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nd markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena. The turn towards complex societies meant that political themes were taken up at two main levels. Firstly, anthropologists continued to study political organization and political phenomena that lay outside the stateregulated sphere as in patronclient relations or tribal political organization. Secondly, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions and on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions. An anthropology of the state developed, and it is a most thriving field today. Geertz' comparative work on "Negara", the Balinese state, is an early, famous example. Legal Legal anthropology or anthropology of law specializes in "the crosscultural study of social ordering". Earlier legal anthropological research often focused more narrowly on conflict management, crime, sanctions, or formal regulation. More recent applications include issues such as human rig

hts, legal pluralism, and political uprisings. Public Public anthropology was created by Robert Borofsky, a professor at Hawaii Pacific University, to "demonstrate the ability of anthropology and anthropologists to effectively address problems beyond the discipline illuminating larger social issues of our times as well as encouraging broad, public conversations about them with the explicit goal of fostering social change". Nature, science, and technology Cyborg Cyborg anthropology originated as a subfocus group within the American Anthropological Association's annual meeting in 1993. The subgroup was very closely related to STS and the Society for the Social Studies of Science. Donna Haraway's 1985 Cyborg Manifesto could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term. Cyborg anthropology studies humankind and its relations with the technological systems it has built, specifically modern technological systems that

have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings. Digital Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digitalera technology, and extends to various areas where anthropology and technology intersect. It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural anthropology, and sometimes considered part of material culture. The field is new, and thus has a variety of names with a variety of emphases. These include technoanthropology, digital ethnography, cyberanthropology, and virtual anthropology. Ecological Ecological anthropology is defined as the "study of cultural adaptations to environments". The subfield is also defined as, "the study of relationships between a population of humans and their biophysical environment". The focus of its research concerns "how cultural beliefs and practices helped human populations adapt to their environments, and how their environments change across space and time. The contemporary perspective of environmental anthropology, and arguably

at least the backdrop, if not the focus of most of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of today, is political ecology. Many characterize this new perspective as more informed with culture, politics and power, globalization, localized issues, century anthropology and more. The focus and data interpretation is often used for arguments foragainst or creation of policy, and to prevent corporate exploitation and damage of land. Often, the observer has become an active part of the struggle either directly organizing, participation or indirectly articles, documentaries, books, ethnographies. Such is the case with environmental justice advocate Melissa Checker and her relationship with the people of Hyde Park. Environment Social sciences, like anthropology, can provide interdisciplinary approaches to the environment. Professor Kay Milton, Director of the Anthropology research network in the School of History and Anthropology, describes anthropology as distinctive, with its most distinguishing feature being i

ts interest in nonindustrial indigenous and traditional societies. Anthropological theory is distinct because of the consistent presence of the concept of culture; not an exclusive topic but a central position in the study and a deep concern with the human condition. Milton describes three trends that are causing a fundamental shift in what characterizes anthropology dissatisfaction with the cultural relativist perspective, reaction against cartesian dualisms which obstructs progress in theory nature culture divide, and finally an increased attention to globalization transcending the barriers or timespace. Environmental discourse appears to be characterized by a high degree of globalization. The troubling problem is borrowing non indigenous practices and creating standards, concepts, philosophies and practices in western countries. Anthropology and environmental discourse now have become a distinct position in anthropology as a discipline. Knowledge about diversities in human culture can be important in addr

essing environmental problems anthropology is now a study of human ecology. Human activity is the most important agent in creating environmental change, a study commonly found in human ecology which can claim a central place in how environmental problems are examined and addressed. Other ways anthropology contributes to environmental discourse is by being theorists and analysts,  or by refinement of definitions to become more neutraluniversal, etc. In exploring environmentalism the term typically refers to a concern that the environment should be protected, particularly from the harmful effects of human activities. Environmentalism itself can be expressed in many ways. Anthropologists can open the doors of environmentalism by looking beyond industrial society, understanding the opposition between industrial and non industrial relationships, knowing what ecosystem people and biosphere people are and are affected by, dependent and independent variables, primitive ecological wisdom, diverse environments, resou

rce management, diverse cultural traditions, and knowing that environmentalism is a part of culture. Historical Ethnohistory is the study of ethnographic cultures and indigenous customs by examining historical records. It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today. Ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. Its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts. Practitioners recognize the utility of such source material as maps, music, paintings, photography, folklore, oral tradition, site exploration, archaeological materials, museum collections, enduring customs, language, and place names. Religion The anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures. Modern anthropology assumes that there is complete continuity between magical thinking and religion, and

that every religion is a cultural product, created by the human community that worships it. Urban Urban anthropology is concerned with issues of urbanization, poverty, and neoliberalism. Ulf Hannerz quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were "a notoriously agoraphobic lot, antiurban by definition". Various social processes in the Western World as well as in the "Third World" the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists brought the attention of "specialists in 'other cultures'" closer to their homes. There are two main approaches to urban anthropology examining the types of cities or examining the social issues within the cities. These two methods are overlapping and dependent of each other. By defining different types of cities, one would use social factors as well as economic and political factors to categorize the cities. By directly looking at the different social issues, one would also be studying how they affect the dynamic of the city. Key topics by field arch

aeological and biological Anthrozoology Anthrozoology also known as "humananimal studies" is the study of interaction between living things. It is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, ethology, medicine, psychology, veterinary medicine and zoology. A major focus of anthrozoologic research is the quantifying of the positive effects of humananimal relationships on either party and the study of their interactions. It includes scholars from a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, biology, and philosophy. Biocultural Biocultural anthropology is the scientific exploration of the relationships between human biology and culture. Physical anthropologists throughout the first half of the 20th century viewed this relationship from a racial perspective; that is, from the assumption that typological human biological differences lead to cultural differences. After World War II the emphasis began to shift toward an effort to explore

the role culture plays in shaping human biology. Evolutionary Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the evolution of human physiology and human behaviour and the relation between hominins and nonhominin primates. Evolutionary anthropology is based in natural science and social science, combining the human development with socioeconomic factors. Evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution of humans, past and present. It is based on a scientific approach, and brings together fields such as archaeology, behavioral ecology, psychology, primatology, and genetics. It is a dynamic and interdisciplinary field, drawing on many lines of evidence to understand the human experience, past and present. Forensic Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropology and human osteology in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of decomposition. A forensic anthropologist ca

n assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable. The adjective "forensic" refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law. Palaeoanthropology Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of paleontology and physical anthropology. It is the study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints. Genetics and morphology of specimens are crucially important to this field. Markers on specimens, such as enamel fractures and dental decay on teeth, can also give insight into the behaviour and diet of past populations. Organizations Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. The single largest organization of anthropologists is the American Anthropological Association AAA, which was founded in 1903. Its members are anthropologists from around the globe. In 1989, a group of European and America

