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[ { "plaintext": "The Plague () is a novel by Albert Camus. Published in 1947, it tells the story from the point of view of a narrator of a plague sweeping the French Algerian city of Oran. The narrator remains unknown until the start of the last chapter, chapter 5 of part 5. The novel presents a snapshot of life in Oran as seen through the author's distinctive absurdist point of view.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 983, 292341, 145335, 233013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 40 ], [ 143, 157 ], [ 167, 171 ], [ 347, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Camus used as source material the cholera epidemic that killed a large proportion of Oran's population in 1849, but situated the novel in the 1940s. Oran and its surroundings were struck by disease several times before Camus published his novel. According to an academic study, Oran was decimated by the bubonic plague in 1556 and 1678, but all later outbreaks (in 1921: 185 cases; 1931: 76 cases; and 1944: 95 cases) were very far from the scale of the epidemic described in the novel.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16392927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Plague is considered an existentialist classic despite Camus' objection to the label. The novel stresses the powerlessness of the individual characters to affect their destinies. The narrative tone is similar to Kafka's, especially in The Trial, whose individual sentences potentially have multiple meanings; the material often pointedly resonating as stark allegory of phenomenal consciousness and the human condition.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9593, 10858, 10861, 1837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 42 ], [ 216, 221 ], [ 239, 248 ], [ 362, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dr. Bernard Rieux: Dr. Bernard Rieux is described as a man about age 35, of moderate height, dark-skinned, with close-cropped black hair. At the beginning of the novel, Rieux's wife, who has been ill for a year, leaves for a sanatorium. It is Rieux who treats the first victim of plague and first uses the word plague to describe the disease. He urges the authorities to take action to stop the spread of the epidemic. However, at first, along with everyone else, the danger the town faces seems unreal to him. He feels uneasy but does not realise the gravity of the situation. Within a short while, he grasps what is at stake and warns the authorities that unless steps are taken immediately, the epidemic could kill off half the town's population of two hundred thousand within a couple of months.During the epidemic, Rieux heads an auxiliary hospital and works long hours treating the victims. He injects serum and lances the abscesses, but there is little more that he can do, and his duties weigh heavily upon him. He never gets home until late, and he has to distance himself from the natural pity that he feels for the victims; otherwise, he would not be able to go on. It is especially hard for him when he visits a victim in the person's home because he knows that he must immediately call for an ambulance and have the person removed from the house. Often, the relatives plead with him not to do so since they know they may never see the person again.Rieux works to combat the plague simply because he is a doctor and his job is to relieve human suffering. He does not do it for any grand, religious purpose, like Paneloux (Rieux does not believe in God), or as part of a high-minded moral code, like Tarrou. He is a practical man, doing what needs to be done without any fuss, but he knows that the struggle against death is something that he can never win.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Major characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jean Tarrou: Jean Tarrou arrived in Oran some weeks before the plague broke out for unknown reasons. He is not there on business since he appears to have private means. Tarrou is a good-natured man who smiles a lot. Before the plague came, he liked to associate with the Spanish dancers and musicians in the city. He also keeps a diary, full of his observations of life in Oran, which the Narrator incorporates into the narrative.It is Tarrou who first comes up with the idea of organising teams of volunteers to fight the plague. He wants to do so before the authorities begin to conscript people, and he does not like the official plan to get prisoners to do the work. He takes action, prompted by his own code of morals; he feels that the plague is everybody's responsibility and that everyone should do their duty. What interests him, he tells Rieux, is how to become a saint even though he does not believe in God.Later in the novel, Tarrou tells Rieux, with whom he has become friends, the story of his life. His father, although a kind man in private, was also an aggressive prosecuting attorney who tried death penalty cases, arguing strongly for the death penalty to be imposed. As a young boy, Tarrou attended one day of a criminal proceeding in which a man was on trial for his life. However, the idea of capital punishment disgusted him. After he left home before 18, his main interest in life was his opposition to the death penalty, which he regarded as state-sponsored murder. However, years of activism have left him disillusioned.When the plague epidemic is virtually over, Tarrou becomes one of its last victims but puts up a heroic struggle before dying.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Major characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Raymond Rambert: Raymond Rambert is a journalist who is visiting Oran to research a story on the standards of living in the Arab colony of Oran. When the plague strikes, he finds himself trapped in a city with which he feels he has no connection. He misses his girlfriend who is in Paris and uses all his ingenuity and resourcefulness to persuade the city bureaucracy to allow him to leave. When that fails, he contacts smugglers, who agree to help him escape for a fee of ten thousand francs. However, there is a hitch in the arrangements, and by the time another escape plan is arranged, Rambert has changed his mind. He decides to stay in the city and continue to help fight the plague, saying that he would feel ashamed of himself if he pursued a merely private happiness. He now feels that he belongs in Oran, and that the plague is everyone's business, including his.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Major characters", "target_page_ids": [ 22989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joseph Grand: Joseph Grand is a fifty-year-old clerk for the city government. He is tall and thin. Poorly paid, he lives an austere life, but he is capable of deep affection. In his spare time, Grand polishes up his Latin, and he is also writing a book, but he is such a perfectionist that he continually rewrites the first sentence and can get no further. One of his problems in life is that he can rarely find the correct words to express what he means. Grand tells Rieux that he married while still in his teens, but overwork and poverty took their toll (Grand did not receive the career advancement that he had been promised), and his wife Jeanne left him. He tried but failed to write a letter to her, and he still grieves for his loss.Grand is a neighbor of Cottard, and it is he who calls Rieux for help, when Cottard tries to commit suicide. When the plague takes a grip on the town, Grand joins the team of volunteers, acting as general secretary, recording all the statistics. Rieux regards him as \"the true embodiment of the quiet courage that inspired the sanitary groups.\" Grand catches the plague himself and asks Rieux to burn his manuscript, but then makes an unexpected recovery. At the end of the novel, Grand says he is much happier; he has written to Jeanne and made a fresh start on his book.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Major characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cottard: Cottard lives in the same building as Grand. He does not appear to have a job and is described as having private means although he describes himself as \"a traveling salesman in wines and spirits.\" Cottard is an eccentric figure, silent and secretive, who tries to hang himself in his room. He is anxious for Rieux not to report the incident, as he is under investigation by the authorities for an unstated crime. In an offhand reference to the plot of The Outsider (Camus novel), Cottard reacts by a sudden exit from the tobacconist shop when she mentions an arrest in Algiers of a man for killing an Arab on a beach. Cottard's personality changes after the outbreak of plague. Whereas he was aloof and mistrustful before, he now becomes agreeable and tries hard to make friends. He appears to relish the coming of the plague, and Tarrou thinks it is because he finds it easier to live with his own fears now that everyone else is in a state of fear, too. Cottard also avoids arrest by the police during the chaos caused by the plague. Cottard takes advantage of the crisis to make money by selling contraband cigarettes and inferior liquor.As the quarantine of the city comes to an end, Cottard anticipates being arrested after life returns to normal. He experiences severe mood swings; sometimes he is sociable, but at other times, he shuts himself up in his room. On the day the city gates are reopened, he shoots at random at people on the street, wounding some and killing a dog. The police arrest him.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Major characters", "target_page_ids": [ 45896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 461, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Father Paneloux: Father Paneloux is a learned, well-respected Jesuit priest. He is well known for having given a series of lectures in which he championed a pure form of Christian doctrine and chastised his audience about their laxity. During the first stage of the plague outbreak, Paneloux preaches a sermon at the cathedral. He has a powerful way of speaking, and he insists to the congregation that the plague is a scourge sent by God to those who have hardened their hearts against Him. However, Paneloux also claims that God is present to offer succor and hope. Later, Paneloux attends at the bedside of Othon's stricken son and prays that the boy may be spared. After the boy's death, Paneloux tells Rieux that although the death of an innocent child in a world ruled by a loving God cannot be rationally explained, it should nonetheless be accepted. Paneloux joins the team of volunteer workers and preaches another sermon saying that the death of the innocent child is a test of faith. Since God willed the child's death, so the Christian should will it, too. A few days after preaching this sermon, Paneloux is taken ill. He refuses to call for a doctor, trusting in God alone, and dies. Since his symptoms did not seem to resemble those of the plague, Rieux records his death as a \"doubtful case.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Major characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Narrator: the narrator presents himself at the outset of the book as witness to the events and privy to documents, but does not identify himself until the ending of the novel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Minor characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Prefect: The Prefect believes at first that the talk of plague is a false alarm, but on the advice of his medical association, he authorizes limited measures to combat it. When they do not work, he tries to avoid responsibility, saying he will ask the government for orders. Then, he takes responsibility for tightening up the regulations relating to the plague and issues the order to close the town.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Minor characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dr. Castel: Dr. Castel is one of Rieux's medical colleagues and is much older than Rieux. He realizes after the first few cases that the disease is bubonic plague and is aware of the seriousness of the situation. He works hard to make an antiplague serum, but as the epidemic continues, he shows increasing signs of wear and tear.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Minor characters", "target_page_ids": [ 16392927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "M. Othon: M. Othon is a magistrate in Oran. He is tall and thin and, as Tarrou observes in his journal, \"his small, beady eyes, narrow nose, and hard, straight mouth make him look like a well-brought-up owl.\" Othon treats his wife and children unkindly, but after his son dies of the plague, his character softens. After he finishes his time at the isolation camp, where he is sent because his son is infected, he wants to return there because it would make him feel closer to his lost son. However, before Othon can do this, he contracts the plague and dies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Minor characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jacques Othon: Philippe Othon is M. Othon's young son. When he contracts the plague, he is the first to receive Dr. Castel's antiplague serum. But the serum is ineffective, and the boy dies after a long and painful struggle.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Minor characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mme. Rieux: Mme. Rieux is Dr. Rieux's mother, who comes to stay with him when his sick wife goes to the sanatorium. She is a serene woman who, after taking care of the housework, sits quietly in a chair. She says that at her age, there is nothing much left to fear.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Minor characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dr. Richard: Dr. Richard is chairman of the Oran Medical Association. He is slow to recommend any action to combat the plague for fear of public alarm. He does not want even to admit that the disease is the plague, referring instead to a \"special type of fever.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Minor characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "M. Michel: M. Michel is the concierge of the building in which Rieux lives. An old man, he is the first victim of the plague.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Minor characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Raoul: Raoul is the man who agrees, for a fee of ten thousand francs, to arrange for Rambert to escape. He introduces Rambert to Gonzales.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Minor characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gonzales: Gonzales is the smuggler who makes the arrangements for Rambert's escape and bonds with him over football.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Minor characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Asthma Patient: the asthma patient receives regular visits from Dr. Rieux. He is a seventy-five-year-old Spaniard with a rugged face, who comments on events in Oran that he hears about on the radio and in the newspapers. He sits in his bed all day and measures the passing of time by putting peas from one jug into another.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Minor characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Louis: Louis is one of the sentries who take part in the plan for Rambert to escape.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Minor characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Marcel: Marcel, Louis's brother, is also a sentry who is part of the escape plan for Rambert.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Minor characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Garcia: Garcia is a man who knows the group of smugglers in Oran. He introduces Rambert to Raoul.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Minor characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The book begins with an epigraph quoting Daniel Defoe, author of A Journal of the Plague Year.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Plot summary", "target_page_ids": [ 291229, 8193, 352506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 32 ], [ 41, 53 ], [ 65, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the town of Oran, thousands of rats, initially unnoticed by the populace, begin to die in the streets. Hysteria develops soon afterward, causing the local newspapers to report the incident. Authorities responding to public pressure order the collection and cremation of the rats, unaware that the collection itself was the catalyst for the spread of the bubonic plague.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Plot summary", "target_page_ids": [ 16392927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 357, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main character, Dr. Bernard Rieux, lives comfortably in an apartment building when strangely the building's concierge, M. Michel, a confidante, dies from a fever. Dr. Rieux consults his colleague, Dr. Castel, about the illness until they come to the conclusion that a plague is sweeping the town. They both approach fellow doctors and town authorities about their theory but are eventually dismissed on the basis of one death. However, as more deaths quickly ensue, it becomes apparent that there is an epidemic. Meanwhile, Rieux's wife has been sent to a sanatorium in another city, to be treated for an unrelated chronic illness.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Plot summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Authorities, including the Prefect, are slow to accept that the situation is serious and quibble over the appropriate action to take. Official notices enacting control measures are posted, but the language used is optimistic and downplays the seriousness of the situation. A \"special ward\" is opened at the hospital, but its 80 beds are filled within three days. As the death toll begins to rise, more desperate measures are taken. Homes are quarantined; corpses and burials are strictly supervised. A supply of plague serum finally arrives, but there is enough to treat only existing cases, and the country's emergency reserves are depleted. When the daily number of deaths jumps to 30, the town is sealed, and an outbreak of plague is officially declared.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Plot summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The town is sealed off. The town gates are shut, rail travel is prohibited, and all mail service is suspended. The use of telephone lines is restricted only to \"urgent\" calls, leaving short telegrams as the only means of communicating with friends or family outside the town. The separation affects daily activity and depresses the spirit of the townspeople, who begin to feel isolated and introverted, and the plague begins to affect various characters.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Plot summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One character, Raymond Rambert, devises a plan to escape the city to join his wife in Paris after city officials refused his request to leave. He befriends some underground criminals so that they may smuggle him out of the city. Another character, Father Paneloux, uses the plague as an opportunity to advance his stature in the town by suggesting that the plague was an act of God punishing the citizens' sinful nature. His diatribe falls on the ears of many citizens of the town, who turned to religion in droves but would not have done so under normal circumstances. Cottard, a criminal remorseful enough to attempt suicide but fearful of being arrested, becomes wealthy as a major smuggler. Meanwhile, Jean Tarrou, a vacationer; Joseph Grand, a civil engineer; and Dr. Rieux, exhaustively treat patients in their homes and in the hospital.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Plot summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rambert informs Tarrou of his escape plan, but when Tarrou tells him that there are others in the city, including Dr. Rieux, who have loved ones outside the city whom they are not allowed to see, Rambert becomes sympathetic and offers to help Rieux fight the epidemic until he leaves town.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Plot summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In mid-August, the situation continues to worsen. People try to escape the town, but some are shot by armed sentries. Violence and looting break out on a small scale, and the authorities respond by declaring martial law and imposing a curfew. Funerals are conducted with more speed, no ceremony and little concern for the feelings of the families of the deceased. The inhabitants passively endure their increasing feelings of exile and separation. Despondent, they waste away emotionally as well as physically.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Plot summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In September and October, the town remains at the mercy of the plague. Rieux hears from the sanatorium that his wife's condition is worsening. He also hardens his heart regarding the plague victims so that he can continue to do his work. Cottard, on the other hand, seems to flourish during the plague because it gives him a sense of being connected to others, since everybody faces the same danger. Cottard and Tarrou attend a performance of Gluck's opera Orpheus and Eurydice, but the actor portraying Orpheus collapses with plague symptoms during the performance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Plot summary", "target_page_ids": [ 99636, 354439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 443, 448 ], [ 457, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After extended negotiations with guards, Rambert finally has a chance to escape, but he decides to stay, saying that he would feel ashamed of himself if he left.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Plot summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Towards the end of October, Castel's new antiplague serum is tried for the first time, but it cannot save the life of Othon's young son, who suffers greatly, as Paneloux, Rieux, and Tarrou tend to his bedside in horror.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Plot summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Paneloux, who has joined the group of volunteers fighting the plague, gives a second sermon. He addresses the problem of an innocent child's suffering and says it is a test of a Christian's faith since it requires him either to deny everything or believe everything. He urges the congregation not to give up the struggle but to do everything possible to fight the plague.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Plot summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A few days after the sermon, Paneloux is taken ill. His symptoms do not conform to those of the plague, but the disease still proves fatal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Plot summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tarrou and Rambert visit one of the isolation camps, where they meet Othon. When Othon's period of quarantine ends, he chooses to stay in the camp as a volunteer because this will make him feel less separated from his dead son. Tarrou tells Rieux the story of his life and, to take their mind off the epidemic, the two men go swimming together in the sea. Grand catches the plague and instructs Rieux to burn all his papers. However, Grand makes an unexpected recovery, and deaths from the plague start to decline.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Plot summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By late January the plague is in full retreat, and the townspeople begin to celebrate the imminent opening of the town gates. Othon, however, does not escape death from the disease. Cottard is distressed by the ending of the epidemic from which he has profited by shady dealings. Two government employees approach him, and he flees. Despite the epidemic's ending, Tarrou contracts the plague and dies after a heroic struggle. Rieux is later informed via telegram that his wife has also died.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Plot summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In February, the town gates open and people are reunited with their loved ones from other cities. Rambert is reunited with his wife. Cottard goes mad and shoots at people from his home, and is soon arrested after a brief skirmish with the police. Grand begins working on his novel again. The narrator of the chronicle says that he is Dr. Rieux and states that he tried to present an objective view of the events. He reflects on the epidemic and declares he wrote the chronicle \"to simply say what we learn in the midst of plagues: there are more things to admire in men than to despise\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Plot summary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Germaine Brée has characterised the struggle of the characters against the plague as \"undramatic and stubborn\", and in contrast to the ideology of \"glorification of power\" in the novels of André Malraux, whereas Camus' characters \"are obscurely engaged in saving, not destroying, and this in the name of no ideology\". Lulu Haroutunian has discussed Camus' own medical history, including a bout with tuberculosis, and how it informs the novel. Marina Warner notes its larger philosophical themes of \"engagement\", \"paltriness and generosity\", \"small heroism and large cowardice\", and \"all kinds of profoundly humanist problems, such as love and goodness, happiness and mutual connection\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Critical analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 61002106, 42691, 1669684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 189, 202 ], [ 443, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thomas L Hanna and John Loose have separately discussed themes related to Christianity in the novel, with particular respect to Father Paneloux and Dr Rieux. Louis R Rossi briefly discusses the role of Tarrou in the novel, and the sense of philosophical guilt behind his character. Elwyn Sterling has analysed the role of Cottard and his final actions at the end of the novel. Father Paneloux has been subject to several literary analysis in the context of faith faced with great suffering.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Critical analysis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dr Rieux has been described as a classic example of an idealist doctor. He has also been an inspiration to the life and career of the French doctor , and also to the fictional character of Jeanne Dion, starring in the movie trilogy directed by Bernard Émond (beginning with The Novena).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Critical analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 24000311, 58571681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 244, 257 ], [ 274, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medically trained readers are sometimes upset that Dr. Rieux and Dr. Castel make no effort to get their patients sulfa drugs, which were available and known to be effective against plague. Instead the doctors waste time and effort attempting to obtain plague antiserum, which was much less effective and, in fact, was rapidly being abandoned during the 1940s.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Critical analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 499685, 905555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 124 ], [ 260, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The novel has been read as an allegorical treatment of the French resistance to Nazi occupation during World War II.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In the popular press", "target_page_ids": [ 1837, 83938, 31045316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 41 ], [ 59, 76 ], [ 80, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The novel became a bestseller during the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic of 2020 to the point that its British publisher Penguin Classics reported struggling to keep up with demand. The prescience of the fictional cordon sanitaire of Oran with real-life COVID-19 lockdowns worldwide brought revived popular attention. Sales in Italy tripled and it became a top-ten bestseller during its nationwide lockdown. Penguin Classics' editorial director said \"it couldn’t be more relevant to the current moment\" and Camus' daughter Catherine said that the message of the novel had newfound relevance in that \"we are not responsible for coronavirus but we can be responsible in the way we respond to it\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In the popular press", "target_page_ids": [ 62750956, 2599308, 1166041, 63465223, 63316879, 63030231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 68 ], [ 117, 133 ], [ 210, 226 ], [ 250, 268 ], [ 379, 402 ], [ 623, 634 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1965: La Peste, a cantata composed by Roberto Gerhard", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 495122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1970 Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow, a Hong Kong film directed by Patrick Lung", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 66699795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1992: La Peste, a film directed by Luis Puenzo", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 42614882, 9130968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 15 ], [ 36, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2017: The Plague, a play adapted by Neil Bartlett. Bartlett substitutes a black woman for the male doctor, Rieux, and a black man for Tarrou.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 2991746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2020: The Plague, an adaptation for radio of Neil Bartlett's 2017 play. Premiered on 26 July on BBC Radio 4 during the COVID-19 pandemic. The play was recorded at home by actors during the quarantine period. With Sara Powell as Doctor Rieux, Billy Postlethwaite as Raymond Rambert, Joe Alessi as Mr Cottard, Jude Aduwudike as Jean Tarrou and Colin Hurley as Mr Grand.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 72758, 63030231, 41714094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 108 ], [ 120, 128 ], [ 343, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As early as April 1941, Camus had been working on the novel, as evidenced in his diaries in which he wrote down a few ideas on \"the redeeming plague\". On 13 March 1942, he informed André Malraux that he was writing \"a novel on the plague\", adding \"Said like that it might sound strange, […] but this subject seems so natural to me.\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Publication history", "target_page_ids": [ 42691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947, La Peste (French), Paris: Gallimard", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Publication history", "target_page_ids": [ 788757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1948, translated by Stuart Gilbert, London: Hamish Hamilton", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Publication history", "target_page_ids": [ 3611058, 3129867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 35 ], [ 45, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1960, translated by Stuart Gilbert, London: Penguin, ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Publication history", "target_page_ids": [ 3611058, 551953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 35 ], [ 45, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2001, translated by Robin Buss, London: Allen Lane, ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Publication history", "target_page_ids": [ 3229873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2021, translated by Laura Marris, New York: Knopf, ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Publication history", "target_page_ids": [ 1978269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Decameron", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19816731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Masque of the Red Death", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 142323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Betrothed", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 724284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " La Peste, Les Classiques des sciences sociales; Word, PDF, RTF formats, public domain in Canada", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " La Peste, ebooksgratuits.com; HTML format, public domain in Canada", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1947_French_novels", "Absurdist_fiction", "Éditions_Gallimard_books", "Existentialist_novels", "French_novels_adapted_into_films", "Novels_by_Albert_Camus", "Novels_set_in_the_1940s", "Novels_set_in_Algeria", "Plague_(disease)", "Oran", "Health_in_Algeria", "Novels_about_diseases_and_disorders", "Novels_about_viral_outbreaks", "French_novels_adapted_into_plays", "First-person_narrative_novels" ]

[ "La Peste" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Applied ethics refers to the practical application of moral considerations. It is ethics with respect to real-world actions and their moral considerations in the areas of private and public life, the professions, health, technology, law, and leadership. For example, the bioethics community is concerned with identifying the correct approach to moral issues in the life sciences, such as euthanasia, the allocation of scarce health resources, or the use of human embryos in research. Environmental ethics is concerned with ecological issues such as the responsibility of government and corporations to clean up pollution. Business ethics includes questions regarding the duties or duty of 'whistleblowers' to the general public or their loyalty to their employers.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9258, 191941, 9587, 171964, 4770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 88 ], [ 271, 280 ], [ 388, 398 ], [ 484, 504 ], [ 622, 637 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Applied ethics has expanded the study of ethics beyond the realms of academic philosophical discourse. The field of applied ethics, as it appears today, emerged from debate surrounding rapid medical and technological advances in the early 1970s and is now established as a subdiscipline of moral philosophy. However, applied ethics is, by its very nature, a multi-professional subject because it requires specialist understanding of the potential ethical issues in fields like medicine, business or information technology. Nowadays, ethical codes of conduct exist in almost every profession.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 178362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 533, 546 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An applied ethics approach to the examination of moral dilemmas can take many different forms but one of the most influential and most widely utilised approaches in bioethics and health care ethics is the four-principle approach developed by Tom Beauchamp and James Childress. The four-principle approach, commonly termed principlism, entails consideration and application of four prima facie ethical principles: autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17247538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 322, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Applied ethics is distinguished from normative ethics, which concerns standards for right and wrong behavior, and from meta-ethics, which concerns the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Underpinning theory", "target_page_ids": [ 22081, 18917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 53 ], [ 119, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whilst these three areas of ethics appear to be distinct they are also interrelated. The use of an applied ethics approach often draws upon certain normative ethical theories like the following:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Underpinning theory", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Consequentialist ethics, or theories holding that normative properties of acts depend only on consequences. The paradigm consequentialist family of theories is utilitarianism, which holds that whether an act is morally right depends on whether that act maximizes some sort of net good. This theory's main developments came from Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill who distinguished between an act and rule utilitarianist morality. Later developments have also adjusted the theory, most notably Henry Sidgwick who introduced the idea of motive or intent in morality, and Peter Singer who introduced the idea of preference in moral decision making. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Underpinning theory", "target_page_ids": [ 5734, 31792, 46038, 15626, 206999, 7174542, 44525775, 23721, 28737250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 161, 175 ], [ 329, 343 ], [ 348, 364 ], [ 495, 509 ], [ 537, 543 ], [ 547, 553 ], [ 571, 583 ], [ 611, 621 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Deontological ethics, notions based on 'rules' i.e. that there is an obligation to perform the 'right' action, regardless of actual consequences. This approach is epitomized by Immanuel Kant's notion of the Categorical Imperative, which was the centre to Kant's ethical theory based on duty. Another key deontological theory is Natural Law, which was heavily developed by Thomas Aquinas and is an important part of the Catholic Church's teaching on Morals. Threshold deontology holds that rules ought to govern up to a point despite adverse consequences; but when the consequences become so dire that they cross a stipulated threshold, consequentialism takes over.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Underpinning theory", "target_page_ids": [ 296059, 14631, 214856, 183749, 22063, 21490957, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 178, 191 ], [ 208, 230 ], [ 287, 291 ], [ 329, 340 ], [ 373, 387 ], [ 420, 435 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Virtue ethics, derived from Aristotle's and Confucius's notions, which asserts that the right action will be that chosen by a suitably 'virtuous' agent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Underpinning theory", "target_page_ids": [ 261873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sometimes, these normative ethical theories clash which poses challenges when trying to resolve real-world ethical dilemmas. One approach which attempts to overcome the seemingly impossible divide between deontology and utilitarianism (of which the divide is caused by the opposite takings of an absolute and relativist moral view) is case-based reasoning, also known as casuistry. Casuistry does not begin with theory, rather it starts with the immediate facts of a real and concrete case. While casuistry makes use of ethical theory, it does not view ethical theory as the most important feature of moral reasoning. Casuists, like Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin (The Abuse of Casuistry 1988), challenge the traditional paradigm of applied ethics. Instead of starting from theory and applying theory to a particular case, casuists start with the particular case itself and then ask what morally significant features (including both theory and practical considerations) ought to be considered for that particular case. In their observations of medical ethics committees, Jonsen and Toulmin note that a consensus on particularly problematic moral cases often emerges when participants focus on the facts of the case, rather than on ideology or theory. Thus, a Rabbi, a Catholic priest, and an agnostic might agree that, in this particular case, the best approach is to withhold extraordinary medical care, while disagreeing on the reasons that support their individual positions. By focusing on cases and not on theory, those engaged in moral debate increase the possibility of agreement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Underpinning theory", "target_page_ids": [ 49062, 48053, 170333, 5946, 1543748, 175308, 75469, 30746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 296, 304 ], [ 309, 319 ], [ 335, 355 ], [ 371, 380 ], [ 651, 666 ], [ 724, 732 ], [ 1234, 1242 ], [ 1246, 1252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Applied ethics was later distinguished from the nascent applied epistemology, which is also under the umbrella of applied philosophy. While the former was concerned with the practical application of moral considerations, the latter focuses on the application of epistemology in solving practical problems.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Underpinning theory", "target_page_ids": [ 67889424, 539034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 76 ], [ 114, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bioethics", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 191941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Business ethics", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Effective altruism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36903454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ethical codes", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 178362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ethics", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Medical ethics", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 237248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Outline of ethics", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14434409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Philosophy", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13692155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Precautionary principle", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 50354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (monograph)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Applied_ethics", "Ethics" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In mathematics, the absolute value or modulus of a real number , is the non-negative value without regard to its sign. Namely, if is a positive number, and if is negative (in which case negating makes positive), and For example, the absolute value of 3 and the absolute value of −3 is The absolute value of a number may be thought of as its distance from zero.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18831, 20646438, 7951270, 7951270, 7951270, 154616, 39378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 51, 62 ], [ 73, 85 ], [ 115, 119 ], [ 139, 154 ], [ 168, 176 ], [ 352, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Generalisations of the absolute value for real numbers occur in a wide variety of mathematical settings. For example, an absolute value is also defined for the complex numbers, the quaternions, ordered rings, fields and vector spaces. The absolute value is closely related to the notions of magnitude, distance, and norm in various mathematical and physical contexts.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5826, 51440, 525697, 10603, 32370, 577301, 39378, 990534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 174 ], [ 181, 191 ], [ 194, 206 ], [ 209, 215 ], [ 220, 232 ], [ 291, 300 ], [ 302, 310 ], [ 316, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1806, Jean-Robert Argand introduced the term module, meaning unit of measure in French, specifically for the complex absolute value, and it was borrowed into English in 1866 as the Latin equivalent modulus. The term absolute value has been used in this sense from at least 1806 in French and 1857 in English. The notation , with a vertical bar on each side, was introduced by Karl Weierstrass in 1841. Other names for absolute value include numerical value and magnitude. In programming languages and computational software packages, the absolute value of x is generally represented by , or a similar expression.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Terminology and notation", "target_page_ids": [ 543727, 641073, 93459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 27 ], [ 334, 346 ], [ 379, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The vertical bar notation also appears in a number of other mathematical contexts: for example, when applied to a set, it denotes its cardinality; when applied to a matrix, it denotes its determinant. Vertical bars denote the absolute value only for algebraic objects for which the notion of an absolute value is defined, notably an element of a normed division algebra, for example a real number, a complex number, or a quaternion. A closely related but distinct notation is the use of vertical bars for either the Euclidean norm or sup norm of a vector although double vertical bars with subscripts respectively) are a more common and less ambiguous notation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Terminology and notation", "target_page_ids": [ 6174, 20556859, 8468, 25167317, 9697, 349755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 145 ], [ 165, 171 ], [ 188, 199 ], [ 347, 370 ], [ 518, 532 ], [ 536, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For any the absolute value or modulus is denoted , with a vertical bar on each side of the quantity, and is defined as", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [ 641073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The absolute value is thus always either a positive number or zero, but never negative. When itself is negative then its absolute value is necessarily positive ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [ 7951270, 34513, 154616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 59 ], [ 63, 67 ], [ 79, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From an analytic geometry point of view, the absolute value of a real number is that number's distance from zero along the real number line, and more generally the absolute value of the difference of two real numbers is the distance between them. The notion of an abstract distance function in mathematics can be seen to be a generalisation of the absolute value of the difference (see Distance below).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [ 2202, 39378, 287188, 20018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 25 ], [ 94, 102 ], [ 123, 139 ], [ 273, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the square root symbol represents the unique positive square root, when applied to a positive number, it follows that", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [ 24971503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is equivalent to the definition above, and may be used as an alternative definition of the absolute value of real numbers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The absolute value has the following four fundamental properties (a, b are real numbers), that are used for generalization of this notion to other domains:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Non-negativity, positive definiteness, and multiplicativity are readily apparent from the definition. To see that subadditivity holds, first note that with its sign chosen to make the result positive. Now, since it follows that, whichever of is the value one has for all Consequently, , as desired.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some additional useful properties are given below. These are either immediate consequences of the definition or implied by the four fundamental properties above.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Two other useful properties concerning inequalities are:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These relations may be used to solve inequalities involving absolute values. For example:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The absolute value, as \"distance from zero\", is used to define the absolute difference between arbitrary real numbers, the standard metric on the real numbers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [ 28021681, 20018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 86 ], [ 132, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the complex numbers are not ordered, the definition given at the top for the real absolute value cannot be directly applied to complex numbers. However, the geometric interpretation of the absolute value of a real number as its distance from 0 can be generalised. The absolute value of a complex number is defined by the Euclidean distance of its corresponding point in the complex plane from the origin. This can be computed using the Pythagorean theorem: for any complex number", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [ 5826, 30330, 217628, 1313432, 26513034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 34, 41 ], [ 380, 393 ], [ 403, 409 ], [ 443, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where and are real numbers, the absolute value or modulus is and is defined by", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "the Pythagorean addition of and , where and denote the real and imaginary parts respectively. When the is zero, this coincides with the definition of the absolute value of the ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [ 14597289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When a complex number is expressed in its polar form its absolute value ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [ 5826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the product of any complex number and its with the same absolute value, is always the non-negative real number the absolute value of a complex number is the square root which is therefore called the absolute square or squared modulus ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [ 659942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This generalizes the alternative definition for reals: ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The complex absolute value shares the four fundamental properties given above for the real absolute value. The identity is a special case of multiplicativity that is often useful by itself.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Definition and properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The real absolute value function is continuous everywhere. It is differentiable everywhere except for . It is monotonically decreasing on the interval and monotonically increasing on the interval . Since a real number and its opposite have the same absolute value, it is an even function, and is hence not invertible. The real absolute value function is a piecewise linear, convex function.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Absolute value function", "target_page_ids": [ 6122, 330206, 48260, 228312, 592151, 14907, 444224, 245568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 46 ], [ 65, 79 ], [ 111, 135 ], [ 228, 236 ], [ 276, 289 ], [ 308, 318 ], [ 358, 374 ], [ 376, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For both real and complex numbers the absolute value function is idempotent (meaning that the absolute value of any absolute value is itself).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Absolute value function", "target_page_ids": [ 14972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The absolute value function of a real number returns its value irrespective of its sign, whereas the sign (or signum) function returns a number's sign irrespective of its value. The following equations show the relationship between these two functions:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Absolute value function", "target_page_ids": [ 505449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "or", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Absolute value function", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and for ,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Absolute value function", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The real absolute value function has a derivative for every , but is not differentiable at . Its derivative for is given by the step function:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Absolute value function", "target_page_ids": [ 330206, 170939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 87 ], [ 129, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The real absolute value function is an example of a continuous function that achieves a global minimum where the derivative does not exist.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Absolute value function", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The subdifferential of at is the interval.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Absolute value function", "target_page_ids": [ 3462862, 49172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 33, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The complex absolute value function is continuous everywhere but complex differentiable nowhere because it violates the Cauchy–Riemann equations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Absolute value function", "target_page_ids": [ 5826, 14110, 7583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 65, 87 ], [ 120, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second derivative of with respect to is zero everywhere except zero, where it does not exist. As a generalised function, the second derivative may be taken as two times the Dirac delta function.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Absolute value function", "target_page_ids": [ 1580246, 37021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 123 ], [ 177, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The antiderivative (indefinite integral) of the real absolute value function is", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Absolute value function", "target_page_ids": [ 2823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is an arbitrary constant of integration. This is not a complex antiderivative because complex antiderivatives can only exist for complex-differentiable (holomorphic) functions, which the complex absolute value function is not.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Absolute value function", "target_page_ids": [ 147939, 6038197, 14110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 46 ], [ 62, 84 ], [ 160, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The absolute value is closely related to the idea of distance. As noted above, the absolute value of a real or complex number is the distance from that number to the origin, along the real number line, for real numbers, or in the complex plane, for complex numbers, and more generally, the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers is the distance between them.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [ 39378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The standard Euclidean distance between two points", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [ 53932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "in Euclidean -space is defined as:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [ 9697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This can be seen as a generalisation, since for and real, i.e. in a 1-space, according to the alternative definition of the absolute value,", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and for and complex numbers, i.e. in a 2-space,", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "{|", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The above shows that the \"absolute value\"-distance, for real and complex numbers, agrees with the standard Euclidean distance, which they inherit as a result of considering them as one and two-dimensional Euclidean spaces, respectively.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The properties of the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers: non-negativity, identity of 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"plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|Identity of indiscernibles", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|Symmetry", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|Triangle inequality", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Distance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The definition of absolute value given for real numbers above can be extended to any ordered ring. That is, if is an element of an ordered ringR, then the absolute value of, denoted by , is defined to be:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 525697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is the additive inverse of, 0 is the additive identity, and < and ≥ have the usual meaning with respect to the ordering in the ring.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 228312, 4178225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 30 ], [ 44, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The four fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers can be used to generalise the notion of absolute value to an arbitrary field, as follows.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A real-valued function on a field is called an absolute value (also a modulus, magnitude, value, or valuation) if it satisfies the following four axioms:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 10603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "{| cellpadding=10", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|Non-negativity", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|Positive-definiteness", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|Multiplicativity", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|Subadditivity or the triangle inequality", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Where 0 denotes the additive identity of. It follows from positive-definiteness and multiplicativity that , where 1 denotes the multiplicative identity of. The real and complex absolute values defined above are examples of absolute values for an arbitrary field.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 4178225, 14962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 37 ], [ 128, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If is an absolute value on, then the function on , defined by , is a metric and the following are equivalent:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " satisfies the ultrametric inequality for all , , in.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 333996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " is bounded inR.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 48258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " for every .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " for all .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " for all .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An absolute value which satisfies any (hence all) of the above conditions is said to be non-Archimedean, otherwise it is said to be Archimedean.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 264158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Again the fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers can be used, with a slight modification, to generalise the notion to an arbitrary vector space.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A real-valued function on a vector space over a field, represented as , is called an absolute value, but more usually a norm, if it satisfies the following axioms:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 32370, 990534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 40 ], [ 120, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For all in, and , in,", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "{| cellpadding=10", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|Non-negativity", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|Positive-definiteness", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|Positive homogeneity or positive scalability", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|Subadditivity or the triangle inequality", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The norm of a vector is also called its length or magnitude.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the case of Euclidean space , the function defined by", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 9697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "is a norm called the Euclidean norm. When the real numbers are considered as the one-dimensional vector space , the absolute value is a norm, and is the -norm (see Lp space) for any. In fact the absolute value is the \"only\" norm on , in the sense that, for every norm on , .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 9697, 990534, 45194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 35 ], [ 137, 141 ], [ 165, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The complex absolute value is a special case of the norm in an inner product space, which is identical to the Euclidean norm when the complex plane is identified as the Euclidean plane.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 14856, 217628, 15575410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 82 ], [ 134, 147 ], [ 169, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Every composition algebra A has an involution x → x* called its conjugation. The product in A of an element x and its conjugate x* is written N(x) = x x* and called the norm of x.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 293450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The real numbers , complex numbers , and quaternions are all composition algebras with norms given by definite quadratic forms. The absolute value in these division algebras is given by the square root of the composition algebra norm.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 20437320, 26549625, 29208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 126 ], [ 157, 173 ], [ 191, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In general the norm of a composition algebra may be a quadratic form that is not definite and has null vectors. However, as in the case of division algebras, when an element x has a non-zero norm, then x has a multiplicative inverse given by x*/N(x).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Generalizations", "target_page_ids": [ 251478, 1453977, 229940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 68 ], [ 98, 109 ], [ 210, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Least absolute values", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19048902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bartle; Sherbert; Introduction to real analysis (4th ed.), John Wiley & Sons, 2011 .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nahin, Paul J.; An Imaginary Tale; Princeton University Press; (hardcover, 1998). .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mac Lane, Saunders, Garrett Birkhoff, Algebra, American Mathematical Soc., 1999. .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mendelson, Elliott, Schaum's Outline of Beginning Calculus, McGraw-Hill Professional, 2008. .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " O'Connor, J.J. and Robertson, E.F.; \"Jean Robert Argand\".", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Schechter, Eric; Handbook of Analysis and Its Foundations, pp.259–263, \"Absolute Values\", Academic Press (1997) .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Special_functions", "Real_numbers", "Norms_(mathematics)" ]

