| { | |
| "paper_id": "W89-0108", | |
| "header": { | |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", | |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T03:44:50.806412Z" | |
| }, | |
| "title": "Criteria for Computational Models of Morphology: The Two-Level M odel as an NLP Framework", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "Jordan", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Zlatev", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": {}, | |
| "email": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "A", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Bstract", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": {}, | |
| "email": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": "", | |
| "venue": null, | |
| "identifiers": {}, | |
| "abstract": "Computational models of morphology are best seen not as morphologi cal models but rather ets natural language processing frameworks which can express descriptions in the style of one morphological model or the other, and even go further, but without necessarily being bound by \"purely\" theoretical considerations. Criteria for their adequacy can be derived by treating them (together with the linguistic descriptions that are expressed in their formalisms) as NLP systems, for which a number of goals can be stated, among which are sufficient coverage, efficiency, augmentability and flexibility. The two-level model (T W O L) of Kimmo Koskenniemi is the main object o f attention in this article and examples of its applicability to Bulgarian morphology are presented.", | |
| "pdf_parse": { | |
| "paper_id": "W89-0108", | |
| "_pdf_hash": "", | |
| "abstract": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "Computational models of morphology are best seen not as morphologi cal models but rather ets natural language processing frameworks which can express descriptions in the style of one morphological model or the other, and even go further, but without necessarily being bound by \"purely\" theoretical considerations. Criteria for their adequacy can be derived by treating them (together with the linguistic descriptions that are expressed in their formalisms) as NLP systems, for which a number of goals can be stated, among which are sufficient coverage, efficiency, augmentability and flexibility. The two-level model (T W O L) of Kimmo Koskenniemi is the main object o f attention in this article and examples of its applicability to Bulgarian morphology are presented.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Abstract", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "body_text": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "T h e cr ite r ia fo r w h a t a \" m o r p h o lo g ic a l m o d e l\" sh ou ld b e a b le t o a c c o u n t for, a n d th e m a n n er in w h ich th is s h o u ld b e d o n e , h ave risen h igh d u rin g th e past fe w y ea rs in a c c o r d a n c e w ith th e situ a tio n in th e n e ig h b o u rin g lin gu istic \" levels\" o f s y n ta x a n d sem a n tics. A p a r t fr o m th e tr a d itio n a l req u irem en ts fo r lin gu istic fe l ic it y ( \" c a p tu r in g th e g e n e ra liz a tio n s\" ), rig ou r, a 1988, K a t a ja a n d K o s k e n n ie m i 1988, C a ld e r 1 9 8 9 ). B u t ev en th e se c a n w ith o u t p e rtie s , has a lso th e b e s t ch a n ce s o f b e in g th e o r e tic a lly sig n ifica n t as w ell, th o u g h th is is a so m e w h a t co n tro v e rsia l m a tte r. A v ie w p o in t th a t is a t lea st le s s co n tro v e rcia l is th a t th e g o a ls o f c o m p u ta tio n a l a n d th e o r e tic a l lin g u istics d iffer.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "S h ieb er (1 9 8 7 ), fo r e x a m p le , has c la im e d th a t th ese d iffe re n ces, e s p e c ia lly c o n cern in g \" restrictiv en ess\" , are s o essen tia l th a t fr o m a c o m p u ta tio n a l p e r s p e c tiv e o n e is m o re in terested in w h a t th e lin g u istic th e o rie s sa y th a n h o w th e y sa y it and th a t it is m ea n in g fu l t o tr y t o se p a ra te th e o rie s ( \" h o w \" ) fr o m th eir a n a ly ses ( \" w h a t\" ) a n d co n c e n tr a te o n th e la tte r in c o m p u ta tio n a l m o d e ls. ", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "I b e liev e th a t o n e c o u ld sa y th a t th e a im s o f c o m p u ta tio n a l a n d th e o r e tic a l lin gu istics e v en tu a lly co n v e rg e , n a m e ly t o g a in a b e tte r u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e n atu re o f h um an la n g u a g e a n d o f its user. S till th e y d iffer in th eir m e th o d s . la n g u a g e p r o c e s s in g a t a su fficien tly th e o r e tic a l level. O n th e o th e r h a n d it is th e o r e tic a l lin g u istics th a t sh o u ld s ta n d fo r th e \" c o n c e p tu a l in sigh ts\" , th e new id e a s a n d th e q u e st fo r lin g u istic u n iversals. O f co u rse , th e clo s e r th e co n n e c tio n b e tw e e n c o m p u ta tio n a l a n d th e o r e tic a l lin gu istics, th e b e tt e r , b u t at least to b e g in w ith , th is is n o t a necessity. W h a t I 'm a im in g a t is t o say th a t co m p u ta tio n a l a n w h e th e r it is \" g e n e ra l\" a n d in w h a t sen se, I w ill c o m e to th a t la ter. R ig h t n ow an im p o r ta n t (in m y o p in io n ) q u e stio n arises, n a m ely: N o w w h a t k in d o f a n im a l is th a t? T h is n e ed h a rd ly b e d efin ed fo r \" in siders\" , b u t fo r s o m e o n e u n fa m ilia r w ith th e ja r g o n in th e field, it sh ou ld b e e n o u g h to sa y th a t an N L P sy ste m ca n b e re g a rd e d as a u n ity o f (a t lea st) th e follo w in g ele m en ts: (1 ) a n im p le m e n ta b le fo rm a lis m , (2 ) a p ro ce s s in g m ech a n ism , a n d 3lin g u is tic k n o w le d g e ex p ressed in th e form a lism . 1 o g y o f a n u m b er o f la n g u a g es ra n g in g fr o m F in n ish (1 9 8 3 ) t o J a p a n e se (A la m 1 983) a n d O ld C h u rch S la v on ic (L in d s te d t 1 9 8 6 ). N o w w h ile th is im p lie s th a t th e T W O L -fr a m e w o r k is g en era l in th e sense th a t it has a p o t e n t i a l l y la rg e co v e ra g e , it d o e s n o t m ea n th a t T W O L is \" g en era l\" in th e sen se th a t it ca n b e a p p lied t o all o f th e w o r ld 's la n g u a g es a n d th eir m o r p h o lo g y -in fle ctio n a l a LEXICON o-a-ov-e/P ozi # \"MASC SING\"; azi # \"FEM SING\"; ova # \"NEUTR SING\" ezi # \"PLUR\" , i.e. o v e rg e n e ra tio n . T h e rea son is th a t i f a fin ite -sta te m ech a n ism allow s A B a n d B C , th en it m u st a ls o a llo w A B C , w h ich in th is ca se w e w a n t t o fo r b id .", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Computational Models as NLP Frameworks", | |
| "sec_num": "2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "S im ilar p ro b le m s w ith th e E n g lish p refix u n -, a re d iscu sse d in (K a r ttu n e n a n d W it te n b u r g 1 983). is th e c o n te x t w h ich ch a ra cterises all B u lg a ria n in te rro g a tiv e s, fo llo w e d b y th e \" rela tiv e sig n \" ):", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Computational Models as NLP Frameworks", | |
