alexignite/chemset1 · Datasets at Hugging Face

title stringlengths 8 78	text stringlengths 3 643
Solubility Product Constant .txt	The first step is to write the KSP equation.
Solubility Product Constant .txt	To write the KSP equation, we simply realize that this guy is a solid and therefore he doesn't count.
Solubility Product Constant .txt	In this equation.
Solubility Product Constant .txt	These guys only count because they're both atreus.
Solubility Product Constant .txt	Remember, we never count solids and we never count liquids.
Solubility Product Constant .txt	Therefore, KSP is equal to the concentration of barium times the concentration of sulfate ion.
Solubility Product Constant .txt	Finally, since this guy is 1.0 times cents and negative ten, we say KSP is equal to 1.0 times ten to negative ten equals.
Solubility Product Constant .txt	Now, since this is X and this is X, you write X is here.
Solubility Product Constant .txt	Now, since barium there's 1 mol of barrium, we put a one in front of the X for barium.
Solubility Product Constant .txt	And since there's a 1 mol of sulfate, we put the 1 mol in front of the X.
Solubility Product Constant .txt	So we get one X times one X equals X squared.
Solubility Product Constant .txt	Finally, we use a little bit of algebra.
Solubility Product Constant .txt	We pick the radical, and we get x equals one times cents to negative five molar.
Solubility Product Constant .txt	That is the solubility of barium sulfate in water at 25 Celsius is one times cents to negative ten molar or moles per volume.
Catalysts .txt	So earlier in another lecture, we spoke about the relationship between temperature and reaction rate.
Catalysts .txt	And we said that as we increase our temperature, our reaction rate also increases because on average, more molecules will have enough kinetic energy to overcome the activation energy.
Catalysts .txt	Now, today we're going to look at something called catalysts.
Catalysts .txt	Now, catalysts are organic or inorganic molecules that also, like temperature, affect our rate of reaction.
Catalysts .txt	Now, let's look at the following hypothetical example in which reactants A plus B react to form a product AB.
Catalysts .txt	Now, let's suppose that our reaction is reversible, meaning it goes forward and backward.
Catalysts .txt	And that means an equilibrium.
Catalysts .txt	Our rate forward will be the same as the rate backwards.
Catalysts .txt	Now let's look at the catalyzed reaction.
Catalysts .txt	Suppose we add a catalyst, catalyst C, to our reactants.
Catalysts .txt	Now, before we look at the mechanism by which it increases the rate, let's make sure we understand the fact that catalysts are not used up in reaction.
Catalysts .txt	In other words, if you add some catalyst to our reactants, you will get that same catalyst back at the end of your reaction.
Catalysts .txt	Now, that catalyst might react somehow with one of the reactants, maybe covalently or non covalent.
Catalysts .txt	In other words, it might buy to it and help them for the products.
Catalysts .txt	But at the end it will separate and you will be able to get your feed back.
Catalysts .txt	All right?
Catalysts .txt	So let's look at the mechanism by which these catalysts affect our reaction rates.
Catalysts .txt	So, in order to see this, we have to go back to our Iranians equation.
Catalysts .txt	This equation we spoke about when we spoke about temperature and reaction rate.
Catalysts .txt	So K, our reaction constant is equal to z times p. Now, z and p are the scarcity factor and the frequency of collisions.
Catalysts .txt	Now, this guy e is what our catalyst affects.
Catalysts .txt	Now, catalysts speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy needed to convert the reactants to products.
Catalysts .txt	Now, this in turn increases the number of molecules that have enough kinetic energy to climb that activation barrier.
Catalysts .txt	In other words, it decreases this activation energy EA, thereby increasing this e component.
Catalysts .txt	And this in turn increases our rate constant, which is directly proportional to rate of reaction.
Catalysts .txt	And that's how the rates of reactions are increased by catabalists.
Catalysts .txt	Now, let's look at this graph.
Catalysts .txt	It's energy in the Y axis versus time or progress or reaction on the x axis.
Catalysts .txt	Now, this black curve is the curve that represents before additional catalysts.
Catalysts .txt	Notice activation energy goes all the way up to this blue level.
Catalysts .txt	Now, when you add that catalyst, what happens is that activation energy is lowered by this much to this red level.
Catalysts .txt	And that means more molecules, on average will have enough kinetic energy to climb this new activation barrier and form the product.
Catalysts .txt	And that's exactly what happens when you add a catalyst.
Catalysts .txt	Now, it's very important to understand the following point.
Catalysts .txt	Catalysts do not, and I repeat, do not affect the equilibrium of reaction.
Catalysts .txt	In other words, what catalysts do is they speed up their forward reaction and reverse reaction.
Catalysts .txt	But the final concentrations of our product and reactions remain the same.
Catalysts .txt	In other words, let's look at this uncannyze and catalyze reaction.
