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is vasovagal syncope always chronic? | i was looking at it online and saw it said somewhere that it goes away in a week or so, so does that mean it's not always a permanent condition? | nutshell vasovagal syncope, vagus nerve transmitted, nerve transmitted reaction ====== in a nutshell vasovagal syncope just means that you have vagus nerve transmitted reaction that causes your bloodpressure to drop enough for you to go unconcious. vagal reflex is something that all people have and it can cause syncope. that doesn’t make it a chronic condition anymore than patellar reflex. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are antenna receivers orb-shaped? | hey, i'm watching some show called pine gap on netflix, but noticed that the receivers are full orbs, with hexagonal plates on it. what's the reason for this? wouldn't it be more beneficial if they're just large tray disks? | actual receivers, url, protective coverings ====== [those aren't the actual receivers](_url_1_), they're just protective coverings. underneath there is typically the [standard parabolic antenna you'd expect](_url_0_). the covering is called a [radome](_url_2_). they're usually plastic, maybe with a metal frame (which is why they look geodesic). they're made to be as transparent to radar as possible, but they still have a tiny reflection which is one of the reasons they're spherical or round- so that the reflections are as uniform as possible. the other reason is for strength: stronger shapes mean they can be made thinner and less reflective/absorbing. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://www2.l3t.com/essco/img/redesign/metalspaceframe_720x187.jpg",
"https://theintercept.imgix.net/wp-uploads/sites/1/2017/08/0214-1503071834.jpeg?auto=compress%2Cformat&q=90&fit=crop&w=1440&h=720",
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why is the following wrong? (tl;dr i get i(pi)=0) | we know, from euler's identity, that e^i(pi) =-1 if we take the natural log of both sides, we get i(pi)=ln(-1) doubling both sides gives 2i(pi)=2ln(-1) simplifying gives 2i(pi)=ln(1)=0 so, obviously incorrectly, 2i(pi)=0 so what has gone wrong here? is it the fact i took a logarithm of a negative, or is some of my reasoning flawed? is this finding re(2i(pi)) by some roundabout method? thanks in advance. | complex plane, complex, log ====== logarithms are tricky in the complex plane. for instance, since we have 1 = e^(2pi i) = e^(4pi i) = e^(6pi i)=..., then taking logarithms would seem to suggest that 0 = 2pi i = 4pi i = 6pi i =... which obviously isn't the case. the problem arises because you are starting at 1, with log(1)=0, and tracing along e^(it) for t=0 to t=2pi, taking logarithms is fine until we get to 2pi, where we find that e^(2pi i)=1 which means that log(1)=2pi i, but we already know that log(1)=0. logarithms do not behave well on the complex plane and the key mistake in your derivation is that you're treating the logarithm like a normal logarithm on the reals. a logarithm on the entire complex plane is not a well defined function. the solution to this is to make it so that that you're not allowed to go in a full circle around 0 in the complex plane. if you pick any ray beginning at 0 and extending out to infinity on the complex plane and declare that the logarithm is undefined on this ray, then you will have a well defined logarithm, as you can't go a full circle around 0 anymore. this is called a "branch cut". if we choose the ray along the negative imaginary axis, then log(1)=0 and log(-1)=i pi and there's no ambiguity, since you can't increase your angle past 3pi/2. now, we *can* fix it in a much more appealing way, but it is more abstract. if we start at 1=e^(0i), and trace around the unit circle via e^(it), then we're good until we hit t=2pi. to fix this, we can imagine that instead of tracing around the circle in the complex plane, that we're actually tracing around a spiral that's elevating, like a spiral staircase. [see here](_url_0_). by the time you hit t=2pi, you've gone around one entire time but instead of being where you started, you're exactly one level above where you started. if you were to flatten the this spiral, then you would be at the starting point, but because it has extended upwards, we are no longer at the same point. in this way, we can keep track of things by what level they are on. for instance, e^(0i) is on the 0th floor, but e^(2pi i) is on the first floor. we can define a logarithm on this spiral by inputting a complex number *and* what floor its on. this would look like log(z,n), where z is a complex number and n is the floor. so log(1,0)=0, log(1,1)=2pi i, log(1,2)=4pi i etc. if you try to cut out an entire floor and flatten it, then you'll end up with the complex plane that has a branch cut at where you cut the floor out. this is the most natural way to extend the logarithm using complex numbers. | 31 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Riemann_surface_log.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_logarithm"
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is it a valid linearization to say that tan(ϕ)=ϕ for small displacements against zero? | i've used sinus in the past to linearize equations like this, but is tangens good enough too? | higher order terms, remaining higher order, lim sinx ====== yes. see the power series of tan function in [_url_0_](_url_0_) . the first linear term for tan x is x, the remaining higher order terms go to zero faster than x in the limit as x- alternately, lim sinx = x as x- > 0 and lim cosx = 1 as x- > 0. tanx = sinx/cosx and it's limit is x as x- > 0 | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_series"
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pitch is viscous and can be fractured. can other viscous substances (e. g., water, honey, etc.) be fractured? | newtonian fluid, url, fluid ====== what you are describing is a [non newtonian fluid](_url_0_). a common (and fun) example is cornstach mixed with water. under high stress and impact, the mixture will act like a solid, otherwise it will act like a liquid. if you scoop up a bunch of the goo and quickly try to pull to it apart it will fracture and snap apart but then drip out of you hand like a liquid. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Newtonian_fluid"
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"pbs special" explanation of how operating systems work? | i know my way around a computer, and i know what the os does in broad terms - task scheduling, memory management, hardware abstraction, etc. thus far, i've only been able to find very generalized explanations that give me no new information, or extremely in-depth ones that are mostly over my head. so, can anyone explain operating systems at a medium level of detail? links to existing explanations would be equally appreciated. | level, isa level, application level ====== edit, all that work for a 5 days old question. i sincerely hope someone reads this! let me dig into what i was taught my computer architecture class, which i passed last semester. imagine computing like a building. at the penthouse there's the user level. at the basement, there's the physical level: electrons, holes, si molecules, impurities etc. every level above is an abstraction of the level below. since a computer system ultimately uses the predictable outcomes of physical laws to compute things, it would be unimaginably complex to directly manipulate electrons and currents in a programmable way. therefore, we have created several intermediary abstraction levels in order to manipulate things in an electronic scale and gather information from them. every level dumps requests to the lower levels, processes the input from them and pushes the result of this process to the upper level. if you are on a certain level, the only thing you need to know is how to read the requests from above, pass them below, receive the outcome and push it back up. therefore you need two languages: one to talk to the level above and one to talk to the level below. the higher-level languages will be more abstracted, less verbose and closer to human understanding. the lower-level languages give you the ability to optimize the problem according to the specific capabilities of the particular lower-level machine you're talking to, but they're almost impossible to utilize for complex, abstract problems such as creating a gui interface or whatever. this helps solve a remarkable problem: we can order our computer to calculate the result of 1+1 without being concerned with what happens below: the user demands, the application returns the result, that's it! we don't have to know anything about the impurities in si that create n and p gates, that these gates form diodes and transistors, that these transistors form logic gates, that these logic gates form the alu (the thang in your cpu that does the calculationes) and the cache (the short-term memory of your system, the notebook where all operations in the cpu that are scheduled for execution are kept) and all the other components of your machine. these components are coordinated by a language of micro-operations. e.g.: read ram position a and push the result to register k. put the results of register k into the alu and shift all the bits to the left. this micro-instructions are combined into larger instructions that are common in all computations: addition, branching, multiplication, comparison, storage, etc. that level is the isa level, the instruction set architecture level. this is the level the operating system talks to. every class of processors has the same isa, and this is precisely the reason why intel and amd cpus can run the same operating systems, but the cpu of a ps3 can't. although the inner workings of an i7 and an fx are different, they can run the same operating systems because they have the same isa. now instead of going from bottom to top, let's go from top to bottom. below the user level, there's the application level, with the operating system level right below that. let's say the user has 2 demands: print a document, and run a computer simulation. the applications will make system calls: one will need a lot of cpu and no printer, the other almost no cpu and lots of printer. the os will then coordinate these calls: it will divide processing time between the two tasks. it will use the usb to send the correct signal to the printer and the hdmi port to the display. it will assign different cores fo the cpu to operations it realizes they can be executed simultaneously. in order to do these things, there are two ways: either have an application which is a-priori compiled in the machine-language, or interpret the high-level commands in blocks as needed. in the case of interpreted languages, the os handles that task as well. we have therefore completely defined the os level. tldr, it takes requests from the application level, translates them to the isa level, then takes the result from the isa level and pushes it back up to the application. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the difference between a symptom and a sign? | my tutor just told us they are the same thing, but i didn't think this was the case. | tutor is incorrect, incorrect, tutor ====== unfortunately your tutor is incorrect. symptoms are subjective, signs are objective. in other words, a symptom is something reported by a patient whereas a sign is something that is observable by a physician. classic example: pain is the reportable symptom and tenderness is the observable sign. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i am a traditional photographer and have a solution of ferrous sulfate for development. if i dilute it, will its shelf-life be reduced? | for full disclosure, i know next to nothing about chemistry. i'm in a remedial course this semester, but most of it is going over my head. however, i'm using the wet-plate collodion process to make photographs, and a lot of the chemicals used in the process are strange and bizarre to me. i've looked over my notes, googled endlessly, and i'm still unsure of an answer to this question. what i'm concerned about is if i dilute my ferrous sulfate solution, which is a developer, will it still be reliable over a good amount of time (i.e., months) to do all that chemical reaction hoo-hah so that it can give me a developed photograph? it might be worth noting that for processing, i already dilute the solution 1:3 with tap-water, but i throw it out at the end of every session. most other developers, whose chemistry i am ignorant of, exhaust when left out in the air within a few hours. i've heard that oxidation is the primary culprit; if i store the diluted solution in an airtight container, will it be alright? terribly sorry if this isn't the right place, but it's an awfully obscure question to ask r/photography. i figure since i'm working with chemicals, chemists might be able to answer my question! apologies if this is worded weirdly or confusing. | exposure to oxygen, oxygen will hurt, dissolved oxygen ====== any exposure to oxygen will hurt you here. obviously an airtight container is a must, but water itself has a substantial amount of dissolved oxygen (this is how fish breathe under water) so you are certainly going to reduce the shelf life by diluting it. perhaps not by much, the easiest way to determine this would be to test it. why do you want to dilute it in advance? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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psi vs. buoyancy? | i did some googling...didn't find the answer i was looking for. i have an inflatable paddleboard that can be inflated up to 20 psi. as i increase psi, does the buoyancy of the board also rise? example: will a board be able to support more weight if i increase psi from 15psi to 20psi? | paddle board, paddle, water ====== buoyancy is related to how much water you are displacing with your paddleboard. if the weight of the water that you displace weighs less than your paddle board and you, you will sink. once you fill your paddle board to a level where it is full, it will not gain anymore buoyancy. if you somehow filled it with very large amounts of air to a psi of say 1000 lbs/in^2 you would actually start to sink because your paddle board will start to weigh more and more but will still displace the same amount of water. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does capillary action work? | a friend of mine was telling me the other day about capillary action. you stick a tube in water and water goes up the tube, he said it's how plants get water and nutrients around their bodies. however he didn't have a good explanation as to how it works, i thought askscience might be able to help! | water, polar, water is polar ====== water is polar. it has no net charge, but one side of it is a little bit positive, and the other side negative. this attraction is what drives capillary action... the water is attracted to either a positive or negative charge in the tube, and then more water is attracted to that water, and so on. this is known as hydrogen bonding, and is responsible for a lot of other interesting properties of water. this is why water and oil don't mix. this is why we see surface tension (and there are insects that can literally walk on water). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capillary_action"
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what is capillary action/motion? | nature reduces energy, nature reduces, capillary ====== capillary motion is just another way that nature reduces energy. here's an example to start things off: in space, why do water drops that are touching each other coalesce instead of staying separate? the answer is surface tension. basically, the water air interface requires a certain amount of energy per unit area. well, water-(capillary surface) usually requires less energy per unit area than water-air surfaces. this energy gradient means that a pulling force is applied on the water by the surface of the capillary. eventually, the force of gravity balances the capillary force, and the capillary motion stops. sidenote: this is the same force that causes the last few cheerios in your bowl of cereal and milk to stick together. as an experiment, push one of the cheerios down. it'll change the shape of the meniscus and allow you to separate that cheerio from the clump. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/index#wiki_asking_askscience",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capillary_action"
] | [
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|
by what mechanism did mers jump from camels to humans, and what are the implications? | i know a little bit about viral mutation and that most mamal viruses are species specific, but if someone can explane how this exact virus (or other coronavirues) jumped from infecting animals to humans, that would be great! | interesting thing, undergone a substantial, substantial mutation ====== the interesting thing about mers is that it doesn't seem to have undergone a substantial mutation to be able to infect humans. while sars jumped from bats to humans once then spread from there, mers seems to be constantly infecting humans from camels but with little human-to-human transmissibility, requiring very close contact. sequencing of the viral genome has shown that isolates from both human and camel have mostly identical genomes. so seemingly instead of a virus from camels adapting to infect humans, the strain can simply infect both (though camels appear to be the source). as for how the virus actually targets and infects the nonciliated bronchial epithelial cells on a biochemical level, we simply don't know yet. as you can expect, a lot of research is going into this; several mechanisms have been proposed and some ruled out, but no definite conclusion has been reached so far. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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120/240v appliances: is there any benefit to converting my saws to 240v? | dual voltage motor, coils, connected ====== if your saws have a dual voltage motor in them then all you are doing is changing how the windings in the motors are connected. essentially, there are a number of coils in the motors and for high voltage the coils are connected in series and for low voltage the coils are connected in parallel. so you still have the same voltage across each of the individual coils in the motors and you still have the same current flow through each of the coils. this means you won't be able to generate more torque - the operation of the motors will be identical in each configuration. the only difference will be that your current draw from your power source will be half as much because your voltage is twice as much. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