[ "|x|", "absolute value function", "absolute value of real number", "modulus", "magnitude", "absolute value of a real number", "abs", "abs()" ]

[ { "plaintext": "An analog signal is any continuous signal representing some other quantity, i.e., analogous to another quantity. 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Generation loss is irreversible as there is no reliable method to distinguish the noise from the signal.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Noise", "target_page_ids": [ 3966982, 41052, 156700, 190003, 29324, 41706, 1725321, 3449744, 590995, 3338992, 32441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 47 ], [ 52, 62 ], [ 77, 98 ], [ 101, 110 ], [ 115, 132 ], [ 181, 202 ], [ 335, 350 ], [ 478, 482 ], [ 487, 513 ], [ 535, 539 ], [ 543, 556 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In contrast, although converting an analog signal to digital form introduces a low-level quantization noise into the signal due to finite resolution of digital systems, once in digital form, the signal can be transmitted, stored, or processed without introducing significant additional noise or distortion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Noise", "target_page_ids": [ 40367, 317018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 65 ], [ 89, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Noise accumulation in analog systems can be minimized by electromagnetic shielding, balanced lines, low-noise amplifiers and high-quality electrical components.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Noise", "target_page_ids": [ 1564394, 40767, 285370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 82 ], [ 84, 97 ], [ 100, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In analog systems, it is difficult to detect when such degradation occurs. However, in digital systems, degradation can not only be detected but corrected as well.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Noise", "target_page_ids": [ 10375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amplifier", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Analog computer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Analog device", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11438514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Analog signal processing", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 405746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Magnetic tape", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Preamplifier", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 332410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] } ]

[ "Analog_circuits", "Electronic_design", "Television_terminology", "Video_signal" ]

[ "analogue signal" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Arecales is an order of flowering plants. The order has been widely recognised only for the past few decades; until then, the accepted name for the order including these plants was Principes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 61763, 18967, 4092047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 20 ], [ 24, 39 ], [ 181, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The APG IV system of 2016 places Dasypogonaceae in this order, after studies showing Dasypogonaceae as sister to Arecaceae. However, this decision has been called into question.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 50764138, 4092004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 33, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Cronquist system of 1981 assigned the order to the subclass Arecidae in the class Liliopsida (= monocotyledons).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 242523, 4402660, 67126, 55625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 64, 72 ], [ 86, 96 ], [ 100, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Thorne system (1992) and the Dahlgren system assigned the order to the superorder Areciflorae, also called Arecanae in the subclass Liliidae (= monocotyledons), with the single family Arecaceae.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 3955973, 4059850, 994, 4129255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 33, 48 ], [ 111, 119 ], [ 136, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The APG II system of 2003 recognised the order and placed it in the clade commelinids in the monocots and uses this circumscription:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 4067401, 4091955, 55625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 74, 85 ], [ 93, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " order Arecales", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " family Arecaceae, alternative name Palmae", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 45715, 45715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 17 ], [ 36, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This was unchanged from the APG system of 1998, although it used the spelling \"commelinoids\" instead of commelinids.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 4067323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NCBI Taxonomy Browser", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arecales", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Arecales", "Angiosperm_orders", "Late_Cretaceous_plants", "Extant_Campanian_first_appearances" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Hercule Poirot (, ) is a fictional Belgian detective created by British writer Agatha Christie. Poirot is one of Christie's most famous and long-running characters, appearing in 33 novels, two plays (Black Coffee and Alibi), and more than 50 short stories published between 1920 and 1975.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1263929, 984, 9483073, 5938931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 42 ], [ 79, 94 ], [ 200, 212 ], [ 217, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poirot has been portrayed on radio, in film and on television by various actors, including Austin Trevor, John Moffatt, Albert Finney, Peter Ustinov, Ian Holm, Tony Randall, Alfred Molina, Orson Welles, David Suchet, Kenneth Branagh, and John Malkovich.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14749939, 9638112, 43910, 167975, 171137, 438927, 612068, 22196, 150210, 101407, 175431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 104 ], [ 106, 118 ], [ 120, 133 ], [ 135, 148 ], [ 150, 158 ], [ 160, 172 ], [ 174, 187 ], [ 189, 201 ], [ 203, 215 ], [ 217, 232 ], [ 238, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poirot's name was derived from two other fictional detectives of the time: Marie Belloc Lowndes' Hercule Popeau and Frank Howel Evans' Monsieur Poiret, a retired French police officer living in London. Evans' Jules Poiret \"was small and rather heavyset, hardly more than five feet, but moved with his head held high. The most remarkable features of his head were the stiff military moustache. His apparel was neat to perfection, a little quaint and frankly dandified.\" He was accompanied by Captain Harry Haven, who had returned to London from a Colombian business venture ended by a civil war. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 705910, 65321974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 95 ], [ 116, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A more obvious influence on the early Poirot stories is that of Arthur Conan Doyle. In An Autobiography, Christie states, \"I was still writing in the Sherlock Holmes tradition – eccentric detective, stooge assistant, with a Lestrade-type Scotland Yard detective, Inspector Japp\". For his part, Conan Doyle acknowledged basing his detective stories on the model of Edgar Allan Poe's C. Auguste Dupin and his anonymous narrator, and basing his character Sherlock Holmes on Joseph Bell, who in his use of \"ratiocination\" prefigured Poirot's reliance on his \"little grey cells\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 18951335, 27159, 1252248, 9549, 921262, 193040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 82 ], [ 150, 165 ], [ 224, 232 ], [ 364, 379 ], [ 382, 398 ], [ 471, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poirot also bears a striking resemblance to A. E. W. Mason's fictional detective Inspector Hanaud of the French Sûreté, who first appeared in the 1910 novel At the Villa Rose and predates the first Poirot novel by 10 years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 1035916, 26837540, 1019803, 20453042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 58 ], [ 81, 97 ], [ 112, 118 ], [ 157, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christie's Poirot was clearly the result of her early development of the detective in her first book, written in 1916 and published in 1920. Belgium's occupation by Germany during World War I provided a plausible explanation of why such a skilled detective would be available to solve mysteries at an English country house. At the time of Christie's writing, it was considered patriotic to express sympathy towards the Belgians, since the invasion of their country had constituted Britain's casus belli for entering World War I, and British wartime propaganda emphasised the \"Rape of Belgium\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 1312933, 178904, 3613433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 301, 322 ], [ 491, 502 ], [ 576, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poirot first appeared in The Mysterious Affair at Styles (published in 1920) and exited in Curtain (published in 1975). Following the latter, Poirot was the only fictional character to receive an obituary on the front page of The New York Times.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 218875, 1573713, 30680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 56 ], [ 91, 98 ], [ 226, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1930, Agatha Christie found Poirot \"insufferable\", and by 1960 she felt that he was a \"detestable, bombastic, tiresome, ego-centric little creep\". Despite this, Poirot remained an exceedingly popular character with the general public. Christie later stated that she refused to kill him off, claiming that it was her duty to produce what the public liked.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Captain Arthur Hastings's first description of Poirot:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 261285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Agatha Christie's initial description of Poirot in The Murder on the Orient Express:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 162770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the later books, his limp is not mentioned, suggesting it may have been a temporary wartime injury. (In Curtain, Poirot admits he was wounded when he first came to England.) Poirot has green eyes that are repeatedly described as shining \"like a cat's\" when he is struck by a clever idea, and dark hair, which he dyes later in life. In Curtain, he admits to Hastings that he wears a wig and a false moustache. However, in many of his screen incarnations, he is bald or balding.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Frequent mention is made of his patent leather shoes, damage to which is frequently a source of misery for him, but comical for the reader. Poirot's appearance, regarded as fastidious during his early career, later falls hopelessly out of fashion.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 376641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among Poirot's most significant personal attributes is the sensitivity of his stomach:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He suffers from sea sickness, and, in Death in the Clouds, he states that his air sickness prevents him from being more alert at the time of the murder. Later in his life, we are told:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 62580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poirot is extremely punctual and carries a pocket watch almost to the end of his career. He is also particular about his personal finances, preferring to keep a bank balance of 444 pounds, 4 shillings, and 4 pence. Actor David Suchet, who portrayed Poirot on television, said \"there's no question he's obsessive-compulsive\". Film portrayer Kenneth Branagh said that he \"enjoyed finding the sort of obsessive-compulsive\" in Poirot.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 767894, 150210, 20082214, 101407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 55 ], [ 221, 233 ], [ 302, 322 ], [ 340, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As mentioned in Curtain and The Clocks, he is fond of classical music, particularly Mozart and Bach.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 1573713, 2299978, 33163, 9906294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 23 ], [ 28, 38 ], [ 84, 90 ], [ 95, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In The Mysterious Affair at Styles, Poirot operates as a fairly conventional, clue-based and logical detective; reflected in his vocabulary by two common phrases: his use of \"the little grey cells\" and \"order and method\". Hastings is irritated by the fact that Poirot sometimes conceals important details of his plans, as in The Big Four. In this novel, Hastings is kept in the dark throughout the climax. This aspect of Poirot is less evident in the later novels, partly because there is rarely a narrator to mislead.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 37592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Murder on the Links, still largely dependent on clues himself, Poirot mocks a rival \"bloodhound\" detective who focuses on the traditional trail of clues established in detective fiction (e.g., Sherlock Holmes depending on footprints, fingerprints, and cigar ash). From this point on, Poirot establishes his psychological bona fides. Rather than painstakingly examining crime scenes, he enquires into the nature of the victim or the psychology of the murderer. He predicates his actions in the later novels on his underlying assumption that particular crimes are committed by particular types of people.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 6160922, 84777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 235 ], [ 237, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poirot focuses on getting people to talk. In the early novels, he casts himself in the role of \"Papa Poirot\", a benign confessor, especially to young women. In later works, Christie made a point of having Poirot supply false or misleading information about himself or his background to assist him in obtaining information. In The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, Poirot speaks of a non-existent mentally disabled nephew to uncover information about homes for the mentally unfit. In Dumb Witness, Poirot invents an elderly invalid mother as a pretence to investigate local nurses. In The Big Four, Poirot pretends to have (and poses as) an identical twin brother named Achille: however, this brother was mentioned again in The Labours of Hercules.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"If I remember rightly – though my memory isn't what it was – you also had a brother called Achille, did you not?” Poirot's mind raced back over the details of Achille Poirot's career. Had all that really happened? \"Only for a short space of time,\" he replied.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Poirot is also willing to appear more foreign or vain in an effort to make people underestimate him. He admits as much:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is true that I can speak the exact, the idiomatic English. But, my friend, to speak the broken English is an enormous asset. It leads people to despise you. They say – a foreigner – he can't even speak English properly. ... Also I boast! An Englishman he says often, \"A fellow who thinks as much of himself as that cannot be worth much.\" ... And so, you see, I put people off their guard.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He also has a tendency to refer to himself in the third person.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 2721934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In later novels, Christie often uses the word mountebank when characters describe Poirot, showing that he has successfully passed himself off as a charlatan or fraud.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 325961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poirot's investigating techniques assist him solving cases; \"For in the long run, either through a lie, or through truth, people were bound to give themselves away...\" At the end, Poirot usually reveals his description of the sequence of events and his deductions to a room of suspects, often leading to the culprit's apprehension.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Christie was purposely vague about Poirot's origins, as he is thought to be an elderly man even in the early novels. In An Autobiography, she admitted that she already imagined him to be an old man in 1920. At the time, however, she had no idea she would write works featuring him for decades to come.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A brief passage in The Big Four provides original information about Poirot's birth or at least childhood in or near the town of Spa, Belgium: \"But we did not go into Spa itself. We left the main road and wound into the leafy fastnesses of the hills, till we reached a little hamlet and an isolated white villa high on the hillside.\" Christie strongly implies that this \"quiet retreat in the Ardennes\" near Spa is the location of the Poirot family home.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 176148, 143706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 140 ], [ 391, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An alternative tradition holds that Poirot was born in the village of Ellezelles (province of Hainaut, Belgium). A few memorials dedicated to Hercule Poirot can be seen in the centre of this village. There appears to be no reference to this in Christie's writings, but the town of Ellezelles cherishes a copy of Poirot's birth certificate in a local memorial 'attesting' Poirot's birth, naming his father and mother as Jules-Louis Poirot and Godelieve Poirot.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 175201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christie wrote that Poirot is a Catholic by birth, but not much is described about his later religious convictions, except sporadic references to his \"going to church\". Christie provides little information regarding Poirot's childhood, only mentioning in Three Act Tragedy that he comes from a large family with little wealth, and has at least one younger sister. Apart from French and English, Poirot is also fluent in German.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gustave ... was not a policeman. I have dealt with policemen all my life and I know. He could pass as a detective to an outsider but not to a man who was a policeman himself.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " — Hercule Poirot ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hercule Poirot was active in the Brussels police force by 1893. Very little mention is made about this part of his life, but in \"The Nemean Lion\" (1939) Poirot refers to a Belgian case of his in which \"a wealthy soap manufacturer ... poisoned his wife in order to be free to marry his secretary\". As Poirot was often misleading about his past to gain information, the truthfulness of that statement is unknown; it does, however, scare off a would-be wife-killer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 3708, 2376388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 41 ], [ 129, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the short story \"The Chocolate Box\" (1923), Poirot reveals to Captain Arthur Hastings an account of what he considers to be his only failure. Poirot admits that he has failed to solve a crime \"innumerable\" times:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 2376393, 261285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 38 ], [ 65, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "I have been called in too late. Very often another, working towards the same goal, has arrived there first. Twice I have been struck down with illness just as I was on the point of success.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nevertheless, he regards the 1893 case in \"The Chocolate Box\", as his only actual failure of detection. Again, Poirot is not reliable as a narrator of his personal history and there is no evidence that Christie sketched it out in any depth. During his police career, Poirot shot a man who was firing from a roof into the public below. In Lord Edgware Dies, Poirot reveals that he learned to read writing upside down during his police career. Around that time he met Xavier Bouc, director of the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 250478, 1847289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 338, 355 ], [ 495, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inspector Japp offers some insight into Poirot's career with the Belgian police when introducing him to a colleague:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "You've heard me speak of Mr Poirot? It was in 1904 he and I worked together – the Abercrombie forgery case – you remember he was run down in Brussels. Ah, those were the days Moosier. Then, do you remember \"Baron\" Altara? There was a pretty rogue for you! He eluded the clutches of half the police in Europe. But we nailed him in Antwerp – thanks to Mr. Poirot here.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In The Double Clue, Poirot mentions that he was Chief of Police of Brussels, until \"the Great War\" (World War I) forced him to leave for England.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "I had called in at my friend Poirot's rooms to find him sadly overworked. So much had he become the rage that every rich woman who had mislaid a bracelet or lost a pet kitten rushed to secure the services of the great Hercule Poirot. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During World War I, Poirot left Belgium for England as a refugee, although he returned a few times. On 16 July 1916 he again met his lifelong friend, Captain Arthur Hastings, and solved the first of his cases to be published, The Mysterious Affair at Styles. It is clear that Hastings and Poirot are already friends when they meet in Chapter 2 of the novel, as Hastings tells Cynthia that he has not seen him for \"some years\" (Agatha Christie's Poirot has Hastings reveal that they met on a shooting case where Hastings was a suspect). Particulars such as the date of 1916 for the case and that Hastings had met Poirot in Belgium, are given in Curtain: Poirot's Last Case, Chapter 1. After that case, Poirot apparently came to the attention of the British secret service and undertook cases for the British government, including foiling the attempted abduction of the Prime Minister. Readers were told that the British authorities had learned of Poirot's keen investigative ability from certain members of Belgium's royal family.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 45547, 24150, 62276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 64 ], [ 869, 883 ], [ 1007, 1029 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the war, Poirot became a private detective and began undertaking civilian cases. He moved into what became both his home and work address, Flat 203 at 56B Whitehaven Mansions. Hastings first visits the flat when he returns to England in June 1935 from Argentina in The A.B.C. Murders, Chapter 1. The TV programmes place this in Florin Court, Charterhouse Square, in the wrong part of London. According to Hastings, it was chosen by Poirot \"entirely on account of its strict geometrical appearance and proportion\" and described as the \"newest type of service flat\". (The Florin Court building was actually built in 1936, decades after Poirot fictionally moved in.) His first case in this period was \"The Affair at the Victory Ball\", which allowed Poirot to enter high society and begin his career as a private detective.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 243087, 6757003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 271, 289 ], [ 334, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between the world wars, Poirot travelled all over Europe, Africa, Asia, and half of South America investigating crimes and solving murders. Most of his cases occurred during this time and he was at the height of his powers at this point in his life. In The Murder on the Links, the Belgian pits his grey cells against a French murderer. In the Middle East, he solved the cases Death on the Nile and Murder in Mesopotamia with ease and even survived An Appointment with Death. As he passed through Eastern Europe on his return trip, he solved The Murder on the Orient Express. However, he did not travel to North America, the West Indies, the Caribbean or Oceania, probably to avoid seasickness.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is this villainous sea that troubles me! The mal de mer – it is horrible suffering!", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It was during this time he met the Countess Vera Rossakoff, a glamorous jewel thief. The history of the countess is, like Poirot's, steeped in mystery. She claims to have been a member of the Russian aristocracy before the Russian Revolution and suffered greatly as a result, but how much of that story is true is an open question. Even Poirot acknowledges that Rossakoff offered wildly varying accounts of her early life. Poirot later became smitten with the woman and allowed her to escape justice.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is the misfortune of small, precise men always to hanker after large and flamboyant women. Poirot had never been able to rid himself of the fatal fascination that the countess held for him.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although letting the countess escape was morally questionable, it was not uncommon. In The Nemean Lion, Poirot sided with the criminal, Miss Amy Carnaby, allowing her to evade prosecution by blackmailing his client Sir Joseph Hoggins, who, Poirot discovered, had plans to commit murder. Poirot even sent Miss Carnaby two hundred pounds as a final payoff prior to the conclusion of her dog kidnapping campaign. In The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, Poirot allowed the murderer to escape justice through suicide and then withheld the truth to spare the feelings of the murderer's relatives. In The Augean Stables, he helped the government to cover up vast corruption. In Murder on the Orient Express, Poirot allowed the murderers to go free after discovering that twelve different people participated in the murder, each one stabbing the victim in a darkened carriage after drugging him into unconsciousness so that there was no way for anyone to definitively determine which of them actually delivered the killing blow. The victim had committed a disgusting crime which led to the deaths of at least five people, and there was no question of his guilt, but he had been acquitted in America in a miscarriage of justice. Considering it poetic justice that twelve jurors had acquitted him and twelve people had stabbed him, Poirot produced an alternative sequence of events to explain the death involving an unknown additional passenger on the train, with the medical examiner agreeing to doctor his own report to support this theory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After his cases in the Middle East, Poirot returned to Britain. Apart from some of the so-called Labours of Hercules (see next section) he very rarely went abroad during his later career. He moved into Styles Court towards the end of his life.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While Poirot was usually paid handsomely by clients, he was also known to take on cases that piqued his curiosity, although they did not pay well.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Poirot shows a love of steam trains, which Christie contrasts with Hastings' love of autos: this is shown in The Plymouth Express, The Mystery of the Blue Train, Murder on the Orient Express, and The ABC Murders (in the TV series, steam trains are seen in nearly all of the episodes).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 2376393, 1727973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 129 ], [ 131, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "That’s the way of it. Just a case or two, just one case more – the Prima Donna’s farewell performance won’t be in it with yours, Poirot.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Confusion surrounds Poirot's retirement. Most of the cases covered by Poirot's private detective agency take place before his retirement to grow marrows, at which time he solves The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. It has been said that the twelve cases related in The Labours of Hercules (1947) must refer to a different retirement, but the fact that Poirot specifically says that he intends to grow marrows indicates that these stories also take place before Roger Ackroyd, and presumably Poirot closed his agency once he had completed them. There is specific mention in \"The Capture of Cerberus\" of the twenty-year gap between Poirot's previous meeting with Countess Rossakoff and this one. If the Labours precede the events in Roger Ackroyd, then the Ackroyd case must have taken place around twenty years later than it was published, and so must any of the cases that refer to it. One alternative would be that having failed to grow marrows once, Poirot is determined to have another go, but this is specifically denied by Poirot himself. Also, in \"The Erymanthian Boar\", a character is said to have been turned out of Austria by the Nazis, implying that the events of The Labours of Hercules took place after 1937. Another alternative would be to suggest that the Preface to the Labours takes place at one date but that the labours are completed over a matter of twenty years. None of the explanations is especially attractive.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 144759, 31045316, 2376388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 152 ], [ 1131, 1136 ], [ 1166, 1189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In terms of a rudimentary chronology, Poirot speaks of retiring to grow marrows in Chapter 18 of The Big Four (1927) which places that novel out of published order before Roger Ackroyd. He declines to solve a case for the Home Secretary because he is retired in Chapter One of Peril at End House (1932). He has certainly retired at the time of Three Act Tragedy (1935) but he does not enjoy his retirement and repeatedly takes cases thereafter when his curiosity is engaged. He continues to employ his secretary, Miss Lemon, at the time of the cases retold in Hickory Dickory Dock and Dead Man's Folly, which take place in the mid-1950s. It is, therefore, better to assume that Christie provided no authoritative chronology for Poirot's retirement but assumed that he could either be an active detective, a consulting detective, or a retired detective as the needs of the immediate case required.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One consistent element about Poirot's retirement is that his fame declines during it so that in the later novels he is often disappointed when characters (especially younger characters) recognise neither him nor his name:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"I should, perhaps, Madame, tell you a little more about myself. I am Hercule Poirot.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The revelation left Mrs Summerhayes unmoved.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"What a lovely name,\" she said kindly. \"Greek, isn't it?\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Poirot is less active during the cases that take place at the end of his career. Beginning with Three Act Tragedy (1934), Christie had perfected during the inter-war years a subgenre of Poirot novel in which the detective himself spent much of the first third of the novel on the periphery of events. In novels such as Taken at the Flood, After the Funeral, and Hickory Dickory Dock, he is even less in evidence, frequently passing the duties of main interviewing detective to a subsidiary character. In Cat Among the Pigeons, Poirot's entrance is so late as to be almost an afterthought. Whether this was a reflection of his age or of Christie's distaste for him, is impossible to assess. Crooked House (1949) and Ordeal by Innocence (1957), which could easily have been Poirot novels, represent a logical endpoint of the general diminution of his presence in such works.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 353714, 221840, 2299915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 339, 356 ], [ 690, 703 ], [ 715, 734 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Towards the end of his career, it becomes clear that Poirot's retirement is no longer a convenient fiction. He assumes a genuinely inactive lifestyle during which he concerns himself with studying famous unsolved cases of the past and reading detective novels. He even writes a book about mystery fiction in which he deals sternly with Edgar Allan Poe and Wilkie Collins. In the absence of a more appropriate puzzle, he solves such inconsequential domestic riddles as the presence of three pieces of orange peel in his umbrella stand. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 9549, 161275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 337, 352 ], [ 357, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poirot (and, it is reasonable to suppose, his creator) becomes increasingly bemused by the vulgarism of the up-and-coming generation's young people. In Hickory Dickory Dock, he investigates the strange goings-on in a student hostel, while in Third Girl (1966) he is forced into contact with the smart set of Chelsea youths. In the growing drug and pop culture of the sixties, he proves himself once again but has become heavily reliant on other investigators (especially the private investigator, Mr. Goby) who provide him with the clues that he can no longer gather for himself.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 62125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 475, 495 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notably, during this time his physical characteristics also change dramatically, and by the time Arthur Hastings meets Poirot again in Curtain, he looks very different from his previous appearances, having become thin with age and with obviously dyed hair.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On the ITV television series, Poirot died in October 1949 from complications of a heart condition at the end of Poirot's Last Case. This took place at Styles Court, the scene of his first English case in 1916. In Christie's novels, he lived into the early 1970s, perhaps even until 1975 when Curtain was published. In both the novel and the television adaptation, he had moved his amyl nitrite pills out of his own reach, possibly because of guilt. He thereby became the murderer in Curtain, although it was for the benefit of others. Poirot himself noted that he wanted to kill his victim shortly before his own death so that he could avoid succumbing to the arrogance of the murderer, concerned that he might come to view himself as entitled to kill those whom he deemed necessary to eliminate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1573713, 3046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 131 ], [ 382, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"murderer\" that he was hunting had never actually killed anyone, but he had manipulated others to kill for him, subtly and psychologically manipulating the moments where others desire to commit murder so that they carry out the crime when they might otherwise dismiss their thoughts as nothing more than a momentary passion. Poirot thus was forced to kill the man himself, as otherwise he would have continued his actions and never been officially convicted, as he did not legally do anything wrong. It is revealed at the end of Curtain that he fakes his need for a wheelchair to fool people into believing that he is suffering from arthritis, to give the impression that he is more infirm than he is. His last recorded words are \"Cher ami!\", spoken to Hastings as the Captain left his room. (The TV adaptation adds that as Poirot is dying alone, he whispers out his final prayer to God in these words: \"Forgive me... forgive...\") Poirot was buried at Styles, and his funeral was arranged by his best friend Hastings and Hastings' daughter Judith. Hastings reasoned, \"Here was the spot where he had lived when he first came to this country. He was to lie here at the last.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 637, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poirot's actual death and funeral occurred in Curtain, years after his retirement from the active investigation, but it was not the first time that Hastings attended the funeral of his best friend. In The Big Four (1927), Poirot feigned his death and subsequent funeral to launch a surprise attack on the Big Four.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hastings, a former British Army officer, first meets Poirot during Poirot's years as a police officer in Belgium and almost immediately after they both arrive in England. He becomes Poirot's lifelong friend and appears in many cases. Poirot regards Hastings as a poor private detective, not particularly intelligent, yet helpful in his way of being fooled by the criminal or seeing things the way the average man would see them and for his tendency to unknowingly \"stumble\" onto the truth. Hastings marries and has four children – two sons and two daughters. As a loyal, albeit somewhat naïve companion, Hastings is to Poirot what Watson is to Sherlock Holmes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Recurring characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hastings is capable of great bravery and courage, facing death unflinchingly when confronted by The Big Four and displaying unwavering loyalty towards Poirot. However, when forced to choose between Poirot and his wife in that novel, he initially chooses to betray Poirot to protect his wife. Later, though, he tells Poirot to draw back and escape the trap.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Recurring characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The two are an airtight team until Hastings meets and marries Dulcie Duveen, a beautiful music hall performer half his age, after investigating the Murder on the Links. They later emigrated to Argentina, leaving Poirot behind as a \"very unhappy old man\". However, Poirot and Hastings reunite during the novels The Big Four, Peril at End House, The ABC Murders, Lord Edgware Dies, and Dumb Witness, when Hastings arrives in England for business, with Poirot noting in ABC Murders that he enjoys having Hastings over because he feels that he always has his most interesting cases with Hastings. The two collaborate for the final time in Curtain: Poirot's Last Case when the seemingly-crippled Poirot asks Hastings to assist him in his final case. When the killer they are tracking nearly manipulates Hastings into committing murder, Poirot describes this in his final farewell letter to Hastings as the catalyst that prompted him to eliminate the man himself, as Poirot knew that his friend was not a murderer and refused to let a man capable of manipulating Hastings in such a manner go on.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Recurring characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Detective novelist Ariadne Oliver is Agatha Christie's humorous self-caricature. Like Christie, she is not overly fond of the detective whom she is most famous for creating–in Ariadne's case, Finnish sleuth Sven Hjerson. We never learn anything about her husband, but we do know that she hates alcohol and public appearances and has a great fondness for apples until she is put off them by the events of Hallowe'en Party. She also has a habit of constantly changing her hairstyle, and in every appearance by her much is made of her clothes and hats. Her maid Maria prevents the public adoration from becoming too much of a burden on her employer but does nothing to prevent her from becoming too much of a burden on others.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Recurring characters", "target_page_ids": [ 306346, 306344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 219 ], [ 404, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "She has authored more than 56 novels and greatly dislikes people modifying her characters. She is the only one in Poirot's universe to have noted that \"It’s not natural for five or six people to be on the spot when B is murdered and all have a motive for killing B.\" She first met Poirot in the story Cards on the Table and has bothered him ever since.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Recurring characters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Poirot's secretary, Miss Felicity Lemon, has few human weaknesses. The only mistakes she makes within the series are a typing error during the events of Hickory Dickory Dock and the mis-mailing of an electricity bill, although she was worried about strange events surrounding her sister at the time. Poirot described her as being \"Unbelievably ugly and incredibly efficient. Anything that she mentioned as worth consideration usually was worth consideration.\" She is an expert on nearly everything and plans to create the perfect filing system. She also worked for the government statistician-turned-philanthropist Parker Pyne. Whether this was during one of Poirot's numerous retirements or before she entered his employment is unknown. In The Agatha Christie Hour, she was portrayed by Angela Easterling, while in Agatha Christie's Poirot she was portrayed by Pauline Moran. On a number of occasions, she joins Poirot in his inquiries or seeks out answers alone at his request.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Recurring characters", "target_page_ids": [ 2257233, 170661, 4637383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 615, 626 ], [ 816, 840 ], [ 862, 875 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Japp is a Scotland Yard Inspector and appears in many of the stories trying to solve cases that Poirot is working on. Japp is outgoing, loud, and sometimes inconsiderate by nature, and his relationship with the refined Belgian is one of the stranger aspects of Poirot's world. He first met Poirot in Belgium in 1904, during the Abercrombie Forgery. Later that year they joined forces again to hunt down a criminal known as Baron Altara. They also meet in England where Poirot often helps Japp and lets him take credit in return for special favours. These favours usually entail Poirot being supplied with other interesting cases. In Agatha Christie's Poirot, Japp was portrayed by Philip Jackson. In the film, Thirteen at Dinner (1985), adapted from Lord Edgware Dies, the role of Japp was taken by the actor David Suchet, who would later star as Poirot in the ITV adaptations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Recurring characters", "target_page_ids": [ 27158, 170661, 4132803, 19175234, 150210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 633, 657 ], [ 681, 695 ], [ 710, 728 ], [ 809, 821 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Poirot books take readers through the whole of his life in England, from the first book (The Mysterious Affair at Styles), where he is a refugee staying at Styles, to the last Poirot book (Curtain), where he visits Styles before his death. In between, Poirot solves cases outside England as well, including his most famous case, Murder on the Orient Express (1934).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Major novels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hercule Poirot became famous in 1926 with the publication of The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, whose surprising solution proved controversial. The novel is still among the most famous of all detective novels: Edmund Wilson alludes to it in the title of his well-known attack on detective fiction, \"Who Cares Who Killed Roger Ackroyd?\" Aside from Roger Ackroyd, the most critically acclaimed Poirot novels appeared from 1932 to 1942, including Murder on the Orient Express (1934); The ABC Murders (1935); Cards on the Table (1936); and Death on the Nile (1937), a tale of multiple homicide upon a Nile steamer. Death on the Nile was judged by detective novelist John Dickson Carr to be among the ten greatest mystery novels of all time.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Major novels", "target_page_ids": [ 243069, 285605, 162770, 243087, 198011, 564906, 172033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 88 ], [ 204, 217 ], [ 438, 466 ], [ 475, 490 ], [ 499, 517 ], [ 530, 547 ], [ 656, 673 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1942 novel Five Little Pigs (a.k.a. Murder in Retrospect), in which Poirot investigates a murder committed sixteen years before by analysing various accounts of the tragedy, has been called \"the best Christie of all\" by critic and mystery novelist Robert Barnard.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Major novels", "target_page_ids": [ 1101747, 7381821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 31 ], [ 252, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, the Poirot canon was added to by Sophie Hannah, the first author to be commissioned by the Christie estate to write an original story. The novel was called The Monogram Murders, and was set in the late 1920s, placing it chronologically between The Mystery of the Blue Train and Peril at End House. A second Hannah-penned Poirot came out in 2016, called Closed Casket, and a third, The Mystery of Three Quarters, in 2018.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Major novels", "target_page_ids": [ 7754935, 52504336, 1727973, 420442, 52673094, 59622578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 55 ], [ 165, 185 ], [ 253, 282 ], [ 287, 305 ], [ 362, 375 ], [ 390, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first actor to portray Hercule Poirot was Charles Laughton. He appeared on the West End in 1928 in the play Alibi which had been adapted by Michael Morton from the novel The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 61641, 5938931, 14502112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 62 ], [ 112, 117 ], [ 144, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1932, the play was performed as The Fatal Alibi on Broadway. Another Poirot play, Black Coffee opened in London at the Embassy Theatre on 8 December 1930 and starred Francis L. Sullivan as Poirot. Another production of Black Coffee ran in Dublin, Ireland from 23 to 28 June 1931, starring Robert Powell. American playwright Ken Ludwig adapted Murder on the Orient Express into a play, which premiered at the McCarter Theatre in Princeton, New Jersey on 14 March 2017. It starred Allan Corduner in the role of Hercule Poirot.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 9483073, 25284231, 2722166, 153672, 2648631, 162770, 7413761, 84658, 5863579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 97 ], [ 122, 137 ], [ 169, 188 ], [ 292, 305 ], [ 327, 337 ], [ 346, 374 ], [ 411, 427 ], [ 431, 452 ], [ 482, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin Trevor debuted the role of Poirot on screen in the 1931 British film Alibi. The film was based on the stage play. Trevor reprised the role of Poirot twice, in Black Coffee and Lord Edgware Dies. Trevor said once that he was probably cast as Poirot simply because he could do a French accent. Notably, Trevor's Poirot did not have a moustache. Leslie S. Hiscott directed the first two films, and Henry Edwards took over for the third.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 14749939, 20493792, 9483073, 20494400, 20454420, 17141881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 76, 81 ], [ 166, 178 ], [ 183, 200 ], [ 350, 367 ], [ 402, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tony Randall portrayed Poirot in The Alphabet Murders, a 1965 film also known as The ABC Murders. This was more a satire of Poirot than a straightforward adaptation and was greatly changed from the original. Much of the story, set in modern times, was played for comedy, with Poirot investigating the murders while evading the attempts by Hastings (Robert Morley) and the police to get him out of England and back to Belgium.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 438927, 8262764, 319233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 33, 53 ], [ 349, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albert Finney played Poirot in 1974 in the cinematic version of Murder on the Orient Express. As of today, Finney is the only actor to receive an Academy Award nomination for playing Poirot, though he did not win.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 43910, 5028092, 324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 64, 92 ], [ 146, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peter Ustinov played Poirot six times, starting with Death on the Nile (1978). He reprised the role in Evil Under the Sun (1982) and Appointment with Death (1988).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 167975, 4738713, 4908814, 4053005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 53, 70 ], [ 103, 121 ], [ 133, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christie's daughter Rosalind Hicks observed Ustinov during a rehearsal and said, \"That's not Poirot! He isn't at all like that!\" Ustinov overheard and remarked \"He is now!\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 65675751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He appeared again as Poirot in three television films: Thirteen at Dinner (1985), Dead Man's Folly (1986), and Murder in Three Acts (1986). Earlier adaptations were set during the time in which the novels were written, but these television films were set in the contemporary era. The first of these was based on Lord Edgware Dies and was made by Warner Bros. It also starred Faye Dunaway, with David Suchet as Inspector Japp, just before Suchet began to play Poirot. David Suchet considers his performance as Japp to be \"possibly the worst performance of [his] career\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 164342, 19175234, 19177969, 25689802, 250478, 34052, 68322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 52 ], [ 55, 73 ], [ 82, 98 ], [ 111, 131 ], [ 312, 329 ], [ 346, 358 ], [ 375, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kenneth Branagh directed and starred in film adaptations of Murder on the Orient Express in 2017 and Death on the Nile in 2022. He is currently set to return for a third film.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 101407, 48645727, 57763431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 60, 88 ], [ 101, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anatoly Ravikovich, Zagadka Endkhauza (End House Mystery) (1989; based on \"Peril at End House\")", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 35538794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David Suchet starred as Poirot in the ITV series Agatha Christie's Poirot from 1989 until June 2013, when he announced that he was bidding farewell to the role. \"No one could've guessed then that the series would span a quarter-century or that the classically trained Suchet would complete the entire catalogue of whodunits featuring the eccentric Belgian investigator, including 33 novels and dozens of short stories.\" His final appearance was in an adaptation of Curtain: Poirot's Last Case, aired on 13 November 2013.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 150210, 58089, 170661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 38, 41 ], [ 49, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The writers of the \"Binge!\" article of Entertainment Weekly Issue #1343–44 (26 December 2014 – 3 January 2015) picked Suchet as \"Best Poirot\" in the \"Hercule Poirot & Miss Marple\" timeline.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 541239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The episodes were shot in various locations in the UK, and foreign scenes were shot in Twickenham studios.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 140637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Heini Göbel, (1955; an adaptation of Murder on the Orient Express for the West German television series Die Galerie der großen Detektive)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " José Ferrer, Hercule Poirot (1961; Unaired TV Pilot, MGM; adaptation of \"The Disappearance of Mr. Davenheim\")", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 113471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Martin Gabel, General Electric Theater (4/1/1962; adaptation of \"The Disappearance of Mr. Davenheim\")", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 1796603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Horst Bollmann, Black Coffee 1973", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ian Holm, Murder by the Book, 1986", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 171137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arnolds Liniņš, Slepkavība Stailzā (The Mysterious Affair at Styles), 1990", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hugh Laurie, Spice World, 1997", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 151381, 4362030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alfred Molina, Murder on the Orient Express, 2001", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 612068, 5028212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 16, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Konstantin Raikin, Neudacha Puaro (Poirot's Failure) (2002; based on \"The Murder of Roger Ackroyd\")", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 33625153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anthony O'Donnell, A Life in Pictures, 2004", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 8641823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shirō Itō (Takashi Akafuji), Meitantei Akafuji Takashi (The Detective Takashi Akafuji), 2005", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 62033363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mansai Nomura (Takeru Suguro), Orient Kyūkō Satsujin Jiken (Murder on the Orient Express), 2015; Kuroido Goroshi (The Murder of Kuroido), 2018 (based on \"The Murder of Roger Ackroyd\"); Shi to no Yakusoku, 2021 (based on Appointment with Death) ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 12747949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Malkovich was cast as Poirot in the 2018 BBC adaptation of The ABC Murders.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 175431, 59394169, 243087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 38, 61 ], [ 65, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2004, NHK (Japanese public TV network) produced a 39 episode anime series titled Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple, as well as a manga series under the same title released in 2005. The series, adapting several of the best-known Poirot and Marple stories, ran from 4 July 2004 through 15 May 2005, and in repeated reruns on NHK and other networks in Japan. Poirot was voiced by Kōtarō Satomi and Miss Marple was voiced by Kaoru Yachigusa.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 147782, 3563508, 18985, 147782, 7624553, 5040707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 12 ], [ 84, 136 ], [ 151, 156 ], [ 345, 348 ], [ 399, 412 ], [ 443, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1985 to 2007, BBC Radio 4 produced a series of twenty-seven adaptations of Poirot novels and short stories, adapted by Michael Bakewell and directed by Enyd Williams. Twenty five starred John Moffatt as Poirot; Maurice Denham and Peter Sallis played Poirot on BBC Radio 4 in the first two adaptations, The Mystery of the Blue Train and in Hercule Poirot's Christmas respectively.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 64654930, 3995088, 9638112, 1687434, 951922, 72758, 1727973, 2241576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 76 ], [ 124, 140 ], [ 192, 204 ], [ 216, 230 ], [ 235, 247 ], [ 265, 276 ], [ 307, 336 ], [ 344, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1939, Orson Welles and the Mercury Players dramatised Roger Ackroyd on CBS's Campbell Playhouse.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 22196, 1027325, 739807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 21 ], [ 30, 45 ], [ 80, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 6 October 1942, the Mutual radio series Murder Clinic broadcast \"The Tragedy at Marsden Manor\" starring Maurice Tarplin as Poirot.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 187326, 11744947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 29 ], [ 107, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 1945 radio series of at least 13 original half-hour episodes (none of which apparently adapt any Christie stories) transferred Poirot from London to New York and starred character actor Harold Huber, perhaps better known for his appearances as a police officer in various Charlie Chan films. On 22 February 1945, \"speaking from London, Agatha Christie introduced the initial broadcast of the Poirot series via shortwave\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 16340665, 144870, 984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 200 ], [ 274, 286 ], [ 338, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An adaptation of Murder in the Mews was broadcast on the BBC Light Programme in March 1955 starring Richard Williams as Poirot; this program was thought lost, but was discovered in the BBC archives in 2015.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 181182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, Audible released an original audio adaptation of Murder on the Orient Express starring Tom Conti as Poirot. The cast included Jane Asher as Mrs. Hubbard, Jay Benedict as Monsieur Bouc, Ruta Gedmintas as Countess Andrenyi, Sophie Okonedo as Mary Debenham, Eddie Marsan as Ratchett, Walles Hamonde as Hector MacQueen, Paterson Joseph as Colonel Arbuthnot, Rula Lenska as Princess Dragimiroff and Art Malik as the Narrator. According to the Publisher's Summary on Audible.com, \"sound effects [were] recorded on the Orient Express itself.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 1814421, 168487, 210382, 17157212, 24201037, 1431025, 5026434, 2628633, 763956, 2454633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 16 ], [ 96, 105 ], [ 135, 145 ], [ 163, 175 ], [ 194, 208 ], [ 231, 245 ], [ 264, 276 ], [ 325, 340 ], [ 363, 374 ], [ 403, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2021, L.A. Theatre Works produced an adaptation of The Murder on the Links, dramatised by Kate McAll. Alfred Molina starred as Poirot, with Simon Helberg as Hastings.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 22057016, 19479419, 612068, 4789624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 27 ], [ 93, 103 ], [ 105, 118 ], [ 143, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The game Agatha Christie - Hercule Poirot: The First Cases has Poirot voice acted by Will De Renzy-Martin.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Parodies of Hercule Poirot have appeared in a number of movies, including Revenge of the Pink Panther, where Poirot makes a cameo appearance in a mental asylum, portrayed by Andrew Sachs and claiming to be \"the greatest detective in all of France, the greatest in all the world\"; Neil Simon's Murder by Death, where \"Milo Perrier\" is played by American actor James Coco; the 1977 film The Strange Case of the End of Civilization as We Know It (1977); the film Spice World, where Hugh Laurie plays Poirot; and in The Awakened, Poirot appears as a young boy on the train transporting Holmes and Watson. Holmes helps the boy in opening a puzzle-box, with Watson giving the boy advice about using his \"little grey cells\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 3645005, 647837, 725468, 608477, 14058109, 4362030, 151381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 101 ], [ 174, 186 ], [ 293, 308 ], [ 359, 369 ], [ 385, 442 ], [ 460, 471 ], [ 479, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the book series Geronimo Stilton, the character Hercule Poirat is inspired by Hercule Poirot.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 1952986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Belgian brewery Brasserie Ellezelloise makes a stout called Hercule with a moustachioed caricature of Hercule Poirot on the label.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In season 2, episode 4 of TVFPlay's Indian web series Permanent Roommates, one of the characters refers to Hercule Poirot as her inspiration while she attempts to solve the mystery of the cheating spouse. Throughout the episode, she is mocked as Hercule Poirot and Agatha Christie by the suspects. TVFPlay also telecasted a spoof of Indian TV suspense drama CID as \"Qissa Missing Dimaag Ka: C.I.D Qtiyapa\". In the first episode, when Ujjwal is shown to browse for the best detectives of the world, David Suchet appears as Poirot in his search.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 45268860, 5127293, 150210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 33 ], [ 358, 361 ], [ 498, 510 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poirot Investigates", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2349091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tropes in Agatha Christie's novels", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Goddard, John (2018), Agatha Christie’s Golden Age: An Analysis of Poirot’s Golden Age Puzzles, Stylish Eye Press, ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ".", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Official Agatha Christie website", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hercule Poirot on IMDb", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 2855554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Listen to Orson Welles in \"The Murder of Roger Ackroyd\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Listen to the 1945 Hercule Poirot radio program", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wiktionary definition of Edgar Allan Poe's \"ratiocination\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 156658, 9549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 26, 41 ] ] } ]