Catalysts .txt	Again, suppose that the concentration and equilibrium of our uncatalyzed are as following we have concentration of A, we have concentration of B and construction of our product AB.
Catalysts .txt	Now, for the catalyzed reaction, even though equilibrium will be reached much quicker because of a catalyst, the final concentrations are exactly the same.
Catalysts .txt	They have not changed.
Catalysts .txt	In other words, catalysts do not touch the equilibrium of our reaction.
Catalysts .txt	They affect the kinetics of our reaction, but they do not affect equilibrium.
Catalysts .txt	Now, we're going to examine the two types of catalysts.
Catalysts .txt	So we have heterogeneous catalysts are molecules that are in a different state compared to the reactants.
Catalysts .txt	In other words, if our reactants are in a gas state or liquid state then our catalysts are in a solid state.
Catalysts .txt	Now, when we're dealing with heterogeneous catalysts, namely Salad catalysts, this is what happens.
Catalysts .txt	Our reactants absorb momentarily or bind to the catalyst which weaken the bonds, decreasing activation energy which in turn increases the reaction rate.
Catalysts .txt	So let's look at the following uncategorized reaction.
Catalysts .txt	BR two reacts with C two h four to produce C two H two BR two.
Catalysts .txt	Now, this by itself is a very slow occurring reaction.
Catalysts .txt	But if you add a catalyst, a metal catalyst, this reaction will speed up.
Catalysts .txt	Let's look at the following illustration.
Catalysts .txt	So this is our metal catalyst.
Catalysts .txt	What happens is this reaction momentarily binds to the surface of our catalyst and this weakens the double bond.
Catalysts .txt	And then this other reactant can come from the top, attacking these carbons, thereby creating our product.
Catalysts .txt	Now, this is how metal catalysts act.
Catalysts .txt	An example of such a metal catalyst is, for example, fuel cells.
Catalysts .txt	In fuel cells, plant and catalyst acts in the same manner to speed up the reactions the oxidation and reduction reactions in an anode in a cathode.
Catalysts .txt	Now, if you want to learn more about fuel cells, check out the link above.
Catalysts .txt	So now let's look at homogeneous catalysts.
Catalysts .txt	Now, homogeneous catalysts are catalysts that are in the same state as our reactant, usually liquid or gas.
Catalysts .txt	A great and common example of a homogeneous catalyst are acids.
Catalysts .txt	Now, these guys weaken bonds by adding an H plus ion to one of the reactants, thereby lowering the activation energy and speeding up our reaction.
Catalysts .txt	For example, let's look at the following reaction.
Catalysts .txt	Now, this actually involves a bit of organic chemistry but bear with me and I'll try to explain it.
Catalysts .txt	What happens is one of the H molecules, one of the H ions is added to this age group, to this oxygen group and this weakens this bond here.
Catalysts .txt	So then the hydroxide form act as a base or a nucleophile attacking this carbon bond, thereby displacing this weaker bond.
Catalysts .txt	And it was weakened by the h group, remember?
Catalysts .txt	So displacing.
Catalysts .txt	It forming our product.
Catalysts .txt	Now we have the oh group instead of the Och three group.
Catalysts .txt	And this is exactly how homogeneous catalysts act.
Catalysts .txt	In other words, they momentarily bind with our reactants, help them out, and then at the end, after a reaction is finished, they've move away, and you can isolate the catalyst at the end of your reaction.
Catalysts .txt	Now, a great example of biological catalysts are enzymes.
Catalysts .txt	Enzymes are usually proteins found in our body that speed up the rates of reactions or slow down the rates of reactions.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt	Now, in this lecture, I want to talk about a very interesting concept called the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt	Now, this principle comes from quantum mechanics and two experiments in quantum mechanics help define this principle.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt	The first experiment, which we'll talk about in great detail in another lecture was called a photoelectric experiment or simply the Photo Electric effect.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt	And this experiment was conducted by Einstein.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt	And what Einstein showed was that light, an electromagnetic phenomenon, had both particle like properties as well as wavelike properties.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt	In other words, light has the following property called wave particle duality.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt	And what this property shows or tells us is that whenever it's convenient, light can act as a wave.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt	And whenever it's convenient, light will act as a particle.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt	Now, following this experiment, another experiment was conducted known as the BROGLEY Experiment.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt	And what that experiment showed was that not only light has its property but other subatomic particles, like electrons also have this duality property or the wave particle duality property.