| "sec_num": "2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "( (3) \"Palatalization of Velars\" Cx: C y <=> _(V:0) FrontV: whe r e Cx in (k g x) Cy in (c z s) m a t c h e d ;", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Computational Models as NLP Frameworks", | |
| "sec_num": "2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "2) 0 /<= _ k V C (V) (C) # B o th (1 ) an d (2 ) s h o u ld h a v", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Computational Models as NLP Frameworks", | |
| "sec_num": "2" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "T h e re a d in g is (fo r o n e u n fa m ilia r w ith th e n o ta tio n ): \" le x ica l k is rea lized as s u rfa ce c ; le x ic a l g as su rfa ce z a n d le x ica l x as su rfa ce s, i f a n d o n ly i f th ey a re fo llo w e d b y a n o p tio n a l le x ica l v o w e l w h ich is rea lized as n o th in g (b e ca u se o f a n o th e r ru le ), a n d a le x ic a l fr o n t v o w e l (rea lized as a n y th in g o n th e su rface i.e. th a t th e y axe T u rin g eq u iv a len t, d o e s n ' t m ea n th a t th e y a re fu n c tio n a lly a n d is m o r e p la u sib le th a n e .g . g e n e ra tiv e p h o n o lo g y .", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": ".A u gm en tability", | |
| "sec_num": "3" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "In th e p r e c e d in g I h a v e p re se n ted in a som e w h a t s p e cu la tiv e w a y a n u m b er o f th in k th a t o n e c o u ld sa y th a t it is n o t \" lin g u istic fe lic ity \" . W h a t is m ea n t b y th is is as co n trov ersia l as a n y th in g in lin g u istics n o w a d a y s. U n l e s s , it is eq u iv a len t to w h a t I h ave ca ", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Conclusions", | |
| "sec_num": "4" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "6Proceedings of NODALIDA 1989, pages 86-100", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Proceedings of NODALIDA 1989", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "back_matter": [], | |
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| "raw_text": "S\u00e5gvall-Hein, Anna, Mats Dahll\u00f6f and Sofia H\u00f6rmander. 1989. Studies of Grammars, Formalisms, and Parsing. Rapporter fr\u00e5n Spr\u00e5kdata, 25. Department of Compu tational Linguistics, University of Gothenburg.", | |
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| "raw_text": "Shieber, Stuart. 1987. Separating Linguistic Analyses from Linguistic Theories. In U. Reyle and C. Rohrer {Eds.)Natural Language Processing and Linguistic Theories, D.Reidel, Holland.", | |
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| "raw_text": "Zlatev, Jordan. 1988. Bulgarian Nominal Inflection in the Two-Level Framework. Manu script, Department o f Linguistics, University of Stockholm.", | |
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| }, | |
| "ref_entries": { | |
| "FIGREF0": { | |
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| "text": "n d sim p licity, o p in io n s are b e in g e x p re sse d th a t a m o r p h o lo g ic a l m o d e l sh o u ld b e gen eral, (u n d e r s to o d as u n iv e rs a l), e x p la n a to r y a n d e v en p sy ch o lo g ica lly real. N o w fa r fr o m d o u b tin g th e p la u s ib ility o f th e se re q u irem en ts, I feel th a t th e y ten d t o p la ce th e m o d e ls o f h u m a n la n g u a g e p r o v id e d b y th e field o f c o m p u ta tio n a l lin gu istics in a rath er u n fa v o u ra b le lig h t. T h is is e s p e c ia lly relevan t fo r c o m p u ta tio n a l m o rp h o lo g y , w h ich o n ly d u rin g th is d e c a d e seem s t o h a v e \" ste p p e d o u t fr o m th e c ra d le \" , as fo r e x a m p le L a rs B o r in ( p .c .) has im p lie d . A n d inste^ui o f b e in g b lin d ly critica l a n d s c e p tic a l to w a rd s its p o te n tia ls , (w h ich \" lin gu ists p r o p e r \" o fte n ten d t o b e tow a rd s c o m p u ta tio n a l lin g u istics in g en era l, as a fo r m o f s e lf-d e fe n c e ), is n ' t it b est t o w a tch its first step s ca refu lly , w ith a h e lp fu l h a n d w h ere it ca n b e le n t? I f in th e p re v io u s p a ra g ra p h I h a v e su g g e ste d th e p ic tu r e o f c o m p u ta tio n a l m o rp h o lo g y , a n d m o re c o n c r e te ly o f it 's b e s t k n o w n re p re se n ta tiv e , th e tw olev el m od el, (first p rese n te d in (K o s k e n n ie m i 1 983) a n d m o s t o fte n a b b r e v ia te d T W O L ), as a clu m sy , stu m b lin g b a b y , th e n I h a v e g o n e t o o fa r in m y m a n n er o f ex p re ssio n . N o th in g ca n b e fu rth e r fr o m th e tru th c o n s id e r in g th e e n o r m o u s a m o u n t o f a tte n tio n a n d su b seq u en t w o rk th a t K o s k e n n ie m i's d isse rta tio n u n lea sh ed . H axdly a c o n fe re n ce ca n g o b y -in clu d in g th is o n e -w ith o u t a few c o n trib u tio n s p o in tin g o u t T W O L 's a ch ie v em en ts-o r d e ficien cie s, a n d in th e b e st ca se o ffe rin g im p ro v e m e n ts o r a lte rn a tiv es, e .g . (S p r o a t a n d B r u n s o n 1987, B e a r", | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF1": { | |
| "uris": null, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "d o u b t fall a t th e h a n d o f th e th e o r e tic a l lin gu ist w h o w ill n o t fa il t o see th e in a d eq u a cy o f B e a r 's r e in tr o d u c in g th e n o tio n o f \" n e g a tiv e ru le fe a tu re s\" , o r o f C a ld e r 's \" strin g e q u a tio n s \" . A s th e la st a u th o r h im s e lf c a re fu lly sta te s: \" . . . o n e m a y ju s tifia b ly h a v e re serv a tion s a b o u t in tr o d u c in g strin g e q u a tio n s in to lin g -' -^tic d e s c r ip tio n s .\" (C a ld e r 1 9 8 9 :6 2 ). In th is p a p e r I w ish t o p r o p o s e w h a t I th in k is a m o r e \" c o n s tr u c tiv e \" v ie w o f th e aim s o f c o m p u ta tio n a l m o r p h o lo g y , w h ich is a ls o m o re o r less a p p lic a b le to th e field o f (c o m p u ta t io n a l) n a tu ra l la n g u a g e p r o c e s s in g in g en era l. I w ill argu e th a t th ere are a n u m b e r o f p r o p e r tie s , w h ich ca n h elp us c o m p a r e , ev a lu a te an d d e v e lo p m o d e ls in a m o r e s h o r t-te r m p e r s p e c tiv e s o th a t o n e n ee d n o t n ecessa rily b e o v e rw h e lm e d b y th e \" th e o r e tic a l a rg u m e n t\" fr o m th e b e g in n in g . In m y o p in io n a c o m p u ta tio n a l m o d e l th a t fin d s th e b e s t c o m b in a tio n o f th ese p ro", | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF2": { | |
| "uris": null, | |