[ "Hercule_Poirot", "Characters_in_British_novels_of_the_20th_century", "Fictional_Belgian_police_officers", "Fictional_characters_from_Wallonia", "Fictional_contract_bridge_players", "Fictional_criminologists", "Fictional_detectives", "Fictional_gentleman_detectives", "Fictional_illeists", "Fictional_private_investigators", "Agatha_Christie_characters", "Hercule_Poirot_characters", "Literary_characters_introduced_in_1920", "Male_characters_in_literature", "Series_of_books", "British_novels_adapted_into_films", "British_novels_adapted_into_plays", "Novels_adapted_into_radio_programs", "British_novels_adapted_into_television_shows", "Novels_adapted_into_video_games" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Miss Marple is a fictional character in Agatha Christie's crime novels and short stories. Jane Marple lives in the village of St. Mary Mead and acts as an amateur consulting detective. Often characterized as an elderly spinster, she is one of Christie's best-known characters and has been portrayed numerous times on screen. Her first appearance was in a short story published in The Royal Magazine in December 1927, \"The Tuesday Night Club\", which later became the first chapter of The Thirteen Problems (1932). Her first appearance in a full-length novel was in The Murder at the Vicarage in 1930, and her last appearance was in Sleeping Murder in 1976.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 76749, 984, 572221, 118576, 926994, 31279400, 5768015, 5768015, 2057934, 221479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 36 ], [ 40, 55 ], [ 126, 139 ], [ 174, 183 ], [ 219, 227 ], [ 380, 398 ], [ 418, 440 ], [ 483, 504 ], [ 564, 590 ], [ 631, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The character of Miss Marple is based on friends of Christie's step grandmother/aunt (Margaret Miller, née West). Christie attributed the inspiration for the character to multiple sources, stating that Miss Marple was \"the sort of old lady who would have been rather like some of my step grandmother's Ealing cronies – old ladies whom I have met in so many villages where I have gone to stay as a girl\". Christie also used material from her fictional creation, spinster Caroline Sheppard, who appeared in The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. When Michael Morton adapted the novel for the stage, he replaced the character of Caroline with a young girl. This change saddened Christie and she determined to give old maids a voice: Miss Marple was born.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 243069, 14502112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 505, 532 ], [ 539, 553 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christie is popularly believed to have taken the name from Marple railway station, through which she passed, though a letter she wrote to a fan appears to prove that the name was inspired by a visit to a sale at Marple Hall in the same town, near her sister Margaret Watts' home at Abney Hall.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 3183481, 984, 12295933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 81 ], [ 258, 272 ], [ 282, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The character of Jane Marple in the first Miss Marple book, The Murder at the Vicarage, is markedly different from how she appears in later books. This early version of Miss Marple is a gleeful gossip and not an especially nice woman. The citizens of St. Mary Mead like her but are often tired of her nosy nature and the fact she seems to expect the worst of everyone. In later books, she becomes a kinder and more modern person.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Character", "target_page_ids": [ 2057934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Miss Marple solves difficult crimes thanks to her shrewd intelligence, and St. Mary Mead, over her lifetime, has given her seemingly infinite examples of the negative side of human nature. Crimes always remind her of a previous incident, although acquaintances may be bored by analogies that often lead her to a deeper realisation about the true nature of a crime. She also has a remarkable ability to latch onto a casual comment and connect it to the case at hand. In several stories, she is able to rely on her acquaintance with Sir Henry Clithering, a retired commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, for official information when required.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Character", "target_page_ids": [ 43580498, 192450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 531, 551 ], [ 583, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Miss Marple never married and has no close living relatives. Her nephew, the \"well-known author\" Raymond West (A Caribbean Mystery, 1964), appears in some stories, including The Thirteen Problems, Sleeping Murder, and Ingots of Gold (which also feature his wife, Joyce Lemprière). Raymond overestimates himself and underestimates his aunt's mental acuity. Miss Marple employs young women (including Clara, Emily, Alice, Esther, Gwenda, and Amy) from a nearby orphanage, whom she trains for service as general housemaids after the retirement of her long-time maid-housekeeper, faithful Florence. She was briefly looked after by her irritating companion, Miss Knight. In her later years, companion Cherry Baker, first introduced in The Mirror Crack'd From Side to Side, lives in.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Character", "target_page_ids": [ 43592031, 2300000, 5768015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 109 ], [ 111, 130 ], [ 174, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Miss Marple has never worked for her living and is of independent means, although she benefits in her old age from the financial support of her nephew Raymond. She is not from the aristocracy or landed gentry, but is quite at home among them; as a gentlewoman, Miss Marple may thus be considered a female version of the gentleman detective, a staple of British detective fiction. She demonstrates a remarkably thorough education, including some art courses that involved the study of human anatomy using human cadavers. In They Do It with Mirrors (1952), it is revealed that Miss Marple grew up in a cathedral close, and that she studied at an Italian finishing school with Americans Ruth Van Rydock and Caroline \"Carrie\" Louise Serrocold.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Character", "target_page_ids": [ 873137, 12844563, 20146636, 2292748, 19523044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 208 ], [ 248, 259 ], [ 320, 339 ], [ 523, 546 ], [ 600, 615 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Miss Marple is described as \"an old lady\" in many of the stories, her age is rarely mentioned and is not consistently presented. In At Bertram's Hotel, published in 1965, it is said she visited the hotel when she was 14 and almost 60 years have passed since then, implying that she's nearly 75 years old but in 4:50 from Paddington, published almost a decade earlier in 1957, she says she will be \"90 next year.\" ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Character", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Excluding Sleeping Murder, 41 years passed between the first and last-written novels, and many characters grow and age. An example would be the Vicar's nephew: in The Murder at the Vicarage, the Reverend Mr Clement's nephew Dennis is a teenager; in The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side, it is mentioned that the nephew is now an adult and has a successful career. The effects of ageing are seen on Miss Marple, such as needing a holiday after illness in A Caribbean Mystery, but she is if anything more agile in Nemesis, set only 16 months later.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Character", "target_page_ids": [ 2300000, 2300302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 454, 473 ], [ 512, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Miss Marple's background is described in some detail, albeit in glimpses across the novels and short stories in which she appears. She has a very large family, including a sister, the mother of Raymond, and Mabel Denham, a young woman who was accused of poisoning her husband Geoffrey (The Thumb Mark of St. Peter).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Character", "target_page_ids": [ 5768015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 286, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Murder at the Vicarage (1930, Novel)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 2057934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Body in the Library (1942, Novel)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 2255162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Moving Finger (1943, Novel)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1702335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Murder Is Announced (1950, Novel)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 2292690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " They Do It with Mirrors (1952, Novel) - also published as Murder With Mirrors", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 2292748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Pocket Full of Rye (1953, Novel)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 2292761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 4.50 from Paddington (1957, Novel) - also published as What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 2292805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side (1962, Novel)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 250486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Caribbean Mystery (1964, Novel)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 2300000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " At Bertram's Hotel (1965, Novel)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1633294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nemesis (1971, Novel)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 2300302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sleeping Murder (1976, Novel)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 221479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Thirteen Problems (1932 short story collection featuring Miss Marple, also published as The Tuesday Club Murders)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 5768015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Regatta Mystery and Other Stories (1939, Collection)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 3887561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Three Blind Mice and Other Stories (1950, Collection)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 6004774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding (1960, Collection)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1842967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Double Sin and Other Stories (1961, Collection)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 6047712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Miss Marple's Final Cases and Two Other Stories (short stories collected posthumously, also published as Miss Marple's Final Cases, but only six of the eight stories actually feature Miss Marple) (written between 1939 and 1954, published 1979)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 6042367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Miss Marple: The Complete Short Stories, published 1985, includes 20 from 4 sets: The Thirteen Problems, The Regatta Mystery, Three Blind Mice and Other Stories, and Double Sin and Other Stories.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 5768015, 3887561, 6004774, 6047712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 104 ], [ 106, 125 ], [ 127, 161 ], [ 167, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Miss Marple also appears in \"Greenshaw's Folly\", a short story included as part of the Poirot collection The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding (1960). Four stories in the Three Blind Mice collection (1950) feature Miss Marple: \"Strange Jest\", \"Tape-Measure Murder\", \"The Case of the Caretaker\", and \"The Case of the Perfect Maid\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1842967, 6004774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 143 ], [ 172, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Autograph edition of Miss Marple's Final Cases includes the eight in the original plus \"Greenshaw's Folly\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Marple: Twelve New Mysteries, collection with stories written by Naomi Alderman, Leigh Bardugo, Alyssa Cole, Lucy Foley, Elly Griffiths, Natalie Haynes, Jean Kwok, Val McDermid, Karen M. McManus, Dreda Say Mitchell, Kate Mosse, and Ruth Ware (published 2022)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 4410659, 48297663, 59805650, 69613312, 46289078, 2738505, 31644150, 220262, 63032730, 25724890, 276489, 55751954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 80 ], [ 82, 95 ], [ 97, 108 ], [ 110, 120 ], [ 122, 136 ], [ 138, 152 ], [ 154, 163 ], [ 165, 177 ], [ 179, 195 ], [ 197, 215 ], [ 217, 227 ], [ 233, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Life and Times of Miss Jane Marple – a biography by Anne Hart", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 7370562, 32943515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 53 ], [ 57, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A stage adaptation of Murder at the Vicarage, by Moie Charles and Barbara Toy, was first seen at Northampton on 17 October 1949; it was directed by Reginald Tate, starred the 35-year-old Barbara Mullen as Miss Marple, and after touring, reached the Playhouse Theatre in London's West End on 14 December. Having run till late March 1950, it then went on tour again.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Stage", "target_page_ids": [ 865557, 10780563, 10325627, 1154952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 161 ], [ 187, 201 ], [ 249, 266 ], [ 279, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1974, Mullen (by then 60) returned to the role in another national tour of the same play, culminating 12 months later when the show opened at London's Savoy Theatre on 28 July 1975. At the end of March 1976, the Miss Marple role was taken over by Avril Angers, after which the production transferred to the Fortune Theatre on 5 July. The role then passed to Muriel Pavlow in June 1977 and to Gabrielle Hamilton late the following year; the production finally closed in October 1979.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Stage", "target_page_ids": [ 88567, 3135093, 1699845, 12066850, 6586707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 172 ], [ 255, 267 ], [ 315, 330 ], [ 366, 379 ], [ 400, 418 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 21 September 1977, while Murder at the Vicarage was still running at the Fortune, a stage adaptation by Leslie Darbon of A Murder Is Announced opened at the Vaudeville Theatre, with Dulcie Gray as Miss Marple. The show ran to the end of September 1978 and then toured.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Stage", "target_page_ids": [ 1575849, 3238769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 178 ], [ 185, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Margaret Rutherford played Miss Marple in four films directed by George Pollock between 1961 and 1964. These were successful light comedies, but Christie herself was disappointed with them. Nevertheless, Agatha Christie dedicated the novel The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side to Rutherford.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Films", "target_page_ids": [ 59594, 22127622, 250486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 65, 79 ], [ 241, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rutherford presented the character as a bold and eccentric old lady, different from the prim and birdlike character Christie created in her novels. As penned by Christie, Miss Marple has never worked for a living, but the character as portrayed by Margaret Rutherford briefly works as a cook-housekeeper, a stage actress, a sailor and criminal reformer, and is offered the chance to run a riding establishment-cum-hotel. Her education and genteel background are hinted at when she mentions her awards at marksmanship, fencing, and equestrianism (although these hints are played for comedic value).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Films", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Murder, She Said (1961) was the first of the four British MGM productions starring Rutherford. This film was based on the 1957 novel 4:50 from Paddington (U.S. title, What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!), and the changes made in the plot were typical of the series. In the film, Mrs. McGillicuddy is cut from the plot. Miss Marple herself sees an apparent murder committed on a train running alongside hers. Actress Joan Hickson, who played Marple in the 1984–1992 television adaptations, has a role as a housekeeper in this movie.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Films", "target_page_ids": [ 3671995, 596204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 408, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Murder at the Gallop (1963), based on the 1953 Hercule Poirot novel After the Funeral (in this film, she is identified as Miss JTV Marple, though there was no indication as to what the extra initials might stand for).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Films", "target_page_ids": [ 3705395, 1000, 353714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 47, 61 ], [ 68, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Murder Most Foul (1964), based on the 1952 Poirot novel Mrs McGinty's Dead.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Films", "target_page_ids": [ 3745503, 2292731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 56, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Murder Ahoy! (1964). The last film is not based on any Christie work but displays a few plot elements from They Do It With Mirrors (viz., the ship is used as a reform school for wayward boys and one of the teachers uses them as a crime force), and there is a kind of salute to The Mousetrap.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Films", "target_page_ids": [ 3748405, 596210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 277, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The music to all four films was composed and conducted by Ron Goodwin. The same theme is used on all four films with slight variations in each. The score was written within a couple of weeks by Goodwin who was approached by Pollock after Pollock had heard about him from Stanley Black. Black had worked with Pollock on Stranger in Town in 1957 and had previously hired Goodwin as his orchestrator.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Films", "target_page_ids": [ 167262, 4671408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 69 ], [ 271, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rutherford, who was 68 years old when the first film was shot in February 1961, insisted that she wear her own clothes during the filming of the movie, as well as having her husband, Stringer Davis, appear alongside her as the character Mr Stringer. The Rutherford films are frequently repeated on television in Germany, and in that country Miss Marple is generally identified with Rutherford's quirky portrayal.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Films", "target_page_ids": [ 2219676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rutherford also appeared briefly as Miss Marple in the parodic Hercule Poirot adventure The Alphabet Murders (1965).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Films", "target_page_ids": [ 8262764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1980, Angela Lansbury played Miss Marple in The Mirror Crack'd (EMI, directed by Guy Hamilton), based on Christie's 1962 novel. The film featured an all-star cast that included Elizabeth Taylor, Rock Hudson, Geraldine Chaplin, Tony Curtis, and Kim Novak. Edward Fox appeared as Inspector Craddock, who did Miss Marple's legwork. Lansbury's Marple was a crisp, intelligent woman who moved stiffly and spoke in clipped tones. Unlike most incarnations of Miss Marple, this one smoked cigarettes. Lansbury was later cast as Jessica Fletcher in Murder, She Wrote, a similar role.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Films", "target_page_ids": [ 165527, 1702604, 490304, 42357, 161466, 746475, 68375, 261259, 338367, 661770, 170683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 47, 65 ], [ 84, 96 ], [ 180, 196 ], [ 198, 209 ], [ 211, 228 ], [ 230, 241 ], [ 247, 256 ], [ 258, 268 ], [ 523, 539 ], [ 543, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1983, Estonian stage and film actress Ita Ever starred in the Russian language Mosfilm adaptation of Agatha Christie's novel A Pocket Full of Rye (using the Russian edition's translated title, The Secret of the Blackbirds) as the character of Miss Marple. Ever has also portrayed the character of Miss Marple in the Eesti Televisioon (ETV) series Miss Marple Stories in 1990, and onstage at the Tallinn City Theatre in a production of The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side in 2005.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Films", "target_page_ids": [ 347511, 14887518, 25431, 451326, 2292761, 2249376, 50693258, 250486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ], [ 41, 49 ], [ 65, 81 ], [ 82, 89 ], [ 128, 148 ], [ 319, 336 ], [ 398, 418 ], [ 438, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American TV was the setting for the first screen portrayal of Miss Marple with Gracie Fields, the British actress and singer, playing her in a 1956 episode of Goodyear TV Playhouse based on A Murder Is Announced, the 1950 Christie novel.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 398338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1970, the character of Miss Marple was portrayed by Inge Langen in a West German television adaptation of The Murder at the Vicarage (Mord im Pfarrhaus).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, CBS planned a \"much younger\" version of the character, a granddaughter who takes over a California bookstore.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, Miss Marple was portrayed by Yunjin Kim in the South Korean television series Ms. Ma, Nemesis.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 1084663, 58507228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 48 ], [ 87, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American stage and screen actress Helen Hayes portrayed Miss Marple in two American television films near the end of her decades-long acting career, both for CBS: A Caribbean Mystery (1983) and Murder with Mirrors (1985). Sue Grafton contributed to the screenplay of the former. Hayes's Marple was benign and chirpy. She had earlier appeared in a television film adaptation of the non-Marple Christie story Murder Is Easy, playing an elderly lady somewhat similar to Miss Marple.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 177771, 164342, 37653, 57985180, 596141, 470006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 45 ], [ 84, 99 ], [ 158, 161 ], [ 163, 182 ], [ 194, 213 ], [ 222, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1984 to 1992, the BBC adapted all of the original Miss Marple novels as a series titled Miss Marple. Joan Hickson played the lead role. In the 1940s, she had appeared on stage in an Agatha Christie play, Appointment with Death, which was seen by Christie who wrote in a note to her, \"I hope one day you will play my dear Miss Marple\". She portrayed a maid in the 1937 film, Love from a Stranger, which starred Ann Harding and Basil Rathbone, another Agatha Christie play adaptation. As well as portraying Miss Marple on television, Hickson narrated Miss Marple stories for audio books. In the \"Binge!\" article of Entertainment Weekly Issue #1343–1344 (26 December 2014 – 3 January 2015), the writers picked Hickson as \"Best Marple\" in the \"Hercule Poirot & Miss Marple\" timeline.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 19344654, 596204, 2201832, 12852656, 541239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 26 ], [ 106, 118 ], [ 209, 231 ], [ 379, 399 ], [ 618, 638 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Listing of the TV series featuring Joan Hickson:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Body in the Library (1984)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 30473269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Murder Is Announced (1985)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2292690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Pocket Full of Rye (1985)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2292761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Moving Finger (1985)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 1702335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Murder at the Vicarage (1986) – BAFTA nomination", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2057934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sleeping Murder (1987)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 221479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " At Bertram's Hotel (1987)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 1633294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nemesis (1987) – BAFTA nomination", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2300302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 4.50 from Paddington (1987)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2292805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Caribbean Mystery (1989)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2300000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " They Do It With Mirrors (1991)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2292748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side (1992)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 250486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beginning in 2004, ITV broadcast a series of adaptations of Agatha Christie's books under the title Agatha Christie's Marple, usually referred to as Marple. Geraldine McEwan starred in the first three series. Julia McKenzie took over the role in the fourth season.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 58089, 1244979, 4344196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 22 ], [ 157, 173 ], [ 209, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The adaptations change the plots and characters of the original books (e.g. incorporating lesbian affairs, changing the identities of some killers, renaming or removing significant characters, and even using stories from other books in which Miss Marple did not originally feature). In the Geraldine McEwan series it is revealed that when she was young (portrayed by Julie Cox in a flashback), Miss Marple had an affair with a married soldier, Captain Ainsworth, who was killed in action in World War I, in December 1915. It is also said (in A Murder Is Announced) that she served as an ambulance driver during World War I.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 1875896, 2292690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 367, 376 ], [ 542, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Listing of the TV series featuring Geraldine McEwan and Julia McKenzie:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Body in the Library (2004)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2255162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Murder at the Vicarage (2004)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2057934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 4.50 from Paddington (2004)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2292805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Murder Is Announced (2005)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2292690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sleeping Murder (2005)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 221479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Moving Finger (2006)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 1702335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " By the Pricking of My Thumbs (2006)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2305280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Sittaford Mystery (2006)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2179536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " At Bertram's Hotel (2007)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 1633294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ordeal by Innocence (2007)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2299915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Towards Zero (2008)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2257192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nemesis (2008)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2300302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Pocket Full of Rye (2009)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2292761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Murder Is Easy (2009)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2255151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " They Do It with Mirrors (2010)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2292748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Why Didn't They Ask Evans? (2011)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2241111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Pale Horse (2010)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2299941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Secret of Chimneys (2010)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 542507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Blue Geranium (2010)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 5768015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side (2011)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 250486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Caribbean Mystery (2013)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2300000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Greenshaw's Folly (2013)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 1842967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Endless Night (2013)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2300163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 2004 to 2005, Japanese TV network NHK produced a 39 episode anime series titled Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple, which features both Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot. Miss Marple's voice is provided by Kaoru Yachigusa. Episodes adapted both short stories and novels.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 147782, 800, 1000, 5040707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 42 ], [ 65, 70 ], [ 175, 189 ], [ 226, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The anime series dramatised the following Miss Marple stories:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Strange Jest (EP 3)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 6004774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Case of the Perfect Maid (EP 4)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 6004774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Tape-Measure Murder (EP 13)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 6004774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ingots of Gold (EP 14)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 5768015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Blue Geranium (EP 15)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 5768015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 4.50 from Paddington (EP 21–24)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 2292805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Motive versus Opportunity (EP 27)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 5768015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sleeping Murder (EP 30–33)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [ 221479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "June Whitfield starred as Miss Marple in Michael Bakewell's adaptations of all twelve novels, broadcast on BBC Radio 4 between 1993 and 2001.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Radio", "target_page_ids": [ 80729, 3995088, 64688335, 72758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 41, 57 ], [ 60, 71 ], [ 107, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three short stories with Whitfield (\"Tape-Measure Murder\", \"The Case of the Perfect Maid\" and \"Sanctuary\") were later broadcast under the collective title Miss Marple's Final Cases weekly 16 – 30 September 2015.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Radio", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The radio broadcasts are now semi-frequently on BBC Radio 4 at one o'clock in the morning.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Radio", "target_page_ids": [ 72758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marple was highlighted in volume 20 of the Case Closed manga's edition of \"Gosho Aoyama's Mystery Library\", a section of the graphic novels (usually the last page) where the author introduces a different detective (or occasionally, a villain) from mystery literature, television, or other media.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 298049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1976 Neil Simon spoof Murder by Death, Miss Marple is parodied as \"Miss Marbles\" by Elsa Lanchester.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Other appearances", "target_page_ids": [ 22049, 226301, 725468, 161783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 22 ], [ 23, 28 ], [ 29, 44 ], [ 91, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of female detective characters", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3506360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Miss Marple at the official Agatha Christie website", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Miss Marple on IMDb", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 2855554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 20 ] ] } ]

