was 70 in favor, 10 against, 2 neither, with 53 representatives not present in protest. In the following days, the members of the Catalan government either fled or were imprisoned.
One scholar summarises the current situation as follows
"the autonomous state appears to have come full circle, with reproaches from all sides. According to some, it has not gone far enough and has failed to satisfy their aspirations for improved self - government. For others it has gone too far, fostering inefficiency or reprehensible linguistic policies ''.
The State of Autonomies, as established in Article 2 of the constitution, has been argued to be based on four principles: willingness to accede to autonomy, unity in diversity, autonomy but not sovereignty of the communities, and solidarity among them all. The structure of the autonomous communities is determined both by the devolution allowed by the constitution and the competences assumed in their respective Statutes of Autonomy. While the autonomic agreements and other laws have allowed for an "equalization '' of all communities, differences still remain.
The Statute of Autonomy is the basic institutional law of the autonomous community or city, recognized by the Spanish constitution in article 147. It is approved by a parliamentary assembly representing the community, and then approved by the Cortes Generales, the Spanish Parliament, through an "Organic Law '', requiring the favourable vote of the absolute majority of the Congress of Deputies.
For communities that acceded to autonomy through the "fast route '', a referendum is required before it can be sanctioned by the Parliament. The Statutes of Autonomy must contain, at least, the name of the community, its territorial limits, the names, organization and seat of the institutions of government, the competences they assume and the principles for their bilingual policy, if applicable.
The constitution establishes that all competences not explicitly assumed by the state -- the central government -- in the constitution, can be assumed by the autonomous community in their Statutes of Autonomy; but also, all competences not explicitly assumed by the autonomous community in their Statutes of Autonomy are automatically assumed by the state. In case of conflict, the constitution prevails. In case of disagreement, any administration can bring the case before the Constitutional Court of Spain.
All autonomous communities have a parliamentary system based on a division of powers comprising:
The majority of the communities have approved regional electoral laws within the limits set up by the laws for the entire country. Despite minor differences, all communities use proportional representation following D'Hondt method; all members of regional parliaments are elected for four - year terms, but the president of the community has the faculty to dissolve the legislature and call for early elections. Nonetheless in all communities, with the exception of the Basque Country, Catalonia, Galicia, and Andalusia, elections are celebrated the last Sunday of May every four years, concurrent with municipal elections in all Spain.
The names of the Council of Government and the Legislative Assembly vary between communities. In some autonomous communities, these institutions are restored historical bodies of government or representation of the previous kingdoms or regional entities within the Spanish Crown -- like the Generalitat of Catalonia -- while others are entirely new creations.
In some, both the executive and the legislature, though constituting two separate institutions, are collectively identified with a single specific name. It should be noted, though, that a specific denomination may not refer to the same branch of government in all communities; for example, junta may refer to the executive office in some communities, to the legislature in others, or to the collective name of all branches of government in others.
Given the ambiguity in the constitution that did not specify which territories were nationalities and which were regions, other territories, besides the implicit three "historical nationalities '', have also chosen to identify themselves as nationalities, in accordance with their historical regional identity, such as Andalusia, Aragon, the Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands, and the Valencian Community.
The two autonomous cities have more limited competences than autonomous communities, but more than other municipalities. The executive is exercised by a president, who is also the mayor of the city. In the same way, limited legislative power is vested in a local assembly in which the deputies are also the city councillors.
The autonomic agreements of 1982 and 1992 tried to equalize powers (competences) devolved to the 17 autonomous communities, within the limits of the constitution and the differences guaranteed by it. This has led to an "asymmetrical homogeneity ''. In the words of the Constitutional Court of Spain in its ruling of August 5, 1983, the autonomous communities are characterized by their "homogeneity and diversity... equal in their subordination to the constitutional order, in the principles of their representation in the Senate, in their legitimation before the Constitutional Court, and in that the differences between the distinct Statutes (of Autonomy) can not imply economic or social privileges; however, they can be unequal with respect to the process to accede to autonomy and the concrete determination of the autonomic content of their Statute, and therefore, in their scope of competences. The autonomic regime is characterized by an equilibrium between homogeneity and diversity (...) Without the former there will be no unity or integration in the state 's ensemble; without the latter, there would not be (a) true plurality and the capacity of self - government ''.
The asymmetrical devolution is a unique characteristic of the territorial structure of Spain, in that the autonomous communities have a different range of devolved competences. These were based on what has been called in Spanish as hechos diferenciales, "differential facts '' or "differential traits ''.
This expression refers to the idea that some communities have particular traits, with respect to Spain as a whole. In practice these traits are a native "language proper to their own territories '' separate from Spanish, a particular financial regime or special civil rights expressed in a code, which generate a distinct political personality. These hechos diferenciales of their distinct political and historical personality are constitutionally and statutorily (i.e., in their Statutes of Autonomy) recognized in the exceptions granted to some of them and the additional competences they assume.
Competences can be divided into three groups: exclusive to the central state or central government, shared competences, and devolved competences exclusive to the communities. Article 149 states which powers are exclusive to the central government: international relations, defense, administration of justice, commercial, criminal, civil, and labour legislation, customs, general finances and state debt, public health, basic legislation, and general coordination. All autonomous communities have the power to manage their own finances in the way they see fit, and are responsible for the administration of education -- school and universities -- health and social services and cultural and urban development. Yet there are differences as stipulated in their Statutes and the constitution:
How the communities are financed has been one of the most contentious aspects in their relationship with the central government. The constitution gave all communities significant control over spending, but the central government retained effective control of their revenue supply. That is, the central government is still charge of levying and collecting most taxes, which it then redistributes to the autonomous communities with the aim of producing "fiscal equalization ''. This applies to all communities, with the exception of the Basque Country and Navarre.
This financial scheme is known as the "common regime ''. In essence, fiscal equalization implies that richer communities become net contributors to the system, while poorer communities become net recipients. The two largest net contributors to the system are the Balearic Islands and the Community of Madrid, in percentage terms, or the Community of Madrid and Catalonia in absolute terms.
Central government funding is the main source of revenue for the communities of "common regime ''. Redistribution, or transfer payments, are given to the communities of common regime to manage the responsibilities they have assumed. The amount they receive is based upon several calculations which include a consideration for population, land area, administrative units, dispersal of population, relative poverty, fiscal pressure and insularity. The central government is committed to returning a specific percentage of taxes to all communities with common regime, within the differences allowed for fiscal equalization. The communities of common regime have the ability to add a surcharge to the so - called "ceded taxes '' -- taxes set at the central level, but collected locally -- and they can lower or raise personal income taxes up to a limit.
The Basque Country and Navarre were granted an exception in the fiscal and financial system through the first additional disposition of the constitution that recognizes their historical "charters '' -- hence they are known as "communities of chartered regime '' or "foral regime ''. Through their "chartered regime '', these communities are allowed to levy and collect all so - called "contracted taxes '', including income tax and corporate tax, and they have much more flexibility to lower or raise them. This "chartered '' or "foral '' contract entails true financial autonomy.
Since they collect almost all taxes, they send to the central government a pre-arranged amount known as cupo, "quota '' or aportación, "contribution '', and the treaty whereby this system is recognized is known as concierto, "treaty '', or convenio, "pact ''. Hence they are also said to have concierto económico, an "economic treaty ''. Since they collect all taxes themselves and only send a prearranged amount to the central government for the competences exclusive to the state, they do not participate in "fiscal equalization '', in that they do not receive any money back.
As more responsibilities have been assumed by the autonomous communities in areas such as social welfare, health, and education, public expenditure patterns have seen a shift from the central government towards the communities since the 1980s. In the late 2000s, autonomous communities accounted for 35 % of all public expenditure in Spain, a percentage that is even higher than that of states within a federation. With no legal constraints to balance budgets, and since the central government retains control over fiscal revenue in the communities of common regime, these are in a way encouraged to build up debt.
The Council on Fiscal and Financial Policy, which includes representatives of the central government and of the autonomous communities, has become one of the most efficient institutions of coordination in matters of public expenditures and revenue. Through the Council several agreements of financing have been agreed, as well as limits to the communities ' public debt. The Organic Law of the Financing of Autonomous Communities of 1988 requires that the communities obtain the authorization of the central Ministry of Finance to issue public debt.
The preamble to the constitution explicitly stated that it is the nation 's will to protect "all Spaniards and the peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions ''. This is a significant recognition not only in that it differed drastically from the restrictive linguistic policies during the Franco era, but also because part of the distinctiveness of the "historical nationalities '' lies on their own regional languages. The nation is thus openly multilingual, in which Castilian -- that is, Spanish -- is the official language in all territories, but the "other Spanish languages '' can also be official in their respective communities, in accordance with their Statutes of Autonomy.
Article 3 of the constitution ends up declaring that the "richness of the distinct linguistic modalities of Spain represents a patrimony which will be the object of special respect and protection. '' Spanish remains the only official language of the state; other languages are only co-official with Spanish in the communities that have so regulated. In addition, knowledge of the Spanish language was declared a right and an obligation of all Spaniards.
Spanish legislation, most notably in the Statutes of Autonomy of the bilingual communities, use the term "own language '', or "language proper to a community '', to refer to a language other than Spanish that originated or had historical roots in that particular territory. The Statutes of Autonomy of the respective autonomous communities have declared Basque the language proper to the Basque Country and Navarre, Catalan the language proper to Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and the Valencian Community -- where it is historically, traditionally and officially known as Valencian -- and Galician to be the language proper to Galicia. There are other protected regional languages in other autonomous communities. As a percentage of total population in Spain, Basque is spoken by 2 %, Catalan by 17 %, and Galician by 7 % of all Spaniards.
The Spanish constitution recognizes the municipalities and guarantees their autonomy. Municipal, or city, councils are in charge of the municipalities ' government and administration, and they are integrated by a mayor and councillors, the latter elected by universal suffrage, and the former elected either by the councillor or by suffrage.
Provinces are groups of municipalities and recognized by the constitution. Their competences and institutions of government vary greatly among communities. In all communities which have more than one province, provinces are governed by "provincial deputations '' or "provincial councils '', with a limited scope of administrative competences.
In the Basque Country, the provinces, renamed as "historical territories '', are governed by "chartered deputations '' -- with assume the competences of a provincial deputation as well as the fiscal powers of their "chartered regime '' -- and by "General Juntas '' -- parliaments with legislative powers.
In the Canary Islands and the Balearic Islands, each major island is governed by an "insular council ''. In Catalonia, the "provincial deputations '' have very little power, as other territorial subdivisions have been created.
In those seven autonomous communities formed by a single province, the provincial deputations have been replaced by the communities ' institutions of government; in fact, the provinces themselves are not only coterminous with the communities, but correspond in essence to the communities themselves. The two - tier territorial organization common to most communities -- first province, then municipalities -- is therefore non-existent in these "uniprovincial '' communities.
The constitution also allows the creation of other territorial entities formed by groups of municipalities. One of such territorial subdivision is the comarca (equivalent of a "district '', "shire '' or "county ''). While all communities have unofficial historical, cultural or natural comarcas, only in Aragon and Catalonia they have been legally recognized as territorial entities with administrative powers (see comarcal councils).
The competences of the autonomous communities are not homogeneous. Broadly the competences are divided into "Exclusive '', "Shared '' and "Executive ''. In some cases the autonomous community may have exclusive responsibility for the administration of a policy area but may only have executive (i.e., carries out) powers as far as the policy itself is concerned, meaning it must enforce policy and laws decided at the national level.
|
when does lori find out she is pregnant | Secrets (the Walking Dead) - wikipedia
"Secrets '' is the sixth episode of the second season and 12th episode overall of the post-apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead. It originally aired on AMC in the United States on November 20, 2011. In this episode, Glenn (Steven Yeun) tells Dale Horvath (Jeffrey DeMunn) that Lori Grimes (Sarah Wayne Callies) is pregnant and there are numerous walkers in the Greene barn. Dale confronts Hershel Greene (Scott Wilson) about hoarding walkers in his barn. Meanwhile, Shane Walsh (Jon Bernthal) attempts to teach Andrea (Laurie Holden) how to use weapons and Lori agonizes over the decision to terminate her pregnancy or keep the baby.
The episode was written by Angela Kang and directed by David Boyd. "Secrets '' touches on various themes, including abortion, romance, and confession. In preparation for filming, producers initially converted a vacant building in downtown Sharpsburg, Georgia into a temporary pharmacy in July 2011. Principal photography for the episode occurred a month later in August.
"Secrets '' attained mostly positive reception from critics, who praised the character development and the storyline progression. The episode attracted criticism from political commentators, who denounced the show for its misleading perception of emergency contraception. Upon airing, "Secrets '' garnered 6.08 million viewers and a 3.1 rating in the 18 - 49 demographic, according to Nielsen ratings. It became the second highest - rated cable program of the day, as well as the fourth most - viewed cable program of the week.
After he inadvertently discovers the presence of walkers in the Greene barn, Maggie (Lauren Cohan) begs Glenn (Steven Yeun) to keep it a secret. Dale (Jeffrey DeMunn) quickly notices Glenn 's nervousness, and when he talks privately to Glenn, Glenn blurts out about the walkers as well as his knowledge that Lori Grimes (Sarah Wayne Callies) is pregnant. Dale confronts Hershel (Scott Wilson) about the walkers. Hershel believes they are still people, including his wife and stepson, and can be cured, and refuses to kill them after Dale explains the danger. Meanwhile, Rick (Andrew Lincoln) and Lori argue on what to do with Hershel 's demand to leave the farm, now that Carl (Chandler Riggs) is healed.
Rick, Shane and T - Dog (IronE Singleton) give gun training to Jimmy, Carl (Chandler Riggs) and the women on the farm. Shane (Jon Bernthal) takes Andrea (Laurie Holden) aside to give her advanced training after seeing how good she is with a weapon, but she is unable to hit a moving target. Shane tries to encourage her to remember her dead sister, Amy, but this only causes Andrea to storm away.
Andrea and Shane then go off to town after Shane finds a lead on the missing Sophia, but find it overrun by walkers. They escape after Andrea rediscovers her shooting abilities, and the two subsequently begin an affair. Dale senses something amiss and warns Shane to stay away from Andrea, as well as his suspicion of what happened to Otis while he and Shane went searching for medical supplies, and his contempt for Rick. Shane denies the accusations and threatens to shoot Dale should he make any more.
Maggie and Glenn go on another supply run at Lori 's request, specifically looking for morning after pills. Maggie and Glenn discuss the walker situation on the farm, with Maggie sharing the same attitude as her father Hershel. At the pharmacy, Maggie is attacked by a walker but Glenn intervenes and subdues it before it harms Maggie. Back on the farm, Maggie confronts Lori about being almost killed due to her request, and tells Glenn the rest of the group is using him as "walker bait ''. Glenn later tells Lori that she should tell Rick about her pregnancy soon. Lori contemplates the act of raising a child in this world, and decides to take the pills, but after a moment, runs away from their camp to immediately regurgitate them. Rick sees the pills and goes to find Lori, who admits she was in a relationship with Shane before Rick found them. Rick reveals he already knew about this.
-- Robert Kirkman
"Secrets '' was directed by David Boyd and written by Angela Kang. It features recurring appearances from Lauren Cohan, Scott Wilson, IronE Singleton, Emily Kinney, Jane McNeill, and James Allen McCune. Principal photography for the episode commenced in downtown Sharpsburg, Georgia in August 2011. Preparation for filming began in July 2011, when producers renovated an empty building into a temporary drug store. Herb Bridges, who owned the building at the time, was initially contacted by producers of the series ' in January 2011, and again four months later in May. Bridges informed them that the space would be rented by a woman who would open a children 's store there; however, she had not moved into the space yet.
The topic of abortion is a prominent theme in "Secrets ''. After discovering that she is pregnant, Lori asks Glenn to retrieve with emergency contraception pills from the pharmacy. Upon returning, an infuriated Maggie hands Lori her pills. Dale gently confronts her about her pregnancy when he sees that she becomes nauseated at the smell of cooking meat, and Lori explains that Rick is the biological father of the child. Writer Robert Kirkman opined that such assertions were "wishful thinking ''. "She was with those two men very close to each other. There was not a large span of time between her time with Shane and then Rick 's return and her time with Rick. It 's definitely up in the air and it 's not like there 's a lot of paternity tests floating around out there. '' Kirkman felt that he had to responsibly approach controversial issues from a neutral standpoint and insisted that abortion should warrant discussion, considering the circumstances. He stated: "As far as the abortion stuff goes, it 's really just a matter of being realistic. These are the kinds of issues that people deal with in real life and in this situation I think that that is the kind of thought process that Lori Grimes would be going through. ''
In the concluding sequence of the episode, Lori admits to Rick that she had an affair with Shane in the belief that her husband was dead. Kirkman stated that the writers wanted to "wrap up to a certain extent '', and opined that such revelations would add more tension between the characters.
It was something we wanted to wrap up to a certain extent. It 's a disservice to Rick 's character to make him look like he 's completely clueless. But this is n't really a resolution per se. It makes things a little bit more tense, moving into this next episode. Seeing Rick interact with Shane will have an extra level of tension because now the audience has one up on Shane as opposed to one up on Rick. It 's going to be fun waiting for the other shoe to drop, when Rick may or may not confront Shane with this information.
In an interview with MTV News, Bernthal stated that Walsh was suffering from the "loneliness you feel when you 're right there with them and you ca n't be with them in the way you want. '' Bernthal applauded the writers for such changes, and felt that the storyline never devitalized. "The people that Shane loved more than anyone else in the world before the apocalypse are still very much alive and still very much with him, but he 'll never be with them in the way he wants to and the way he once was. Every relationship -- Shane / Carl, Shane / Lori and Shane / Rick -- it 's tainted and fractured. When you suffer from that kind of loneliness, it brings out the worst in you. ''
"Secrets '' initially aired in the United States on November 20, 2011 on AMC. Upon airing, the episode acquired 6.08 million viewers and attained a 3.1 rating in the 18 - 49 demographic, according to Nielsen ratings. It was the second highest - rated cable program of the day, having been beaten by a stock car racing event as part of the 2011 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. "Secrets '' became the fourth most - watched program of the week, as well as the highest - rated non-sports cable program of the week. Total viewership and ratings slightly declined from the previous episode, "Chupacabra '', which was viewed by 6.12 million viewers and garnered a 3.2 rating in the 18 - 49 demographic. In the United Kingdom, the episode received 561,000 viewers and became the highest - rated television program on FX for the week dated November 27.
"Secrets '' was well received by television critics. Gina McIntyre of the Los Angeles Times concluded that the episode "dispensed with almost every hidden truth the survivors have been keeping from one another. '' Scott Meslow of The Atlantic described the episode as one focused on love and relationships. IGN 's Eric Goldman evaluated the episode as "satisfying '', and added that its character development was executed strongly. Ultimately, he issued "Secrets '' an eight out of ten, signifying a "great '' rating. Aaron Rutkoff of The Wall Street Journal echoed synonymous sentiments; "Viewers tuning in each week in the hope of watching pulse - quickening battles between overmatched humans and armies of the undead are sure to be frustrated. Things are static in an action sense, but the show 's admirably nuanced characters are changing and reacting to the world in surprising and complicated ways. '' Writing for Cinema Blend, Nick Venable stated that the characters became more distinguishable.
Not all reviewers were as enthusiastic about "Secrets '' as the general consensus. Starlee Kine of New York stated that despite having high hopes in the beginning of "Secrets '', the episode overall failed to meet her expectations. The A.V. Club 's Zach Halden opined that despite containing solid scenes, the episode harbored several issues. Halden cited the pace of the storyline progression and the execution of the character development as weaknesses. Concluding his review, he gave the episode a B grade. Although Andrew Conrad of The Baltimore Sun touted the character development, he pointed out that there was very little action. The Portland Mercury 's Steven Humphrey panned the episode, describing it as "boring ''.
The opening segment of "Secrets '' was widely lauded by critics. Halden thought that it was a great start to the episode, and Kine felt that the show returned to form following the sequence. She wrote: "This week 's opening functioned like an adrenaline shot to my weary heart. At the sight of all those undead relatives in the barn, I, too, briefly, came to life. ''
Critics were polarized with the characters ' reaction to Lori opting for an abortion. Halden criticized the character 's opposing views on the matter, and stated that their reasonings were invalid. Halden wrote. "I 'm not even sure it would be possible for her to abort the pregnancy at this point, but the show 's working on the assumption that having a child in a world where death literally lurks around every corner is an unequivocal good. The only person who 's been anti-pregnancy is Lori, and the show has n't managed to cast her in a very good light, so it 's not like her arguments hold much water -- which is also ridiculous, because ultimately, her opinion is the only one that matters. '' HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall reflected similar thoughts, and stated that Rick 's arguments against Lori 's attempts were obsolete.
The love triangle involving Lori, Rick, and Shane was cited as an episode highlight. Meslow felt that the interactions between Lori and Rick possessed "as much rawness and honesty as could be hoped for. '' Kine criticized the emotion during the interactions between Shane and Rick, and summated that it was a "standard Walking Dead attempt at trying to convince us that Grimes and Shane are friends by way of showing us their casual, good - old - boy - tinged banter. '' Ritkoff expressed that the episode 's conclusion was a rational and level - headed resolution to the storyline; "Whatever jealousy he might feel, it would have been absurd for Rick to punish the woman he loves most in the world for post-apocalyptic infidelity under these circumstances. '' Sepinwall commended Rick 's reaction to Lori 's confessions, and Goldman felt that their interaction was well acted and perfectly scripted. Venable appraised the segment as "very engaging '', and applauded Lincoln 's performance. He wrote, "Andrew Lincoln delivered these lines of pitiable understanding as well as anyone could. '' CNN 's Henry Hanks opined: "If you thought Rick and Shane had blow - ups before, you ai n't seen nothing yet. ''
Critics applauded the growing relationship between Andrea and Shane, as well as Dale 's confrontation with Shane. Despite describing them as an "unlikely pairing '', Meslow asserted that it was superior to the storyline between Andrea and Dale. "There 's something to be said for the occasional post-apocalyptic tryst, which allows two characters who 've experienced almost nothing but misery to have, even for a moment, something that resembles joy, '' he articulated. Meslow retorted that it was wise to underplay the tryst between Shane and Andrea, which he predicted would not lead to anything serious. Venable wrote: "Dale 's lack of personality traits, beyond being the wise sage who gets in everyone 's business, makes him an unpredictable foe in my book, and could be as interesting as Shane 's violent selfishness. '' Morgan Jeffrey of Digital Spy avouched that Shane continued to be an interesting character; "Just as we were beginning to like him again, he murdered Otis in cold blood. And it seems like his downward spiral is set to continue -- he 's threatening poor Dale and embarking on an ill - advised affair with Andrea. ''
The progressing relationship between Maggie Greene and Glenn was well received by critics. Nate Rawlings of Time asserted that their interactions carried the most emotional poignance. Rawlings opined: "She 's forced to confront, perhaps for the first time, that these creatures are slobbering monsters. Before her attack, she yelled at Dale (sic) for calling them Walkers; to her they 're mom, her brother, the neighbors. After her attack, her mind might be changed. ''
-- Danielle Aronson, ACLU
"Secrets '' attracted criticism from political commentators for its "potentially misleading perception '' of emergency contraception. Shawn Rhea of Planned Parenthood cited that the morning - after pills do not induce abortion, as the episode implies. Erin Gloria Ryan of Jezebel wrote: "Lori would have been better off sending the men off to loot a shop that sells herbal remedies and brewing herself some pennyroyal tea or climbing a tree and jumping out in hopes that the impact would end the pregnancy. Both of those things are dangerous and might not work, but they 're about as effective as OD'ing on levonorgestrel. '' Ryan prescribed that actual abortion pills are administered by medical professionals and are not available at pharmacies. Danielle Aronson of ACLU summated that the effectiveness of terminating a pregnancy with emergency contraception would be equivalent to "cutting a zombie 's finger off to kill it. '' Similarly, Slate 's Amanda Marcotte opined: "The problem with this storyline, outside the tedious fear of getting letters from irate anti-choicers that dictates TV 's near - absolute approach to unintended pregnancy, is simple: Morning - after pills are not abortion. '' Marcotte asserted that abortion pills, commonly RU - 486, were only provided by medical personnel. "Morning - after pills are contraception, and they work by stifling ovulation before any sperm can make their way toward the Fallopian tubes. ''
This prompted showrunner Glen Mazzara to respond to such criticism. In his interview with The Daily Beast, he stated: "The producers and writers of The Walking Dead are fully aware that the morning - after pill would not induce an abortion or miscarriage, we exercised our artistic creative license to explore a storyline with one of our characters, not to make any pro-life or pro-choice political statement. We sincerely hope that people are not turning to the fictional world of The Walking Dead for accurate medical information. '' The episode itself does not, in fact, claim the morning after pills will work, as Glenn questions Lori over that fact, to which she replies that she does not know.
|
who served as our first national ffa advisor | National FFA Organization - wikipedia
National FFA Organization is an American 501 (c) (3) youth organization, specifically a career and technical student organization, based on middle and high school classes that promote and support agricultural education. It was founded in 1925 at Virginia Polytechnic Institute, by agriculture teachers, Henry C. Groseclose, Walter Newman, Edmund Magill and Harry Sanders as Future Farmers of Virginia. In 1928, it became a nationwide organization known as Future Farmers of America. In 1988 the name was changed to the National FFA Organization, now commonly referred to as FFA, to recognize that the organization is for those with diverse interests in the food, fiber and natural resource industries, encompassing science, business and technology in addition to production agriculture. Today FFA is among the largest youth organization in the United States, with 649,355 members in 7,859 chapters throughout all 50 states, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. FFA is the largest of the career and technical student organizations in U.S. schools.
The organization holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code.
The National FFA Organization is a youth leadership organization that makes a positive difference in the lives of young people by developing their potential for premier leadership, personal growth and career success through agriculture education. The FFA Motto is Learning to do, Doing to learn, Earning to live, Living to serve.
FFA functions within the three - circle model of agricultural education as a student leadership organization that complements a student 's classroom / laboratory instruction and supervised agricultural experience program. FFA members can compete in Career Development Events (CDE) that cover job skills in everything from communications to mechanics. Some events allow students to compete as individuals, while others allow them to compete in teams. These competitions can happen at a local or district level, state level, and on the national level.
Students are supervised by agricultural education teachers in cooperation with parents, employers and other adults who assist individuals in the development and achievement of educational and career goals.
Official colors of the FFA are National Blue and Corn Gold.
FFA is represented at several different levels across the nation; FFA administration may change from state to state. The basic levels are the national level, serving all of the United States of America, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands; the state level, serving an individual state association; and the chapter level, serving a school or set of schools in an area. By definition, there can be three types of chapters at the secondary level, they are middle for middle school, junior for ninth grade and senior which can be either tenth through twelfth or ninth through twelfth depending on the school. Other levels include districts, subdistricts, sections, regions, areas, and federations.
FFA was created to serve high school students, and has moved into middle schools where membership may begin as early as age 12, allowing members to become active earlier and stay active for longer. Each chapter is chartered as part of the state association and national organization. Collegiate chapters exist as well.
Most states hold FFA conventions at least once annually, where members gather to compete, be recognized for awards, attend leadership workshops, debate organizational issues in a delegate process, and more. Nationally, the National FFA Convention & Expo is held once a year in the fall. It was held in Kansas City, Missouri, from 1928 to 1998. The convention moved to Louisville, Kentucky, in 1999 before moving again in 2006 to Indianapolis, Indiana. Louisville again hosted the national convention from 2013 to 2015. FFA announced in July 2015 that the national convention would be hosted in Indianapolis each year from 2016 to 2024.
As the FFA is a member - led organization intended to serve youth around the nation, it elects officers from its own diverse membership to certain levels of FFA. With these basic constitutional officers a basis of parliamentary procedure is completed during meetings and banquets; each officer during these procedures will stand and recite their office level and what it is stationed by, and why the particular position is stationed as so. Typical officer roles are:
Each officer is an agricultural student and holds responsibilities needed to serve, and are elected each year by members at the respective levels.
This allows officers to be elected to one of the four national regions of the FFA, as well as a President and a Secretary
The most recognizable symbol of the organization is the blue corduroy FFA jacket that is worn by current FFA members. The back of the jacket features a large FFA emblem just underneath the name of each FFA member 's state. The name of the local FFA chapter, district, region or area is embroidered below the emblem. The front of the FFA jacket features a smaller FFA emblem on the left chest and the FFA member 's name and sometimes, if applicable, office and year on the right chest. FFA members are required to wear the FFA jacket as part of official dress while participating in all official organization activities.
The FFA jacket was created to be worn by the Fredericktown Band of the Fredericktown FFA Chapter by Dr. Gus Lintner. It was adopted in 1933.
The color of the jacket 's corduroy has ranged from shades of blue to shades of purple through the years. In 2004, the National FFA Organization worked with a supplier in North Carolina to set a new standard for the blue corduroy by using samples from archived FFA jackets. The jacket 's color standardization was accompanied by a restoration of the embroidered FFA emblems and fit corrections led by Clemson University 's Apparel Research Center. The improved FFA jacket, produced in both Van Wert, Ohio and South Vietnam, was first made available in August 2005. Currently, all lettering, embroidery and finishing of FFA jackets is completed by Universal Lettering Company in Van Wert, Ohio.