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| "text": "I w o u ld like t o co n tin u e o n th is lin e o f th o u g h t w ith o n e su b sta n tia l d ifferen ce: w h ile S h ieb er d iscu sses m o d e ls in th eir p r o p e r ty o f b e in g \" c o m p u te r t o o ls fo r lin gu istics\" , I reg a rd th em as p o te n tia l ca n d id a te s fo r b e c o m in g la n g u a g e th e orie s o n th eir o w n . T h is d ifferen ce is illu stra te d in th e c h o ic e o f m o d e l t o e x e m p lify th e issues u n d er d iscu ssio n : in S h ie b e r' s ca se th is is th e fo rm a lis m o f P A T R -I I , w h ile I w ill use th e tw o -le v e l m o d e l. I w ill b e p r e s u p p o s in g a t lea st s o m e p r e v io u s k n o w le d g e o f it.", | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF3": { | |
| "uris": null, | |
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| "text": "C o m p u t a tio n a l lin g u istics (p a r tly b e c a u s e o f u tilita ria n rea son s) is m u ch m ore in clin e d t o u se th e tr ia l-a n d -e r r o r a p p r o a c h , sta rtin g w ith a fra g m en t an d then a u g m e n tin g it; ta k in g s o m e ca te g o r ie s fo r g ra n ted , (p h o n e m e s , fo r e x a m p le ) as \" w o r k in g h y p o th e s e s \" , i f th e y fa c ilita te th e ov era ll w ork o f th e sy stem . T h is is so b e c a u s e th e s h o r t-te r m g o a l o f c o m p u ta tio n a l lin gu istics is th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f a n a tu ra l lan gu age p ro c e s s in g s y s te m , n o m a tte r i f it d o e s o r d o e s n o t m o d e l hum an", | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF4": { | |
| "uris": null, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "d th e o re tica l m o d e ls sh o u ld n o t b e co n s id e r e d o n a par. A co m p u ta tio n a l m o d e l is b o th less and m o r e th a n a th e o r e tic a l o n e . L ess, b e c a u s e it is th e b a c k b o n e o f a sy stem and th u s is s u b je c te d t o th e lim ita tio n s I m e n tio n e d a b o v e , i.e. w o rk in g h y p oth eses, fra g m en ts e tc . M o r e , b e c a u s e i f it is fle x ib le en o u g h it c o u ld p e rm it s e v e r a l th e o r e tic a l m o d e ls t o b e im p le m e n te d (sim u la te d ) w ith in it. S o th e qu estion w h e th e r T W O L is a m o r p h o lo g ic a l m o d e l o r n o t, is n ot all th a t relevan t. A s to", | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF5": { | |
| "uris": null, | |
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| "text": "I f a t lea st th e sh o rt te rm a im s o f c o m p u ta tio n a l a n d th e o re tica l lin gu istics s p lit, th en w h a t a re t o b e th e c rite ria fo r , let us say \" e v a lu a tin g \" , c o m p u ta tio n a l m o d e ls (th e o r ie s , fo rm a lism s-th e te r m in o lo g y va ries) fo r m o r p h o lo g y in p a rticu la r, a n d n a tu ra l la n g u a g e in g e n era l? T h e r e is n o sim p le an sw er t o th is q u e s tio n . A s a h a lf y e a r 's su rv e y o f th e relevan t litera tu re , r e p o r te d in (Z la te v et al. 1 9 8 9 ) a n d (S a g v a ll-H ein et al. 1 9 8 9 ), has m a n a g ed t o c o n v in c e us-o p in io n s d iffer. W e c a m e t o b e lie v e th a t in o r d e r t o c o m e t o m o r e a b s tr a c t th in g s such as d e s id e r a ta , re q u irem en ts e tc . fo r th e m o d e ls , o n e sh o u ld sta rt w ith s om eth in g m o r e c o n c r e te . T h e k ey lies in w h a t I m e n tio n e d a b o v e w as o n e o f th e first aim s o f c o m p u ta tio n a l lin g u istics, a n d d e fin ite ly th e first o f its m o re p r a c tic a lly o ri e n te d s u b -b r a n c h . N a tu ra l L a n g u a g e P r o c e s s in g (N L P ): th e cre a tio n o f an N L P s y stem .", | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF6": { | |
| "uris": null, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "an d (2 ) to g e th e r m ak e up th e c o m p u ta tio n a l m o d e l o r -u sin g a te rm m o re n eu tral t o th e c o m p u ta tio n a l/t h e o r e t ic a l d ic h o to m y w h ich I m y s e lf in tr o d u c e d -an N L P fra m ew o rk . (3 ) is th e lan gu age d e scrip tio n . T h e th ree are as I sa id in te rd ep en d en t, b u t t o differen t d e g rees in d ifferen t sy stem s.", | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF7": { | |
| "uris": null, | |
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| "text": "m a in a d v a n ta g e in v ie w in g c o m p u ta tio n a l m o d e ls o f n a tu ra l la n g u a g e a n d o f m o r p h o lo g y in p a r tic u la r as N L P fra m ew o rk s c o m e s fr o m th e fa c t th a t it is p o ssib le t o fo rm u la te r e la tiv e ly cle a rly w h a t g o a ls N L P sy ste m s s h o u ld a im at. T h e n o n e c o u ld c o n tin u e \" b o t t o m -u p \" t o s ta te \" c rite ria \" o n h o w th e m o d e ls sh o u ld b e s h a p e d in o r d e r t o c o r r e s p o n d t o th ese g o a ls. C o n s e q u e n tly th ese are crite ria o f a p r a c tic a l n a tu re w h ich a re n o t \" th e o r e tic a lly b o u n d \" t o b e g in w ith . M o s t in terestin g ly , h o w e v e r, th e y h ave im p lic a tio n s w h ich are h ig h ly c o m p a tib le w ith lin g u istica lly m o tiv a te d c o n s id e ra tio n s . I w ill c o m e t o th is in th e last se c tio n . A c o m p u ta tio n a l m o d e l su ch as T W O L m a y b e seen as p r o v id in g th e fra m e w o rk fo r an N L P sy stem . It still rem a in s t o b e \" filled \" w ith th e c o n c r e te lin g u istic k n o w led g e . N o w th e first q u e stio n th a t arises is: h o w m u ch k n o w le d g e ca n b e ex p ressed in th e fra m e w o rk ? T h e first g o a l fo r an N L P s y ste m is th a t th is k n o w l ed g e is su fficien t fo r cu rren t p u rp o s e s , o r a lte rn a tiv e ly fo r m u la te d , th a t it has su fficien t cov era g e.", | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF8": { | |
| "uris": null, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "d e scrip tio n o f a certa in fra g m en t o f o n e o r several la n g u a g es ca n b e m a d e so th a t th e sy ste m \" w o rk s\" as in te n d e d w ith r e sp e ct t o th is fra g m e n t, th e n th e fraonew ork ca n b e re g a rd e d as ex p re ssiv e e n o u g h in re la tio n t o th is fra g m e n t. T h u s o n e m a y say th a t an N L P fra m e w o rk is w eakly co m p le te (in S h ie b e r 's te r m in o lo g y ) if a n d o n ly i f it p ro v id e s a sy ste m w ith th e lin g u istic co v e r a g e n ecessa ry fo r th e g iv en p u rp o se s. T W O L has b een a p p lie d t o su b sta n tia l fra g m e n ts o f th e in fle ctio n a l m o r p h o l", | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
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| "FIGREF9": { | |
| "uris": null, | |