n scholars in the field of anthropology established the European Association of Social Anthropologists EASA which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe. The EASA seeks to advance the status of anthropology in Europe and to increase visibility of marginalized anthropological traditions and thereby contribute to the project of a global anthropology or world anthropology. Hundreds of other organizations exist in the various subfields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation or region, and many anthropologists work with collaborators in other disciplines, such as geology, physics, zoology, paleontology, anatomy, music theory, art history, sociology and so on, belonging to professional societies in those disciplines as well. List of major organizations American Anthropological Association American Ethnological Society Asociacin de Antroplogos Iberoamericanos en Red, AIBR Moving Anthropology Student Network Anthropological Society of London Center for Worl

d Indigenous Studies Ethnological Society of London Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Network of Concerned Anthropologists N.N. MiklukhoMaklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Society for anthropological sciences Society for Applied Anthropology USC Center for Visual Anthropology Ethics As the field has matured it has debated and arrived at ethical principles aimed at protecting both the subjects of anthropological research as well as the researchers themselves, and professional societies have generated codes of ethics. Anthropologists, like other researchers especially historians and scientists engaged in field research, have over time assisted state policies and projects, especially colonialism. Some commentators have contended That the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derives some of its key notions from it, consciously or not. See, for example, Gough, Pels and Salemink, bu

t cf. Lewis 2004. That ethnographic work is often ahistorical, writing about people as if they were "out of time" in an "ethnographic present" Johannes Fabian, Time and Its Other. In his article "The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and Its Consequence," Herbert S. Lewis critiqued older anthropological works that presented other cultures as if they were strange and unusual. While the findings of those researchers should not be discarded, the field should learn from its mistakes. Cultural relativism As part of their quest for scientific objectivity, presentday anthropologists typically urge cultural relativism, which has an influence on all the subfields of anthropology. This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by another's values or viewpoints, but be examined dispassionately on their own terms. There should be no notions, in good anthropology, of one culture being better or worse than another culture. Ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting genocide, infanticide

, racism, sexism, mutilation including circumcision and subincision, and torture. Topics like racism, slavery, and human sacrifice attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies, to genes, to acculturation, to colonialism, have been proposed to explain their origins and continued recurrences. To illustrate the depth of an anthropological approach, one can take just one of these topics, such as "racism" and find thousands of anthropological references, stretching across all the major and minor subfields. Military involvement Anthropologists' involvement with the U.S. government, in particular, has caused bitter controversy within the discipline. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists. But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied wa

r effort against the Axis Powers Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan. Many served in the armed forces, while others worked in intelligence for example, Office of Strategic Services and the Office of War Information. At the same time, David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies. Attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little. Many anthropologists students and teachers were active in the antiwar movement. Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association AAA. Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the state. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giv

ing secret briefings. The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth ASA has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous. The "Principles of Professional Responsibility" issued by the American Anthropological Association and amended through November 1986 stated that "in relation with their own government and with host governments ... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given." The current "Principles of Professional Responsibility" does not make explicit mention of ethics surrounding state interactions. Anthropologists, along with other social scientists, are working with the US military as part of the US Army's strategy in Afghanistan. The Christian Science Monitor reports that "Counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs" in Afghanistan, under the Human Terrain System HTS program; in addition, HTS teams are working with the US military in Iraq. In 2009, the American Anthropological Association's Comm

ission on the Engagement of Anthropology with the US Security and Intelligence Communities released its final report concluding, in part, that, "When ethnographic investigation is determined by military missions, not subject to external review, where data collection occurs in the context of war, integrated into the goals of counterinsurgency, and in a potentially coercive environment all characteristic factors of the HTS concept and its application it can no longer be considered a legitimate professional exercise of anthropology. In summary, while we stress that constructive engagement between anthropology and the military is possible, CEAUSSIC suggests that the AAA emphasize the incompatibility of HTS with disciplinary ethics and practice for job seekers and that it further recognize the problem of allowing HTS to define the meaning of "anthropology" within DoD." PostWorld War II developments Before WWII British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. Aft

er the war, enough British and American anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as 'sociocultural' anthropology. Basic trends There are several characteristics that tend to unite anthropological work. One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more holistic account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical. The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a particular place, problem or phenomenon in detail, using a variety of methods, over a more extensive period than normal in many parts of academia. In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fu

ndamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological. Biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation and in the possibility of human universals behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures. They use many different methods of study, but modern population genetics, participant observation and other techniques often take anthropologists "into the field," which means traveling to a community in its own setting, to do something called "fieldwork." On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs. Along with dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material, such as the Paleolithic and the Neolithic, of particular use in archaeology. Further cultural

subdivisions according to tool types, such as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levalloisian help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past. Anthropologists and geographers share approaches to culture regions as well, since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making comparisons across cultural traditions timebased and cultural regions spacebased, anthropologists have developed various kinds of comparative method, a central part of their science. Commonalities between fields Because anthropology developed from so many different enterprises see History of anthropology, including but not limited to fossilhunting, exploring, documentary filmmaking, paleontology, primatology, antiquity dealings and curatorship, philology, etymology, genetics, regional analysis, ethnology, history, philosophy, and religious studies, it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made. Some au

thors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of "other cultures", both in terms of time past societies and space nonEuropeannonWestern societies. For example, the classic of urban anthropology, Ulf Hannerz in the introduction to his seminal Exploring the City Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology mentions that the "Third World" had habitually received most of attention; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in "other cultures" looked for them far away and started to look "across the tracks" only in late 1960s. Now there exist many works focusing on peoples and topics very close to the author's "home". It is also argued that other fields of study, like History and Sociology, on the contrary focus disproportionately on the West. In France, the study of Western societies has been traditionally left to sociologists, but this is increasingly changing, starting in the 1970s from scholars like Isac Chiva and journals like Terrain "fieldwork", and developing with the center founded b

y Marc Aug Le Centre d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains, the Anthropological Research Center of Contemporary Societies. Since the 1980s it has become common for social and cultural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the North Atlantic region, frequently examining the connections between locations rather than limiting research to a single locale. There has also been a related shift toward broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary people; increasingly, research is set in settings such as scientific laboratories, social movements, governmental and nongovernmental organizations and businesses. See also Anthropological science fiction Christian anthropology, a subfield of theology Circumscription theory Culture Dual inheritance theory Engaged theory Ethnobiology Human behavioral ecology Human ethology Human Relations Area Files Intangible cultural heritage Origins of society Philosophical anthropology, a subfield of philosophy Prehistoric medicine Qualitative resea

rch Lists Outline of anthropology List of indigenous peoples List of anthropologists Notes References Further reading Dictionaries and encyclopedias Fieldnotes and memoirs Histories . Textbooks and key theoretical works External links AIO

