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Charles Law .txt | And so they must expand container, increase the volume. |
Charles Law .txt | So let's look at the graph of volume times our temperature. |
Charles Law .txt | Now. |
Charles Law .txt | Temperature here is in Kelvin. |
Charles Law .txt | So our origin is at zero. |
Charles Law .txt | Zero? |
Charles Law .txt | Remember, we can't have negative volume. |
Charles Law .txt | Our small volume of zero is zero, so can't go below this. |
Charles Law .txt | Now our temperature in Kelvin is zero. |
Charles Law .txt | So we saw it as zero. |
Charles Law .txt | Zero? |
Charles Law .txt | At zero volume. |
Charles Law .txt | We have zero Kelvin. |
Charles Law .txt | But remember, zero Kelvin is unattainable. |
Charles Law .txt | Everything has volume. |
Charles Law .txt | And that means our temperature must be somewhere above zero. |
Charles Law .txt | Also notice that v one over t one means that our t one can't be zero. |
Charles Law .txt | Otherwise, we get an undefined number, a number that has infinity as its answer. |
Charles Law .txt | Because any number over zero is infinity. |
Charles Law .txt | So let's look at this law. |
Charles Law .txt | Why is it that we have a linear function? |
Charles Law .txt | Linear line? |
Charles Law .txt | Well, that's because this is our slope. |
Charles Law .txt | A constant slope. |
Charles Law .txt | So this guy's constant. |
Charles Law .txt | Whenever D increases, team must increase by the same amount. |
Charles Law .txt | If this is doubled, this is doubled. |
Charles Law .txt | If this is tripled, this is tripled and so on. |
Charles Law .txt | That's why there is a linear relationship between D and T.
And this is how our graph for Charles Law will look when we grab volume versus temperature. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So, in this lecture, we're going to begin a discussion on a process in organic chemistry known as orbital hybridization. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So let's begin with the following depiction. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | In our first case, let's suppose we have two different atoms. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | The first atom donates an S orbital, and the second atom donates a p orbital. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So these two orbitals will combine in a way to form the following molecular orbitals. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So, because we input two, we should get back to orbitals. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | And that's exactly what we get. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | The first molecular orbital is known as the bonding molecular orbital. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | It's lower in energy. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | And the second one is known as the anti bonding molecular orbital. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | It's the one higher in energy. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So that's the first case. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | That's the normal case that we're used to seeing. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So let's suppose we try a different thing. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | Now, let's suppose we have a single atom. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | And that single atom has both an S orbital as well as a p orbital. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | What happens is, within that single atom, these two orbitals can combine in such a way to produce something that we know as hybridized orbitals. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | In other words, we have a single atom. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | Within that single atom, an S orbital interacts with a p orbital to produce two hybridized orbitals. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | Now, once again, we input two orbitals. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So we should get back to hybridized orbitals. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | And that's exactly what we see happen here. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | Now, when this S combines with this positive P, we get the following hybridized orbitals. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | In other words, this positive region simply combines with this positive region, and this becomes smaller. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So a positive S orbital combines with a positive p orbital. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | The two greens combine, the blue becomes smaller to form an enlarged positive green lobe and a smaller or thinner negative blue lobe. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | And the same happens when this part is negative. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | We get the following because two negative lobes combine to form this enlarged negative section, enlarged negative lobe, and the smaller positive green lobe. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | Now, in this lecture, we're going to only talk about SP hypersized orbitals. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | In future lectures, we're also going to talk about SP two and SP three hyperze orbitals. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So, what is an SP hyperized orbital? |
Sp Hybridization.txt | Well, this is simply an orbital produced using 50% S orbitals and 50% P orbitals. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | In other words, when we're combining our orbitals within that given atom, 50% comes from S and 50% comes from P. And this is known as an SP hyper dice orbital. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | That's exactly what we have in this situation here. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So let's look at an example in nature. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So where is this evidence? |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So let's look at one particular example in which a Beryllium atom combines with two H atoms. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So let's examine the electron configuration of Beryllium. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So, Beryllium, in its neutral state, has four electrons, four protons, four neutrons. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So the electron configuration goes like this. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | We have two electrons that go into our one S, and we have two electrons that go into the two S. Now, we also have the two p orbitals. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | But since we have no more electrons, there are zero electrons in the two P orbital. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So we can either represent it this way, or we can simply remove the two P. Now, for my purposes, I'm going to leave it in this way, and we'll see why. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So my question is the following will this Be donate a two P orbital to bind with the H, or will it donate a hybrid orbital? |
Sp Hybridization.txt | In other words, which situation is more stable? |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So let's examine it this way. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | Let's draw out our pictures. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | Let's suppose that Be forms this hybridized orbital, and then this hybridized orbital interacts with the H atom to form our covalent bond. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | And let's also suppose that we have a Beryllium atom that donates a simple two P orbital to interact with that H atom. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | Let's see which one is more stable. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | Well, recall that whenever bonds are formed, bonds or covalent bonds are formed by the overlap of atomic orbitals, as we see here. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | And we know that the better the overlap, the larger the lobes, the more stable our compound is, the more stable our bond is. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So in which situation do we have a more stabilized overlap? |
Sp Hybridization.txt | A larger overlap? |
Sp Hybridization.txt | Well, clearly this case has a much bigger lobe. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | And that means the interaction will be much better in this hybridized interaction. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | In other words, this hybridized lobe creates a larger lobe. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | And that means, because we have a larger lobe, we have a better overlap. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | And so that means this is much more stable. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | And so this will not occur. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | We're going to have this type of bond. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | In other words, within this benh, when Be bonds to H, it creates a hybridized orbital, which then bonds to the one S of the H. And let's see exactly that in this energy diagram. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So we can imagine this being the energy diagram. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So the higher up we go, the more energy we have. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | The lower we go, the less energy we have. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | What happens is the following. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | The Beryllium creates this hybridized orbital SD hybridized which comes from one S and one P an St hybridized orbital. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | And that orbital, which is a bit slightly higher in energy than our one S of the H atom. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | So this is the H atom, and this is the one S orbital. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | And this is the SP hybridized orbital of our Beryllium. |
Sp Hybridization.txt | They will interact. |