crumb/openstax-text · Datasets at Hugging Face

text stringlengths 0 189
FOUNDATION SUPPORT

OpenStax is grateful for the tremendous support of our sponsors. Without their strong engagement, the goal
of free access to high-quality textbooks would remain just a dream.

Laura and John Arnold Foundation (LJAF) actively seeks opportunities to invest in organizations and
thought leaders that have a sincere interest in implementing fundamental changes that not only
yield immediate gains, but also repair broken systems for future generations. LJAF currently focuses
its strategic investments on education, criminal justice, research integrity, and public accountability.

The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation has been making grants since 1967 to help solve social
and environmental problems at home and around the world. The Foundation concentrates its
resources on activities in education, the environment, global development and population,
performing arts, and philanthropy, and makes grants to support disadvantaged communities in the
San Francisco Bay Area.

Calvin K. Kazanjian was the founder and president of Peter Paul (Almond Joy), Inc. He firmly believed
that the more people understood about basic economics the happier and more prosperous they
would be. Accordingly, he established the Calvin K. Kazanjian Economics Foundation Inc, in 1949 as a
philanthropic, nonpolitical educational organization to support efforts that enhanced economic
understanding.

Guided by the belief that every life has equal value, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation works to
help all people lead healthy, productive lives. In developing countries, it focuses on improving
people’s health with vaccines and other life-saving tools and giving them the chance to lift
themselves out of hunger and extreme poverty. In the United States, it seeks to significantly
improve education so that all young people have the opportunity to reach their full potential. Based
in Seattle, Washington, the foundation is led by CEO Jeff Raikes and Co-chair William H. Gates Sr.,
under the direction of Bill and Melinda Gates and Warren Buffett.

The Maxfield Foundation supports projects with potential for high impact in science, education,
sustainability, and other areas of social importance.

Our mission at The Michelson 20MM Foundation is to grow access and success by eliminating
unnecessary hurdles to affordability. We support the creation, sharing, and proliferation of more
effective, more affordable educational content by leveraging disruptive technologies, open
educational resources, and new models for collaboration between for-profit, nonprofit, and public
entities.


The Bill and Stephanie Sick Fund supports innovative projects in the areas of Education, Art, Science
and Engineering.



Study where you want, what
you want, when you want.
Access. The future of education.
openstax.org
When you access College Success in our web view, you can use our new online
highlighting and note-taking features to create your own study guides.
Our books are free and flexible, forever.
Get started at openstax.org/details/books/biology-ap-courses

Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Unit 1
Chapter 1: The Study of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1 The Science of Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Themes and Concepts of Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Chapter 2: The Chemical Foundation of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1 Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.3 Carbon
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Chapter 3: Biological Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.1 Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.2 Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.3 Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.4 Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.5 Nucleic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Unit 2
Chapter 4: Cell Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.1 Studying Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.2 Prokaryotic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.3 Eukaryotic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.4 The Endomembrane System and Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
4.5 Cytoskeleton
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.6 Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Plasma Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.1 Components and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.2 Passive Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5.3 Active Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
5.4 Bulk Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Chapter 6: Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.1 Energy and Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
6.2 Potential, Kinetic, Free, and Activation Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
6.3 The Laws of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6.4 ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.5 Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Chapter 7: Cellular Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.1 Energy in Living Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.2 Glycolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
7.3 Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
7.4 Oxidative Phosphorylation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
7.5 Metabolism without Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
7.6 Connections of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Lipid Metabolic Pathways . . . . . . . . . . 307
7.7 Regulation of Cellular Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

FOUNDATION SUPPORT

OpenStax is grateful for the tremendous support of our sponsors. Without their strong engagement, the goal

of free access to high-quality textbooks would remain just a dream.

Laura and John Arnold Foundation (LJAF) actively seeks opportunities to invest in organizations and

thought leaders that have a sincere interest in implementing fundamental changes that not only

yield immediate gains, but also repair broken systems for future generations. LJAF currently focuses

its strategic investments on education, criminal justice, research integrity, and public accountability.

The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation has been making grants since 1967 to help solve social

and environmental problems at home and around the world. The Foundation concentrates its

resources on activities in education, the environment, global development and population,

performing arts, and philanthropy, and makes grants to support disadvantaged communities in the

San Francisco Bay Area.

Calvin K. Kazanjian was the founder and president of Peter Paul (Almond Joy), Inc. He firmly believed

that the more people understood about basic economics the happier and more prosperous they

would be. Accordingly, he established the Calvin K. Kazanjian Economics Foundation Inc, in 1949 as a

philanthropic, nonpolitical educational organization to support efforts that enhanced economic

understanding.

Guided by the belief that every life has equal value, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation works to

help all people lead healthy, productive lives. In developing countries, it focuses on improving

people’s health with vaccines and other life-saving tools and giving them the chance to lift

themselves out of hunger and extreme poverty. In the United States, it seeks to significantly

improve education so that all young people have the opportunity to reach their full potential. Based

in Seattle, Washington, the foundation is led by CEO Jeff Raikes and Co-chair William H. Gates Sr.,

under the direction of Bill and Melinda Gates and Warren Buffett.

The Maxfield Foundation supports projects with potential for high impact in science, education,

sustainability, and other areas of social importance.

Our mission at The Michelson 20MM Foundation is to grow access and success by eliminating

unnecessary hurdles to affordability. We support the creation, sharing, and proliferation of more

effective, more affordable educational content by leveraging disruptive technologies, open

educational resources, and new models for collaboration between for-profit, nonprofit, and public

entities.

The Bill and Stephanie Sick Fund supports innovative projects in the areas of Education, Art, Science

and Engineering.

Study where you want, what

you want, when you want.

Access. The future of education.

openstax.org

When you access College Success in our web view, you can use our new online

highlighting and note-taking features to create your own study guides.

Our books are free and flexible, forever.

Get started at openstax.org/details/books/biology-ap-courses

Table of Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Unit 1

Chapter 1: The Study of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.1 The Science of Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.2 Themes and Concepts of Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Chapter 2: The Chemical Foundation of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

2.1 Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

2.2 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

2.3 Carbon

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Chapter 3: Biological Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

3.1 Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

3.2 Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

3.3 Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

3.4 Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

3.5 Nucleic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Unit 2

Chapter 4: Cell Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

4.1 Studying Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

4.2 Prokaryotic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

4.3 Eukaryotic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

4.4 The Endomembrane System and Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

4.5 Cytoskeleton

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

4.6 Connections between Cells and Cellular Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Plasma Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

5.1 Components and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

5.2 Passive Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

5.3 Active Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

5.4 Bulk Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

Chapter 6: Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

6.1 Energy and Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

6.2 Potential, Kinetic, Free, and Activation Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

6.3 The Laws of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

6.4 ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

6.5 Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Chapter 7: Cellular Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

7.1 Energy in Living Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

7.2 Glycolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

7.3 Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Citric Acid Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

7.4 Oxidative Phosphorylation

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

7.5 Metabolism without Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

7.6 Connections of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Lipid Metabolic Pathways . . . . . . . . . . 307

7.7 Regulation of Cellular Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311