FFA members are required to wear official FFA dress while participating in official organization activities. The National FFA Organization recently updated its bylaws, stating that members may choose to identify however they choose in regards to official dress, in order to include transgender as well as gender non-conforming individuals within the organization. For females, official dress consists of a black skirt (black slacks may be appropriate for traveling and outdoor activities), a white collared blouse, an official FFA blue scarf, black dress shoes with a closed heel and toe, black nylon hosiery, and an official FFA jacket zipped to the top. Male official dress includes black dress pants, a white dress shirt, an official FFA tie, black dress shoes with a closed heel and toe, black socks and an official FFA jacket zipped to the top.
FFA members earn metal pins that signify achievement within the organization. These pins can be placed on the front of the FFA jacket, however, official guidelines state that no more than three pins may be worn at one time. The pins are to be placed beneath the FFA member 's name on the right chest and can recognize the highest office, highest award, and highest organizational degree. Two exceptions exist within pin placement guidelines. When an FFA member earns a State FFA Degree or American FFA Degree, the award keys should be worn above the name on right chest or attached to the FFA jacket with a standard key chain, and no other pins should accompany these.
As an organization, the FFA has many traditions and trademarks identifying it as an agricultural education organization:
The FFA Motto: Learning to Do, Doing to Learn, Earning to Live, Living to Serve.
The FFA Mission: The National FFA Organization is dedicated to making a positive difference in the lives of students by developing their potential for premier leadership, personal growth, and career success through agricultural education.
The Official FFA Colors: National Blue and Corn Gold (worn on the Official FFA jackets).
The FFA Emblem: Cross section of the ear of corn: represents unity. Where ever you live in the United States, corn is grown everywhere. Rising Sun: signifies progress. It represents that tomorrow will always bring a new day. Plow: signifies labor and tillage of the soil. It also shows the historic foundation of our country 's strength. Eagle: symbolizes freedom and our ability to explore the new agriculture world. Owl: represents knowledge. Long recognized for wisdom and knowledge. Agriculture Education and FFA: symbolizes the combination of learning and leadership.
The FFA Creed: The creed was written by Erwin Milton "E.M. '' Tiffany of Lyndon, Kansas and adopted at the 3rd National FFA Convention. It was revised at the 38th and 63rd National FFA Conventions by the assembled delegate body. It is recited by new members to the organization to reflect their growing belief in agriculture and agricultural education. The FFA Creed also must be memorized and recited to earn the Greenhand Degree.
I believe in the future of agriculture, with a faith born not of words but of deeds -- achievements won by the present and past generations of agriculturists; in the promise of better days through better ways, even as the better things we now enjoy have come to us from the struggles of former years. I believe that to live and work on a good farm or to be engaged in other agricultural pursuits, is pleasant as well as challenging; for I know the joys and discomforts of agricultural life and hold an inborn fondness for those associations which, even in hours of discouragement I can not deny. I believe in leadership from ourselves and respect from others. I believe in my own ability to work efficiently and think clearly, with such knowledge and skill as I can secure, and in the ability of progressive agriculturists to serve our own and the public interest in producing and marketing the product of our toil. I believe in less dependence on begging and more power in bargaining; in the life abundant and enough honest wealth to help make it so - for others as well as myself; in less need for charity and more of it when needed; in being happy myself and playing square with those whose happiness depends upon me. I believe that American agriculture can and will hold true to the best traditions of our national life and that I can exert an influence in my home and community which will stand solid for my part in that inspiring task.
FFA Career Development Event (CDEs) are contests that members compete in to test their skills learned through agricultural education instruction. They vary at the different levels of FFA, and some are contested only at certain levels and certain states, districts, areas or federations.
At the national level, there are 24 Career Development Events:
Wildlife Management
Examples of CDEs that can be available at the state level are:
To be an active member in the National FFA Organization, a member must have an Supervised Agricultural Experience (SAE) project. The projects involve hands - on application of concepts and principles learned in the agricultural education classroom, with guidelines for the SAE projects governed by the state FFA delegation. SAE programs are grouped into four different areas:
|
if you want to see my monument look around you | Christopher Wren - wikipedia
Sir Christopher Wren PRS (/ ˈrɛn /; 30 October 1632 (O.S. 20 October) -- 8 March 1723 (O.S. 25 February)) is one of the most highly acclaimed English architects in history. He was accorded responsibility for rebuilding 52 churches in the City of London after the Great Fire in 1666, including what is regarded as his masterpiece, St. Paul 's Cathedral, on Ludgate Hill, completed in 1710.
The principal creative responsibility for a number of the churches is now more commonly attributed to others in his office, especially Nicholas Hawksmoor. Other notable buildings by Wren include the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, and the south front of Hampton Court Palace. The Wren Building, the main building at the College of William and Mary, Virginia, is attributed to Wren.
Educated in Latin and Aristotelian physics at the University of Oxford, Wren was a notable anatomist, astronomer, geometer, and mathematician - physicist, as well as an architect. He was a founder of the Royal Society (president 1680 -- 82), and his scientific work was highly regarded by Isaac Newton and Blaise Pascal.
Wren was born in East Knoyle in Wiltshire, the only surviving son of Christopher Wren Sr. (1589 -- 1658) and Mary Cox, the only child of the Wiltshire squire Robert Cox from Fonthill Bishop. Christopher Sr. was at that time the rector of East Knoyle and later Dean of Windsor. It was while they were living at East Knoyle that all their children were born; Mary, Catherine and Susan were all born by 1628 but then several children were born who died within a few weeks of their birth. Their son Christopher was born in 1632 then, two years later, another daughter named Elizabeth was born. Mary must have died shortly after the birth of Elizabeth, although there does not appear to be any surviving record of the date. Through Mary Cox, however, the family became well off financially for, as the only heir, she had inherited her father 's estate.
As a child Wren "seem 'd consumptive. '' Although a sickly child, he would survive into robust old age. He was first taught at home by a private tutor and his father. After his father 's royal appointment as Dean of Windsor in March 1635, his family spent part of each year there, but little is known about Wren 's life at Windsor. He spent his first eight years at East Knoyle and was educated by the Rev. William Shepherd, a local clergyman.
Little is known of Wren 's schooling thereafter, during dangerous times when his father 's Royal associations would have required the family to keep a very low profile from the ruling Parliamentary authorities. It was a tough time in his life, but one which would go on to have a significant impact upon his later works. The story that he was at Westminster School between 1641 and 1646 is substantiated only by Parentalia, the biography compiled by his son, a fourth Christopher, which places him there "for some short time '' before going up to Oxford (in 1650); however, it is entirely consistent with headmaster Doctor Busby 's well - documented practice of educating the sons of impoverished Royalists and Puritans alike, irrespective of current politics or his own position.
Some of Wren 's youthful exercises preserved or recorded (though few are datable) showed that he received a thorough grounding in Latin and also learned to draw. According to Parentalia, he was "initiated '' in the principles of mathematics by Dr William Holder, who married Wren 's elder sister Susan (or Susanna) in 1643. His drawing was put to academic use in providing many of the anatomical drawings for the anatomy textbook of the brain, Cerebri Anatome (1664), published by Thomas Willis, which coined the term "neurology. '' During this time period, Wren manifested an interest in the design and construction of mechanical instruments. It was probably through Holder that Wren met Sir Charles Scarburgh whom Wren assisted in his anatomical studies.
On 25 June 1650, Wren entered Wadham College, Oxford, where he studied Latin and the works of Aristotle. It is anachronistic to imagine that he received scientific training in the modern sense. However, Wren became closely associated with John Wilkins, the Warden of Wadham. The Wilkins circle was a group whose activities led to the formation of the Royal Society, comprising a number of distinguished mathematicians, creative workers and experimental philosophers. This connection probably influenced Wren 's studies of science and mathematics at Oxford. He graduated B.A. in 1651, and two years later received M.A.
Receiving his M.A. in 1653, Wren was elected a fellow of All Souls ' College in the same year and began an active period of research and experiment in Oxford. His days as a fellow of All Souls ended when Wren was appointed Professor of Astronomy at Gresham College, London in 1657. He was provided with a set of rooms and a stipend and was required to give weekly lectures in both Latin and English to all who wished to attend; admission was free. Wren took up this new work with enthusiasm. He continued to meet the men with whom he had frequent discussions in Oxford. They attended his London lectures and in 1660, initiated formal weekly meetings. It was from these meetings that the Royal Society, England 's premier scientific body, was to develop. He undoubtedly played a major role in the early life of what would become the Royal Society; his great breadth of expertise in so many different subjects helping in the exchange of ideas between the various scientists. In fact, the report on one of these meetings reads:
Memorandum November 28, 1660. These persons following according to the usual custom of most of them, met together at Gresham College to hear Mr Wren 's lecture, viz. The Lord Brouncker, Mr Boyle, Mr Bruce, Sir Robert Moray, Sir Paule Neile, Dr Wilkins, Dr Goddard, Dr Petty, Mr Ball, Mr Rooke, Mr Wren, Mr Hill. And after the lecture was ended they did according to the usual manner, withdraw for mutual converse.
In 1662, they proposed a society "for the promotion of Physico - Mathematicall Experimental Learning. '' This body received its Royal Charter from Charles II and "The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge '' was formed. In addition to being a founder member of the Society, Wren was president of the Royal Society from 1680 to 1682.
In 1661, Wren was elected Savilian Professor of Astronomy at Oxford, and in 1669 he was appointed Surveyor of Works to Charles II. From 1661 until 1668 Wren 's life was based in Oxford, although his attendance at meetings of the Royal Society meant that he had to make occasional trips to London.
The main sources for Wren 's scientific achievements are the records of the Royal Society. His scientific works ranged from astronomy, optics, the problem of finding longitude at sea, cosmology, mechanics, microscopy, surveying, medicine and meteorology. He observed, measured, dissected, built models and employed, invented and improved a variety of instruments.
It was probably around this time that Wren was drawn into redesigning a battered St Paul 's Cathedral. Making a trip to Paris in 1665, Wren studied the architecture, which had reached a climax of creativity, and perused the drawings of Bernini, the great Italian sculptor and architect, who himself was visiting Paris at the time. Returning from Paris, he made his first design for St Paul 's. A week later, however, the Great Fire destroyed two - thirds of the city. Wren submitted his plans for rebuilding the city to King Charles II, although they were never adopted. With his appointment as King 's Surveyor of Works in 1669, he had a presence in the general process of rebuilding the city, but was not directly involved with the rebuilding of houses or companies ' halls. Wren was personally responsible for the rebuilding of 51 churches; however, it is not necessarily true to say that each of them represented his own fully developed design.
Wren was knighted 14 November 1673. This honour was bestowed on him after his resignation from the Savilian chair in Oxford, by which time he had already begun to make his mark as an architect, both in services to the Crown and in playing an important part in rebuilding London after the Great Fire.
Additionally, he was sufficiently active in public affairs to be returned as Member of Parliament on four occasions. Wren first stood for Parliament in a by - election in 1667 for the Cambridge University constituency, losing by six votes to Sir Charles Wheler. He was unsuccessful again in a by - election for the Oxford University constituency in 1674, losing to Thomas Thynne. On his third attempt Wren was successful and he sat for Plympton Erle during the Loyal Parliament of 1685 to 1687. Wren was returned for New Windsor on 11 January 1689 in the general election, but his election was declared void on 14 May 1689. He was elected again for New Windsor on 6 March 1690, but this election was declared void on 17 May 1690. Over a decade later he was elected unopposed for Weymouth and Melcombe Regis at the November 1701 general election. He retired at the general election the following year.
By 1669 Wren 's career was well established and it may have been his appointment as Surveyor of the King 's Works in early 1669 that persuaded him that he could finally afford to take a wife. In 1669 the 37 - year - old Wren married his childhood neighbour, the 33 - year - old Faith Coghill, daughter of Sir John Coghill of Bletchingdon. Little is known of Faith 's life or demeanour, but a love letter from Wren survives, which reads, in part:
I have sent your Watch at last & envy the felicity of it, that it should be soe near your side & soe often enjoy your Eye... but have a care for it, for I have put such a spell into it; that every Beating of the Balance will tell you ' tis the Pulse of my Heart, which labors as much to serve you and more trewly than the Watch; for the Watch I beleeve will sometimes lie, and sometimes be idle & unwilling... but as for me you may be confident I shall never...
This brief marriage produced two children: Gilbert, born October 1672, who suffered from convulsions and died at about 18 months old, and Christopher, born February 1675. The younger Christopher was trained by his father to be an architect. It was this Christopher that supervised the topping out ceremony of St Paul 's in 1710 and wrote the famous Parentalia, or, Memoirs of the family of the Wrens. Faith Wren died of smallpox on 3 September 1675. She was buried in the chancel of St Martin - in - the - Fields beside the infant Gilbert. A few days later Wren 's mother - in - law, Lady Coghill, arrived to take the infant Christopher back with her to Oxfordshire to raise.
In 1677, 17 months after the death of his first wife, Wren remarried, this time to Jane Fitzwilliam, daughter of William FitzWilliam, 2nd Baron FitzWilliam and his wife Jane Perry, the daughter of a prosperous London merchant.
She was a mystery to Wren 's friends and companions. Robert Hooke, who often saw Wren two or three times every week, had, as he recorded in his diary, never even heard of her, and was not to meet her till six weeks after the marriage. As with the first marriage, this too produced two children: a daughter Jane (1677 -- 1702); and a son William, "Poor Billy '' born June 1679, who was developmentally delayed.
Like the first, this second marriage was also brief. Jane Wren died of tuberculosis in September 1680. She was buried alongside Faith and Gilbert in the chancel of St Martin - in - the - Fields. Wren was never to marry again; he lived to be over 90 years old and of those years was married only nine.
Bletchingdon was the home of Wren 's brother - in - law William Holder who was rector of the local church. Holder had been a Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford. An intellectual of considerable ability, he is said to have been the figure who introduced Wren to arithmetic and geometry.
Wren 's later life was not without criticisms and attacks on his competence and his taste. In 1712, the Letter Concerning Design of Anthony Ashley Cooper, third Earl of Shaftesbury, circulated in manuscript. Proposing a new British style of architecture, Shaftesbury censured Wren 's cathedral, his taste and his long - standing control of royal works. Although Wren was appointed to the Fifty New Churches Commission in 1711, he was left only with nominal charge of a board of works when the surveyorship started in 1715. On 26 April 1718, on the pretext of failing powers, he was dismissed in favour of William Benson.
The Wren family estate was at The Old Court House in the area of Hampton Court. He had been given a lease on the property by Queen Anne in lieu of salary arrears for building St Paul 's. For convenience Wren also leased a house on St James 's Street in London. According to a 19th - century legend, he would often go to London to pay unofficial visits to St Paul 's, to check on the progress of "my greatest work ''. On one of these trips to London, at the age of ninety, he caught a chill which worsened over the next few days. On 25 February 1723 a servant who tried to awaken Wren from his nap found that he had died.
Wren was laid to rest on 5 March 1723. His remains were placed in the south - east corner of the crypt of St Paul 's beside those of his daughter Jane, his sister Susan Holder, and her husband William. The plain stone plaque was written by Wren 's eldest son and heir, Christopher Wren, Jr. The inscription, which is also inscribed in a circle of black marble on the main floor beneath the centre of the dome, reads:
which translates from Latin as:
His obituary was published in the Post Boy No. 5244 London 2 March 1723:
Sir Christopher Wren who died on Monday last in the 91st year of his age, was the only son of Dr. Chr. Wren, Dean of Windsor & Wolverhampton, Registar of the Garter, younger brother of Dr. Mathew (sic) Wren Ld Bp of Ely, a branch of the ancient family of Wrens of Binchester in the Bishoprick (sic) of Durham 1653. Elected from Wadham into fellowship of All Souls 1657. Professor of Astronomy Gresham College London 1660. Savilian Professor. Oxford After 1666. Surveyor General for Rebuilding the Cathedral Church of St. Paul and the Parochial Churches & all other Public Buildings which he lived to finish 1669. Surveyor General till April 26. 1718 1680. President of the Royal Society 1698. Surveyor General & Sub Commissioner for Repairs to Westminster Abbey by Act of Parliament, continued till death. His body is to be deposited in the Great Vault under the Dome of the Cathedral of St. Paul.
One of Wren 's friends, another great scientist and architect and a fellow Westminster Schoolboy, Robert Hooke said of him "Since the time of Archimedes there scarce ever met in one man in so great perfection such a mechanical hand and so philosophical mind. ''
When a fellow of All Souls, Wren constructed a transparent beehive for scientific observation; he began observing the moon, which was to lead to the invention of micrometers for the telescope. According to Parentalia (pp. 210 - 211), his solid model of the moon attracted the attention of the King who commanded Wren to perfect it and present it to him.
He contrived an artificial Eye, truly and dioptrically made (as large as a Tennis - Ball) representing the Picture as Nature makes it: The Cornea, and Crystalline were Glass, the other Humours, Water.
He experimented on terrestrial magnetism and had taken part in medical experiments while at Wadham College, performing the first successful injection of a substance into the bloodstream (of a dog). In Gresham College, he did experiments involving determining longitude through magnetic variation and through lunar observation to help with navigation, and helped construct a 35 - foot (11 m) telescope with Sir Paul Neile. Wren also studied and improved the microscope and telescope at this time. He had also been making observations of the planet Saturn from around 1652 with the aim of explaining its appearance. His hypothesis was written up in De corpore saturni but before the work was published, Huygens presented his theory of the rings of Saturn. Immediately Wren recognised this as a better hypothesis than his own and De corpore saturni was never published. In addition, he constructed an exquisitely detailed lunar model and presented it to the king. Also his contribution to mathematics should be noted; in 1658, he found the length of an arc of the cycloid using an exhaustion proof based on dissections to reduce the problem to summing segments of chords of a circle which are in geometric progression.
A year into Wren 's appointment as a Savilian Professor in Oxford, the Royal Society was created and Wren became an active member. As Savilian Professor, Wren studied mechanics thoroughly, especially elastic collisions and pendulum motions. He also directed his far - ranging intelligence to the study of meteorology: in 1662 he invented the tipping bucket rain gauge and, in 1663, designed a "weather - clock '' that would record temperature, humidity, rainfall and barometric pressure. A working weather clock based on Wren 's design was completed by Robert Hooke in 1679.
In addition, Wren experimented on muscle functionality, hypothesizing that the swelling and shrinking of muscles might proceed from a fermentative motion arising from the mixture of two heterogeneous fluids. Although this is incorrect, it was at least founded upon observation and may mark a new outlook on medicine: specialisation.
Another topic to which Wren contributed was optics. He published a description of an engine to create perspective drawings and he discussed the grinding of conical lenses and mirrors. Out of this work came another of Wren 's important mathematical results, namely that the hyperboloid of revolution is a ruled surface. These results were published in 1669. In subsequent years, Wren continued with his work with the Royal Society, although after the 1680s his scientific interests seem to have waned: no doubt his architectural and official duties absorbed more time.
It was a problem posed by Wren that serves as an ultimate source to the conception of Newton 's Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis. Robert Hooke had theorised that planets, moving in vacuo, describe orbits around the Sun because of a rectilinear inertial motion by the tangent and an accelerated motion towards the Sun. Wren 's challenge to Halley and Hooke, for the reward of a book worth thirty shillings, was to provide, within the context of Hooke 's hypothesis, a mathematical theory linking the Kepler 's laws with a specific force law. Halley took the problem to Newton for advice, prompting the latter to write a nine - page answer, De motu corporum in gyrum, which was later to be expanded into the Principia.
Mentioned above are only a few of Wren 's scientific works. He also studied other areas, ranging from agriculture, ballistics, water and freezing, light and refraction, to name only a few. Thomas Birch 's History of the Royal Society (1756 -- 57) is one of the most important sources of our knowledge not only of the origins of the Society, but also the day - to - day running of the Society. It is in these records that most of Wren 's known scientific works are recorded.
In Wren 's age, the profession of architect as understood today did not exist. Since the early years of the 17th century it was not unusual for well - educated young men (virtuosi) to take up architecture as a gentlemanly activity, a pursuit widely accepted as a branch of applied mathematics. This is implicit in the writings of Vitruvius and explicit in such 16th century authors as John Dee and Leonard Digges. When Wren was a student at Oxford, he became familiar with Vitruvius ' De architectura and absorbed intuitively the fundamentals of architectural design. In English Medieval tradition, buildings had been constructed to the needs of the patron and the suggestions of building professionals, such as master carpenters or master bricklayers.
Through the Royal Society and his use of optics, the King noticed Wren 's works. In 1661 he was approached by his cousin Matthew with a royal commission, as "one of the best Geometers in Europe '', to direct the re-fortification of Tangier. Wren excused himself on grounds of health. Although this invitation may have arisen from Charles II 's casual opportunism in matching people to tasks, Wren is believed to have been already on the way to practice as an architect. Before the end of 1661 Wren was unofficially advising on the repair of Old St Paul 's Cathedral after two decades of its neglect and distress; his architectural interests were also evident to his associates at the time. Two years later, he set out on his only foreign journey, to Paris and the Île - de-France, during which he undertook the first - hand study of modern design and construction.
By this time, Wren had mastered and thoroughly understood the principles of architecture. Unlike several of his colleagues, who regarded it as a set of rules and formulas for design, he had acquired, understood, and exploited the necessary combination of reason and intuition, experience and imagination.
Wren 's first architectural project was the chapel of Pembroke College in Cambridge, which his uncle, the Bishop of Ely, asked him to design in 1663. The second was the design of the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford, completed in 1668. This, the gift of Archbishop Sheldon to his old university, was influenced by the form of the ancient Theatre of Marcellus in Rome, thus achieving a combination of classical and modern empirical design.
St Paul 's has always been the highlight of Wren 's reputation. His association with it spans his whole architectural career, including the 36 years between the start of the new building and the declaration by parliament of its completion in 1711.
Wren had been involved in repairs of the old cathedral since 1661. In the spring of 1666, he made his first design for a dome for St Paul 's. It was accepted in principle on 27 August 1666. One week later, however, the Great Fire of London reduced two - thirds of the City to a smoking desert and old St Paul 's to a ruin. Wren was most likely at Oxford at the time, but the news, so fantastically relevant to his future, drew him at once to London. Between 5 and 11 September he ascertained the precise area of devastation, worked out a plan for rebuilding the City and submitted it to Charles II. Others also submitted plans. However, no new plan proceeded any further than the paper on which it was drawn. A rebuilding act which provided rebuilding of some essential buildings was passed in 1667. In 1669, the King 's Surveyor of Works died and Wren was promptly installed.
It was not until 1670 that the pace of rebuilding started accelerating. A second rebuilding act was passed that year, raising the tax on coal and thus providing a source of funds for rebuilding of churches destroyed within the City of London. Wren presented his initial "First Model '' for St Paul 's. This plan was accepted, and demolition of the old cathedral began. By 1672, however, this design seemed too modest, and Wren met his critics by producing a design of spectacular grandeur. This modified design, called "Great Model '', was accepted by the King and the construction started in November 1673. However, this design failed to satisfy the chapter and clerical opinion generally; moreover, it had an economic drawback. Wren was confined to a "cathedral form '' desired by the clergy. In 1674 he produced the rather meagre Classical - Gothic compromise known as the Warrant Design. However, this design, called so from the royal warrant of 14 May 1675 attached to the drawings, is not the design upon which work had begun a few weeks before.
The cathedral that Wren started to build bears only a slight resemblance to the Warrant Design. In 1697, the first service was held in the cathedral when Wren was 65. There was still, however, no dome. Finally in 1711 the cathedral was declared complete, and Wren was paid the half of his salary that, in the hope of accelerating progress, Parliament had withheld for 14 years since 1697. The cathedral had been built for 36 years under his direction, and the only disappointment he had about his masterpiece was the dome: against his wishes the commission engaged Thornhill to paint the inner dome in false perspective and finally authorised a balustrade around the proof line. This diluted the hard edge Wren had intended for his cathedral, and elicited the apt parthian comment that "ladies think nothing well without an edging ''.
During the 1670s Wren received significant secular commissions which manifest both the maturity and the variety of his architecture and the sensitivity of his response to diverse briefs.
Among many of his remarkable designs at this time, the monument (1671 -- 76) commemorating the Great Fire also involved Robert Hooke, but Wren was in control of the final design, the Royal Observatory (1675 -- 76), and the Wren Library at Trinity College, Cambridge (1676 -- 84) were the most important ones.
In 1682, Wren advised that the original statues of the King 's Beasts on St George 's Chapel, Windsor be removed. The pinnacles were left bare until 1925, when replica statues were installed.
By historical accident, all Wren 's large - scale secular commissions dated from after the 1680s. At the age of 50 his personal development, as was that of English architecture, was ready for a monumental but humane architecture, in which the scales of individual parts relates both to the whole and to the people who used them. The first large project Wren designed, the Chelsea Hospital (1682 -- 92), does not entirely satisfy the eye in this respect, but met its brief with distinction and such success that even in the 21st century it fulfills its original function. The reconstruction of the state room at Windsor Castle was notable for the integration of architecture, sculpture and painting. This commission was in the hand of Hugh May, who died in February 1684, before the construction finished; Wren assumed his post and finalised the works.
Between 1683 and 1685 he was much occupied in designing the King 's House, Winchester, where Charles II had hoped to spend his declining years, but which was never completed. When Wren promised that it would be complete within a year the King, who was conscious of his mortality, replied that "a year is a great time in my life ''.
After the death of Charles II in 1685, Wren 's attention was directed mainly to Whitehall (1685 -- 87). The new king, James II, required a new chapel and also ordered a new gallery, council chamber and a riverside apartment for the Queen. Later, when James II was removed from the throne, Wren took on architectural projects such as Kensington Palace (1689 -- 96) and Hampton Court (1689 -- 1700).
Wren did not pursue his work on architectural design as actively as he had before the 1690s, although he still played important roles in a number of royal commissions. In 1696 he was appointed Surveyor of Greenwich Naval Hospital, and in 1698 he was appointed Surveyor of Westminster Abbey. He resigned the former role in 1716 but held the latter until his death, approving with a wavering signature Burlington 's revisions of Wren 's own earlier designs for the great Archway of Westminster School.
At his death, Wren was 90 (N.S.). Even the men he had trained and who owed much of their success to Wren 's original and leadership were no longer young. Newer generations of architects were beginning to look past Wren 's style. The Baroque school his apprentices had created was already under fire from a new generation that brushed Wren 's reputation aside and looked back beyond him to Inigo Jones. Architects of the 18th century could not forget Wren, but they could not forgive some elements in his work they deemed unconventional. The churches left the strongest mark on subsequent architecture. In France, where English architecture rarely made much impression, the influence of St Paul 's Cathedral can be seen in the church of Sainte - Geneviève (now the Panthéon); begun in 1757, it rises to a drum and dome similar to St Paul 's, and there are other versions inspired by Wren 's dome, from St Isaac 's (1840 -- 42) in St Petersburg to the US Capitol at Washington, D.C. (1855 -- 65).
In the 20th century the potency of the influence of Wren 's work on English architecture was reduced. The last major architect who admitted to being dependent on him was Sir Edwin Lutyens, who died in 1944. With the purposeful elimination of historic influences from international architecture in the early 20th century, Wren 's work gradually stopped being perceived as a mine of examples applicable to contemporary design.
Since at least the 18th century, the Lodge of Antiquity No. 2, one of the four founding Masonic Lodges of the Premier Grand Lodge of England in 1717, has claimed Christopher Wren to have been its Master at the Goose and Gridiron at St. Paul 's churchyard. Whilst he was rebuilding the cathedral he is said to have been "adopted '' on 18 May 1691 (that is, accepted as a sort of honorary member or patron, rather than an operative). Their 18th - century maul with its 1827 inscription claiming that it was used by Wren for the foundation stone of St. Pauls, belonging to the Lodge and on display in the Library and Museum of Freemasonry in London, corroborates the story. Anderson made the claims in his widely circulated Constitutions while many of Wren 's friends were still alive, but he made many highly creative claims as to the history or legends of Freemasonry. There is also a clear possibility of confusion between the operative workmen 's lodges which might naturally have welcomed the boss, and the "speculative '' or gentlemen 's lodges which became highly fashionable just after Wren 's death. By the standards of his time a gentleman like Wren would not generally join an artisan body; however the workmen of St Paul 's cathedral would naturally have sought the patronage or "interest '' of their employer, and within Wren 's lifetime there was a predominantly gentlemen 's Lodge at the Rummer and Grapes, a mile upriver at Westminster (where Wren had been to School).
In 1788 the Lodge of Antiquity thought they were buying a portrait of Wren which now dominates Lodge Room 10, in the same building as the Museum; but it is now identified with William Talman, not Wren. Nevertheless, this recorded event and many old records attest the fact that Antiquity thought that Wren had been its Master, at a time when it still held its minute books for the relevant years (which were lost by Preston at some date after 1778).