Solubility Product Constant .txt

The first step is to write the KSP equation.

Solubility Product Constant .txt

To write the KSP equation, we simply realize that this guy is a solid and therefore he doesn't count.

Solubility Product Constant .txt

In this equation.

Solubility Product Constant .txt

These guys only count because they're both atreus.

Solubility Product Constant .txt

Remember, we never count solids and we never count liquids.

Solubility Product Constant .txt

Therefore, KSP is equal to the concentration of barium times the concentration of sulfate ion.

Solubility Product Constant .txt

Finally, since this guy is 1.0 times cents and negative ten, we say KSP is equal to 1.0 times ten to negative ten equals.

Solubility Product Constant .txt

Now, since this is X and this is X, you write X is here.

Solubility Product Constant .txt

Now, since barium there's 1 mol of barrium, we put a one in front of the X for barium.

Solubility Product Constant .txt

And since there's a 1 mol of sulfate, we put the 1 mol in front of the X.

Solubility Product Constant .txt

So we get one X times one X equals X squared.

Solubility Product Constant .txt

Finally, we use a little bit of algebra.

Solubility Product Constant .txt

We pick the radical, and we get x equals one times cents to negative five molar.

Solubility Product Constant .txt

That is the solubility of barium sulfate in water at 25 Celsius is one times cents to negative ten molar or moles per volume.

Catalysts .txt

So earlier in another lecture, we spoke about the relationship between temperature and reaction rate.

Catalysts .txt

And we said that as we increase our temperature, our reaction rate also increases because on average, more molecules will have enough kinetic energy to overcome the activation energy.

Catalysts .txt

Now, today we're going to look at something called catalysts.

Catalysts .txt

Now, catalysts are organic or inorganic molecules that also, like temperature, affect our rate of reaction.

Catalysts .txt

Now, let's look at the following hypothetical example in which reactants A plus B react to form a product AB.

Catalysts .txt

Now, let's suppose that our reaction is reversible, meaning it goes forward and backward.

Catalysts .txt

And that means an equilibrium.

Catalysts .txt

Our rate forward will be the same as the rate backwards.

Catalysts .txt

Now let's look at the catalyzed reaction.

Catalysts .txt

Suppose we add a catalyst, catalyst C, to our reactants.

Catalysts .txt

Now, before we look at the mechanism by which it increases the rate, let's make sure we understand the fact that catalysts are not used up in reaction.

Catalysts .txt

In other words, if you add some catalyst to our reactants, you will get that same catalyst back at the end of your reaction.

Catalysts .txt

Now, that catalyst might react somehow with one of the reactants, maybe covalently or non covalent.

Catalysts .txt

In other words, it might buy to it and help them for the products.

Catalysts .txt

But at the end it will separate and you will be able to get your feed back.

Catalysts .txt

All right?

Catalysts .txt

So let's look at the mechanism by which these catalysts affect our reaction rates.

Catalysts .txt

So, in order to see this, we have to go back to our Iranians equation.

Catalysts .txt

This equation we spoke about when we spoke about temperature and reaction rate.

Catalysts .txt

So K, our reaction constant is equal to z times p. Now, z and p are the scarcity factor and the frequency of collisions.

Catalysts .txt

Now, this guy e is what our catalyst affects.

Catalysts .txt

Now, catalysts speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy needed to convert the reactants to products.

Catalysts .txt

Now, this in turn increases the number of molecules that have enough kinetic energy to climb that activation barrier.

Catalysts .txt

In other words, it decreases this activation energy EA, thereby increasing this e component.

Catalysts .txt

And this in turn increases our rate constant, which is directly proportional to rate of reaction.

Catalysts .txt

And that's how the rates of reactions are increased by catabalists.

Catalysts .txt

Now, let's look at this graph.

Catalysts .txt

It's energy in the Y axis versus time or progress or reaction on the x axis.

Catalysts .txt

Now, this black curve is the curve that represents before additional catalysts.

Catalysts .txt

Notice activation energy goes all the way up to this blue level.

Catalysts .txt

Now, when you add that catalyst, what happens is that activation energy is lowered by this much to this red level.

Catalysts .txt

And that means more molecules, on average will have enough kinetic energy to climb this new activation barrier and form the product.

Catalysts .txt

And that's exactly what happens when you add a catalyst.

Catalysts .txt

Now, it's very important to understand the following point.

Catalysts .txt

Catalysts do not, and I repeat, do not affect the equilibrium of reaction.

Catalysts .txt

In other words, what catalysts do is they speed up their forward reaction and reverse reaction.