[ "Miss_Marple", "Book_series_introduced_in_1930", "British_novels_adapted_into_films", "British_novels_adapted_into_plays", "Characters_in_British_novels_of_the_20th_century", "Detective_television_series", "Agatha_Christie_characters", "Female_characters_in_literature", "Fictional_amateur_detectives", "Literary_characters_introduced_in_1927", "Fictional_English_people", "Fictional_female_detectives", "Novel_series", "Novels_adapted_into_radio_programs", "British_novels_adapted_into_television_shows" ]

[ "Jane Marple" ]

[ { "plaintext": "April is the fourth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, the fifth in the early Julian, the first of four months to have a length of 30 days, and the second of five months to have a length of less than 31 days.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23306251, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 63 ], [ 88, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "April is commonly associated with the season of autumn in parts of the Southern Hemisphere, and spring in parts of the Northern Hemisphere, where it is the seasonal equivalent to October in the Southern Hemisphere and vice versa.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3049, 261273, 316532, 22126, 22332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ], [ 71, 90 ], [ 96, 102 ], [ 119, 138 ], [ 179, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Romans gave this month the Latin name Aprilis but the derivation of this name is uncertain. The traditional etymology is from the verb aperire, \"to open\", in allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to \"open\", which is supported by comparison with the modern Greek use of άνοιξη (ánixi) (opening) for spring. Since some of the Roman months were named in honor of divinities, and as April was sacred to the goddess Venus, her Veneralia being held on the first day, it has been suggested that Aprilis was originally her month Aphrilis, from her equivalent Greek goddess name Aphrodite (Aphros), or from the Etruscan name Apru. Jacob Grimm suggests the name of a hypothetical god or hero, Aper or Aprus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 38864049, 37622, 569832, 1174, 9455, 1174, 16514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 36 ], [ 42, 49 ], [ 439, 444 ], [ 450, 459 ], [ 598, 607 ], [ 630, 638 ], [ 644, 648 ], [ 650, 661 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "April was the second month of the earliest Roman calendar, before Ianuarius and Februarius were added by King Numa Pompilius about 700BC. It became the fourth month of the calendar year (the year when twelve months are displayed in order) during the time of the decemvirs about 450BC, when it also was given 29days. The 30th day was added during the reform of the calendar undertaken by Julius Caesar in the mid-40sBC, which produced the Julian calendar.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25792, 3839355, 1068915, 85284, 180572, 15924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 57 ], [ 66, 75 ], [ 80, 90 ], [ 110, 124 ], [ 262, 271 ], [ 387, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Anglo-Saxons called April ēastre-monaþ. The Venerable Bede says in The Reckoning of Time that this month ēastre is the root of the word Easter. He further states that the month was named after a goddess Eostre whose feast was in that month. It is also attested by Einhard in his work, Vita Karoli Magni.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37780, 4041, 9226144, 9325, 245989, 9674, 19289767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 48, 62 ], [ 71, 92 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 207, 213 ], [ 268, 275 ], [ 289, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "St George's day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark's Eve, with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die within the year will be seen to pass into the church, falls on the twenty-fourth.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 29010, 39201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 54, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In China the symbolic of the earth by the emperor and princes of the blood took place in their third month, which frequently corresponds to April. In Finnish April is huhtikuu, meaning slash-and-burn moon, when gymnosperms for beat and burn clearing of farmland were felled.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5760, 262712, 290236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ], [ 185, 199 ], [ 211, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Slovene, the most established traditional name is mali traven, meaning the month when plants start growing. It was first written in 1466 in the Škofja Loka manuscript.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The month Aprilis had 30days; Numa Pompilius made it 29days long; finally Julius Caesar’s calendar reform made it again 30days long, which was not changed in the calendar revision of Augustus Caesar in 8BC. Additionally in the Spanish colony, Las Islas Filipinas (now known as the Philippines), the month Aprilis had a significant meaning to the life of the natives as it was associated to the influence of the Chinese during the Spanish colonial period. The importance of this aspect to the lives of the natives was formerly associated to an event called \"Abril na Ikaw\" as it is closely linked to the famous trader, April Yu.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 85284, 15924, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 44 ], [ 74, 87 ], [ 183, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Ancient Rome, the festival of Cerealia was held for seven days from mid-to-late April, but exact dates are uncertain. Feriae Latinae was also held in April, with the date varying. Other ancient Roman observances include Veneralia (April 1), Megalesia (April 10–16), Fordicidia (April 15), Parilia (April 21), Vinalia Urbana, Robigalia, and Serapia were celebrated on (April 25). Floralia was held April 27 during the Republican era, or April 28 on the Julian calendar, and lasted until May 3. However, these dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 521555, 213154, 33595910, 569832, 16511776, 26412387, 621101, 21347614, 431221, 38871825, 488066, 25816, 15651, 23306251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 15 ], [ 33, 41 ], [ 121, 135 ], [ 223, 232 ], [ 244, 253 ], [ 269, 279 ], [ 292, 299 ], [ 312, 326 ], [ 328, 337 ], [ 343, 350 ], [ 382, 390 ], [ 420, 434 ], [ 455, 470 ], [ 549, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Lyrids meteor shower appears on April 16 – April 26 each year, with the peak generally occurring on April 22. Eta Aquariids meteor shower also appears in April. It is visible from about April 21 to about May 20 each year with peak activity on or around May 6. The Pi Puppids appear on April 23, but only in years around the parent comet's perihelion date. The Virginids also shower at various dates in April.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7647631, 157819, 1831474, 756558, 88213, 7990279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 11, 24 ], [ 114, 127 ], [ 268, 278 ], [ 343, 353 ], [ 364, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"Days of April\" (journées d'avril) is a name assigned in French history to a series of insurrections at Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis Philippe in 1834, which led to violent repressive measures, and to a famous trial known as the procès d'avril.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 374278, 77352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 104 ], [ 162, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "April's birthstone is the diamond.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "April symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 17891889, 13472322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 18 ], [ 26, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The birth flower is typically listed as either the common daisy (Bellis perennis) or the sweet pea.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "April symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 518268, 1157853, 3687095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 51, 63 ], [ 89, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The zodiac signs for the month of April are Aries (until April 20) and Taurus (April 20 onwards).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "April symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 34411, 2367203, 2418141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 11 ], [ 45, 50 ], [ 72, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This list does not necessarily imply either official status nor general observance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox tradition, April is the Month of the Resurrection of the Lord. 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"plaintext": "Community College Awareness Month", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 19207800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Confederate History Month (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, Virginia)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 3711346, 303, 18933066, 48830, 18130, 16949861, 29810, 32432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 27, 34 ], [ 36, 43 ], [ 45, 52 ], [ 54, 63 ], [ 65, 76 ], [ 78, 83 ], [ 85, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Donate Life Month ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Financial Literacy Month ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 16700171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jazz Appreciation Month", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 26670864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mathematics and Statistics Awareness Month", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 4675178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Month of the Military Child", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "National Poetry Month ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 9391456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Poetry Writing Month ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 22258169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Occupational Therapy Month", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 14589581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Prevent Child Abuse Month ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1725161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] 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3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "National Pecan Month", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "National Soft Pretzel Month", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "National Soyfoods Month", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(All Baha'i, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted.)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "List of observances set by the Bahá'í calendar", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 61707746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of 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"Commemoration of first human in space by Yuri Gagarin:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 34226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cosmonautics Day (Russia)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 4710310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Day of Human Space Flight ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 47802019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yuri's Night (International observance)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 591312, 15757659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 14, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Halifax Day (North Carolina)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 24962851, 21650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 13, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Grilled Cheese Sandwich Day (United States)", "section_idx": 3, 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{ "plaintext": "Emancipation Day (Washington, D.C., United States)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1100593, 108956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 18, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Foursquare Day (International observance) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 22313095, 15757659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 16, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Memorial Day for the Victims of the Holocaust (Hungary)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 879914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Healthcare Decisions Day (United States)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 15757659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Remembrance of Chemical Attack on Balisan and Sheikh Wasan (Iraqi Kurdistan)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 25893699, 679693 ], 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"Malbec World Day ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 31342131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Cheeseball Day (United States)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Espresso Day (Italy)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Women's Day (Gabon)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37942149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "World Hemophilia Day ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 26990831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "April 18", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anniversary of the Victory over 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"section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 495007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kartini Day (Indonesia)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1200613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Local Self Government Day (Russia)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 873520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Tree Planting Day (Kenya)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "San Jacinto Day (Texas)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 4872867, 29810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 17, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Queen's Official Birthday (Falkland Islands)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 682330, 7550182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 27, 43 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"anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Holocaust Remembrance Day (Serbia)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1173625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Jelly Bean Day (United States)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "April 23", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Castile and León Day (Castile and León, Spain)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 19046784, 70260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 22, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "German Beer Day (Germany)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independence Day (Conch Republic, Key West, Florida)", "section_idx": 3, 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"section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 4575104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Concord Day (Niger)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 31623366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Children's Day (Zambia)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 494299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Democracy Day (Nepal)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 4687905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fashion Revolution Day ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 47393379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flag Day (Ireland)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1458391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Sculpture Day", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": 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0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DNA Day", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 17113082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Feast of Saint Mark (Western Christianity)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 3369403, 42206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 21, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flag Day (Faroe Islands)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 17238607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flag Day (Eswatini)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37942261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Freedom Day (Portugal)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 277776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Liberation Day (Italy)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 39216075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Major Rogation (Western Christianity)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 541568, 42206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 16, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military Foundation Day (North Korea)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 50317014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Zucchini Bread Day (United States)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Parental Alienation Awareness Day", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 684628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Red Hat Society Day", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1016892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sinai Liberation Day (Egypt)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", 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[ 14, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Heroes Day (Barbados)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 4843454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Restoration of Sovereignty Day (Japan)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 39248125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Workers' Memorial Day and World Day for Safety and Health at Work (international)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6068435, 15757659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 65 ], [ 67, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Day of Mourning (Canada)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 4931001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "April 29 ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare (United 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(Neo-Druidic Wheel of the Year)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 4306, 28323, 33544044, 33653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 53, 60 ], [ 107, 118 ], [ 119, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carodejnice (Czech Republic and Slovakia)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 218935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Walpurgis Night (Central and Northern Europe)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 218935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Persian Gulf Day (Iran)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1422950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reunification Day (Vietnam)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1796408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Russian State Fire Service Day (Russia)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 873520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tax Day (Canada)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 514187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Teachers' Day (Paraguay)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "April observances", "target_page_ids": [ 625514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Germanic calendar", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1190200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of historical anniversaries", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sinking of the RMS Titanic", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10185776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National Arbor Day Foundation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "April", "Months" ]

[ "Apr", "4. month" ]

[ { "plaintext": "August is the eighth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, and the fifth of seven months to have a length of 31 days. Its zodiac sign is Leo and was originally named Sextilis in Latin because it was the 6th month in the original ten-month Roman calendar under Romulus in 753 BC, with March being the first month of the year. About 700BC, it became the eighth month when January and February were added to the year before March by King Numa Pompilius, who also gave it 29 days. Julius Caesar added two days when he created the Julian calendar in 46 BC (708 AUC), giving it its modern length of 31 days. In 8 BC, it was renamed in honor of Emperor Augustus. According to a Senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, he chose this month because it was the time of several of his great triumphs, including the conquest of Egypt. Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's July, but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 15651, 23306251, 2387987, 311223, 17730, 25792, 60786, 19344, 15642, 10845, 85284, 15924, 15651, 2553, 1273, 28748502, 235887, 960620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 52 ], [ 57, 75 ], [ 156, 159 ], [ 185, 193 ], [ 197, 202 ], [ 258, 272 ], [ 279, 286 ], [ 303, 308 ], [ 389, 396 ], [ 401, 409 ], [ 454, 468 ], [ 496, 509 ], [ 545, 560 ], [ 575, 578 ], [ 665, 673 ], [ 690, 707 ], [ 718, 727 ], [ 1026, 1048 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Southern Hemisphere, August is the seasonal equivalent of February in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere, August falls in the season of summer. In the Southern Hemisphere, the month falls during the season of winter. In many European countries, August is the holiday month for most workers. Numerous religious holidays occurred during August in ancient Rome. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 261273, 10845, 22126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 26 ], [ 65, 73 ], [ 81, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Certain meteor showers take place in August. The Kappa Cygnids take place in August, with the dates varying each year. The Alpha Capricornids meteor shower takes place as early as July 10 and ends at around August 10, and the Southern Delta Aquariids take place from mid-July to mid-August, with the peak usually around July 28–29. The Perseids, a major meteor shower, typically takes place between July 17 and August 24, with the days of the peak varying yearly. The star cluster of Messier 30 is best observed around August.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 157819, 24045247, 24550394, 209440, 961184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 21 ], [ 49, 62 ], [ 123, 141 ], [ 338, 346 ], [ 486, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among the aborigines of the Canary Islands, especially among the Guanches of Tenerife, the month of August received in the name of Beñesmer or Beñesmen, which was also the harvest festival held this month.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 148030, 269223, 48423915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 73 ], [ 77, 85 ], [ 143, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August's birthstones are the peridot, sardonyx, and spinel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "August symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 17891889, 45162, 304011, 29467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 19 ], [ 29, 36 ], [ 38, 46 ], [ 52, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Its birth flower is the gladiolus or poppy, meaning beauty, strength of character, love, marriage and family.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "August symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 518268, 1034172, 161758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 24, 33 ], [ 37, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Western zodiac signs for the month of August are Leo (until August 22) and Virgo (from August 23 onwards).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "August symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 34411, 2387987, 4415781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 53, 56 ], [ 79, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(All Baha'i, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "List of observances set by the Bahá'í calendar", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 61707746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of observances set by the Chinese calendar", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 475884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 49965306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of observances set by the Islamic calendar", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 58614298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 56594352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American Adventures Month (celebrating vacationing in the Americas)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Children's Eye Health and Safety Month", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Digestive Tract Paralysis (DTP) Month", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Get Ready for Kindergarten Month", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Happiness Happens Month", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 39847989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Month of Philippine Languages or Buwan ng Wika (Philippines)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Neurosurgery Outreach Month", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 21848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Psoriasis Awareness Month ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 101965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Spinal Muscular Atrophy Awareness Month", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 5695295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " What Will Be Your Legacy Month", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National Black Business Month ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National Children's Vision and Learning Month ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National Immunization Awareness Month", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 284029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National Princess Peach Month", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 81435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National Water Quality Month ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National Win with Civility Month", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National Catfish Month", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 47335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National Dippin' Dots Month", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1460045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Family Meals Month", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 35835568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National Goat Cheese Month. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 444368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National Panini Month", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 800169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peach Month", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 51257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sandwich Month", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 82425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Science Week (Australia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 4703342, 4689264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 23, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "See also Movable Western Christian observances", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 47086936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "See also Movable Eastern Christian observances", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 47068447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Construction Holiday (Quebec)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6310822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Food Day (Canada)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 31243149, 5042916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 10, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mead Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 12425709, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Mustard Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Air Force Day (Ukraine)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 729807, 31750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 15, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American Family Day (Arizona, United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 33431583, 21883824, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 21, 28 ], [ 30, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Children's Day (Uruguay) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 494299, 31843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 16, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Friendship Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2394215, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 16, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Forgiveness Day", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 246042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Railway Workers' Day (Russia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 873520, 25391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 22, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Farmer's Market Week (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "August Public Holiday (Ireland)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 199990, 14560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 23, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Children's Day (Tuvalu)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 494299, 30227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 16, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Civic Holiday (Canada)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 947024, 5042916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 15, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "British Columbia Day (British Columbia, Canada) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 947024, 3392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 22, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Natal Day (Nova Scotia, Canada)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 947024, 21184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 11, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Brunswick Day (New Brunswick, Canada) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 947024, 21182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 19, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Saskatchewan Day (Saskatchewan, Canada", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 947024, 26840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 18, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Terry Fox Day (Manitoba, Canada)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 86700, 18926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 15, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commerce Day (Iceland)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 11816464, 14531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 14, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emancipation Day (Anguilla, Antigua, The Bahamas, British Virgin Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1100593, 1217, 1967554, 3451, 3469, 11898195, 17238662, 27198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 18, 26 ], [ 28, 35 ], [ 37, 48 ], [ 50, 72 ], [ 74, 82 ], [ 84, 91 ], [ 93, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Farmer's Day (Zambia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 35900862, 34415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 14, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kadooment Day (Barbados)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6341143, 3455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 15, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Labor Day (Samoa)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 494420, 27238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 11, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Day (Jamaica)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 381050, 15660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 14, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Picnic Day (Northern Territory, Australia) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 10846114, 21638, 4689264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 12, 30 ], [ 32, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Somers' Day (Bermuda)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 4161208, 3460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 13, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Youth Day (Kiribati)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 358719, 16674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 11, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Night Out (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2370564, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 20, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Beer Day", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 23820600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sports Day (Russia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 873520, 25391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 12, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Peacekeepers' Day (Canada)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 19286134, 5042916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 28, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Children's Day (Argentina, Chile, Uruguay)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 494299, 18951905, 5489, 31843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 16, 25 ], [ 27, 32 ], [ 34, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Father's Day (Brazil, Samoa)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 46280, 3383, 27238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 14, 20 ], [ 22, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Melon Day (Turkmenistan)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 8561733, 198149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 11, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Navy Day (Bulgaria)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 728761, 3415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 10, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Day (Singapore)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 381050, 27318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 14, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heroes' Day (Zimbabwe)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 929795, 34399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 13, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Victory Day (Hawaii and Rhode Island, United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2640046, 13270, 25410, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 13, 19 ], [ 24, 36 ], [ 38, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Defence Forces Day (Zimbabwe)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 929795, 34399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 20, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Honey Bee Day ()", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 36755797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independence Day ()", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 50963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Children's Day (Argentina, Peru)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 494299, 18951905, 170691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 16, 25 ], [ 27, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grandparents Day (Hong Kong)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6586413, 13404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 18, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Discovery Day (Yukon, Canada)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 3895098, 34230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 15, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Day of Hearts (Haarlem and Amsterdam, Netherlands)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 5999878, 63278, 844, 21148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 15, 22 ], [ 27, 36 ], [ 38, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Mourning Day (Bangladesh)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 60656034, 3454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 23, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hawaii Admission Day (Hawaii, United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 11262598, 13270, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 22, 28 ], [ 30, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Burger Day (United Kingdom)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432, 31717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 21, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coal Miner's Day (some former Soviet Union countries)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 444733, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 30, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Grandparents Day (Taiwan)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6586413, 25734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 27, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Father's Day (South Sudan)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 46280, 32350676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 14, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Heroes' Day (Philippines)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 4843454, 23440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 22, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Liberation Day (Hong Kong)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 46693823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Late Summer Bank Holiday (England, Northern Ireland and Wales)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 158268, 9316, 21265, 69894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 26, 33 ], [ 35, 51 ], [ 56, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Season of Emancipation (Barbados) (April 14 to August 23) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1100593, 3455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 24, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Clown Week (August 1–7)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 28278295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "World Breastfeeding Week (August 1–7)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 29559391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 1 ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armed Forces Day (China)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 843459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armed Forces Day (Lebanon)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 729807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijani Language and Alphabet Day (Azerbaijan)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1478175, 746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ], [ 39, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emancipation Day (Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1100593, 3455, 17238691, 15660, 27228, 27208, 3565457, 30217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 18, 26 ], [ 28, 34 ], [ 36, 43 ], [ 45, 77 ], [ 79, 88 ], [ 90, 109 ], [ 111, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Imbolc (Neopaganism, Southern Hemisphere only)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 15087, 21686, 261273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 8, 19 ], [ 21, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lammas (England, Scotland, Neopaganism, Northern Hemisphere only)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 18179, 9316, 26994, 21686, 22126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 8, 15 ], [ 17, 25 ], [ 27, 38 ], [ 40, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lughnasadh (Gaels, Ireland, Scotland, Neopaganism, Northern Hemisphere only)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 77936, 22216220, 147575, 26994, 21686, 22126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 12, 17 ], [ 19, 26 ], [ 28, 36 ], [ 38, 49 ], [ 51, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Minden Day (United Kingdom)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 7193873, 31717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 12, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Day (Benin)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6929283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Milkshake Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 24, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Official Birthday and Coronation Day of the King of Tonga (Tonga)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1949844, 30158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 57 ], [ 59, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pachamama Raymi (Quechua people in Ecuador and Peru)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 41950134, 1891445, 9334, 170691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 17, 31 ], [ 35, 42 ], [ 47, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Parents' Day (Democratic Republic of the Congo)", "section_idx": 2, 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"plaintext": "Bennington Battle Day (Vermont, United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 11868051, 32578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 23, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Children's Day (Paraguay)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 494299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gozan no Okuribi (Kyoto, Japan)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 3225440, 37652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 18, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first day of the Independence Days (Gabon)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37942149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Airborne Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 24056698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Rum Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", 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"target_page_ids": [ 50963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independence Days (Gabon)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 50963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Vanilla Custard Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prekmurje Union Day (Slovenia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 843325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "San Martin Day (Argentina)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 776842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 18", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arbor Day (Pakistan)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2017, 23235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 11, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armed Forces Day (North Macedonia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 729807, 23564616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 18, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bad Poetry Day ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 16951665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Birthday of Virginia Dare (Roanoke Island)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 152308, 74546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 27, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Constitution Day (Indonesia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1773913, 14579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 18, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Long Tan Day (Australia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 984310, 4689264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 14, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Science Day (Thailand)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 494455, 30128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 22, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 19", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Feast of the Transfiguration (Julian calendar), and its related observances:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1837213, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ], [ 30, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Buhe (Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2591557, 229435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Saviour's Transfiguration, popularly known as the \"Apples Feast\" (Russian Orthodox Church and Georgian Orthodox Church)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 303916, 35101687, 40157, 433340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 51, 63 ], [ 66, 89 ], [ 94, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Afghan Independence Day (Afghanistan)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1530679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August Revolution Commemoration Day (Vietnam)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 495033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Birthday of Crown Princess Mette-Marit (Norway)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 16960194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Manuel Luis Quezón Day (Quezon City and other places in The Philippines named after Manuel L. Quezon)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 495001, 284223, 160753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 24, 35 ], [ 84, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Aviation Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 3136870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Potato Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "World Humanitarian Day ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 22444430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 20", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 18933271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Indian Akshay Urja Day (India)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 36790350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Restoration of Independence Day (Estonia) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 50963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Revolution of the King and People (Morocco)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 5426626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Saint Stephen's Day (Hungary)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 879914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "World Mosquito Day ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 36790066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 21", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ninoy Aquino Day (Philippines)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6595461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Youth Day/King Mohammed VI's Birthday (Morocco)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 358719, 226113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 22", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Feast of the Coronation of Mary", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 13945161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flag Day (Russia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1458391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Madras Day (Chennai and Tamil Nadu, India)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6568919, 45139, 29918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 12, 19 ], [ 24, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Eat a Peach Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Pecan Torte Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Southern Hemisphere Hoodie-Hoo Day (Chase's Calendar of Events, Southern Hemisphere)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 16951665, 26241411, 261273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ], [ 36, 62 ], [ 64, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 23", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Battle of Kursk Day (Russia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 27865138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Day of the National Flag (Ukraine) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 38537018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism or Black Ribbon Day (European Union and other countries), and related observances:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 25966474, 9317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 63 ], [ 85, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Liberation from Fascist Occupation Day (Romania)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 10635094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 18475648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Umhlanga Day (Eswatini)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 24233921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 24", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flag Day (Liberia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 22748810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independence Day of Ukraine ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 28557579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Strange Music Day", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 40114296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Waffle Day (United States) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 26226234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nostalgia Night (Uruguay)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 16509633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Willka Raymi (Cusco, Peru)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 42292596, 72735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 14, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 25", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Day of Songun (North Korea)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 495007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independence Day (Uruguay) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 23226172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Liberation Day (France)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1106409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Banana Split Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Whiskey Sour Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soldier's Day (Brazil)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 729807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 26", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6048708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Herero Day (Namibia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 18240140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heroes' Day (Namibia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 18240143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Repentance Day (Papua New Guinea)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 32877953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Women's Equality Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 19045307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 27", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Film and Movies Day (Russia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 873520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independence Day (Republic of Moldova)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 27995148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lyndon Baines Johnson Day (Texas, United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2153592, 29810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 27, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Banana Lovers Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Pots De Creme Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 28", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Assumption of Mary (Eastern Orthodox Church (Public holiday in North Macedonia, Serbia, and Georgia (country))", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 259335, 10186, 48768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 20, 43 ], [ 92, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crackers of the Keyboard Day", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Race Your Mouse Around the Icons Day ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 16951665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Cherry Turnover Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ], [ 30, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 29", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Day against Nuclear Tests ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37945845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Miners' Day (Ukraine)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 18012089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More Herbs, Less Salt Day", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Lemon Juice Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Chop Suey Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Sports Day (India)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 34472713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Slovak National Uprising Anniversary (Slovakia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 494504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telugu Language Day (India)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 8936300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 30", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Constitution Day (Kazakhstan)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 16642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Constitution Day (Turks and Caicos Islands)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 381050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independence Day (Tatarstan, Russia, unrecognized)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 50963, 67135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 18, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Day of the Disappeared (International)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2585344, 15757659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ], [ 38, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Popular Consultation Day (East Timor)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 376026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Saint Rose of Lima's Day (Peru)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 777987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Victory Day (Turkey)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2533692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 31", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baloch-Pakhtun Unity Day (Balochs and Pashtuns, International observance)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 48532081, 64985, 36973, 15757659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 26, 32 ], [ 38, 46 ], [ 48, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Day of Solidarity and Freedom (Poland) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 495031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independence Day (Federation of Malaya, Malaysia)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1539323, 304150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 18, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independence Day (Kyrgyzstan)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 47680563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independence Day (Trinidad and Tobago)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 22196832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Love Litigating Lawyers Day ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 16951665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Language Day (Moldova)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 28292659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Trail Mix Day (United States)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "North Borneo Self-government Day (Sabah, Borneo)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observances", "target_page_ids": [ 42910363, 28678, 4518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ], [ 34, 39 ], [ 41, 47 ] ] } ]