The evidence whether Wren was a speculative freemason is the subject of the Prestonian Lecture of 2011, which concludes on the evidence of two obituaries and Aubrey 's memoirs, with supporting materials, that he did indeed attend the closed meeting in 1691, probably of the Lodge of Antiquity, but that there is nothing to suggest that he was ever a Grand Officer as claimed by Anderson.
At one time Wren was credited with the design of the King 's House at Newmarket, Suffolk. The attribution gave rise to an apocryphal story in which Charles II, who was over six feet tall, complained about the low ceilings. Wren, who was not so tall, replied that "They were high enough! '', at which the king crouched down until he was on a level with his Surveyor and strutted about saying, "Ay, Ay, Sir Christopher, I think they are high enough. ''
Between 20 March 1981 and 20 September 1996 Wren appeared on the reverse of the British £ 50 banknote.
Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford University
Interior, Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford University
Tom Tower, Christ Church, Oxford University
St. Paul 's Cathedral, west front
St. Paul 's Cathedral, north side with the Chapter House (also by Wren)
St. Paul 's Cathedral, south transept & dome
The Lantern, St. Paul 's Cathedral
Top of north - west tower, St. Paul 's Cathedral
The nave of St. Paul 's Cathedral
St. Paul 's Cathedral, interior of the dome
Temple Bar London
Library, Trinity College, Cambridge University
Library, Trinity College, Cambridge University, from the river
Library interior, Trinity College, Cambridge University
Marlborough House, Westminster as designed by Wren
Marlborough House, Westminster as altered
Hampton Court Palace, south front
Hampton Court Palace, east front
Kensington Palace, south front
Royal Hospital Chelsea, south front
Royal Hospital Chelsea, The Chapel
Royal Hospital Chelsea, Dining Hall
Greenwich Hospital, north front
Greenwich Hospital, Painted Hall
Greenwich Hospital, the Dome, Painted Hall
St. Bride 's Fleet Street, spire
St. Mary - le - Bow, steeple
St. Mary - le - Bow, interior
St Benet 's Paul 's Wharf
St. Margaret Pattens
St. Lawrence Jewry
St. Mary Abchurch, interior of dome
St. Mary Abchurch
St. Peter Upon Cornhill
St. Stephen 's Walbrook, exterior
St. Stephen 's Walbrook, interior
Christchurch, Newgate St
St. Magnus - the - Martyr, steeple
St. Magnus - the - Martyr, interior
St. Vedast Foster Lane
St. James Piccadilly
St. James Piccadilly, interior
St. Clement Danes
St. Clement Danes, interior
St. Martin within Ludgate
The Monument to the great fire of London
Emmanuel College, Cambridge University, the Chapel
The Royal Observatory, Greenwich
Theatre Royal Drury Lane, demolished
Library, Lincoln Cathedral
Winslow Hall, Buckinghamshire
The Chapel, Pembroke College, Cambridge University
The interior looking west, The Chapel, Pembroke College, Cambridge University
Windsor Guildhall
Sir John Moore Church of England School, Appleby Magna, Leicestershire
Blue plaque, Hampton Court Green
Christopher Wren 's house
Christopher Wren 's house plaque
Footnotes
Bibliography
|
what was the effect of domesticated animals from europe on america | Columbian Exchange - wikipedia
The Columbian Exchange was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries, related to European colonization and trade after Christopher Columbus 's 1492 voyage. Invasive species, including communicable diseases, were a byproduct of the Exchange. The changes in agriculture significantly altered and changed global populations. However, the most significant immediate impact of the Columbian Exchange was the cultural exchanges and the transfer of people between continents. Furthermore, a byproduct of the Columbian Exchange was the Atlantic slave trade, where as many as 12.5 million enslaved African people were forcibly transferred as a labor source to other regions.
The new contact between the global population circulated a wide variety of crops and livestock, which supported increases in population in both hemispheres, although diseases initially caused precipitous declines in the numbers of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Traders returned to Europe with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, which became very important crops in Europe by the 18th century.
The term was first used in 1972 by American historian Alfred W. Crosby in his environmental history book The Columbian Exchange. It was rapidly adopted by other historians and journalists and has become widely known.
In 1972 Alfred W. Crosby, an American historian at the University of Texas at Austin, published The Columbian Exchange. This book covers the environmental impact of Columbus ' landing in the new world.
The term has become popular among historians and journalists, such as Charles C. Mann, whose book 1493 expands and updates Crosby 's original research.
Before 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of South America. By the 1840s, Ireland was so dependent on the potato that the proximate cause of the Great Famine was a potato disease. Potatoes eventually became an important staple of the diet in much of Europe. Many European rulers, including Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia, encouraged the cultivation of the potato.
Maize and cassava, introduced to the Portuguese from South America in the 16th century, have replaced sorghum and millet as Africa 's most important food crops. 16th - century Spanish colonizers introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including maize and sweet potatoes, and thereby contributed to population growth in Asia.
Tomatoes, which came to Europe from the New World via Spain, were initially prized in Italy mainly for their ornamental value (see below). From the 19th century tomato sauces became typical of Neapolitan cuisine and, ultimately, Italian cuisine in general. Coffee (introduced in the Americas circa 1720) from Africa and the Middle East and sugarcane (introduced from South Asia) from the Spanish West Indies became the main export commodity crops of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, chili and potatoes from South America have become an integral part of Indian cuisine.
Before the Columbian Exchange, there were no oranges in Florida, no bananas in Ecuador, no paprika in Hungary, no potatoes in Ireland, no coffee in Colombia, no pineapples in Hawaii, no rubber trees in Africa, no chili peppers in Thailand, no tomatoes in Italy, and no chocolate in Switzerland.
It took three centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become widely accepted. Of all the New World plants introduced to Italy, only the potato took as long as the tomato to gain acceptance. In large part this was due to 16th - century physicians believing that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous and the generator of "melancholic humours. '' In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no record exists of anyone consuming them at this time. On October 31, 1548 the tomato was given its first name anywhere in Europe when a house steward of Cosimo I de ' Medici, Duke of Florence, wrote to the De ' Medici 's private secretary that the basket of pomi d'oro "had arrived safely. '' At this time, the label pomi d'oro was also used to refer to figs, melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.
In the early years, tomatoes were mainly grown as ornamentals in Italy. For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovan Vettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their beauty '' and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. Tomatoes were grown in elite town and country gardens in the fifty years or so following their arrival in Europe and were only occasionally depicted in works of art. However, in 1592 the head gardener at the botanical garden of Aranjuez near Madrid, under the patronage of Philip II of Spain wrote, "it is said (tomatoes) are good for sauces. '' Besides this account, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, but rarely for culinary use. The combination of pasta with tomato sauce was developed only in the late nineteenth century. Today around 32,000 acres (12,950 ha) of tomatoes are cultivated in Italy, although there are still areas where relatively few tomatoes are grown and consumed.
Initially, at least, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went through one route, from Europe to the New World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. Horses, donkeys, mules, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, large dogs, cats and bees were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and other uses. One of the first European exports to the Americas, the horse, changed the lives of many Native American tribes in the mountains. They shifted to a nomadic lifestyle, as opposed to agriculture, based on hunting bison on horseback and moved down to the Great Plains. The existing Plains tribes expanded their territories with horses, and the animals were considered so valuable that horse herds became a measure of wealth.
Still, the effects of the introduction of European livestock on the environments and peoples of the New World were not always positive. In the Caribbean, the proliferation of European animals had large effects on native fauna and undergrowth and damaged conucos, plots managed by indigenous peoples for subsistence.
European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of quinine, the first effective treatment for malaria. Europeans suffered from this disease, but some indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause sickle - cell disease.
Before regular communication had been established between the two hemispheres, the varieties of domesticated animals and infectious diseases that jumped to humans, such as smallpox, were substantially more numerous in the Old World than in the New due to more extensive long - distance trade networks. Many had migrated west across Eurasia with animals or people, or were brought by traders from Asia, so diseases of two continents were suffered by all occupants. While Europeans and Asians were affected by the Eurasian diseases, their endemic status in those continents over centuries resulted in many people gaining acquired immunity.
By contrast, "Old World '' diseases had a devastating effect when introduced to Native American populations via European carriers, as the people in the Americas had no natural immunity to the new diseases. Measles caused many deaths. The smallpox epidemics are believed to have caused the largest death tolls among Native Americans, surpassing any wars and far exceeding the comparative loss of life in Europe due to the Black Death. It is estimated that upwards of 80 -- 95 percent of the Native American population died in these epidemics within the first 100 -- 150 years following 1492. Many regions in the Americas lost 100 %. The beginning of demographic collapse on the North American continent has typically been attributed to the spread of a well - documented smallpox epidemic from Hispaniola in December 1518. At that point in time, approximately only 10,000 indigenous people were still alive in Hispaniola.
Similarly, yellow fever is thought to have been brought to the Americas from Africa via the Atlantic slave trade. Because it was endemic in Africa, many people there had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did African - descended persons when exposed to yellow fever in Africa and the Americas, where numerous epidemics swept the colonies beginning in the 17th century and continuing into the late 19th century. The disease caused widespread fatalities in the Caribbean during the heyday of slave - based sugar plantation. The replacement of native forests by sugar plantations and factories facilitated its spread in the tropical area by reducing the number of potential natural predators. Yet, the means of the transmission was unknown until 1881, when Carlos Finlay suggested that the disease was transmitted through mosquitoes, now known to be female mosquitoes of the species Aedes aegypti.
The history of syphilis has been well - studied, but the exact origin of the disease is unknown and remains a subject of debate. There are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the Americas by the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized. These are referred to as the "Columbian '' and "pre-Columbian '' hypotheses. The first written descriptions of the disease in the Old World came in 1493. The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494 / 1495 in Naples, Italy, among the army of Charles VIII, during their invasion of Naples.
Prior to the trans - Atlantic slave trade, Columbus directly participated in and championed the slave trade. Upon landing in what is now known and assumed to be San Salvador Island, Columbus encountered the Taíno. In his journal of 1492, Columbus noted that
It appears to me, that the people are ingenious and would be good servants and I am of opinion that they would very readily become Christians, as they appear to have no religion. They very quickly learn such words as are spoken to them. If it please our Lord, I intend at my return to carry home six of them to your Highnesses, that they may learn our language.
The idea of enslaving the Tainos had instantly struck Columbus as plausible, even desirable. "They ought to be good servants, '' he continued, "and of good skill, for I see they repeat very quickly whatever was said to them. '' As part of his journey,
Columbus had planned to inaugurate a regular slave trade between the Indies and Spain. With gold in short supply, the slave trade gradually took on greater urgency. Portugal and Genoa had their slave trade, why not Spain? Columbus set about establishing a slave trade including both Caribs and Tainos.
However, it was not until the colonized lands emerged as profitable plantation lands that the use of West African people as slaves transformed the globe.
Following Columbus were a series of Spaniards seeking to expand the Spanish empire while at the same time increasing their own power and wealth. Such an example was explorer Hernán Cortés. Cortés was interested in expanding the Spanish - controlled lands and often disobeyed his rulers in the process. However, the Spanish royalty was struggling to accurately define the policy related to the enslavement of the Taínos and other Caribbean people. Mann notes that "obtaining the wealth of the Americas would involve subjugating people who had committed no offense against Spain ''. Like Cortez, Columbus angered the Spanish royalty through subjugating and enslaving the native people. For example, Columbus sent 550 Taíno to Seville in 1495. The parade of enslaved Taíno in Seville angered Queen Isabella to the point that she ordered the Spanish to send the enslaved people back to the Americas. By 1503, the Spanish solidified their policy through the implementation of the encomienda system. This system was supposed to ensure the safety and freedom of the Taíno and other indigenous populations, while also converting them to Christianity. To achieve these goals, Spaniards were appointed as trustees who oversaw the religious instruction and treatment of the people. However, the trustees did not like working with the Taíno, and the Taíno resisted the efforts of the Spaniards. For the Taíno, this system represented a "legal justification for slavery '' and the Spaniards justified the enslavement of the people through arguing that the Taíno were "less human than Europeans ''.
These earlier forays into the enslavement of people laid the foundation for the future trans - Atlantic slave trade. Like other enslaved people, the Taíno and other enslaved Indians had periods of rebellion. Indigenous peoples in what is now known as New Mexico resisted early Spanish colonization and enslavement, resulting in the Acoma Massacre under Juan de Oñate at Acoma Pueblo. In recounting this event, it was said,
(W) hat had happened was that the Indians, as soon as they saw that the forces were divided, began to attack and kill. So this witness fell back immediately with his soldiers to rejoin the maese de campo, followed by the Indians who had hitherto accompanied this witness. They paused the Spaniards in large groups, and began to hurl countless stones, arrows, and clubs, not only from the ground but from the terraces, both men and women participating in the attack.
When the colonized lands emerged as profitable plantation lands, the Spanish and other colonizers increased the importation of Africans as enslaved laborers, altering global demographics.
The trans - Atlantic Slave Trade represents the largest migration in human history. While many Europeans migrated to the Americas, it was enslaved Africans that dominated the North and South American continents. The Columbian Exchange saw the rise of luxury goods which necessitated cheap or free labor to produce the largest potential profit. One of these luxury goods was sugar. In the early history of sugar, Islamic and European - owned plantations paid relatively high wages for this labor - intensive and profitable crop. However, as time progressed the European - sugar plantation owners reconsidered the use of highly paid labor and made the transition to the exploitation of people to meet the growing global sugar demand. In the 1440s, the Portuguese discovered that the Madeira Islands were suited not to the growth of wheat but rather sugarcane. It was in Madeira that the early system of Iberian slavery was transformed. Originally, the enslaved people who worked on the Madeira sugarcane plantations were convicts, Guanches (persons from the Canary Islands), Berbers (individuals from Northwest Africa), and Conversos (Iberian Jewish people). As time passed, these early enslaved people were replaced by enslaved Africans from the West - Central African regions). Eventually, by the 1560s and 1570s sugarcane plantations in Brazil dominated the sugar industry and Madeira switched from sugarcane production to wine.
The use of slave labor was not regulated to only the sugarcane plantations. Rather, slave labor was used in coffee, tobacco and even grains such as rice. In these systems, the enslaved people had little power, however, they did have some influence in agricultural methods. For example, in the rice production there is some evidence that slaves from Africa utilized traditional methods in the production of rice. Furthermore, enslaved Africans were responsible for growing their own food. In these cases, the enslaved people preferred rice that was part of their culture as opposed to the European preference for Carolina rice. However, in a system of power and control the slaves were eventually banned from using their preferred rice Therefore, the system of slavery transmitted not only the people but also their cultures to new regions.
One of the influences related to the migration of people were cultural exchanges. For example, in the article "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500 -- 1800 '' Pieter Remmer makes the point that "from 1500 onward, a ' clash of cultures ' had begun in the Atlantic ''. This clash of culture transferred European values to indigenous cultures. For example, the emergence of private property in regions where there were little to no rights to lands, the concepts of monogamy and the nuclear family, the role of women and children in the family system, and the "superiority of free labor ''. An example of this type of cultural exchange occurred during the 1500s in North America. When these early European colonizers first entered North America, they encountered fence-less lands which indicated to them that this land was unimproved. For these Europeans, they were seeking economic opportunities, therefore, land and resources were important for the success of the mission. When these colonizers entered North America they encountered a fully established culture of people called the Powhatan. The Powhatan farmers in Virginia scattered their farm plots within larger cleared areas. These larger cleared areas were a communal place for naturally growing and useful plants. As the Europeans viewed fences as "hallmarks of civilization '' they set about transforming "the land into something more suitable for themselves ''. In implementing their practices, the Europeans enslaved, murdered, and exploited indigenous populations. Furthermore, in cases of enslaved peoples (and in particular, enslaved Africans) the Europeans simultaneously implemented their value system while at the same time justifying enslaving people through a philosophy which reduced the enslaved people to property. Thus, the slave traders and some of the plantation owners used the concept of family to exploit and control the enslaved people. In other subtle ways, which had a large impact the cultural exchanges involved sharing practices and traditions. An example of this can be found in the Tobacco industry.
Tobacco was one of the luxury goods which was spread as a direct result of the Columbian Exchange. As is discussed in regard to the trans - Atlantic Slave trade, the Tobacco Industry resulted in increased demands for free labor and the spread of Tobacco worldwide. In discussing the widespread uses of tobacco, the Spanish physician Nicolas Monardes (1493 -- 1588) noted that "The black people that have gone from these parts to the Indies, has taken the same manner and use of the Tobacco, that the Indians have ''. As the European colonizers and enslaved Africans traveled the globe and came into contact with indigenous people they took the cultural practices related to tobacco, adopted them, and then spread them to additional regions. As such, there were growing demands for tobacco which were linked to the cultural exchanges and increased contact between people.
Plants that arrived by land, sea, or air in the times before 1492 are called archaeophytes, and plants introduced to Europe after those times are called neophytes. Invasive species of plants and pathogens also were introduced by chance, including such weeds as tumbleweeds (Salsola spp.) and wild oats (Avena fatua). Some plants introduced intentionally, such as the kudzu vine introduced in 1894 from Japan to the United States to help control soil erosion, have since been found to be invasive pests in the new environment.
Fungi have also been transported, such as the one responsible for Dutch elm disease, killing American elms in North American forests and cities, where many had been planted as street trees. Some of the invasive species have become serious ecosystem and economic problems after establishing in the New World environments. A beneficial, although probably unintentional, introduction is Saccharomyces eubayanus, the yeast responsible for lager beer now thought to have originated in Patagonia.
In addition to these, many animals were introduced to new habitats on the other side of the world either accidentally or incidentally. These include such animals as brown rats, earthworms (apparently absent from parts of the pre-Columbian New World), and zebra mussels, which arrived on ships. Escaped and feral populations of non-indigenous animals have thrived in both the Old and New Worlds, often negatively impacting or displacing native species. In the New World, populations of feral European cats, pigs, horses and cattle are common, and Burmese pythons are considered problematic. In the Old World, Eastern gray squirrel have been particularly successful in colonising Great Britain and populations of raccoons can now be found in some regions of Germany, the Caucasus and Japan. Fur farm escapees such as coypu and American mink have extensive populations. Canada geese are also common.
|
name of member who wrote constitution of india | Constitution of India - Wikipedia
The Constitution of India (IAST: Bhāratīya Saṃvidhāna) is the supreme law of India. The document lays down the framework demarcating fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles and the duties of citizens. It the longest written constitution of any country on earth. B.R. Ambedkar, chairman of the drafting committee, is widely considered to be its chief architect.
It imparts constitutional supremacy (not parliamentary supremacy, since it was created by a constituent assembly rather than Parliament), and was adopted by its people with a declaration in its preamble. Parliament can not override the constitution.
It was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26 November 1949, and became effective on 26 January 1950. The constitution replaced the Government of India Act, 1935 as the country 's fundamental governing document, and the Dominion of India became the republic of India. To ensure constitutional autochthony, its framers repealed prior acts of the British parliament in Article 395. India celebrates its constitution on 26 January as Republic Day.
The constitution declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic, assuring its citizens justice, equality and liberty, and endeavours to promote fraternity.
Most of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1857 to 1947. The constitution of India repealed the Indian Independence Act 1947 and Government of India Act, 1935 when it became effective on 26 January 1950. India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown and became a sovereign democratic republic with the constitution. Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392, 393 and 394 of the constitution came into force on 26 November 1949, and the remaining articles became effective on 26 January 1950.
The constitution was drawn from a number of sources. Mindful of India 's needs and conditions. its framers borrowed features of previous legislation, such as the Government of India Act 1858, the Indian Councils Acts of 1861, 1892 and 1909, the Government of India Acts of 1919 and 1935, and the Indian Independence Act 1947. The latter, which led to the creation of India and Pakistan, divided the former Constituent Assembly in two. Each new assembly had sovereign power to draft and enact a new constitution for the separate states.
The constitution was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by elected members of the provincial assemblies. The 389 - member assembly (reduced to 299 after the partition of India) took almost three years to draft the constitution, holding eleven sessions over a 165 - day period.
B.R. Ambedkar, Sanjay Phakey, Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Rajendra Prasad, Vallabhbhai Patel, Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi, Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar, Sandipkumar Patel, Abul Kalam Azad, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Nalini Ranjan Ghosh, and Balwantrai Mehta were key figures in the assembly, which had over 30 representatives of the scheduled classes. Frank Anthony represented the Anglo - Indian community, and the Parsis were represented by H.P. Modi. Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a Christian assembly vice-president, chaired the minorities committee and represented non-Anglo - Indian Christians. Ari Bahadur Gurung represented the Gorkha community. Judges, such as Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, Benegal Narsing Rau, K.M. Munshi and Ganesh Mavlankar were members of the assembly. Female members included Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Durgabai Deshmukh, Amrit Kaur and Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.
The first, two - day president of the assembly was Sachchidananda Sinha; Rajendra Prasad was later elected president. It met for the first time on 9 December 1946.
Benegal Narsing Rau, a civil servant who became the first Indian judge in the International Court of Justice and was president of the United Nations Security Council, was appointed as the assembly 's constitutional adviser in 1946. Responsible for the constitution 's general structure, Rau prepared its initial draft in February 1948.
At the 14 August 1947 meeting of the assembly, committees were proposed. Rau 's draft was considered, debated and amended by the eight - person drafting committee, which was appointed on 29 August 1947 with B.R. Ambedkar as chair. A revised draft constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the assembly on 4 November 1947.
While deliberating the revised draft constitution, the assembly moved, discussed and disposed off 2,473 amendments out of a total of 7,635. Before adopting the constitution, the assembly held eleven sessions in 165 days. On 26 November 1949 it adopted the constitution, which was signed by 284 members. The day is celebrated as National Law Day, or Constitution Day.
The assembly 's final session convened on 24 January 1950. Each member signed two copies of the constitution, one in Hindi and the other in English. The original constitution is hand - written, with each page decorated by artists from Shantiniketan including Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and Nandalal Bose. Its calligrapher was Prem Behari Narain Raizada. The constitution was published in Dehradun and photolithographed by the Survey of India. Production of the original constitution took nearly five years. Two days later, on 26 January 1950, it became the law of India. The estimated cost of the Constituent Assembly was ₹ 6.3 crore (₹ 63 million). The constitution has had a number of amendments since it was enacted. The original 1950 constitution is preserved in a helium - filled case at the Parliament House in New Delhi.
The Indian constitution is the world 's longest for a sovereign nation. At its enactment, it had 395 articles in 22 parts and 8 schedules. At about 145,000 words, it is the second - longest active constitution -- after the Constitution of Alabama -- in the world.
The constitution has a preamble and 448 articles, which are grouped into 25 parts. With 12 schedules and five appendices, it has been amended 101 times; the latest amendment became effective on 1 July 2017.
The constitution 's articles are grouped into the following parts:
Schedules are lists in the constitution which categorise and tabulate bureaucratic activity and government policy.
The executive, legislative and judicial branches of government receive their power from the constitution and are bound by it. With the aid of its constitution, India is governed by a parliamentary system of government with the executive directly accountable to the legislature. The President of India is head of the executive branch, under Articles 52 and 53, with the duty of preserving, protecting and defending the constitution and the law under Article 60. Article 74 provides for a Prime Minister as head of the Council of Ministers, which aids and advises the president in the performance of their constitutional duties. The council is answerable to the lower house under Article 75 (3).
The constitution is considered federal in nature, and unitary in spirit. It has features of a federation (a codified, supreme constitution, a three - tier governmental structure (central, state and local), division of powers, bicameralism and an independent judiciary) and unitary features such as a single constitution, single citizenship, an integrated judiciary, a flexible constitution, a strong central government, appointment of state governors by the central government, All India Services (the IAS, IFS and IPS) and emergency provisions. This unique combination makes it quasi-federal in form.
Each state and union territory has its own government. Analogous to the president and prime minister, each has a governor or (in union territories) a lieutenant governor and a chief minister. Article 356 permits the president to dismiss a state government and assume direct authority if a situation arises in which state government can not be conducted in accordance were constitution. This power, known as president 's rule, was abused as state governments came to be dismissed on flimsy grounds for political reasons. After the S.R. Bommai v. Union of India decision, such a course of action is more difficult since the courts have asserted their right of review.
The 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts introduced the system of panchayati raj in rural areas and Nagar Palikas in urban areas. Article 370 gives special status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
Amendments are additions, variations or repeal of any part of the constitution by Parliament. The procedure is detailed in Article 368. An amendment bill must be passed by each house of Parliament by a with a two - thirds majority of its total membership when at least two - thirds are present and vote. Certain amendments pertaining to the constitution 's federal nature must also be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. Unlike ordinary bills in accordance with Article 245 (except for money bills), there is no provision for a joint session of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha to pass a constitutional amendment. During a parliamentary recess, the president can not promulgate ordinances under his legislative powers under Article 123, Chapter III. Deemed amendments to the constitution which can be passed under the legislative powers of parliament were invalidated by Article 368 (1) in the Twenty - fourth Amendment.
By July 2018, 124 amendment bills had been presented in Parliament; of these, 101 became Amendment Acts. Despite the supermajority requirement for amendments to pass, the Indian constitution is the world 's most frequently - amended national governing document. The constitution is so specific in spelling out government powers that many amendments address issues dealt with by statute in other democracies.
In 2000, the Justice Manepalli Narayana Rao Venkatachaliah Commission was formed to examine a constitutional update. The government of India establishes term - based law commissions to recommend legal reforms, facilitating the rule of law.
In Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, the Supreme Court ruled that an amendment can not destroy what it seeks to modify; it can not tinker with the constitution 's basic structure or framework, which are immutable. Such an amendment will be declared invalid, although no part of the constitution is protected from amendment; the basic structure doctrine does not protect any one provision of the constitution. According to the doctrine, the constitution 's basic features (when "read as a whole '') can not be abridged or abolished. These "basic features '' have not been fully defined, and whether a particular provision of the constitution is a "basic feature '' is decided by the courts.
The Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala decision laid down the constitution 's basic structure:
This implies that Parliament can only amend the constitution to the limit of its basic structure. The Supreme Court or a high court may declare the amendment null and void if this is violated, after a judicial review. This is typical of parliamentary governments, where the judiciary checks parliamentary power.
In its 1967 Golak Nath v. State of Punjab decision, the Supreme Court ruled that the state of Punjab could not restrict any fundamental rights protected by the basic structure doctrine. The extent of land ownership and practice of a profession, in this case, were considered fundamental rights. The ruling was overturned with the ratification of the 24th Amendment in 1971.
The judiciary is the final arbiter of the constitution. Its duty (mandated by the constitution) is to act as a watchdog, preventing any legislative or executive act from overstepping constitutional bounds. The judiciary protects the fundamental rights of the people (enshrined in the constitution) from infringement by any state body, and balances the conflicting exercise of power between the central government and a state (or states).
The courts are expected to remain unaffected by pressure exerted by other branches of the state, citizens or interest groups. An independent judiciary has been held as a basic feature of the constitution, which can not be changed by the legislature or the executive.
Judicial review was adopted by the constitution of India from judicial review in the United States. In the Indian constitution, judicial review is dealt with in Article 13. The constitution is the supreme power of the nation, and governs all laws. According to Article 13,
Due to the adoption of the Thirty - eighth Amendment, the Supreme Court was not allowed to preside over any laws adopted during a state of emergency which infringe fundamental rights under article 32 (the right to constitutional remedies). The Forty - second Amendment widened Article 31C and added Articles 368 (4) and 368 (5), stating that any law passed by Parliament could not be challenged in court. The Supreme Court ruled in Minerva Mills v. Union of India that judicial review is a basic characteristic of the constitution, overturning Articles 368 (4), 368 (5) and 31C.
According to Granville Austin, "The Indian constitution is first and foremost a social document, and is aided by its Parts III & IV (Fundamental Rights & Directive Principles of State Policy, respectively) acting together, as its chief instruments and its conscience, in realising the goals set by it for all the people. '' The constitution has deliberately been worded in generalities (not in vague terms) to ensure its flexibility. John Marshall, the fourth Chief Justice of the United States, said that a constitution 's "great outlines should be marked, its important objects designated, and the minor ingredients which compose those objects be deduced from the nature of the objects themselves. '' A document "intended to endure for ages to come '', it must be interpreted not only based on the intention and understanding of its framers, but in the existing social and political context.
The "right to life '' guaranteed under Article 21 has been expanded to include a number of human rights, including the right to a speedy trial,; the right to water; the right to earn a livelihood, the right to health, and the right to education.
At the conclusion of his book, Making of India 's Constitution, retired Supreme Court of India justice Hans Raj Khanna wrote:
If the Indian constitution is our heritage bequeathed to us by our founding fathers, no less are we, the people of India, the trustees and custodians of the values which pulsate within its provisions! A constitution is not a parchment of paper, it is a way of life and has to be lived up to. Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty and in the final analysis, its only keepers are the people. ''
|
distance from las vegas to red wood forest | Red Rock Canyon National Conservation area - wikipedia
The Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area in Nevada is an area managed by the Bureau of Land Management as part of its National Landscape Conservation System, and protected as a National Conservation Area. It is located about 15 miles (24 km) west of Las Vegas, and is easily seen from the Las Vegas Strip. The area is visited by more than two million people each year.