askscience ama series- iama graduate student working with human papillomavirus (hpv) | hey r/askscience! i've worked with hpv the last 2 years and will be finishing up my msc thesis soon. hopefully we can spark some good discussion. high-risk hpv, such as type 16, are the primary cause of cervical cancers. hpv is also responsible for many other benign and malignant lesions (ano-genital cancers, warts, oral cancers, etc.). my focus has been the viral life cycle of hpv-16 and its interactions with the host immune system. ask me anything! edit: i will get to all questions as soon as possible. lab duty comes first! | virus cause cancer, cancer, host cell ====== how exactly does a virus cause cancer? does it insert some kind of anti-apoptosis gene in the host cell? can it infect and/or cancerize any other organs? | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how do you explain this halo around the shadow in the image? | [the shadow of this plane](_url_0_) has a halo around it, the light looks diffracted and appears to only show the red and yellow... how do you explain the circular shape and diffraction of light around the shadow? | glory, water droplets, mist or clouds ====== it is a glory. it is caused by mie scattering from small water droplets in mist or clouds. here is a computer program that can calculate them: _url_0_ so these are not rainbows. those are caused be refraction and reflection in large water droplets. | 11 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/DjltVYD.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.atoptics.co.uk/droplets/iris.htm",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glory_(optical_phenomenon)"
] | [
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energy production area usage question | hello people of [/r/askscience](/r/askscience), i have been reading about different energy production methods and have become more and more interested in nuclear energy, the lftr especially makes me interested. and i started to think of space usage. obviously, wind and solar farms need to take up a lot of space. but how much space is that? so what i am asking for is a comparison between how much area is needed to produce the same amount of energy for each energy production type (wind, solar, nuclear (both today's current reactors and lftr). thanks! | david mackay, sustainable energy options, recommend watching ====== i would recommend watching the ted talk by david mackay, [tedxwarwick - david mackay - how the laws of physics constrain our sustainable energy options](_url_1_). he's the author of the book [sustainable energy - without the hot air](_url_0_), which is an amazing book for examining sustainability with electricity for the long term of the earth, and is the chief scientific advisor to the uk department of climate change. in his ted talk he specifically discusses the land mass use and unit energy per unit land area as a way to compare various energy sources, and i think that will give you the answer your looking for. lftr will use the same land area as a conventional nuclear plant fyi. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.withouthotair.com/",
"http://youtu.be/-5bVbfWuq-Q"
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] |
why is bread so dangerous on the iss or space shuttle, because of crumbs and electronics, yet we always see videos of astronauts playing with water droplets floating around those same electronics? | blobs of water, big blobs, water ====== they are careful with the big blobs of water. any small droplets that get away will quickly evaporate, and the moisture will be caught by the air processors. crumbs and shavings on the other hand do not evaporate, and will stay wherever they get into. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do concrete slabs have a biological or environmental "shadow"? | i was flying yesterday (in a plane, i'm not actually capable of flight). on the taxiway, pulling up to the gates, i noticed how incredibly large the footprint of the concrete slab was on the ground. what sort of effect does this have on the system underneath? is it a dead zone or just a very different ecosystem than the "typical" spot of bare ground? | land area paved, area paved, runoff from precipitation ====== not sure if this is what you're looking for, but in terms of land area paved, this causes enormous problems with runoff from precipitation. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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floating droplet | ok so i was drinking my beer, a high gravity hurricane to be specific. for a few seconds, there was a droplet of beer/water floating on the surface. it didn't coalesce with the rest of the beer, and seemed stable. i should have grabbed a picture, but i decided to shake the beer a bit and then it finally coalesced into the rest of the beer. i'm not drunk, and it wasn't a bubble...what happened? normally i know water does this but on the order of milliseconds. what could have caused it to remain stable? | beer has chemical, compounds like gluten, soap bubble ====== beer has chemical compounds like gluten, sugars, and more that can collect around a small droplet to form a "shell" similar to the surface of a soap bubble. this may have been the cause of the stability. qualification: homebrewer | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do muscles act as light-armor for our bodies? | [deleted] | undergo some amount, internal organs, muscle tissue ====== both people will absorb the impact in their abdominal muscle, and undergo some amount of damage to that muscle tissue. in the sense that the muscles help to protect the internal organs, yes. a person with strong abs can absorb a stronger impact before incurring damage to, e.g., liver or intenstinal tissue. but because the bowel "floats" in the abdominal cavity, that area is much less prone to injury than most internal organs, which is part of why the ribcage doesn't extend to cover it. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do things look like cartoons under super magnification? | example _url_0_ | electron micrograph, electron, image captured ====== your example image is an electron micrograph (image captured by an electron microscope). these are usually black/white to which color is added to clarify the different features in the image. hence, the "cartoon-like" appearance. | 12 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/gxBxstZ"
] | [] | [
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how does multi-processing begin? | i am currently taking an operating systems class at university and we actually went through implementing a lot of the aspects to a threading library. however, the one function that was given to us was called boot, which activated a bunch of our 'cpu abstracted objects' which were the abstractions for processors and could then wait to be given threads that they could run. what i still don't understand though, is how thread libraries actually gain access to other processors in computers. i've been trying to find coding specifics but have come up empty handed. i understand the abstraction, but want to learn more about the implementation side. | onward specifically discusses, process on intel., onward specifically ====== [an overview of the process on intel.](_url_0_) page 16 onward specifically discusses what happens in the case of multiple processors/cores. in short, after boot, there is a special interrupt (sipi) that lets you tell each core where to start executing code. you can find the details of how to fire that interrupt in intel's manuals, but there's a short summary here: _url_1_ (in the sending ipis section at the bottom of the page). | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/intelligent-systems/intel-boot-loader-development-kit/minimal-intel-architecture-boot-loader-paper.html",
"http://wiki.osdev.org/Symmetric_Multiprocessing"
] | [
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should all uv-vis standard curves cross the origin? | so if most (if not all) uv-vis spectroscopy standard curves require measuring the known samples against a blank, logically they should cut the origin (0 conc, 0 abs) since the blank essentially has 0 conc and because of the way the spectrophotometer works all the abs values are zero-ed with the blank so it essentially has 0 abs. my question is then, why, do some graphs exclude this (0,0) point? does it cause a significant disruption to the curve? i googled the question and there are some explanations saying that the blank does not have 0 abs. why would it not have 0 abs? unless you're comparing it to air/another blank the blank can only be at 0 abs. or is my reasoning flawed? | limit of detection, limit, limit of linearity ====== usually we exclude the blank as a proper data point because it is beyond the limit of detection. for each instrument and sample, there is a limit of detection and limit of linearity. the limit of detection is a low concentration point beyond which the results become unreliable. the limit of linearity is at the high concentration range beyond which the absorbance no longer relates to concentration in a linear manner. you try to build your standard curve using standard concentrations between these two points so you end up with a nice, straight line. using the blank as a point will skew your line with data that isn't on the same level of reliability as the others. so your standard curve, if built without the use of the origin as a point, doesn't actually cross the origin, it could mean a number of things, the biggest being the fact that your curve loses its ability to relate concentration to absorbance near the origin. another effect to consider is matrix effect between your analyte and its environment leads to a non-linear relationship between concentration and absorbance. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do phase diagrams not include microstructures stable below room temperature? | i understand that some phase diagrams are only interesting between certain temperature ranges and compositions, like iron/carbon. however, i've never seen a phase diagram that includes temperatures near or below room temperature. is it just assumed that the microstructure at the lowest shown temperature for a particular composition is stable all the way down to absolute zero? | clutter things, phase, phase diagram ====== phase diagrams might simply not show those parts of the phase diagram because they'd be too small to see or would clutter things. if you're showing temperatures up to a few hundred kelvin, some phase which only exists at 10^(-8) kelvin or below wouldn't really show up if the scale is linear. one way to get around this is to use a logarithmic temperature scale. [here's a picture](_url_0_) of helium-4's phase diagram with such a scale, so you can actually see what phases are present at both 100 kelvin and .001 kelvin. physics at and close to absolute zero is determined by quantum mechanics, so you can get new interesting phases at very low temperatures. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://ltl.tkk.fi/research/theory/Phasehe3log.gif"
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how/why is past life underneath the ground? | i don't get how bones, old buildings, etc. tend to get layered over and fossilized. where does the dirt come from, and is there a limit to how layered the earth's crust can be? | rock, sedimentary rock, pressure ====== generally it only occurs in depositional environments - places where more material is being deposited into, rather than being eroded from. these places are floodplains, swamps, estuaries, marine to name a few. here it is the water flow that carries and deposits the dirt, carried from upriver / from catchment areas. for upper limits, there is no hard rule. because of gravity - water flow carrying eroded material will flow downwards. this means that as an area becomes raised relative to the surrounding area, it will become more vulnerable to erosion. so generally you could say that the limit to depositional layering is tied with the height of the surrounding environment. the relief (height of the landscape) is always going to in a transition to match the surrounding environment. **for the other end - how deep can the layering go** starting with layers of sediment - dirt/mud/sand lying on the ground if you bury layers deep enough, they will undergo lithification - compacting layers through pressure, turning sediment layers into rock. this type of rock is known as sedimentary rock. you will still be able to see the layers as part of the patterning in the rock, but it is now considered to be rock, rather than individual layers of deposited sediment. [sedimentary rock](_url_1_) fully conserved layering. this is where fossils are most commonly found. if you continue to bury sedimentary rock, it will change under higher pressure and temperatures. with these changes, sedimentary rock will start to change, over time. here the chemistry of the rock will begin to alter, layers can begin to 'melt' - folding, compacting, bending, mixing. the result is known as metamorphic rocks - it will still contain the layering of the sedimentary rock, but will be significantly altered in shape and geo-chemistry. [metamorphic rock](_url_2_). some layering is conserved, but in an altered state. here fossilisation is usually impossible to be determined from the rock. this metamorphosis has no set beginning period, wikipedia says around 150-200 °c, and 1500 bars of pressure. temperature increases as you get deeper - this is known as the geothermal gradient. the general rule is about 25°c per km of depth. 1 bar is roughly atmospheric pressure. 1500 bars of pressure is roughly 5-10km deep. if the area is hotter (such as by nearby magma), it can compensate for lower pressure. likewise, higher pressure can compensate for lower. as you continue to go into higher pressure/temperature conditions, metamorphic rocks will continue to undergo changes, going further away form the original layering of the rock. eventually it will entirely melt, forming magma. this is the absolute removal of any layering the rock will have. this limit is dependent on many things - the pressure/temperature conditions, the geology of the specific rock, geology of surrounding rocks, percentage of water content, and so on. generally, around 1000°c is the lower limit for melting into magma. if we take the geothermal gradient, that is about 40km deep. in some cases the limit would be more shallow, and in others it could be significantly deeper. [magma / igneous rock](_url_0_) here the rock is mixed, melted, and recycled. no original layering or fossilisation is conserved. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.geologyclass.org/Igneou42.jpg",
"http://www.challengerindy.org/Lessons/Rocks%20and%20Minerals/Sedimentary.jpg",
"http://www.yosemite.ca.us/library/geologic_story_of_yosemite/images/24-b.jpg"
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wat is the science behind flour products and altitude? | i was just told to add more water and use less flour in my recipes because i am above sea level. why? | relevant article, allrecipes, url ====== relevant article from [allrecipes](_url_0_). my understanding is that the gases released when baking (carbon dioxide with baking soda/powder and water vapour) are released more quickly at high altitude becuase of the lower air pressure (less force pushing against the gases). due to this, the cake or whatever you're baking rises faster and if it rises too fast it can then fall and become dense. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://allrecipes.com/HowTo/high-altitude-cake-baking/detail.aspx"
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how seriously should we take the statement "we expect to lose everything west of the i-5"? | the recent spate of reports in the new yorker and elsewhere about the cascadian subduction zone earthquake that's apparently on the way have prominently quoted a fema official who stated "we expect to lose everything west of the i-5." the reports i'm seeing imply that this would be the work of a follow-on tsunami, rather than the earthquake itself. the i-5 is about a hundred miles inland in most places. is it really feasible that a tsunami could destroy everything for a hundred miles? or was that statement referring to something else? or is it just an exaggeration? or? or? or? | threat is real, cascadia threat, west ====== not *too* seriously, but the cascadia threat is real. i'm not sure where that fema official gets his information, but most of the pacific nw is mountainous and foresty, both west of and east of i-5. the recent japan tsunami reached a height of 40 m. in comparison, most of the coastal mountains reach a height of more than 1000 ft, or 300 m. that's not to say the immediate coastline won't get decimated in the case of a massive tsunami. seattle is vulnerable with the puget sound just to its west; portland with the columbia river funneling a tsunami surge right into the city. so it's something we need to be aware of and prepare for. it's definitely something that could cause high-end damage and casualties. but to say *everything* west of i-5 is smoked? hyperbole. edit: words | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do all moving object appear contracted? | in the derivation of lorentz contraction my prof considered a rod moving away from you with speed v. in this case the rod appears shrunk by a factor gamma. but now let's consider a rod moving towards you. light from farther end leaves before it does from the closer end; for the measurement to be simultaneous in your frame. thus rod's length in your frame appears to be greater than proper length. in that case how does the formula l = l0 sqrt(1- (v/c)^2) hold. | actual measurement performed, incoming light rays, measurement ====== do not confuse *what you see*, which is defined by incoming light rays from the object arriving to you simultaneously, with an actual measurement performed in your frame. if your professor has defined a measurement of length employing only light travelling one-way from the object to you, he's wrong. there are many equivalent ways to define a measurement of position in your frame. one is by using two-way signals, and a clock you keep. you send light pulses that the endpoint of the rod reflects back to you. the time interval between emission and absorption of the pulse (times c) gives the distance measurement, and the measurement must be understood to have been done at a time which is the average between the emission and absorption times. this is a definition. with this definition, you can prove that the measured length at fixed time (your time) indeed is shorter, independently of whether the rod is moving right or left. an equivalent and simpler construction is through an infinite set of clocks at every point in space, which all have been previously [poincaré-einstein synchronized](_url_0_) with yours. then each clock takes note of the time it measures when the rod endpoint passes by it. the measurement of position of the endpoint at time t is defined as the position of the clock that has measured the endpoint pass at time t. again this will yield length contraction, equally for both directions. | 43 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_synchronization",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrell_rotation"