Agricultural science or agriscience for short is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. Professionals of the agricultural science are called agricultural scientists or agriculturists. History In the 18th century, Johann Friedrich Mayer conducted experiments on the use of gypsum hydrated calcium sulphate as a fertilizer. In 1843, John Lawes and Joseph Henry Gilbert began a set of longterm field experiments at Rothamsted Research Station in England, some of which are still running as of 2018. In the United States, a scientific revolution in agriculture began with the Hatch Act of 1887, which used the term "agricultural science". The Hatch Act was driven by farmers' interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer. The SmithHughes Act of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots, but the scientific foundation had been built. A

fter 1906, public expenditures on agricultural research in the US exceeded private expenditures for the next 44 years. Prominent agricultural scientists Robert Bakewell Norman Borlaug Luther Burbank George Washington Carver Carl Henry Clerk George C. Clerk Ren Dumont Sir Albert Howard Kailas Nath Kaul Thomas Lecky Justus von Liebig Jay Lush Gregor Mendel Louis Pasteur M. S. Swaminathan Jethro Tull Artturi Ilmari Virtanen Sewall Wright Wilbur Olin Atwater Fields or related disciplines Agricultural biotechnology Agricultural chemistry Agricultural diversification Agricultural education Agricultural economics Agricultural engineering Agricultural geography Agricultural philosophy Agricultural marketing Agricultural soil science Agroecology Agrophysics Animal science Animal breeding Animal husbandry Animal nutrition Farm management Agronomy Botany Theoretical production ecology Horticulture Plant breeding Plant fertilization Aquaculture Biological engineering Genet

ic engineering Nematology Microbiology Plant pathology Range management Environmental science Entomology Food science Human nutrition Irrigation and water management Soil science Agrology Waste management Weed science Scope Agriculture, agricultural science, and agronomy are often confused. However, they cover different concepts Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use. Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research. Agronomy is research and development related to studying and improving plantbased crops. Soil forming factors and soil degradation Agricultural sciences include research and development on Improving agricultural productivity in terms of quantity and quality e.g., selection of droughtresistant crops and animals, development of new pesticides, yieldsensing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, invitro cell culture techniques Minimizing the effects of pests we

eds, insects, pathogens, mollusks, nematodes on crop or animal production systems. Transformation of primary products into endconsumer products e.g., production, preservation, and packaging of dairy products Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects e.g., soil degradation, waste management, bioremediation Theoretical production ecology, relating to crop production modeling Traditional agricultural systems, sometimes termed subsistence agriculture, which feed most of the poorest people in the world. These systems are of interest as they sometimes retain a level of integration with natural ecological systems greater than that of industrial agriculture, which may be more sustainable than some modern agricultural systems. Food production and demand on a global basis, with special attention paid to the major producers, such as China, India, Brazil, the US and the EU. Various sciences relating to agricultural resources and the environment e.g. soil science, agroclimatology; biology of agricu

ltural crops and animals e.g. crop science, animal science and their included sciences, e.g. ruminant nutrition, farm animal welfare; such fields as agricultural economics and rural sociology; various disciplines encompassed in agricultural engineering. See also Agricultural Research Council Agricultural sciences basic topics Agriculture ministry Agroecology American Society of Agronomy Genomics of domestication History of agricultural science Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development International Food Policy Research Institute, IFPRI List of agriculture topics National FFA Organization Research Institute of Crop Production RICP in the Czech Republic University of Agricultural Sciences References Further reading Agricultural Research, Livelihoods, and Poverty Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries Edited by Michelle Adato and Ruth MeinzenDick 2007, Johns Hopkins University Press Food Policy Rep

ort Claude Bourguignon, Regenerating the Soil From Agronomy to Agrology, Other India Press, 2005 Pimentel David, Pimentel Marcia, Computer les kilocalories, Crs, n. 59, septoct. 1977 Russell E. Walter, Soil conditions and plant growth, Longman group, London, New York 1973 Saltini Antonio, Storia delle scienze agrarie, 4 vols, Bologna 198489, , , , Vavilov Nicolai I. Starr Chester K. editor, The Origin, Variation, Immunity and Breeding of Cultivated Plants. Selected Writings, in Chronica botanica, 13 16, Waltham, Mass., 194950 Vavilov Nicolai I., World Resources of Cereals, Leguminous Seed Crops and Flax, Academy of Sciences of Urss, National Science Foundation, Washington, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem 1960 Winogradsky Serge, Microbiologie du sol. Problmes et methodes. Cinquante ans de recherches, Masson c.ie, Paris 1949 External links Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CGIAR Agricultural Research Service Indian Council of Agricultural Research Internationa

l Institute of Tropical Agriculture International Livestock Research Institute The National Agricultural Library NAL The most comprehensive agricultural library in the world. Crop Science Society of America American Society of Agronomy Soil Science Society of America Agricultural Science Researchers, Jobs and Discussions Information System for Agriculture and Food Research South Dakota Agricultural Laboratories NMSU Department of Entomology Plant Pathology and Weed Science UP Agriculture Bihar Agriculture

Alchemy from Arabic alkmiy; from Ancient Greek khumea is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in China, India, the Muslim world, and Europe. In its Western form, alchemy is first attested in a number of pseudepigraphical texts written in GrecoRoman Egypt during the first few centuries CE. Alchemists attempted to purify, mature, and perfect certain materials. Common aims were chrysopoeia, the transmutation of "base metals" e.g., lead into "noble metals" particularly gold; the creation of an elixir of immortality; and the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease. The perfection of the human body and soul was thought to result from the alchemical magnum opus "Great Work". The concept of creating the philosophers' stone was variously connected with all of these projects. Islamic and European alchemists developed a basic set of laboratory techniques, theories, and terms, some of which are still in use today. They did not aband

on the Ancient Greek philosophical idea that everything is composed of four elements, and they tended to guard their work in secrecy, often making use of cyphers and cryptic symbolism. In Europe, the 12thcentury translations of medieval Islamic works on science and the rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy gave birth to a flourishing tradition of Latin alchemy. This late medieval tradition of alchemy would go on to play a significant role in the development of early modern science particularly chemistry and medicine. Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its exoteric practical applications and its esoteric spiritual aspects, despite criticisms by scholars such as Eric J. Holmyard and MarieLouise von Franz that they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by historians of the physical sciences, who examine the subject in terms of early chemistry, medicine, and charlatanism, and the philosophical and religious contexts in which these events occurred. The

latter interests historians of esotericism, psychologists, and some philosophers and spiritualists. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Etymology The word alchemy comes from Old French alquemie, alkimie, used in Medieval Latin as . This name was itself brought from the Arabic word alkmiy or composed of two parts the Late Greek term khmea , also spelled khumeia and khma see below, and the Arabic definite article al , meaning 'The'. Together this association can be interpreted as 'the process of transmutation by which to fuse or reunite with the divine or original form'. Several etymologies have been proposed for the Greek term. The first was proposed by Zosimos of Panopolis 3rd4th centuries, who derived it from the name of a book, the Khemeu. Hermanm Diels argued in 1914 that it rather derived from , used to describe metallic objects formed by casting. Others trace its roots to the Egyptian name kme hieroglyphic khmi , meaning 'black earth', which refers to the f

ertile and auriferous soil of the Nile valley, as opposed to red desert sand. According to the Egyptologist Wallis Budge, the Arabic word alkmiya actually means "the Egyptian science", borrowing from the Coptic word for "Egypt", kme or its equivalent in the Mediaeval Bohairic dialect of Coptic, khme. This Coptic word derives from Demotic km, itself from ancient Egyptian kmt. The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour "black" Egypt was the "Black Land", by contrast with the "Red Land", the surrounding desert; so this etymology could also explain the nickname "Egyptian black arts". History Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be mostly independent, at least in their earlier stages Chinese alchemy, centered in