The conservation area showcases a set of large red rock formations: a set of sandstone peaks and walls called the Keystone Thrust. The walls are up to 3,000 feet (910 m) high, making them a popular hiking and rock climbing destination. The highest point is La Madre Mountain, at 8,154 feet (2,485 m).
A one - way loop road, 13 miles (21 km) long, provides vehicle access to many of the features in the area. Several side roads and parking areas allow access to many of the area trails. A visitor center is located at the start of the loop road. The loop road is also very popular for bicycle touring; it begins with a moderate climb, then is mostly downhill or flat.
Red Rock Canyon is a side - canyon accessible only by an unmaintained primitive road from the scenic loop which mostly only off - road or high clearance vehicles can access. State Route 159 cuts through an unnamed but often - visited valley; it is commonly, but mistakenly, referred to as Red Rock Canyon. The Wilson Cliffs, or Keystone Thrust, a massive wall of rock, can be seen to the west from SR 159.
Towards the southern end of the National Conservation Area are Spring Mountain Ranch State Park; Bonnie Springs, a replica of a western ghost town; and the village of Blue Diamond.
The first humans were attracted to the Red Rock area due to its resources of water, plant, and animal life that could not be easily found in the surrounding desert. Hunters and gatherers such as the historical Southern Paiute and the much older Archaic, or Desert Culture Native Americans, have successively occupied this area.
As many as six different Native American cultures may have been present at Red Rock over the millennia. The following chronology is an approximation, from the present to ancient pre-history:
Numerous petroglyphs, as well as pottery fragments, remain today throughout the area. In addition, several roasting pits used by the early Native Americans at Red Rock provide further evidence of human activity in the past.
In the early 1900s, around the time the first European Americans settled in nearby Las Vegas, a small sandstone quarry was operated by the Excelsior Company near the northern area of the scenic loop. It proved to be uneconomical and was shut down. Evidence of the quarry 's existence includes some of the huge sandstone blocks that have been left behind.
The Red Rocks have been used as a film location for such movies as Roy Rogers and his horse Trigger in Bells of San Angelo (1947) and was a location for The Stalking Moon with Gregory Peck in 1968.
In 1967, the Bureau of Land Management designated 10,000 acres (4,000 ha) as the Red Rock Recreation Lands. By 1990, special legislation changed the status of the Red Rock Recreation Lands to a National Conservation Area, a status that also provides funds used to maintain and protect it.
The Howard Hughes Corporation, developer of Summerlin, has transferred land adjacent to the protected area, to provide a buffer between development and the conservation area. On the west side, Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area is adjacent to the Spring Mountains National Recreation Area.
The conservation area is one of the easternmost parts of the Mojave Desert; the lowest elevation of the area, from 3,600 to 4,500 feet (1,100 to 1,400 m), is in the Lower Sonoran Zone, while the area from 4,500 feet (1,400 m) up is in the Upper Sonoran Zone. The character of the sandstone layers is such that a number of year - round springs may be found in the recesses of the side canyons.
Some 600 species of plants are known in the area. Common types in the valley floor include the Joshua tree, Mojave yucca, banana yucca, creosote, and blackbrush. Higher up the Utah juniper and Sonoran scrub oak (also called scrub live oak) come to dominate. Agave is easy to spot in red rock niches, with its thick low leaves and flowering stem that reaches twice the height of a man. The Calico Tanks trail has a plaque about prehistoric agave roasting pits. Ponderosa pines may be found at the top of the valley, where it connects to the Spring Mountains.
Wild burros are a familiar sight, as are rabbits and ground squirrels. Desert bighorn sheep are occasionally seen at higher elevations. During rare spring and summer rainstorms, tiny red - spotted toads can be seen emerging from pools of water.
The Conservation Area is protected habitat for the desert tortoise. A habitat at the Visitor Center houses eight females and two males. One of the males, Mojave Max, is a mascot tortoise for the Clark County Desert Conservation Program; he is used in educational programs.
The Red Rock area has a complex geological history, which over millions of years, helped to create the dramatic landscape that characterizes the region.
The Red Rock area was located under an ocean basin during the Paleozoic Era 600 million years ago. Up to 9,000 feet of limey sediments were deposited and eventually lithified to limestone. During the Mesozoic Era 250 million years ago, the earth 's crust started to rise due to tectonic shifts, and marine shales and sandstones were deposited. As the basin became isolated evaporite formations of salt and gypsum were deposited. Oxidation of the iron minerals in the sediments resulted in the red colors of some of the rocks. Deposition by streams and in swamp environments resulted in the formation of petrified wood in the area.
By 180 million years ago, the climate continued to change and the area became a desert featuring vast expanses of huge shifting sand dunes. These dunes accumulated over a broad area, up to a half mile thick, and were lithified, cemented with calcium carbonate and iron oxides. They developed as the colorful Aztec Sandstone.
During a mountain - building period called the Laramide orogeny around 66 million years ago, the Keystone Thrust Fault developed. The Keystone is part of a series of thrust faults which ran through much of western North America and through the Red Rock Conservation Area. The movement of this fault forced the older gray sedimentary rock over the younger red rocks, forming the varicolored landscape that can be seen in the mountain today. The thrust is exposed over a distance of 13 miles along the Red Rock escarpment.
The Lee Canyon thrust plate may contain over 4,000 ft (1,200 m) of terrigenous rocks at the base. The Wheeler Pass thrust may contain at least 11,000 ft (3,300 m) of these rocks as well.
Red Rock provides a wide variety of activities, the most popular being hiking, biking, rock scrambling, and rock climbing. Horseback riding and camping are also allowed on specific trails and in designated areas. Automobile and motorcycle clubs often conduct group drives through the 13 - mile scenic drive. ATV use is not permitted in the area.
Aside from the obvious dangers from climbing rock faces and cliffs, visitors are informed that temperatures can routinely exceed 105 ° F (41 ° C) in the summer, so they must bring plenty of water. Visitors hiking into the backcountry off established trails are advised against traveling alone, and should inform other people of their plans. Risks include the presence of venomous rattlesnakes and flash flooding / lightning from thunderstorms.
Although the Yosemite - size walls offer a host of challenging lines, technical climbing activity was not recorded before 1968. The first modern routes, climbed in the early 1970s, are described in several books. The rock is Aztec Sandstone, a relatively solid variety with a hard surface varnish. Many climbs involve ascents of single crack systems hundreds of feet long.
The climbs of Red Rock cover a broad range of length and difficulty. The long, easy routes had made the area a common climbing training ground, but the canyon also offers many difficult climbs as well. In recent decades, this broad appeal and the classic nature of many routes has made the area an international destination for rock climbers.
Popular sport climbing areas include the Calico Hills and Sandstone Quarry. Red Rock has a multitude of traditional climbing areas, including single - pitch areas such as Brass Wall and Necromancer Wall, along with multi-pitch areas such as Eagle Wall, Aeolian Wall, Mescalito, and Solar Slab. Long free and big - wall aid routes are found on features such as the Rainbow Wall, first climbed over three days in 1973 by Joe Herbst and Larry Hamilton.
Red Rock has hiking trails. There is a hiking trail map here. There are also picnic areas. Trails are changed and diverted depending upon the needs of the ecosystem. In early spring, depending upon the precipitation, waterfalls may be seen on the edge of the canyons. Popular trails within the vicinity of the scenic drive loop include:
Wildfires occur in Red Rock. From the loop area, visitors may see both the damage caused by these events as well as the ability of the desert to heal itself over time.
Recent fires seemed to have been in part fueled by the thick growth of invasive, non-native red brome and cheat grasses. They also compete with the native plants in the area for resources. So far the Bureau of Land Management has not developed plans to control these weeds, as control methods such as using herbicides can be both costly anddamaging to the native plants.
Several significant wildfires have burned within the Red Rock Canyon NCA in recent years, including:
Red Rock welcome sign
Wild burros at RRNCA
Joshua tree with Calico Hills in the background
Outcrop of the Aztec Sandstone (Lower Jurassic) showing distorted eolian sand beds
Calico Hills
Bridge Mountain.
Calico basin
Spring wildflowers in RRCNCA
Winter scene with snow in RRCNCA
|
how many slots are on the wheel of fortune bonus wheel | Wheel of Fortune (U.S. game show) - Wikipedia
Wheel of Fortune (often known simply as Wheel) is an American television game show created by Merv Griffin. The show features a competition in which contestants solve word puzzles, similar to those used in Hangman, to win cash and prizes determined by spinning a giant carnival wheel.
Wheel originally aired as a daytime series on NBC from January 6, 1975, to June 30, 1989. After some changes were made to its format, the daytime series moved to CBS from July 17, 1989, to January 11, 1991. It then returned to NBC from January 14, 1991, until it was cancelled on September 20, 1991. The popularity of the daytime series led to a nightly syndicated edition being developed, which premiered on September 19, 1983, and continues to air to this day.
The network version was originally hosted by Chuck Woolery and Susan Stafford, with Charlie O'Donnell as its announcer. O'Donnell left in 1980 and was replaced by Jack Clark. After Clark 's death in 1988, M.G. Kelly took over briefly as announcer until O'Donnell returned in 1989. O'Donnell remained on the network version until its cancellation, and continued to announce on the syndicated show until his death in 2010, when Jim Thornton succeeded him. Woolery left in 1981, and was replaced by Pat Sajak. Sajak left the network version in January 1989 to host his own late - night talk show, and was replaced on that version by Rolf Benirschke. Bob Goen replaced Benirschke when the network show moved to CBS, then remained as host until the network show was canceled altogether. Stafford left in 1982, and was replaced by Vanna White, who remained on the network show for the rest of its run. The syndicated version has been hosted continuously by Sajak and White since its inception.
Wheel of Fortune ranks as the longest - running syndicated game show in the United States, with over 6,000 episodes aired. TV Guide named it the "top - rated syndicated series '' in a 2008 article, and in 2013, the magazine ranked it at No. 2 in its list of the 60 greatest game shows ever. The program has also come to gain a worldwide following with sixty international adaptations. The syndicated series ' 35th season premiered on September 11, 2017.
The core game is based on Hangman. Each round has a category and a blank word puzzle, with each blank representing a letter in the answer, and punctuation revealed as needed. Most puzzles are straightforward figures of speech that fit within a mostly static list of categories, and this list has evolved over the course of the series. Crossword puzzles were added to the rotation in 2016. In such rounds, a clue bonding the words in the puzzle is given instead of a traditional category, and contestants win by solving all the words in the crossword. The titular Wheel of Fortune is a roulette - style wheel mechanism with 24 spaces, most of which are labeled with dollar amounts ranging from $500 to $900, plus a top dollar value: $2,500 in round 1, $3,500 in rounds 2 and 3, and $5,000 for round 4 and any subsequent rounds. The wheel also features two Bankrupt wedges and one Lose a Turn, both of which forfeit the contestant 's turn, with the former also eliminating any cash or prizes the contestant has accumulated within the round. Each game features three contestants, or occasionally, three two - contestant teams positioned behind a single scoreboard with its own flipper. The left scoreboard from the viewer 's perspective is colored red, the center yellow, and the right blue, with the contestants ' positions determined by a random selection prior to taping.
A contestant spins the wheel to determine a dollar value and guess a consonant. Calling a correct letter earns the value before the corresponding flipper, multiplied by the number of times that the letter appears in the puzzle. Calling a correct letter keeps the wheel in the contestant 's control, allowing the contestant to spin again, buy a vowel for a flat rate of $250, or attempt to solve the puzzle. Contestants may continue to buy vowels so long as they have enough money to keep doing so, until all of the vowels in the puzzle have been revealed. Control passes to the next contestant clockwise if the wheel lands on Lose a Turn or Bankrupt, if the contestant calls a letter that is not in the puzzle, calls a letter that has already been called in that round, fails to call a letter within five seconds of the wheel stopping, or attempts unsuccessfully to solve the puzzle. The only exception is the Free Play wedge, on which the contestant may call a consonant for $500 per occurrence, call a free vowel, or solve the puzzle, with no penalty for an incorrect letter or answer.
In the first three rounds, the wheel contains a Wild Card and a Gift Tag, while two 1⁄2 Car tags are present in rounds two and three only (except on episodes with two - player teams). The Wild Card may be used to call an additional consonant after any turn (for the amount that the contestant has just spun) or taken to the bonus round to call an extra consonant there. The Gift Tag offers either a $1,000 credit toward purchases from, or $1,000 in cash courtesy of, the sponsoring company, and the 1⁄2 Car tags award a car if the contestant wins the round (s) in which he or she claims both. Unlike the other tags, the 1⁄2 Car tags are replaced in subsequent rounds unless the car is won. A special wedge in the first two rounds awards a prize which is described by the announcer if won. All of the tags and the prize wedge are located over the $500 wedges, so calling a letter that appears in the puzzle when landed upon awards both the tag / wedge and $500 per every occurrence of that letter in the puzzle. The first three rounds also contain a special wedge which, if won and taken to the bonus round, offers an opportunity to play that round for $1,000,000. A contestant must solve the puzzle in order to keep any cash, prizes, or extras accumulated during that round except for the Wild Card, which is kept until the contestant either loses it to Bankrupt or uses it. Bankrupt does not affect score from previous rounds, but it does take away the Wild Card, individual 1⁄2 Car tags, and / or million dollar wedge if any was claimed in a previous round. Contestants who solve a round for less than $1,000 in cash and prizes ($2,000 on weeks with two - contestant teams) have their scores increased to that amount.
Each game also features three toss - up puzzles, which reveal the puzzle one random letter at a time, and award cash to whoever rings in with the right answer. The first determines who is interviewed first by the host, the second determines who starts round 1, and the third determines who starts round 4. Respectively, the toss - ups are valued at $1,000, $2,000, and $3,000. In addition to these, each game has a minimum of four rounds, with more played if time permits. Rounds 2 and 3 are respectively started by the next two contestants clockwise from the contestant who began round 1.
Round 2 features two "mystery wedges ''. Calling a correct letter after landing upon one offers the contestant the chance to accept its face value of $1,000 per letter, or forfeit that amount to flip over the wedge and see whether its reverse side contains a $10,000 cash prize or Bankrupt. Once either mystery wedge is flipped over, the other becomes a standard $1,000 space and can not be flipped. Round 3 is a prize puzzle, which offers a prize (usually a trip) to the contestant who solves it. Starting with season 31 in 2013, an "Express '' wedge is also placed on the wheel in round 3. A contestant who lands on this space and calls a consonant that appears in the puzzle receives $1,000 per appearance. The contestant can then either "pass '' and continue the round normally, or "play '' and keep calling consonants for $1,000 each (without spinning) and buying vowels for $250. The Express play ends when the contestant either calls an incorrect letter (which has the same effect as landing on a Bankrupt wedge) or solves the puzzle.
The final round is always played at least in part in a "speed - up '' format, in which the host spins the wheel to determine the value of each consonant, with $1,000 being added to the value on which the wheel stops before the red contestant 's arrow. Vowels do not add or deduct money from the contestants ' scores in the speed - up round. The contestant in control calls one letter, and if it appears in the puzzle, the contestant is given three seconds to attempt to solve. Play proceeds clockwise, starting with the contestant who was in control at the time of the final spin, until the puzzle is solved. The three - second timer does not begin until the hostess has revealed all instances of a called letter and moved aside from the puzzle board, and the contestant may offer multiple guesses on his / her turn. After the speed - up round, the total winnings of the three contestants are compared. The contestant with the highest total winnings wins the game and advances to the bonus round. Contestants who fail to earn any cash or prizes in the game are awarded a consolation prize of $1,000 (or $2,000 on weeks with two - contestant teams).
If a tie for first place occurs after the speed - up round, an additional toss - up puzzle is played between the tied contestants. The contestant who solves the toss - up puzzle wins $1,000 and advances to the bonus round.
Before the bonus round begins, the winning contestant chooses one of three categories for his or her puzzle (prior to season 35, the puzzle and category were predetermined). After doing so, the contestant spins a smaller wheel with 24 envelopes to determine the prize. He or she is then shown a puzzle in the chosen category, and every instance of R, S, T, L, N, and E is revealed. The contestant provides three more consonants (four if he / she is holding the Wild Card) and one more vowel, then has 10 seconds to solve the puzzle after his or her other letters (if any) are revealed. The contestant may make as many guesses as necessary, so long as the contestant begins the correct answer before time expires. Whether or not the contestant solves the puzzle, the host opens the envelope at the end of the round to reveal the prize at stake. Prizes in the bonus round include various cash amounts (with the lowest being the season number multiplied by $1,000), a vehicle (or two vehicles during weeks with two - contestant teams), and a top prize of $100,000.
If the contestant has the Million Dollar Wedge, the $100,000 envelope is replaced with a $1,000,000 envelope. The $1,000,000 prize has been awarded three times: to Michelle Loewenstein (on the episode that aired October 14, 2008), to Autumn Erhard (May 30, 2013), and to Sarah Manchester (September 17, 2014). Contestants who win the $1,000,000 may receive it in installments over 20 years, or in a lump sum of that amount 's present value. At the end of the Bonus Round, Sajak will reveal where the $1,000,000 wedge was on the prize wheel if the contestant failed to land on it.
Originally, after winning a round, contestants spent their winnings on prizes that were presented onstage. At any time during a shopping round, most often if the contestant did not have enough left to buy another prize, a contestant could choose to put his or her winnings on a gift certificate, or he or she could put the winnings "on account '' for use in a later shopping round. However, a contestant lost any money on account by landing on Bankrupt or failing to claim it by not winning subsequent rounds. The shopping element was eliminated from the syndicated version on the episode that aired October 5, 1987, both to speed up gameplay and to alleviate the taxes paid by contestants. However, the network version continued to use the shopping element until the end of its first NBC run on June 30, 1989.
Before the introduction of toss - up puzzles at the start of the 18th syndicated season in 2000, the contestant at the red arrow always started round 1, with the next contestant clockwise starting each subsequent round. In addition, if a tie for first place occurred, an additional speed - up round was played between the tied contestants for the right to go to the bonus round. The wheel formerly featured a Free Spin wedge, which automatically awarded a token that the contestant could turn in after a lost turn to keep control of the wheel. It was replaced in 1989 with a single Free Spin token placed over a selected cash wedge. Free Spin was retired, and Free Play introduced, at the start of the 27th syndicated season in 2009. Between September 16, 1996 and the end of season 30 in 2013, the show featured a progressive Jackpot wedge, which had been in several different rounds in its history. The jackpot started at $5,000 and had the value of every spin within the round added to it. To claim the jackpot, a contestant had to land on the wedge, call a correct letter, and solve the puzzle all in the same turn. In later years, it also offered $500 per correct letter and $500 to the jackpot, regardless of whether or not it was won in that turn.
The network version allowed champions to appear for up to five days originally, which was later reduced to three. The syndicated version, which originally retired contestants after one episode, adopted the three - day champion rule at the start of the seventh season in 1989. In later years, the top three winners from the week 's first four shows returned to compete in the "Friday Finals ''. When the jackpot wedge was introduced, it began at $10,000 instead of $5,000 on Fridays. The rules allowing champions to return after their initial appearances were eliminated permanently beginning with the syndicated episode aired September 21, 1998, and contestants appear only on a single episode.
Before December 1981, the show did not feature a bonus round. Under the bonus round 's original rules, no letters were provided automatically. The contestant asked for five consonants and a vowel, and then had fifteen seconds to attempt solving the puzzle. Also, bonus prizes were selected by the contestant at the start of the round. The current time limit and rules for letter selection were introduced on October 3, 1988. Starting on September 4, 1989, the first episode of the seventh syndicated season, bonus prizes were selected by the contestant choosing from one of five envelopes labeled W, H, E, E, and L. One prize was always $25,000 in cash, and the rest were changed weekly. Any prize that was won was taken out of rotation for the rest of the week. During seasons 16 through 18 (1998 -- 2001), the $25,000 remained in - place the entire week of shows regardless if it was won. At the start of season 19 in 2001, there were three car envelopes and two $25,000 envelopes, which were available the entire week of shows. These envelopes were replaced with the bonus wheel on October 22, 2001.
Merv Griffin conceived Wheel of Fortune just as the original version of Jeopardy!, another show he had created, was ending its 11 - year run on NBC with Art Fleming as its host. Griffin decided to create a Hangman - style game after recalling long car trips as a child, on which he and his sister played Hangman. After he discussed the idea with Merv Griffin Enterprises ' staff, they thought that the idea would work as a game show if it had a "hook ''. He decided to add a roulette - style wheel because he was always "drawn to '' such wheels when he saw them in casinos. He and MGE 's then - president Murray Schwartz consulted an executive of Caesars Palace to find out how to build such a wheel.
When Griffin pitched the idea for the show to Lin Bolen, then the head of NBC 's daytime programming division, she approved, but wanted the show to have more glamour to attract the female audience. She suggested that Griffin incorporate a shopping element into the gameplay, and so, in 1973, he created a pilot episode titled Shopper 's Bazaar, with Chuck Woolery as host and Mike Lawrence as announcer. The pilot started with the three contestants being introduced individually, with Lawrence describing the prizes that they chose to play for. The main game was played to four rounds, with the values on the wheel wedges increasing after the second round. Unlike the show it evolved into, Shopper 's Bazaar had a vertically mounted wheel, which was spun automatically rather than by the contestants. This wheel lacked the Bankrupt wedge and featured a wedge where a contestant could call a vowel for free, as well as a "Your Own Clue '' wedge that allowed contestants to pick up a rotary telephone and hear a private clue about the puzzle. At the end of the game, the highest - scoring contestant played a bonus round called the "Shopper 's Special '' where all the vowels in the puzzle were already there, and the contestant had 30 seconds to call out consonants in the puzzle.
Edd Byrnes, an actor from 77 Sunset Strip, served as host for the second and third pilots, both titled Wheel of Fortune. These pilots were directed by Marty Pasetta, who gave the show a "Vegas '' feel that more closely resembled the look and feel that the actual show ended up having, a wheel that was now spun by the contestants themselves, and a lighted mechanical puzzle board with letters that were now manually turnable. Showcase prizes on these pilots were located behind the puzzle board, and during shopping segments a list of prizes and their price values scrolled on the right of the screen. By the time production began in December 1974, Woolery was selected to host, the choice being made by Griffin after he reportedly heard Byrnes reciting "A-E-I-O-U '' to himself in an effort to remember the vowels. Susan Stafford turned the letters on Byrnes ' pilot episodes, a role that she also held when the show was picked up as a series.
The original host of Wheel of Fortune was Chuck Woolery, who hosted the series from its 1975 premiere until December 25, 1981, save for one week in August 1980 when Alex Trebek hosted in his place. Woolery 's departure came over a salary dispute with show creator Merv Griffin, and his contract was not renewed. On December 28, 1981, Pat Sajak made his debut as the host of Wheel. Griffin said that he chose Sajak for his "odd '' sense of humor. NBC president and CEO Fred Silverman objected as he felt Sajak, who at the time of his hiring was the weatherman for KNBC - TV, was "too local '' for a national audience. Griffin countered by telling Silverman he would stop production if Sajak was not allowed to become host, and Silverman acquiesced.
Sajak hosted the daytime series until January 9, 1989, when he left to host a late - night talk show for CBS. Rolf Benirschke, a former placekicker in the National Football League, was chosen as his replacement and hosted for a little more than five months. Benirschke 's term as host came to an end due to NBC 's cancellation of the daytime Wheel after fourteen years, with its final episode airing on June 30, 1989. When the newly formatted daytime series returned on CBS on July 17, 1989, Bob Goen became its host. The daytime program continued for a year and a half on CBS, then returned to NBC on January 14, 1991 and continued until September 20, 1991 when it was cancelled for a second and final time.
Susan Stafford was the original hostess, serving in that role from the premiere until October 1982. Stafford was absent for two extended periods, once in 1977 after fracturing two vertebrae in her back and once in 1979 after an automobile accident. During these two extended absences, former Miss USA Summer Bartholomew was Stafford 's most frequent substitute, with model Cynthia Washington and comedian Arte Johnson also filling in for Stafford.
After Stafford left to become a humanitarian worker, over two hundred applicants signed up for a nationwide search to be her replacement. Griffin eventually narrowed the list to three finalists, which consisted of Summer Bartholomew, former Playboy centerfold Vicki McCarty, and Vanna White. Griffin gave each of the three women an opportunity to win the job by putting them in a rotation for several weeks after Stafford 's departure. In December 1982, Griffin named White as Stafford 's successor, saying that he felt she was capable of activating the puzzle board letters (which is the primary role of the Wheel hostess) better than anyone else who had auditioned. White became highly popular among the young female demographic, and also gained a fanbase of adults interested in her daily wardrobe, in a phenomenon that has been referred to as "Vannamania ''. White remained on the daytime series for the rest of the time it was on the air.
Sajak and White have starred on the syndicated version continuously as host and hostess, respectively, since it began, except for very limited occasions. During two weeks in January 1991, Tricia Gist, the girlfriend and future wife of Griffin 's son Tony, filled in for White when she and her new husband, restaurateur George San Pietro, were honeymooning. Gist returned for the week of episodes airing March 11 through 15, 1991, because White had a cold at the time of taping. On an episode in November 1996, when Sajak proved unable to host the bonus round segment because of laryngitis, he and White traded places for that segment. On the March 4, 1997 episode, Rosie O'Donnell co-hosted the third round with White after O'Donnell's name was used in a puzzle.
On April 1, 1997, Sajak and Alex Trebek traded jobs for the day. Sajak hosted that day 's edition of Jeopardy! in place of Trebek, who presided over a special two - contestant Wheel celebrity match between Sajak and White, who were playing for the Boy Scouts of America and the American Cancer Society, respectively; Lesly Sajak, Pat 's wife, was the guest hostess for the day. In January and February 2011, the show held a "Vanna for a Day '' contest in which home viewers submitted video auditions to take White 's place for one episode, with the winner determined by a poll on the show 's website; the winner of this contest, Katie Cantrell of Wooster, Ohio (a student at the Savannah College of Art and Design), took White 's place for the second and third rounds on the episode that aired March 24, 2011.
Charlie O'Donnell was the program 's first and longest tenured announcer. In 1980, NBC was discussing cancelling Wheel and O'Donnell agreed to take the position as announcer on The Toni Tennille Show. The network decided against the cancellation but O'Donnell decided to honor his commitment and left the series. His replacement was Jack Clark, who added the syndicated series to his responsibilities when it premiered in 1983 and announced for both series until his death in July 1988. Los Angeles radio personality M.G. Kelly was Clark 's replacement, starting on the daytime series in August 1988 and on the syndicated series when its new season launched a month later. Kelly held these positions until O'Donnell was able to return to the announcer position, doing so after his duties with Barris Industries came to an end at the end of the 1988 -- 89 television season. O'Donnell remained with the series until shortly before his death in November 2010. Don Pardo, Don Morrow, and Johnny Gilbert have occasionally served as substitute announcers.
After O'Donnell's death, the producers sought a permanent replacement, and a series of substitutes filled out the rest of the season, including Gilbert, John Cramer, Joe Cipriano, Rich Fields, Lora Cain and Jim Thornton. For the show 's twenty - ninth season, which began in 2011, Thornton was chosen to be the new announcer for Wheel, and has been with the show ever since.
Wheel of Fortune typically employs a total of 100 in - house production personnel, with 60 to 100 local staff joining them for those episodes that are taped on location. Griffin was the executive producer of the network version throughout its entire run, and served as the syndicated version 's executive producer until his retirement in 2000. Since 1999, the title of executive producer has been held by Harry Friedman, who had shared his title with Griffin for his first year, and had earlier served as a producer starting in 1995.
John Rhinehart was the program 's first producer, but departed in August 1976 to become NBC 's West Coast Daytime Program Development Director. Afterwards, his co-producer, Nancy Jones, was promoted to sole producer, and served as such until 1995, when Friedman succeeded her. In the 15th syndicated season in 1997, Karen Griffith and Steve Schwartz joined Friedman as producers. Tthey were later promoted to supervising producers, with Amanda Stern occupying Griffith 's and Schwartz 's former position.
The show 's original director was Jeff Goldstein, who was succeeded by Dick Carson (a brother of Johnny Carson) in 1978. Mark Corwin, who had served as associate director under Carson, took over for him upon his retirement at the end of the 1998 -- 99 season, and served as such until he himself died in July 2013 (although episodes already taped before his death continued airing until late 2013). Jeopardy! director Kevin McCarthy, Corwin 's associate director Bob Cisneros, and Wheel and Jeopardy! technical director Robert Ennis filled in at various points until Cisneros became full - time director in November 2013. Ennis returned as guest director for the weeks airing October 13 through 17 and November 17 through 21, 2014, as Cisneros was recovering from neck surgery at the time of taping. With the start of the 33rd season on September 14, 2015, Ennis was promoted to full - time director.
Wheel of Fortune is owned by Sony Pictures Television (previously known as Columbia TriStar Television, the successor company to original producer Merv Griffin Enterprises). The production company and copyright holder of all episodes to date is Califon Productions, Inc., which like SPT has Sony Pictures for its active registered agent, and whose name comes from a New Jersey town where Griffin once owned a farm. The rights to distribute the show worldwide are owned by CBS Television Distribution, into which original distributor King World Productions was folded in 2007.