[ "August", "Months", "Augustus" ]

[ "Aug", "8. month" ]

[ { "plaintext": "According to the Abrahamic religions, Aaron ( or ; ’Ahărōn) was a prophet, high priest, and the elder brother of Moses. Knowledge of Aaron, along with his brother Moses, comes exclusively from religious texts, such as the Bible and Quran.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13906453, 24805, 789004, 19577, 3390, 36922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 36 ], [ 67, 74 ], [ 76, 87 ], [ 114, 119 ], [ 223, 228 ], [ 233, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Hebrew Bible relates that, unlike Moses, who grew up in the Egyptian royal court, Aaron and his elder sister Miriam remained with their kinsmen in the eastern border-land of Egypt (Goshen). When Moses first confronted the Egyptian king about the Israelites, Aaron served as his brother's spokesman (\"prophet\") to the Pharaoh (). Part of the Law given to Moses at Sinai granted Aaron the priesthood for himself and his male descendants, and he became the first High Priest of the Israelites.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30344, 294492, 265570, 60847, 52949, 27354824, 4342452, 52949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 113, 119 ], [ 140, 147 ], [ 185, 191 ], [ 250, 260 ], [ 345, 372 ], [ 464, 475 ], [ 483, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aaron died before the Israelites crossed the Jordan river. According to the Book of Numbers, he died and was buried on Mount Hor, Deuteronomy however places these events at Moserah. Aaron is also mentioned in the New Testament of the Bible (Luke, Acts, and Hebrews).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4376, 1682252, 8547, 2857391, 21433, 12491, 2084, 9901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 91 ], [ 119, 128 ], [ 131, 142 ], [ 174, 181 ], [ 214, 227 ], [ 242, 246 ], [ 248, 252 ], [ 258, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Book of Exodus, Aaron first functioned as Moses' assistant. Because Moses complained that he could not speak well, God appointed Aaron as Moses' \"prophet\" (). At the command of Moses, he let his rod turn into a snake. Then he stretched out his rod in order to bring on the first three plagues. After that, Moses tended to act and speak for himself.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biblical narrative", "target_page_ids": [ 9662, 19577, 19577, 49940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 31 ], [ 59, 64 ], [ 194, 199 ], [ 261, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the journey in the wilderness, Aaron was not always prominent or active. At the battle with Amalek, he was chosen with Hur to support the hand of Moses that held the \"rod of God\". When the revelation was given to Moses at Mount Sinai, he headed the elders of Israel who accompanied Moses on the way to the summit. While Joshua went with Moses to the top, however, Aaron and Hur remained below to look after the people. From here on in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers, Joshua appears in the role of Moses' assistant while Aaron functions instead as the first high priest.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biblical narrative", "target_page_ids": [ 49177385, 1718490, 28726336, 3601582, 16121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 105 ], [ 126, 129 ], [ 174, 184 ], [ 229, 240 ], [ 327, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The books of Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers maintain that Aaron received from God a monopoly over the priesthood for himself and his male descendants. The family of Aaron had the exclusive right and responsibility to make offerings on the altar to Yahweh. The rest of his tribe, the Levites, were given subordinate responsibilities within the sanctuary. Moses anointed and consecrated Aaron and his sons to the priesthood, and arrayed them in the robes of office. He also related to them God's detailed instructions for performing their duties while the rest of the Israelites listened. Aaron and his successors as high priest were given control over the Urim and Thummim by which the will of God could be determined. God commissioned the Aaronide priests to distinguish the holy from the common and the clean from the unclean, and to teach the divine laws (the Torah) to the Israelites. The priests were also commissioned to bless the people. When Aaron completed the altar offerings for the first time and, with Moses, \"blessed the people: and the glory of the appeared unto all the people: And there came a fire out from before the , and consumed upon the altar the burnt offering and the fat [which] when all the people saw, they shouted, and fell on their faces\". In this way, the institution of the Aaronide priesthood was established.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biblical narrative", "target_page_ids": [ 9662, 18187, 4376, 34257, 70577, 379458, 30343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 19 ], [ 21, 30 ], [ 35, 42 ], [ 247, 253 ], [ 282, 288 ], [ 654, 670 ], [ 861, 866 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In later books of the Hebrew Bible, Aaron and his kin are not mentioned very often except in literature dating to the Babylonian captivity and later. The books of Judges, Samuel and Kings mention priests and Levites, but do not mention the Aaronides in particular. The Book of Ezekiel, which devotes much attention to priestly matters, calls the priestly upper class the Zadokites after one of King David's priests. It does reflect a two-tier priesthood with the Levites in subordinate position. A two-tier hierarchy of Aaronides and Levites appears in Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles. As a result, many historians think that Aaronide families did not control the priesthood in pre-exilic Israel. What is clear is that high priests claiming Aaronide descent dominated the Second Temple period. Most scholars think the Torah reached its final form early in this period, which may account for Aaron's prominence in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biblical narrative", "target_page_ids": [ 58224, 4377, 4378, 4380, 4390, 31027757, 4332, 4362, 4319, 19890049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 138 ], [ 163, 169 ], [ 171, 177 ], [ 182, 187 ], [ 269, 284 ], [ 371, 380 ], [ 553, 557 ], [ 559, 567 ], [ 572, 582 ], [ 770, 790 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aaron plays a leading role in several stories of conflicts during Israel's wilderness wanderings. During the prolonged absence of Moses on Mount Sinai, the people provoked Aaron to make a golden calf This incident nearly caused God to destroy the Israelites. Moses successfully intervened, but then led the loyal Levites in executing many of the culprits; a plague afflicted those who were left. Aaron, however, escaped punishment for his role in the affair, because of the intercession of Moses according to Deuteronomy 9:20. Later retellings of this story almost always excuse Aaron for his role. For example, in rabbinic sources and in the Quran, Aaron was not the idol-maker and upon Moses' return begged his pardon because he felt mortally threatened by the Israelites.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biblical narrative", "target_page_ids": [ 857078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the day of Aaron's consecration, his oldest sons, Nadab and Abihu, were burned up by divine fire because they offered \"strange\" incense. Most interpreters think this story reflects a conflict between priestly families some time in Israel's past. Others argue that the story simply shows what can happen if the priests do not follow God's instructions given through Moses.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biblical narrative", "target_page_ids": [ 68543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Torah generally depicts the siblings, Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, as the leaders of Israel after the Exodus, a view also reflected in the biblical Book of Micah. Numbers 12, however, reports that on one occasion, Aaron and Miriam complained about Moses' exclusive claim to be the 's prophet. Their presumption was rebuffed by God who affirmed Moses' uniqueness as the one with whom the spoke face to face. Miriam was punished with a skin disease (tzaraath) that turned her skin white. Aaron pleaded with Moses to intercede for her, and Miriam, after seven days' quarantine, was healed. Aaron once again escaped any retribution.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biblical narrative", "target_page_ids": [ 4452, 1705214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 162 ], [ 450, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Numbers 16–17, a Levite named Korah led many in challenging Aaron's exclusive claim to the priesthood. When the rebels were punished by being swallowed up by the earth, Eleazar, the son of Aaron, was commissioned to take charge of the censers of the dead priests. And when a plague broke out among the people who had sympathized with the rebels, Aaron, at the command of Moses, took his censer and stood between the living and the dead till the plague abated ().", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biblical narrative", "target_page_ids": [ 608565, 745476, 270505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 48 ], [ 182, 189 ], [ 248, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To emphasize the validity of the Levites' claim to the offerings and tithes of the Israelites, Moses collected a rod from the leaders of each tribe in Israel and laid the twelve rods overnight in the tent of meeting. The next morning, Aaron's rod was found to have budded and blossomed and produced ripe almonds. The following chapter then details the distinction between Aaron's family and the rest of the Levites: while all the Levites (and only Levites) were devoted to the care of the sanctuary, charge of its interior and the altar was committed to the Aaronites alone.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biblical narrative", "target_page_ids": [ 82935, 72346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 215 ], [ 558, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aaron, like Moses, was not permitted to enter Canaan with the Israelites because the two brothers showed impatience at Meribah (Kadesh) in the last year of the desert pilgrimage, when Moses brought water out of a rock to quench the people's thirst. Although they had been commanded to speak to the rock, Moses struck it with the staff twice, which was construed as displaying a lack of deference to the .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biblical narrative", "target_page_ids": [ 3217727, 649171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 126 ], [ 128, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are two accounts of the death of Aaron in the Torah. Numbers says that soon after the incident at Meribah, Aaron with his son Eleazar and Moses ascended Mount Hor. There Moses stripped Aaron of his priestly garments and transferred them to Eleazar. Aaron died on the summit of the mountain, and the people mourned for him thirty days. The other account is found in Deuteronomy 10:6, where Aaron died at Moserah and was buried. There is a significant amount of travel between these two points, as the itinerary in Numbers 33:31–37 records seven stages between Moseroth (Mosera) and Mount Hor. Aaron died on the 1st of Av and was 123 at the time of his death.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biblical narrative", "target_page_ids": [ 230230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 623, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aaron married Elisheba, daughter of Amminadab and sister of Nahshon of the tribe of Judah. The sons of Aaron were Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar and Itamar; only the latter two had progeny. A descendant of Aaron is an Aaronite, or Kohen, meaning Priest. Any non-Aaronic Levite—i.e., descended from Levi but not from Aaron—assisted the Levitical priests of the family of Aaron in the care of the tabernacle; later of the temple.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biblical narrative", "target_page_ids": [ 745462, 15936868, 1603819, 68543, 68543, 745476, 5671041, 72346, 70577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 22 ], [ 36, 45 ], [ 60, 67 ], [ 114, 119 ], [ 121, 126 ], [ 128, 135 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 222, 227 ], [ 261, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Gospel of Luke records that both Zechariah and Elizabeth and therefore their son John the Baptist were descendants of Aaron.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biblical narrative", "target_page_ids": [ 12491, 68849, 650896, 16125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 37, 46 ], [ 51, 60 ], [ 85, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The older prophets and prophetical writers beheld in their priests the representatives of a religious form inferior to the prophetic truth; men without the spirit of God and lacking the will-power requisite to resist the multitude in its idolatrous proclivities. Thus Aaron, the first priest, ranks below Moses: he is his mouthpiece, and the executor of the will of God revealed through Moses, although it is pointed out that it is said fifteen times in the Torah that \"the Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In religious traditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Under the influence of the priesthood that shaped the destinies of the nation under Persian rule, a different ideal of the priest was formed, according to Malachi 2:4-7, and the prevailing tendency was to place Aaron on a footing equal with Moses. \"At times Aaron, and at other times Moses, is mentioned first in Scripture—this is to show that they were of equal rank,\" says the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael, which strongly implies this when introducing in its record of renowned men the glowing description of Aaron's ministration.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In religious traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 30927438, 3519503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 91 ], [ 379, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In fulfillment of the promise of peaceful life, symbolized by the pouring of oil upon his head, Aaron's death, as described in the aggadah, was of a wonderful tranquility. Accompanied by Moses, his brother, and by Eleazar, his son, Aaron went to the summit of Mount Hor, where the rock suddenly opened before him and a beautiful cave lit by a lamp presented itself to his view. Moses said, \"Take off your priestly raiment and place it upon your son Eleazar! and then follow me.\" Aaron did as commanded; and they entered the cave, where was prepared a bed around which angels stood. \"Go lie down upon thy bed, my brother,\" Moses continued; and Aaron obeyed without a murmur. Then his soul departed as if by a kiss from God. The cave closed behind Moses as he left; and he went down the hill with Eleazar, with garments rent, and crying: \"Alas, Aaron, my brother! thou, the pillar of supplication of Israel!\" When the Israelites cried in bewilderment, \"Where is Aaron?\" angels were seen carrying Aaron's bier through the air. A voice was then heard saying: \"The law of truth was in his mouth, and iniquity was not found on his lips: he walked with me in righteousness, and brought many back from sin\" He died on the first of Av. The pillar of cloud which proceeded in front of Israel's camp disappeared at Aaron's death. The seeming contradiction between Numbers 20:22 et seq. and Deuteronomy 10:6 is solved by the rabbis in the following manner: Aaron's death on Mount Hor was marked by the defeat of the people in a war with the king of Arad, in consequence of which the Israelites fled, marching seven stations backward to Mosera, where they performed the rites of mourning for Aaron; wherefore it is said: \"There [at Mosera] died Aaron.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In religious traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 1560959, 230230, 24482238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 138 ], [ 1223, 1225 ], [ 1231, 1246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rabbis particularly praise the brotherly sentiment between Aaron and Moses. When Moses was appointed ruler and Aaron high priest, neither betrayed any jealousy; instead they rejoiced in each other's greatness. When Moses at first declined to go to Pharaoh, saying: \"O my Lord, send, I pray, by the hand of him whom you will send\", he was unwilling to deprive Aaron of the high position the latter had held for so many years; but the Lord reassured him, saying: \"Behold, when he sees you, he will be glad in his heart.\" Indeed, Aaron was to find his reward, says Shimon bar Yochai; for that heart which had leaped with joy over his younger brother's rise to glory greater than his was decorated with the Urim and Thummim, which were to \"be upon Aaron's heart when he goeth in before the Lord\". Moses and Aaron met in gladness of heart, kissing each other as true brothers, and of them it is written: \"Behold how good and how pleasant [it is] for brethren to dwell together in unity!\" Of them it is said: \"Mercy and truth are met together; righteousness and peace have kissed [each other]\"; for Moses stood for righteousness and Aaron for peace. Again, mercy was personified in Aaron, according to Deuteronomy 33:8, and truth in Moses, according to Numbers 12:7.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In religious traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 314239, 379458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 566, 583 ], [ 707, 723 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Moses poured the oil of anointment upon the head of Aaron, Aaron modestly shrank back and said: \"Who knows whether I have not cast some blemish upon this sacred oil so as to forfeit this high office.\" Then the Shekhinah spoke the words: \"Behold the precious ointment upon the head, that ran down upon the beard of Aaron, that even went down to the skirts of his garment, is as pure as the dew of Hermon.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In religious traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 69260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 215, 224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Tanhuma, Aaron's activity as a prophet began earlier than that of Moses. Hillel held Aaron up as an example, saying: \"Be of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace and pursuing peace; love your fellow creatures and draw them nigh unto the Law!\" This is further illustrated by the tradition that Aaron was an ideal priest of the people, far more beloved for his kindly ways than was Moses. While Moses was stern and uncompromising, brooking no wrong, Aaron went about as peacemaker, reconciling man and wife when he saw them estranged, or a man with his neighbor when they quarreled, and winning evil-doers back into the right way by his friendly intercourse. As a result, Aaron's death was more intensely mourned than Moses': when Aaron died the whole house of Israel wept, including the women, while Moses was bewailed by \"the sons of Israel\" only. Even in the making of the Golden Calf the rabbis find extenuating circumstances for Aaron. His fortitude and silent submission to the will of God on the loss of his two sons are referred to as an excellent example to men how to glorify God in the midst of great affliction. Especially significant are the words represented as being spoken by God after the princes of the Twelve Tribes had brought their dedication offerings into the newly reared Tabernacle: \"Say to thy brother Aaron: Greater than the gifts of the princes is thy gift; for thou art called upon to kindle the light, and, while the sacrifices shall last only as long as the Temple lasts, thy light shall last forever.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In religious traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 5663220, 52949, 2400868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ], [ 762, 777 ], [ 1231, 1244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Eastern Orthodox and Maronite churches, Aaron is venerated as a saint whose feast day is shared with his brother Moses and celebrated on September 4. (Those churches that follow the traditional Julian calendar celebrate this day on September 17 of the modern Gregorian calendar). Aaron is also commemorated with other Old Testament saints on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers, the Sunday before Christmas.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In religious traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 10186, 66391078, 185441, 28436, 180283, 15651, 23306251, 6237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ], [ 28, 36 ], [ 56, 65 ], [ 71, 76 ], [ 83, 92 ], [ 201, 216 ], [ 266, 284 ], [ 399, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Eastern Orthodox Church he is commemorated on 20 July, 12 March, Sunday of the Forefathers, Sunday of the Fathers and on April 14 with all saint Sinai monks.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In religious traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 3345949, 3345949, 1102392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 93 ], [ 95, 116 ], [ 148, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aaron is commemorated as one of the Holy Forefathers in the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 30. He is commemorated on July 1 in the modern Latin calendar and in the Syriac Calendar.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In religious traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 9508182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Moses and Aaron Church (), in the Waterlooplein neighborhood of Amsterdam, is one of the most well known Catholic churches in the city. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In religious traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 7899566, 844, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 51 ], [ 68, 77 ], [ 110, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Aaronic priesthood is the lesser order of priesthood under the higher order of the Melchizedek priesthood. Those ordained to this priesthood have the authority to act in God's name in certain responsibilities in the church such as the administration of the sacrament and baptism.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In religious traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 5935, 390220, 149834, 384683, 12438068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 50 ], [ 56, 74 ], [ 139, 161 ], [ 313, 322 ], [ 327, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Community of Christ, the Aaronic order of priesthood is regarded as an appendage to the Melchisedec order, and consists of the priesthood offices of deacon, teacher, and priest. While differing in responsibilities, these offices, along with those of the Melchisidec order, are regarded as equal before God.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In religious traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 92908, 1620723, 1620723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 26 ], [ 32, 59 ], [ 95, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aaron (Arabic: هارون, Hārūn) is mentioned in the Quran as a prophet of God. The Quran praises Aaron repeatedly, calling him a \"believing servant\" as well as one who was \"guided\" and one of the \"victors\". Aaron is important in Islam for his role in the events of the Exodus, in which, according to the Quran and Islamic belief, he preached with his elder brother, Moses to the Pharaoh of the Exodus. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In religious traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 803, 36922, 30933488, 740, 6037917, 1823869, 6037917, 406662, 27426688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 13 ], [ 49, 54 ], [ 60, 67 ], [ 71, 74 ], [ 226, 231 ], [ 262, 272 ], [ 311, 318 ], [ 363, 368 ], [ 376, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aaron's significance in Islam, however, is not limited to his role as the helper of Moses. Islamic tradition also accords Aaron the role of a patriarch, as tradition records that the priestly descent came through Aaron's lineage, which included the entire House of Amran.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In religious traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 175409, 1224238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 151 ], [ 256, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Baháʼí Faith, although his father is described as both an apostle and a prophet, Aaron is merely described as a prophet. The Kitáb-i-Íqán describes Imran as his father.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "In religious traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 4251, 335642, 1728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 132, 144 ], [ 155, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aaron appears paired with Moses frequently in Jewish and Christian art, especially in the illustrations of manuscript and printed Bibles. He can usually be distinguished by his priestly vestments, especially his turban or miter and jeweled breastplate. He frequently holds a censer or, sometimes, his flowering rod. Aaron also appears in scenes depicting the wilderness Tabernacle and its altar, as already in the third-century frescos in the synagogue at Dura-Europos in Syria. An eleventh-century portable silver altar from Fulda, Germany depicts Aaron with his censor, and is located in the Musée de Cluny in Paris. This is also how he appears in the frontispieces of early printed Passover Haggadot and occasionally in church sculptures. Aaron has rarely been the subject of portraits, such as those by Anton Kern [1710–1747] and by Pier Francesco Mola [c. 1650]. Christian artists sometimes portray Aaron as a prophet holding a scroll, as in a twelfth-century sculpture from the Cathedral of Noyon in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York and often in Eastern Orthodox icons. Illustrations of the Golden Calf story usually include him as well – most notably in Nicolas Poussin's The Adoration of the Golden Calf (ca. 1633–34, National Gallery, London). Finally, some artists interested in validating later priesthoods have painted the ordination of Aaron and his sons (Leviticus 8). Harry Anderson's realistic portrayal is often reproduced in the literature of the Latter Day Saints.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "In art", "target_page_ids": [ 270505, 723899, 364593, 38823, 353326, 22989, 60170148, 4444101, 5272012, 37535, 857078, 62131, 32453033, 98616, 13987257, 420883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 275, 281 ], [ 443, 452 ], [ 456, 468 ], [ 526, 531 ], [ 594, 608 ], [ 612, 617 ], [ 807, 817 ], [ 837, 856 ], [ 984, 1002 ], [ 1010, 1036 ], [ 1105, 1116 ], [ 1169, 1184 ], [ 1187, 1219 ], [ 1234, 1250 ], [ 1391, 1405 ], [ 1473, 1490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harun", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9869009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Moses in rabbinic literature", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11255807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Y-chromosomal Aaron", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 512999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " which cites", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Numbers Rabbah 9", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 4376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Leviticus Rabbah 10", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 18187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Midrash Peṭirat Aharon in Jellinek's Bet ha-Midrash, 1:91–95", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1517021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yalḳuṭ Numbers 764", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 4376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "References in the Qur'an", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aaron's prophecy: , ,", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aaron is made helper of Moses: , , , , ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aaron and Moses sent to Pharaoh: , , , ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Praise for Aaron: , , , , , ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Golden Calf: , ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " English-Ingles.com - Etymology of Aaron", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " MFnames.com - Origin and Meaning of Aaron", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Aaron\" at the Christian Iconography website", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Aaron", "High_Priests_of_Israel", "Ancient_Egyptian_Jews", "Book_of_Deuteronomy", "Book_of_Exodus_people", "Christian_saints_from_the_Old_Testament", "Moses", "15th-century_BC_clergy", "People_whose_existence_is_disputed", "Tribe_of_Levi", "15th-century_BC_people" ]

[ "Aaron (Old Testament character)" ]