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| "text": "n d d e riv a tion a l (w h e re th is d is tin c tio n e x is ts ), i.e. th a t it is a u n iv ersa l m o r p h o lo g ica l m o d e l. It is ra th er a m a tte r o f d eg ree: T W O L is \" b e tt e r \" th a n m o s t o th e r m o d e ls b e ca u se it has b e e n a p p lie d t o la rg er fra g m e n ts o f sin g le la n g u a g es, e.g . \" an (a lm o s t) fu ll d e s c r ip tio n ( o f all th e fo rm s o f all in fle ctio n a l t y p e s )\" (K o s k e nniem i 1 9 8 3 :1 2 5 ) a n d b e c a u s e it has b een a p p lie d to m o r e la n g u a g es. B u t th en , w h a t m o re is n e e d e d ? T h e fa c t th a t th e m o r p h o lo g y o f fo r e x a m p le K u b a c h i (cf. Joh a n n essen , th is v o lu m e ) y ie ld s difficu lties, d o e s n ' t m a k e T W O L a less s u ita b le fra m ew o rk fo r th e d e s c r ip tio n o f, le t 's say, B u lg a ria n in fle ctio n . T h is o n ly m ea n s th a t th e m o r p h o lo g ie s o f th e tw o la n g u a g es are d iffe re n t-th e o p p o s it e w o u ld b e su rp risin g. H o w ev er, i f o n e b y a \" g en era l\" fra m e w o rk m ea n s o n e th a t ca n p r o v id e a d e q u a te d e s crip tio n s fo r all la n g u a g e ty p e s: a g g lu tin a tin g , is o la tin g , in fle ctin g , e tc. th en m o re is t o b e d esired . T h is falls, in m y o p in io n , n o t u n d e r th e g o a l o f co v e ra g e b u t o f flex ib ility , w h ich w ill b e d iscu ssed fu rth e r o n . L e t us b e m o re c o n c r e te . In (Z la t e v 1 9 8 8 ) I h a v e g iv en w h a t I th in k is a co m p le te d e scrip tio n o f B u lg a ria n n o m in a l in fle ctio n in term s o f th e o rig in a l T W O L , i.e. as p re se n te d in (K o s k e n n ie m i 1 9 8 3 ). B u lg a ria n m o r p h o lo g y is v ery w ell d e v e lo p e d a n d p o s e s s o m e n o n -tr iv ia l p ro b le m s fo r a n y lin gu istic d e scrip tio n , c o m p u ta tio n a l o r n o t, su ch as e x te n s iv e a llo m o r p h y a n d m o r p h o p h o n e m ic a lte rn a tio n s w ith in th e ste m s. T W O L h as p r o v e d q u ite s a tis fa c to r y in d e scrib in g b o t h , w ith its fin ite -s ta te le x ic o n a n d tw o -le v e l rules, resp e ctiv e ly . T h e d e m o n s tr a tiv e p r o n o u n s , h o w e v e r, d is p a y an \" irre g u la r\" in tern a l in fle ctio n , w h ich in th e o r ig in a l (P a sced ) fo r m a t o f th e le x ic o n g iv e s n o o th e r o p p o r t u n it y fo r d e scrip tio n th a n th e fo llo w in g , w h ich is fa r & o m e le g a n t. o-a-ov-e/P \"PRON DEM IDENT\" w ith ' t ' as th e \" in varian t s te m \" (I h a v e stick e d to th e p rin cip le : \" O n e en try p er S te m \" s o as t o a v o id m a sk in g s o m e p r o b le m a tic a l areas th ro u g h listin g ) andth e c o n tin u a tio n cla ss o -a -o v -e / P w h ich is th e n a m e o f a m in i-le x ic o n w ith th e fo llo w in g c o n te n t:", | |
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| "uris": null, | |
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| "text": "f th is h a d b e e n th e reg u la r p a tte r n fo r in fle ctio n in B u lg a ria n , th en a p o ssib le c o m p u ta tio n a l d e s c r ip tio n in th e fo r m o f a sy ste m o f in terse ctin g le x ic o n s -as th o s e p re se n te d in ( K a t a ja a n d K o s k e n n ie m i 1988) fo r th e n o n -c o n c a te n a tiv e m o r p h o lo g y o f S e m itic la n g u a g es-w o u ld h ave b een n ecessa ry (a n d p r o b a b ly s u fficie n t). H o w e v e r, sin ce th e n u m b e r o f m in i-le x ico n s o f th e k in d sh ow n a b o v e is 5 a lto g e th e r a n d a ll o th e r ty p e s fa ll n e a tly in to th e fin ite -s ta te p a tte rn , a c o m p r o m is e seem s t o b e th e b e s t s o lu tio n : I co n sid e r T W O L ex p re ssiv e en ou g h , i.e. su fficien t fo r cu rren t p u r p o s e s , a n d d e c id e t o lea v e th e d e s c r ip tio n a t th a t. W h a t i f I d e c id e t o tre a t d e riv a tio n a l m o r p h o lo g y as w ell? F iv e classes o f B u lg a ria n p r o -fo r m s seem t o b e re a d ily d e s c r ib a b le as a d e riv a tio n a l p a ttern w h ich is s o m e th in g o f th e so rt: t is, th e in te r r o g a tiv e p r o -fo r m s ( B ) , a ct as th e \" b a se\" , w h ich to g e th er w ith th e a p p r o p r ia te \" p r e fix \" , b u ild r e s p e c tiv e ly in d efin ite, n eg a tiv e a n d gen eral iz in g p r o -fo r m s ( A ) , a n d w ith th e \" su ffix\" ' t o ' (w h ich is a ctu a lly th e p o s tp o n e d d e fin ite a rticle fo r n o u n s a n d a d je c tiv e s o f n eu te r g e n d e r )-rela tiv e p r o f o r m s ( C ) . H ow ev er, i f w e tr y t o ex p ress th is s im p le p a tte rn in a fin ite -s ta te le x ico n th e n w e w ill a ls o d e r iv e u n g ra m m a tica l w o r d -fo r m s su ch as *n A ka kto, *nikakyvto e t c .", | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
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| "FIGREF11": { | |
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| "text": "N o w d o e s th is m ea n th a t w e h a v e fo u n d a p o in t w h e re T W O L is n o t sufiBcient in term s o f co v e r a g e a n d a n a rg u m en t th a t it is in a p p lic a b le t o B u lg a ria n as w ell as p o s s ib ly th e d e riv a tio n a l m o r p h o lo g y o f m o s t la n g u a g es? T o s o m e e x te n t-y es. F o r p ra c tic a l p u rp o s e s w e m a y d o u b le th e en tries o f ty p e B in th e le x ic o n , s o th a t w e h a v e B ' a n d th e n c o n n e c t th e m in i-le x ic o n s , t o g et A B a n d B ' C (fo r e x a m p le ). B u t th is is a k in d o f \" s o lu tio n \" th a t w o u ld lerid us b a ck t o w h e re w e s ta rte d , a n d it is in s o m e sen se e v en w o rse th a n listin g th e differen t w o r d -fo r m s -it is a b su rd th a t w e s h o u ld h a v e t o g o a ll th is w a y o n ly t o sta rt d u p lic a tin g en tries. (H ere I 'm n o t c o n c e r n e d w ith m a tte rs o f e fficie n cy -b u t th ese a re o f c o u rs e m o re th an relevan t as w ell.) T h e r e a re, h ow ever, tw o o th e r m u ch b e tt e r w a y s o u t. O n e w o u ld b e t o re p la ce th e fin ite -sta te le x ico n c o m p o n e n t w ith a p h ra s e -s tru ctu re o n e , w h ich fu rth e r m o re ca n u se a fe a tu re -m a tch in g (u n ific a tio n ) m ech a n ism w h ich w o u ld g u a ra n te e th a t o n ly th e g ra m m a tica l fo rm s are g e n e ra te d . F o r e x a m p le th e p r o b le m I m en tio n e d a b o v e ca n b e resolv ed th e fo llo w in g w ay:(1) PRO(IND) -> n\u00c5 + PRO(INT) PRO(NEG) -> ni + PRO(INT) PRO(GEN) -> vsA + PRO(INT) PRO(REL) -> PRO(INT) + to A n a ltern a tiv e-w ith o u t in cre a sin g th e e x p ressiv e p o w e r o f th e fo r m a lis mis to use th e m o d e l's tw o -le v e l ru les in o r d e r t o b lo c k o u t u n g ra m m a tica litie s . In th e ca se a b o v e o n e m u st use a t lea st tw o \" d ia c r itic ch a ra cte rs \" , le t us say, Q a n d # (w h ich m u st b e c le a rly d efin ed as b e a re rs o f m o r p h o lo g ic a l fea tu res an d h ave n o th in g t o d o w ith p h o n o lo g y ) a n d a s s o c ia te th e m w ith th e en tries o f typ e A a n d C , resp ectiv ely . T h e n a ru le c a n b e s ta te d w h ich w o u ld p rev e n t th eir c o -o c c u r r e n c e , (th e o p e r a to r / < -m ea n s \" is d isa llo w e d \" a n d w h a t fo llo w s", | |