China and Indian alchemy, centered on the Indian subcontinent; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the Mediterranean and whose center has shifted over the millennia from GrecoRoman Egypt to the Islamic world, and finally medieval Europe. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoism and Indian alchemy with the Dharmic faiths. In contrast, Western alchemy developed its philosophical system mostly independent of but influenced by various Western religions. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other. Hellenistic Egypt The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient and Hellenistic Egypt, where the city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its preeminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. Following the work of AndrJean Festugire, modern scholars see alchemical practice in the Roman Empire as originating from the Egyptian goldsmith's art, Greek philosophy and differe

nt religious traditions. Tracing the origins of the alchemical art in Egypt is complicated by the pseudepigraphic nature of texts from the Greek alchemical corpus. The treatises of Zosimos of Panopolis, the earliest historically attested author fl. c. 300 CE, can help in situating the other authors. Zosimus based his work on that of older alchemical authors, such as Mary the Jewess, PseudoDemocritus, and Agathodaimon, but very little is known about any of these authors. The most complete of their works, The Four Books of PseudoDemocritus, were probably written in the first century AD. Recent scholarship tends to emphasize the testimony of Zosimus, who traced the alchemical arts back to Egyptian metallurgical and ceremonial practices. It has also been argued that early alchemical writers borrowed the vocabulary of Greek philosophical schools but did not implement any of its doctrines in a systematic way. Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in the Final Abstinence also known as the "Final Count". Zosimos explains that

the ancient practice of "tinctures" the technical Greek name for the alchemical arts had been taken over by certain "demons" who taught the art only to those who offered them sacrifices. Since Zosimos also called the demons "guardians of places" and those who offered them sacrifices "priests" , it is fairly clear that he was referring to the gods of Egypt and their priests. While critical of the kind of alchemy he associated with the Egyptian priests and their followers, Zosimos nonetheless saw the tradition's recent past as rooted in the rites of the Egyptian temples. Mythology Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to Pharaonic Egypt where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion. Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation. These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, Isis, Osiris, Jason, and many othe

rs. The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus or ThriceGreat Hermes. His name is derived from the god Thoth and his Greek counterpart Hermes. Hermes and his caduceus or serpentstaff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to Clement of Alexandria, he wrote what were called the "fortytwo books of Hermes", covering all fields of knowledge. The Hermetica of ThriceGreat Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era. Technology The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of metallurgy, extending back to 3500 BC. Many writings were lost when the Roman emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria AD 292. Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the Stockholm papyrus and the Leyden papy

rus X. Dating from AD 250300, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver. These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of Bolus of Mendes or PseudoDemocritus, which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the classical elements. Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art. Philosophy Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of Pythagoreanism, Platonism, Stoicism and Gnosticism which formed the origin of alchemy's character. An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by Empedocles and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements earth, air, water, and fire. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed.

The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the presentday sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form." Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging Christianity. Lactantius believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. St Augustine later affirmed this in the 4th 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry. Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period. Most of the GrecoRoman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as Moses, Isis, Cleopatra, Democritus, and Ostanes. Others authors such as Komarios, and Chymes, we

only know through fragments of text. After AD 400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors. By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline. It was at that time that Khalid Ibn Yazid sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries. Byzantium Greek alchemy is preserved in medieval Greek Byzantine manuscripts, and yet historians have only relatively recently begun to pay attention to the study and development of Greek alchemy in the Byzantine period. India The 2nd millennium BC text Vedas describe a connection between eternal life and gold. A considerable knowledge of metallurgy has been exhibited in a thirdcentury CE text called Arthashastra which provides ingredients of explosives Agniyoga and salts extracted from fertile soils and plant remains Yavakshara such as saltpetrenitre, perfume making di

fferent qualities of perfumes are mentioned, granulated refined Sugar. Buddhist texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. According to some scholars Greek alchemy may have influenced Indian alchemy but there are no hard evidences to back this claim. The 11thcentury Persian chemist and physician Ab Rayhn Brn, who visited Gujarat as part of the court of Mahmud of Ghazni, reported that they The goals of alchemy in India included the creation of a divine body Sanskrit divyadeham and immortality while still embodied Sanskrit jvanmukti. Sanskrit alchemical texts include much material on the manipulation of mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with the semen of the god iva and the menstrual blood of the goddess Dev. Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins in the Kaula tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of Matsyendranath. Other early writings are found in the Jaina medical treatise Kalyakrakam of Ugrditya, written in S

outh India in the early 9th century. Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were Ngrjuna Siddha and Nityantha Siddha. Ngrjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, Rasendramangalam, is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityantha Siddha wrote Rasaratnkara, also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, rasa translates to "mercury", and Ngrjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into gold. Scholarship on Indian alchemy is in the publication of The Alchemical Body by David Gordon White. A modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has been written by White. The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in G. Jan Meulenbeld's History of Indian Medical Literature. The discussion of these works in HIML gives a summary of the contents of each work, their special features, and where possible the evidence concerning their dating. Chapter 13 of HIML, Various works on rasastra and ratnastra or Various works on alchemy and gems gives brief

details of a further 655 six hundred and fiftyfive treatises. In some cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorship of these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles. A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The content of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet 2014 been adequately integrated into the wider general history of alchemy. Islamic world After the Fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy because it was better documented indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations. The word alchemy itself was derived from the Arabic word alkmiy . The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. Platonic and Aristotelian thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th

and early 8th centuries through Syriac translations and scholarship. In the late ninth and early tenth centuries, the Arabic works attributed to Jbir ibn Hayyn Latinized as "Geber" or "Geberus" introduced a new approach to alchemy. Paul Kraus, who wrote the standard reference work on Jabir, put it as follows Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was Takwin, the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness. According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's sto

ne was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five classical elements aether, air, earth, fire, and water in addition to two chemical elements representing the metals sulphur, "the stone which burns", which characterized the principle of combustibility, and mercury, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and salt giving solidity. The atomic theory of corpuscularianism, where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, als

o has its origins in the work of Jabir. From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including Alkindus, Ab alRayhn alBrn, Avicenna and Ibn Khaldun. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the transmutation of metals. East Asia Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. In the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the universal panacea; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears. Black powder may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As previously stated above, Chinese alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while tr

ying to find a potion for eternal life. Described in 9thcentury texts and used in fireworks in China by the 10th century, it was used in cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of traditional Chinese medicine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion. In the early Song dynasty, followers of this Taoist idea chiefly the elite and upper class would ingest mercuric sulfide, which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan, mastering of the qi, etc. Chinese alchemy was introduced to the West by Obed Simon Johnson. Medieval Europe The introduction of alchemy t

o Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of Robert of Chester's translation of the Arabic Book of the Composition of Alchemy. Although European craftsmen and technicians preexisted, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy though here still referring to the elixir rather than to the art itself was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12thcentury Toledo, Spain, through contributors like Gerard of Cremona and Adelard of Bath. Translations of the time included the Turba Philosophorum, and the works of Avicenna and Muhammad ibn Zakariya alRazi. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples. Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the infl

ux of alchemical thought. The 11thcentury St Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, Peter Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century, Robert Grosseteste used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking. Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge

in Aristotelian terms. Albertus Magnus, a Dominican friar, is known to have written works such as the Book of Minerals where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist. Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student Thomas Aquinas. Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar who wrote on a wide variety of topics including optics, comparative linguistics, and medicine, composed his Great Work for as part of a project towards rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences

and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to soteriology and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy. Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical confirmed the theoretical, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine. In later European legend, he became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a brazen head capable of answering its owner's questions. Soon after Bacon, the influential work of PseudoGeber sometimes iden

tified as Paul of Taranto appeared. His Summa Perfectionis remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphurmercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described. By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosmmicrocosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul. They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art they actively experimented with chemicals a

nd made observations and theories about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God. In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves. Dante, Piers Plowman, and Chaucer all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. Pope John XXII's 1317 edict, Spondent quas nonexhibent forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudoalchemists. In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV. These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudoalchemical char

latanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of Petrus Bonus, John of Rupescissa, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova. Nicolas Flamel is a wellknown alchemist, but a good example of pseudepigraphy, the practice of giving your works the name of someone else, usually more famous. Although the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612. Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's st

one. Through the 14th and 15th centuries, alchemists were much like Flamel they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone. Bernard Trevisan and George Ripley made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art. Renaissance and early modern Europe During the Renaissance, Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed. In the late 15th century, Marsilo Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. Renaissance Humanism and Renaissance Neoplatonism guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel. Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and

Christian cabala. A key figure in this development was German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa 14861535, who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his De Occulta Philosophia, he attempted to merge Kabbalah, Hermeticism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy. Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus, Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 14931541 cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from chrysopoeia. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines." His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soulpurific

ation but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. Iatrochemistry refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus. John Dee 13 July 1527 December, 1608 followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Although better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as astrologer, cryptographer, and consultant to Queen Elizabeth I, Dee's alchemical Monas Hieroglyphica, written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom As above so below. During the 17th century, a shortlived "supernatural" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the Royal Society Robert Boyle and Elias Ashmole. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to summon and communicate with angels. Entre

preneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones. Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate Edward Kelley. King James IV of Scotland, Julius, Duke of BrunswickLneburg, Henry V, Duke of BrunswickLneburg, Augustus, Elector of Saxony, Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn, and Maurice, Landgrave of HesseKassel all contracted alchemists. John's son Arthur Dee worked as a court physician to Michael I of Russia and Charles I of England but also compiled the alchemical book Fasciculus Chemicus. Although most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudoalchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. Betrger would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patrona

ge. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as Michael Maier and Heinrich Khunrath wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the con artists. False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud. The terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and smallscale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, Tycho Brahe 15461601, an alchemist better known for his astronomical and astrological investigations, had a laboratory built at his Uraniborg observatoryresearch institute. Michael Sendivogius Micha Sdziwj, 15661636, a Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornel

ius Drebbel who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy see Isaac Newton's occult studies than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include Robert Boyle, and Jan Baptist van Helmont. Their Hermeticism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science. Later modern period The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its peak in the 18th century. As late as 1781 James Price claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, practices,

and purposes "Scholastic and antiAristotelian, Paracelsian and antiParacelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and moreplus virtually every combination and compromise thereof." Robert Boyle 16271691 pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of Lavoisier and John Dalton. Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction began to be drawn for the first time between "alchemy" and "chemistry". By the 1740s, "alchemy" was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud.

In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure to which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the 18thcentury scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to divorce and separate the "new" chemistry from the "old" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries. During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science. The esoteric or occultist school, which arose during the 19th century, held and continues to hold the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical tradition or protoscience. This interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumination, as opposed to the physical manipulation of apparatus an

d chemicals, and claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes. In the 19thcentury revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were Mary Anne Atwood and Ethan Allen Hitchcock, who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed "No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy." Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including Eliphas Levi, Arthur Edward Waite, and Rudolf Steiner. Hitchcock, in his Remarks Upon Alchymists 1855 attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron Carl Reichenbach, published his studies on Odic force, a concept with some similaritie

s to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion. In 1946, Louis Cattiaux published the Message Retrouv, a work that was at once philosophical, mystical and highly influenced by alchemy. In his lineage, many researchers, including Emmanuel and Charles d'Hooghvorst, are updating alchemical studies in France and Belgium. Women Several women appear in the earliest history of alchemy. Michael Maier names Mary the Jewess, Cleopatra the Alchemist, Medera, and Taphnutia as the four women who knew how to make the philosopher's stone. Zosimos' sister Theosebia later known as Euthica the Arab and Isis the Prophetess also played a role in early alchemical texts. The first alchemist whose name we know was Mary the Jewess c. 200 A.D.. Early sources claim that Mary or Maria devised a number of improvements to alchemical equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry. Her best known advances were in heating and distillation processes. The laboratory waterbath, known epo

nymously especially in France as the bainmarie, is said to have been invented or at least improved by her. Essentially a doubleboiler, it was and is used in chemistry for processes that require gentle heating. The tribikos a modified distillation apparatus and the kerotakis a more intricate apparatus used especially for sublimations are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her. Although we have no writing from Mary herself, she is known from the earlyfourthcentury writings of Zosimos of Panopolis. Due to the proliferation of pseudepigrapha and anonymous works, it is difficult to know which of the alchemists were actually women. After the GrecoRoman period, women's names appear less frequently in the alchemical literature. Women vacate the history of alchemy during the medieval and renaissance periods, aside from the fictitious account of Perenelle Flamel. Mary Anne Atwood's A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery 1850 marks their return during the nineteenthcentur

y occult revival. Modern historical research The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study. As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and philosophy, the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, kabbalism, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements. Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at Indiana University, the University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism EXESESO, the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism ESSWE, and the University of Amsterdam's Subdepartment for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica in Amsterdam. A recipe found in a mid19thcentury kabbalah based book features step

by step instructions on turning copper into gold. The author attributed this recipe to an ancient manuscript he located. Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include 'Ambix', published by the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, and 'Isis', published by The History of Science Society. Core concepts Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from Neoplatonism and earlier Greek cosmology. As such, the classical elements appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven classical planets and the corresponding seven metals of antiquity. Similarly, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of prima materia and anima mundi are central to the theory of the philosopher's stone. Magnum opus The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors. nigredo, a blackening or melanosis albedo