Catalysts .txt

But the final concentrations of our product and reactions remain the same.

Catalysts .txt

In other words, let's look at this uncannyze and catalyze reaction.

Catalysts .txt

Again, suppose that the concentration and equilibrium of our uncatalyzed are as following we have concentration of A, we have concentration of B and construction of our product AB.

Catalysts .txt

Now, for the catalyzed reaction, even though equilibrium will be reached much quicker because of a catalyst, the final concentrations are exactly the same.

Catalysts .txt

They have not changed.

Catalysts .txt

In other words, catalysts do not touch the equilibrium of our reaction.

Catalysts .txt

They affect the kinetics of our reaction, but they do not affect equilibrium.

Catalysts .txt

Now, we're going to examine the two types of catalysts.

Catalysts .txt

So we have heterogeneous catalysts are molecules that are in a different state compared to the reactants.

Catalysts .txt

In other words, if our reactants are in a gas state or liquid state then our catalysts are in a solid state.

Catalysts .txt

Now, when we're dealing with heterogeneous catalysts, namely Salad catalysts, this is what happens.

Catalysts .txt

Our reactants absorb momentarily or bind to the catalyst which weaken the bonds, decreasing activation energy which in turn increases the reaction rate.

Catalysts .txt

So let's look at the following uncategorized reaction.

Catalysts .txt

BR two reacts with C two h four to produce C two H two BR two.

Catalysts .txt

Now, this by itself is a very slow occurring reaction.

Catalysts .txt

But if you add a catalyst, a metal catalyst, this reaction will speed up.

Catalysts .txt

Let's look at the following illustration.

Catalysts .txt

So this is our metal catalyst.

Catalysts .txt

What happens is this reaction momentarily binds to the surface of our catalyst and this weakens the double bond.

Catalysts .txt

And then this other reactant can come from the top, attacking these carbons, thereby creating our product.

Catalysts .txt

Now, this is how metal catalysts act.

Catalysts .txt

An example of such a metal catalyst is, for example, fuel cells.

Catalysts .txt

In fuel cells, plant and catalyst acts in the same manner to speed up the reactions the oxidation and reduction reactions in an anode in a cathode.

Catalysts .txt

Now, if you want to learn more about fuel cells, check out the link above.

Catalysts .txt

So now let's look at homogeneous catalysts.

Catalysts .txt

Now, homogeneous catalysts are catalysts that are in the same state as our reactant, usually liquid or gas.

Catalysts .txt

A great and common example of a homogeneous catalyst are acids.

Catalysts .txt

Now, these guys weaken bonds by adding an H plus ion to one of the reactants, thereby lowering the activation energy and speeding up our reaction.

Catalysts .txt

For example, let's look at the following reaction.

Catalysts .txt

Now, this actually involves a bit of organic chemistry but bear with me and I'll try to explain it.

Catalysts .txt

What happens is one of the H molecules, one of the H ions is added to this age group, to this oxygen group and this weakens this bond here.

Catalysts .txt

So then the hydroxide form act as a base or a nucleophile attacking this carbon bond, thereby displacing this weaker bond.

Catalysts .txt

And it was weakened by the h group, remember?

Catalysts .txt

So displacing.

Catalysts .txt

It forming our product.

Catalysts .txt

Now we have the oh group instead of the Och three group.

Catalysts .txt

And this is exactly how homogeneous catalysts act.

Catalysts .txt

In other words, they momentarily bind with our reactants, help them out, and then at the end, after a reaction is finished, they've move away, and you can isolate the catalyst at the end of your reaction.

Catalysts .txt

Now, a great example of biological catalysts are enzymes.

Catalysts .txt

Enzymes are usually proteins found in our body that speed up the rates of reactions or slow down the rates of reactions.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt

Now, in this lecture, I want to talk about a very interesting concept called the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt

Now, this principle comes from quantum mechanics and two experiments in quantum mechanics help define this principle.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt

The first experiment, which we'll talk about in great detail in another lecture was called a photoelectric experiment or simply the Photo Electric effect.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt

And this experiment was conducted by Einstein.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt

And what Einstein showed was that light, an electromagnetic phenomenon, had both particle like properties as well as wavelike properties.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt

In other words, light has the following property called wave particle duality.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt

And what this property shows or tells us is that whenever it's convenient, light can act as a wave.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt

And whenever it's convenient, light will act as a particle.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt

Now, following this experiment, another experiment was conducted known as the BROGLEY Experiment.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle .txt

And what that experiment showed was that not only light has its property but other subatomic particles, like electrons also have this duality property or the wave particle duality property.