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| "text": "e th e sa m e e ffe ct, a n d w h ich o n e w o u ld b e p re fe rred is la rg ely a m a tte r o f h o w th e y in flu en ce th e g o a ls t o b e d iscu ssed b e lo w , n a m e ly efficien cy a n d a u g m en ta b ility .", | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
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| "text": "E fficie n cy is s o m e th in g th a t c o n c e r n s n o t o n ly N L P sy ste m s fo r p r a c tic a l p u r p o s es, b u t th e o re tica l o n e s as w ell, sin ce all in terestin g a p p lic a tio n s o f c o m p u ta tio n a l tech n iq u es t o n a tu ra l la n g u a g es in v o lv e fra g m e n ts th a t g o b e y o n d v o c a b u la r ie s o f several h u n d red w o rd s a n d a p re d e te rm in e d n u m b e r o f sen ten ces.It is n o t h a rd t o b e lie v e th a t it is ju s t th is c r ite rio n th a t has been th e m ain rea son fo r T W O L ' s p o p u la r it y ra th er th a n its lin g u istic ch a ra cteristics.T h e re s t r ic tiv e n e s s o f th e fo r m a lis m g iv e s th e o p p o r tu n ity o f e x tr e m e ly efficien t im p le m e n ta tio n s in w h ich th e le x ic o n h as th e fo r m o f a w o r d tree a n d th e ru lesfin ite -s ta te tra n sd u ce rs. T h is h as b r o u g h t a b o u t th e p o s s ib ility o f c o n s tru ctin g s y ste m s w ith le x ic o n s o f ten s o f th o u s a n d s o f stem s w h ich ca n p ro ce s s te x t co r p o r a a n d retu rn a n a ly ses w ith m o r p h o lo g ic a l fea tu res a t a sp en d o f u p t o 100 w o r d -fo r m s a m in u te (F re d K a rlsso n p .c .) I d o n ' t in te n d t o in d u lg e in th is m a tte r sin ce I 'm n o e x p e r t. S till, th e in terde p e n d e n c y o f s y s te m e fficie n cy a n d o th e r g o a ls m ust b e p o in te d o u t. F or exrim ple, w h e n it c o m e s t o c h o o s in g b etw een th e tw o solu tion s t o th e co v e ra g e p ro b le m w h ich I d iscu sse d a b o v e , o n e w o u ld p r o b a b ly a d o p t th e s e c o n d a ltern a tiv e-th a t w ith th e d isa llo w in g rule-i f a b a n d o n in g th e fin ite-sta te fo r m a t o f th e le x ico n is lik ely t o s lo w d o w n im p le m e n ta tio n s d ra stica lly . A n d th is w o u ld b e a rea son a b le m o v e -as lo n g as it d o e s n ' t g e t in th e w a y o f th e n e x t g o a l.", | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
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| "FIGREF14": { | |
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| "text": "A n N L P s y ste m is sa id t o b e a u g m e n ta b le i f it ca n b e im p ro v e d w ith regard t o e a ch o f its s u b c o m p o n e n t s -fo rm a lism , p ro ce ssin g m ech a n ism a n d lin gu istic d e s c r ip tio n . E v en i f th e first tw o a re far fr o m u n ch a n g ea b le, th e y are n ev e rth e less m o r e sta b le th a n th e th ird , th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f w h ich is b y its n a tu re an in cre m e n ta l a n d inter^lctive p ro ce s s , w h ich g o e s th ro u g h lo o p s , d e a d en d s, p a r tia l s o lu tio n s , g r a d u a l g e n e ra liza tio n s e tc ., u n til it reach es a p ro v is io n a lly sta b le lev el, a jid th e n a g a in m u st b e su ch th a t it is p o s s ib le to d e v e lo p it w h en th e need arises. F o r th is re a son it is cen tra l th a t th e form a lism is p er s p ic u o u s -a q u ite in fo r m a l c r ite r io n , b u t n ev erth eless an im p o r ta n t on e . I h a v e a lre a d y d iscu sse d q u e stio n s p e rta in in g t o th e T W O L le x ic o n c o m p o n en t s o I w ill ta k e a fe w e x a m p le s fr o m th e \" h e a rt\" o f th e m o d e l-th e tw o-lev el ru les. B e fo r e a c o m p ile r fo r th em e x iste d , it w as a c u m b e r s o m e affair t o tran s la te in to tra n sd u ce rs e v en th e sim p lest rules. T h e T W O L c o m p ile r (K a rttu n e n e t al. 1 987) w as a g re a t a d v a n ce in th is r e s p e ct. It g iv es th e o p p o r tu n ity fo r a q u ite g en era l m o r p h o p h o n e m ic ru le t o b e fo rm u la te d as sim p ly as th is, (F r o n tV is d efin ed as I , E . ) :", | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
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| "FIGREF15": { | |
| "uris": null, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "le v e l)\" . It w ill a c c o u n t fo r e x a m p le fo r th e fo llo w in g p a irs. (T h e s e co n d e x a m p le sh ow s h o w p r o d u c t iv e th e ru le is!) L e x ica l rep resen ta tion : r y k a E (h a n d + PL) S u rfa ce rep resen ta tion : r y e e L e x ica l re p re se n ta tio n : h o t d o g I ( h o t d o g + PL) S u rfa ce rep resen ta tion : h o t d o z i O n e o f th e rea son s w h y su ch rules axe m o r e p e rs p icu o u s th a n fo r e x a m p le rules o f g e n era tiv e p h o n o lo g y is th a t th e y a re p u re ly d ecla ra tive s ta te m e n ts w h ich n eed n o t tak e in to co n s id e r a tio n a n y req u irem en ts o f o r d e r in g a n d th e c o m p le x in tera ction s th a t g o w ith it. It is first a fte r c o m p ila tio n (in t o fin ite -s ta te tra n s d u cers) th a t th e y g a in th e ir p r o c e d u r a l in te rp re ta tio n . A n o t h e r fa c t o r th a t m ak es it easier fo r a T W O L sy ste m t o b e a u g m e n te d is th e le x ic o n /r u le s d is tin c tio n itself, w h ich is a n e x a m p le o f th e p o s it iv e c o n seq u en ces o f m od u larity. F o r e x a m p le ev en i f n ew in fle ctio n a l a n d d e riv a tio n a l ty p e s are e v en tu a lly d isco v e re d , th e le x ic o n c a n b e ch em ged, b u t i f a ru le-as th e o n e a b o v e -is gen era l e n o u g h , th e n it n eed n o t b e \" tin k ered w ith \" a t all, b u t ca n sa fely a p p ly o n th e n ew le x ica l in fo r m a tio n . N o w , th e ru le as I s ta te d it a b o v e is a c tu a lly differen t fr o m th a t in (Z la t e v 1988) in th a t it d o e s n o t u se a n y d ia c r itic ch a ra cte rs w h ich h ave th e fu n c tio n o f \" m o rp h e m e b o u n d a r ie s \" , \" trig g ers\" , \" b lo c k e r s \" e tc . T h e p o in t is th a t su ch ch a ra cters w ork ag a in st th e p e r s p ic u ity o f th e fo rm a lis m a n d th u s a g a in st th e a u g m e n ta b ility o f th e sy ste m . F o r e x a m p le in (Z la t e v 1 9 8 8 :3 3 ) I w r o te : \" T h e o p e ra tio n a l le x ic o n ca n b e a u g m e n te d w ith n ew le x ica l stem s w h ich o n ly h ave to b e g iv en th e a p p r o p r ia te c o n tin u a tio n classes (a n d i f n e ce ssa ry t o u se th e d ia critics in th e righ t p o s it io n s )\" . It is ju s t th e se \" rig h t p o s it io n s \" , w h ich w o u ld m ak e it s o h a rd fo r a n y o n e else th a n m y s e lf t o d e v e lo p th e sy stem .", | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