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The city falls on May 29, and is renamed Istanbul.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35148, 19046, 5646, 19355, 3391396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 36, 50 ], [ 70, 76 ], [ 93, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1580 One of the largest earthquakes recorded in the history of England, Flanders, or Northern France, takes place.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 38597, 5569795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 17, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1652 At the Cape of Good Hope, Dutch sailor Jan van Riebeeck establishes a resupply camp that eventually becomes Cape Town.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34918, 44252, 171313, 6653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 45, 61 ], [ 114, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1712 The New York Slave Revolt of 1712 begins near Broadway.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 38633, 7049963, 4626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 39 ], [ 52, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1776 American Revolutionary War: Ships of the Continental Navy fail in their attempt to capture a Royal Navy dispatch boat.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 8380114, 771, 419720, 25735867, 26061, 14458129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 32 ], [ 47, 63 ], [ 78, 96 ], [ 99, 109 ], [ 110, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1782 King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke (Rama I) of Siam (modern day Thailand) establishes the Chakri dynasty.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34698, 203795, 30128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 11, 33 ], [ 63, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1793 During the French Revolution, the Committee of Public Safety becomes the executive organ of the republic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35416, 11188, 158248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 17, 34 ], [ 40, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1800 The Treaty of Constantinople establishes the Septinsular Republic, the first autonomous Greek state since the Fall of the Byzantine Empire. (Under the Old Style calendar then still in use in the Ottoman Empire, the treaty was signed on 21 March.)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34963, 57755778, 1102177, 102674, 888602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 34 ], [ 51, 71 ], [ 116, 144 ], [ 157, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1808 John Jacob Astor incorporates the American Fur Company, that would eventually make him America's first millionaire.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34902, 15645, 1642077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 40, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1812 British forces under the command of the Duke of Wellington assault the fortress of Badajoz. This would be the turning point in the Peninsular War against Napoleon-led France.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34949, 8474, 2995487, 102485, 69880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 46, 64 ], [ 89, 96 ], [ 137, 151 ], [ 160, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1814 Nominal beginning of the Bourbon Restoration; anniversary date that Napoleon abdicates and is exiled to Elba.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34948, 62244, 10479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 31, 50 ], [ 110, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1830 Church of Christ, the original church of the Latter Day Saint movement, is organized by Joseph Smith and others at either Fayette or Manchester, New York.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35071, 420967, 420883, 32387701, 127166, 685747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 51, 76 ], [ 94, 106 ], [ 128, 135 ], [ 139, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1841 U.S. President John Tyler is sworn in, two days after having become president upon William Henry Harrison's death.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34921, 19732690, 33299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 21, 31 ], [ 89, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1860 The Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, later renamed Community of Christ, is organized by Joseph Smith III and others at Amboy, Illinois.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34784, 92908, 92908, 636946, 111506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 65 ], [ 81, 100 ], [ 118, 134 ], [ 149, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1862 American Civil War: The Battle of Shiloh begins: In Tennessee, forces under Union General Ulysses S. 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It lasts until 1956.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34667, 173067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1896 In Athens, the opening of the first modern Olympic Games is celebrated, 1,500 years after the original games are banned by Roman emperor Theodosius I.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34668, 1216, 48644, 219117, 31131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 9, 15 ], [ 36, 62 ], [ 129, 142 ], [ 143, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1909 Robert Peary and Matthew Henson become the first people to reach the North Pole; Peary's claim has been disputed because of failings in his navigational ability.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19283284, 61004, 602354, 21836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 23, 37 ], [ 75, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1911 During the Battle of Deçiq, Dedë Gjon Luli Dedvukaj, leader of the Malësori Albanians, raises the Albanian flag in the town of Tuzi, Montenegro, for the first time after George Kastrioti (Skanderbeg).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34605, 12580934, 3599790, 1829838, 738, 3105305, 20760, 10780405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 17, 32 ], [ 34, 57 ], [ 73, 81 ], [ 82, 89 ], [ 133, 137 ], [ 139, 149 ], [ 194, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1917 World War I: The United States declares war on Germany.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34595, 4764461, 28040759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 23, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1918 Finnish Civil War: The battle of Tampere ends.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34594, 11772, 3464055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 29, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1926 Varney Airlines makes its first commercial flight (Varney is the root company of United Airlines).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34609, 789519, 32307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 87, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1929 Huey P. 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{ "plaintext": "2010 Maoist rebels kill 76 CRPF officers in Dantewada district, India.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 43226, 26850684, 451855, 2838485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 20, 24 ], [ 28, 32 ], [ 45, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011 In San Fernando, Tamaulipas, Mexico, over 193 victims of Los Zetas were exhumed from several mass graves.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36225, 17168064, 31434596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 9, 33 ], [ 99, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 Azawad declares itself independent from the Republic of Mali.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 47374, 1463123, 35346458, 19127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 12 ], [ 13, 40 ], [ 50, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2017 U.S. military launches 59 Tomahawk cruise missiles at an air base in Syria. 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6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1844 William Lyne, Australian politician, 13th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1913)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34955, 1220965, 24654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 48, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1851 Guillaume Bigourdan, French astronomer and academic (d. 1932)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35014, 595009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1852 Will Crooks, English trade unionist and politician (d. 1921)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34952, 435471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1855 Charles Huot, Canadian painter and illustrator (d. 1930)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35075, 36208157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1857 Arthur Wesley Dow, American painter and photographer (d. 1922)", "section_idx": 2, 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and playwright (d. 1951)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34789, 3116539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1878 Erich Mühsam, German author, poet, and playwright (d. 1934)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34938, 30873222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1881 Karl Staaf, Swedish pole vaulter and hammer thrower (d. 1953)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34716, 12670377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1884 J. G. Parry-Thomas, Welsh race car driver and engineer (d. 1927)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34844, 1490179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1886 Athenagoras I of Constantinople (d. 1972)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34845, 44155149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1886 Walter Dandy, American physician and neurosurgeon (d. 1946)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2900899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1886 Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII, Indian ruler (d. 1967)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2118972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1888 Hans Richter, Swiss painter, illustrator, and director (d. 1976)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34712, 42521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1888 Gerhard Ritter, German historian and academic (d. 1967)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1658232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1890 Anthony Fokker, Dutch engineer and businessman, founded Fokker Aircraft Manufacturer (d. 1939)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34707, 51808, 51522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 62, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1892 Donald Wills Douglas, Sr., American businessman, founded the Douglas Aircraft Company (d. 1981)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34793, 727320, 201793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ], [ 67, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1892 Lowell Thomas, American journalist and author (d. 1981)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 966147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1895 Dudley Nichols, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1960)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34679, 1183725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1898 Jeanne Hébuterne, French painter and author (d. 1920) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34791, 806084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1900 Leo Robin, American composer and songwriter (d. 1984)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34653, 576569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1901 Pier Giorgio Frassati, Italian activist (d. 1925)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34618, 1430761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1902 Julien Torma, French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1933)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34652, 978739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1903 Mickey Cochrane, American baseball player and manager (d. 1962)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34639, 161226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1903 Harold Eugene Edgerton, American engineer and academic (d. 1990)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1904 Kurt Georg Kiesinger, German lawyer, politician and Chancellor of Germany (d. 1988)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34651, 17470, 20890626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 58, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1904 Erwin Komenda, Austrian car designer and engineer (d. 1966)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 155706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1908 Marcel-Marie Desmarais, Canadian preacher, missionary, and author (d. 1994)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34600, 8108383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1909 William M. Branham, American minister and theologian (d. 1965)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283284, 912080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1909 Hermann Lang, German race car driver (d. 1987)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1201767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1910 Barys Kit, Belarusian-American rocket scientist (d. 2018)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34690, 26854239, 7948354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 17, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1911 Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1979)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34605, 755234, 52502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ], [ 65, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1913 Shannon Boyd-Bailey McCune, American geographer and academic (d. 1993)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34617, 26839279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1915 Tadeusz Kantor, Polish director, painter, and set designer (d. 1990)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34689, 151209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1916 Phil Leeds, American actor (d. 1998)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34677, 13902408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1916 Vincent Ellis McKelvey, American geologist and author (d. 1987)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21059413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1917 Leonora Carrington, English-Mexican painter and author (d. 2011)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34595, 3133772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1918 Alfredo Ovando Candía, Bolivian general and politician, 56th President of Bolivia (d. 1982)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34594, 761557, 188806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ], [ 67, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1919 Georgios Mylonas, Greek politician, 11th Greek Minister of Culture (d. 1998)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34665, 4092676, 505183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 47, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1920 Jack Cover, American pilot and physicist, invented the Taser gun (d. 2009)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34676, 21526055, 237746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 61, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1920 Edmond H. 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Italian-English model, actress, and fashion designer (d. 2017)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 347201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1943 Max Clifford, English journalist and publicist (d. 2017)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34630, 262800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1943 Roger Cook, New Zealand-English journalist and academic ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4367998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1943 Ian MacRae, New Zealand rugby player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 46993519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1943 Mitchell Melton, American lawyer and politician (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 25515428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1944 Felicity Palmer, English operatic soprano", 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"target_page_ids": [ 853003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1955 Rob Epstein, American director and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34851, 20171391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1955 Michael Rooker, American actor, director, and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 651347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1955 Cathy Jones, Canadian actress, comedian, and writer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 351785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1956 Michele Bachmann, American lawyer and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34672, 2064489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1956 Normand Corbeil, Canadian composer (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38418540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1956 Mudassar Nazar, Pakistani cricketer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3641181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1956 Lee Scott, English politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1847264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1956 Sebastian Spreng, Argentinian-American painter and journalist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22876413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1956 Dilip Vengsarkar, Indian cricketer and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 994727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1957 Giorgio Damilano, Italian race walker and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34606, 36761234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1957 Maurizio Damilano, Italian race walker and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4183579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1957 Jaroslava Maxová, Czech soprano and educator", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 25034139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1957 Paolo Nespoli, Italian soldier, engineer, and astronaut", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6071867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1958 Graeme Base, Australian author and illustrator", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34953, 2511084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1959 Gail Shea, Canadian politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34662, 14238732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1960 Warren Haynes, American singer-songwriter and guitarist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34664, 2285079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1960 Richard Loe, New Zealand rugby player ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5565742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1960 John Pizzarelli, American singer-songwriter and guitarist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1990641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1961 Rory Bremner, Scottish impressionist and comedian", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34659, 151555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1961 Peter Jackson, English footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2920041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1962 Iris Häussler, German sculptor and academic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34717, 7110508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1962 Marco Schällibaum, Swiss footballer, coach, and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18153945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1963 Rafael Correa, Ecuadorian economist and politician, 54th President of Ecuador", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34648, 7159912, 840787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 63, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1965 Black Francis, American singer-songwriter and guitarist ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34750, 156222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1965 Sterling Sharpe, American football player and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1306531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1966 Vince Flynn, American author (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34691, 2312896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1966 Young Man Kang, South Korean-American director and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7803127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1967 Julian Anderson, English composer and educator", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34749, 1693639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1967 Kathleen Barr, Canadian voice actress and singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3479273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1967 Tanya Byron, English psychologist and academic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3219259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1967 Jonathan Firth, English actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1005292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1968 Archon Fung, American political 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"target_page_ids": [ 685608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1969 Spencer Wells, American geneticist and anthropologist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1733595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1970 Olaf Kölzig, South African-German ice hockey player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34726, 327843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1970 Roy Mayorga, American drummer, songwriter, and producer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2608405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1970 Huang Xiaomin, Chinese swimmer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7457761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1972 Anders Thomas Jensen, Danish director and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34671, 6202640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Dickey Simpkins, American basketball player and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4173915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1973 Donnie Edwards, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34751, 1439410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1973 Randall Godfrey, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 982694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1973 Rie Miyazawa, Japanese model and actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 475462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1973 Sun Wen, Chinese footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 403179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1975 Zach Braff, American actor, director, producer, and 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"target_page_ids": [ 2780438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Hirotada Ototake, Japanese author and educator", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2977266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1977 Ville Nieminen, Finnish ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34549, 2668570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1977 Andy Phillips, American baseball player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2048553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1978 Imani Coppola, American singer-songwriter and violinist ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34753, 20028032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Robert Glasper, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7212077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Tim Hasselbeck, American football player and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2351568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Myleene Klass, Austrian/Filipino-English singer, pianist, and model ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 345500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Martín Méndez, Uruguayan bass player and songwriter ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1594406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Blaine Neal, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1646110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Igor Semshov, Russian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3217493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 Lord Frederick Windsor, English journalist and financier", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 560904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1979 Clay Travis, American sports journalist, blogger, and broadcaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8566686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 Tommi Evilä, Finnish long jumper", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 2448477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 Tanja Poutiainen, Finnish skier ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2499588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 Antonio Thomas, American wrestler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1802674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 Robert Earnshaw, Welsh footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 1102279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Jeff Faine, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4037567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Lucas Licht, Argentine footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8147487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Alex Suarez, American bass player ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5944294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1982 Travis Moen, Canadian ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34756, 3499693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1982 Miguel Ángel Silvestre, Spanish actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19291181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1983 Mehdi Ballouchy, Moroccan footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34755, 3853123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Jerome Kaino, New Zealand rugby player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9703872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Mitsuru Nagata, Japanese footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15492485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Remi Nicole, English singer-songwriter and actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 12607249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 James Wade, English darts player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6144544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Katie Weatherston, Canadian ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4057280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 Max Bemis, American singer-songwriter ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34578, 1579398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1984 Michaël Ciani, French footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9349938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1984 Siboniso Gaxa, South African footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9993164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1984 Diana Matheson, Canadian soccer player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22563515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1985 Clarke MacArthur, Canadian ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34846, 5841043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1985 Frank Ongfiang, Cameroonian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27076551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1985 Sinqua Walls, American basketball player and actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36665557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Nikolas Asprogenis, Cypriot footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 14712589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1986 Aaron Curry, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19350574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1986 Goeido Gotaro, Japanese sumo wrestler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 12987525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1986 Ryota Moriwaki, Japanese footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20552533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Benjamin Corgnet, French footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34760, 33608866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Heidi Mount, American model", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22985399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Juan Adriel Ochoa, Mexican footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27388828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Levi Porter, English footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6070516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Hilary Rhoda, American model", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9019922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 Jucilei, Brazilian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34670, 22756662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Leigh Adams, Australian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14687497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Daniele Gasparetto, Italian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28710491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Carlton Mitchell, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 25748559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Fabrice Muamba, Congolese-English footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3010310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Ivonne Orsini, Puerto Rican model and television host, Miss World Puerto Rico 2008", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19183019, 15549014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 65, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 Lachlan Coote, Australian rugby league player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 18159604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 Charlie McDermott, American actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 25001117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 Andrei Veis, Estonian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 33002966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Ken, South Korean singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 47479664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1992 Julie Ertz, American soccer player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38339970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Adrián Alonso, Mexican actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 40338087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 Darya Lebesheva, Belarusian tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34658, 37639554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 Peyton List, American actress and model", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34647, 15061407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1998 Spencer List, American actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 24499430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2000 Shaheen Afridi, Pakistani cricketer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34548, 55354594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2009 Valentina Tronel, French child singer, winner of the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2020", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35983, 65969463, 61972502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 59, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2009 Shaylee Mansfield, deaf American actress and YouTuber", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 69332147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 861 Prudentius, bishop of Troyes ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35924, 12146348, 5310052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 28, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 885 Saint Methodius, Byzantine missionary and saint (b. 815)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35703, 29161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 887 Pei Che, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36417, 27773612, 10556774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ], [ 15, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 943 Liu Churang, Chinese general and chief of staff (b. 881)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36208, 42667637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 943 Nasr II, ruler (amir) of the Samanid Empire (b. 906)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3299357, 178427, 841140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ], [ 26, 30 ], [ 39, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1147 Frederick II, duke of Swabia (b. 1090)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36049, 663147, 3196657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 28, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1199 Richard I, king of England (b. 1157)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40062, 26368, 407950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 25, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1231 William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40063, 1958382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1250 Guillaume de Sonnac, Grand Master of the Knights Templar", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38708, 1921330 ], 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from 1458 to 1490 (b. 1443)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39489, 272105, 324235, 484933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 25, 40 ], [ 45, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1520 Raphael, Italian painter and architect (b. 1483)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34888, 44525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1523 Henry Stafford, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, English nobleman (b. 1479)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36226, 503376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1528 Albrecht Dürer, German painter, engraver, and mathematician (b. 1471)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36227, 2402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1551 Joachim Vadian, Swiss scholar and politician (b. 1484)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38670, 2018953 ], "anchor_spans": [ 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Arthur Annesley, 1st Earl of Anglesey, Irish-English politician (b. 1614)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38649, 1071666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1707 Willem van de Velde the Younger, Dutch-English painter (b. 1633)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34709, 571375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1755 Richard Rawlinson, English minister and historian (b. 1690)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34961, 303029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1790 Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt (b. 1719)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34916, 2779825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1825 Vladimir Borovikovsky, Ukrainian-Russian painter and educator (b. 1757)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35520, 2605094 ], 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(b. 1895)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34662, 26246556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1961 Jules Bordet, Belgian microbiologist and immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1870)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34659, 170974, 52502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 61, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1963 Otto Struve, Ukrainian-American astronomer and academic (b. 1897)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34648, 584584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1970 Maurice Stokes, American basketball player (b. 1933)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34726, 1704387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1971 Igor Stravinsky, Russian-American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1882)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34748, 38172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1974 Willem Marinus Dudok, Dutch architect (b. 1884)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34654, 1679944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1974 Hudson Fysh, Australian pilot and businessman, co-founded Qantas Airways Limited (b. 1895)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1071877, 25254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ], [ 68, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1977 Kōichi Kido, Japanese politician, 13th Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan (b. 1889)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34549, 1323503, 4873303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 45, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 Ivan Vasilyov, Bulgarian architect, designed the SS. 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(b. 1908)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34755, 6823435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Isaac Asimov, American science fiction writer (b. 1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 14573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Juvénal Habyarimana, Rwandan banker and politician, 3rd President of Rwanda (b. 1937)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 309605, 450090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ], [ 62, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1994 Cyprien Ntaryamira, Burundian politician, 5th President of Burundi (b. 1955)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 309607, 380669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ], [ 56, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 Ioannis Alevras, Greek banker and politician, President of Greece (b. 1912)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34658, 1759932, 516011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 52, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1996 Greer Garson, English-American actress (b. 1904)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34636, 63534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 Norbert Schmitz, German footballer (b. 1958)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34647, 30071290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1998 Tammy Wynette, American singer-songwriter (b. 1942)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 205892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 Red Norvo, American vibraphone player and composer (b. 1908)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34553, 608367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2000 Habib Bourguiba, Tunisian politician, 1st President of Tunisia (b. 1903)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34548, 391488, 516113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 48, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2001 Charles Pettigrew, American singer-songwriter (b. 1963)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34551, 8578039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2003 David Bloom, American journalist (b. 1963)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36163, 207193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2003 Anita Borg, American computer scientist and educator; founded Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology (b. 1949)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 216296, 32234869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ], [ 72, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2003 Gerald Emmett Carter, Canadian cardinal (b. 1912)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1489466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2003 Babatunde Olatunji, Nigerian drummer, educator, and activist (b. 1927)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 210984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2003 Dino Yannopoulos, Greek stage director of the Metropolitan Opera (b. 1919) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 52988432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2004 Lou Berberet, American baseball player (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35524, 602355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2004 Larisa Bogoraz, Russian linguist and activist (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 587444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2005 Rainier III, Prince of Monaco (b. 1923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35984, 154987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2006 Maggie Dixon, American basketball player and coach (b. 1977)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36164, 4665130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2006 Francis L. Kellogg, American soldier and diplomat (b. 1917)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 17468291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2006 Stefanos Stratigos, Greek actor and director (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21602664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2007 Luigi Comencini, Italian director and producer (b. 1916)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36165, 10502284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2009 J. M. S. Careless, Canadian historian and academic (b. 1919)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35983, 948938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2009 Shawn Mackay, Australian rugby player and coach (b. 1982)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22300070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2010 Wilma Mankiller, American tribal leader (b. 1945)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 43226, 694468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2010 Corin Redgrave, English actor (b. 1939)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1381318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011 Gerald Finnerman, American director and cinematographer (b. 1931)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36225, 38465859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 Roland Guilbault, 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pianist and composer (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6326536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Liv Dommersnes, Norwegian actress (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22553896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Mickey Rooney, American soldier, actor, and dancer (b. 1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 87624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Chuck Stone, American soldier, journalist, and academic (b. 1924)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1068167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Massimo Tamburini, Italian motorcycle designer, co-founded Bimota (b. 1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2226259, 1466937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 69, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2015 Giovanni Berlinguer, Italian lawyer and politician (b. 1924)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49708, 846767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 James Best, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1901912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Ray Charles, American singer-songwriter and conductor (b. 1918)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2704543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Dollard St. Laurent, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6236755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2016 Merle Haggard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1937)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51387, 169941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2017 Don Rickles, 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"plaintext": "Chakri Day, commemorating the establishment of the Chakri dynasty. (Thailand)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 494455, 181258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 51, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christian feast day:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 180283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Albrecht Dürer and Lucas Cranach (Lutheran Church).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2402, 79884, 4629503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 19, 32 ], [ 34, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brychan", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1507666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eutychius of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox Church)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 289770, 10186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ], [ 29, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marcellinus of Carthage", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1690229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pope Sixtus I", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 24273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "April 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1644730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Day of Sport for Development and Peace", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 50911188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Fisherman Day (Indonesia)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1200613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New Beer's Eve (United States)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 40815929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tartan Day (United States & Canada)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 647018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Waltzing Matilda Day (Australia)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 40429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Asexuality Day", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 156858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " April 6 Youth Movement", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 21254487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (starts 6April)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " BBC: On This Day", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Historical Events on April 6", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Today in Canadian History", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Days_of_the_year", "April" ]

[ "6 April", "April 6th", "6th of April", "Apr 6", "6th April" ]

[ { "plaintext": " 240 Shapur I becomes co-emperor of the Sasanian Empire with his father Ardashir I.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 42833, 140700, 5876413, 841099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ], [ 41, 56 ], [ 73, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 467 Anthemius is elevated to Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 54231, 141840, 219117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 31, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 627 King Edwin of Northumbria is converted to Christianity by Paulinus, bishop of York.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35393, 145830, 180869, 34361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 11, 31 ], [ 64, 72 ], [ 84, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1012 Duke Oldřich of Bohemia deposes and blinds his brother Jaromír, who flees to Poland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36284, 847376, 446571, 45367947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 11, 29 ], [ 61, 68 ], [ 83, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1204 The Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade breach the walls of Constantinople and enter the city, which they completely occupy the following day.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34986, 4412145, 106132, 5646, 20431259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 19 ], [ 27, 41 ], [ 62, 76 ], [ 81, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1606 The Union Flag is adopted as the flag of English and Scottish ships.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35086, 70760, 407950, 23248387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 20 ], [ 47, 54 ], [ 59, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1776 American Revolution: With the Halifax Resolves, the North Carolina Provincial Congress authorizes its Congressional delegation to vote for independence from Britain.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 8380114, 1973, 313213, 9174028, 365561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ], [ 36, 52 ], [ 58, 92 ], [ 108, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1807 The Froberg mutiny on Malta ends when the remaining mutineers blow up the magazine of Fort Ricasoli.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34745, 45673621, 19137, 2400661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 24 ], [ 28, 33 ], [ 92, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1820 Alexander Ypsilantis is declared leader of Filiki Eteria, a secret organization to overthrow Ottoman rule over Greece.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35522, 755469, 1561143, 22278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 49, 62 ], [ 99, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1831 Soldiers marching on the Broughton Suspension Bridge in Manchester, England, cause it to collapse.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35021, 19662104, 20206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 31, 58 ], [ 62, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1861 American Civil War: Battle of Fort Sumter. 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", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 3804805, 65828, 700610, 9280638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ], [ 71, 94 ], [ 95, 129 ], [ 200, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 The Euro Disney Resort officially opens with its theme park Euro Disneyland; the resort and its park's name are subsequently changed to Disneyland Paris.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 1162518, 76286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 66, 81 ], [ 142, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 United States President Bill Clinton is cited for contempt of court for giving \"intentionally false statements\" in a civil lawsuit; he is later fined and disbarred.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34553, 3356, 7201, 113258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 30, 42 ], [ 56, 73 ], [ 123, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2002 A suicide bomber blows herself up at the entrance to Jerusalem's Mahane Yehuda Market, killing seven people 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4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 44, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2013 Two suicide bombers kill three Chadian soldiers and injure dozens of civilians at a market in Kidal, Mali.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 46945, 39092644, 5336, 1463133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 37, 53 ], [ 100, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2014 The Great Fire of Valparaíso ravages the Chilean city of Valparaíso, killing 16 people, displacing nearly 10,000, and destroying over 2,000 homes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 48630, 42481861, 5489, 70566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 34 ], [ 47, 52 ], [ 63, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 811 Muhammad al-Jawad, the ninth Imam of Shia Islam (d. 835)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35326, 430186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 959 En'yū, emperor of Japan (d. 991)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36434, 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1945)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6431114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1892 Henry Darger, American writer and artist (d. 1973)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34793, 466610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1894 Dorothy Cumming, Australian-American actress (d. 1983)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34792, 14613001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1894 Francisco Craveiro Lopes, Portuguese field marshal and politician, 13th President of Portugal (d. 1964)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 755557, 516093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 34 ], [ 82, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1898 Lily Pons, French-American soprano and actress (d. 1976)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34791, 764849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": 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Mahmoud Younis, Egyptian engineer (d. 1976)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34605, 12819945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1912 Frank Dilio, Canadian businessman (d. 1997)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34616, 6171192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1912 Hamengkubuwono IX, Indonesian politician, 2nd Vice President of Indonesia (d. 1988)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2108174, 1134535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 56, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1912 Hound Dog Taylor, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1975)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1315975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1913 Keiko Fukuda, Japanese-American martial artist (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34617, 742802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1914 Armen Alchian, American economist and academic (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283920, 1479817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1916 Beverly Cleary, American author (d. 2021)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34677, 181227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1916 Russell Garcia, American-New Zealander composer and conductor (d. 2011)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6034316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1916 Benjamin Libet, American neuropsychologist and academic (d. 2007)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2029298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1917 Helen Forrest, American singer and actress (d. 1999)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34595, 1941141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 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[ 10110601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1931 Leonid Derbenyov, Russian poet and songwriter (d. 1995)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34608, 19385876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1932 Lakshman Kadirgamar, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, 5th Sri Lankan Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2005)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34775, 577400, 41819512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ], [ 65, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1932 Jean-Pierre Marielle, French actor (d. 2019)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3486187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1932 Tiny Tim, American singer and ukulele player (d. 1996)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 160388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1933 Montserrat Caballé, Spanish soprano and actress (d. 2018)", "section_idx": 2, 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bandleader ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1941 Bobby Moore, English footballer and manager (d. 1993)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34632, 18826090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1942 Bill Bryden, Scottish actor, director, and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34629, 5264478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1942 Carlos Reutemann, Argentinian race car driver and politician (d. 2021)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7859379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1942 Jacob Zuma, South African politician, 4th President of South Africa", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1103138, 321700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ], [ 52, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1943 Sumitra Mahajan, Indian politician, 16th Speaker of the Lok Sabha", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34630, 6064438, 1527265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 47, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1944 Lisa Jardine, English historian, author, and academic (d. 2015)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34622, 2341342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1944 John Kay, German-Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 615111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1945 Lee Jong-wook, South Korean physician and diplomat (d. 2006)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34624, 274313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1946 John Dunsworth, Canadian actor and comedian (d. 2017)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34631, 7391093 ], "anchor_spans": [ 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Anderson, English epidemiologist, zoologist, and academic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34584, 5608793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 Martin Brasier, English palaeontologist, biologist, and academic (d. 2014)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 31060966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 Tom Clancy, American historian and author (d. 2013) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 30265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 David Letterman, American comedian and talk show host", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1948 Jeremy Beadle, English television host and producer (d. 2008)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34612, 610378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1948 Joschka Fischer, German academic and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 101827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1948 Christos Iakovou, Greek weightlifter ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 62721460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1948 Marcello Lippi, Italian footballer, manager, and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1606746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1949 Scott Turow, American lawyer and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34604, 209396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1950 Flavio Briatore, Italian businessman", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283873, 614426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1950 David Cassidy, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2017)", 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875189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1954 Pat Travers, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1568893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1955 Fabian Hamilton, English graphic designer, engineer, and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34851, 434604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1956 Andy Garcia, Cuban-American actor, director, and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34672, 344124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1956 Herbert Grönemeyer, German singer-songwriter and actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 465237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1957 Greg Child, Australian mountaineer and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34606, 9197348 ], 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"section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34750, 11473277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1965 Chi Onwurah, English politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27291778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1965 Gervais Rufyikiri, Burundian politician ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2518459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1965 Mihai Stoica, Romanian footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6770732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1966 Nils-Olav Johansen, Norwegian guitarist and singer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34691, 36236046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1966 Lorenzo White, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6392327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1967 Sarah Cracknell, English singer-songwriter ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34749, 2130638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1968 Alicia Coppola, American actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34655, 716059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 Toby Gad, German songwriter and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4026763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 Adam Graves, Canadian ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2439033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1969 Jörn Lenz, German footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34610, 18815153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1969 Lucas Radebe, South African footballer and sportscaster", 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Scott Campbell, American author and illustrator", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34751, 1493223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1973 Ryan Kisor, American trumpet player and composer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15642921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1973 Antonio Osuna, Mexican-American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7885803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1973 Christian Panucci, Italian footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 764659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1974 Belinda Emmett, Australian actress (d. 2006)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34654, 1899266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1974 Bryan Fletcher, Australian rugby league player and 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21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1977 Giovanny Espinoza, Ecuadorian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34549, 5275642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1977 Sarah Monahan, Australian actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6306981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1977 Jason Price, Welsh footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8807416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1977 Glenn Rogers, Australian-Scottish cricketer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9256463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1978 Guy Berryman, Scottish bass player and producer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34753, 1453182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Scott Crary, American director, producer, and screenwriter", 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Jennifer Morrison, American actress ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1941975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1979 Cristian Ranalli, Italian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 26892523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1979 Lee Soo-young, South Korean singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3059438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 Sara Head, Welsh Paralympic table tennis champion", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 38088162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 Brian McFadden, Irish singer-songwriter ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1013925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 Yuriy Borzakovskiy, Russian runner", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 1441335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Nicolás Burdisso, Argentinian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1652935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Tulsi Gabbard, American politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 26328774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Grant Holt, English footballer and professional wrestler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4490949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Hisashi Iwakuma, Japanese baseball pitcher", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11332655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1983 Jelena Dokic, Serbian-Australian tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34755, 346733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Luke Kibet, Kenyan runner", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 12941148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 Aleksey Dmitrik, Russian high jumper", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34578, 21864053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1985 Brennan Boesch, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34846, 27076475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1985 Hitomi Yoshizawa, Japanese singer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1838869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Brad Brach, American baseball pitcher ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 32935776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1986 Blerim Džemaili, Swiss footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5320071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1986 Marcel Granollers, Spanish tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11870943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1986 Jonathan Pitroipa, Burkinabé footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7096962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Brooklyn Decker, American model and actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34760, 8898606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Shawn Gore, Canadian football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27660379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Josh McCrone, Australian rugby league player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14932694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Luiz Adriano, Brazilian professional footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7555627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Brendon Urie, American singer, songwriter, musician and multi-instrumentalist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7144873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 Ricky Álvarez, Argentinian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34670, 27872150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Stephen Brogan, English footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8876325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Amedeo Calliari, Italian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28119731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Jessie James Decker, American singer-songwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18442704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Bethan Dainton, Welsh rugby union player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 50399770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Miguel Ángel Ponce, American-Mexican footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28080856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Ádám Hanga, Hungarian basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28370040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Kaitlyn Weaver, Canadian-American ice dancer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9066174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Valentin Stocker, Swiss footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 12315253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 Francesca Halsall, English swimmer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 17926137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 Hiroki Sakai, Japanese footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 32050786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Torey Krug, American ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 31398216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Lionel Carole, French professional footballer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28988660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Oliver Norwood, English born Northern Irish international footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28352026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Magnus Pääjärvi, Swedish ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14838941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Jazz Richards, Welsh international footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 24055580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Chad le Clos, South African swimmer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 29053860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1993 Jordan Archer, English-Scottish footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34598, 37311232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1993 Ryan Nugent-Hopkins, Canadian ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27925083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Isabelle Drummond, Brazilian actress and singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 35362190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1994 Saoirse Ronan, American-born Irish actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11061022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1994 Oh Sehun, South Korean musician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35486580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1994 Eric Bailly, Ivorian professional footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 44318305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1994 Guido Rodríguez, Argentine footballer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 44174683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 Pedro Cachín, Argentine tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34658, 45468576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1996 Elizaveta Kulichkova, Russian tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34636, 36036066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "45 BC Gnaeus Pompeius, Roman general and politician (b. 75 BC)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51378, 350889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 7, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 352 Julius I, pope of the Catholic Church", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 48427, 24684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 434 Maximianus, archbishop of Constantinople", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35615, 273287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 901 Eudokia Baïana, Byzantine empress and wife of Leo VI", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 50436, 14626162, 253441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 52, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1125 Vladislaus I, Duke of Bohemia (b. 1065)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36274, 890152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1167 Charles VII, king of Sweden (b. c. 1130)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40010, 812027, 170174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 19, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1256 Margaret of Bourbon, Queen of Navarre, regent of Navarre (b. c. 1217)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40499, 20361121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1443 Henry Chichele, English archbishop (b. 1364)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39927, 351065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1500 Leonhard of Gorizia, Count of Gorz (b. 1440)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35019, 15062689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1530 Joanna La Beltraneja, Princess of Castile (b. 1462)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38683, 356550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1550 Claude, Duke of Guise (b. 1496)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35099, 655833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1555 Joanna of Castile, nominal Queen of Castile, Aragon and so on (b. 1479)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36175, 151276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1675 Richard Bennett, English politician, colonial Governor of Virginia (b. 1609)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38657, 14479195, 876531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 43, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1684 Nicola Amati, Italian instrument maker (b. 1596)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38650, 30870558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1687 Ambrose Dixon, English-American soldier (b. 1619)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34894, 542719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1704 Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, French bishop and theologian (b. 1627)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38640, 63351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1748 William Kent, English architect, designed Holkham Hall and Chiswick House (b. 1685)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35839, 129223, 5517291, 129228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 48, 60 ], [ 65, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1782 Metastasio, Italian-Austrian poet and composer (b. 1698)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34698, 214006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1788 Carlo Antonio Campioni, French-Italian composer (b. 1719)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34627, 368038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1795 Johann Kaspar Basselet von La Rosée, Bavarian general (b. 1710)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35799, 2135792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1814 Charles Burney, English composer and historian (b. 1726)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34948, 214016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1817 Charles Messier, French astronomer and academic (b. 1730)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35552, 7246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1850 Adoniram Judson, American lexicographer and missionary (b. 1788)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34983, 359720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1866 Peter Hesketh-Fleetwood, English politician, founded Fleetwood (b. 1801)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34667, 13259641, 783835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ], [ 59, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1872 Nikolaos Mantzaros, Greek composer and theorist (b. 1795)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34768, 2604339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1878 William M. Tweed, American lawyer and politician (b. 1823)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34938, 4688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1879 Richard Taylor, Confederate general (b. 1826)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34968, 1638631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1885 William Crowther, Dutch-Australian politician, 14th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1817)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34715, 2808363, 24658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 58, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1898 Elzéar-Alexandre Taschereau, Canadian cardinal (b. 1820)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34791, 3464036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1902 Marie Alfred Cornu, French physicist and academic (b. 1842)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34652, 211458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1906 Mahesh Chandra Nyayratna Bhattacharyya, Indian scholar, academic, and philanthropist (b. 1836)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34650, 14003452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1912 Clara Barton, American nurse and humanitarian, founded the American Red Cross (b. 1821)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34616, 43417, 4345474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 65, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1933 Adelbert Ames, American general and politician, 30th Governor of Mississippi (b. 1835)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34864, 219371, 215933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 59, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1937 Abdülhak Hâmid Tarhan, Turkish playwright and poet (b. 1852)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34684, 2311162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1938 Feodor Chaliapin, Russian opera singer (b. 1873)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19283852, 576250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1943 Viktor Puskar, Estonian colonel (b. 1889)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34630, 11355254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1945 Franklin D. Roosevelt, American lawyer and politician, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34624, 10979, 24113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ], [ 66, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1953 Lionel Logue, Australian actor and therapist (b. 1880)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34865, 28957129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1962 Ron Flockhart, Scottish racing driver (b. 1923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34717, 1235875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1966 Sydney Allard, English racing driver and founder of the Allard car company (b. 1910)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34691, 5167745, 302532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 62, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1968 Heinrich Nordhoff, German engineer (b. 1899)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34655, 394396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1971 Ed Lafitte, American baseball player and dentist (b. 1886)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34748, 3643709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1973 Arthur Freed, American songwriter and producer (b. 1894)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34751, 226142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1975 Josephine Baker, French actress, activist, and humanitarian (b. 1906)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34752, 255083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976 Christos Kakkalos, Greek mountain guide (b. 1882) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34661, 57821203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1977 Philip K. Wrigley, American businessman, co-founded Lincoln Park Gun Club (b. 1894)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34549, 2054814, 38622251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 58, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 William R. Tolbert, Jr., Liberian politician, 20th President of Liberia (b. 1913)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 277818, 277809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ], [ 57, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 Prince Yasuhiko Asaka of Japan (b. 1887)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 483232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Joe Louis, American boxer and wrestler (b. 1914)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 147863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1983 Jørgen Juve, Norwegian football player and journalist (b. 1906)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34755, 1248999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Carl Morton, American baseball player (b. 1944)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2282867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 Edwin T. Layton, American admiral and cryptanalyst (b. 1903)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34578, 12978543, 5715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 44, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Valentin Kataev, Russian author and playwright (b. 1897)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 2772584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 Colette Deréal, French singer and actress (b. 1927)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34670, 25500187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Alan Paton, South African historian and author (b. 1903)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 89687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Abbie Hoffman, American activist, co-founded Youth International Party (b. 1936)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 49574, 241701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 51, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Sugar Ray Robinson, American boxer (b. 1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 146195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Ilario Bandini, Italian racing driver and businessman (b. 1911)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 17751658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1997 George Wald, American neurologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34601, 861770, 52502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 54, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 Robert Ford, Canadian poet and diplomat (b. 1915)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34647, 1675748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 Boxcar Willie, American singer-songwriter (b. 1931)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34553, 891378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2001 Harvey Ball, American illustrator, created the smiley (b. 1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34551, 291279, 26752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 53, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2002 George Shevelov, Ukrainian-American linguist and philologist (b. 1908)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35502, 24135571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2004 Moran Campbell, Canadian physician and academic, invented the venturi mask (b. 1925)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35524, 8619863, 6944394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 68, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2006 William Sloane Coffin, American minister and activist (b. 1924)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36164, 424217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2007 Kevin Crease, Australian journalist (b. 1936)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36165, 3036353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2008 Cecilia Colledge, English-American figure skater and coach (b. 1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35825, 3646384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2008 Patrick Hillery, Irish physician and politician, 6th President of Ireland (b. 1923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 146688, 24676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ], [ 63, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2008 Jerry Zucker, Israeli-American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1949)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4807105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2010 Michel Chartrand, Canadian trade union leader (b. 1916)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 43226, 764401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2010 Werner Schroeter, German director and screenwriter (b. 1945)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5225838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011 Karim Fakhrawi, Bahraini journalist, co-founded Al-Wasat (b. 1962)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36225, 35222200, 20466255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 54, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 Mohit Chattopadhyay, Indian poet and playwright (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47374, 11121126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Rodgers Grant, American pianist and composer (b. 1935)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 14936063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2013 Robert Byrne, American chess player and author (b. 1928)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 46945, 768779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Johnny du Plooy, South African boxer (b. 1964)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10953040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Michael France, American screenwriter (b. 1962)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5244312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Brennan Manning, American priest and author (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 93750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Annamária Szalai, Hungarian journalist and politician (b. 1961)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39094523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Ya'akov Yosef, Israeli rabbi and politician (b. 1946)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22611753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2014 Pierre Autin-Grenier, French author and poet (b. 1947)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 48630, 11328930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Pierre-Henri Menthéour, French cyclist (b. 1960)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18477886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Maurício Alves Peruchi, Brazilian footballer (b. 1990)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 13628892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Hal Smith, American baseball player and coach (b. 1931)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 7990008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Billy Standridge, American race car driver (b. 1953)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3086503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2015 Paulo Brossard, Brazilian jurist and politician (b. 1924)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49708, 46392296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Patrice Dominguez, Algerian-French tennis player and trainer (b. 1950)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 17146301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Alfred Eick, German commander (b. 1916)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8633001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 André Mba Obame, Gabonese politician (b. 1957)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20914647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2016 Anne Jackson, American actress (b. 1925)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51387, 6033959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2016 Mohammad Al Gaz, Emirati politician & diplomat (b. 1930) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51387, 19506564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2017 Charlie Murphy, American actor and comedian (b. 1959)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51389, 617139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2020 Tarvaris Jackson, American football player (b. 1983)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51396, 4948520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2021 Joseph Siravo, American actor and producer (b. 1955)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51397, 4193358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2022 Gilbert Gottfried, American comedian, actor, and singer (b. 1955)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 52412, 625478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Children's Day (Bolivia)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 494299, 3462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 17, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Christian feast day:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 180283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adoniram Judson (Episcopal Church)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 359720, 6054604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 18, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alferius", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 10776795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Blessed Angelo Carletti di Chivasso", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 8199425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Erkembode", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and 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"section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 4710310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " International Day of Human Space Flight", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 47802019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yuri's Night (International observance)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 591312, 15757659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 15, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Halifax Day (North Carolina)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 24962851, 21650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National Redemption Day (Liberia)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 22748810, 17791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 26, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " BBC: On This Day", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Historical Events on April 12", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Today in Canadian History", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Days_of_the_year", "April" ]