] | [
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is each and every one of us pulling the earth towards us with our gravitons? also do we emit gravitons like we emit emr? | *sips coffee* | real, things, gravitons ====== there are two things, one is a "virtual" and other is a "real" graviton. when you move around, you emit real gravitons, much like a moving electron emits light. but there are also gravitons that are not actually emitted, they are virtual and their only purpose is to serve as a mathematical description of what keeps attached you to earth. so yes, you can think of the gravitational field as "many virtual gravitons", although these cannot be really thought of as real particles. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are differences between osteosarcoma and ewing's sarcoma? | bone tumors, osteosarcomas, bone ====== ewing-sarcomas are osteosarcomas but not every osteosarcoma is a ewing-sarcoma. & #x200b; about 10% of all malign bone-tumors are ewing-sarkomas. they are the second most common bone tumors. most common are osteosarcomas which are found in about 40% of malignant bone tumors. 80% of ewing happen before 21st birthday; male : female ratio 1,5:1. typically ewing-sarcomas do not lead to complaints, uncharacteristic pain mostly post-traumatic. mostly found in pelvis and tubular bones of the lower extremety. & #x200b; osteosarcomas are malignant bone tumors that result in quickly increasing (intensity) intermitting pain up to non-stop-pain. 60% of osteosarcomas happen around the knee (40% femur (thigh-bone), 20% tibia (shin-bone); 10% humerus (upper arm), 5% proximal femur (thigh, close to the pelvis), 5% pelvis). & #x200b; in the differential diagnostic it is a goal to differentiate between osteosarcoma and ewing. & #x200b; i am sorry i don't feel able to give you details about the therapy. my source is written in german and i don't have the time to check for all those translations right now. & #x200b; source: harrasser, n., von eisenhart-rothe, r., biberthaler, p. (hrsg.) (2016): *facharztwissen orthopädie unfallchirurgie*. heidelberg: springer & #x200b; ewing-sarcomas seem to take place in the bone marrow, osteosarcomas are a result of a pathologic hyperactivity of osteoblasts. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can someone explain this distinct line in southern wisconsin? | i just noticed this very distinct line from brodtville to fennimore to dodgeville to mt. horeb. there are hills and valleys above and significantly flatter land below: _url_1_ _url_0_ | southwest savanna, ecological landscapes, url ====== yep, good observation. that line you mention is the divide between the [western coulee and ridges](_url_0_) and the [southwest savanna](_url_4_) ecological landscapes. i need to look into the exact geological differences between those areas, but they're both part of the [driftless area](_url_3_) of wisconsin, which is a region of the upper midwest that has been unglaciated for at least the last 2.4 million years ([link](_url_1_) and [link](_url_2_) with more info). | 8 | [] | [
"https://imgur.com/gallery/licGb",
"https://earth.google.com/web/@42.85165956,-90.30848388,327.46160972a,160065.66117106d,35y,0h,0t,0r"
] | [
"http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/landscapes/index.asp?mode=detail&Landscape=4",
"http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Lands/LowerWisconsin/geology.html",
"http://nationaltroutcenter.org/visit-ntc/driftless-area/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driftless_Area",
"http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/landscapes/index.asp?mode=detail&Landscape=1",
"http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-OTe6698VvVw/URZSfD-glDI/AAAAAAAACZU/W5VwRJz6haU/s1600/hogback1.jpg",
"http://wgnhs.uwex.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/M067.jpg"
] | [
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what's dehp? is my laundry bag going to kill me? | i just bought a laundry bag. then i noticed some text on the package ... "state of california proposition 65 warning: this product contains dehp, a phthalate chemical, lead and other chemicals known to the state of california to cause cancer, birth defects and other reproductive harm." so, is the manufacturer just covering its legal butt for something that likely doesn't contain these things? or does it contain these things, but it's fine so long as i don't eat the bag or smoke it? or is it somehow legal to sell me cancer so long as i know what i'm buying? | dehp is potentially, potentially toxic, makes perfect sense ====== dehp is potentially toxic but you're safe if you don't eat the bag. it's commonly used as a low-cost plasticiser so for things like a laundry bag it makes perfect sense. it has very low solubility in water so it's unlikely to ever transfer to your clothes in dangerous quantities. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Proposition_65_(1986\\)"
] | [
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] |
what's the purpose of delayed-release naproxen? | enteric coating, extended release tablets, stomach ====== the above answer is not truly correct, and more so described extended release tablets. delayed release tablets are similar to instant release tablets, except they have an enteric coating which delays drug release in the stomach. the enteric coating has several uses. the primary use is to avoid toxicity to the stomach lining. naproxen is an nsaid that can lead to ulcers (damage to stomach lining).. the chemistry of the enteric coating resists the stomach acid, but once it arrives in the small intestine the drug releases and is absorbed. if a tablet is ingested without this enteric coating, the release is not delayed and drug dissolution begins in the stomach. this is not an issue for most people, but those with ulcers, gastrointestinal issues, or those take a lot of nsaids will probably be better off using the delayed release tablet. some reading on nsaid effects on the stomach: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3045681/"
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|
why is the "sine wave" so prevalent in real-world objects? | water, objects bending, the sine wave is everywhere. is this pure coincidence? or is there some mathematical reason that things love to make this shape? | periodic motion, sin wave, fourier transform ====== anything that has any sort of periodic motion can be written as a sin wave. even if you have something that is extremely complex but still periodic, you can still express it using sin waves through a process called [fourier transform](_url_0_). | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_transform",
"http://global.oup.com/us/companion.websites/fdscontent/uscompanion/us/static/companion.websites/9780199922963/images/SineAnimation.gif",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_oscillator"
] | [
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what is the smallest thing alive? | interesting question, smallest, question ====== this is an interesting question! it turns out the smallest known (undisputed) organism is a bacterium called *mycoplasma genitalium*. you may have noticed the specific name of that creature looks a lot like the word genitalia? it's actually a human sti! and it's around 200 - 300 nanometers. to give that a little perspective that's around 2,000 - 3,000 times the size of a water molecule. but most bacterial life is probably totally unknown to science and there are likely to be smaller things out there. also, i said 'undisputed' in the first sentence because biologists disagree about whether viruses are alive or not. but, realistically that bacterium is only two or three times larger than a big virus. also, just for the sake of giving everyone a way to waste the next couple of hours of your life: there's an interesting [wikipedia article](_url_0_) about the smallest organisms from all over the living world. that article lists, but for some unfathomable reason does not picture, [this little gecko](_url_1_) as the smallest known reptile in the world. (but it also fails to mention that it's probably the cutest as well.) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallest_organisms",
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|
i've got a bunch of double-slit experiment questions. anyone care to tackle them? | 1. has anyone ever measured the duration of a photon's impact with the detector on the far side of the slits? is this currently possible? does the impact duration vary depending on whether there are secondary detectors on the near side of the slits? 2. what happens if the secondary detectors are placed nearer and nearer to the light source? does this change the results? 3. what happens when the slits are replaced with a "peg" or "pegs", thin strips of material instead of thin holes in material? 4. can the secondary detectors on the near side of the slits ever cause a particle-like result without actually being a detector? maybe if they're not plugged in? would different materials have different results? 5. is there a way to produce a partial result, where the particle-like pattern and the wave-like pattern are mixed? | detector, primary detector, kind of problem ====== 1. i'm not sure that duration of impact is a meaningful thing in this kind of problem, and i definitely don't know of any experiment measuring it. 2. if the slits are closer, then the primary detector will detect everything as being more closely clumped together, but that's all. 3. you won't observe anything interesting; since there's no significant diffraction in any case, wavelike behavior won't be apparent with a standard setup. 4. what matters isn't whether or not you *know* what the detector says, but whether or not something has interacted with the particle. unplugging the detector or making it out of something different won't do anything unless that interferes with its operation. 5. yes. you can get imperfect secondary detectors, with a nonzero chance of failing to measure a particle that goes through it. the particles detected won't show an interference pattern, and the particles not detected will, so you end up observing a mixture of both at the primary detector. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.uscibooks.com/Townsend_cover.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/EuQYn.jpg"
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do foreign objects travel behind the eye and stay there? | i just removed a tiny eyelash from between my eye and the soft tissue that surrounds. so i've always wondered: does stuff get stuck back there? (reposted, original post met with crickets last night) | hand at answering, body, generally ====== well, it's been 7 hours with no response, so i'll have my hand at answering this. apologizes for the lack of citations. the body is extremely good at dealing with foreign objects. it generally has one of three reactions when something enters the body 1) breaking the entity down and integrating the nutrients in the body. as is the case with food. this generally happens through the digestive tract, but if pre-broken nutrients are injected into the blood stream, that process may be skipped. 2) attacking and breaking down an outside invader. these are generally threats like viruses, but also extended to allergies and other toxins in the body (including things like alcohol). after being broken down, the remains have or may not be useful to the body. 3) simply flushing the invader out. this is the body's first line of defense generally and is most likely what will happen with your eyelash. mucus, nose hairs, and waste (both liquid and solid) are good example of this. in the case of an eyelash, your eye will probably produce some sort of lubricant which with move the lash around enough to allow it to escape. the eye directly interfaces with the back of the socket, so i doubt that anything significant large would be stuck back there. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the typical dimensions of a typical feature on a modern integrated circuit? | cannon lake, process, ice lake processors ====== intel's p1274 process is a 10nm process released in 2018 to limited use in a few chips (cannon lake, 2018). 10nm is also the process node for the upcoming 10th generation ice lake processors. it is a finfet process, so a "typical feature" could refer to the fin-like shape that makes up a portion of the transistors. the fin pitch (spacing), width, and height for that process are 34nm, 7nm, and 53nm respectively. there are lots of other things that you could call a "part of" the transistor such as contacts and wells, so the pitch of an array of transistors is going to be a good bit larger than the width of the fin itself and depends to some degree on the circuit being constructed. the contacted gate/poly pitch is 54nm, for example. a complete and highly detailed description of that process can be found at: c. auth *et al*., "a 10nm high performance and low-power cmos technology featuring 3rd generation finfet transistors, self-aligned quad patterning, contact over active gate and cobalt local interconnects," *2017 ieee international electron devices meeting (iedm)*, san francisco, ca, 2017, pp. 29.1.1-29.1.4.[_url_0_](_url_0_) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8268472"
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|
how does reproducibility happen in very expensive experiments? | i've been addicted to pbs space time and just got done with the "sterile neutrino" episode. the host mentions that several very large laboratory experiments disagree on the results. that made me wonder: what happens when a claim is made that's the result of a very unique/expensive test result? i'm thinking along the lines of a particle accelerator or a test that's due to space probe data. wouldn't these not be reproducible under the same conditions? for instance, if a sensor was malfunctioning in a space probe - and some conclusion was made from the results, how would they be falsified? sorry for the long-winded question! | experiment, url, cheap experiments ====== similar to cheap experiments. a few examples: the [lhc](_url_0_) has four big experiments. two of them are large general-purpose experiments, atlas and cms. they have the same physics goals, but a different design and they are run by independent collaborations. if one of them finds something new the other one can check this claim (or, more likely, is working on it already and has to finish the publication). alice is an experiment dedicated to lead-lead collisions - and [rhic](_url_1_) in the us can do very similar measurements. lhcb is an experiment specialized on matter/antimatter differences. here [belle ii](_url_2_ ii) in japan can do similar measurements, and atlas and cms can check some measurements that belle ii cannot. it is very rare that a measurement can be done exclusively by a single experiment. typically there is at least a second experiment that can contribute. not with the same sensitivity, but enough to serve as cross check. in the rare cases when there is no such experiment then it is likely that another experiment will be built if the first one claims to find something surprising. there are many cross checks to catch malfunctioning parts. even within experiments scientists try to measure the same thing in multiple independent ways, and monitor if everything is working. most of the time is spent on these things - make sure that everything is understood. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_Heavy_Ion_Collider",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle"
] | [
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askscience ama series: scientists are on board the r/v joides resolution for two months to drill approximately 1500 meters into the atlantis bank gabbroic massif. gabbro is an intrusive igneous rock that forms when magma is trapped beneath earth's surface and cools slowly. aua! | the international ocean discovery program (iodp) conducts scientific ocean drilling expeditions throughout the world’s oceans in search of clues to earth’s structure and past. the current expedition is expedition 360: indian ridge moho, aboard the u.s. vessel for scientific ocean drilling, the joides resolution ([www._url_0_](http://www._url_0_)). on this expedition, our first objective is to recover gabbros and crust-mantle transition to understand the processes that creates mid-ocean ridge basalt. we also aim to resolve the controversy as to whether the boundary between earth's mantle and crust, or moho, at slow spreading ridges can be a serpentinization front. serpentine contains minerals that give it a green color. the results will profoundly affect our understanding of magma generation and the linkage between the mantle, melt, and crust. other objectives include testing the nature of magnetic reversals in plutonic rock, or intrusive igneous rock, and documenting the stress-strain evolution of a plate boundary undergoing asymmetric seafloor spreading. ama! a team of 30 scientists from around the globe are on board for two months to work on these questions. hand-in-hand with the amazing technology required to drill deep into the ocean floor, we are collecting the core samples that hold clues to answer these questions. listen to this podcast to learn a bit more and hear about all the media attention this expedition has already been receiving: http://_url_0_/node/4349 join us to ask us anything about this intriguing science, how we got here, what we hope to discover, and our lives on board the ship! we'll be back at 1 pm est (10 am pst, 6 pm utc) to answer your questions, ask us anything! **edit:** hi everyone, we're here! we have a team of eager scientists ready to answer your questions! ask away! **edit #2:** thanks for a great ama everyone, we had a lot of fun! you can follow the expedition in real time at our website [_url_0_](http://_url_0_/) or on [facebook](_url_5_) or [twitter](_url_1_)! | sio tech here., sio tech, here. that thing ====== former sio tech here. that thing makes the r/v revelle look like a bathtub. do you have beer? unols took away our beer :( our one lousy stinkin beer a day. do you have a hottub? on the r/v melville the bosun built one out of plywood and banding straps and boat paint and plumbed it into the hot salt water from the engines and the service air. best. hot tub. evar. do you use hiseasnet or some other satellite isp? | 30 | [] | [