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| "text": "h e g o a l o f fle x ib ility is c lo s e t o th a t o f a u g m e n ta b ility d iscu sse d a b o v e , b u t c o n ce rn s th e a b ility o f ch a n g e n o t o n ly fo r th e sake o f im p ro v e m e n t, b u t as a value in itself. T h e r e \u00a3ire d ifferen t levels o f flex ib ility . O n e is th e h a rd w a re d im e n sio n : a sy stem sh o u ld p re fe ra b ly b e in d e p e n d e n t o f a n y p a rticu la r ty p e o f m a ch in e. T h e recen t \"e m a n c ip a tio n \" o f th e T W O L c o m p ile r fr o m th e d e m a n d in g e n v iro n m e n t o f L isp -m a ch in es, i.e. th e e x is te n ce o f a c o m p ile r ru n n in g o n th e m o r e p o w e rfu l m od els o f A p p le M^lcintosh (K im m o K o s k e n n ie m i p .c .) m a y b e co n s id e r e d in this resp ect as a ste p in th e righ t d ir e c tio n . A n o th e r a sp e ct o f fle x ib ility is w ith reg a rd t o softw a re: a sy ste m sh o u ld n o t in a n y m a jo r d eg ree d e p e n d on a p a rticu la r p r o g r a m m in g la n g u a g e . T h e fa c t th a t m o d e rn p r o g r a m m in g la n g u a g es h a v e eq u iv a len t a b s o lu te e x p re ssiv e p o w e r,", | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF17": { | |
| "uris": null, | |
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| "text": "n o ta tio n a lly s o (c f. S h ieb er 1 987) a n d it is s o m e tim e s e a sy t o fa ll fo r th e \" p r o ce d u ra l se d u c tio n \" o f c o m p u ta tio n a l lin g u istics th a t K a p la n (1 9 8 7 ) d iscu sses, e .g .t o d e p e n d o n P R O L O G 'S b a ck tra ck in g m e ch a n ism o r o n L is p 's ev a lu a tio n p ro ce d u re s. T W O L h as b e e n im p le m e n te d in P a s c a l (K o s k e n n ie m i 1 9 8 3 ), C o m m on L isp (G a je k et a l 1 9 8 3 ), In terlisp -D (D a lr y m p le et al 1 9 8 7 ) a n d C (K im m o K o s k e n n ie m i p .c .) w h ich is a sign th a t th e m o d e l is m o r e o r less in d ep e n d en t o f p r o g r a m m in g e n v iro n m e n t. B o th th ese a s p e cts o f fle x ib ility ca ll fo r tre a tin g hard-and so ftw a re in d ep en d en ce as a c rite rio n in itself. M a tte r s o f im p le m e n ta tio n , h ow ev er, are n o t o f p rim a ry in terest fo r us here. I w o u ld a c tu a lly w a n t t o \" s tre tch \" th e c o n c e p t o f fle x ib ility o f an N L P sy stem a n d in te rp ret is a s lin g u istic flex ib ility , o r in o th e r w o r d s : th e p ro p e r ty o f al lo w in g d ifferen t sty les o f d e s c r ip tio n . It is h ere th a t th e relev a n ce o f th e oretica l co n s id e r a tio n s is g re a te st. L e t us lo o k a g a in at T W O L in a little m o re detail. A s fa m ilia r, T W O L cein p r o v id e m o r p h o lo g ic a l d e s crip tio n s in th e sty le o f b o t h o f th e tr a d itio n a l m o r p h o lo g ic a l m o d e ls \" Item a n d A rra n g e m e n t\" ( l A ) and \" Ite m a n d P r o c e s s \" (I P ). F o r e x a m p le co n sid e rin g ru le (3 ) a n d th e ex a m p les in 3 .3 . o n e ca n d e s c r ib e th e sin g u la r a n d p lu ra l fo r m o f th e B u lg a ria n lexem e ' h o t d o g ' in th e fo llo w in g w a y (a ssu m in g th e fea tu re-v a lu e fo r m a t o f th e le x ico n p re se n te d as an o p tio n in (D a lr y m p le e t al 1 9 8 7 ), th o u g h w ith o u t th e fa cilita tin g d e v ic e o f \" te m p la te s \" ):", | |
| "type_str": "figure" | |
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| "FIGREF18": { | |
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| "text": "h ile (4 ) m a k es u se o n ly o f th e le x ic o n , (5 ) relies o n th e \" P a la ta liz a tio n o f V e la rs\" -ru le as w ell (p lu s a d e fa u lt m ech a n ism s ta tin g th a t n u m reciev es th e v a lu e sg, i f u n s p e c ifie d ).I f w e h a v e t o c o m p a r e th e tw o a lte rn a tiv e s, (5 ) seem s to b e b e tte r in al m o s t all r e sp e cts. It is n o t o n ly m o r e \" e le g a n t\" , it is sh o rte r, sim p ler an d as I a r g u e d in th e p r e v io u s s e c tio n th is t y p e o f d e s c r ip tio n is m o re p e rsp icu o u s and m o d u la r , th u s a s y s te m b a se d o n it w o u ld b e m o r e ea sily a u g m en te d . F rom a lin g u is tic p e r s p e c tiv e (4 ) w o u ld s im p ly d e s c r ib e ' h o t d o g /h o t d o z ' as a llo m o rp h s in co m p le m e n ta r y d is tr ib u tio n w h e re o n ly th e s e c o n d tak es p lu ra l w h ich is o b lig a to r y w h ile (5 ) w o u ld fu r th e r m o r e in c o r p o r a te th e p r o c e s s o f p a la ta liz a tio n in th e d e scrip tio n a n d th u s \" e x p la in \" th e a llo m o rp h y . T h is c o u ld p o s s ib ly im p ly th a t B u lg a ria n m o r p h o lo g y (a n d p r o b a b ly a n y m o r p h o lo g y w ith m o r p h o p h o n e m ic a lte rn a tio n s ) is m o r e re a d ily d e s c r ib a b le in term s o f IP th an l A . T h is is equ iv a len t t o sa y in g th a t it c o u ld b e a s s o c ia te d w ith a \" ty p o lo g ic a l p a r a m e te r \" w h ich d e te rm in e s th e m o s t a p p r o p r ia te sty le o f d e scrip tio n (c f. M a tth e w s 1 9 7 4 :1 6 3 ). H ow ev er, th e fa c t th a t th is is an o p tio n in T W O L , w h ich a lso p e r m its d e s c r ip tion s o f t y p e ( 4 ) -s u p p o s e d ly su fficien t fo r p u re ly a g g lu tin a tin g la n g u a g e s-is an o b v io u s a d v a n ta g e in term s o f flexib ility. S o T W O L c a n in pr^lctice fu lly \" m o d e l\" b o th I A a n d IP. T h e e x te n t t o w h ich th is is s o is so m e tim es o v e r lo o k e d b e c a u s e o f th e fa c t th a t all im p le m e n ta tio n s th a t I k n o w o f h ave used in p u t su ch as b o o k + s , in ste a d o f b o o k + PL d u rin g g e n e ra tio n , i.e. n eg lelecte d th e in fo r m a tio n in th e le x ic o n . T h is sh o u ld n o t b e co n sid e re d a d isa d v a n ta g e o f th e m o d e l itself, s in ce th e o n ly re a so n w h y it h a s n ' t b ee n im p lem e n ted is th a t u p t o n ow T W O L has n o t b e e n u sed fo r w o r d -fo r m p r o d u c tio n in a n y la rg er a p p lic a tio n . M o r p h o lo g ic a l c o n d itio n s a re fu rth e rm o re ex p ressib le (a n d are ex p ressed all th e tim e ) in th e c o n te x ts o f th e ru les th ro u g h th e di^lcritic sign s a n d \" m o r p h o p h o n e m e s \" -^just as in IP. W h a t a b o u t \" W o r d a n d P a r a d ig m \" ( W P ) ? T h e fa c t is th a t i f T W O L w o u ld a lso b e flex ib le en o u g h t o p e rm it d e s c r ip tio n s o f ty p e W P , th is w o u ld im p r o v e th e m o d e l in term s o f p e r s p ic u ity t o a c o n s id e r a b le e x te n t. I m e n tio n e d in th e p re v io u s s e ctio n th a t fo r th e sake o f th e la tte r, d ia c r itic ch a ra cte rs a re b e st a v o id e d . H ow ev er, in elim in a tin g th e \" m o r p h e m e b o u n d a r y \" (e .g . + o r -) , I h a d t o s p e cify th a t th e fron t v ow els th e su ffixes sta rt w ith d o n o t b e lo n g t o th e ste m a n d I d id th a t in u su al m a n n er-b y u sin g u p