[ "12 April", "April 12th", "12th of April", "Apr 12" ]

[ { "plaintext": " 769 The Lateran Council ends by condemning the Council of Hieria and anathematizing its iconoclastic rulings.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35428, 35877901, 5151453, 68667, 15085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 49, 66 ], [ 71, 79 ], [ 90, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1071 Bari, the last Byzantine possession in southern Italy, is surrendered to Robert Guiscard.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35164, 44784, 16972981, 12331172, 157902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 10 ], [ 21, 30 ], [ 61, 75 ], [ 79, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1450 Battle of Formigny: Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly annihilate English forces, ending English domination in Northern France.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 39510, 1097055, 19038039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 48, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1632 Battle of Rain: Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus defeat the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34990, 492904, 5058739, 40869264, 13277, 30583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 22, 28 ], [ 35, 52 ], [ 64, 81 ], [ 93, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1642 Irish Confederate Wars: A Confederate Irish militia is routed in the Battle of Kilrush when it attempts to halt the progress of a Royalist Army.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34587, 744052, 1481494, 1687448, 170655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ], [ 32, 49 ], [ 75, 92 ], [ 136, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1715 The Pocotaligo Massacre triggers the start of the Yamasee War in colonial South Carolina.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 38627, 2346948, 2346948, 491064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 29 ], [ 56, 67 ], [ 71, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1736 Foundation of the short-lived Kingdom of Corsica.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35849, 22652038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 36, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1738 Serse, an Italian opera by George Frideric Handel, receives its premiere performance in London, England.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35847, 354595, 1413783, 12775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 11 ], [ 16, 29 ], [ 33, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1755 Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language is published in London.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34961, 48594, 53819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 23, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1817 Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet and Laurent Clerc found the American School for the Deaf (then called the Connecticut Asylum for the Education and Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons), the first American school for deaf students, in Hartford, Connecticut.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35552, 431700, 1473906, 4711456, 53678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 30 ], [ 35, 48 ], [ 59, 87 ], [ 233, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1861 President Abraham Lincoln calls for 75,000 Volunteers to quell the insurrection that soon became the American Civil War.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34680, 307, 38278941, 863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 16, 31 ], [ 42, 59 ], [ 107, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1865 President Abraham Lincoln dies after being shot the previous evening by actor John Wilkes Booth. 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Kendrick of Wyoming introduces a resolution calling for an investigation of a secret land deal, which leads to the discovery of the Teapot Dome scandal.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34866, 1945884, 33611, 158940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 19, 35 ], [ 39, 46 ], [ 159, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1923 Insulin becomes generally available for use by people with diabetes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34863, 14895, 40017873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ], [ 65, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1936 First day of the Arab revolt in Mandatory Palestine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34673, 304601, 38584582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 23, 34 ], [ 38, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1941 In the Belfast Blitz, two hundred bombers of the German Luftwaffe attack Belfast, killing around one thousand people.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34632, 2424354, 17885, 5046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 13, 26 ], [ 62, 71 ], [ 79, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1942 The George Cross is awarded \"to the island fortress of Malta\" by King George VI.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34629, 11356474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1945 Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34624, 150011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1947 Jackie Robinson debuts for the Brooklyn Dodgers, breaking baseball's color line.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34584, 16193, 25036634, 757798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 37, 53 ], [ 64, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1952 First flight of the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34575, 18933037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 26, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1955 McDonald's restaurant dates its founding to the opening of a franchised restaurant by Ray Kroc, in Des Plaines, Illinois.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34851, 2480627, 264058, 110967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 92, 100 ], [ 105, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1960 At Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina, Ella Baker leads a conference that results in the creation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, one of the principal organizations of the civil rights movement in the 1960s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34664, 608656, 57845, 716161, 203901, 49001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 9, 24 ], [ 28, 51 ], [ 53, 63 ], [ 119, 160 ], [ 204, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1969 The EC-121 shootdown incident: North Korea shoots down a United States Navy aircraft over the Sea of Japan, killing all 31 on board.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 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resulting in the deaths of 97 Liverpool fans.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 59687, 148663, 177538, 18119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ], [ 53, 73 ], [ 83, 102 ], [ 160, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Upon Hu Yaobang's death, the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 begin in China.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 65577, 44534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 25 ], [ 39, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Marrakesh Agreement relating to foundation of World Trade Organization is adopted.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 20531, 33873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ], [ 52, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2002 Air China Flight 129 crashes on approach to Gimhae International Airport in Busan, South Korea, killing 129 people.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35502, 1392450, 291219, 68115, 27019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 50, 78 ], [ 82, 87 ], [ 89, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2013 Two bombs explode near the finish line at the Boston Marathon in Boston, Massachusetts, killing three people and injuring 264 others.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 46945, 39120733, 39120729, 24437894, 1645518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 52, 67 ], [ 71, 77 ], [ 79, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 A wave of bombings across Iraq kills at least 75 people.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 39131045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2014 In the worst massacre of the South Sudanese Civil War, at least 200 civilians are gunned down after seeking refuge in houses of worship as well as hospitals.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 48630, 42571443, 41382446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 13, 27 ], [ 35, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2019 The cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris in France is seriously damaged by a large fire.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 51391, 62233, 60502903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 23, 42 ], [ 77, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "68 BC Gaius Maecenas, Roman politician (d. 8 BC)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 53066, 19813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 7, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1282 Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1329)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34723, 655713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1367 Henry IV of England (d. 1413)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 39532, 46861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1442 John Paston, English noble (d. 1479)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 39926, 40674891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1452 Leonardo da Vinci, Italian painter, sculptor, and architect (d. 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Philip Randolph, American activist (d. 1979)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 254977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1890 Percy Shaw, English businessman, invented the cat's eye (d. 1976)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34707, 553675, 533542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 52, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1892 Theo Osterkamp, German general and pilot (d. 1975)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34793, 8066473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1892 Corrie ten Boom, Dutch-American clocksmith, Nazi resister, and author (d. 1983)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 724914, 4177379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ], [ 54, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1894 Nikita Khrushchev, Russian general and politician, 7th Premier of the Soviet Union (d. 1971)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", 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Harry Edward, Guyanese-English sprinter (d. 1973)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34791, 3041963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1901 Joe Davis, English snooker player (d. 1978)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34618, 619820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1901 Ajoy Mukherjee, Indian politician, Chief Minister of West Bengal (d. 1986)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 12094474, 2382949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 45, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1901 René Pleven, French businessman and politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 1993)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 585213, 218751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ], [ 58, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1902 Fernando Pessa, Portuguese journalist (d. 2002)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34652, 335699 ], 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Elizabeth Catlett, African-American sculptor and illustrator (d. 2012)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34689, 3510891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1916 Alfred S. 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Canagaratnam, Sri Lankan politician (d. 1980)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34675, 40204798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1924 Rikki Fulton, Scottish comedian (d. 2004)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 445774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1924 Neville Marriner, English violinist and conductor (d. 2016)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 318396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1926 Jurriaan Schrofer, Dutch sculptor, designer, and educator (d. 1990)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34609, 70384090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1927 Robert Mills, American physicist and academic (d. 1999)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34939, 347188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1929 Gérald Beaudoin, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 2008)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34656, 1926251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1929 Adrian Cadbury, English rower and businessman (d. 2015)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2981884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1930 Georges Descrières, French actor (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34911, 25931960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1930 Vigdís Finnbogadóttir, Icelandic educator and politician, 4th President of Iceland", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 162319, 162303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 31 ], [ 72, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1931 Kenneth Bloomfield, Northern Irish civil servant", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34608, 8810756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1931 Tomas Tranströmer, Swedish poet, translator, and psychologist Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1091130, 23385442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 72, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1933 Roy Clark, American musician and television personality (d. 2018)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34864, 979900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1933 David Hamilton, English-French photographer and director (d. 2016)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 434602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1933 Elizabeth Montgomery, American actress and producer (d. 1995)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 332719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1935 Stavros Paravas, Greek actor and producer (d. 2008)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34980, 27467394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1936 Raymond Poulidor, French cyclist (d. 2019)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34673, 284355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1937 Bob Luman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1978)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34684, 5978283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1937 Robert W. Gore, American engineer and businessman, co-inventor of Gore-Tex (d. 2020)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11975637, 246289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 76, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1938 Claudia Cardinale, Italian actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283852, 235307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1938 Hso Khan Pha, Burmese-Canadian geologist and politician (d. 2016)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 974702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1939 Marty Wilde, English singer-songwriter and actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34614, 1662034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1939 Desiré Ecaré, Ivorian filmmaker (d. 2009)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 13630118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1940 Jeffrey Archer, English author, playwright, and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34708, 16336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1940 Penelope Coelen, South African actress, model, beauty queen and 1958 Miss World", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 962226, 150343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ], [ 74, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1940 Willie Davis, American baseball player and actor (d. 2010)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2741157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1940 Robert Lacroix, Canadian economist and academic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 391916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1940 Robert Walker, American actor (d. 2019)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1477353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1941 Howard Berman, American lawyer and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34632, 408925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1942 Francis X. DiLorenzo, American bishop (d. 2017)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34629, 1970247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1942 Walt Hazzard, American basketball player and coach (d. 2011)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1561912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1942 Kenneth Lay, American businessman and criminal(d. 2006)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5937384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1942 Tim Lankester, English economist and academic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11271171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1943 Pınar Kür, Turkish author, playwright, and academic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34630, 14286072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1943 Robert Lefkowitz, American physician and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11771355, 25416893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ], [ 63, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1943 Veronica Linklater, Baroness Linklater, English politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14862464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1943 Hugh Thompson, Jr., American soldier and pilot (d. 2006)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 874951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1944 Dave Edmunds, Welsh singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34622, 210052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1946 John Lloyd, Scottish journalist and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34631, 20952326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1946 Pete Rouse, American politician, White House Chief of Staff", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15459093, 212934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ], [ 43, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1947 Linda Bloodworth-Thomason, American screenwriter and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34584, 7285178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 Martin Broughton, English businessman", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 24999005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 Lois Chiles, American model and actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 635063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 David Omand, English civil servant and academic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3939703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 Cristina Husmark Pehrsson, Swedish nurse and politician, Swedish Minister for Social Security", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7349603, 9678432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 35 ], [ 67, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1948 Christopher Brown, English historian, curator, and academic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34612, 37419156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1948 Michael Kamen, American composer and conductor (d. 2003)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 343158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1948 Phil Mogg, English singer-songwriter and musician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4518865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1949 Alla Pugacheva, Russian singer-songwriter and actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34604, 1421392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1949 Craig Zadan, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2018)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 12357344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1950 Josiane Balasko, French actress, director, and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283873, 1078404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1950 Amy Wright, American actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1090323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1950 Karel Kroupa, Czech football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27355592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1951 Heloise, American journalist and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34602, 1241052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1951 John L. 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Greider, American molecular biologist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8147440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1961 Dawn Wright, American geographer and oceanographer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 37761311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1962 Nawal El Moutawakel, Moroccan athlete and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34717, 22104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1962 Tom Kane, American voice actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1818874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1963 Alex Crawford, Nigerian-South African journalist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34648, 32824339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1963 Manzoor Elahi, Pakistani cricketer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": 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2506023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1966 Samantha Fox, English singer-songwriter and actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34691, 291498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1966 Mott Green, American businessman (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 39672743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1967 Frankie Poullain, Scottish bass player and songwriter ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34749, 692279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1967 Dara Torres, American swimmer and journalist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1740620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1968 Ben Clarke, English rugby player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34655, 14300316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { 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"Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34726, 4590122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1971 Philippe Carbonneau, French rugby player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34748, 32153072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1971 Finidi George, Nigerian footballer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2677393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1971 Jason Sehorn, American football player ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 953118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1971 Josia Thugwane, South African runner", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 884035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1971 Karl Turner, English lawyer and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27267782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1972 Arturo Gatti, Italian-Canadian boxer (d. 2009)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34671, 204432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Lou Romano, American animator and voice actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9074280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1974 Kim Min-kyo, South Korean actor and director", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34654, 38233629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1974 Danny Pino, American actor and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2764410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1974 Mike Quinn, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4562729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1974 Douglas Spain, American actor, director, and producer", "section_idx": 2, 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19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Tom Heaton, English footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 1529937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1986 Sylvain Marveaux, French footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15701850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 Blake Ayshford, Australian rugby league player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34670, 22907708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Steven Defour, Belgian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8453232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Chris Tillman, American baseball pitcher", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21913055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Darren Nicholls, Australian rugby league player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 57826800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 Emma Watson, English actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 149243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Daiki Arioka, Japanese idol, singer, and actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 15865757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Javier Fernández López, Spanish figure skater", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9069082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Jeremy McGovern, Australian rules football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 42626598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Brodie Grundy, Australian rules football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 40292065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1994 Shaunae Miller-Uibo, Bahamian sprinter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35551913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 Leander Dendoncker, Belgian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34658, 40106053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1997 Ashleigh Gardner, Australian cricketer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34601, 53008472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 Denis Shapovalov, Canadian tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34553, 47807671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2001 Shanti Dope, Filipino rapper", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34551, 57723069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 628 Suiko, emperor of Japan (b. 554)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35394, 10419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 943 Liu Bin, emperor of Southern Han (b. 920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36208, 43062527, 1650472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ], [ 26, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 956 Lin Yanyu, Chinese court official and eunuch", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49141, 42070647, 68555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 44, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1053 Godwin, Earl of Wessex (b. 1001)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36698, 40149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1136 Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare (b. 1094)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40075, 1750759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1220 Adolf of Altena, German archbishop (b. 1157)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36063, 2540379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1237 Richard Poore, English ecclesiastic", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40068, 545454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1415 Manuel Chrysoloras, Greek philosopher and translator (b. 1355)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36126, 163791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1446 Filippo Brunelleschi, Italian sculptor and architect (b. 1377)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39930, 90007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1502 John IV of Chalon-Arlay, Prince of Orange (b. 1443)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38705, 18981637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1558 Roxelana, wife of Suleiman the Magnificent (b. c. 1500)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38664, 350641, 26992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ], [ 24, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1578 Wolrad II, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg, German nobleman (b. 1509)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38599, 34471632, 38700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 43 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1610 Robert Persons, English Jesuit priest, insurrectionist, and author (b. 1546)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35097, 205561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1632 George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore, English politician, English Secretary of State (b. 1580)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34990, 555656, 24800670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 41 ], [ 63, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1652 Patriarch Joseph of Moscow, Russian patriarch", 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"1761 Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll, Scottish lawyer and politician, Lord President of the Court of Session (b. 1682)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35823, 487577, 343755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 44 ], [ 78, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1761 William Oldys, English historian and author (b. 1696)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 302955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1764 Peder Horrebow, Danish astronomer and mathematician (b. 1679)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34720, 4185503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1764 Madame de Pompadour, mistress of King Louis XV (d. 1764)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 194128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1765 Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian chemist and physicist (b. 1711)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", 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1809)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38275275, 307, 24113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 28, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1888 Matthew Arnold, English poet and critic (b. 1822)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34712, 114057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1889 Father Damien, Belgian priest and saint (b. 1840)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34711, 85080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1898 Te Keepa Te Rangihiwinui, New Zealand commander and politician", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34791, 367092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1912 Victims of the Titanic disaster:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34616, 10185776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 21, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thomas Andrews, Irish shipbuilder (b. 1873)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 703040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Jacob Astor IV, American colonel, businessman, and author (b. 1864)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 299809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archibald Butt, American general and journalist (b. 1865)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1376652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jacques Futrelle, American journalist and author (b. 1875)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 286228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benjamin Guggenheim, American businessman (b. 1865)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 170270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henry B. Harris, American producer and manager (b. 1866)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 33233864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wallace Hartley, English violinist and bandleader (b. 1878)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1813252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "James Paul Moody, English Sixth Officer (b. 1887)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4376454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William McMaster Murdoch, Scottish First Officer (b. 1873)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1156420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jack Phillips, English telegraphist (b. 1887)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 425375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward Smith, English Captain (b. 1850)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 615283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Thomas Stead, English journalist (b. 1849)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 604619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ida Straus, German-American businesswoman (b. 1849)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 7344849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Isidor Straus, German-American businessman and politician (b. 1845)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1577212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John B. Thayer, American business and sportsman (b. 1862)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10589432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Henry Tingle Wilde, English chief officer (b. 1872)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3576739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1917 János Murkovics, Slovene author, poet, and educator (b. 1839)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34595, 33646610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1927 Gaston Leroux, French journalist and author (b. 1868)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34939, 162182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1938 César Vallejo, Peruvian journalist, poet, and playwright (b. 1892)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19283852, 93813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1942 Robert Musil, Austrian-Swiss author and playwright (b. 1880)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34629, 25701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1943 Aristarkh Lentulov, Russian painter and set designer (b. 1882)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34630, 3063093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1944 Nikolai Fyodorovich Vatutin, Russian general (b. 1901)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34622, 754133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1945 Hermann Florstedt, German SS officer (b. 1895)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34624, 2011025, 27040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 32, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1948 Radola Gajda, Montenegrin-Czech general and politician (b. 1892)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34612, 1157037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1949 Wallace Beery, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1885)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34604, 142834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1962 Clara Blandick, American actress (b. 1880)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34717, 1671792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1962 Arsenio Lacson, Filipino journalist and politician, Mayor of Manila (b. 1912)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 15558084, 25338759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 62, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1963 Edward Greeves, Jr., Australian footballer (b. 1903)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34648, 603933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1966 Habibullah Bahar Chowdhury, Bengali politician, writer, journalist, first health minister of East Pakistan", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34691, 14609365, 10312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 32 ], [ 99, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1967 Totò, Italian comedian (b. 1898)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34749, 176848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1971 Gurgen Boryan, Armenian poet and playwright (b. 1915)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34748, 15672221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1971 Friedebert Tuglas, Estonian author and critic (b. 1886)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4677125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 David Brand, Australian politician, 19th Premier of Western Australia (b. 1912)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 1077694, 24680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 47, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 Raymond Bailey, American actor and soldier (b. 1904)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 1051978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 Jean-Paul Sartre, French philosopher and author, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1905)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16340, 23385442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ], [ 59, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1982 Arthur Lowe, English actor (b. 1915)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34756, 251481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 Tommy Cooper, Welsh comedian and magician (b. 1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34578, 55992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Jean Genet, French novelist, poet, and playwright (b. 1910)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 167347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 Kenneth Williams, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34670, 36960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Hu Yaobang, Chinese soldier and politician, former General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (b. 1915)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 65577, 220159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 57, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 Greta Garbo, Swedish-American actress (b. 1905)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 63436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1993 Leslie Charteris, English author and screenwriter (b. 1907)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34598, 179444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1993 John Tuzo Wilson, Canadian geophysicist and geologist (b. 1908)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 977633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 William Congdon, American-Italian painter and sculptor (b. 1912)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34647, 3176725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1998 Pol Pot, Cambodian general and politician, 29th Prime Minister of Cambodia (b. 1925)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 24326, 3971840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ], [ 58, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 Harvey Postlethwaite, English engineer (b. 1944)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34553, 1508366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2000 Edward Gorey, American poet and illustrator (b. 1925)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34548, 88272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2001 Joey Ramone, American singer-songwriter (b. 1951)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34551, 15839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2002 Damon Knight, American author and critic (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35502, 49166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2002 Byron White, American football player, lawyer, and jurist, 4th United States Deputy Attorney General (b. 1917)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49248, 2933681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ], [ 73, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2004 Mitsuteru Yokoyama, Japanese illustrator (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35524, 602002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2007 Brant Parker, American illustrator (b. 1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36165, 1164275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2008 Krister Stendahl, Swedish bishop, theologian, and scholar (b. 1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35825, 1447992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2009 Clement Freud, German-English journalist, academic, and politician (b. 1924)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35983, 214848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2009 László Tisza, Hungarian-American physicist and academic (b. 1907)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 9741020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2009 Salih Neftçi, Turkish economist and author (b. 1947)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 25048229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2010 Jack Herer, American author and activist (b. 1939)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 43226, 252496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2010 Michael Pataki, American actor and director (b. 1938)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2418473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011 Vittorio Arrigoni, Italian journalist, author, and activist (b. 1975)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36225, 31504778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 Paul Bogart, American director and producer (b. 1919)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47374, 2775885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Dwayne Schintzius, American basketball player (b. 1968)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 697062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2013 Benjamin Fain, Ukrainian-Israeli physicist and academic (b. 1930)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 46945, 20151284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Richard LeParmentier, American-English actor and screenwriter (b. 1946)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2497046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Jean-François Paillard, French conductor (b. 1928)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1253855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2014 John Houbolt, American engineer and academic (b. 1919)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 48630, 5604505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Eliseo Verón, Argentinian sociologist and academic (b. 1935)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 33988309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2015 Jonathan Crombie, Canadian-American actor and screenwriter (b. 1966)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49708, 2693346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Surya Bahadur Thapa, Nepalese politician, 24th Prime Minister of Nepal (b. 1928)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 358635, 2888818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ], [ 57, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2017 Clifton James, American actor (b. 1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51389, 987006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2017 Emma Morano, Italian supercentenarian, last person verified born in the 1800s (b. 1899)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39309589, 329915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ], [ 31, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2018 R. Lee Ermey, American actor (b. 1944) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51390, 262457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2018 Vittorio Taviani, Italian film director and screenwriter (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10242177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2022 Bilquis Edhi, Pakistani philanthropist and wife of Abdul Sattar Edhi (b. 1947)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 52412, 1224348, 1224343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 57, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2022 Henry Plumb, British politician and farmer (b. 1925)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 856591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2022 Liz Sheridan, American actress (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2097788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christian feast day:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 180283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abbo II of Metz", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 11259480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Father Damien (The Episcopal Church)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 85080, 19280748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 15, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hunna", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 8877011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paternus of Avranches", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 14501565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "April 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1648822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Day of the Sun (North Korea)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 46599442, 21255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 16, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Father Damien Day (Hawaii)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 85080, 13270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 19, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hillsborough Disaster Memorial (Liverpool, England)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 59687, 18081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ], [ 32, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jackie Robinson Day (United States)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 19646390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National American Sign Language Day (United States)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poila Boishakh (Bengali New Year)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 597694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tax Day, the official deadline for filing an individual tax return (or requesting an extension). (United States, Philippines)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 4760452, 514183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 56, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Universal Day of Culture ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 45489908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "World Art Day", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 41903329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " BBC: On This Day", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Historical Events on April 15", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Today in Canadian History", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Days_of_the_year", "April" ]

[ "15 April", "April 15th", "15th of April", "Apr 15" ]