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are there models of the body's advanced feedback systems? | i'm familiar with linear feedback systems and adaptive filtering. but these seem to fail to explain the body's ability to compensate for complex stimuli [like the effect of this video](_url_0_). the visual system must be compensating for the moving image in an attempt to filter it out, right? are there mathematical models that can perform this kind of closed loop filtering? are there artificial systems that can do this yet? i'm amazed by the body's ability to compensate for external constant stimuli to allow the brain to focus on changes instead. also this ability seems to be across all of our senses. for example i was fascinated once when, after a long period of running the weed wacker at high speed, my hand continued to vibrate (or feel like it was vibrating) apparently in an attempt to cancel out the sense of vibration of the weed wacker. the amazing thing was that, not only is the sensation sinusoidal and matched to the frequency of the weed wacker, but it was also gated! i mean, i only had the sensation of vibration when i was grasping something. | linear systems theory, beaten to death, modeled in detail ====== i'm not sure what the video you linked to is driving at, but both the [vor](_url_0_) and the [plr](_url_2_) have been modeled in detail (some might even say "beaten to death") using linear systems theory, just to give two examples. i believe david robinson (johns hopkins) did the first model of the vor, and lawrence stark (yale) did the plr. [here's a pdf of stark's model](_url_1_). | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tVgOLWVYytM"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibulo-ocular_reflex",
"http://www.montefiore.ulg.ac.be/systems/SYST002/Stark57.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupillary_light_reflex"
] | [
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frontal lobe and poor decision making in the evening? | frontal lobe is responsible for good judgement. is it true that in some, frontal lobe gets "tired" by evening, and that is when we make poorer decisions vs morning? and if so, is there a way to be in charge of this somewhat? | evening showing decrements, normal day, processes that require ====== indeed, some cognitive processes that require the frontal lobe are quite sensitive to sleep loss, evening showing decrements across a normal day. in particular, risk taking is greater and impulse control is decreased in the evening and night. i'm not sure about specific countermeasures. being aware of the phenomenon might help one be more thoughtful. i'm not sure how helpful stimulants are. prophylactic napping could be useful, though one would incur some sleep inertia after napping, which can temporarily decrease some cognitive functions to levels below what is experienced following a full night of sleep deprivation. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly is an ekg measuring? voltage or current? | for those with experience with electrocardiograms, you will probably know that the x-axis is in units of time (seconds), while the y-axis is in units of potential(millivolts). so, one would assume that ekgs measure potential differences between the two nodes on a lead. however, when you see a normal sinus rhythm on lead ii, the ekg goes flat after the p wave, representing a time period with 0 millivolts as the potential difference between the two nodes of the lead. but at this time, the atria are fully depolarized while the ventricles are still polarized. which means that there actually is still a potential difference between the two electrodes. the explanation that i have been given for the flat area after the p wave is that the wave of depolarization is very slowly moving through the av node, and this is why we get a readout of zero. this would only make sense if the ekg was actually measuring current flow, since that is quite close to zero due to the high resistance of the av node. i am not sure that i am even interpreting this correctly since i never when past general physics in college, but any help would be appreciated. | heart, muscle cells, potential ====== hey - you are not far off! you are right, the ekg will be relatively insensitive to the polarization of the muscle cells of the heart, per se. however, when muscle cells in different areas are changing polarization, there is a net current flow because cations are entering or leaving some cells, but not others. each little current creates a voltage potential dipole in the extracellular space of the heart. a vector. add up all these vectors and you have an approximation - one potential dipole that represents the heart. project this dipole onto lead ii and you get the waveform seen on wave two. tl;dr. current moves around the heart when cells change polarization. this current causes potential differences. sum up all these potential differences, take the component in the direction of lead ii, and you get lead ii. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i hear all the time about an actor gaining 40 pounds for one movie and then dropping 30 pounds for the next one (mark wahlberg recently did this and christian bale comes to mind). how healthy is this on their bodies? | it sounds like a short term eating disorder not too mention borderline obsession that could kill some of these actors and actresses. are their medical reasons they shouldn't do these roals? i am wondering why the screen actors guild allows actors to go to such extremes, but i am only asking this subreddit the scientific answer to my question. there was no ask/doctors that i could find and ask/reddit is full of idiots. this was the best fitting subreddit i could find. if i need to put it somewhere else please let me know. **i just saw that this subreddit is not supposed to give out medical advice. i just wanted to make it clear that i am only asking this about the diet of celebrities and have no intention of following this advice at all myself. this is purely an academic exercise on my part** | rapid weight loss, controlled setting, kcal ====== honestly the effects of rapid weight loss / gain aren't especially deleterious in and of themselves if you're doing it in a controlled setting in consultation with professionals. the problems with rapid weight gain and loss tend to stem from the fact they're typically concomitant with very poor nutrition and psychological issues. so eating 4000 kcal of chicken thighs and vegetables a day because you're bulking for a role as a wrestler or whatever probably isn't a big deal. eating 4000 kcal of soda, chips and cake because you're depressed and self-medicating with food on the other hand, is a serious problem. similarly, eating < 800 kcal/day in fish and vegetables to cut fat for a role as a gymnast is generally okay, eating < 800 kcal/day in rice and lemon juice with no protein is more dangerous. this is often a topic that gets blown out of proportion with pseudo-science, decades-old-dogma, and buzzwords like 'crash' and 'fad' diets. body fat is designed to be burnt when needed, and stored easily when available. as long as the rest of our requirements are taken care of, we can function perfectly well through even large caloric deficits or surpluses. this is taken from a section titled 'safety' in a [meta-analysis](_url_1_) of very low calorie diets, in summary, if the actors in question are losing or gaining weight in consultation with a doctor, then there's no significant risk to their health. honestly i'd rank smoking for roles that require it as a greater occupational hazard. some more studies on vlcds for those interested. _url_2_ _url_0_ | 22 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22286727",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16988070",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19592223"
] | [
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] |
geologists & geology enthusiasts: what could this mineral be? | at my swimming hole in western newfoundland, i've been noticing a lot of a green mineral deposit. it's a kind of mint colored greenish blue, similar to a light colored jade. it's very beautiful, i'm hoping someone could tell me what it might be. photos here: _url_0_ | port peninsula, gros morne, port ====== before i say anything stupid, is there any chance you are located in the area of gros morne or perhaps port au port peninsula? cause that sure looks like a type of serpentinized peridotite such as you'd expect to find in the ophiolitic complex in that area. if so, it would tend to have a waxy/greasy feel to it, and be denser that granite or sandstone (hold chunks of similar size in each hand to estimate density). | 9 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/ufi7O#fBjRd2e"
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do multi-cellular gametes exist? | [deleted] | fertilization step involves, actual fertilization step, plant reproduction involves ====== i suppose this depends on how exactly you define a gamete, but i would say that plant reproduction involves what comes close to the idea of "multicellular gametes". of course, the actual fertilization step involves the fertilization of one female gamete by one male gamete, but the entire process is carried out by multicellular bodies called *gametophytes*. "gametophyte" is just the technical term for pollen and seeds, which are multicellular or at least multinucleate. a grain of pollen is essentially one large cell with a "vegetative" nucleus that contains two genetically identical gametes - the sperm cells. a seed (also called a "megaspore"), meanwhile, consists of seven gametophytic cells, six of which are haploid and one of which (the central cell) is diploid. when the sperm cells from the pollen enter the megaspore, one fertilizes the haploid egg cell and one fertilizes the diploid central cell. the fertilized egg cell becomes the new plant once the seed germinates, and the now-triploid central cell becomes the endosperm of the seed. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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24 fps / 48 fps movies: what happens in the brain? | trying to get into the whole 24 fps / 48 fps argument over the hobbit movie. i found some identical clips filmed in both versions and my friends see a huge difference (as does the rest of the world apparently). i don't see it. no difference. what does this mean about my eyes/brain? | soap opera effect, versions, movie ====== you have links to both versions? normally, what people mean when they see this, is the 'soap opera effect', where what you see on tv looks like it's been filmed by a home camera. examples of this is any sporting broadcast, saved by the bell, and judge judy. a method to easily notice the difference is to watch a pixar (computer animated) movie with your tv's 'smooth motion' feature on (it's called different things by different companies; samsung – auto motion plus, sony – motionflow, lg – trumotion, etc). with it on, you should get the sense that you're playing a video game (since they usually run around 60fps) compared to watching a movie. it's the same difference compared to a home-video vs a movie. i'm not sure if you're really seeing the same thing, and i was trying to describe what you should be seeing, but if you still don't see anything, then i'm not sure what it says about your brain. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is the anterior pituitary stimulated via the hypophyseal portal system and not by axons directly? | is there a clear benefit or reason for this type of indirect stimulation? why not just directly stimulate the pituitary endocrine cells with excitatory motor neurons? wish me luck on my exam! | delivering hormone regulation, hormone regulation signaling, evolutionary standpoint ====== from an evolutionary standpoint, adenohypophysis (aka anterior pituitary) goes further back; the portal system way of delivering hormone regulation signaling from the brain to the gland came about first. there is no specific reason (that we know of) why that would be so; it's probably just the first thing that happened to evolve. neurohypophysis (aka poster pituitary) comes later, and only in some species. different species end up building on adenohypophysis in different ways — some reuse portal circulation for what would be posterior pituitary hormones, some develop a posterior pituitary, and some simply diffuse would-be-posterior pituitary hormones into the pituitary, without help from a portal system. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128012383957908"
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do cnidocytes "reload?" | if yes, how does this happen? if no, how does a jellyfish protect itself after executing a sting? | stinging cells, specialized stinging cells, cnidocytes ====== wow, i can't believe no one has taken this yet. cnidocytes, for anyone curious, are the specialized stinging cells that define the phylum cnidaria (jellyfish, anemones, hydras, and corals). the overall cell is called a cnidocyte (or "nematocyte") and the harpooning organelle itself is the cnidocyst (nematocyst). these stinging cells line the tentacles of cnidarians and, upon contact with a prey item, discharge and envenomate the prey. it's a wildly efficient system, allowing soft bodied and sessile cnidarians to prey on vertebrates and arthropods. a single cnidocyte puncture has been shown to be sufficient to incapacitate a small insect (i'll dig up the citation here if anyone's interested). to the point, cnidocytes function by "firing" their toxic "harpoons" at prey. they do not reload after this process, and therefore are constantly being replaced in much the same way that a shark is constantly regenerating teeth. generated from interstitial stem cells, a constant stream of new cnidocytes are produced and actually migrate from the animal's interstitial space to its tentacles (they're a good model organism to study cellular locomotion for this reason). old, deployed cnidocytes are discarded and new ones embed in the cnidarian's tissues, where they finalize their development and are ready to deploy. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are atomic subshells shaped the way they are? | looking at pictures, in a way, it looks like l represents the number of linear divisions, while n represents the number of radial divisions. is this true, and if so why? | atomic orbital pictures, textbooks are plots, atomic orbital ====== the atomic orbital pictures you see in textbooks are plots of the hydrogenic orbitals. these are the spatial wavefunctions for electrons in various orbitals of a hydrogen atom. they are exact for atoms with one electron (ignoring relativistic corrections) and are good approximations for many-electron atoms. why are they shaped like that? because those are the solutions to the time-independent schrodinger equation. in other words, they are the bound states of definite energy for a charged particle in a coulomb potential. the spherical parts are just the [spherical harmonics](_url_1_) (the solutions to the [laplace equation](_url_0_) in the spherical angles), since the system is rotationally-invariant. the radial parts just happen to what what come out when you turn the crank for the radial schrodinger equation. your observation is correct, that the principal quantum number (n) gives you the number of nodes in the radial wavefunction. a *node* of the wavefunction is a point where the value of the wavefunction is zero. since the squared modulus of the wavefunction is the probability density for where you're likely to find the electron if you measure its position, that means that the electrons are less likely to be found near nodes than other places. as for the angular parts, the orbital quantum number (ℓ) is the index for the legendre polynomials, which give the part of the wavefunction that depends on the polar angle (θ). | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laplace%27s_equation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_harmonics"
] | [
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what is the optimum amount of, and intensity of, activity in a day? | i'm fascinated with the national runners and walkers studys. _url_0_ i know there are recommendations for the ideal amount of *exercise*. but i would like to know the ideal ballpark amount of *total activity* in a day -- the number of "steps", or mets. thank you! | makes a difference, general rule, discussion of optimization ====== the general rule as it pertains to any discussion of optimization in biology is that you need to ask the question "for what purpose?" an athlete versus a non-athlete makes a difference. within athletes, there are sport-specific requirements -- are you a power lifter or a marathoner, or something in between? for non-athletes, the question is what benefit you wish to derive. lose weight? gain strength? gain weight? improve lifespan? fight age-associated muscle-wasting? improve hormonal profiles? so on and so forth. not all activity impacts your body the same and not all activity causes the same physiological adaptation, since each activity is a different stress. in short, there's no silver bullet, except that being active is probably better than being sedentary unless you have a serious medical malady. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www2.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/fast-runners.html"