p e r ca s e letters (i.e . I a n d E ), w h ich u n d er th e p o p u la r te r m in o lo g y u su a lly g o as \" m o r p h o p h o n e m e s \" . N o w as fo r e x a m p le N y m a n (1 9 8 8 ) p o in ts o u t, th e se a re n o t in tern a l t o th e m o d e l in a n y th e o re tica l a s p e c t, b u t sim p ly e x p ress a co n v e n ie n t w a y o f e n c o d in g m o r p h o lo g ica l in fo r m a tio n in seg m en ts (e .g . I = i + PL e t c .) a n d a re n ecessa ry b e c a u s e th e tw o -le v e l ru les, o r ra th er th e fin ite -s ta te tra n sd u ce rs th e y a re c o m p ile d in, o p e r a te o n ly o n segm en ts. N o w lo o k in g a t (5 ) a b o v e , w e ca n fu rth e rm o re see th a t th is in fo r m a tio n is red u n d a n t, sin ce I is sp e cifie d as a p lu ra l su ffix in th e le x ic o n as w ell. F u rth e r m o re th ere m u st b e an \" o rd in a ry i\" p lu ra l su ffix fo r a d je c tiv e s su ch as \" p la x \" (frig h tfu l), w h ich d o n o t u n d e r g o p a la ta liz a tio n in p lu ra l fo r m ( p l a x / p l a x i ) . A p o ssib le w a y t o p reserv e th e efficie n cy th a t p r o c e s s in g s eg m en ta l rep resen ta tio n p ro v id e s, w h ile a v o id in g in co n siste n cie s a n d im p r o v in g cla r ity w o u ld b e to in c o r p o r a te a W P elem en t in th e T W O L fo rm a lism . T h is c o u ld p o s s ib ly lo o k th e fo llo w in g w ay: T h e id e a is th a t ' H O T D O G ' ca n b e d efin ed (fo r e x a m p le u n d er th e h ea d in g P A R A D I G M S ) as a p r o t o t y p ic a l en try fo r a p a ra d ig m w h ich u n d erg oes an a lte r n a tio n -it n eed n o t b e sp e cifie d w h ich , th e in fo rm a tio n fo r th is is con ta in ed in th e ru le-in p l u r a l f o r m . N o w th e sim p lest w a y to im p le m e n t th is w ou ld b e s o m e th in g like: (7) T R A N S FORM(entry (continuation)) IF (num (continuation)) = p i O n th e o th e r h a n d th e set w h ich th e p a la ta liza tio n ru le referred t o c o u ld be re d e fin e d , s o th a t it says in stea d : ( 8 ) Fron t V = i + p i , e + p i . N o w i f th e se c a n b e c o m p ile d to g e th e r , th en o n e sh o u ld b e a b le t o (th o u g h I h a v e n ' t fig u re d o u t a g en era l m ech a n ism y e t) a sso cia te th e va lu e o f T R A N S F O R M w ith th e v alu e o f r e s p e c tiv e ly i + p i a n d e + p i . A triv ia l w a y t o d o th is w o u ld b e t o ex p re ss th e first a fte r co m p ila tio n as I , th e s e c o n d as E and T R A N S F O R M w o u ld th en o n ly h ave t o b e a fu n c tio n su ch as U P P E R C A S E . In th is w a y th e resu lt w o u ld b e th e sa m e as w ith \" m o r p h o p h o n e m e s \" b u t o n a level th a t m o r e c le a r ly b e lo n g s t o th e \" m a ch in e se\" (c f. N y m a n 1 988) th a n th e present fo r m a lis m . T h e m a jo r g a in fr o m su ch a s tr a te g y w o u ld b e th a t o n e w o u ld n ot h a v e t o w o r r y a b o u t u sin g u p p e r c a s e le tte rs \" in th e rig h t p o s itio n s \" , o r t o assign d ifferen t c o n tin u a tio n cla sses fo r th e sa m e su ffix-as lo n g as o n e g ives th e right \" p a r a d ig m \" , w h ich seem s in tu itiv e ly a m u ch easier th in g to d o a n d , at th e sam e tim e , is m o r e lin g u is tica lly m o tiv a te d . I f th is, o r s o m e sim ila r m e ch a n ism , e x is te d a t lea st as an o p tio n in T W O L (w h ic h as y e t it d o e s n o t ), th en m o s t p r o b a b ly th e fle x ib ility o f th e ov e ra ll sy stem w o u ld b e in cre a se d in a w a y w h ich w o u ld a lso p e rm it faster d e v e lo p m e n t. T h is c o u ld b e d e s c r ib e d as a m a tte r o f e c o n o m y , w h ich m a y a lso b e co n sid e re d as a g o a l in itself, a lb e it m a in ly fo r p r a c tic a l sy stem s.", | |
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| "text": "y \" e c o n o m y \" w e m ea n th a t b o t h th e c o n s tr u c tio n a n d th e ru n n in g o f a system sh o u ld n o t b e t o o e x p e n s iv e in term s o f tim e a n d w ork th en o n e c o u ld say th a t all th e c r ite r ia I h a v e d iscu ssed in th e p re v io u s su b -s e ctio n s , i.e. su fficien t gen erality, p e rsp icu ity , m o d u la r ity e tc . c a n b e re g a rd e d as relevan t. O n e m a y fu rth er p oin t o u t th a t fo r th e sak e o f e c o n o m y is is m u ch m o re p r a c tic a l to h ave a sy stem th a t an alyses a n d gen era te s ( i f b o th are req u ired , o f c o u r s e ) w ith th e sa m e p ro g ra m , th an t o u se tw o d ifferen t o n e s, a n d th is ca n o n ly b e a ch ie v e d i f th e N L P fra m e w ork is bid irection al. In th is re sp e ct, t o o , T W O L \" s cores a p o in t\" , b e c a u s e th e fin ite -s ta te tra n s d u cers are a c tu a lly c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s , n o t tra n s fo rm a tio n s , a n d it is as e a sy t o g o fr o m lex ica l t o su rfa ce fo r m , as in th e o p p o s it e d ire ctio n . O n e d ra w b a c k in all im p le m e n ta tio n s u p t o n o w , as I m e n tio n e d a b o v e , is th a t th e le x ic o n has o n ly b e en e q u ip p e d fo r r e c o g n itio n , b u t th is sh o u ld b e a m en d a b le .", | |
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| "FIGREF20": { | |
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| "text": "in a lly I c o m e t o th e co n tro v e rsia l m a tte r o f w h a t it m ea n s fo r a m o d e l t o b e \" p s y c h o lo g ic a lly p la u sib le \" , a n d sin ce s o m u ch has b e e n w ritte n a n d sa id o n th e m a tte r, (e .g . L in ell 1 979) I w ill tr y t o sa y as little as p o s s ib le . E x p re ss e d w ith p r e ca u tio n , a m o d e l m a y b e reg a rd ed as p la u sib le i f it a d h e re s-o n s o m e fea sib le level-t o th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e w e h a v e o f h u m a n v e rb a l b e h a v io u r. O b v io u s ly p s y c h o lo g ic a l p la u sib ility , as a g o a l fo r an N L P s y s te m , is q u a li ta tiv e ly d ifferen t fr o m th e o th e r g o a ls d iscu ssed a b o v e . F ir s tly it c o n c e r n s o n ly sy stem s w h ich e x p lic itly tr y t o m o d e l h u m an v e rb a l b e h a v io u r . A g rea t m a n y o f th em -o p e n ly o r n o t-d o n o t a sp ire t o d o s o , b e it fo r p r a c tic a l o r th e o re ti ca l reason s ( \" c o m p e te n c e m o d e ls \" e t c .). T h e n it seem s th a t su ch a g o a l w o u ld take us b a ck t o th e v a gu en ess th a t o fte n ch a ra cte rise s a p p r o a c h e s t o th e o r e tic a l lin gu istics a n d th a t w e in d ir e c tly trie d t o a v o id b y s e ttin g u p all \" g o a ls \" an d \" criteria \" u p t o n ow . T h is is n o t q u ite so. W h e n I sa id at th e b e g in n in g th a t I w as s c e p tic a l to su ch m a x im u m g o a ls as e x p la n a to r y a d e q u a c y a n d p s y c h o lo g ic a l rea lity in th e field o f co m p u ta tio n a l lin gu istics, I trie d t o stress-\" t o b e g in w ith \" . T