The show was originally taped in Studio 4 at NBC Studios in Burbank. Upon NBC 's 1989 cancellation of the network series, production moved to Studio 33 at CBS Television City in Los Angeles, where it remained until 1995. Since then, the show has occupied Stage 11 at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City. Some episodes are also recorded on location, a tradition which began with two weeks of episodes taped at Radio City Music Hall in late 1988. Recording sessions usually last for five or six episodes in one day.
Various changes have been made to the basic set since the syndicated version 's premiere in 1983. In 1996, a large video display was added center stage, which was then upgraded in 2003 as the show began the transition into high - definition broadcasting. In the mid-1990s, the show began a long - standing tradition of nearly every week coming with its own unique theme. As a result, in addition to its generic design, the set also uses many alternate designs, which are unique to specific weekly sets of themed programs. The most recent set design was conceived by production designer Renee Hoss - Johnson, with later modifications by Jody Vaclav. Previous set designers included Ed Flesh and Dick Stiles.
The first pilot used a vertically mounted wheel which was often difficult to see on - screen. Flesh, who also designed the sets for The $25,000 Pyramid and Jeopardy!, designed the wheel mechanism. Originally made mostly of paint and cardboard, the modern wheel mechanism is framed on a steel tube surrounded with Plexiglas and more than 200 lighting instruments, and is held by a stainless steel shaft with roller bearings. Altogether, the wheel weighs approximately 2,400 pounds (1,100 kg).
The show 's original puzzle board had three rows of 13 manually operated trilons, for a total of 39 spaces. On December 21, 1981, a larger board with 48 trilons in four rows (11, 13, 13 and 11 trilons) was adopted. This board was surrounded by a double - arched border of lights which flashed at the beginning and end of the round. Each trilon had three sides: a green side to represent spaces not used by the puzzle, a blank side to indicate a letter that had not been revealed, and a side with a letter on it. While the viewer saw a seamless transition to the next puzzle, with these older boards in segments where more than one puzzle was present, a stop - down of taping took place during which the board was wheeled offstage and the new puzzle loaded in by hand out of sight of the contestants. On February 24, 1997, the show introduced a computerized puzzle board composed of 52 touch - activated monitors in four rows (12 on the top and bottom rows, 14 in the middle two). To illuminate a letter during regular gameplay, the hostess touches the right edge of the monitor to reveal it. The computerized board obviated the stop - downs, allowing tapings to finish quicker at a lower cost to the production company.
Although not typically seen by viewers, the set also includes a used letter board that shows contestants which letters are remaining in play, a scoreboard that is visible from the contestants ' perspective, and a countdown clock. The used letter board is also used during the bonus round, and in at least one case, helped the contestant to see unused letters to solve a difficult puzzle.
Alan Thicke composed the show 's original theme, which was titled "Big Wheels ''. In 1983, it was replaced by Griffin 's own composition, "Changing Keys '', to allow him to derive royalties from that composition 's use on both the network and syndicated versions. Steve Kaplan became music director starting with the premiere of the 15th syndicated season in 1997, and continued to serve as such until he was killed when the Cessna 421C Golden Eagle he was piloting crashed into a home in Claremont, California, in December 2003. His initial theme was a remix of "Changing Keys '', but by the 18th syndicated season (2000 -- 01), he had replaced it with a composition of his own, which was titled "Happy Wheels ''. Since 2006, music direction has been handled by Frankie Blue and John Hoke. Themes they have written for the show include a remix of "Happy Wheels '' and an original rock - based composition.
In addition to "Changing Keys '', Griffin also composed various incidental music cues for the syndicated version which were used for announcements of prizes in the show 's early years. Among them were "Frisco Disco '' (earlier the closing theme for a revival of Jeopardy! which aired in 1978 and 1979), "A Time for Tony '' (whose basic melody evolved into "Think! '', the longtime theme song for Jeopardy!), "Buzzword '' (later used as the theme for Merv Griffin 's Crosswords), "Nightwalk '', "Struttin ' on Sunset '', and an untitled vacation cue.
Anyone at least 18 years old has the potential to become a contestant through Wheel of Fortune 's audition process. Exceptions include employees and immediate family members of CBS Corporation, Sony Pictures Entertainment, or any of their respective affiliates or subsidiaries; any firm involved in supplying prizes for the show; and television stations that broadcast Wheel and / or Jeopardy!, their sister radio stations, and those advertising agencies that are affiliated with them. Also ineligible to apply as contestants are individuals who have appeared on a different game show within the previous year, three other game shows within the past ten years, or on any version of Wheel of Fortune itself.
Throughout the year, the show uses a custom - designed Winnebago recreational vehicle called the "Wheelmobile '' to travel across the United States, holding open auditions at various public venues. Participants are provided with entry forms which are then drawn randomly. Individuals whose names are drawn appear on stage, five at a time, and are interviewed by traveling host Marty Lublin. The group of five then plays a mock version of the speed - up round, and five more names are selected after a puzzle is solved. Everyone who is called onstage receives a themed prize, usually determined by the spin of a miniature wheel. Auditions typically last two days, with three one - hour segments per day. After each Wheelmobile event, the "most promising candidates '' are invited back to the city in which the first audition was held, to participate in a second audition. Alternatively, a participant may submit an audition form with a self - shot video through the show 's website to enter an audition. Contestants not appearing on stage at Wheelmobile events have their applications retained and get drawn at random to fill second - level audition vacancies. At the second audition, potential contestants play more mock games featuring a miniature wheel and puzzle board, followed by a 16 - puzzle test with some letters revealed. The contestants have five minutes to solve as many puzzles as they can by writing in the correct letters. The people who pass continue the audition, playing more mock games which are followed by interviews.
Wheel of Fortune premiered on January 6, 1975, at 10: 30 am (9: 30 Central) on NBC. Lin Bolen, then the head of daytime programming, purchased the show from Griffin to compensate him for canceling the original Jeopardy! series, which had one year remaining on its contract. Jeopardy! aired its final episode on the Friday before Wheel 's premiere. The original Wheel aired on NBC, in varying time slots between 10: 30 am and noon, until June 30, 1989. Throughout that version 's run, episodes were generally 30 minutes in length, except for six weeks of shows aired between December 1975 and January 1976 which were 60 minutes in length. NBC announced the cancellation of the show in August 1980, but it stayed on the air following a decision to cut the duration of The David Letterman Show from 90 to 60 minutes. The network Wheel moved to CBS on July 17, 1989, and remained there until January 14, 1991. After that, it briefly returned to NBC, replacing Let 's Make a Deal, but was canceled permanently on September 20 of that year.
The daily syndicated version of Wheel premiered on September 19, 1983, preceded by a series of episodes taped on location at the Ohio State Fair and aired on WBNS - TV in Columbus, Ohio. From its debut, the syndicated version offered a larger prize budget than its network counterpart. The show came from humble beginnings: King World chairmen Roger, Michael, and Robert King could initially find only 50 stations that were willing to carry the show, and since they could not find affiliates for the syndicated Wheel in New York, Los Angeles, or Chicago, Philadelphia was the largest market in which the show could succeed in its early days. Only nine stations carried the show from its beginning, but by midseason it was airing on all 50 of the stations that were initially willing to carry it, and by the beginning of 1984 the show was available to 99 percent of television households. Soon, Wheel succeeded Family Feud as the highest - rated syndicated show, and at the beginning of the 1984 -- 85 season, Griffin followed up on the show 's success by launching a syndicated revival of Jeopardy!, hosted by Alex Trebek. The syndicated success of Wheel and Jeopardy! siphoned ratings from the period 's three longest - running and most popular game shows, Tic - Tac - Dough, The Joker 's Wild, and Family Feud, to the point that all three series came to an end by the fall of 1986. At this point, Wheel had the highest ratings of any syndicated television series in history, and at the peak of the show 's popularity, over 40 million people were watching five nights per week. The series, along with companion series Jeopardy!, remained the most - watched syndicated program in the United States until dethroned by Judge Judy in 2011. The program has become America 's longest - running syndicated game show and its second - longest in either network or syndication, second to the version of The Price Is Right which began airing in 1972. The syndicated Wheel has become part of the consciousness of over 90 million Americans, and awarded a total of over $200 million in cash and prizes to contestants.
The popularity of Wheel of Fortune has led it to become a worldwide franchise, with over forty known adaptations in international markets outside the United States. Versions of the show have existed in such countries as Australia, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Poland, Russia, Spain, and the United Kingdom. The American version of Wheel has honored its international variants with an occasional theme of special weeks known as "Wheel Around the World '', the inaugural episode of which aired when the 23rd syndicated season premiered on September 12, 2005.
Between September 1997 and January 1998, CBS and Game Show Network concurrently aired a special children 's version of the show titled Wheel 2000. It was hosted by David Sidoni, with Tanika Ray providing voice and motion capture for a virtual reality hostess named "Cyber Lucy ''. Created by Scott Sternberg, the spin - off featured special gameplay in which numerous rules were changed. For example, the show 's child contestants competed for points and prizes instead of cash, with the eventual winner playing for a grand prize in the bonus round.
Wheel of Fortune has long been one of the highest - rated programs on U.S. syndicated television. It was the highest - rated show in all of syndication before it was dethroned by Two and a Half Men in the 28th season (2010 -- 11). The syndicated Wheel shared the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show with Jeopardy! in 2011, and Sajak won three Daytime Emmys for Outstanding Game Show Host -- in 1993, 1997, and 1998. In a 2001 issue, TV Guide ranked Wheel number 25 among the 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time, and in 2013, the magazine ranked it number 2 in its list of the 60 greatest game shows ever, second only to Jeopardy! In August 2006, the show was ranked number 6 on GSN 's list of the 50 Greatest Game Shows.
Wheel was the subject of many nominations in GSN 's Game Show Awards special, which aired on June 6, 2009. The show was nominated for Best Game Show, but lost to Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader?; Sajak and White were nominated for Best Game Show Host, but lost to Deal or No Deal 's Howie Mandel; and O'Donnell was considered for Best Announcer but lost to Rich Fields from The Price Is Right. One of the catchphrases uttered by contestants, "I 'd like to buy a vowel '', was considered for Favorite Game Show Catch Phrase, but lost to "Come on down! '', the announcer 's catchphrase welcoming new contestants to Price. The sound effect heard at the start of a new regular gameplay round won the award for Favorite Game Show Sound Effect. The sound heard when the wheel lands on Bankrupt was also nominated. Despite having been retired from the show for nearly a decade by that point, "Changing Keys '' was nominated for Best Game Show Theme Song. However, it lost to its fellow Griffin composition, "Think! '' from Jeopardy!
A hall of fame honoring Wheel of Fortune is part of the Sony Pictures Studios tour, and was introduced on the episode aired May 10, 2010. Located in the same stage as the show 's taping facility, this hall of fame features memorabilia related to Wheel 's syndicated history, including retired props, classic merchandise, photographs, videos, and a special case dedicated to White 's wardrobe. Two years later, in 2012, the show was honored with a Ride of Fame on a double decker tour bus in New York City.
Numerous board games based on Wheel of Fortune have been released by different toy companies. The games are all similar, incorporating a wheel, puzzle display board, play money and various accessories like Free Spin tokens. Milton Bradley released the first board game in 1975. In addition to all the supplies mentioned above, the game included 20 prize cards to simulate the "shopping '' prizes of the show, with prizes ranging in value from $100 to $3,000. Two editions were released, with the only differences being the box art and the included books of puzzles. Other home versions were released by Pressman Toy Corporation, Tyco / Mattel, Parker Brothers, Endless Games, and Irwin Toys.
Additionally, several video games based on the show have been released for personal computers, the Internet, and various gaming consoles spanning multiple hardware generations. Most games released in the 20th century were published by GameTek, which produced a dozen Wheel games on various platforms, starting with a Nintendo Entertainment System game released in 1987 and continuing until the company closed in 1998 after filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. Subsequent games were published by Hasbro Interactive and its acquirer Infogrames / Atari; Sony Online Entertainment, THQ and Ubisoft.
Wheel has also been licensed to International Game Technology for use in its slot machines. The games are all loosely based on the show, with contestants given the chance to spin the wheel to win a jackpot prize. Since 1996, over 200 slot games based on the show have been created, both for real - world casinos and those on the Internet. With over 1,000 wins awarded in excess of $1,000,000 and over $3 billion in jackpots delivered, Wheel has been regarded as the most successful slots brand of all time.
|
what season does deb find out about dexter | Debra Morgan - wikipedia
Debra Morgan (spelled Deborah in the novels) is a fictional character created by Jeff Lindsay for his Dexter book series. She also appears in the television series, based on Lindsay 's books, portrayed by Jennifer Carpenter. In Lindsay 's novels, she first appeared in Darkly Dreaming Dexter, and was featured in every novel in the series.
Debra was born to Doris (Kathrin Lautner Middleton) and Harry Morgan (James Remar) on December 7, 1979. She later became foster sister to Dexter Morgan (Michael C. Hall). A tough, foul - mouthed tomboy, she craved her father 's attention and envied Dexter for the amount of time Harry spent with him, unaware that Harry was training him to be a vigilante serial killer.
At the age of 16, her mother died of cancer. From then on, she decided to become a detective, like her father. Debra learned to shoot taking her father 's gun. Dexter found out and told Harry, who punished her. Hurt, Debra told Dexter that she wished that Harry had never brought him home. She was immediately remorseful for saying it, however, and apologized.
She was distraught at her father 's death and, inspired by his career, joined the Miami - Metro Police Department. She spent three years in patrol and then another two years in vice before being promoted by Captain Tom Matthews (Geoff Pierson) (a friend of her father), becoming a Homicide officer at the start of the first season.
Debra is characterized as smart and capable, yet unsure of herself, and so she relies upon Dexter 's seemingly limitless expertise on murderers to solve difficult cases. Initially assigned to Vice, she is desperate to be transferred to Homicide. After Matthews promotes her, she starts to grow self - confident, relying less on Dexter 's abilities and more on her own.
Newly promoted to the homicide department, Debra 's first case is a series of murders committed by "The Ice Truck Killer '', who preys on prostitutes and leaves their dismembered bodies in refrigerated trucks. She works hard on the case, but her progress is hampered by her own insecurity and her antagonistic relationship with Lieutenant Maria LaGuerta (Lauren Vélez).
She starts dating, and eventually falls in love with, Rudy Cooper (Christian Camargo); unbeknownst to her, he is actually the Ice Truck Killer, and is only dating her in order to get close to Dexter. At the end of the season, Rudy proposes to her and she accepts. Rudy -- who is actually Brian Moser, Dexter 's biological brother -- then kidnaps her to reveal himself to Dexter. He binds her to a table in the same manner that Dexter kills his victims, while Dexter and Brian discuss her fate. Dexter ultimately saves her life, and reluctantly kills Brian to keep her safe.
Debra is frail at the start of season two, still recovering from her ordeal with the Ice Truck Killer; she feels that she is not a good detective because she did n't spot that her fiancé was a serial killer. However, FBI agent Frank Lundy (Keith Carradine) reassures her otherwise and they, mid-season, develop a romantic relationship, which ends when he is called away from Miami. She stays in Dexter 's house while she deals with the trauma.
Debra is appalled when she finds out that Dexter is cheating on his girlfriend, Rita Bennett (Julie Benz), with his Narcotics Anonymous sponsor, Lila Tournay (Jaime Murray), of whom she is immediately suspicious. Debra eventually threatens to have Lila deported upon finding out that she murdered her ex-boyfriend. In the season finale, "The British Invasion '', she helps Dexter rescue Rita 's two children from a fire that Lila had started.
By the end of the season, she has regained her confidence, and she is more determined than ever to improve her career and get a detective shield.
As season three begins, Debra has had her hair cut to shoulder length, and has "sworn off men, liquor and smokes ''. She is working with a new partner, Detective Joey Quinn (Desmond Harrington), but has been approached by Internal Affairs officer Yuki Amado (Liza Lapira), who tells her that her partner is being investigated for corruption. She refuses to assist in the investigation, however.
She is originally part of the team investigating the murder of Miguel Prado 's (Jimmy Smits) brother Oscar (Nick Hermz), but because of her lack of tact and people skills she is removed from the case by the newly promoted Angel Batista (David Zayas). The case she has been assigned to, the murder of a young woman, is eventually found to have been connected to the ongoing case of a serial killer called "The Skinner '' (Jesse Borrego), which she solves with the help of confidential informant Anton Briggs (David Ramsey). The two begin a relationship after she saves his life. Because of her success on the Skinner case, Debra receives her detective shield at the end of the season.
At the beginning of the season, Dexter tells Debra that Harry slept with one of his confidential informants. She investigates the files on Harry 's informants and interviews them, hoping to find the one Harry slept with. One of the files is shown to be Laura Moser (Sage Kirkpatrick). Her relationship with Anton begins to suffer at this point, especially when Lundy returns to Miami to hunt the Trinity Killer (John Lithgow). They sleep together and renew their relationship, but the very same night they are both shot -- Lundy fatally -- by an unknown assailant. Debra blames herself, and laments to Dexter that she is "broken ''. She puts aside her grief when she comes to suspect that the Trinity Killer was the shooter, and opens an investigation.
After consulting with forensics technician Vince Masuka (C.S. Lee), however, Debra deduces that Trinity could not have been the shooter. During a Thanksgiving dinner with Dexter 's family, Debra remembers a conversation she had with reporter Christine Hill (Courtney Ford), and realizes Hill has knowledge of the shooting that no one outside the police department knew about, and concludes that she was the shooter. This is proven true in a later episode revealing that Hill is Trinity 's daughter. Hill confesses to Debra that she killed Lundy, moments before she commits suicide. Debra then renews her search for Harry 's mistress, and finds out about Laura Moser, and the fact that Dexter and the Ice Truck Killer are brothers. She tells Dexter the news (which he already knew), and then tells him that he is "the one consistently good thing '' in her life.
Debra begins an intimate relationship with Quinn while trying to support Dexter following Rita 's murder (portrayed in the season four finale, "The Getaway ''). She and Quinn are assigned to the "Barrel Girls '' case, in which 13 women were raped, tortured and murdered by a group of men, and left in barrels in a swamp. The police find DVDs the killers recorded of the crimes, and Debra is assigned to study them. She figures out that Jordan Chase (Jonny Lee Miller), a prominent public speaker, is involved with the group of men killing the girls, but can not prove her suspicion because he never appears on the DVDs. However, she is able to track him down by the end of the season, and finds his body, moments after Dexter and Lumen Pierce (Julia Stiles) - one of the Barrel Girl killers ' surviving victims and Dexter 's lover and "protegé '' - have killed him. She sees them at the crime scene through a wall of plastic sheeting, and tells them that she needs to call in the crime scene. She gives them an hour head start because she sympathizes with Lumen, but she never finds out that Dexter was involved.
In the middle of the season, Debra finds out that Quinn, who believes that Dexter was involved in Rita 's murder, has been investigating Dexter behind her back. Debra is very upset at Quinn and confronts him. Quinn decides that his relationship with Debra is more important than his (supposedly) unfounded suspicions about Dexter, and stops his investigation. At the end of the season, they have reconciled, and attend Dexter 's son Harrison 's birthday party together.
At the start of the season, Quinn proposes to Debra, but she rejects him and ends their relationship. The ensuing awkwardness is made worse when she is promoted to Lieutenant, thanks in part to LaGuerta 's political machinations. Debra earns the respect of the office, but struggles with the idea of some people not feeling ' open ' to her anymore because of her new job. The job is also very stressful in itself, and she comes to doubt whether she can handle the responsibility. Her work and personal troubles weighing down on her, she begins to attend therapy. Matthews attempts to make a deal with her about covering up his involvement in the death of a prostitute, but before she can take any action, LaGuerta tells Matthews ' superiors about his indiscretion and lets Debra take the fall for it. At the end of the season, her therapist helps her realize that she has been in love with Dexter all along. She finally makes peace with the idea -- on the same day that she catches Dexter in the act of murdering "Doomsday Killer '' Travis Marshall (Colin Hanks).
In the season premiere, Debra witnesses Dexter murder Travis Marshall. Dexter claims that he went to collect evidence, and was surprised by Marshall; he then says that he "snapped '' and killed him on impulse. Debra reluctantly helps him burn down the abandoned church where he killed Marshall, destroying the evidence of the crime. Later, Dexter comes home to Debra, who is surrounded by Dexter 's victim 's blood slides, a pack of knives, and other tools that Dexter uses to kill. Debra reluctantly asks Dexter if he is a serial killer. Dexter, taken aback, replies yes. Horrified, Debra recoils from Dexter as he admits that he is the "Bay Harbor Butcher '', and that Harry taught him how to get away with murder.
After reading Lundy 's files on serial killers, Debra says she wants to help Dexter, and make sure he does n't kill again. Dexter agrees, even though he does n't really have a choice, as Debra (probably) would have arrested him. Dexter slips away from Debra long enough to dispose of Ray Speltzer (Matt Gerald), a serial killer she had tried and failed to send to prison. Debra admits that she understands why Dexter takes the law into his own hands, and tells him that she will not stop him as long as he does not tell her about it or interfere with Miami Metro investigations. She even compromises her own professional ethics by falsifying evidence to mislead LaGuerta, who is trying to reopen the Bay Harbor Butcher case.
Their truce is threatened when Dexter begins dating Hannah McKay (Yvonne Strahovski), a serial poisoner who Debra is intent on arresting for the murder of Sal Price (Santiago Cabrera), a writer she had feelings for. Debra eventually confesses her feelings for Dexter in a moment of frustration. Debra gets into a near - fatal car accident after a confrontation with Hannah. She is convinced Hannah poisoned her, and Dexter is suspicious enough to order a toxicology screen on a bottle of water in Debra 's car. The results prove that Hannah did indeed poison Debra, leaving Dexter with no choice but to give Debra evidence proving that Hannah killed Price. Debra is on hand to arrest Hannah, as a heartbroken Dexter looks on.
In the season finale, Debra rushes to Dexter 's side when LaGuerta has him arrested for the Bay Harbor Butcher murders, and angrily confronts LaGuerta before being told to recuse herself. Dexter is released, however, thanks to the evidence that Debra tampered with. The next day, LaGuerta calls her into her office under the pretext of apologizing -- and confronts her with circumstantial evidence that she was near the church at the time it was destroyed. Debra talks her way out of immediate danger, but fears that LaGuerta will soon have definitive proof of what she and Dexter had done. Later, at Batista 's New Year 's Eve party, she learns that LaGuerta has gone in pursuit of Dexter, who she fears is in the act of killing Hector Estrada (Nestor Serrano), the man who ordered his mother 's murder. She goes to the scene, where she finds Dexter poised to shoot an unconscious LaGuerta. As she pleads with Dexter not to do it, LaGuerta regains consciousness and urges Debra to kill her brother. Resigned, Dexter tells her to "do what you got ta do ''. Desperate to save Dexter, Debra shoots and kills LaGuerta, and breaks down in tears over her body.
Six months after LaGuerta 's death, Debra 's life has gone into a tailspin: She has quit her job, started abusing drugs and alcohol, and cut off all contact with Dexter. Now working as a private investigator, she is chasing after -- and sleeping with -- drug dealer Andrew Briggs (Rhys Coiro). Dexter shows up at her hotel and tells her that an assassin named El Sapo (Nick Gomez) is coming to kill her and Briggs; Debra responds that she does n't care. When Briggs tries to scare Dexter off, Dexter kills him, and pleads with Debra to leave with him. Debra refuses, however. El Sapo finds Debra as she searches for Briggs ' stolen merchandise and beats her up. In a state of shock, she shoots him dead. When Dexter finds out what Debra has done, she asks him to cover up the crime, which he does.
Debra is arrested for drunk driving, and calls Quinn to bail her out. Quinn tells Dexter what happened, and Dexter insists on taking Debra to dinner to talk to her. At dinner, he shows Debra footage of her saving a man 's life and tells her that she is still a good person. A few days later, Debra walks into Miami Metro, blind drunk, and confesses to Quinn that she killed LaGuerta. Thinking she does n't know what she 's saying, Quinn calls Dexter for help. Dexter arrives with Dr. Evelyn Vogel (Charlotte Rampling), an old friend of Harry 's who knows that Dexter is a serial killer. Just as Debra is about to tell Quinn the truth about LaGuerta 's death, Dexter renders her unconscious with the same tranquilizer he uses on his victims, and takes her back to his apartment. There, he asks Vogel to help her.
Vogel tells Debra that she had no other choice but to protect Dexter, and shows her recorded interviews with Harry expressing his guilt over training Dexter to kill; in these interviews, Debra learns the truth about her father 's death. She reaches out to Dexter, asking him to take a drive with her so they can talk. Once on the road, Debra seizes the steering wheel and plunges the car into the bay, intent on killing herself and her brother. She is rescued, however, and saves Dexter 's life by swimming to the car and pulling him out. Debra goes to a resentful Dexter for help when Vogel is kidnapped. While the two of them track Vogel down, Debra tells Dexter that she had saved his life because she could n't imagine hers without him in it. They find Vogel at the mercy of one of her former patients, serial killer A.J. Yates (Aaron McCusker); Dexter kills him to protect Debra. Dexter and Debra admit they need each other, and they reconcile.
Debra and Dexter are both non-lethally poisoned by Hannah, who has escaped from prison. Debra demands that Dexter get her out of their lives, and starts surveilling her. When Dexter appears reluctant, Debra goes to her boss Jacob Elway (Sean Patrick Flanery) and offers to apprehend Hannah for a substantial reward. She tries to capture Hannah, who says the only reason she spared her life was because she did n't want to hurt Dexter. Debra reluctantly drops the case, and even allows Hannah to hide from the police in her apartment.
Debra stops by her old precinct, and Batista offers to reinstate her as a detective. She wants the job, but she knows that she can not do it while harboring a fugitive and turning a blind eye to Dexter 's crimes. To further complicate the situation, she and Quinn, who is now in a relationship with Batista 's sister Jamie (Aimee Garcia), share a kiss. Dexter tells her that he, Hannah and Harrison are going to move to Argentina. Debra is saddened, but gives him her blessing when she sees how happy he is with his new family. The following day, she takes the job at Miami Metro, and renews her relationship with Quinn.
In her first case, Debra helps Dexter catch Oliver Saxon (Darri Ingolfson), a serial killer known as "the Brain Surgeon ''. Dexter ultimately decides not to kill him, however, and asks her to arrest Saxon. Debra arrives just as Saxon is killing Deputy U.S. Marshall Cooper (Kenny Johnson), and draws her weapon. Saxon gets the drop on her, however, and shoots her in the abdomen. In the series ' final episode, "Remember the Monsters? '', Debra is taken to the hospital, where she tells Quinn she loves him and wishes Dexter a happy life. Moments later, however, she suffers a massive stroke that leaves her in a persistent vegetative state. After killing Saxon, Dexter goes to see her in the hospital as it is being evacuated in the midst of a hurricane. He tearfully removes her life support, carries her body to his boat, and buries her at sea.
Debra is known to have very bad relationships with men. Her first boyfriend on the series is a mechanic named Sean who turns out to be married. She then has a relationship with Rudy Cooper, who ends up kidnapping her and trying to kill her twice.
In Season two, she starts going out with a man named Gabriel whom she met at the gym, and whom she suspects (incorrectly) of trying to use her notoriety following the Ice Truck Killer case to jumpstart his writing career. After that ends, she goes out with Frank Lundy, a man 25 years her senior who has to leave Miami at the end of season two, although she resumes her relationship with him in season four. She then starts a relationship with her Confidential Informant Anton Briggs. She breaks up with him to resume her relationship with Lundy, who is murdered. In the season five premiere she sleeps with her partner, Joey Quinn, who tries unsuccessfully to move the relationship into something more than purely sexual. By the end of season 6, she comes to believe that she is in love with her adoptive brother, Dexter -- only to find out that he is a serial killer. In season 7, she has feelings for true crime writer Sal Price, but he is murdered as well.
In the books, the character 's name is spelled "Deborah '', and she is described as "voluptuous '' in contrast to her slim appearance on the TV show. In the novel Darkly Dreaming Dexter, Deborah finds out that Dexter is a serial killer, and appears to accept it, although she is sometimes torn between her love for her brother and her duty as a cop. In the TV series, Debra remains unaware of Dexter 's "hobby '' until the final episode of season six, when she witnesses Dexter killing Travis Marshall.
At the conclusion of Dexter is Delicious, Deborah is pregnant by her boyfriend, Kyle Chutsky, and in Double Dexter we learn that she gave birth to a son, Nicholas, and raises him alone.
In Dexter 's Final Cut, Deborah disowns Dexter after he cheats on Rita and unintentionally allows pedophile Robert Chase to kill Rita and kidnap Astor. In Dexter is Dead, Deborah takes custody of Cody, Astor and Dexter 's daughter Lily Ann after Dexter is imprisoned for Rita 's murder; she knows that Dexter is innocent of that particular crime, but believes that he belongs in prison. After Dexter is freed thanks to his brother Brian 's machinations, she refuses to let him see the children and communicates with him only to get him to sign the paperwork to finalize the adoption. However, she is forced to rely on him when Cody, Astor and Nicholas are kidnapped by a Mexican drug lord who is out to get Brian. The three of them team up to infiltrate the drug lord 's yacht and rescue the children, and Deborah and Dexter repair their relationship. Deborah saves Dexter 's life by killing the drug lord just as he has her wounded brother at his mercy. Moments later, however, Dexter is killed when the yacht explodes; in his final moments, he sees Deborah trying to save him.