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which country spends more? a cold one keeping warm, or a warm one cooling down? | cold weather engineering, gas, heat ====== know a little about cold weather engineering although it is not my area. i'll explain what i can. in most cases it is cheaper to heat than to cool. air conditioning compresses a gas like freon, or nowdays r-22 into a liquid, then when it goes through the phase change back to gas it pulls heat. at this point its in the condenser which is the cold side the equation. then the coolant goes back to gas when it hits the evaporator (which is outside). compressing the gas creates heat, the motor creates heat, if it's especially hot out the evaporator becomes less efficient and the pump must work harder. you also have to factor in how fast the heat transfers through the evaporator fins, and how much the air going though the condenser will be cool. resistances in the gas lines, lines and other parts heat soaking. a large house with a high enough r rating can be heated through the winter for a few hundred dollars, whereas to cool it through a very hot summer will cost considerably more. with heating the electricity can go strait to elements, and then into the air, or even more efficiently gas to gas elements. also, what happens often in the far north like fairbanks people become very creative about heating systems. many houses have an outdoor wood boiler, or a gravity furnace, high efficiency wood, gas, or oil stove, or some other supplemental heating systems. there's a lot of debate going on as to whether or not to ban the wood burning systems because the air quality in the winter is very, very bad because all the particulate sinks and the air is so still that just lingers. another case worth noting is that uaf heats all their buildings off of steam pipes that run strait from their coal fired powerplant that also makes the electricity. that kind of system can't be done for cooling, because cooling isn't a byproduct of so many different processes, and it's much more complicated to achieve cooling. keep in mind many people will allow their houses to get hot and just sit around keep themselves cool with fans and such, or if the house is empty they'll let the temp become very hot. likewise, in a cold climate people may put on more layers of clothing, or keep a woodstove lit. so that balances out somewhat. but in a cold climate, unless the house has been winterized the pipes will burst if the furnace stops ticking. so a furnace warming a house will likely kick on and off at pretty regular intervals, whereas ac is likely to be used at peak hours only. this is another factor because depending on how the power is being generated a lot of power companies will charge less at night, for large industrial and commercial properties at least because the power is less in demand and the systems that generate it have a fairly constant output. it's either that or store it in flywheels, or in the case of fairbanks the worlds largest warehouse full of car batteries. since peak demand hours are invariably around high noon, ac in intrinsically more expensive. i'm hoping i got that all right, if not i'm sure others will chime in. there are probably exceptions to each. maybe a house in a cold climate has a really poor r rating and electric baseboard heating would costs more to heat than a house in a hot climate that's well insulated and has high efficiency room-by-room cooling. humidity is another factor, it may not feel as hot or as cold if you're at the coast or far inland respectively. poverty, if a place absolutely cannot afford cooling it's a luxury item in a lot of places. but between a truly hot, and a truly cold place the hot place both first-world and industrialized the highest aggregate cost of dealing with temperature will probably be cooling. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are most human genes under hardy-weinberg equilibruim? | aside from the genes (and their surrounding loci) that are under selection, are most human genes in hwe? edit: it has been pointed out that no realistic population can be at hwe, so let me modify my question to this: if you perform a x^2 test on a random human neutral gene, how likely is it that it will result in no rejection of the null? | frequencies remain constant, describes an idealized, idealized scenario ====== no, h-w describes an idealized scenario where allele frequencies remain constant over time. this is rarely the case. if the alleles confer different fitnesses, then their frequencies will change due to selection. if they are neutral, they will still vary over time due to genetic drift, linkage, mutation, or introgression. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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books for a 9 year old on space? | isaac asimov, century library, suggest the series ====== i suggest the series of books titled "isaac asimov's 21st century library of the universe." _url_0_ the listings on that page seem a bit overpriced, i bet you could find the set of books for much cheaper with some shopping around. i used to read these books on my own around age 9, and they influenced me to become a theoretical physicist. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/Isaac-Asimovs-Century-Library-Universe/lm/R9D8B3YIYJEY8"
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|
how would a springboard work on moon? | i've been wondering about this for quite a long time. none of my physics teachers could tell me how would be the effect. the gravity on the moon lets us to bounce 6 times higher, but reduced falling speed would reduce the pressure put on the trampoline surface by our body. so, how would it be? | ignore the fact, notoriously difficult, energy ====== first: ignore the fact that it's notoriously difficult to do acrobatics on the moon. and friction. to figure this out, we need to look at energy. when you jump, you add kinetic energy to yourself. this is converted into gravitational energy when you move up, slowing you down. as you fall back, the reverse happens and you speed up again, ending with you falling down with the same energy and speed as you began. note that the strength of gravity doesn't change your final energy/speed: lower gravity just takes a bit longer to get you back. the trampoline does something like gravity: it converts kinetic into elastic energy and back again. gravity plays no role in this. without friction you'd bounce forever. if you jump, you add some more energy to the mix. the first jump about doubles it, the second triples etc. so the trampoline would work perfectly fine on the moon, and you'd jump and bounce at least six times as high as you would on earth. as there's no air friction on the moon, it might even be higher. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=x+%3D++5t+%2B+%28+-1*t%5E2%29+%2F+2%2C+x+%3D+5t+%2B+%28+-1%2F6*t%5E2%29+%2F+2"
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leakage of plasma due to vascular permeability in inflammation - only at venules? | i'm curious why the movement/leakage of plasma through the endothelium during acute inflammation only occurs at the post-capillary venules. why can't leakage also occur at the capillaries, which are similarly porous? one pathology textbook i've looked at states that the venules are the primary sight of plasma leakage, and a university web/infopage implies that the process occurs almost exclusively at the venules. | albumin leakage, venule endothelium, albumin ====== i'd say it's mainly due to albumin leakage across the venule endothelium which becomes permeable during inflammation. the albumin basically has a suction force (oncotic pressure) that will pull fluid out if it winds up in a tissue. in capillaries, the endothelium is never permeable to albumin, so that space has balanced hydrostatic pressure to push things out and albumin to pull things back in. i can't really remember why the capillaries are impermeable to albumin, but its probably because the pores never become big enough to let it go through. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how did these air vortices form beneath a wave? | _url_1_ _url_0_ after ten years making a living in and out of the water i thought i knew how waves work, but apparently not. help? | generates lots, lots of turbulence, turbulence which organizes ====== linked to a nice study the gist of which, as the wave breaks on itself it generates lots of turbulence which organizes itself as a vortex. the vortices get bent perpendicular to the breaking wave and stretched back round the breaking wave as it passes over head. this is a great study. hard to sum up the research better than they do. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/waterporn/comments/vxq88/vortices_form_beneath_a_wave_990x660/",
"http://i.imgur.com/IBiv6.jpg"
] | [
"http://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2115/1425/1/JFM545.pdf"
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] |
how are membrane proteins, e.g. receptors, ion channels, oriented in the correct direction? has it ever been observed for them to be "upside down" and what might cause this if so? | was thinking about the n- and c- terminals of gpcrs and got to wondering how they actually get oriented so the ligand binding domain is faced to the outside and the portion that interacts with g proteins, arrestins etc is faced towards the cytosol. | membrane crossing parts, trans-membrane domains, crossing parts ====== many have exactly seven trans-membrane domains (membrane crossing parts). so, by their very nature, they end up with certain parts outside and certain parts inside based on how they are loaded n-first into golgi body membranes that are transported to the surface as vesicles. these proteins have a 'signal sequence' usually built right into their protein sequence at or very near the n-end that direct the proper direction. based on studies of activities inside and outside the cell, my guess is that this rarely ends up backwards. again, it is based on how all the many parts of the process work together. if one thing fails, the likely result in nothing ending up on the cell surface. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_recognition_particle",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycosylphosphatidylinositol",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topogenic_sequence"
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how does the hydraulic ram water pump work and why does it not violate conservation of energy? | [this](_url_0_) video is supposed to explain how the hydaulic ram water pump works, but i am still very confused. i thought, that due to conservation of energy, it is impossible to lift water higher than the original source without an external source of energy? why is the air in the pressure chamber not compressed in the first place? i thought water pressure was *only* a function of water depth. by that logic, the pressure in the pressure chamber should be a lot higher than the pressure in the lower part of the pump. thus the delivery valve should never be able to open up in order to let water stream from the lower to the upper part of the pump. also: if this thing worked, what would stop me from harvesting infinite energy from it, by using the pump to transport water to a high altitude and letting it fall back into the source pool through a system of turbines? could someone shad some light on this apparently magical device? thanks | water, maximum height, water velocity ====== in hydrostatics where the water velocity is zero or small pressure will be equal in the whole system and the maximum height of water will be the same in the whole system. looking at the water ram it takes a moving stream of water and suddenly stops it by closing the waste valve. this sudden stop mean the pressure increases to stop the water from flowing and this pressure opens the valve into the compression chamber with the air that then seals itself, and the air pressure then manages to force water up through the higher pipe. the key is the energy taken from the water's motion to pressurize the tank. a large volume of water at low pressure is manipulated to create a smaller volume at higher pressure. if you tried to loop the device it would return a continually smaller fraction of water up the hill after each cycle. | 19 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qWqDurunnK8"
] | [] | [
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do "larger" people have an advantage combating a viral or bacterial infection? | all else being equal, aside from height/weight (but the same bmi) would you expect someone shorter than average or taller than average to get over say, a viral infection, at a different pace than an average person? say you have: a 5'4", 127lb male ("smaller") a 5'10", 153lb male ("average") a 6'4", 180lb male ("larger") all the same bmi, with identical immune systems, diets, environmental factors, and have proportional bodies, would the larger specimen be able to fight the virus 40% quicker than the smaller one? or feel side effects proportionately *less* than the smaller one? etc? or does the virus scale itself to the size of the human, and they can expect identical experiences the duration of infection? i apologize if this is a stupid question but i wonder if there's some how an almost mechanical advantage to a larger person in fighting disease. thank you in advance for your consideration and/or any directions you can point me to for my own edification. | inherent advantage fighting, advantage fighting infection, stupid question ====== not a stupid question but the short answer is no. larger people do not have an inherent advantage fighting infection. the immune system runs off of a series of checkpoints, viral particles (which do not change size depending on host) have to picked up by certain cell types and presented to others in the right place at the right time with the right signals etc to mount an immune response. this is not affected by size and will occur at a similar rate, all else being equal, in a small vs large person. this breaks down when looking at extremes, where a persons extremely large/small weight starts to affect their ability to resist/recover from an infection. also in young children infants, where a small size can mean a much lower energy reserve to fight the infection. this is still a more generalist answer, there will be differences depending on the type of infection. a larger person will have larger airways which will reduce the severity of some respiratory infection symptoms, for example. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i'm struggling to grok big numbers. is 3^^5 > a googlplex? | are there any tips or tricks for understanding how big these numbers are? edit: i seem to be struggling to spell them, never mind compare them. | larger, logs, googolplex ====== yes. intuitively, a googolplex is less than 10\^\^4, so 3\^\^5 will be much larger. note that 3\^\^3 = 3\^(3\^3) = 3\^27 = 7.625x10^(12). so 3\^\^4 is going to be 3\^(7.625x10^(12)). you can then use logs to understand the size. note that 3 and 10 are close, so when you get to an obscene number of digits, a small scaling factor won't change things too much, so we can just ignore the fact that we're in different bases. we have that * log(googolplex) ~ 10^(100) * log(3\^\^5) ~ 3^(7.625x10^12) which is much, much larger. if you get more powers, you can use iterated logs. so * loglog(googolplex) ~ 100 * loglog(3\^\^5) ~ 7.625x10^(12) so the latter is larger. if you use too many iterated logs, though, the scaling factor will compound might begin to matter. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a danger in controlling and adjusting for too many variables? | kind of embarrassed to ask this, but i was reading a scientific study and they listed 14 different factors they controlled for in a recruited population of 2,564 -- with the group they were making inferences about making up 163 of those. is there a danger to this? can a statistical analysis become too "manipulated"? when i search this i find a lot of very technical guides, without a lot of context or larger perspective. | analysis is made, depends a bit, explain the variable ====== it depends a bit on what analysis is made, but usually people do some kind of linear model (that is they try to explain the variable y as a*x + b*z + ...). in such a model you have one unknown parameter (a,b) per factor (x,z) so the more factors you have the more unknown parameters you have to estimate. this can become problematic if you don't have enough data. in general this is called overfitting. for the linear model above you can see that if you have only one data point then you can't fix both a and b: (a =(y_1-b*z_1)/x_1) and your model is non-identifiable. you need at least two data points to estimate a and b. a linear model is relatively stiff (it cannot bend itself to fit any data), so i would say 2564 data points for 14 parameters isn't that bad. these considerations should also be reflected in the variance on the parameters, or the confidence intervals. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question for window engineers... | if i had a square glass window of dimensions 5x5 feet, and a diamond ring to help me break the window, what would be the optimal shape to carve into the window with the diamond in order to break the window with the least effort? what if you could only 'drag' the diamond for a distance of 5 feet? | common plot device, device in fiction, suction cup ====== it's a common plot device in fiction, to show someone scribing a circle in a glass window or door, and then popping out the circle with a suction cup, leaving a convenient hole. in real life, cutting a circle without breakage is one of the harder shapes. the optimal shape to carve in the window, following the described scenario, is the simplest shape- a straight line from an edge to another edge. window glass is pretty easy to break, in any case, but a scribed line decreases the force necessary to cause a break. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