, a whitening or leucosis citrinitas, a yellowing or xanthosis rubedo, a reddening, purpling, or iosis Modernity Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18thcentury disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry, the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations. Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science Lawrence M. Principe and William R. Newman, have interpreted the 'decknamen' or code words of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts. At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as George Calian and Anna Marie Roos, who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts. New interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, som

etimes merging in concepts from New Age or radical environmentalism movements. Groups like the Rosicrucians and Freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, "occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the selftransformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances", which has contributed to a merger of magic and alchemy in popular thought. Esoteric interpretations of historical texts In the eyes of a variety of modern esoteric and NeoHermeticist practitioners, alchemy is fundamentally spiritual. In this interpretation, transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection. According to this view, early alchemists such as Zosimos of Panopolis c. AD 300 highlighted the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul. This approach is held to have continued

in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes are supposed to have been used as metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were like a veil, hiding their true spiritual philosophy. In the NeoHermeticist interpretation, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea are held to symbolize evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are held to have been written according to this view, the cryptic alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual

imagery of late alchemical works are supposed to contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; which must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning. In his 1766 Alchemical Catechism, Thodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usage of the metals was merely symbolic Psychology Alchemical symbolism has been important in depth and analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung. Initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images, after being given a copy of the translation of The Secret of the Golden Flower, a Chinese alchemical text, by his friend Richard Wilhelm, Jung discovered a direct correlation or parallels between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the inner, symbolic images coming up in dreams, visions or imaginations during the psychic processes of transformation occurring in his patients. A process, which he called "process of individuation". H

e regarded the alchemical images as symbols expressing aspects of this "process of individuation" of which the creation of the gold or lapis within were symbols for its origin and goal. Together with his alchemical mystica soror, Jungian Swiss analyst MarieLouise von Franz, Jung began collecting all the old alchemical texts available, compiled a lexicon of key phrases with crossreferences and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote brought new light into understanding the art of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the hieros gamos or divine marriage. His writings are influential in psychology and for people who have an interest in understanding the importance of dreams, symbols and the unconscious archetypal forces archetypes that influence all of life. Both von Franz and Jung have contributed greatly to the subject and work of alch

emy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Jung wrote volumes on alchemy and his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works, Mysterium Coniunctionis. Literature Alchemy has had a longstanding relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. Literary alchemy appears throughout the history of English literature from Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling, and also the popular Japanese manga Fullmetal Alchemist. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of the late Sir Terry Pratchett. Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In t

he last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games. Science One goal of alchemy, the transmutation of base substances into gold, is now known to be impossible by chemical means but possible by physical means. Although not financially worthwhile, Gold was synthesized in particle accelerators as early as 1941. See also Alchemical symbol Biological transmutation in Corentin Louis Kervran Cupellation Historicism History of chemistry List of alchemists Nuclear transmutation Outline of alchemy Porta Alchemica Renaissance magic Spagyric Superseded theories in science Synthesis of precious metals Western esotericism Notes References Citations Bibliography Further reading General Lawrence Principe, The Secrets of Alchemy, Chicago, 2013. Jennifer M. Rampling. 2020. The Experimental Fire Inventing English Alchemy, 13001700. University of Chicago Press. GrecoEgyptian alchemy Texts Marcellin Berthelot

and Charlesmile Ruelle eds., Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs CAAG, 3 vols., 18871888, Vol 1 httpsgallica.bnf.frark12148bpt6k96492923, Vol 2 httpsgallica.bnf.frark12148bpt6k9680734p, Vol. 3 httpsgallica.bnf.frark12148bpt6k9634942s. AndrJean Festugire, La Rvlation d'Herms Trismgiste, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2014 , OCLC 897235256. Robert Halleux and HenriDominique Saffrey eds., Les alchimistes grecs, t. 1 Papyrus de Leyde Papyrus de Stockholm Recettes, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1981. Otto Lagercrantz ed, Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis, Uppsala, A.B. Akademiska Bokhandeln, 1913, httpsarchive.orgdetailspapyrusgraecusho00lagepagen8. Michle Mertens and HenriDominique Saffrey ed., Les alchimistes grecs, t. 4.1 Zosime de Panopolis. Mmoires authentiques, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1995. Andre Collinet and HenriDominique Saffrey ed., Les alchimistes grecs, t. 10 L'Anonyme de Zuretti ou l'Art sacr and divin de la chrysope par un anonyme, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2000. Andre Collinet ed, Les alchim

istes grecs, t. 11 Recettes alchimiques Par. Gr. 2419; Holkhamicus 109 Cosmas le Hiromoine Chrysope, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2000. Matteo Martelli ed, The Four Books of PseudoDemocritus, Maney Publishing, 2014. Studies Dylan M. Burns, Alchemical Metaphor in the Paraphrase of Shem NHC VII,1 , Aries 15 2015, p. 79106. Alberto Camplani, Procedimenti magicoalchemici e discorso filosofico ermetico in Giuliana Lanata ed., Il Tardoantico alle soglie del Duemila, ETS, 2000, p. 7398. Alberto Camplani and Marco Zambon, Il sacrificio come problema in alcune correnti filosofice di et imperiale , Annali di storia dell'esegesi 19 2002, p. 5999. Rgine Charron and Louis Painchaud, 'God is a Dyer,' The Background and Significance of a Puzzling Motif in the Coptic Gospel According to Philip CG II, 3, Le Muson 114 2001, p. 4150. Rgine Charron, The Apocryphon of John NHC II,1 and the GrecoEgyptian Alchemical Literature , Vigiliae Christinae 59 2005, p. 438456. Philippe Derchain, "L'Atelier des Orfvres

Dendara et les origines de l'alchimie," Chronique d'gypte, vol. 65, no 130, 1990, p. 219242. Korshi Dosoo, A History of the Theban Magical Library , Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists 53 2016, p. 251274. Olivier Dufault, Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity, California Classical Studies, 2019, httpsescholarship.orgucitem2ks0g83x. Sergio Knipe, Sacrifice and selftransformation in the alchemical writings of Zosimus of Panopolis , in Christopher Kelly, Richard Flower, Michael Stuart Williams eds., Unclassical Traditions. Volume II Perspectives from East and West in Late Antiquity, Cambridge University Press, 2011, p. 5969. AndrJean Festugire, La Rvlation d'Herms Trismgiste, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2014 , . Kyle A. Fraser, Zosimos of Panopolis and the Book of Enoch Alchemy as Forbidden Knowledge , Aries 4.2 2004, p. 125147. Kyle A. Fraser, Baptized in Gnosis The Spiritual Alchemy of Zosimos of Panopolis , Dionysius 25 2007, p. 3354. Kyle A. Fraser, Distill