Jennifer Carpenter 's portrayal of Debra Morgan has received critical praise. Australian journalist Jack Marx describing her portrayal of "cool and clumsy '' Debra as "so perfect that many viewers appear to have mistaken the character 's flaws for the actor 's. ''
For her portrayal of the character, she has been nominated for seven Saturn Awards for Best Supporting Actress on Television, in 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013, winning in 2009 for her performance in season three. She has also been nominated four times as part of the ensemble cast for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012.
|
who play the role of jagya in balika vadhu | Shashank Vyas - Wikipedia
Shashank Vyas (born 30 November 1986 in Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh) is a popular Indian television actor and model. He is well known for his role of Dr. Jagdish Bhairon Singh in Balika Vadhu and Captain Ravish Ramakant Vashist in Jaana Na Dil Se Door.
Shashank was born on 30 November 1986 in Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh. He graduated and started studying for MBA entrance exams. But later he moved on to pursue his acting career on encouragement of a friend.
Shashank Vyas made his debut with the lead role Jagdish / Jagya in Colors ' s serial Balika Vadhu "in July 2010. His performance in the show earned him critical and people 's praise and he became one of the most favorite television actors of India. After playing Jagdish in ' Balika Vadhu ' for five years, Shashank quit the show in July 2016. His last episode was aired on 8th August 2016 He was replaced by Shakti Anand. Before Balika Vadhu '' Shashank appeared in small roles in Sony ' s Rishta.com '' and Bollywood Hindi film Tees Maar Khan
From September 2016 - June 2017, He played the lead role of Captain Ravish Vashisth in Star Plus 's show Jaana Na Dil Se Door. The character which also became hit among the masses. Shashank quit Jaana Na Dil Se Door in May 2017 due creative dissatisfaction. Him leaving the show affected the show badly as its lost majority of viewership and show had to be wrapped up.
|
where do beans for baked beans come from | Baked beans - wikipedia
Baked beans is a dish containing beans, sometimes baked but, despite the name, usually stewed, in a sauce. Most commercially canned baked beans are made from haricot beans, also known as navy beans (a variety of Phaseolus vulgaris) in a sauce. In Ireland and the United Kingdom, a tomato sauce is most commonly used, and they are commonly eaten on toast or as part of a full English, Scottish, or Irish Breakfast.
American Boston baked beans use a sauce prepared with molasses and salt pork, the popularity of which has led to the city 's being nicknamed "Beantown ''. Beans in a tomato and brown sugar, sugar, or corn syrup sauce are widely available throughout the US.
Canada 's Quebec - style beans often use maple syrup. This style is also popular in states bordering Canada 's Eastern provinces.
Canned baked beans are used as a convenience food. They may be eaten hot or cold, straight from the can, as they are already fully cooked.
The beans presently used to make baked beans are all native to South America and were introduced to Europe around 1528. The dish is commonly described as having a savory - sweet flavor and a brownish or reddish tinted white bean once baked, stewed, canned or otherwise cooked. According to alternative traditions, sailors brought cassoulet from the south of France or northern France, and the Channel Islands, where bean stews were popular. Most probably, a number of regional bean recipes coalesced and cross-fertilised in North America and ultimately gave rise to the baked bean culinary tradition familiar today.
While many recipes today are stewed, traditionally beans were slow baked in a ceramic or cast - iron beanpot. A tradition in Maine, of "bean hole '' cooking, may have originated with the native Penobscot people and was later practiced in logging camps. A fire would be made in a stone - lined pit and allowed to burn down to hot coals, and then a pot with 11 pounds of seasoned beans would be placed in the ashes, covered over with dirt, and left to cook overnight or longer. These beans were a staple of Maine 's logging camps, served at every meal.
Canned beans, often containing pork, were among the first convenience foods, and it is in this form that they became exported and popularised by U.S. companies operating in the UK in the early 20th century. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration stated in 1996: "It has for years been recognized by consumers generally that the designation ' beans with pork, ' or ' pork and beans ' is the common or usual name for an article of commerce that contains very little pork. '' The included pork is typically a piece of salt pork that adds fat to the dish.
Canned baked beans with small pork sausages are still available, as are variants with other added ingredients such as chili.
In the UK, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Brunei, Malaysia, and Singapore, the term baked beans usually refers to tinned beans in a tomato sauce. They were originally imported from American companies, first sold in the UK in 1886 in the upmarket Fortnum & Mason store in London as an expensive foreign delicacy.
Today, baked beans are a staple convenience food in the UK, often eaten as part of the modern full English breakfast and particularly on toast (called simply ' beans on toast '). Baked beans freshly cooked from raw ingredients, much closer to their original unprocessed, unindustrialised form, are offered by a few upmarket brunch establishments.
The best - selling brand in the UK is Heinz Baked Beans.
In the United States, Bush 's (Bush Brothers and Company), Van Camp 's, B&M (Burnham & Morrill Inc.), Allens, Inc., the H.J. Heinz Company, and the Campbell 's Soup Company are well - known producers or brands of packaged baked beans. B&M specializes in Boston - style baked beans often sold in beanpot - shaped jars, and canned brown bread, a traditional regional accompaniment to baked beans, whereas Bush and Van Camp produce multiple flavor varieties of canned beans, some styles using cured bacon to flavor the products.
In the New England region, baked beans are flavored either with maple syrup (Northern New England), or with molasses (Boston), and are traditionally cooked with salt pork in a beanpot in a brick oven for six to eight hours. In the absence of a brick oven, the beans were cooked in a beanpot nestled in a bed of embers placed near the outer edges of a hearth, about a foot away from the fire. Today, baked beans can be made in a slow cooker or in a modern oven using a traditional beanpot, Dutch oven, or casserole dish.
In southern states and along the eastern seaboard of the U.S., the beans become tangier usually due to the addition of yellow mustard. For example, the baked beans of Tennessee - based Bush 's include mustard in most of their varieties of beans. Ground beef may also become common alongside bacon in the home versions some of these bean styles. They may take on a flavor similar to Cowboy Beans, a home - mixed stew, somewhat similar to a chili but made instead with sweet baked beans.
Baked beans are a staple side dish for various types of barbecue. This is due in part to the ease of handling, as they can be served hot or cold, directly from the can, making them handy for outdoor eating. The tomato - based sweet sauce also complements many types of barbecue. The already - cooked beans may also be baked in a casserole dish topped with slices of raw bacon, which is baked until the bacon is cooked. Additional seasonings are sometimes used, such as additional brown sugar or mustard to make the sauce more tangy.
Heinz baked beans became very successful as an export to the UK, where canned baked beans are now a staple food. In America, the H.J. Heinz Co. continue to sell baked beans, although they are not always as widely distributed as competing American brands. Despite their international fame, there are currently substantial differences between the Heinz baked beans produced for the UK market (descended from the original American recipe) and the nearest currently equivalent American product (Heinz Premium Vegetarian Beans).
The American product contains brown sugar where the British beans do not, and the U.S. product contains 14 g of sugar per 16 oz tin compared to 7 g for the British version (equating to 140 versus 90 calories). The U.S. beans have a mushier texture and are darker in color than their UK counterpart. This has resulted in a situation where the product is now imported back to the brand 's home country. For several years, UK Heinz Baked Beans have been available in the U.S., either in different - sized cans from those sold in the UK or in a 385 - gram can (the same can as the 415 - gram can in the UK) with an "export '' label with American English spelling and the word "baked '' dropped from the title on the label. These are sold in many U.S. specialty stores, attesting to the popularity of baked beans and their appeal to expats. Bush, Van Camp, B&M, and Heinz all produce pork - free baked beans labeled as vegetarian beans, making this American dish available to people who abstain from pork for religious, dietary, or ethical reasons.
Traditional cuisines of many regions claim such recipes as typical specialities, for example:
Many unusual dishes are made with baked beans including the baked bean sandwich. These are slices of bread topped with beans and other additions, such as melted cheese.
In 2002, the British Dietetic Association allowed manufacturers of canned baked beans to advertise the product as contributing to the recommended daily consumption of five to six vegetables per person. This concession was criticised by heart specialists, who pointed to the high levels of sugar and salt in the product. However, it has been proven that consumption of baked beans does indeed lower total cholesterol levels and low - density lipoprotein cholesterol, even in normo - cholesterolaemic individuals. Some manufacturers produce a "healthy '' version of the product with reduced levels of sugar and salt.
Baked beans are known on occasion to cause a considerable increase in flatulence following consumption; this is due to the fermentation of polysaccharides (specifically oligosaccharides) by gut flora, specifically Methanobrevibacter smithii. The oligosaccharides pass through the small intestine largely unchanged; when they reach the large intestine, bacteria feast on them, producing copious amounts of flatus.
This condition is referenced in multiple works of popular culture. Some prominent examples include:
|
when did the first bubba gump shrimp open | Bubba Gump Shrimp company - wikipedia
The Bubba Gump Shrimp Company Restaurant and Market is an American seafood restaurant chain inspired by the 1994 film Forrest Gump. As of July 2015, forty Bubba Gump Shrimp Co. restaurants operate worldwide. Twenty - nine of these locations are in the United States, four are in Mexico, three are in Malaysia, and one each in London, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, the Marianas and the Philippines. The company is based in Houston, Texas, and has been a division of Landry 's Restaurants since 2010.
The first Bubba Gump restaurant opened in 1996 in Monterey, California by Viacom Consumer Products. That firm 's parent company, Viacom, is owner of Paramount Pictures, the distributor of Forrest Gump, and also owns the Rusty Pelican restaurant chain. The Bubba Gump restaurant is named after the film 's characters Benjamin Buford "Bubba '' Blue and Forrest Gump. In the film, Bubba suggested getting in the shrimping business and, ultimately, Forrest pursued the idea after Bubba 's death in the Vietnam War.
In 1995, Paramount Pictures approached Rusty Pelican Restaurants Inc. with a desire to create a restaurant based on a theme from Paramount 's 1994 film Forrest Gump. The Bubba Gump Shrimp Co. was created as a result. Within a year the Bubba Gump Shrimp Co. created a concept idea for the restaurant chain which was then licensed by Paramount Licensing, Inc. In 1996, the first Bubba Gump Shrimp Co. restaurant was opened in Monterey, California; its success led to its franchising on an international scale.
In November 2010, Landry 's, Inc. acquired Bubba Gump Shrimp Co. for an undisclosed amount. The Bubba Gump Shrimp Co. purchase also included a lone Rusty Pelican in Newport Beach, California.
Like the name suggests, Bubba Gump Shrimp Co. 's menu consists mostly of shrimp dishes and other seafood, as well as Southern and Cajun cuisine. The restaurant offers dishes named after characters in the movie, like Jenny 's Catch and the restaurant 's bestseller Forrest 's Seafood Feast. Restaurants display movie memorabilia throughout the restaurant. Guests can play Forrest Gump movie trivia and can signal their waiter with a "Stop, Forrest, Stop '' sign. Bubba Gump Shrimp Co. also has a children 's menu.
In 2013, a former Bubba Gump employee claimed that the social media policy in the company 's employee handbook had a restrictive effect on employees ' rights by prohibiting them from discussing their jobs online. In 2015, a National Labor Relations Board administrative law judge ruled that Bubba Gump did not violate employees ' rights as they did not explicitly prohibit employees from discussing job - related subjects, but only expected them to do so in a civil manner. There have been many cases in the last few years in which the National Labor Relations Board found companies social media policies to be overbroad and ruled in favor of the employee (s).
Actor Chris Pratt was discovered in 2000 while working as a waiter at the Bubba Gump Shrimp Co. in Maui, Hawaii. He waited on the table of actor / director Rae Dawn Chong, who had starred in one of Pratt 's favorite films, Commando. Chong offered Pratt a role in a short movie she was directing at the time.
|
best version of you were always on my mind | Always on My Mind - wikipedia
"Always on My Mind '' is a song by Johnny Christopher, Mark James and Wayne Carson, recorded first by Gwen McCrae (as "You Were Always On My Mind '') and Brenda Lee in 1972. The song has been a crossover hit, charting in both the country and western and pop categories.
AllMusic lists over 300 recorded releases of the song in versions by dozens of performers. While Brenda Lee 's version had stalled at number 45 on the country charts in 1972, other performers reached the top 20 in the United States and elsewhere with their own versions: Elvis Presley in 1972; John Wesley Ryles in 1979; Willie Nelson 's Grammy Award - winning version in 1982; Pet Shop Boys in 1987.
Wayne Carson said that he wrote most of the song in 10 minutes at his kitchen table in Springfield, Missouri, and completed the song in studio with the assistance of Johnny and Mark.
Carson, who had the song about a year and one day, was finishing a recording session. Producer Chips Moman asked about recording "that mind '' song, but added it would need a bridge. Wayne went upstairs to the studio 's old piano, trying to work out a bridge, when Johnny and Mark walked in the door, and he asked for their help to complete his song.
The trio thought that the song was finished and at first could not come up with anything to add, but Wayne explained that Moman was insisting that a bridge be added. So between them, the two - line "Tell me... '' bridge was written.
The song was passed to one of Elvis 's bodyguards, who gave Presley the cut from the studio. Moman did not produce Presley 's recording, but did record the Willie Nelson version years later.
Elvis Presley recorded his version of "Always on My Mind '' on March 29, 1972, a few weeks after his February separation from wife Priscilla. The song received immense fame and critical appreciation and is considered one of the standout songs of the ' 70s for Elvis. The song was released as the B - side of the "Separate Ways '' single, which reached Gold status in the U.S for sales of over a million copies. It was listed as a double sided hit reaching number 16 on Billboard magazine 's Hot Country Singles chart in November 1972. In the UK "Always on My Mind '' was the hit song and "Separate Ways '' was the B - side. It was voted the number 1 song of Presley 's recording career in a poll conducted by ITV in 2013.
In 1979, John Wesley Ryles reached number 20 on the US country charts with his rendition, entitled "You Are Always on My Mind '', from the album Let the Night Begin. The rendition was produced by Bob Montgomery.
A review in Billboard praised the "brightly mixed vocals '' and "powerful production ''.
Willie Nelson recorded and released the song in early 1982. It raced to number one on Billboard magazine 's Hot Country Singles chart that May, spending two weeks on top and total of 21 weeks on the chart. The song also did very well on Top 40 radio, reaching number five on the Billboard Hot 100 for three weeks and staying on this chart for 23 weeks. In the year end charts, it was Billboard 's biggest Country hit for 1982. This version also charted in a number of other countries.
Nelson 's version would result in three wins at the 25th Grammy Awards in February 1983: songwriters Christopher, James and Carson won Song of the Year and Best Country Song; in addition, Nelson won for Best Male Country Vocal Performance.
This version also won Country Music Association awards in two consecutive years: 1982 Song of the Year and 1983 Song of the Year for songwriters Christopher, James and Carson; 1982 Single of the Year for Nelson, and; contributed to Nelson winning 1982 Album of the Year for the album "Always on My Mind ''.
Willie Nelson performed the number with Johnny Cash on the 1998 release of VH1 Storytellers: Johnny Cash & Willie Nelson. The song was also featured on a December 2009 ASPCA commercial.
The single was certified Platinum by the RIAA signifying U.S. sales in excess of two million. In 2008, the single was inducted to the Grammy Hall of Fame.
Nelson 's version was also featured, in its entirety, in a season two (2013) episode of the HBO television series The Newsroom.
In 1987, the Pet Shop Boys performed a synthpop version of "Always on My Mind '' on Love Me Tender, a television special on the ITV network in the UK. Commemorating the tenth anniversary of Presley 's death, the programme featured various popular acts of the time performing cover versions of his hits. The Pet Shop Boys ' performance was so well - received that the duo decided to record the song and release it as a single.
This version became the UK 's Christmas number one single that year. It went on to top the charts for four weeks in total, and reached number four on the US Billboard Hot 100.
The Pet Shop Boys version introduces a harmonic variation not present in the original version. In the original the ending phrase "always on my mind '' is sung to a IV - V - I cadence (C-D - G). The Pet Shop Boys extend this cadence by adding two further chords: C-D - Gm / B ♭ - C-G (i.e. a progression of IV - V - III - IV - I).
In November 2004, The Daily Telegraph newspaper placed the version at number two in a list of the fifty greatest cover versions of all time. In October 2014, a public poll compiled by the BBC saw the song voted the all - time best cover version.
In the video for Pet Shop Boys ' version of "Always on My Mind '' (an excerpt from their surreal music film It Could n't Happen Here), Neil Tennant and Chris Lowe are seated in the front of a taxi cab, when an eccentric passenger gets in, played by notable British actor Joss Ackland. At the end of the song, he gets out of the car, which drives away. Standing alone, he mutters: "You went away. It should make me feel better. But I do n't know how I 'm going to get through '', which is part of the lyrics for another Pet Shop Boys track, "What Have I Done to Deserve This? '', which was released earlier in the year.
In 1988, the duo remixed the song for their third studio LP, Introspective, combining it with an acid - house track called "In My House ''.
In 2008, Konami used the song for Dance Dance Revolution X which was released for both arcades and the Sony PlayStation 2 console. In 2010, the song was re-used for Dance Dance Revolution X2 which was released for arcades.
In 2017, Burberry released its Holiday campaign, as directed by Alasdair McLellan, which features "Cara Delevingne and British actor Matt Smith. It opens with Delevingne singing "Always on My Mind '' before segueing into the Pet Shop Boys cover of the song.
|
who sings the song i shot the sheriff | I Shot the Sheriff - Wikipedia
"I Shot the Sheriff '' is a song written by Bob Marley and released in 1973 by The Wailers.
The story is told from the point of view of a narrator who admits to having killed the corrupt local sheriff, and claims to be falsely accused of having killed the deputy sheriff. The narrator also claims to have acted in self - defense when the sheriff tried to shoot him. The song was first released in 1973 on The Wailers ' album Burnin '. Marley explained his intention as follows: "I want to say ' I shot the police ' but the government would have made a fuss so I said ' I shot the sheriff ' instead... but it 's the same idea: justice. ''
In 1992, with the controversy surrounding the Ice - T song "Cop Killer '', Marley 's song was often cited by Ice - T 's supporters as evidence of his detractors ' hypocrisy, considering that the older song was never similarly criticized despite having much the same theme.
In 2012, Bob Marley 's former girlfriend Esther Anderson claimed that the lyrics, "Sheriff John Brown always hated me, For what, I do n't know: Every time I plant a seed, He said kill it before it grow '' are actually about Marley being very opposed to her use of birth control pills; Marley supposedly substituted the word "doctor '' with sheriff.
Eric Clapton recorded a cover version that was included on his 1974 album 461 Ocean Boulevard. His take on the song belongs to the musical genres of soft rock and reggae. It is the most successful version of the song, peaking at number one on the Billboard Hot 100. In 2003, Clapton 's version was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.
shipments figures based on certification alone
"I Shot the Sheriff '' was the lead single released from Warren G 's second album, Take a Look Over Your Shoulder. Warren replaced Marley 's original lyrics with his own, though Clapton 's version of the song is sampled and R&B singer Nancy Fletcher sings the original chorus. The song was a hit in several countries. In the US, it peaked at number 20 on the Billboard Hot 100 and was certified Gold by the RIAA on 2 May 1997. It peaked at number two in the UK and at number one in New Zealand.
The official remix was produced by EPMD member Erick Sermon, it is based around EPMD 's "Strictly Business '', which also sampled Clapton 's version of the song.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
|
can i open carry in colorado without a permit | Gun laws in Colorado - wikipedia
Gun laws in Colorado regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the state of Colorado in the United States.
Colorado is a "shall - issue '' state for concealed carry. Permits are issued by the county sheriff, and are valid for five years. Applicants must demonstrate competence with a handgun, either by passing a training class or by other means. The Concealed Carry Act allows a person with a permit to carry a concealed weapon "in all areas of the state '' with the exception of some federal properties, K - 12 schools, and buildings with fixed security checkpoints such as courthouses, and also disallows a local government from enforcing an ordinance or resolution that conflicts with the law.
In March 2012, the Colorado Supreme Court struck down the University of Colorado 's campus gun ban, saying it violated the Concealed Carry Act, which allows permit holders to carry on public property, including carrying on public colleges.
Open carry, as well as possession of a handgun either openly displayed or concealed in an automobile, is generally permitted without a license. However, local governments may prohibit open carry to a limited extent only in areas that are directly under the jurisdiction of the municipality such as municipal buildings, police stations, etc. If such an ordinance is written all locations affected must be posted per C.R.S 29 - 11.7 - 104. The exception is the city and county of Denver has done so in a broad sense banning open carry in all areas of the city and county. The Colorado Supreme Court ruled that Denver 's pre-existing ban may remain in force, despite the Colorado legislature 's enactment of a statewide pre-emption law designed to establish uniform firearms policies across the state. When a rifle or shotgun is transported in a vehicle, there may not be a round in the chamber.
Effective July 1, 2013, Colorado requires background checks for all firearm sales at the buyer 's expense. Magazines that are capable of accepting more than 15 rounds or are designed to be readily convertible to accept more than 15 rounds can not be sold or transferred within state limits. However, such magazines lawfully obtained prior to July 1, 2013 may be kept without restrictions on their use. The magazine restriction law also does not specifically address residents purchasing LCMs from out - of - state sources for personal use, although they may not be possessed within state limits. Colorado 's large capacity magazine ban is silent on non-residents visiting Colorado while in possession of magazines that meet the state 's LCM ban criteria, provided the LCMs are for personal use, and the individual had lawfully obtained the LCMs according to the laws of his or her home state. Denver city ordinance bans assault weapons and the open carrying of firearms.
A lawsuit over the legality of the magazine ban and background check laws has been filed by 54 of the 64 elected county Sheriffs and 21 sporting and outdoor groups and Colorado companies. The suit alleges that the laws violate the Second and Fourteenth amendments, and state that the laws would be impossible to enforce.
Colorado has state preemption of local firearm laws, except for certain ordinances enacted by the City and County of Denver.
Denver law bans assault weapons and the open carry of firearms. In 2003, the Colorado General Assembly passed laws preempting these and several other pre-existing Denver laws, which Denver successfully challenged in Denver District Court in 2004. In 2006, the Colorado Supreme Court let stand the District Court order upholding the Denver laws.
|
who does not need a visa to visit usa | Visa Waiver Program - wikipedia
The Visa Waiver Program (VWP) is a program of the United States Government which allows citizens of specific countries to travel to the United States for tourism, business, or while in transit for up to 90 days without having to obtain a visa. The program applies to the United States as well as the US territories of Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands in the Caribbean, with limited application to other US territories.
All of the countries selected by the US government to be in the program are high - income economies with a very high Human Development Index that are generally regarded as developed countries.
To be eligible for a visa waiver under the VWP, the traveler seeking admission to the United States must be a citizen of a country that has been designated by the U.S. Secretary of Homeland Security, in consultation with the Secretary of State, as a "program country ''. Permanent residents of designated countries who are not citizens of a designated country do not qualify for a visa waiver. The criteria for designation as program countries are specified in Section 217 (c) of the Immigration and Nationality Act (Title 8 U.S.C. § 1187). The criteria stress passport security and a very low nonimmigrant visa refusal rate, not more than 3 % as specified in Section 217 (c) (2) (A) of the Immigration and Nationality Act and ongoing compliance with the immigration law of the United States.
Citizens of 38 countries and territories are eligible for visa - free entry into the United States under the VWP:
Argentina was added to the program on 8 July 1996 and removed from the list from 21 February 2002. Uruguay was added to the program on 9 August 1999 and removed from the list from 15 April 2003.
Visitors may stay for 90 days in the United States which also includes the time spent in Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, or the islands in the Caribbean if the arrival was through the United States. The ESTA is required if arriving by air or cruise ship. Visa Waiver applies without ESTA for land border crossings, but the VWP does not apply at all (i.e. a visa is required) if a passenger is arriving via air or sea on an unapproved carrier.
As of January 2016, the visa waiver does not apply in cases where a person had previously traveled to Iran, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, or Yemen on or after 1 March 2011 or for those who are dual citizens of Iran, Iraq, Sudan or Syria. Certain categories such as diplomats, military, journalists, humanitarian workers or legitimate businessmen may have their visa requirement waived by the Secretary of Homeland Security.
Countries nominated for status in the Visa Waiver Program are in between "road map '' status and eligibility to participate. Nomination kicks off a detailed evaluation by the United States Department of Homeland Security of the nominated country 's homeland security and immigration practices. There is no established timeline for how long a country may remain on the nominated list before either being approved or rejected from the program.
Since 2005, the U.S. Department of State has been conducting discussions with countries known as "road map countries, '' which are interested in joining (or rejoining) the VWP. Of the original 19 countries, 10 have been admitted to the VWP. The remaining nine countries are:
Eligibility for the visa waiver may be withdrawn at any time. Usually this may happen if the United States feels that citizens of a certain country are more likely than before to violate their VWP restrictions, such as working without a permit or overstaying their allowed period of stay in the United States. Accordingly, Argentina 's participation in the VWP was terminated in 2002 in light of the financial crisis taking place in that country and its potential effect on mass emigration and unlawful overstay of its citizens in the United States by way of the VWP. Uruguay 's participation in the program was revoked in 2003 for similar reasons. While a country 's political and economic standing does not directly determine its eligibility, it is widely believed that citizens of politically stable and economically developed nations would not have much incentive to illegally seek employment and violate their visa while in the U.S., risks that the consul seriously considers in approving or denying a visa. Israel has not been included in the VWP reportedly in part because of its strict scrutiny of Palestinian Americans traveling to Israel, thus not fulfilling the mutuality requirement.
The European Union has been pressuring the United States to extend the Visa Waiver Program to its five remaining member countries that are not currently in it: Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Poland, and Romania. All of these are "road map countries '' except Croatia, which only recently joined the EU in 2013. In November 2014 Bulgarian Government announced that it will not ratify the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership unless the United States lifted visas for its citizens.
Number of admissions into the United States per VWP country under the program (including the Guam and Northern Mariana Islands Visa Waiver Program):
* Only for Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands.
The Adjusted Refusal Rate is based on the refusal rate of B visa applications. B visas are adjudicated based on applicant interviews; the interviews generally last between 60 and 90 seconds. Due to time constraints, adjudicators profile applicants. Certain demographics, such as young adults, those who are single and / or unemployed, almost never receive visas. Adjudicators are evaluated on how fast they carry out interviews, not the quality of adjudication decisions. The validity of B visa decisions is not evaluated.
To qualify for the Visa Waiver Program, a country must have had a nonimmigrant visa refusal rate of less than 3 % for the previous year or an average of no more than 2 % over the past two fiscal years with neither year going above 2.5 %. In addition, the country must provide visa - free access to United States citizens and has to be either an independent country or a dependency of a VWP country (which has precluded Hong Kong and Macau from participating in the program.) (Until 4 April 2016, Argentina charged $160 to U.S. citizens to enter.)
In the table below, eligible countries are in bold, with their flag depicted and linked to their relevant individual article on Wikipedia. The Adjusted Visa Refusal Rate for B visas were as follows:
A number of visitors from the Visa Waiver Program countries overstayed the 90 - day maximum. The Department of Homeland Security published a report for 2015 that lists the number of violations made by passengers who arrived via air and sea. The table below excludes statistics on persons who left the United States later than their allowed stay or legalized their status and shows only suspected overstays who remained in the country.
After the expansion of the European Union in 2004, both the newly admitted countries and EU agencies began intensive lobbying efforts to include those new countries in the VWP. The U.S. Government initially responded to those efforts by developing bilateral strategies with 19 candidate countries known as the Visa Waiver Roadmap process. The U.S. Government began to accept the possibility of departing from the original country designation criteria - which had been contained within immigration law per se - and to expand them by adding political criteria, with the latter being able to override the former. This development began first with Bill S. 2844 which explicitly named Poland as the only country to be added to the VWP, and continued as an amendment to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006 (S. 2611), whose Sec. 413, Visa Waiver Program Expansion, defined broader criteria that would apply to any EU country that provided "material support '' to the multinational forces in Iraq and Afghanistan. However, the definition of that "material support '' would be met again only by Poland and Romania, a fact that was not favorably received by the other EU candidate countries. Ironically, Poland remains the only Central European country that is not a participating nation in the VWP as of 2017, due to a visa refusal rate above the critical threshold of 3 %.