can someone explain quantum wires, dots, wells, and how they function differently? | hi i'm currently reading about quantum wells, quantum dots, wires, and bulk semiconductors. i understand the basics behind the different energy states and how photons are emitted. the part i'm finding difficult is what it means by the differing dimensions in which the electrons can move. what difference does this make between them? also, i dont quite understand what is happening in the operation of a quantum cascade laser with a quantum well when they sandwich a semiconductor between two others. hopefully my questions made sense. thanks | energy levels, energy, url ====== the basic idea is that for a spatially confined semiconductor, the available energy levels will be determined by two factors 1) the composition and periodicity of the crystalline material itself and 2) the specific shape and size of the chunk of semiconducting material. the first part of the story is the bread and butter of solid state physics. the condensed version is that you start by mixing together the discrete energy levels of the constituent atoms, as you build up clusters of atoms, and then bulk solids, and in this process the energy levels crowd together to form what we call energy "bands" as [shown graphically here](_url_0_). the hallmark of a semiconductor is that once you start adding in the electrons into these energy levels, you will end up with a filled band called the valence band, which is separated by a finite energy (called the band gap) from the next available (and empty) band, called the conduction band as shown [here](_url_1_). the end of this part of the story is that a bulk semiconductor will have a finite band gap that is determined by its composition and crystal structure, which will define most of the electronic and optical properties of the material. now when you take a small chunk of these material, its electronic properties will change from the bulk depending on the shape and size of the chunk. the simplest way to understand these effects is within a formalism called the [effective mass approximation](_url_7_). the basic idea of this approach is that you 1) first calculate the energy structure as determined by the composition and crystal structure (as described above) and then 2) calculate the final distribution of energy levels above the conduction band as modified by the specific size and shape of the nano-structure. what you are ultimately after is a function called the [density of states](_url_4_), which shows how the the number of available states per unit energy varies as a function of the energy. knowing the density of states is key to calculating the effective band gap of the nano-structure (which in general will be different from the bulk!), as well as the exact shape of its optical spectra. [this page](_url_3_) does a good job of showing you how to go through the math, but they key point is that the density of states will be qualitatively different depending on the dimensionality as shown [in this graph](_url_2_) as you go from the bulk (free movement in 3d), to quantum wells (free movement in 2d, confinement in 1d), to nanowires (free movement in 1d, confinement in 2d), and finally quantum dots (confinement in all 3 dimensions). quantum dots are the prototypical quantum confined semiconductors as they show spatial confinement in all directions, which allows their energy levels can be tuned by changing the size as predicted from a simple ["particle in a box"](_url_5_) (or more accurately a "particle in a sphere" model). specifically, this means that by decreasing the effective size of the "box" you can increase the bandgap [as shown here](_url_6_), which allows you to change the optical spectra of the dots by [simply changing their size.](_url_8_) | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://nau.edu/uploadedImages/Academic/CEFNS/Labs/Electron_Microprobe/_Media/Band_Origin.jpg",
"http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-hpxsvTTDR3I/TZUkR1QaIrI/AAAAAAAAAAM/6q278ePtVyc/s1600/energy%2Bband%2Bgaps.png",
"http://britneyspears.ac/physics/dos/images/Image441.gif",
"http://ecee.colorado.edu/~bart/book/book/chapter2/ch2_4.htm",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density_of_states",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_in_a_box",
"http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/content/dam/sigma-aldrich/materials-science/nanomaterials/quantum-confinement-effect.jpg",
"http://www.iue.tuwien.ac.at/phd/milovanovic/diss_htmlse4.html",
"http://www.extremetech.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/quantum_dots_c.jpg"
] | [
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what would effect balance more loss of sight or loss of sound? | severe meniere disease, eyes, meniere disease ====== as someone who has severe meniere's disease, it is sight. here's simple proof: stand on one leg with your eyes open, then do it with your eyes closed. it is a lot easier when your eyes are open, because your eyes receive visual information that works in conjunction with your inner ear for balance and equilibrium. when i have a meniere's attack (extreme dizziness that can be caused by different things: vestibular nerve degeneration and/or water in the inner ear), my eyes go through nystagmus - they bounce around. also, definitive meniere's diagnosis is also made with a test called electronystygmography: you wear blacked-out goggles with cameras around the edges, and are told to watch certain lights on an opposite wall while the cameras record your eye movements. for someone with meniere's disease (using as an example for inherent balance disorder), the eyes' have observable saccadic movements while trying to pay attention to movement. long story short: loss of sight would probably improve balance. loss of sound wouldn't do anything; sound is transmitted along the auditory nerve, which does not innervate the inner ear/balance center. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
from shark tank last night: harness earth's rotation to generate electricity, fresh water, and gold from seawater? | [background story](_url_0_). on the show, this man says that the device will suck in seawater, "use the earth's rotation" to create a contained "synthetic hurricane" that can be used to power electricity generators. the by-products of the process would be fresh water, manganese, and ***gold***. setting aside questions of technical difficulty and scale, is there a sound theoretical footing for this? i'm curious about the whole "using the earth's rotation" to create momentum. i understand that seawater contains trace elements of gold that could be concentrated if such a process could be done efficiently. if there is a sound theoretical basis for harnessing the earth's rotation, is there some smaller scale demonstration device out there? i looked on youtube, all i found was [this](_url_1_), which isn't too convincing. looking on youtube is like posting on [/r/shittyaskscience](/r/shittyaskscience). thanks for your time. | pretty darned vague, darned vague, watch the show ====== the background story you posted is pretty darned vague, and i didn't watch the show, but my bullshitometer is pegged off the scale... | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.ksat.com/news/SA-inventor-appears-on-ABC-s-Shark-Tank/-/478452/10717578/-/5iedkxz/-/index.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s_NrHkQps9k"
] | [
"http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/gold.html"
] | [
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] |
can someone explain what is happening in this picture and how it is happening? | what exactly is going on in this picture? _url_0_ | slow red burn, vesuvius fire, ammonium dichromate ====== [video.](_url_0_) so there are two reactions occurring here: the first thing you see is the decomposition of the ammonium dichromate: (nh4)2cr2o7 → cr2o3 + n2 + 4 h2o this is known in pyrotechnic circles as "vesuvius fire," where the heat from the combustion causes the chromates to give off the slow red burn you see in the beginning. the second reaction is the decomposition of mercury(ii) thiocyanate: 2hg(scn)2 → 2hgs + cs2 + c3n4 where c3n4 is the compound that makes up the "snakes," and grow due to the evolution of gases produced by the decomposition of the other products: cs2 + 3o2 → co2 + 2so2 2c3n4 → 3(cn)2 + n2 hgs + o2 → hg + so2 this is also known as the "pharaoh's serpent" in pyrotechnics. both mercury and cyanogen gas are very toxic, so please don't try this at home. | 5 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/yKT6zJD"
] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QzjPva_MUAg"
] | [
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] |
do our compass directions (never eat shredded wheat) apply in outer space? | how on earth do you navigate in space?! | coordinate system, navigation, coordinate ====== for navigation in space (and for astronomy) an appropriate coordinate system is used. so for navigation between the earth and the moon you might use an earth centric coordinate system. for navigation around the solar system you might use a sun centred coordinate system and for navigation around the galaxy you would use a a coordinate system centred on the centre of the galaxy. coordinate systems can be expressed in both polar and cartesian terms. relative to the earth you might specify a point by altitude, azimuth and range or by x,y,z. astronauts on the lunar surface used north, south, east west to refer to directions for navigation purposes, but they used visual fixes and a gyroscopic compass to find north. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_tracker#Star_tracker",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_navigation_system"
] | [
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] |
how long would a pilot have to fly before his watch was off by 1 minute due to time dilation? | special relativistic, general relativistic effects, relativistic ====== there are special relativistic and general relativistic effects. i'll speak of the special relativistic one, maybe someone can chime up about the size of the general relativistic one. for a pilot travelling at 800 km/hour, the [lorentz gamma factor](_url_0_) is about 1 + 3 x 10^-11. that means that the time dilation effects are on the order of 3x10^-11. so, to be off by one *second*, he'd have to fly for about 3x10^10 seconds- around 1000 years. in order to get an appreciable effect, you have to be travelling a significant fraction of the speed of light. see the link provided for comparison. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_factor"
] | [
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|
time cloak: how does it work? | i just saw this article (_url_0_) on the front page. in terms that someone who understands at least the basic principles of relativity, quantum mechanics, etc. can understand, how does this work? | fascinatingly simple idea, light pulse, simple idea ====== it's a fascinatingly simple idea. a light pulse has a certain bandwidth (i.e. it contains a bunch of different frequencies), which is larger the shorter the pulse is. in this time-cloaking experiment, they "pull apart" this light pulse by accelerating the blue part of the spectrum and slowing down the red part of it, creating a spectral hole in the middle. this can be achieved by cleverly engineering an optical material's dispersion curve, i.e. the frequency-dependent refractive index experienced by the light pulse. now that you have that spectral hole, you can put an event inside which is now "cloaked" (not really, but ok). put the pulse together afterwards by reversing the initial dispersion and it will now look like that event in the middle never happened, the light pulse comes out exactly like it went in. if you want more technical details, let me know. | 18 | [] | [
"http://www.physorg.com/news/2012-01-pentagon-backed-cloak-clock.html"
] | [
"http://www.rockyhorror.com/participation/timewarp.php",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v481/n7379/carousel/nature10695-f2.2.jpg"
] | [
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why does cot(-x+(π/2)) have a hole at (0, 0)? | while i was messing around with phase shifts and graphing in my trig class, i decided to try to imitate the tangent graph, but with a cotangent graph instead. i graphed the above function, and all points were the exact same, except for (0, 0), which shows up as undefined on my graphing calculator. i get that cot(0) = undefined, but i don't understand why these graphs show up differently with this shift. essentially, i want to know why cot(x + (π /2)) ≠ tan(x) (please keep in mind that i'm a high school student, not a mathematician | sin, defining cot, cot ====== there are two ways of defining cot(x), one is as 1/tan(x) (where tan(x)=sin(x)/cos(x)) and the other is as cos(x)/sin(x). the two definitions may seem to be totally identical but they're actually not and your example of pi/2 illustrates that. the issue is that cos(pi/2) = 0, which means tan(pi/2) is undefined and thus by the first definition of cot, cot(pi/2) is undefined. but, by the second definition it isn't undefined, it is simply zero. it would seem that your calculator is using the first definition. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is another yellowstone brewing in ethiopia? | i am by no means a geologist or anything, but ethiopia is rippling apart from what i've read. whats the time frame of something like this? is this an extinction level event? | east african rift, volcanic feature called, url ====== yellowstone is a specific type of volcanic feature called a [caldera](_url_1_). what you are referring to in ethiopia is a [rift](_url_0_), specifically the [east african rift](_url_4_). rifts are generally larger, elongate regions where two plates are moving apart (e.g. the mid-atlantic rift), or in the early stages where a single plate is being split apart (e.g. the east african rift). active rifts at all stages, are characterized by a fair amount of volcanism, and in the early stages, like the east african rift, there is some amount of that volcanism which is explosive (there is massive amounts of volcanism along mid-ocean ridges as well, but they are (1) underwater and (2) typically not explosive as the type of material erupted, basalt, is low viscosity), and in some rifts, including the east african rift, [calderas have formed](_url_3_). the ear has been going for ~20 million years so it's not some sort of new thing, and if anything, if it continues to advance and become a true spreading ridge, the type of volcanism would begin to be dominated by the generally non-explosive volcanism. short answer, i wouldn't worry about the east african rift. i also wouldn't worry about yellowstone, neither are particularly threatening of an 'extinction level event', [e.g. this answer regarding yellowstone in the faq](_url_2_). hopefully one of the panelists more focused on volcanism can further comment. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rift",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caldera",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/planetary_sciences/yellowstone",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menengai",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_African_Rift"
] | [
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explanation of felix baumgartner's mach number? | earth atmosphere model, engineering toolbox., mach numbers ====== i'm getting mach numbers in the range of 1.16-1.18 using the earth atmosphere model from that nasa page you have and from [engineering toolbox.](_url_0_) for a perfect gas (which air is usually modeled as), the speed of sound is given by sqrt(krt), where k is the ratio of specific heats of the fluid (for air, it's 1.4), r is the particular gas constant (for air, 287 j kg^-1 k^-1), and t is the temperature (in kelvin or rankine). is this the method you are using to calculate the mach number? | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/standard-atmosphere-d_604.html"
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|
are air pressure resistances commutative or non-commutative? | if you have a fan pushing air through two non-identical resistances, does the order in which those resistances are placed have an effect on the overall pressure drop? i.e. if the more restrictive object is placed nearest the fan, with the lesser one positioned after it, is the overall pressure drop (measured after both objects) the same as if their positions were reversed? this is assuming all other aspects are the same. we have been talking about this in my office and there are people on both sides of the argument. | resistances make sense, linear resistances make, makes sense precisely ====== warning: i'm 90% sure the following is correct, but i'm not an expert. if your system is in the limit that linear resistances make sense, the order doesn't matter. this is kind of an empty statement though, because by construction the idea of "resistance" or "impedance" only really makes sense precisely in the case that the order of elements doesn't matter. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what makes lihmds such a strong base? | why is it some 10^20 times stronger than hydroxide? | aqueous media, stronger a base, base than hydroxide ====== it would only be that much stronger a base than hydroxide in aqueous media. however, let's look at their pka's in dmso, which is a better approximation of situations when we would use lihmds. the pka of water in dmso is around 28, with lihmds around 36. so now the difference is not as pronounced. but the difference boils down to a difference in electronegativity. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what does st. john's wort do to glutamate levels? | does it increase or decrease them, and how does it affect production and reuptake? | vesicle fusion, synaptic terminal, presynaptic neurons ====== it appears that sjw [inhibits glutamate activity](_url_0_) by interfering with vesicle fusion/exocytosis at the synaptic terminal, preventing glutamate from being released by presynaptic neurons. this mechanism is likely independent from production and reuptake mechanisms. however, it's important to note that sjw has multiple neuro-active compounds and hypericin is only one of them. sjw has also been shown to inhibit mao-a and mao-b in the past, which would give it other antidepressant properties not related to its inhibition of glutamate transmission. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20193678"
] | [
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] |
why is the clausius statement true? | states that a colder body won't give up heat to a warmer body spontaneously. is it true because is hasn't been demonstrated false? statistically there is some probability of this happening though, right? studying made me think. | observe the reverse, reverse happening, strong law ====== yes, it's not a "strong law" in that you could, theoretically, observe the reverse happening. however, the chance of heat flowing from cold to hot on human observable time scales is so *astronomically* low that in practice the law is never violated. if you look for instance at a gas, you can compute the microstates and see just how gigantically more likely heat is to flow from hot to cold. if you're interested in reading more about the topic, i definitely recommend going to your (university) library or amazon to read ["thermal physics" by daniel v schroeder](_url_0_). it's very well written and pretty readable if you've had high school physics. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/Introduction-Thermal-Physics-Daniel-Schroeder/dp/0201380277"
] | [