ing Natures Secrets The Sacred Art of Alchemy , in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser eds., Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 721742. 2018. httpswww.oxfordhandbooks.comview10.1093oxfordhb9780199734146.001.0001oxfordhb9780199734146e76. Shannon Grimes, Becoming Gold Zosimos of Panopolis and the Alchemical Arts in Roman Egypt, Auckland, Rubedo Press, 2018, Paul T. Keyser, GrecoRoman Alchemy and Coins of Imitation Silver , American Journal of Numismatics 78 19951996, p. 209234. Paul Keyser, The Longue Dure of Alchemy , in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser eds., Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 409430. Jean Letrouit, "Chronologie des alchimistes grecs," in Didier Kahn and Sylvain Matton, Alchimie art, histoire et mythes, SEHAArch, 1995, p. 1193. Lindsay, Jack. The Origins of Alchemy in GrecoRoman Egypt. Barnes Noble, 1970. Paul Magdalino and Maria Mavroudi eds., The Occult Science

s in Byzantium, La Pomme d'or, 2006. Matteo Martelli, The Alchemical Art of Dyeing The Fourfold Division of Alchemy and the Enochian Tradition in Sven Dupr ed., Laboratories of Art, Springer, 2014, . Matteo Martelli, Alchemy, Medicine and Religion Zosimus of Panopolis and the Egyptian Priests , Religion in the Roman Empire 3.2 2017, p. 202220. Gerasimos Merianos, Alchemy , In A. Kaldellis N. Siniossoglou eds., The Cambridge Intellectual History of Byzantium pp. 234251. Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 2017, . Efthymios Nikoladis ed., Greek Alchemy from Late Antiquity to Early Modernity, Brepols, 2019, . Daniel Stolzenberg, Unpropitious Tinctures Alchemy, Astrology Gnosis According to Zosimos of Panopolis , Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences 49 1999, p. 331. Cristina Viano, Byzantine Alchemy, or the Era of Systematization , in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser eds., Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 943964. C. Vlac

hou and al., Experimental investigation of silvering in late Roman coinage , Material Research Society Symposium Proceedings 712 2002, p. II9.2.1II9.2.9, . Early modern Principe, Lawrence and William Newman. Alchemy Tried in the Fire Starkey, Boyle, and the Fate of Helmontian Chymistry. University of Chicago Press, 2002. External links SHAC Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry ESSWE European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism Association for the Study of Esotericism The Alchemy Website. Adam McLean's online collections and academic discussion. Dictionary of the History of Ideas Alchemy Book of Secrets Alchemy and the European Imagination, 15002000 A digital exhibition from the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University Othmer MS 2 Alchemical Miscellany at OPenn Alchemy featured topic page on Science History Institute Digital Collections featuring selected manuscripts, rare books, paintings, and ephemera relating to alchemical topics and experimentati

on. Esotericism Hermeticism History of philosophy History of science

Alien primarily refers to Alien law, a person in a country who is not a national of that country Enemy alien, the above in times of war Extraterrestrial life, life which does not originate from Earth Specifically, intelligent extraterrestrial beings; see List of alleged extraterrestrial beings Introduced species, a species not native to its environment Aliens, or The Aliens may also refer to Science and technology AliEn ALICE Environment, a grid framework Alien file converter, a Linux program Alien Technology, a manufacturer of RFID technology Arts and entertainment Alien franchise, a media franchise Alien creature in Alien franchise Films Alien film, a 1979 film by Ridley Scott Aliens film, second film in the franchise from 1986 by James Cameron Alien 3, third film in the franchise from 1992 by David Fincher Alien Resurrection, fourth film in the franchise from 1997 by JeanPierre Jeunet Alien vs. Predator film, fifth film in the franchise from 2004 by Paul W. S. Anderson Aliens vs. Pred

ator Requiem, sixth film in the franchise from 2007 by the Brothers Strause Prometheus 2012 film, seventh film in the franchise from 2012 by Ridley Scott Alien Covenant, eighth film in the franchise from 2017 by Ridley Scott Alien 2 On Earth, a 1980 unofficial sequel of the 1979 Alien film Alien Visitor also titled Epsilon 1995 film AustralianItalian science fiction film by Rolf de Heer The Alien 2016 film, a 2016 Mexican film The Alien unproduced film, an incomplete 1960s IndianAmerican film Literature Alien novels, an extension of the Alien franchise Aliens Tappan Wright novel, a 1902 novel by Mary Tappan Wright The Alien Animorphs, the eighth book in the Animorphs series The Aliens play, a 2010 play by Annie Baker Music Performers Alien band, a 1980s Swedish rock group The Aliens Australian band, a 1970s new wave group The Aliens Scottish band, a 20052008 rock group Albums Alien soundtrack, 1979 Alien Beam album, 2022 Alien Northlane album, 2019 Alien Strapping Young Lad album, 2005

Alien, a 1989 EP by Tankard Aliens soundtrack, 1987 Songs "Alien" Britney Spears song, 2013 "Alien" Jonas Blue and Sabrina Carpenter song, 2018 "Alien", a song by Third Day from the album Conspiracy No. 5, 1997 "Alien", a song by Pennywise from the album Straight Ahead, 1999 "Alien", a song by Bush from the album Sixteen Stone, 1994 "Alien", a song by Erasure from the album Loveboat, 2000 "Alien", a song by Japan from the album Quiet Life, 1979 "Alien", a song by Lamb from the album Fear of Fours, 1999 "Alien", a song by Nerina Pallot from the album Dear Frustrated Superstar, 2001 "Alien", a song by PModel from the album Landsale, 1980 "Alien", a song by Thriving Ivory from the album Thriving Ivory, 2003 "Alien", a song by Tokio Hotel from the album Humanoid, 2009. Fans of the band call themselves "Aliens". "Alien", a song by Atlanta Rhythm from the album Quinella, 1981 "Alien", a 2020 song by Lee Suhyun "Aliens" song, a 2017 song by Coldplay "Aliens", a 1984 song by Warlord "The Alien",

a song by Dream Theater from the album A View from the Top of the World, 2021 Video games Alien 1984 video game, based on the film Alien Atari 2600, a 1982 maze game based on the 1979 film Alien Isolation, a 2014 video game based on the Alien science fiction horror film series Aliens 1982 video game, a textonly clone of Space Invaders written for the CPM operating system on the Kaypro computer Aliens 1990 video game, a game by Konami, based on the sequel of the film Other media Alien Armenian TV series, a 2017 melodrama series Alien sculpture, a 2012 work by David BreuerWeil, in Mottisfont, Hampshire, England Aliens Dark Horse Comics line The Aliens TV series, 2016 British scifi television series "Aliens" Roseanne, a 1992 television episode Other uses Alien shipping company, a Russian company Alien Sun born 1974, Singaporean actress Alien, a perfume by Thierry Mugler See also Alians, an Islamic order Alien Project disambiguation Alien vs. Predator disambiguation Astrobiology, the stud

y of hypothetical alien life ATLiens, a 1996 album by OutKast Predator disambiguation UFO disambiguation Unidentified flying object disambiguation