h e p o in t o f la y in g d o w n a ltern a tiv e g o a ls w as ra th e r t o g iv e an id e a o f w h a t p r o p e r tie s form a lism s o r m o d e ls sh o u ld h ave in o r d e r t o g o b e y o n d th e lim ita tio n s in h eren t in m o st cu rren t c o m p u ta tio n a l w o rk w ith n a tu ra l la n g u a g e . W h e n th e N L P fra m ew ork s h ave b e e n d e v e lo p e d to th e d eg re e th a t it b e c o m e s m ea n in g fu l to ask q u estion s p e rta in in g m a tters su ch as p la u sib ility a n d e x p la n a to r y a d e q u a c yth en o f c o u rs e o n e s h o u ld ask th em . T W O L seem s t o h ave b e e n a b re a k th ro u g h fo r c o m p u ta tio n a l m o r p h o lo g y in this re sp e ct as w ell. O n e ca n still b e cr itic a l to w a rd s it-fo r e x a m p le c o n cern in g its stress o n eflBciency w h ile so m e w h a t n e g le ctin g p ersp icu ity , b u t o n th e w h o le -as th e d iscu ssio n o f p r o p e r tie s 3 .1 -3 .5 in d ir e c tly d e m o n s tr a te d -it p ro v id es relia b le g ro u n d t o b u ild on . P r o b a b ly it has a lso b e e n th e first c o m p u ta tio n a l m o d e l o f m o r p h o lo g y t o m ake an in terestin g h y p o th e s is a b o u t h u m a n p r o c e s s in g o f m o r p h o lo g ic a l in fo r m a tion . T h e e v id e n c e th a t K o s k e n n ie m i (1 9 8 3 ) d iscu sses is b a se d o n p e r fo r m a n c e errors. It c o n ce rn s th e fa c t th a t spea k ers-m a in ly ch ild re n a n d a p h a sics-te n d t o m ake m istak es in th a t th e y p r o d u c e w o r d -fo r m s o f m o r e p r o d u c tiv e in flection a l p a ttern s in stea d o f less p r o d u c tiv e o n e s. B u t e rro rs th a t c o r r e s p o n d t o \" a u to m a tic a lte rn a tio n s\" , i.e. p h o n o lo g ic a lly m o tiv a te d o n e s, a re e x tr e m e ly rare. S o if o n e d e scrib e s o n ly th is ty p e o f a lte rn a tio n s w ith tw o -le v e l ru les, th e fo llo w in g \" e r r o r m o d e l\" ca n b e s ta te d : \" T h e p e r fo r m a n c e e rrors in p r o d u c in g w o rd form s a re m o s t ly fa u lty c h o ic e s in th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e le x ica l level-th ere a re h a rd ly a n y e rro rs in th e a p p lic a tio n o f th e tw o -le v e l ru les\" (K o s k e n n ie m i 1 9 8 3 :1 3 2 ). T h e s im p lic ity a n d d ire ctn e ss o f th e tw o -le v e l ru les in c o n tra s t w ith th e in term ed ia te sta g e s a n d o rd e r in g s o f g e n e ra tiv e p h o n o lo g y rules m a k e it p o ssib le t o say th at th e T W O L fr a m e w o r k a c tu a lly p r e d i c t s th is error m o d e l. In th is sen se T W O L", | |
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| "FIGREF21": { | |
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| "text": "g o a ls fo r n a tu ra l la n g u a g e p r o c e s s in g sy stem s. T o m a k e th is less sp e cu la tiv e I h a v e c o n c e n tr a te d o n c o m p u ta tio n a l m o r p h o lo g y an d m o st o f all o n o n e sin g le rep resen ta tiv e-th e tw o -le v e l m o d e l. T h e e x a m p le s o f B u lg a ria n m o r p h o lo g y h a v e b e e n p r o v id e d in th e b e lie f th a t \" m e ta th e o r e tic a l\" stu d ie s in lin gu istics can n o t b e c a rrie d o n s u cce ssfu lly w ith o u t \" a n ch o rin g s\" in p a rticu la r la n g u a g es. T h e c h o ic e o f B u lg a ria n has b e e n d ic t a te d b y th e fa c t th a t o n ly th ere cein I claim s o m e o rig in a lity . T h e g o a ls w h ich I h a v e b r o u g h t u p a re o f co u rse n o t a b so lu te , b u t I h a v e held th a t th e y p r o v id e a g o o d s ta r tin g p o in t fo r s e ttin g \" sta n d a rd s\" in co m p u ta tio n a l lin g u istics a n d m o r e s p e c ific a lly -in c o m p u ta tio n a l m o rp h o lo g y . F or e a ch o f th ese g o a ls I h a v e d iscu ssed p r o p e r tie s o f th e fra m e w ork s th a t th e sy stem s are b a sed o n , w h ich a re n ece ssa ry o r s im p ly d e sira b le fo r th e sake o f th ese g o a ls. T h e fo llo w in g ta b le sh ow s th e se o n c e m o re , G O A L S o f N L P S Y S T E M S P R O P E R T I E S o f N L P F R A M E W O R k c o m p le te n e ss R e strictiv e n e ss P e r s p ic u ity D e cla ra tiv e n e ss M o d u la r it y H a rd -a n d softw a re in d e p e n d e n ce L in g u is tic fle x ib ility B id ir e c tio n a lity P s y c h o lo g ic a l p la u s ib ility ? It is th e g o a ls th a t are th e m o r e s ta b le p a r t. D ifferen t sy stem s ca n la y stress o n s o m e as o p p o s e d t o o th e r s b u t still s y s te m -g o a ls are less co n tro v e rsia l a n d less c o n t r a d ic t o r y t o o n e a n o th e r . T h e p r o p e r tie s , h ow e v er, ca n in te ra ct in c o m p le x w a y s a n d s o m e tim e s w o r k a g a in s t s o m e o th e r g o a l th a n th e o n e w h ich has ca lled fo r th e m in th e first p la c e . S o th ere is n o e x a c t re la tion b etw een g o a ls an d p r o p e r tie s , b u t ra th er a d y n a m ic p r o c e s s g iv in g p r io r ity t o s o m e in stea d o f o th ers in p a r tic u la r ca ses. D e s p ite th a t, I b e lie v e th a t th e se p r o p e r tie s ca n b e reg a rd e d as g u id elin es fo r w o r k in th e field o f c o m p u ta tio n a l m o r p h o lo g y a n d p r o b a b ly in c o m p u ta tio n a l lin gu istics as a w h ole, w h ich is ev en m o r e im p o r ta n t in th e a b sen se o f cle a r c r it e ria fo r w h a t sh o u ld b e co n s id e r e d as p s y c h o lo g ic a l p la u s ib ility a n d e x p la n a to r y a d e q u a c y in th e field o f th e o r e tic a l lin g u istics a n d th e n e ig b o u r in g d iscip lin e s.T h e q u e stion m a rk in th e ta b le a b o v e s h o u ld sig n ify th a t. W h a te v e r its an sw er, I", | |
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| "FIGREF22": { | |
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| "text": "lle d (in 3 .4 .) \" lin g u istic fle x ib ility \" , i.e. th e p o s s ib ility o f e x pressin g la n g u a g e d e s c r ip tio n s a c c o r d in g t o differen t ty p e s o f th e o r e tic a l m o d e ls . H ow ever, I see th is as a m ea n s fo r a ch ie v in g th e a im , n o t as th e aim itself. T h e w h o le p o in t o f w o rk in g in d e p e n d e n tly o f th e o r y is o n ly t o re tu rn t o th e ory, b u t w ith less secta ria n ism an d g r e a te r in sig h t. O n ly th is w a y w ill c o m p u t a tio n a l lin g u istics c o n tr ib u te t o th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f w h a t a p s y c h o lo g ic a lly p la u sib le m o d e l sh o u ld b e , w h ich is a p re re q u isite fo r a p p r o 2u:bing a m o d e l /t h e o r y o f n a tu ra l la n g u a g e th a t is \" p s y c h o lo g ic a lly rea l\" . In d o in g s o , c o m p u ta tio n a l lin g u istics is b o u n d t o c o m e closer a n d p r o b a b ly m erg e w ith th e b r o a d e r p a ra d ig m o f c o g n itiv e scien ce.", | |
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