A June 2007 Hudson Institute Panel stressed the urgency of the inclusion of Central Europe in the VWP: "An inexplicable policy that is causing inestimable damage to the United States with its new Central and Eastern European NATO allies is the region 's exclusion from the visa waiver program. As Helle Dale wrote in the spring issue of European Affairs: "Meanwhile the problem is fueling anti-U.S. antagonisms and a perception of capricious discrimination by U.S. bureaucrats -- - and damping the visits to the U.S. of people from countries with whom Washington would like to improve commercial and intellectual ties. Meanwhile horror stories abound from friends and diplomats from Central and Eastern Europe about the problems besetting foreigners seeking to visit the United States. In fact bringing up the subject of visas with any resident of those countries is like waving a red flag before a bull. '' Visa waiver must be satisfactorily addressed and resolved at long last. ''
During his visit to Estonia in November 2006, President Bush announced his intention "to work with our Congress and our international partners to modify our visa waiver program ''. In 2006, the Secure Travel and Counterterrorism Partnership Bill was introduced in the Senate but no action was taken and that bill, as well as a similar one introduced in the House the following year, died after two years of inactivity. The bill would have directed the Secretary of Homeland Security to establish a pilot program to expand the visa waiver program for up to five new countries that are cooperating with the United States on security and counterterrorism matters. The bill would have changed the nonimmigrant visa refusal rate threshold - from 3 % - to 10 %, thus making (as of 2010) 28 countries qualify for inclusion in the visa - waiver program: Argentina, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Croatia, Cyprus, Hong Kong (HKSAR passport and British National (Overseas) passport), Israel, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Malaysia, Mauritius, Mozambique, Oman, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Poland, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Taiwan, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, and Uruguay. Note that Cyprus, Malta, Timor Leste, and Vatican City, had already (in 2006) refusal rates less than the original 3 %, but were not included in the VWP countries (whereas a year later, some additional countries had this original low level: Cyprus and Taiwan). However, for continued participation, DHS re-evaluates participating countries every two years, as required by Congress. Through this process, two countries, Argentina and Uruguay, now are no longer eligible to participate. Current members will have to fulfill any new requirements to continue their eligibility for membership in the program. The European Union is currently planning to negotiate for participation of all of its members in the Visa Waiver Program.
In October 2008, President Bush announced that the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia and South Korea would be added to the program on November 17. "It is a removal of the last relic of Communism and the Cold War '', said Czech Prime Minister Mirek Topolánek.
On December 22, 2008, in a joint press conference at Auberge de Castille, Maltese Prime Minister Lawrence Gonzi and U.S. Ambassador Molly Bordonaro announced that Malta would join the program with effect from 30 December 2008.
In January 2009 the first Assistant Secretary (acting as Under Secretary - equivalent) for Policy at the United States Department of Homeland Security Stewart Baker announced that Croatia is expected to join the Visa Waiver program by 2011.
On June 17, 2008, Bulgarian Foreign Minister Ivailo Kalfin and U.S. Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff signed an interim agreement under the Visa Waiver Program, the press service of the Bulgarian Foreign Ministry said in a statement.
Greece officially joined the program on April 5, 2010.
President Obama promised that Poland would be added to the program, in a meeting with Polish President Bronislaw Komorowski in December 2010; however no date has been set for when Poland will be added. Organizations such as the Federation for American Immigration Reform and the Center for Immigration Studies still oppose Poland 's admission both due to its continued high visa refusal rate, as well as its being a major source of illegal immigrants; the CIS also criticized South Korea 's admission to the program on these grounds.
On October 2, 2012, Secretary Napolitano announced the inclusion of Taiwan into the program effectively as of November 1, 2012. Only Taiwanese nationals with a valid passport and National Identification Number can apply for ESTA online to benefit from the country 's newly acquired visa - free status.
In 2013 there was conflict over the United States - Israel Strategic Partnership Act of 2013 whose Senate version specifies that satisfaction of the requirements regarding reciprocal travel privileges for U.S. citizens would be subject to security concerns. Many members of the House of Representatives oppose the security language because it seems to validate Israel 's tendency to turn away Arab Americans without giving any reason. None of the other 37 countries in the visa waiver program has such an exemption.
The only European microstate that is not a member of the program is the Vatican City.
The visa refusal rate for the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region has dropped to 1.7 % for HKSAR passport and 2.6 % for British National (Overseas) passport as of 2012. Hong Kong met all VWP criteria but did not qualify at the time because it is not legally a separate country, despite having its own passports and independent judicial system, monetary system and immigration control. The former Chief Executive of Hong Kong, Donald Tsang, raised the issue with then - Secretary of State Hillary Clinton during his visit to the U.S. in 2011 and was met with positive response. On May 16, 2013, a bipartisan amendment bill was passed by the Senate Judiciary Committee but not ratified into law. On 10 August 2015, the U.S. Consul General to Hong Kong and Macau, Clifford Hart, said during an interview with South China Morning Post that the visa waiver is "not happening anytime soon '', as the Visa Waiver law requires the participant to be a "sovereign state '' and Hong Kong is not independent, thus ending the possibility of Hong Kong joining the program. He also denied that the failed lobbying effort of HKSAR government on this issue was a result of the refusal of detaining Edward Snowden in 2013.
Congress passed legislation in 1986 to create the Visa Waiver Program with the aim of facilitating tourism and short - term business visits to the United States, and allowing the United States Department of State to focus consular resources on addressing higher risks. The United Kingdom became the first country to participate in the Visa Waiver Program in July 1988, followed by Japan on 16 December 1988. In October 1989, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, and West Germany were added to the VWP.
In 1991, more European countries joined the Program - Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, Norway, San Marino and Spain - as well as New Zealand (the first country from Oceania). In 1993, Brunei became the second Asian country to be admitted to the Program.
On 1 April 1995, Ireland was added to the VWP. In 1996, Australia and Argentina (the first Latin American country) joined, although Argentina was later removed in 2002. On 30 September 1997, Slovenia was added. On 9 August 1999, Portugal, Singapore and Uruguay joined the program, although Uruguay was subsequently removed in 2003.
Following the September 11 terrorist attacks, the George W. Bush administration decided to tighten entry requirements into the United States, as a result of which legislation was passed requiring foreign visitors entering under the Visa Waiver Program to present a machine - readable passport upon arrival starting from 1 October 2003. However, as a number of VWP still issued non-machine readable passports (for example, more than a third of French and Spanish passport holders held a non-machine readable version), the implementation of the new rule was postponed to 26 October 2004, with the exception of Belgian citizens, as there were concerns about the security and integrity of Belgian passports.
The US government originally planned to require all visitors to the US under the Visa Waiver Program to hold a biometric passport starting from 26 October 2004 if their passport was issued on or after that date. However, after the requirement to have a machine - readable passport was postponed to 26 October 2004, the biometric passport requirement subsequently had its implementation date moved to 26 October 2005, only to be further postponed by another year to 26 October 2006 at the request of the European Union, which raised concerns about the number of participating countries which would have been able to make the deadline.
Starting on 26 October 2006, travellers entering the US under the Visa Waiver Program are required to present a biometric passport if their passport was issued on or after that date. When the new rule came into force on that day, three countries (Andorra, Brunei and Liechtenstein) had not yet started issuing biometric passports.
In November 2006, the US government announced that plans for an "Electronic Travel Authorization '' program (officially named "Electronic System for Travel Authorization '') would be developed so that VWP travelers can give advance information on their travels to the United States. In return, they will be given authorization electronically to travel to the United States, although it does not guarantee admission to the United States. This program is modeled on the Electronic Travel Authority scheme that has been used in Australia for many years.
While all participating nations must provide reciprocal visa - free travel for U.S. citizens (usually ninety days for tourism or business purposes), Australia is the only nation that requires U.S. citizens to apply for an Electronic Travel Authority (ETA), which in fact is a visa that is stored electronically in a computer system operated by the Australian Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC). The ETA has replaced visa - free travel to Australia, and the only nation accorded visa - free travel rights to Australia is New Zealand under the auspices of the Trans - Tasman Travel Arrangement (rather than not requiring a visa, NZ citizens are accorded one automatically upon arrival). A passport holder must apply for and purchase an ETA through an authorized travel agency, airline, or via the official DIAC website before departing for Australia. However, as the ETA process is relatively free of formality, the United States recognizes it as the equivalent of visa - free travel. Citizens of the European Union and other European nations must apply for an eVisitor electronic travel authorization for travel to Australia, which is similar to the ETA program, but free. Australian government policy in this respect is similar to U.S. policy, which similarly requires Visa Waiver Program participants to apply for an ESTA.
The Northern Mariana Islands had previously been a separate jurisdiction from the United States in terms of immigration control. Under a federalization law passed by the U.S. Congress in 2008, the Northern Marianas ' immigration functions were taken over by United States Department of Homeland Security agencies on November 28, 2009. The present Guam - Northern Mariana Islands Visa Waiver Program took effect at that time, replacing previous Northern Marianas ' legislation governing entry to the islands and also replacing a previous Guam - specific Visa Waiver Program. That program had included the aforementioned countries as well as Indonesia, Samoa, Vanuatu, and the Solomon Islands, though these countries were removed from the list of eligible nations for the new program.
In the past, the government of the Northern Mariana Islands had issued Visitor Entry Permits (VEP) instead of visas. Citizens of all countries in the federal visa waiver program were exempt from the VEP requirement, as were citizens of Taiwan and holders of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passports and British National (Overseas) passports. Under the islands ' previous immigration policy, citizens of the following countries or jurisdictions were prohibited from entering the CNMI: Afghanistan, Algeria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Cuba, Egypt, Eritrea, Fujian Province of China, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Myanmar, North Korea, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
U.S. visa policy does not apply to the territory of American Samoa, as it has its own visa requirements and maintains control of its own borders. Hence, neither a U.S. visa nor an ESTA can be used to enter American Samoa. U.S. citizens and nationals may enter and remain indefinitely, while nationals from the following countries are not required to obtain a visa for visits not exceeding 30 days:
Nationals of other countries require a visa, which can not be obtained from an U.S. diplomatic mission, but from the Attorney General 's Office of American Samoa.
The requirements for the visa waiver program are as follows:
All travelers must have individual passports. It is not acceptable (for the visa waiver scheme) for children to be included on a parent 's passport.
All visitors from VWP countries must hold a biometric passport.
All incoming passengers who intend to take advantage of the Visa Waiver Program are required to apply for a travel authorization through the Electronic System for Travel Authorization (ESTA) online before departure to the United States, preferably at least 72 hours (3 days) in advance. This new requirement was announced on June 3, 2008 and is intended to bolster U.S. security by pre-screening participating VWP passengers against terrorist and / or no - fly lists and databases. The electronic authorization, which is valid for a two - year period, mirrors Australia 's Electronic Travel Authority system. The authorization is mandatory for participating VWP citizens before boarding flights destined to the United States, but as with formal visas this does not guarantee admission into the United States since final admission eligibility is determined at U.S. ports of entry by CBP officers.
According to the U.S. Department of Homeland Security 's ESTA fact sheet:
An approved ESTA travel authorization is:
valid for up to two years or until the traveler 's passport expires, whichever comes first; valid for multiple entries into the U.S.; and not a guarantee of admissibility to the United States at a port of entry. ESTA approval only authorizes a traveler to board a carrier for travel to the U.S. under the VWP. In all cases, CBP officers make admissibility determinations at our ports of entry. (For additional information, please visit "Know Before You Go '' at www.cbp.gov/travel.)
Currently all travelers from VWP countries are required to obtain an ESTA approval prior to boarding a carrier to travel by air or sea to the United States under the VWP.
The standard requirement for passport validity is six months beyond the expected date of departure from the United States. However, the US has signed agreements with a number of countries to waive this requirement.
If entering the United States by air or sea, additional requirements apply. The traveler must:
Applicants for admission under the Visa Waiver Program:
Those who do not meet the requirements for the Visa Waiver Program must obtain a U.S. tourist visa from an U.S. embassy or consulate.
Having been arrested or convicted does not in itself make a person ineligible to use the Visa Waiver Program. You are only ineligible if you do not meet the requirements of the program. However, some U.S. embassies advise such persons to apply for a tourist visa even though there is no legal obligation for the individual to do so. There is no right of appeal if a CBP officer decides to refuse entry, unless you hold a visa when an appeal can be made to an immigration judge.
Those previously refused entry to the United States are not automatically ineligible for the Visa Waiver Program, but unless the reason for refusal is addressed, it is likely to reoccur. Hence again, many embassies advise such persons to apply for a tourist visa.
A person entering the United States under the VWP can not request an extension of the original allowed period of stay in the U.S. (this practice is allowed to those holding regular visas). However, VWP visitors may seek to adjust status on the basis of either (1) marriage to a US citizen or (2) an application for asylum. U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers determine admissibility upon traveler 's arrival. If one seeks to enter the U.S. under the VWP and is denied entry by a CBP officer at a port of entry, no path of appealing or review of the denial of entry is allowed. VWP including ESTA does not guarantee entry to the United States. CBP officers make the final determination of entry to the United States.
Travelers can leave to contiguous countries (Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean), but will not be granted another 90 days after reentry in the United States.
There are restrictions on the type of employment - related activities allowed. Meetings and conferences in relation to the alien 's profession / line of business / employer in their home country, are generally acceptable, but most forms of "gainful employment '' are not. There are however poorly - classifiable exceptions such as persons performing professional services in the US for a non US employer, and persons installing, servicing and repairing commercial or industrial equipment or machinery pursuant to a contract of sale. Performers (such as actors and musicians) who plan on performing live or taping scenes for productions back home, as well as athletes participating in an athletic event are likewise not allowed to use the VWP for their respective engagements and are instead required to have an O or P visa prior to arrival. Foreign media representatives and journalists on assignment are required to have a nonimmigrant media (I) visa.
Applicant should display social and economic ties which bind them to their country of origin or may be refused entry.
Separate from the Visa Waiver Program, 8 U.S.C. § 1182 (d) (4) (B) permits the Attorney General and the Secretary of State (acting jointly) to waive visa requirements for admission to the United States in nonimmigrant status for nationals of foreign contiguous territories or adjacent islands or for residents of those territories or islands who have a common nationality with those nationals. The regulations relating to such admissions can be found at 8 C.F.R. 212.1.
Until 2003, this visa waiver was granted not only to citizens of those countries and territories, but to permanent residents of Bermuda and Canada who were citizens of Commonwealth of Nations countries or of Ireland. In 2003, the Immigration and Naturalization Service announced that it would be terminating the visa waiver for non-citizen permanent residents of Bermuda and Canada; thenceforth, those Canadian & Bermudian permanent residents who were citizens of a Visa Waiver Program country could enjoy visa - free entry to the United States under that program, while citizens of other countries would be required to possess a valid advance visa for entry to the United States.
Bahamian citizens do not require a visa to enter the United States if they apply for entry at one of the Preclearance Facilities located in Nassau or Freeport International Airports. Bahamian citizens must not have had a criminal conviction or ineligibility, violated U.S. immigration laws in the past and must be in possession of valid, unexpired passport or a Bahamian Travel Document indicating that they have Bahamian citizenship. In addition to a passport, all applicants 14 years of age or older must present a police certificate issued by the Royal Bahamas Police Force within the past six months. All Bahamians applying for admission at a port - of - entry other than the Preclearance Facilities located in Nassau or Freeport International Airports are required to be in possession of a valid visa to enter the United States.
Canadian citizens do not require a non-immigrant visa when entering the United States, except those Canadians that fall under nonimmigrant visa categories E, K, S, or V, but under different legislation from the Visa Waiver program. This does not preclude them from meeting the requirements of the appropriate status they wish to enter in, for example, while a Canadian does not require a F - 1 visa to study in the U.S., they are still required to be in F - 1 status, not requiring a visa simply allows a Canadian to obtain the status at the Port of Entry.
Citizens of Canada who enter as visitors are exempted from being fingerprinted or photographed under US - VISIT and do not require a machine readable passport. Canadian visitors are also not issued an I - 94, and US Customs and Border Protection decides whether to allow entry based on non-immigrant intent. The maximum permitted length of stay is one year but can be extended, although CBP usually considers six months to be the maximum permitted per calendar year, except under unusual circumstances (such as medical treatment).
Before 23 January 2007, citizens of Canada, (provided they held valid photo identification) were able to enter the United States with only a birth certificate as proof of citizenship and were not required to show a passport. Citizens of other parts of North America, such as Mexico or Bermuda have always been subject to holding a valid Visa stamp or a border crossing card along with their passports. On 23 January 2007, Canadian and U.S. citizens were required to have passports when entering the U.S. by air only.
As of 1 June 2009, Canadian and U.S. citizens are required to present either a valid passport, a NEXUS card, a Free and Secure Trade card (FAST) or an enhanced driver 's licence / enhanced identification card when entering the United States by land or water. Canadians entering the U.S. by air are still required to present a valid passport or NEXUS card. A NEXUS card can only be used at designated U.S. and Canadian airports with NEXUS card kiosks. Children under 16, or under 19 while traveling with a school group need to only present a birth certificate or other similar proof of citizenship when entering the U.S. from Canada by land or water.
British Overseas Territories citizens by virtue of their connection to Bermuda can enter the United States visa - free provided they are bona - fide visitors -- no I - 94 is required. To qualify, they must not have had a criminal conviction or ineligibility, violated U.S. immigration laws in the past and must not be arriving the United States from outside the Western Hemisphere. In addition, they must present a Bermudian passport which fulfils the following criteria:
British Overseas Territories Citizens by virtue of their connection to the British Virgin Islands can enter the neighboring U.S. Virgin Islands visa - free for short business and pleasure. Travelers must possess a valid British Virgin Islands passport and travel directly to the U.S. Virgin Islands in order to qualify for this territory - specific visa waiver arrangement. A visa is required for anyone traveling directly to Puerto Rico or the United States mainland.
Whilst residents of the Cayman Islands, as British Overseas Territories Citizens, are eligible automatically to register as a full British citizen under Section 4 (A) of the British Overseas Territories Act 2002, thereby able additionally to enter the United States under the Visa Waiver Program, they can alternatively enter visa - free using their Cayman Islands passports. To qualify under the latter method, their Cayman Islands passports must confirm their British Overseas Territories citizenship and be endorsed by the Cayman Islands Passport and Corporate Services Office with a Cayman - U.S. visa waiver, issued at a cost of $15 -- 25 and valid for one entry. They must travel directly between the Cayman Islands and the United States and their Cayman Islands passport must also have a validity of at least six months beyond their intended departure date from the United States. If Cayman Islanders elect to enter the U.S. using the Cayman - U.S. visa waiver, they are not required to apply for an ESTA online, since they are not entering under the VWP.
British Overseas Territories Citizens by virtue of their connection to the Turks and Caicos Islands can enter the United States visa - free for short business and pleasure. To qualify, they must not have had a criminal conviction or ineligibility, not violated U.S. immigration laws in the past and must arrive in the United States on a direct flight from the territory. In addition, they must present a Turks and Caicos Islands passport which states that they are a British Overseas Territory Citizen and have the right to abode in the Turks and Caicos Islands. In addition to a valid, unexpired passport, all travellers 14 years of age or older must present a police certificate issued by the Royal Turks and Caicos Islands Police Force within the past six months. All British Overseas Territories Citizens of the Turks and Caicos Islands who apply for admission at a port - of - entry that does not have direct air service to / from the territory, are required to be in possession of a valid visa to enter the United States.
Under the Compact of Free Association, citizens of the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Republic of Palau (except for adopted children, citizens wishing to adopt while in the U.S., and citizens from any of these nations who acquired citizenship via an Immigrant investor program) may enter, reside, study, and work indefinitely in the United States without visas. These three sovereign nations hold the distinction of being the only countries in the world whose citizens do not require visas or other required documents (with the exception of a valid passport) for permanent residence, employment, educational pursuits, or for general visits in or to the United States. Time spent in the United States does not count towards permanent residency status, and those wishing to emigrate to the United States must obtain an immigrant visa prior to arriving in the country.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula. Partially recognized.
|
in which year goa had become a part of india | History of Goa - Wikipedia
The history of Goa dates back to prehistoric times, though the present - day state of Goa was only established as recently as 1987. In spite of being India 's smallest state by area, Goa 's history is both long and diverse. It shares a lot of similarities with Indian history, especially with regard to colonial influences and a multi-cultural aesthetic.
Situated on the Konkan Coast in Western India, Goa was one of the major trade centres in India. It attracted influential dynasties, seafarers, merchants, traders, monks and missionaries since its earliest known history. Throughout its history, Goa has undergone continual transformation, leaving an indelible impression on various aspects of its cultural and socio - economic development.
There is evidence of the tectonic origins of Goa dating back to 10,000 BC. Further, evidence of human occupation of Goa dates back at least to the Lower Paleolithic Age, indicated by the archaeological findings of Acheulean bifaces in the Mandovi - Zuari basin. However, evidence suggesting the region 's ancient foundation is obscured by the legend of Goa 's creation by the Hindu sage Parashurama.
Some parts of present - day Goa appear to have been uplifted from the sea due to geological tectonic plate movement. There is evidence to support this theory as indicated by presence of marine fossils, buried seashells and other features of reclaimed topography in the coastal belt. The evidence provided by the conch shells at Surla village, fossilized marine conch shells discovered in 1863, petrified roots, fossilized branches have been found later in many villages on the foothills of the Sahyadri dating back more than 10,000 BC. Thus the geologists concluded that Goa has risen up from seabed as a result of violent tectonic movements. At the decline of the intensity of pluviation in the last Pleistocenic age around 10.000 BC, the bottom of Deccan plateau was lifted up and out of sea - waters by the tectonic movements, formed the West - coast of India, Goa being a part thereof.
Multiple places mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts - Gomanta, Govarashtra, Govapuri and Gomanchal - have been interpreted as references to Goa. The prefix common to all of these names is go, which means cow in Sanskrit. The suffixes translate to country (rashtra), city (puri) and shelter (anchal).
The first literary reference to Goa is in the Bhishma Parva of Mahabharata as Gomanta which translates as the region of cows. A legend states Lord Krishna defeated Jarasandha, the king of Magadha on Gomanchal Mountain, identified as a location in Goa.
Suta Samhita section of Skanda Purana mentions Goa as Govapuri
Govapuri is mentioned in Sahyadrikhanda of Skanda Purana, which says the extent of Govapuri was about seven Yojanas.
According to the Parshurama samhita, Parashurama, the sixth reincarnation of Vishnu faced with an order of banishment from the lands that he had once conquered, sets seven arrows fly from the Sahydris to push back the sea and create a stretch of land which he could claim for himself. The sea - god is believed to have acceded his to wish and created a region Shurparaka, which translates literally to winnowing fan. This region is also known as Parashurama Kshetra. The legend further tells us that having created Goa, Parashurama brought Goud Saraswat Brahmins from the North and settled them in this land. (See: Shree Scanda Puran (Sayadri Khandha) - Ed. Dr. Jarson D. Kunha, Marathi version Ed. By Gajananshastri Gaitonde). The Parashurama samhita thus serves as a symbol of the Sanskritisation that Goan culture experienced with the advent of Brahminical religion to the region, and establishment of Brahminical hegemony
The Parashurama samhita personifies the geological process of elevation of submerged land along the west coast, which must have taken place around 12,000
Until 1993 the existence of humans in Goa during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic period was highly debated. The discovery of rock art engravings on lateritic platforms and granite boulders from Usgalimal on the banks of west - flowing river Kushavati River, has shed light on the prehistory of Goa. The rock shelter at Usgalimal has enough space for 25 to 30 people. The perennial stream in the vicinity which might have served Stone age man for centuries as a source of water. An anthropomorphic figure of Mother goddess and tectiforms resembling tree - like motifs have been found. This site was discovered by Dr P.P. Shirodkar. Exploration of several Mesolithic sites of the Mandovi - Zuari basin, at other sites such as Keri, Thane, Anjuna, Mauxim, Kazur in Quepem, Virdi, has led to the discovery of several scrapers, points, bores, cones, et cetera. A hand axe has also been found at Usgalimal. Further unifacial choppers were recovered on a flat - based pebble of quartzite from a pebble conglomerate at Shigaon on the Dudhsagar River. Shirodakar made a detailed study of the rock engravings and dated them to Upper paleolithic and Mesolithic phases, or to 20,000 - 30,000 BC. These discoveries have demonstrated that the region had been supporting a population of hunter - gatherers well before the advent of agriculture. Evidence of Palaeolithic cave existence can be seen at Dabolim, Adkon, Shigaon, Fatorpa, Arli, Maulinguinim, Diwar, Sanguem, Pilerne, Aquem - Margaon et cetera. Difficulty in carbon dating the laterite rock compounds has posed a problem in determining the exact time period.
Dr. Nandkumar Kamat from the University of Goa discovered the prehistoric petroglyphs of Goa. More than 125 forms were found scattered on the banks of river Kushavati in south - eastern Goa. According to Kamat, these are evidence of a prehistoric Goan shamanistic practice. For hundreds of years, the Kushavati rock art of Goa was known locally as goravarakhnyachi chitram, or pictures made by cowherds. But people did not know how ancient the works were, nor could anyone interpret them. After thorough study of these forms, scholars have concluded that these petroglyphs differ from those found elsewhere in Goa. Deeper studies and analysis over a period of ten years showed these petroglyphs were an exquisitely carved ocular labyrinth, one of the best in India and Asia. Its ocular nature added to the evidence of prehistoric shamanism.
The studies have shown that the Kushavati culture was a hunter - gatherer culture with deep knowledge of local natural resources and processes - water, fish, plants, game, animal breeding cycles, seasons and natural calamities. The Kushavati culture was greatly concerned with water security, so they set up camps near the streams. The Kushavati found food security in the jungle near the steam. Like every culture, its members confronted the mysteries of illness, death and birth. Kamat believes that this culture dated to 6,000 to 8,000 years ago. On basis of recent DNA - based work on human migration, Dr. Nandkumar Kamat has ruled out the possibility of Kushavati shamans belonging to the first wave of humans to arrive in Goa. They were not negritoes or austrics. Most probably they were the earliest Mediterraneans who had descended the Western Ghats, probably in their search for sea salt on Goa 's coast. As the Kushavati transitioned into a Neolithic society, they began the domestication of animals and were in the last phase of using stone tools. The entire realm of shamanism underwent a radical transition. Today evidence of the metamorphosis in masked dance drama Perni jagor can be seen in the same cultural region.
Archaeological evidence in the form of polished stone axes, suggest the first settlements of Neolithic man in Goa. These axes have been found in Goa Velha. During this period tribes of Austric origin such as the Kols, Mundaris and Kharvis may have settled Goa, living on hunting, fishing and a primitive form of agriculture since 3500 BC. According to Goan historian Anant Ramakrishna Dhume, the Gauda and Kunbi and other such castes are modern descendants of ancient Mundari tribes. Dhume notes several words of Mundari origin in the Konkani language. He describes the deities worshipped by the ancient tribes, their customs, methods of farming, and its overall effect on modern - day Goan culture. The Negroids were in a Neolithic stage of primitive culture and were food - gatherers. Traces of Negroid physical characteristics can be found in parts of Goa, up to at least the middle of the first millennium.
The Proto - Australoid tribe known as the Konkas, from whom is derived the name of the region, Kongvan or Konkan, with the other mentioned tribes, reportedly made up the earliest settlers in the territory. Agriculture had not fully developed at this stage and was being developed. The Kol and Mundari may have been using stone and wood implements, as iron implements were used by the megalithic tribes as late as 1200 BC. The Kol tribe is believed to have migrated from Gujarat.
During this period, the people began worship of a mother goddess in the form of anthill or Santer. The Anthill is called Roen (Konkani: रोयण), which is derived from the Austric word Rono, meaning with holes. The later Indo - Aryan and Dravidian settlers also adopted anthill worship, which was translated into Prakrit Santara. They also worshipped the mother earth by the name of Bhumika in Prakrit. Anthill worship still continues in Goa.
The theocratic democracy of Sumer was transformed into the oligarchic democracy of village - administration in Goa known as Gavkari, when it overlapped with the practices of the locals. The agricultural land was jointly owned by the group of villagers, they had right to auction the land, this rent was used for development, and the remainder was distributed amongst the Gavkars. Sumerians view that the village land must belong to the village god or goddess, this was the main feature of the Gavkari system where the village 's preeminent deity 's temple was the centre of all the activities. It consisted of definite boundaries of land from village to village with its topographic detail, its management and social, religious and cultural interaction. Gavkari thus were in existence long before constitution of the state of Goa itself.
Thus even before any king ruled the territory, oligarchic democracy in the form of Gavkari existed in Goa. This form of village - administration was called as Gaunponn (Konkani: गांवपण), and despite the periodic change of sovereigns, the Gaunponn always remained, hence the attachment and fidelity of the Goans to their village has always surpassed their loyalty to their rulers (most of them were extraterritorial). This system for governance became further systematised and fortified, and it has continued to exist ever since. Even today 223 comunidades are still functioning in Goa, though not in the true sense.
The second wave of migrants arrived sometime between 1700 and 1400 BC. This second wave migration was accompanied by southern Indians from the Deccan plateau. A wave of Kusha or Harappan people moved to Lothal probably around 1600 BC to escape submergence of their civilisation which thrived on sea - trade. With the admixture of several cultures, customs, religions, dialects and beliefs, led to revolutionary change in early Goan society.