An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. They observe astronomical objects such as stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies in either observational by analyzing the data or theoretical astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science, solar astronomy, the origin or evolution of stars, or the formation of galaxies. A related but distinct subject is physical cosmology, which studies the Universe as a whole. Types Astronomers usually fall under either of two main types observational and theoretical. Observational astronomers make direct observations of celestial objects and analyze the data. In contrast, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. Because it takes millions to billions of years for a system of stars or a galaxy to complete a life cycle, astronomers must observe snapshots of different systems at unique points in thei

r evolution to determine how they form, evolve, and die. They use these data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial objects work. Further subcategories under these two main branches of astronomy include planetary astronomy, galactic astronomy, or physical cosmology. Academic Historically, astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using physical laws. Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms "astronomer" and "astrophysicist" are interchangeable. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a PhD in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. They spend the majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory. The American Astronomical

Society, which is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, geology, and engineering, whose research interests are closely related to astronomy. The International Astronomical Union comprises almost 10,145 members from 70 different countries who are involved in astronomical research at the PhD level and beyond. Contrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a telescope through the dark hours of the night, it is far more common to use a chargecoupled device CCD camera to record a long, deep exposure, allowing a more sensitive image to be created because the light is added over time. Before CCDs, photographic plates were a common method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes usually just a few weeks per year. Analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majorit

y of observational astronomers' time. Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes. Most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometimes planetariums as a public service to encourage interest in the field. Those who become astronomers usually have a broad background in maths, sciences and computing in high school. Taking courses that teach how to research, write, and present papers are also invaluable. In collegeuniversity most astronomers get a PhD in astronomy or physics. Amateur astronomers While there is a relatively low number of professional astronomers, the field is popular among amateurs. Most cities have amateur astronomy clubs that meet on a regular basis and often host star parties. The Astronomical Society of the Pacific is the largest general astronomical society in the world, comprising both professional and amateur astronomers as well as educators from 70 different nations. Like any hobby, most

people who think of themselves as amateur astronomers may devote a few hours a month to stargazing and reading the latest developments in research. However, amateurs span the range from socalled "armchair astronomers" to the very ambitious, who own sciencegrade telescopes and instruments with which they are able to make their own discoveries and assist professional astronomers in research. See also List of astronomers List of women astronomers List of Muslim astronomers List of French astronomers List of Hungarian astronomers List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists List of Slovenian astronomers References Sources External links American Astronomical Society European Astronomical Society International Astronomical Union Astronomical Society of the Pacific Space's astronomy news Astronomy Science occupations

ASCII , abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character encoding standard for electronic communication. ASCII codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices. Most modern characterencoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they support many additional characters. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority IANA prefers the name USASCII for this character encoding. ASCII is one of the IEEE milestones. Overview ASCII was developed from telegraph code. Its first commercial use was as a sevenbit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began in May 1961, with the first meeting of the American Standards Association's ASA now the American National Standards Institute or ANSI X3.2 subcommittee. The first edition of the standard was published in 1963, underwent a major revision during 1967, and experienced its most recent update during 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII

were both ordered for more convenient sorting i.e., alphabetization of lists and added features for devices other than teleprinters. The use of ASCII format for Network Interchange was described in 1969. That document was formally elevated to an Internet Standard in 2015. Originally based on the English alphabet, ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into sevenbit integers as shown by the ASCII chart above. Ninetyfive of the encoded characters are printable these include the digits 0 to 9, lowercase letters a to z, uppercase letters A to Z, and punctuation symbols. In addition, the original ASCII specification included 33 nonprinting control codes which originated with Teletype machines; most of these are now obsolete, although a few are still commonly used, such as the carriage return, line feed, and tab codes. For example, lowercase i would be represented in the ASCII encoding by binary 1101001 hexadecimal 69 i is the ninth letter decimal 105. History The American Standard Code for Information Int

erchange ASCII was developed under the auspices of a committee of the American Standards Association ASA, called the X3 committee, by its X3.2 later X3L2 subcommittee, and later by that subcommittee's X3.2.4 working group now INCITS. The ASA later became the United States of America Standards Institute USASI, and ultimately became the American National Standards Institute ANSI. With the other special characters and control codes filled in, ASCII was published as ASA X3.41963, leaving 28 code positions without any assigned meaning, reserved for future standardization, and one unassigned control code. There was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters rather than the lowercase alphabet. The indecision did not last long during May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to assign lowercase characters to sticks 6 and 7, and International Organization for Standardization TC 97 SC 2 voted during October to incorporate the change into its draft standard. Th

e X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting. Locating the lowercase letters in sticks 6 and 7 caused the characters to differ in bit pattern from the upper case by a single bit, which simplified caseinsensitive character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers. The X3 committee made other changes, including other new characters the brace and vertical bar characters, renaming some control characters SOM became start of header SOH and moving or removing others RU was removed. ASCII was subsequently updated as USAS X3.41967, then USAS X3.41968, ANSI X3.41977, and finally, ANSI X3.41986. Revisions of the ASCII standard ASA X3.41963 ASA X3.41965 approved, but not published, nevertheless used by IBM 2260 2265 Display Stations and IBM 2848 Display Control USAS X3.41967 USAS X3.41968 ANSI X3.41977 ANSI X3.41986 ANSI X3.41986 R1992 ANSI X3.41986 R1997 ANSI INCITS 41986 R2002 ANSI INCITS 41986 R2007 ANSI INCITS 41986R2012 ANSI INCITS 41986R2017

In the X3.15 standard, the X3 committee also addressed how ASCII should be transmitted least significant bit first, and how it should be recorded on perforated tape. They proposed a 9track standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some punched card formats. Design considerations Bit width The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems. Like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols i.e. graphemes and control characters. This allows digital devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate characteroriented information such as written language. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters, 10 numerical digits, and from 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include all these, and control characters compatible with the Comit Consultatif International Tlphonique et Tlgraphique CCITT International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 ITA2

standard of 1924, FIELDATA 1956, and early EBCDIC 1963, more than 64 codes were required for ASCII. ITA2 was in turn based on the 5bit telegraph code that mile Baudot invented in 1870 and patented in 1874. The committee debated the possibility of a shift function like in ITA2, which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a sixbit code. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is less reliable for data transmission, as an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a sevenbit code. The committee considered an eightbit code, since eight bits octets would allow two fourbit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binarycoded decimal. However, it would require all data transmission to send eight bits when seven could suffice. The committee voted to use a sevenbi

t code to minimize costs associated with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position, it also allowed for a parity bit for error checking if desired. Eightbit machines with octets as the native data type that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0. Internal organization The code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together and all graphic codes were together, for ease of identification. The first two socalled ASCII sticks 32 positions were reserved for control characters. The "space" character had to come before graphics to make sorting easier, so it became position 20hex; for the same reason, many special signs commonly used as separators were placed before digits. The committee decided it was important to support uppercase 64character alphabets, and chose to pattern ASCII so it could be reduced easily to a usable 64character set of graphic codes, as was done in the DEC SIXBIT code 1963. Lowercase letters were therefore