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i've got a very long and thin tube filled with stacked metal balls, and i push 1 more ball in so that a ball pops out of the other end. does the other ball pop out instantaneously as the new ball enters? | my intuition says it's not instantaneous, that that's not something that would be allowed in this universe, but i can't think of a reason why if all the balls start out in contact with each other? i guess, is there a speed at which force 'moves' from object to object? | intuition is correct, pressure wave, material ====== your intuition is correct! otherwise we'd have instantaneous phones and time travel. special relativity forbids such mechanics. the answer to this question is the same as for what happens if you push on the end of a very long rod, which you'll find in the [physics faq.](_url_0_) when you push the ball into the tube, a pressure wave will propagate through the material compressing each ball along the way slightly. if this is done elastically, this wave will propagate at the speed of sound in the material ultimately forcing the last ball out of the tube. this isn't so weird either, if you [observe a newton's cradle](_url_1_), the same thing is occurring here. the opposite ball doesn't move until the pressure wave reaches it. it only looks instantaneous because the distances are so small. if you try to do things more violently you'll permanently deform some of the material as the motion moves faster than the elastic pressure wave can--essentially a "sonic boom" in the material. though we need to be careful with our wording as this neglects plasticity. if you look at the stress modulus diagrams for materials, there's always a region where the material has plastic behavior and deforms under stress so there's no clean pressure wave as the energy is absorbed and not propagated. for instance, you dramatically deform air every time you walk through a room, but none of that motion breaks the speed of sound. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/faq",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Newtons_cradle_animation_new.gif"
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how come we get sick of great things after they are repeated for a long time? | great things, sick of great, things but simply ====== well in general we don't just get sick of great things but simply get used to most things. [habituation](_url_0_) is one way to describe this sort of phenomenon. with regard to rewards particularly though, there's a pretty large literature suggesting that we're not merely sensitive to reward magnitude but also to its predictability. an unanticipated positive event is usually perceived as much better than an anticipated positive event of the same magnitude, and so forth. insofar as repeating a particular reward makes it more predictable, that reward should become less intense over time. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habituation"
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|
if i want the most accurate reading, should i have my outdoor thermometer in the sun or in the shade? | shade will give, accurate reading, air temperature ====== the shade will give you the most accurate reading for the air temperature. if you put it in direct sunlight, it would head up via radiation, possibly beyond the temperature of the air. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what burns during re-entry? | i know that when something re-enters the atmosphere there is burning, but i want to know what is burning. in the case of a meteor, is the meteor burning or is the air around it burning and the heat is breaking apart the meteor, same question applies to shuttles and other space craft re-entry. if the air is burning then what in the air is burning? (also is this a chemistry question?) | burning from reentry, begins to vaporize, air becomes ionized ====== there is not burning from reentry, but heat to the point where the air becomes ionized and a plasma, and the material is red hot and begins to vaporize. what is occurring is shock heating, or heat due to change in pressure. it is known that when a gas expands, it cools, and in the same way, when it is compressed it heats up. on several miles a second projectiles, the pressure will be so extreme that temperatures reach thousands of degrees. | 23 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_entry#Ablative",
"https://vintagespace.wordpress.com/2016/12/05/can-a-wood-heat-shield-really-work/"
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puncture in a skintight spacesuit | severe bruising, skintight spacesuit, potentially burn ====== puncture in a skintight spacesuit could cause severe bruising ( a hickey), and potentially burn and or frostbite depending on orientation to the sun and time exposed. i would suggest a slow spin to even out temperature differences. if the puncture was small enough it would not be very serious as the amount of tissue damaged would not be great. there is a science fiction story that explored a similar situation called "gentlemen, be seated" by robert heinlein. a tunnel on the moon developed a leak and the astronauts used an unusual method to seal the leak. a rectal prolapse may occur if you are unlucky as to the position of the puncture. it is possible for transanal evisceration to take place but i have only heard of it in children, so an adult may have stronger tissue. transanal intestinal evisceration following suction from an uncovered swimming pool drain: case report. hultman cs, morgan r department of general surgery, university of north carolina school of medicine, chapel hill 27599. transanal suction from a swimming pool drain can result in intestinal evisceration. we report the eighth such case, followed by a literature review, description of the mechanism, and management guidelines. this bizarre injury, which has devastating consequences for the children involved, is completely preventable by installation of semi-permanent, anti-vortex grates. publication types: review review of reported cases pmid: 7966487, ui: 95055917 _url_0_ although i suspect that this is unlikely as the differential pressures involved are much greater with a pool pump around 241 kpa (35 psi) and normal space suit operational pressure is 32.4 kpa ( 4.7 psi). this of course is based on the assumption that the air a persons breaths is at this pressure in the new type of suit. another interesting aspect of this is there are very few places in your body that actually contain air that would likely to be "sucked out". the respiratory system of course, your ears, and a bit of flatulence, and maybe even a bit of air under a filling. a trick scuba divers learn if the loose their air supply at depth is to float up at the speed of the bubbles rising, expelling air the entire time to prevent your longs from over expanding. you could do something similar if you where feeling a bit gassy and your suit ruptured in an inopportune spot. but remember that even at 99 feet of water we are talking almost 45 psi, over 9 times higher than space suit pressures, so probably much less of an an issue. edit: spelling | 28 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7966487"
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|
how exactly does a smart meter know the difference between tv usage, ac usage and other? | my utility bill shows me a chart of energy usage based on device (ac, refrigerator, always on and other). i'm curious how it can know what devices are using electricity and how accurate the information on my bill is. | collecting the data, searching for patterns, minutes ====== the utility is collecting the data every 15 seconds or 1 minute or so and is searching for patterns. if there is a regular pattern of 100w usage during 15 minutes every hour day/night then it is likely a fridge, 1500w during 2 minutes at 06:30 probably means you put on the kettle for a cup of tea, a lot of 500w 15 second pulses during 1 hour looks like your washing-machine, 5x 5-12 minutes 1500w sounds like a vacuum-cleaner, and 75w between 19:30-23:00 is you watching the telly. it can be quite accurate, and if your utility has a reference list you can check if it is cheaper to get rid of your old/worn high energy use appliance and buy a frugal new replacement. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Markov_model",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden\\_Markov\\_model",
"http://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/9/3/29/pdf",
"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=192069"
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how is there economies of scale with both diminishing costs and returns? | if both marginal costs and returns go down as output increases, how can we have a lower marginal cost per unit of production? | area of study, main area, economies of scale ====== since you haven't yet gotten an answer, i'll respond even though this is outside my main area of study. economies of scale and diminishing costs happen in different regions of production quantity. for a very simplified model, [see here](_url_0_). increasing output from q to q2 causes the average cost to drop, which we call "economies of scale". increasing output past q2 causes the average cost to rise, which we call "diminishing returns". | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Economies_of_scale.PNG"
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explain the function of a particular part of the sts orbiter at launch? | i've watched plenty of shuttle launch videos, but something in [this video](_url_1_) on wikipedia caught my attention. i can't seem to figure out what the function is. it reminds me of pressure blowout plates that tear at certain psis, but that doesn't make a ton of sense on the orbiter, my only other guess is that it's part of the orbiters rcs system that was simply covered for protection? you can see them (there are three) tear open just after main engine ignition, 14 seconds into the video. i also took some screenshots [hightlighting what i am talking about](_url_0_). any clues? | rcs thruster ports, rcs thruster, ports ====== these look to be covers for the rcs thruster ports. if you look "around the corner" from the ones you circled, there's another set. this diagram shows the thruster locations: _url_0_ as to why they get blown off at that point, i couldn't find a detailed-enough description of the launch sequence to find out. maybe the system gets purged at that time, or something? | 5 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/tsS17O9.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:STS-132_Liftoff_Space_Shuttle_Atlantis.ogv"
] | [
"http://www.columbiassacrifice.com/images/tech_overview/hi_res_images/AftRCSPod2000.htm"
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some times i hear fundamental particles have volume. sometimes i hear that they are just points. could someone elaborate? | are they both? do some have volumes and others don't? | fundamental particles, fundamental, particles ====== as far as we know, fundamental particles have no volume. this isn't to say that they don't have any, just that it's smaller than we can detect (if an electron has a radius it must be below 10^-22 meters or we would have detected it), and the models we use to describe particles treat them as point-like. composite particles like protons have a volume. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110525/full/news.2011.321.html"
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] |
what was the environmental impact of napalm's use in war? | near as i can tell, it scorched huge tracts of land, maybe even a majority of some portions of the countryside. was the effect similar to a forest fire, or did it have more lasting effects? | source, url, doses of herbicides ====== [source](_url_2_) [source](_url_3_) and heavy doses of herbicides (defoliants) in much the same manner as chemical weapons. some international organizations consider napalm, its trade name, to be a chemical weapon" [source](_url_1_) families, and civilians are similar to those experienced by the u.s. veterans, although on a much larger scale. cancer and other illnesses have plagued both groups of veterans but it is the vietnamese who have suffered more, with higher levels of exposure that have caused greater occurrences of these cancers, illnesses, and birth defects, especially in dioxin contaminated areas. these illnesses can be passed along genetically to future generations of vietnamese without their ever having been directly exposed to agent orange. agent orange’s impact continues to be lethal to the vietnamese population. " [source](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/bitstream/handle/10822/553349/kingPamela.pdf?sequence=1",
"http://www.environet.eu/pub/pubwis/rura/00Chemical_and_biological_weapons.pdf",
"http://science.howstuffworks.com/napalm1.htm",
"http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/vietnamese-wildlife-still-paying-a-high-price-for-chemical-warfare-407060.html"
] | [
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did ligo get incredibly lucky with two black holes colliding or are these fairly frequent? | also, did we know this was going to happen beforehand? i understand how ligo detected the gravity waves but how did we detect the merger in the first place? | virgo collaboration, events occur, gravitational wave ====== we don't know. one of the things we will learn from the ligo/virgo collaboration is how often such events occur. edit:to answer the other part of the question, no, we didn't know this was going to happen. the detector is just left on and running (the observing run that started in september went until january 12), waiting to see if it detects a gravitational wave. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any objects outside of the laniakea supercluster that are visible to the naked eye? | if not then what about outside the local group? i recently watched [this video](_url_0_) which talked about the expansion of the universe inevitably removing everything outside of our local group from view which made me wonder how much this would affect our existing starscape. | million light years, transiently, dark night ====== transiently. there are a few galaxies that one can see with the naked eye on a dark night, but these are within a few million light years (still the local group). it's possible that witnessing a supernova in a more distant galaxy may be possible, in this in fact has happened. [this explosion](_url_0_) was briefly visible from about 8 billion lightyears away, outside of any local cluster including laniakea. however, you'd have to be really really lucky to see something like this. | 7 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZL4yYHdDSWs"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRB_080319B"
] | [
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dinosaurs and the square/cube law: how'd it all work? | chicken, mass, times ====== the square/cube law applies to objects (or animals) that scale isometrically. in other words, the object exactly retains its shape and relative dimensions, it just scales in size. think of a scale-model matchbox car relative to a real car. you can imagine an isometrically scaled chicken as being a chicken that is longer, taller, and wider by a factor *n*, with *n^2* times the surface area, and *n^3* times the mass of a regular chicken. in reality, species do not tend to scale isometrically, due to the problems it would create. for example, a chicken that is 10 times as tall as a regular chicken would weigh 10^3 = 1000 times as much, but the cross-sectional area of its leg bones would only be 10^2 = 100 times greater. this means the static pressure the bones would have to bear would be 1000/100 = 10 times greater than for a regular chicken. for this reason, many aspects of physiology are found to scale [allometrically](_url_2_). for example, larger animals tend to have much stockier legs, dinosaurs being no exception to this. this also applies to metabolism. larger animals tend to burn less energy per unit mass per unit time. specifically, metabolic rate scales as approximately mass^{3/4}, so metabolic rate per unit mass scales as approximately mass^{3/4} /mass = mass^{-1/4}. this relationship is known as [kleiber's law](_url_0_). while we cannot study metabolic rates of extinct species, the ubiquity of this law in living species suggests that dinosaurs too would have followed it. in addition, a lot of early estimates of dinosaur masses are now thought to have been [too high](_url_1_). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law",
"http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/dinosaurs/9312462/Dinosaurs-much-lighter-than-previously-thought.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allometry"
] | [
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|
is caltech's claim that astrophysical disks are governed by the schrödinger equation more than superficially similar to feynman's describing qed using the same math he developed to describe wobbling plates? | background: i just saw this article in my google news feed _url_0_ which claims that in trying to model the perturbations in astrophysical disks, konstantin batygin derived a version of the schrödinger equation. which strongly reminded me of how in *surely you must be joking mister feynman*, feynman says that for the fun of it after burning out on some of his research, he developed some math to describe the progression of wobbles in spinning plates, and later ended up using that math in the qed research that won him the nobel prize. | equations, differential equations, differential ====== similar differential equations show up all over the place in physics. the time-dependent schrodinger equation in configuration space is just a complex diffusion equation. the real diffusion equation describes things like diffusion of gas molecules and heat conduction. the wave equation describes all kinds of oscillations, from electromagnetic waves, to sound waves, to waves propagating down a string, etc. the differential equation of motion for a harmonic oscillator is used, at least approximately, everywhere in physics. if you look at the set of all the different kinds of pdes that might reasonably be used to model some physical system, there aren't *that* many to choose from. most of the differential equations you'd deal with in physics aren't higher than second-order. usually the variables are spatial coordinates and time, so how many combinations of differential equations can you come up with when you take zeroth, first, or second derivatives with respect to spatial coordinates and time? for some examples: equations that are first-order in both space and time are like continuity equations; equations that are second-order in space but first-order in time are like diffusion equations; equations that are second-order in both space and time are like wave equations. so even though it may seem serendipitous that two totally different physical systems are modeled by similar kinds of differential equations, it might not actually be that crazy. in the paper you linked, they start with a hamiltonian that apparently describes disks in astrophysics, make some convenient changes of variables, and show that the resulting equation of motion takes a form similar to the time-dependent schrodinger equation. that's nice because what otherwise may have been a new and complicated system to try to study, the tdse has been studied to death by physicists for close to a century because of all the work that's been done involving quantum mechanics. i'm not sure exactly how feynman used math from spinning plates in qed, but again, similar equations and mathematical techniques are applied all over physics. | 9 | [] | [