The history of the Mauryas is almost non-existent. The existing records disclose the names of only three of the dynasty 's kings, namely Suketavarman, who ruled some time in the 4th or 5th centuries BC, Chandravarman in the 6th century BC, and Ajitavarman in the 7th century BC, who ruled from Kumardvipa or modern Kumarjuve, but beyond that the records provide no clue as to their mutual relationship. These dates were determined by comparing the style of the Nagari script in which these records are written with the evolution of this script, which may be dated fairly accurately. It is possible to infer from the places mentioned in these records and their discovery locations that at its zenith, the Western Maurya Kingdom comprised the Lata or South Gujarat, coastal Maharashtra, Goa, and approximately half of the North Kanara district. After the Maurya Empire had passed its meridian in the 2nd century BC its satrap in Aparanta made himself independent. A scion of the imperial Mauryas, he founded a dynasty that ruled over the west coast for nearly four centuries from its capital Shurparaka or modern Sopara. This dynasty was known as the Konkan Mauryas. Goa was called Sunaparant by the Mauryas.
Chandragupta Maurya incorporated the west coast of India in his province of Aparanta, and the impact of Magadhan Prakrit, the official language of the Mauryan Empire, on the local dialects resulted in the formation of early Konkani, as was the case with other Aryan vernaculars. During this era Buddhism was introduced to Goa. Similarly a native Goan named Purna, also known as Punna in Pali, who traveled to Sarnath is considered a direct disciple of Buddha, who popularised Buddhism in Goa in 5th century BC.
The Satavahana dynasty began as vassals of the Mauryan Empire, but declared independence as the Mauryan Empire declined. The Satavahana dynasty ruled Goa through their coastal vassals, the Chutus of Karwar. This period is estimated to have lasted from around the 2nd century BC to 100 AD. The Satavahanas had established maritime power and their contacts with Roman empire from the coastal trade from Sindh to Saurashtra, from Bharuch to Sopara to Goa, where Greek and Roman ships would halt during voyages. The Bhojas fortified themselves after the end of Satavahana Empire. With the fall of the Satavahanas, the lucrative seaborne trade declined. Many Greek converts to Buddhism settled in Goa during this period. Buddha statues in Greek styles have been found in Goa. It can be seen that they ruled a very small part of Goa. Maharashtri prakrit was their language of administration, which influenced medieval Konkani to a great extent.
In the year 150AD, Vashishtiputra Satakarni was defeated by his son - in - law, the Kshatrapa King Rudradaman I who established his rule over Goa. This dynasty ruled the territory until 249AD. Thereafter the dynasty 's power seems to have been weakened by their generals, the Abhiras
First existing as vassals of the Mauryan Empire and later as an independent empire, the Bhojas ruled Goa for more than 500 years, annexing the entirety of Goa. The earliest known record of the Bhoja Empire from Goa dates from the 4th century AD, it was found in the town of Shiroda in Goa. According to Puranik, by tradition the Bhojas belonged to the clan of Yadavas, who may have migrated to Goa via Dwaraka after the Mahabharata war. Two Bhoja copperplates grants dating back to the 3rd century BC were unearthed from Bandora village, written by King Prithvimallavarman. Many other copper plates, have also been recovered from other places in Goa which date from the 3rd century BC to the 8th century AD. Ancient Chandrapur, modern day Chandor, was the capital of the Bhoja Empire; the Bhojas ruled Goa, Belgaum and North Canara.
From the Bhoja inscriptions found in Goa and Konkan, it is evidenced that the Bhojas used Sanskrit and Prakrit for administration. According to Vithal Raghavendra Mitragotri, many Brahmins and Vaishyas arrived with Kshatriyas Bhojas from the north. The Kshatriya Bhojas patronised Buddhism and employed many Buddhist converts of Greek and Persian origin.
Goa was ruled by several dynasties of various origins from the 1st century BC to 1500 AD. Since Goa had been under the sway of several dynasties, there was no organised judicial or policing system in those days, except for traditional arrangements governed by absolute rulers and local chieftains. There may have been more order under Muslim rule. During this time, Goa was not ruled as a singular kingdom. Parts of this territory were ruled by several different kingdoms. The boundaries of these kingdoms were not clearly defined and the kings were content to consider their dominions as extending over many villages, which paid tribute and owed them allegiance.
The Shilaharas of South Konkan ruled Goa from 755 until 1000 AD. Sannaphulla, the founder of the dynasty, was a vassal of the Rashtrakutas. Their copper - plate inscriptions suggest that they ruled from Vallipattana (there is no unanimity amongst the scholars regarding identification of Vallipattana, some identify it with Balli in Goa, or it may either be Banda or Kharepatan in the modern - day state of Maharashtra), Chandrapura and Gopakapattana. This was a tumultuous period in Goan history. As the Goa Shilahara power waned during the 11th century, the Arab traders gained increasing control of the overseas trade. They enjoyed autonomy from the Shilaharas. In order to control this decline, Kadamba King Guhalladeva I, ruling from Chandor, established secular, political, and economic partnerships with these Arab states. After the Chalukyas defeated the Rashtrakutas, exploiting this situation to their advantage, the Kadamba King, Shashthadeva II, firmly established his rule in Goa.
The Kadambas ruled Goa between the 10th and 14th centuries. In the beginning, the Kadambas ruled only Sashti present day Salcette, a small part of Konkan. They ruled from Chandor, over a large part of Goa, but the port of Gopakapattana was not included in the early years.
Later King Shashthadeva conquered the island of Goa, including the ports of Gopakpattana and Kapardikadvipa, and annexed a large part of South Konkan to his kingdom. He made Gopakpattana as his secondary capital. His successor, King Jayakeshi I, expanded the Goan kingdom. The Sanskrit Jain text Dvayashraya mentions the extent of his capital. Port Gopakapattna had trade contacts with Zanzibar, Bengal, Gujarat and Sri Lanka (mentioned as Zaguva, Gauda, Gurjara, and Simhala in the Sanskrit texts). The city has been described in the contemporary records not only as aesthetically pleasing, but spiritually cleansing as well. Because it was a trading city, Gopakapattna was influenced by many cultures, and its architecture and decorative works showed this cosmopolitan effect. The capital was served by an important highway called Rajvithi or Rajpath, which linked it with Ela, the ruins of which can still be seen. For more than 300 years, it remained a centre for intra-coastal and trans - oceanic trade from Africa to Malaya. Later in the 14th century, the port was looted by the Khalji general Malik Kafur. The capital was transferred to Chandor and then back to Gopakapattna because of Muhammad bin Tughluq 's attack on Chandor.
Guhalladeva III, Jayakeshi II, Shivachitta Paramadideva, Vinshuchitta II and Jayakeshi III dominated Goa 's political scene in the 12th century. During the rule of Kadambas, the name and fame of Goapuri had reached it zenith. Goa 's religion, culture, trade and arts flourished under the rule of these kings. The Kings and their queens built many Shiva temples as they were devout Shaivites. They assumed titles like Konkanadhipati, Saptakotisha Ladbha Varaveera, Gopakapura varadhishva, Konkanmahacharavarti and Panchamahashabda. The Kings had matrimonial relationships with the Kings of Saurashtra, and even the local chieftains. The Kings patronised Vedic religion and performed major fire sacrifices like the horse sacrifice or Ashvamedha. They are also known for patronising Jainism in Goa.
Though their language of administration was Sanskrit and Kannada, Konkani and Marathi were also prevalent. They introduced Kannada language to Goa, which had a very profound influence on the local tongue. Nagari script, Kadamba script, Halekannada script and Goykanadi scripts were very popular. Kadamba Tribhuvanamalla, inscribed a record, dated saka 1028 or AD 1106, that he established a Brahmapuri at Gopaka. Brahmapuris were ancient universities run by the Brahmins where the Vedas, astrology, philosophy, medicine, and other subjects were studied. Such Brahampuris were found in many places in Goa such as Savoi verem and Gauli moula.
Kadambas ruled Goa for more than 400 years. On 16 October 1345 Goa Kadamba King Suriya Deva was assassinated by Muslim invaders.
In 1350 AD, Goa was ruled by the Bahmani Sultanate. However, in 1370, the Vijayanagar empire, a resurgent Hindu empire situated at modern day Hampi, reconquered the area. The Vijayanagar rulers held on to Goa for nearly a century, during which time its harbours were important port of arrival for Arabian horses on their way to Hampi to strengthen the Vijaynagar cavalry. In 1469 Goa was reconquered by the Bahmani Sultans of Gulbarga. When this Sultanate broke up in 1492, Goa became a part of Adil Shah 's Bijapur Sultanate, which established Goa Velha as its second capital. The former Secretariat building in Panaji is a former Adil Shahi palace, later taken over by the Portuguese Viceroys as their official residence.
Vasco da Gama joined the Portuguese navy as a young man, where he learned navigational skills and served with distinction in the war against Castile. He set off from Lisbon in 1497 and a year later, landed in Calicut, India, and broke the Arab monopoly of trade.
In 1510, Portuguese admiral Afonso de Albuquerque attacked Goa at the behest of the local chieftain Thimayya. After losing the city briefly to its former ruler, Ismail Adil Shah, the Muslim King of Bijapur, Albuquerque returned in force on 25 November, with a fully renovated fleet. In less than a day, the Portuguese fleet took possession of Goa from Ismail Adil Shah and his Ottoman allies, who surrendered on 10 December. It is estimated that 6,000 of the 9,000 Muslim defenders of the city died, either in the battle in the streets or while trying to escape. Albuquerque gained the support of the Hindu population, although this frustrated the initial expectations of Thimayya, who aspired to control the city. Afonso de Albuquerque rewarded him by appointing him chief Aguazil of the city, an administrator and representative of the Hindu and Muslim people; he was a learned interpreter of the local customs. Albuquerque made an agreement to lower yearly dues and taxes. In spite of frequent attacks by raiders, Goa became the centre of Portuguese India, with the conquest triggering the compliance of neighboring kingdoms; the Sultan of Gujarat and the Zamorin of Calicut dispatched embassies, offering alliances and local concessions to be fortified.
In Goa, Albuquerque started the first Portuguese mint in the East, after complaints from merchants and Timoja about the scarcity of currency. He used it as an opportunity to announce the territorial conquest by the design of the new coins. The new coin, based on the existing local coins, bore a cross on one side and the design of an armillary sphere (or esfera), King Manuel 's badge, on the reverse. Gold, silver and bronze coins were issued: gold cruzados or manueis, esperas and alf - esperas, and leais. More mints were built in Malacca in 1511.
Albuquerque and his successors left the customs and constitutions of the thirty village communities on the island almost untouched, abolishing only the rite of sati, in which widows were burned on their husband 's funeral pyre. A register of these customs (Foral de usos e costumes) was published in 1526; it is among the most valuable historical documents pertaining to Goan customs.
Goa was the base for Albuquerque 's conquest of Malacca in 1511 and Hormuz in 1515. Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base, distinct from the fortified factories established in certain Indian seaports. Goa was made capital of the Portuguese Vice-Kingdom in Asia, and the other Portuguese possessions in India, Malacca and other bases in Indonesia, East Timor, the Persian Gulf, Macau in China and trade bases in Japan were under the suzerainty of its Viceroy. By mid -- 16th century, the area under occupation had expanded to most of present - day limits.
Goa was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. Its senate or municipal chamber maintained direct communications with the king and paid a special representative to attend to its interests at court. In 1563 the governor proposed to make Goa the seat of a parliament representing all parts of the Portuguese east, but this was rejected by the King.
The Portuguese set up a base in Goa to consolidate their control of the lucrative spice trade. Goods from all parts of the East were displayed in its bazaar, and separate streets were designated for the sale of different classes of goods: Bahrain pearls and coral, Chinese porcelain and silk, Portuguese velvet and piece - goods, and drugs and spices from the Malay Archipelago.
In 1542, St. Francis Xavier mentions the architectural splendour of the city. It reached the height of its prosperity between 1575 and 1625. Travellers marvelled at Goa Dourada, or Golden Goa. A Portuguese proverb said, "He who has seen Goa need not see Lisbon. ''
In the main street, African and Indian slaves were sold by auction. The houses of the rich were surrounded by gardens and palm groves; they were built of stone and painted red or white. Instead of glass, their balconied windows had thin polished oyster - shells set in lattice - work. The social life of Goa 's rulers befitted the capitol of the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church; luxury and ostentation became a byword before the end of the 16th century.
Almost all manual labour was performed by slaves. The common soldiers assumed high - sounding titles, and even the poor noblemen who congregated in boarding - houses subscribed for a few silken cloaks, a silken umbrella and a common man - servant, so that each could take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably attired and with a proper escort.
Around 1583, missionary activity in Cuncolim led to conflicts, culminating in the Cuncolim Revolt in which natives killed all the missionaries. The Portuguese authorities called the sixteen chieftains of each ward or vado of the Cuncolim village to the Assolna Fort, ostensibly to form a peace pact with the villagers. At the fort the Portuguese killed the chieftains, except for two who jumped from the fort into the Arabian Sea and presumably swam to Karwar. The villagers lost their traditional leaders and the Portuguese began confiscating the land of the locals. At the same time, they initiated the Goa Inquisition.
In 1556 the printing press was first introduced to India and Asia at Saint Paul 's College in Goa; through the spread of the printing press, Goa led the acceleration of the availability of the knowledge and customs of Europe. After getting established in Goa, the Jesuits introduced the printing press technology for the first time in history into Macau - China in 1588 and into Japan in 1590. The Jesuits founded the university of Santo Tomas in the Philippines, which is the oldest existing university in Asia; in the same period, Goa Medical College was established as the first European medical college in Asia.
The Crown in Lisbon undertook to finance missionary activity; missionaries and priests converted large numbers of people in all spheres of society, especially in Goa. St Francis Xavier in Goa, pioneered the establishment of a seminary, called Saint Paul 's College. It was the first Jesuit headquarters in Asia. St Francis founded the College to train Jesuit missionaries. He went to the Far East, traveling towards China. Missionaries of the Jesuit Order spread out through India, going as far north as the court of the great Moghul Emperor Jallaluddin Akbar. Having heard about the Jesuits, he invited them to come and teach him and his children about Christianity.
From Goa, the Jesuit order was able to set up base almost anywhere in Asia for evangelistic missions, including the founding of Roman Catholic colleges, universities and faculties of education. Jesuits are known for their work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits, and for their missionary efforts. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice and ecumenical dialogue.; Saint Paul 's College Goa was a base for their evangelisation of Macau, and then for their important missionary campaigns into China and Japan. Macau eventually superseded St Paul 's College, Goa. They built St Paul College in 1594 (now the University of Macau), known in Latin as the college of Mater Dei. Because of state conflicts with the Jesuits, In 1762 the Marquês de Pombal expelled the order from Macau. The Macau university combined evangelisation with education.
In the year 1600 António de Andrade made the long voyage from Lisbon to Goa, where he pursued his higher studies at St. Paul 's College and was ordained a Jesuit priest. He eventually became rector of the same college. He made a landmark missionary expedition from Goa, across the length of India and into Tibet. He overcame incredible hardships in the journey as the first European to cross the Himalaya mountains into Tibet. There he founded churches and a mission in 1625. The corpse of the co-founder of the Society of Jesus, Francis Xavier, whose example many Goan missionaries tried to emulate by engaging in evangelising work in Asia, was shipped to Goa on 11 December 1553. Goa has also produced its own saints: the martyrs of Cuncolim; St. Joseph Vaz, whose missionary exploits in Sri Lanka are remembered with gratitude in that country; and the Venerable Angelo de Souza.
The 16th - century monument, the Cathedral or Sé, was constructed during Portugal 's Golden Age, and is the largest church in Asia, as well as larger than any church in Portugal. The church is 250 ft in length and 181 ft in breadth. The frontispiece stands 115 ft high. The Cathedral is dedicated to St. Catherine of Alexandria and is also known as St. Catherine 's Cathedral. It was on her feast day in 1510 that Afonso de Albuquerque defeated the Muslim army and took possession of the city of Goa.
The Goa Inquisition was the office of the Inquisition acting within the Indian state of Goa and the rest of the Portuguese empire in Asia. It was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774 -- 1778, and finally abolished in 1812. The Goan Inquisition is considered a blot on the history of Roman Catholic Christianity in India by both Christians and non-Christians alike. Based on the records that survive, H.P. Salomon and I.S.D. Sassoon state that between the Inquisition 's beginning in 1561 and its temporary abolition in 1774, some 16,202 persons were brought to trial. Of this number, only 57 were sentenced to death and executed; another 64 were burned in effigy. Most were subjected to lesser punishments or penances.
The Inquisition was established to punish relapsed New Christians, Jews and Muslims who had converted to Catholicism, as well as their descendants, but were suspected of practicing their ancestral religion in secret. Numerous Portuguese Jews (as converted Catholics) had come to Goa and worked as traders. Due to persecution during the Inquisition, most left and migrated to Fort St. George (later Madras / Chennai) and Cochin, where English and Dutch rule, respectively, were more tolerant.
In Goa the Inquisition also scrutinised Indian converts from Hinduism or Islam who were thought to have returned to their original ways. It prosecuted non-converts who broke prohibitions against the observance of Hindu or Muslim rites, or interfered with Portuguese attempts to convert non-Christians to Catholicism. While its ostensible goal was to preserve the Catholic faith, the Inquisition was used against Indian Catholics as an instrument of social control, as well as a method of confiscating victims ' property and enriching the Inquisitors. Goan Inquisition was abolished in 1812.
The appearance of the Dutch in Indian waters was followed by the gradual ruin of Goa. In 1603 and 1639, the city was blockaded by Dutch fleets, though never captured. In 1635 Goa was ravaged by an epidemic.
Trade was gradually monopolised by the Jesuits. Jean de Thévenot in 1666, Baldaeus in 1672, and Fryer in 1675 describe Goa 's ever - increasing poverty and decay. After escaping from Agra, Shivaji slowly started gaining the areas which he lost through the Treaty of Purendar to the Moghuls. He conquered most of the area adjoining the Old Conquestas of Goa. He captured Pernem, Bicholim, Sattari, Ponda, Sanguem, Quepem and Canacona. Sawantwadi Bhonsale and Saudekar Rajas became his vassals.
In 1683 Sambhaji, the son of Shivaji, tried to conquer all of Goa, including the areas then in Portuguese control. He almost ousted the Portuguese, but to their surprise a Mughal army prevented the city 's capture by the Marathas. In 1739 the whole territory of Bardez was attacked by the Marathas again in order to pressure the northern Portuguese possession at Vasai, but the conquest could not be completed because of the unexpected arrival of a new viceroy with a fleet.
In June 1756 Luís Mascarenhas, Count of Alva (Conde de Alva), the Portuguese Viceroy was killed in action by Maratha Army in Goa. Following the Third Battle of Panipat, Peshawa control over Maratha Empire was weakened. The Portuguese defeated the Rajas of Sawantwadi and the Raja of Sunda to conquer an area that stretched from Pernem to Cancona. This territory formed the Novas Conquistas, the boundaries of present - day Goa.
In the same year the viceroy transferred his residence from the vicinity of Goa city to New Goa (in Portuguese Nova Goa), today 's Panaji. In 1843 this was made the official seat of government in 1843; it completed a move that had been discussed as early as 1684. Old Goa city 's population fell steeply during the 18th century as Europeans moved to the new city. Old Goa has been designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO because of its history and architecture.
In 1757, King Joseph I of Portugal issued a decree, developed by his minister Marquês de Pombal, granting Portuguese citizenship and representation to all subjects in the Portuguese Indies. The enclaves of Goa, Damão, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli became collectively known as the Estado da Índia Portuguesa, and were represented in the Portuguese parliament. (The first election was held in Goa on 14 Jan 1822, electing 3 locals as members of Parliament.)
In 1787, some priests started a rebellion against Portuguese rule. It was known as the Conspiracy of the Pintos. Goa was peacefully occupied by the British between 1812 - 1815 in line with the Anglo - Portuguese Alliance during the Napoleonic Wars.
Goa remained neutral during the conflict like Portugal. As a result, at the outbreak of hostilities a number of Axis ships sought refuge in Goa rather than be sunk or captured by the British Royal Navy. Three German merchants ships, the Ehrenfels, the Drachenfels and the Braunfels, as well as an Italian ship, took refuge in the port of Mormugao. The Ehrenfels began transmitting Allied ship movements to the U-boats operating in the Indian Ocean, an action that was extremely damaging to Allied shipping.
But the British Navy was unable to take any official action against these ships because of Goa 's stated neutrality. Instead the Indian mission of SOE backed a covert raid using members from the Calcutta Light Horse, a part - time unit made up of civilians who were not eligible for normal war service. The Light Horse embarked on an ancient Calcutta riverboat, the Phoebe, and sailed round India to Goa, where they sunk the Ehrenfels. The British then sent a decrypted radio message announcing it was going to seize the territory. This bluff made the other Axis crews scuttle their ships fearing they could be seized by British forces.
The raid was covered in the book Boarding Party by James Leasor. Due to the potential political ramifications of the fact that Britain had violated Portuguese neutrality, the raid remained secret until the book was published in 1978. In 1980 the story was made into the film, The Sea Wolves, starring Gregory Peck, David Niven and Roger Moore.
When India became independent in 1947, Goa remained under Portuguese control. The Indian government of Jawaharlal Nehru insisted that Goa, along with a few other minor Portuguese holdings, be turned over to India. However, Portugal refused. By contrast, France, which also had small enclaves in India (most notably Puducherry), surrendered all its Indian possessions relatively quickly.
In 1954, unarmed Indians took over the tiny land - locked enclaves of Dadra and Nagar Haveli. This incident led the Portuguese to lodge a complaint against India in the International Court of Justice at The Hague. The final judgement on this case, given in 1960, held that the Portuguese had a right to the enclaves, but that India equally had a right to deny Portugal access to the enclaves over Indian territory.
In 1955 a group of unarmed civilians, the Satyagrahis, demonstrated against Portugal. At least twenty - two of them were killed by Portuguese gunfire.
Later the same year, the Satyagrahis took over a fort at Tiracol and hoisted the Indian flag. They were driven away by the Portuguese with a number of casualties. On 1 September 1955, the Indian consulate in Goa was closed; Nehru declared that his government would not tolerate the Portuguese presence in Goa. India then instituted a blockade against Goa, Damão, and Diu in an effort to force a Portuguese departure. Goa was then given its own airline by the Portuguese, the Transportes Aéreos da Índia Portuguesa, to overcome the blockade.
India made many requisitions to the Salazar regime of Portugal to grant their Indian colonies independence, but when that failed, on 18 December 1961, Indian troops crossed the border into Goa and "liberated '' it. Operation Vijay involved sustained land, sea and air strikes for more than thirty - six hours; it resulted in the unconditional surrender of Portuguese forces on 19 December. A United Nations resolution "condemning '' the invasion was proposed by the United States and the United Kingdom in the United Nations Security Council, but would be vetoed by the USSR. The territory of Goa was under military rule for five months. However, the previous civil service was soon restored. Goan voters went to the polls in a referendum and voted to become an autonomous, federally administered territory. Goa was later admitted Indian statehood in 1987. Goa celebrates "Liberation Day '' on 19 December every year, which is also a state holiday.
|
where are active volcanoes located in the united states | List of volcanoes in the United States - wikipedia
A list of volcanoes in the United States of America and its territories.
|
who entered bigg boss 2 telugu house today | Bigg Boss Telugu 2 - wikipedia
Bigg Boss Telugu 2 is the second season of the Telugu - language version of the reality TV show Bigg Boss broadcast in India. The season premiered on June 10, 2018 on Star Maa. Nani hosts the show.
Unlike the first season, this season featured general public along with celebrities as housemates.
For this season of Bigg Boss, a lavish house set has been constructed in Annapurna Studios, Jubilee Hills, Hyderabad.
Then two contestants come up to the activity room to compete in a task to join King 's Team. → Winners of Mud Pit tasks given by BIGG BOSS are joined King 's Team and remaining housemates became villagers who work for the princess. → King 's Team members are Amit, Samrat, Babu Gogineni, Ganesh, Bhanu, and Kireeti. → Princess Team members are Deepthi Sunaina, Tejaswi, Roll Rida, Syamala, Tanish, and Kaushal.
BIGG BOSS placed one diamond in the living area which gives housemates more points to win Round two. → Losser team head will be locked in jail by winner team head. Raju Gari Malla is a task which hosted by Geetha. In this task, two teams have to get as many flowers from the pool in the garden area to make a garland. Princess Team won the task with 96 flowers. Raja Simhasanam is a task which hosted by Geetha. Nandhini (Princess) sits on a chair and two teams have to pull the chair to win. King 's Team won by pulling the chair to their side. BIGG BOSS announce Princess Team as a winner of round two and order Nandhini (Princess) to lock Nutan Naidu (King), and Deepti Nallamothu (Queen) in jail.
Amit Tiwari won week 3 Captaincy
Bigg Boss house became sugar cane factory. In this task, there are two teams and one quality check manager. Yellow team owner is Kaushal, Green team owner is Kireeti Damaraju and Quality check manager and chancellor of the task is Bhanu Sree. Two teams have to complete the sugar cane juice bottles order given by Bigg Boss by using sugar cane juice machines placed in the garden area and save Bigg Boss money to win. Quality check manager should check the quality and accept or reject the bottles.
→ Order One given by Bigg Boss 25 juice bottles for both teams. Green team won with 25 bottles. → Order Two given by Bigg Boss 50 bottles. Both teams failed to complete the order. → Order Three given by Bigg Boss 100 bottles. Bigg Boss canceled the order because of green team cheating by mixing water with sugar cane juice in bottles.
Yellow team are with 73,000 of Bigg Boss money worker (Tejaswi) and 15,000 with owner after giving wages to workers while the green team lost with 53,000 of Bigg Boss money worker (Ganesh) and 0 money with owner after giving wages to workers. And 31,000 Bigg boss money with quality check manager (Bhanu Sree). Kaushal and Tejaswi awarded with special vote power by Bigg Boss for winning luxury budget task.
Contenders: - Ganesh, Kireeti Damaraju, Roll Rida.
In this task contenders have to eat biryani as much as they can before end buzzer comes. Roll Rida won week 4 captaincy by eating 13 servings of biryani.
Babu Gogineni Tejaswi Madivada Geetha Madhuri Kaushal Deepti Nallamothu Ganesh Nandhini Rai Syamala
In this luxury budget task there are two teams Manchivallu Team and Cheddavallu Team.
Manchi team have to clean the things in house and they have to cook for all housemates. Chedu team try to make house dirty. Manchi team have to protect three lotus flowers and red apples for not to lose points and chedu team has to destroy those flowers and protect black apples to gain points. Apple tree was in garden area it contains red and black apples. While chedu team won the task bigg boss given 2600 amazon.in luxury budget points for good performances by both the teams and 200 points deducted due to tejaswi destroyed cleaning mop therefore housemates won 2400 amazon.in luxury budget points to buy luxury items.
Contenders are: Geetha Madhuri, Deepthi Sunaina
Two contenders have to prepare their own campaigns on what reforms they are making and Propagate to each housemate and they should clarify housemates doubts. After propagations bigg boss conducted a election and all housemates have to drop their vote in ballet box arranged in garden area. Geetha Madhuri won week 6 captaincy with 11 votes.
In this luxury budget task housemates have to shoot a film. Amit as Director, Deepti nallamothu as Assistant director (A.D), Roll rida as Director of photography (DOP), Tejaswi madivada as choreographer, makeup man and Stylist. Level one: - Director, Assistant Director and DOP have to prepare a story and its characters. The film should be in the order like Beginning, Romance, Action, and climax. Level Two: - Auditions has to be conducted by Amit (Director), Deepti Nallamothu (A.D), and Roll Rida (DOP) in Activity Room. Remaining housemates have to give audition to get selected in a character for the film. Rejected housemates become helping crew in the film and they are not eligible for next captaincy task.
Team one won this task and they awarded with luxury items available under the cap of the body spray bottle collected by them.
Team one won this luxury budget task by surviving three hours on planks as survivors.
In this Captaincy Task, housemates are asked to dance for the song, only one housemate for each Contenders for each song, total of five songs. and which DJ has got highest housemates danced to their song is a New Captain.
Mahilalu team has 325 coins. Purushulu team won this luxury budget task with 330 gold coins.
Team Kaushal: Samrat, Syamala, Kaushal, Deepti Nallamothu, Nuthan Naidu, Amit Tiwari Team Tanish: Roll Rida, Geetha Madhuri, Deepthi Sunaina, Tanish, Pooja Ramachandran, Ganesh Call center executives have to patiently listen to their customers complaints and should respond politely and make them to disconnect the call to gain one point. Customers have to irritate the executives and make them to disconnect the call to gain one point. Team one members are call center executives and Team two members are customers on day 1. Roles are reversed on day 2. Kaushal team won the task with 10 points and they are awarded with 2400 Luxury Budget points to buy luxury items.
|
who has won the most gold medals at one olympics | List of multiple Olympic medalists at a single Games - wikipedia
This is a list of most Olympic medals won at a single Olympic Games. Medals won in the 1906 Intercalated Games are not included. It includes top - three placings in 1896 and 1900, before medals were awarded for top - three placings. Only Olympians with four or more medals at one Games are included.
The historical progression of the leading performance (s).
|