"http://www.caltech.edu/news/massive-astrophysical-objects-governed-subatomic-equation-81517"
] | [] | [
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how come the skin of people that lift heavy objects with weird parts of their body doesn't rip out? | so i was watching [this](_url_0_) episode of gmm and i was wondering. how can you lift so much weight with your tongue \ eye lids? | question a bit, answer, bit ====== well, not that i know the answer, but to clarify your question a bit... 1. the tongue doesn't, as far as i'm aware, *have* skin. it's a muscle. 2. having watched the video not half an hour ago, i seem to recall the person lifting the weight using their eye *sockets*, not their eyelids. as in, they placed hooks in their eye sockets which presumably causes most (if not all) of the weight to be borne by the bone of the skull. 3. this question is still quite valid, these points notwithstanding, because some people lift really ridiculous weights with arbitrary body parts. | 9 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MJP8u9Asugg"
] | [] | [
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do octopi recognize themselves in a mirror? (do they pass self-awareness tests?) | cuddle fish, similar note, intelligence as octopi ====== on a similar note, they did this with cuddle fish (who are viewed in a similar light of intelligence as octopi) and the cuddle fish would react to the mirror as if it was a conspecific but it would gradually learn that this was not another cuddlefish. let me find the study; i'm on mobile | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the "pseudo-gap" and how does it relate to every day life? | not long ago, there was a news brief about the discovery of evidence that the pseudo-gap was real. the pseudo-gap sounded not like a fake clothing retailer, but was instead something responsible for blocking the conduction of electromagnetism. can someone explain a bit more about what the pseudo-gap really is and if it can be overcome, how will it change our technology? | gap, pseudogap, states ====== the recent news said something rather different, actually - the pseudogap has been well-known to exist for quite some time. before we get to the pseudogap, i need to explain what a(n energy) gap is. in materials, electrons can occupy lots of different states with lots of different energies. however, in some cases, there are energies that have no states, that is, electrons cannot have those energies. if there is a range of such energies, then the system "has a gap" which encompasses those energies. from now on, we're going to assume that there's only one important gap. now, there are lots of ways that you can get a gap. generically, the crystal structure of a material causes gaps to appear. why does this matter? in simple cases, if you fill up all the states below a gap and none above, this means that you have an electrical insulator - a small kick to an electron won't be able to get it to reach an unoccupied state because it needs the energy to get across the gap. if you don't fill up the states below the gap all the way, then the material is a metal, because there are empty states available whose energy is arbitrarily close to the energy of a filled state. we talk about this as there being a "band" of energies (the set of energies below the gap) which is either filled (insulator) or partially filled (metal). one more thing before i get to the pseudogap. another way to get a gap is to have superconductivity. one way to think about this is to start with a metal, with a partially filled band. now start cooling the system down. this allows the effect of the electrons interacting with each other to become more important (actually it's a little more involved than that, but that's besides the point here). it's possible for those interactions to create a new gap inside what used to be a band, and sometimes the way that this happens is by pairing up electrons and forming a superconductor. a superconductor is kind of strange, in that all the states below this new gap are filled and the ones above are empty, but it's a perfect electrical conductor, which goes against what normally happens. now, the pseudogap. in the materials superconductivity appears at the highest temperatures that we know of, something strange happens at temperatures between superconductivity and the "normal" metallic state. a gap starts to appear, but only certain electrons see the gap. more precisely, at a given energy, if we start from a normal metal and cool to the pseudogap, then states at that energy with certain momenta are gapped out (no longer allowed), but states at that energy with other momenta are not removed. this is extremely strange, and there is, to my knowledge, only one other example of anything that looks even vaguely like this (and the physics there is almost certainly completely unrelated). what causes the pseudogap to appear is still extremely controversial, but there are two main interpretations of how the pseudogap relates to superconductivity. one is that the pseudogap occurs because there is "extra" pairing as you cool down that *helps* superconductivity appear earlier. the other interpretation is that the pseudogap is actually the material trying to be a full-blown superconductor, but something else is *stopping* the electrons from pairing up. the recent article you saw, if i'm thinking of the right one, was about a paper that claimed to have experimental evidence for the latter interpretation, that is, it claimed that the pseudogap interferes with superconductivity. why this matters: right now, the very highest temperature superconductor has to be cooled by liquid nitrogen. but if we didn't have to cool superconductors at all, we could use them in everyday life, which would be fantastic because heat doesn't get wasted when current runs through a superconductor. if the pseudogap is getting in the way of superconductivity, then we need to figure out how to get rid of it in order to raise the temperature at which these materials go superconducting. if we had room temperature superconductors, you could imagine, for example, superconducting power lines which don't waste any heat as they transfer power from the power plant to your house. if we were to get really lucky with materials issues, we could also imagine mri machines (which use superconductors to create huge magnetic fields) that don't require liquid helium to cool them, alleviating an enormous part of the demand for our increasingly-depleted reserves of helium. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the information about cholesterol in peter attia's series accurate | peter attia's series: [the straight dope on cholesterol](_url_0_). essentially the numbers we get from a standard lipid panel blood test are of no use in calculating heart disease risk. the most important predictor of risk is actually the particle count. | standard lipid panel, measure it directly, lipid panel ====== particle count is important but it's not clear that it's any use to measure it directly, because serum triglycerides are a good proxy for the ldl pattern, and tg is part of the standard lipid panel. [value of low-density lipoprotein particle number and size as predictors of coronary artery disease in apparently healthy men and women](_url_0_): > in univariate analyses, ldl-p (or 2.00, 95% confidence interval [ci] 1.58 to 2.59) and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-hdl-c) (or 2.14, 95% ci 1.69 to 2.69) were more closely associated with cad than ldl-c (or 1.73, 95% ci 1.37 to 2.18). **the additional value of ldl-p was lost after adjustment for hdl-c and triglyceride levels**. whereas ldl size was inversely related to cad (or 0.60, 95% ci 0.47 to 0.76), this relation was abolished upon adjustment for ldl-p. in a model adjusted for the frs, ldl-p retained its association with cad (p for trend 0.02). | 2 | [] | [
"http://eatingacademy.com/nutrition/the-straight-dope-on-cholesterol-part-i"
] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17276177"
] | [
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what are some organizations to donate to that support science? | [removed] | interesting question, british heart foundation, money ====== interesting question. most people donate to large, well-known charities (e.g., the british heart foundation). this money is typically put into a general pool, and then divvied up annually or biannually, based on whatever grant-applications they receive. as an individual you have no control over where exactly your money goes, but with any reputable body you should be able to see precisely what they have funded over the last few years, and so you can judge for yourself if it sounds worthwhile. some smaller charities (for example, fight for sight, in the uk) attempt to match individual funders with specific projects, which i think is a nice model, though i assume this is typically only done for larger donations. the other issue is the overheads of the charity -- nobody wants their money just to be funding charity execs and telemarketers. fortunately, depending on where you are based, there are usually websites (e.g., _url_0_ ) that detail whether a funding body is legit, and what proportion of the money donated gets passed on. you might be able to get more concrete suggestions if you are able to narrow your search down to a particular field (e.g., medical research, theoretical physics, political science) and/or country. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.givewell.org/",
"www.effectivealtruism.org",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PxStuUxaZxQ",
"https://support.scripps.edu/"
] | [
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how is the carnot cycle related to a stirling cycle? | super specific question, but i'm a little confused on the mechanics of both of these cycles and how they relate to recoverable work/conservation of energy. | energy source, extract work, carnot cycle ====== both processes are attempting to do the same thing: extract work from an energy source. the carnot cycle is the "perfect" model, which can never actually be achieved, while the stirling cycle is a more realistic attempt to get the most work out of the energy source. the carnot cycle cannot be achieved in a real universe because the expansion and compression of the working fluid must be done without a change in entropy, and the universe being the harsh mistress she is, doesn't allow isentropic processes. the stirling cycle says okay, fine, be that way, let's do those two steps in a constant volume way. now the working gas takes on energy or loses it while at a constant volume, like heating or cooling a sealed container. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the clotting cascade work, and why is it so complicated. | here is what i think i know: there are two big starting points in clotting "intrinsic" and "extrinsic" (though i believe this is outdated language). "intrinsic" clotting is essentially a cascade of factors being activated which in turn activate other factors, down the line until tissue factor (from the "extrinsic" pathway and a protein that is released when cells are damaged) is released, leading to the production of thrombin (the clotting factor that initiates the creation of fibrin and creates the fibrous net that platelets stick to to create the clot). what i don't get is what causes clots to be generated "spontaneously" - isn't tf needed in order to finish the cascade? also, why do things like dvt happen without injury: it seems that essentially "slow blood" can clot without some external factor causing the clot. is this true, or is there always an underlying injury that starts the reaction? | called virchow triad, abnormal blood flow, blood flow ====== regarding dvt - the classic description of what predisposes to thrombus is called virchow's triad, and the components are stasis of blood flow, endothelial injury, and hypercoagulability. stasis: yes, "slow blood" can clot, as can turbulent or otherwise abnormal blood flow. two good examples are deep venous thrombosis in patients immobilized for a prolonged period of time and stroke risk in atrial fibrillation. in atrial fibrillation, instead of a nice synchronized contraction of the atria of the heart followed by the ventricles, you have the atria quivering relatively uselessly and the ventricles beating in an irregular manner. the resulting abnormal blood flow creates a huge risk of blood clotting in the atrium. a nice clot in the left atrium is two valves and one ventricle away from being shot out into your aorta where it may happily go up to your brain and cause a stroke. the presence of other factors makes the risk worse - if someone's a chronic vasculopath with tons of atherosclerotic vessel damage (endothelial injury), stasis is especially dangerous, but stasis is bad news on its own. this is why most everyone in the hospital ends up getting anticoagulation for dvt prophylaxis. endothelial injury: damage to the lining of a vessel exposes subendothelial collagen, to which von willebrand factor can bind and start promoting thrombus formation. a nasty example here is rupture of an atherosclerotic plaque in a blood vessel, leading to thrombus formation which can either further occlude a vessel or break off and travel as an embolus. hypercoagulability: this is your pick of any of the potential causes of genetic or acquired defects that promote coagulation. to give an example, factor v leiden is a common one where factor v is mutated and thus unable to be normally destroyed by activated protein c (an anti-coagulant) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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help me work out this simple physics thought-experiment. i'm confounded. | suppose you have a friend with a helicopter and a very long length of rope, lets say 1000 meters. your friend takes the chopper into the air 1001 meters and hangs the rope out of the window, so that the end of it is almost touching the ground, but not quite. now your friend takes a knife and cuts the rope. of course, it falls to the ground. here's my question: how quickly after your friend cuts the rope on its top, does the bottom of the rope start to fall? intuitively, i want to say "instantaneously." after all, if nothing is holding it up, it should start to fall. however, i know that if it was *truly* instantaneous that would be a violation of relativity: faster-than-light communication is impossible! and yet, the notion that the bottom end of the rope is suspended for even the smallest time sounds more like cartoon physics than reality. it reminds me of the coyote not falling for a moment, because he doesn't realize that nothing is supporting him. so you see, now as i try to work out my own thought-problem, i'm stuck between cartoon physics and faster-than-light communication, neither of which seem appealing to me. i know just enough physics to confuse myself but not enough physics to really understand what's going on. any ideas? | top layer starts, rope is cut, holding the bottom ====== your mistake is that when the rope is cut there is nothing holding the bottom up. the bottom layer is being held up by the layer just above it, and so on back to the top. the top layer starts to fall, which allows the next layer to start to fall, and so on until you get to the bottom. this process takes time, according to the speed of sound in the material. for most objects this speed is quite high by human standards. edit: also, in real life: [video](_url_0_) | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eCMmmEEyOO0",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eCMmmEEyOO0"
] | [
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shape and color personality test. what's its history, who invented it, and where are the scientific papers, if any? | i stumbled upon [this test](_url_2_). basically, based on which image you like more, your personality is explained. > shape 1. introspective > sensitive > reflective > you come to grips more frequently and thoroughly with yourself and your environment than do most people. you detest superficiality; you'd rather be alone than have to suffer through small talk. but your relationships with your friends are highly intensive, which gives you the inner tranquility and harmony that you need in order to feel good. however it is no problem for you to be alone for extended periods of time, without becoming bored. ([more info in this link](_url_0_)) i've tried to search online for more info on this test, but the [main result](_url_1_) is just an online prank. then i image searched some of the shapes and all i got was personal blogs describing the test. so, is this just "popular" facebook science? where did this test come from, anyway? | barnum effect, link provided, exemplify something called ====== the descriptions in the link provided seem to exemplify something called the [barnum effect](_url_0_). note how very few of the descriptions will contradict each other; every description can apply to every person with a fair amount of accuracy. within the descriptions, though, contradictory statements appear fairly often. this allows the reader to interpret the reading quite a bit, to fit their personality. these aspects make me think that this is "facebook science". | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.davidpbrown.co.uk/psychology/personality-test.html",
"http://www.shapetest.com/",
"http://imgur.com/7hFP3Tt"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forer_effect",
"https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/rec.roller-coaster/g9T-0Lk_oCQ/K-A4sBbHmEgJ"
] | [
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