[ { "plaintext": "311 The Diocletianic Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire ends.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 47393, 2641583, 25507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ], [ 9, 33 ], [ 55, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1315 Enguerrand de Marigny is hanged at the instigation of Charles, Count of Valois.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 39959, 871595, 806323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ], [ 60, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1492 Spain gives Christopher Columbus his commission of exploration. He is named admiral of the ocean sea, viceroy and governor of any territory he discovers. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34599, 5635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 18, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1513 Edmund de la Pole, Yorkist pretender to the English throne, is executed on the orders of Henry VIII.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 38695, 105834, 14187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 95, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1557 Mapuche leader Lautaro is killed by Spanish forces at the Battle of Mataquito in Chile.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34959, 392305, 300318, 303062, 16892106, 5489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ], [ 21, 28 ], [ 42, 49 ], [ 64, 83 ], [ 87, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1598 Juan de Oñate begins the conquest of Santa Fe de Nuevo México.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34928, 163554, 53724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 43, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1598 Henry IV of France issues the Edict of Nantes, allowing freedom of religion to the Huguenots.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 57876, 50467, 46006, 75899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 25 ], [ 37, 52 ], [ 63, 82 ], [ 90, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1636 Eighty Years' War: Dutch Republic forces recapture a strategically important fort from Spain after a nine-month siege.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34935, 589019, 52626, 22337353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 25, 39 ], [ 105, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1789 On the balcony of Federal Hall on Wall Street in New York City, George Washington takes the oath of office to become the first President of the United States.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34697, 464921, 37274, 11968, 21194824, 24113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 24, 36 ], [ 40, 51 ], [ 70, 87 ], [ 98, 112 ], [ 133, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1803 Louisiana Purchase: The United States purchases the Louisiana Territory from France for $15million, more than doubling the size of the young nation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35072, 17628, 193623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 58, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1812 The Territory of Orleans becomes the 18th U.S. state under the name Louisiana.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34949, 453030, 18618239, 18130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 30 ], [ 48, 58 ], [ 74, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1838 Nicaragua declares independence from the Central American Federation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35514, 21362, 196323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 47, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1863 A 65-man French Foreign Legion infantry patrol fights a force of nearly 2,000 Mexican soldiers to nearly the last man in Hacienda Camarón, Mexico.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34641, 11544, 4342598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 15, 36 ], [ 127, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1871 The Camp Grant massacre takes place in Arizona Territory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34767, 4935473, 454186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 29 ], [ 45, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1885 Governor of New York David B. Hill signs legislation creating the Niagara Reservation, New York's first state park, ensuring that Niagara Falls will not be devoted solely to industrial and commercial use.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34715, 12861, 673717, 543509, 52028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 27, 40 ], [ 72, 91 ], [ 136, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1897 J. J. Thomson of the Cavendish Laboratory announces his discovery of the electron as a subatomic particle, over 1,800 times smaller than a proton (in the atomic nucleus), at a lecture at the Royal Institution in London.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34714, 70085, 128452, 9476, 212490, 23317, 332823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 27, 47 ], [ 79, 87 ], [ 93, 111 ], [ 145, 151 ], [ 197, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1900 Hawaii becomes a territory of the United States, with Sanford B. Dole as governor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34653, 187017, 253068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 60, 75 ], [ 79, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1905 Albert Einstein completes his doctoral thesis at the University of Zurich.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34637, 736, 314803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 59, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1925 Automaker Dodge Brothers, Inc is sold to Dillon, Read & Co. for US$146million plus $50million for charity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34867, 42969, 7670026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 16, 35 ], [ 47, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1927 The Federal Industrial Institute for Women opens in Alderson, West Virginia, as the first women's federal prison in the United States.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34939, 1052401, 151287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 48 ], [ 58, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1937 The Commonwealth of the Philippines holds a plebiscite for Filipino women on whether they should be extended the right to suffrage; over 90% would vote in the affirmative.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34684, 160735, 8905616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 41 ], [ 50, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1939 The 1939–40 New York World's Fair opens.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34614, 219288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1939 NBC inaugurates its regularly scheduled television service in New York City, broadcasting President Franklin D. 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Soviet soldiers raise the Victory Banner over the Reichstag building.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34624, 222902, 2731583, 9210500, 1033897, 26779, 5118489, 217577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 20, 32 ], [ 34, 46 ], [ 51, 60 ], [ 61, 75 ], [ 120, 126 ], [ 146, 160 ], [ 170, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1945 World War II: Stalag Luft I prisoner-of-war camp near Barth, Germany is liberated by Soviet soldiers, freeing nearly 9000 American and British airmen.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 15848382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1947 In Nevada, Boulder Dam is renamed Hoover Dam.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34584, 21216, 14308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 9, 15 ], [ 40, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1948 In Bogotá, Colombia, the Organization of American States is established.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34612, 211271, 22788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 9, 15 ], [ 31, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1956 Former Vice President and Democratic Senator Alben Barkley dies during a speech in Virginia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34672, 92221, 32432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 51, 64 ], [ 89, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1957 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery entered into force.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34606, 26584312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1961 K-19, the first Soviet nuclear submarine equipped with nuclear missiles, is commissioned.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34659, 29126, 26779, 588250, 53170, 60925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 10 ], [ 22, 28 ], [ 29, 46 ], [ 61, 77 ], [ 82, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1963 The Bristol Bus Boycott is held in Bristol to protest the Bristol Omnibus Company's refusal to employ Black or Asian bus crews, drawing national attention to racial discrimination in the United Kingdom.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34648, 22241545, 36741, 15560995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 29 ], [ 41, 48 ], [ 64, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1973 Watergate scandal: U.S. President Richard Nixon announces that White House Counsel John Dean has been fired and that other top aides, most notably H. R. Haldeman and John Ehrlichman, have resigned.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34751, 52382, 25473, 33057, 568270, 144113, 339375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 40, 53 ], [ 69, 80 ], [ 89, 98 ], [ 153, 167 ], [ 172, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1975 Fall of Saigon: Communist forces gain control of Saigon. The Vietnam War formally ends with the unconditional surrender of South Vietnamese president Dương Văn Minh.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34752, 1135721, 9209651, 66956, 32611, 59756, 80086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 22, 31 ], [ 55, 61 ], [ 67, 78 ], [ 129, 142 ], [ 156, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 Beatrix is inaugurated as Queen of the Netherlands following the abdication of Juliana.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 80482, 39263885, 23416611, 80481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ], [ 17, 28 ], [ 32, 56 ], [ 85, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 The Iranian Embassy siege begins in London.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 424150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1982 The Bijon Setu massacre occurs in Calcutta, India.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34756, 15143653, 47905, 14533 ], "anchor_spans": 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[ 64, 87 ], [ 95, 109 ], [ 110, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2000 Canonization of Faustina Kowalska in the presence of 200,000 people and the first Divine Mercy Sunday celebrated worldwide.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34548, 6097, 24334936, 1877756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 22, 39 ], [ 88, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2004 U.S. media release graphic photos of American soldiers committing war crimes against Iraqi prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35524, 649735, 7515928, 631571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 43, 82 ], [ 91, 95 ], [ 110, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2008 Two skeletal remains found near Yekaterinburg, Russia are confirmed by Russian scientists to be the remains of Alexei and Anastasia, two of the children of the last Tsar of Russia, whose entire family was executed at Yekaterinburg by the Bolsheviks.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", 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E. McWilliam, Irish sculptor and educator (d. 1992)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283284, 2953155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1909 Juliana of the Netherlands (d. 2004)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 80481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1910 Levi Celerio, Filipino pianist, violinist, and composer (d. 2002)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34690, 1564251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1914 Charles Beetham, American middle-distance runner (d. 1997)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283920, 48506259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1914 Dorival Caymmi, Brazilian singer-songwriter, actor, and painter (d. 2008)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1343989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1916 Paul Kuusberg, Estonian journalist and author (d. 2003)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34677, 3842511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1916 Claude Shannon, American mathematician and engineer (d. 2001)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1916 Robert Shaw, American conductor (d. 1999)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1007264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1917 Bea Wain, American singer (d. 2017)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34595, 2841541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1920 Duncan Hamilton, Irish-English race car driver and pilot (d. 1994)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34676, 1228314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1920 Gerda Lerner, Austrian-American historian and woman's history author (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8298229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1920 Tom Moore, British army officer and fundraiser (d. 2021)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 63661726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1921 Roger L. 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[ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ], [ 25, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1925 Corinne Calvet, French actress (d. 2001)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34867, 5721224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1925 Johnny Horton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1960)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 601078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1926 Shrinivas Khale, Indian composer (d. 2011)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34609, 28989172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1926 Cloris Leachman, American actress and comedian (d. 2021)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 521820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1928 Hugh Hood, Canadian author and academic (d. 2000)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34674, 349578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1928 Orlando Sirola, Italian tennis player (d. 1995)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2812844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1930 Félix Guattari, French psychotherapist and philosopher (d. 1992)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34911, 11109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1933 Charles Sanderson, Baron Sanderson of Bowden, English politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34864, 23165617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1934 Jerry Lordan, English singer-songwriter (d. 1995)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34981, 5721878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1934 Don McKenney, Canadian ice hockey player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6274917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1937 Tony Harrison, English poet and playwright", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34684, 166847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1938 Gary Collins, American actor and talk show host (d. 2012)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283852, 3317009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1938 Juraj Jakubisko, Slovak director and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4319597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1938 Larry Niven, American author and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1940 Jeroen Brouwers, Dutch journalist and writer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34708, 13727568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1940 Michael Cleary, Australian rugby player and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4432334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1940 Ülo Õun, Estonian sculptor (d. 1988)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 65336364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1941 Stavros Dimas, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Foreign Affairs", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34632, 1286145, 3989509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 50, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1941 Max Merritt, New Zealand-Australian singer-songwriter (d. 2020)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1289703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1942 Sallehuddin of Kedah, Sultan of Kedah", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34629, 52618589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1943 Frederick Chiluba, Zambian politician, 2nd President of Zambia (d. 2011)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34630, 285508, 450150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 49, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1943 Bobby Vee, American pop singer-songwriter (d. 2016)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1128629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1944 Jon Bing, Norwegian author, scholar, and academic (d. 2014)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34622, 4948138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1944 Jill Clayburgh, American actress (d. 2010)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 225561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1945 J. Michael Brady, British radiologist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34624, 49988515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1945 Annie Dillard, American novelist, essayist, and poet", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 184976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1945 Mimi Fariña, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and activist (d. 2001)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2115879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1945 Michael J. Smith, American pilot, and astronaut (d. 1986)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 178450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1946 King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34631, 104743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 11, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1946 Bill Plympton, American animator, producer, and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 680375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1946 Don Schollander, American swimmer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2430533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1947 Paul Fiddes, English theologian and academic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34584, 16616206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 Finn Kalvik, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1821348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 Tom Køhlert, Danish footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9123574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 Mats Odell, Swedish economist and politician, Swedish Minister for Financial Markets", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3662204, 9509125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 17 ], [ 53, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1948 Wayne Kramer, American guitarist and singer-songwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34612, 3674381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1948 Pierre Pagé, Canadian ice hockey player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9560705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1948 Margit Papp, Hungarian athlete", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 42626413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1949 Phil Garner, American baseball player and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34604, 2200054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1949 António Guterres, Portuguese academic and politician, 114th Prime Minister of Portugal and 9th Secretary-General of the United Nations", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 471806, 230733, 162415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ], [ 67, 93 ], [ 102, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1949 Karl Meiler, German tennis player (d. 2014)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15428560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1952 Jacques Audiard, French director and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34575, 4273510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1952 Jack Middelburg, Dutch motorcycle racer (d. 1984)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14861487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1953 Merrill Osmond, American singer and bass player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34865, 7753306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1954 Jane Campion, New Zealand director, producer, and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34982, 571203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1954 Kim Darroch, English diplomat, UK Permanent Representative to the European Union", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 23582224, 23582251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ], [ 38, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1954 Frank-Michael Marczewski, German footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 29725483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1955 Nicolas Hulot, French journalist and environmentalist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34851, 804883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1955 David Kitchin, English lawyer and judge", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16657572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1955 Zlatko Topčić, Bosnian writer and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 47244721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1956 Lars von Trier, Danish director and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34672, 17917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1957 Wonder Mike, American rapper and songwriter ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34606, 33669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1958 Charles Berling, French actor, director, and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34953, 2458322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1959 Stephen Harper, Canadian economist and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Canada", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34662, 241547, 24135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 62, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1960 Geoffrey Cox, English lawyer and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34664, 1850820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1960 Kerry Healey, American academic and politician, 70th Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3471845, 3260237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 60, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1961 Arnór Guðjohnsen, Icelandic footballer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34659, 2690832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1961 Isiah Thomas, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 542932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1963 Andrew Carwood, English tenor and conductor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34648, 6838397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1963 Michael Waltrip, American race car driver and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1432362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1964 Tony Fernandes, Malaysian-Indian businessman, co-founded Tune Group", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34550, 1898998, 28388433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 63, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1964 Ian Healy, Australian cricketer, coach, and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 928267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1964 Lorenzo Staelens, Belgian footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2935327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1964 Abhishek Chatterjee, Indian actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19955004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1965 Daniela Costian, Romanian-Australian discus thrower", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34750, 2647059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1965 Adrian Pasdar, American actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2223094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1966 Jeff Brown, Canadian ice hockey player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34691, 4309813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1966 Dave Meggett, American football player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3644001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1967 Phil Chang, Taiwanese singer-songwriter and actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34749, 9879313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1967 Philipp Kirkorov, Bulgarian-born Russian singer, composer and actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8127358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1969 Warren Defever, American bass player and producer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34610, 255515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1969 Justine Greening, English accountant and politician, Secretary of State for International Development", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1847104, 241125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ], [ 60, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1969 Paulo Jr., Brazilian bass player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3601689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1972 Takako Tokiwa, Japanese actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34671, 4609982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1973 Leigh Francis, English comedian and actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34751, 1303869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1974 Christian Tamminga, Dutch athlete ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34654, 41298603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1975 Johnny Galecki, American actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34752, 2318278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976 Davian Clarke, Jamaican sprinter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34661, 2912549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Amanda Palmer, American singer-songwriter and pianist ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1624044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Daniel Wagon, Australian rugby league player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 12475687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Victor J. Glover, American astronaut", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 39700888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1977 Jeannie Haddaway, American politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34549, 10671001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1977 Meredith L. Patterson, American technologist, journalist, and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 17842381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1978 Liljay, Taiwanese singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34753, 24460248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 Gerardo Torrado, Mexican footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 4905105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 Luis Scola, Argentinian basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 2118028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 Jeroen Verhoeven, Dutch footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20505758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 Nicole Kaczmarski, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 31255199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 John O'Shea, Irish footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1114570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Kunal Nayyar, British-Indian actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 13950673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Justin Vernon, American singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and producer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15318807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1982 Kirsten Dunst, American actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34756, 17450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1982 Drew Seeley, Canadian-American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4315115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1983 Chris Carr, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34755, 6073435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Tatjana Hüfner, German luger", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4256662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Marina Tomić, Slovenian hurdler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36684147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Troy Williamson, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1793666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 Seimone Augustus, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34578, 3962496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1984 Shawn Daivari, American wrestler and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1269871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1984 Risto Mätas, Estonian javelin thrower", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18872788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1984 Lee Roache, English footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15864913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1985 Brandon Bass, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34846, 2456275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1985 Gal Gadot, Israeli actress and model", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3195049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1985 Ashley Alexandra Dupré, American journalist, singer, and prostitute", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16266320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Dianna Agron, American actress and singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 14206625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1986 Martten Kaldvee, Estonian biathlete", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 26384202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Alipate Carlile, Australian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34760, 9538014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Chris Morris, South African cricketer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38461778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Rohit Sharma, Indian cricketer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4059625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 Andy Allen, Australian chef", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34670, 36540907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Sander Baart, Dutch field hockey player ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36608076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Ana de Armas, Cuban actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 25082181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Liu Xijun, Chinese singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 24436260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Oh Hye-ri, South Korean taekwondo athlete", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 51360856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Jang Wooyoung, South Korean singer and actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 24480951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 Jonny Brownlee, English triathlete", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 23992005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 Mac DeMarco, Canadian singer-songwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 37732787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 Kaarel Kiidron, Estonian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34447678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 Paula Ribó, Spanish singer-songwriter and actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 69521026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Chris Kreider, American ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 23404692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Travis Scott, American rapper and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 47747350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1992 Marc-André ter Stegen, German footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 31716980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1993 Dion Dreesens, Dutch swimmer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34598, 36582633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1993 Martin Fuksa, Czech canoeist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 51356976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Chae Seo-jin, South Korean actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 52187628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1994 Wang Yafan, Chinese tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 41498594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1996 Luke Friend, English singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34636, 45426857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1997 Adam Ryczkowski, Polish footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34601, 43674213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 Georgina Amorós, Spanish actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34647, 62694356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 Jorden van Foreest, Dutch chess grandmaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34553, 55327677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1999 Krit Amnuaydechkorn, Thai actor and singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 66570271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2000 Yui Hiwatashi, Japanese singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34548, 63058019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2002 Teden Mengi, English footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35502, 64763520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2003 Emily Carey, British actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36163, 51767106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2003 Jung Yun-seok, South Korean actor ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 46710630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AD 65 Lucan, Roman poet (b. 39)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35280, 53926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 7, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "125 An, Chinese emperor (b. 94)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34834, 343433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ], [ 5, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 535 Amalasuntha, Ostrogothic queen and regent", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35766, 1655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 783 Hildegard of the Vinzgau, Frankish queen", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35460, 1253143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1002 Eckard I, German nobleman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35901, 11550264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1030 Mahmud of Ghazni, Ghaznavid emir (b. 971)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36465, 651860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1063 Ren Zong, Chinese emperor (b. 1010)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 42454, 1129177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1131 Adjutor, French knight and saint", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40071, 11955294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1305 Roger de Flor, Italian military adventurer (b. 1267)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39952, 26267717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1341 John III, duke of Brittany (b. 1286)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36364, 640279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1439 Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick, English commander (b. 1382)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39922, 294297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1524 Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayard, French soldier (b. 1473)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38688, 308070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1544 Thomas Audley, 1st Baron Audley of Walden, English lawyer and judge, Lord Chancellor of England (b. 1488)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38676, 317295, 226197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 47 ], [ 75, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1550 Tabinshwehti, Burmese king (b. 1516)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35099, 1683579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1632 Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, Bavarian general (b. 1559)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34990, 279660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1632 Sigismund III Vasa, Swedish-Polish son of John III of Sweden (b. 1566)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 52608, 104960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 25 ], [ 49, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1637 Niwa Nagashige, Japanese daimyō (b. 1571)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35193, 1206433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1655 Eustache Le Sueur, French painter (b. 1617)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36177, 921242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1660 Petrus Scriverius, Dutch historian and scholar (b. 1576)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38618, 1454830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1672 Marie of the Incarnation, French-Canadian nun and saint, founded the Ursulines of Quebec (b. 1599)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38660, 14042344, 3867284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 30 ], [ 75, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1696 Robert Plot, English chemist and academic (b. 1640)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38645, 1657198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1712 Philipp van Limborch, Dutch theologian and author (b. 1633)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38633, 1095571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1733 Rodrigo Anes de Sá Almeida e Meneses, 1st Marquis of Abrantes, Portuguese diplomat (b. 1676)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35851, 65428611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1736 Johann Albert Fabricius, German scholar and author (b. 1668)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35849, 158401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1758 François d'Agincourt, French organist and composer (b. 1684)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35408, 2010699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1792 John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, English politician, Secretary of State for the Northern Department (b. 1718)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34914, 244840, 226144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 40 ], [ 62, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1795 Jean-Jacques Barthélemy, French archaeologist and author (b. 1716)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35799, 2400782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1806 Onogawa Kisaburō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 5th Yokozuna (b. 1758)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34978, 9124190, 985879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 56, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1841 Peter Andreas Heiberg, Danish philologist and author (b. 1758)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34921, 11345224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1847 Charles, Austrian commander and duke of Teschen (b. 1771)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34954, 2875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1863 Jean Danjou, French captain (b. 1828)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34641, 4341886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1865 Robert FitzRoy, English admiral, meteorologist, and politician, 2nd Governor of New Zealand (b. 1805)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38275275, 271121, 4618604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 74, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1870 Thomas Cooke, Canadian bishop and missionary (b. 1792)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34769, 14214456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1875 Jean-Frédéric Waldeck, French explorer, lithographer, and cartographer (b. 1766)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34763, 206505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1879 Emma Smith, American religious leader (b. 1804)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34968, 425733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1883 Édouard Manet, French painter (b. 1832)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34701, 9615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1891 Joseph Leidy, American paleontologist and author (b. 1823)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34794, 797707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1900 Casey Jones, American railroad engineer (b. 1863)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34653, 246664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1903 Emily Stowe, Canadian physician and activist (b. 1831)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34639, 567470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1910 Jean Moréas, Greek poet and critic (b. 1856)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34690, 179120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1926 Bessie Coleman, American pilot (b. 1892)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34609, 273081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1936 A. E. Housman, English poet and scholar (b. 1859)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34673, 3198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1939 Frank Haller, American boxer (b. 1883)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34614, 7014284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1943 Eddy Hamel, American footballer (b. 1902)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34630, 12770258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1943 Otto Jespersen, Danish linguist and academic (b. 1860)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1943 Beatrice Webb, English sociologist and economist (b. 1858) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 177552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1953 Jacob Linzbach, Estonian linguist and author (b. 1874)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34865, 35471375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1956 Alben W. Barkley, American lawyer and politician, 35th Vice President of the United States (b. 1877)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34672, 92221, 32759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 61, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1970 Jacques Presser, Dutch historian, writer and poet (b. 1899)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34726, 28345700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1970 Inger Stevens, Swedish-American actress (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 318233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1972 Gia Scala, English-American model and actress (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34671, 1783354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1973 Václav Renč, Czech poet and playwright (b. 1911)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34751, 7206838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1974 Agnes Moorehead, American actress (b. 1900)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34654, 202643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 Luis Muñoz Marín, Puerto Rican journalist and politician, 1st Governor of Puerto Rico (b. 1898)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 153100, 708720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 68, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1982 Lester Bangs, American journalist and author (b. 1949)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34756, 18602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1983 George Balanchine, Russian dancer and choreographer (b. 1904)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34755, 208652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Muddy Waters, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and bandleader (b. 1913)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 61855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Edouard Wyss-Dunant, Swiss physician and mountaineer (b. 1897)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 30389901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Robert Stevenson, English director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1905)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 1081442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Sergio Leone, Italian director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 38772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1993 Tommy Caton, English footballer (b. 1962)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34598, 3020988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Roland Ratzenberger, Austrian race car driver (b. 1960)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 343022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1994 Richard Scarry, American author and illustrator (b. 1919)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 196404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 Maung Maung Kha, Burmese colonel and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Burma (b. 1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34658, 3584717, 496836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 59, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 Nizar Qabbani, Syrian-English poet, publisher, and diplomat (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34647, 474429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2000 Poul Hartling, Danish politician, 36th Prime Minister of Denmark (b. 1914)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34548, 1138213, 273720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 45, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2002 Charlotte von Mahlsdorf, German philanthropist, founded the Gründerzeit Museum (b. 1928)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35502, 2313857, 698982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ], [ 66, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2003 Mark Berger, American economist and academic (b. 1955)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36163, 4150836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2003 Possum Bourne, New Zealand race car driver (b. 1956)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 224986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2005 Phil Rasmussen, American lieutenant and pilot (b. 1918)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35984, 3224575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2006 Jean-François Revel, French philosopher (b. 1924)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36164, 1523786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2006 Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesian author and academic (b. 1925)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 911838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2007 Kevin Mitchell, American football player (b. 1971)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36165, 10991569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2007 Tom Poston, American actor, comedian, and game show panelist (b. 1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 643540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2007 Gordon Scott, American film and television actor (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2189862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2008 Juancho Evertsz, Dutch Antillean politician (b. 1923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35825, 17356265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2009 Henk Nijdam, Dutch cyclist (b. 1935)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35983, 18429809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011 Dorjee Khandu, Indian politician, 6th Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh (b. 1955)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36225, 10578250, 2382790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 44, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2011 Evald Okas, Estonian painter (b. 1915)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4201390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2011 Ernesto Sabato, Argentinian physicist, author, and painter (b. 1911)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1699656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 Tomás Borge, Nicaraguan poet and politician, co-founded the Sandinista National Liberation Front (b. 1930)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47374, 6228153, 29316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 66, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Alexander Dale Oen, Norwegian swimmer (b. 1985) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4719149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Giannis Gravanis, Greek footballer (b. 1958)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 25255206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Benzion Netanyahu, Russian-Israeli historian and academic (b. 1910)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21901391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2013 Roberto Chabet, Filipino painter and sculptor (b. 1937)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 46945, 12454788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Shirley Firth, Canadian skier (b. 1953)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39282872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Viviane Forrester, French author and critic (b. 1925)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3127386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2014 Khaled Choudhury, Indian painter and set designer (b. 1919)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 48630, 32686808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Julian Lewis, English biologist and academic (b. 1946)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 42672192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Carl E. Moses, American businessman and politician (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 31222311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Ian Ross, Australian journalist (b. 1940)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3903703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2015 Ben E. King, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1938)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49708, 363631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2016 Daniel Berrigan, American priest and activist (b. 1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51387, 598596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2016 Harry Kroto, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1939)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 14467, 25416893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ], [ 50, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2019 Peter Mayhew, English-American actor (b. 1944)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51391, 999975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2020 Tony Allen, Nigerian drummer and composer (b. 1940)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51396, 2196839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 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{ "plaintext": "April 30 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1692196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Consumer Protection Day (Thailand)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 494455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Honesty Day (United States)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 13845648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Jazz Day (UNESCO)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 35633423, 21786641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 24, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Martyrs' Day (Pakistan)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 11416200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "May Eve, the eve of the first day of summer in the Northern hemisphere (see 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[ "Days_of_the_year", "April" ]

[ "30 April", "April 30th", "30th of April", "Apr 30" ]

[ { "plaintext": " 392 Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35639, 2630226, 246565, 219117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ], [ 19, 27 ], [ 36, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 851 Battle of Jengland: Erispoe defeats Charles the Bald near the Breton town of Jengland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35915, 18147054, 633116, 47372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 26, 33 ], [ 42, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1138 Battle of the Standard between Scotland and England.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 40077, 375364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1485 The Battle of Bosworth Field occurs; Richard III dies, marking the end of the House of Plantagenet.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 39493, 3793, 26284, 1662976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 34 ], [ 43, 54 ], [ 84, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1559 Spanish archbishop Bartolomé Carranza is arrested for heresy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 38665, 48557, 3026446, 9425435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 14, 24 ], [ 25, 43 ], [ 60, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1614 Fettmilch Uprising: Jews are expelled from Frankfurt, Holy Roman Empire, following the plundering of the Judengasse.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35102, 8133992, 10992, 13277, 8133992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 49, 58 ], [ 60, 77 ], [ 111, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1639 Madras (now Chennai), India, is founded by the British East India Company on a sliver of land bought from local Nayak rulers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35195, 45139, 43281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 18, 25 ], [ 53, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1642 Charles I raises his standard in Nottingham, which marks the beginning of the English Civil War.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34587, 7426, 39470, 9709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 39, 49 ], [ 84, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1654 Jacob Barsimson arrives in New Amsterdam. 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"plaintext": "1777 British forces abandon the Siege of Fort Stanwix after hearing rumors of Continental Army reinforcements.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35815, 19540170, 168210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 33, 54 ], [ 79, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1780 James Cook's ship returns to England (Cook having been killed on Hawaii during the voyage).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1791 The Haitian slave revolution begins in Saint-Domingue, Haiti.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34590, 13373, 999895, 212797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 15 ], [ 18, 34 ], [ 45, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1798 French troops land at Kilcummin, County Mayo, Ireland to aid the rebellion.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35798, 9217029, 877358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 28, 50 ], [ 71, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1827 José de la Mar becomes President of Peru.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35018, 1169396, 52471986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 29, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1846 The Second Federal Republic of Mexico is established.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35068, 33383688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1849 The first air raid in history occurs; Austria launches pilotless balloons against the city of Venice.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35243, 323167, 32616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 16, 24 ], [ 100, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1849 Passaleão incident: João Maria Ferreira do Amaral, the governor of Portuguese Macau, is assassinated by a group of Chinese locals, triggering a military confrontation between China and Portugal at the Battle of Passaleão three days after.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", 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"section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 11127, 28123, 935577, 501385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 9 ], [ 10, 16 ], [ 17, 29 ], [ 98, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 China Airlines Flight 642 crashes at Hong Kong International Airport, killing three people and injuring 208 more.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34553, 396928, 248457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ], [ 43, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2003 Alabama Chief Justice Roy Moore is suspended after refusing to comply with a federal court order to remove a rock inscribed with the Ten Commandments from the lobby of the Alabama Supreme Court building.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36163, 303, 356035, 6325873, 2539671, 4020699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ], [ 14, 27 ], [ 28, 37 ], [ 139, 155 ], [ 178, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2004 Versions of The Scream and Madonna, two paintings by Edvard Munch, are stolen at gunpoint from a museum in Oslo, Norway.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35524, 212420, 920192, 9779, 22309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 18, 28 ], [ 33, 40 ], [ 59, 71 ], [ 113, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2006 Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise Flight 612 crashes near the Russian border over eastern Ukraine, killing all 170 people on board.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36164, 6610624, 31750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 44 ], [ 90, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2006 Grigori Perelman is awarded the Fields Medal for his proof of the Poincaré conjecture in mathematics but refuses to accept the medal.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 225266, 10859, 23798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ], [ 42, 54 ], [ 76, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2007 The Texas Rangers defeat the Baltimore Orioles 30–3, the most runs scored by a team in modern Major League Baseball history.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36165, 30857, 4340, 38776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 23 ], [ 35, 52 ], [ 100, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 Ethnic clashes over grazing rights for cattle in Kenya's Tana River District result in more than 52 deaths.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 47374, 36801958, 6530059, 3378017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 26, 40 ], [ 63, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1412 Frederick II, Elector of Saxony (d. 1464)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 39896, 3058238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1570 Franz von Dietrichstein, Roman Catholic archbishop and cardinal (d. 1636)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38604, 38838114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1599 Agatha Marie of Hanau, German noblewoman (d. 1636)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38588, 36003903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1601 Georges de Scudéry, French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1667)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35080, 287112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1624 Jean Regnault de Segrais, French author and poet (d. 1701)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34585, 1135599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1647 Denis Papin, French physicist and mathematician, developed pressure cooking (d. 1712)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38608, 81861, 52991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 65, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1679 Pierre Guérin de Tencin, French cardinal (d. 1758)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38655, 1726431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1760 Pope Leo XII (d. 1829)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35824, 49902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1764 Charles Percier, French architect and interior designer (d. 1838)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34720, 177199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1771 Henry Maudslay, English engineer (d. 1831)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35675, 158639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1773 Aimé Bonpland, French botanist and explorer (d. 1858)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35817, 398762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1778 James Kirke Paulding, American poet, playwright, and politician, 11th United States Secretary of the Navy (d. 1860)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35814, 1189726, 44001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 76, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1788 Thomas Tredgold, English engineer and author (d. 1829)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34627, 35683311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1800 William S. Harney, American general (d. 1889)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34963, 872411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1800 Samuel David Luzzatto, Italian poet and scholar (d. 1865)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2332747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1827 Ezra Butler Eddy, Canadian businessman and politician (d. 1906)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35018, 2531368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1834 Samuel Pierpont Langley, American physicist and astronomer (d. 1906)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35517, 93840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1836 Archibald Willard, American soldier and painter (d. 1918)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35515, 2341653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1844 George W. De Long, American Naval officer and explorer (d. 1881)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34955, 350330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1845 William Lewis Douglas, American businessman and politician, 42nd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1924)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35242, 727330, 252510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ], [ 71, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1847 John Forrest, Australian politician, 1st Premier of Western Australia (d. 1918)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34954, 357013, 24680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 47, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1848 Melville Elijah Stone, American publisher, founded the Chicago Daily News (d. 1929)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34666, 3549471, 1122562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ], [ 61, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1854 Milan I of Serbia (d. 1901)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34781, 618075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1857 Ned Hanlon, American baseball player and manager (d. 1937)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34762, 697601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1860 Paul Gottlieb Nipkow, Polish-German technician and inventor, created the Nipkow disk (d. 1940)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34784, 576068, 374631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 79, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1860 Alfred Ploetz, German physician, biologist, and eugenicist (d. 1940)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2147757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1862 Claude Debussy, French pianist and composer (d. 1918)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34785, 6260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1867 Maximilian Bircher-Benner, Swiss physician and nutritionist (d. 1939)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34787, 183509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1867 Charles Francis Jenkins, American inventor (d. 1934)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 369108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1868 Willis R. Whitney, American chemist (d. 1958)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34788, 6046838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1873 Alexander Bogdanov, Russian physician and philosopher (d. 1928)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34746, 38584387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1874 Max Scheler, German philosopher and author (d. 1928)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34770, 796629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1880 Gorch Fock, German author and poet (d. 1916)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34773, 460203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1880 George Herriman, American cartoonist (d. 1944)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 175928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1881 James Newland, Australian soldier and policeman (d. 1949)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34716, 1220133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1882 Raymonde de Laroche, French pilot (d. 1919)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34772, 913019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1887 Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, German jurist and politician, German Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1977)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34777, 394312, 1329748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 36 ], [ 68, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1890 Cecil Kellaway, South African actor (d. 1973)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34707, 7601566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1891 Henry Bachtold, Australian soldier and railway engineer (d. 1983)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34794, 46276832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1891 Jacques Lipchitz, Lithuanian-Italian sculptor (d. 1973)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 166597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1893 Wilfred Kitching, English 7th General of The Salvation Army (d. 1977)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34713, 2110509, 2020679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 36, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1893 Dorothy Parker, American poet, short story writer, critic, and satirist (d. 1967)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1893 Ernest H. Volwiler, American chemist (d. 1992)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2470275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1895 László Almásy, Hungarian captain, pilot, and explorer (d. 1951)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34679, 484559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1895 Paul Comtois, Canadian lawyer and politician, 21st Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (d. 1966)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5011120, 839345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ], [ 61, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1896 Laurence McKinley Gould, American geologist, educator, and polar explorer (d. 1995)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34668, 6451401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1897 Bill Woodfull, Australian cricketer and educator (d. 1965)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34714, 820126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1900 Lisy Fischer, Swiss-born pianist and child prodigy (d. 1999)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34653, 37081212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1902 Thomas Pelly, American lawyer and politician (d. 1973)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34652, 813868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1902 Leni Riefenstahl, German actress, film director and propagandist (d. 2003)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 17562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1902 Edward Rowe Snow, American historian and author (d. 1982)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5873323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1903 Jerry Iger, American cartoonist, co-founded Eisner & Iger (d. 1990)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34639, 3000158, 30856531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 50, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1904 Deng Xiaoping, Chinese soldier and politician, 1st Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China (d. 1997)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34651, 8205, 4586189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 57, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1908 Henri Cartier-Bresson, French photographer and painter (d. 2004)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34600, 406119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1908 Erwin Thiesies, German rugby player and coach (d. 1993)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 26905108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1909 Julius J. Epstein, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2000)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283284, 925615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1909 Mel Hein, American football player and coach (d. 1992)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1802713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1913 Leonard Pagliero, English businessman and pilot (d. 2008)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34617, 31303777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1913 Bruno Pontecorvo, Italian physicist and academic (d. 1993)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1834663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1914 Jack Dunphy, American author and playwright (d. 1992)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283920, 3095581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1914 Connie B. Gay, American businessman, co-founded the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum (d. 1989)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36438026, 60630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 62, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1915 David Dellinger, American activist (d. 2004)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34689, 305948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1915 James Hillier, Canadian-American scientist, co-designed the electron microscope (d. 2007)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2137951, 9730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 70, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1915 Edward Szczepanik, Polish economist and politician, 15th Prime Minister of the Polish Republic in Exile (d. 2005)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2966050, 539820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 67, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1917 John Lee Hooker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34595, 15830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1918 Mary McGrory, American journalist and author (d. 2004)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34594, 611903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1920 Ray Bradbury, American science fiction writer and screenwriter (d. 2012)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34676, 26181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1920 Denton Cooley, American surgeon and scientist (d. 2016)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 576469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1921 Dinos Dimopoulos, Greek director and screenwriter (d. 2003)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34724, 21635660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1921 Tony Pawson, English cricketer, footballer, and journalist (d. 2012)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 25223177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1922 Roberto Aizenberg, Argentine painter and sculptor (d. 1996)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34866, 26432280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1922 Theoni V. Aldredge, Greek-American costume designer (d. 2011)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7970864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1924 James Kirkwood, Jr., American playwright and author (d. 1989)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34675, 320770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1924 Harishankar Parsai, Indian writer, satirist and humorist (d. 1995)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1895123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1925 Honor Blackman, English actress and republican (d. 2020)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34867, 499963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1926 Bob Flanigan, American pop singer (d. 2011)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34609, 6606991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1928 Tinga Seisay, Sierra Leonean academic and diplomat (d.2015)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34674, 14930136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1928 Karlheinz Stockhausen, German composer and academic (d. 2007)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 17268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1929 Valery Alekseyev, Russian anthropologist and author (d. 1991)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34656, 10678149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1929 Ulrich Wegener, German police officer and general (d. 2017)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 485971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1930 Gylmar dos Santos Neves, Brazilian footballer (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34911, 703948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1932 Gerald P. Carr, American engineer, colonel, and astronaut (d. 2020)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34775, 597271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1933 Sylva Koscina, Italian actress (d. 1994)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34864, 2954585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1934 Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr., American general and engineer (d. 2012)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34981, 443561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1935 Annie Proulx, American novelist, short story writer, and journalist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34980, 568033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1936 Chuck Brown, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2012)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34673, 326515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1936 John Callaway, American journalist and producer (d. 2009)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 23380212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1936 Dale Hawkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2335315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1936 Werner Stengel, German roller coaster designer and engineer, designed the Maverick roller coaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2203263, 6745116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 84, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1938 Jean Berkey, American businesswoman and politician (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283852, 4641950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1939 Valerie Harper, American actress (d. 2019)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34614, 351501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1939 Fred Milano, American doo-wop singer (d. 2012)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34050134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1939 Carl Yastrzemski, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 88049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1940 Bill McCartney, American football player and coach, founded Promise Keepers", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34708, 2207159, 285932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 66, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1941 Bill Parcells, American football player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34632, 305029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1942 Uğur Mumcu, Turkish journalist and author (d. 1993)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34629, 9017943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1943 Alun Michael, Welsh police commissioner and politician, inaugural First Minister of Wales", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34630, 414474, 602076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 72, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1943 Masatoshi Shima, Japanese computer scientist and engineer, co-designed the Intel 4004", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 508655, 102393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ], [ 85, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1944 Roger Cashmore, English physicist and academic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34622, 11297696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1945 David Chase, American director, producer, and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34624, 1367546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1945 Ron Dante, American singer-songwriter and producer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3581975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1947 Donna Jean Godchaux, American singer-songwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34584, 5422649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 Cindy Williams, American actress and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1335833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1948 David Marks, American singer-songwriter and guitarist ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34612, 523381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1949 Doug Bair, American baseball player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34604, 4587296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1949 Diana Nyad, American swimmer and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2329635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1950 Ray Burris, American baseball player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283873, 2772843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1950 Scooter Libby, American lawyer and politician, Chief of Staff to the Vice President of the United States", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9910441, 20378866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 57, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1952 Peter Laughner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1977)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34575, 1963065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1953 Paul Ellering, American weightlifter, wrestler, and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34865, 2026184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1955 Chiranjeevi, Indian film actor, producer and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34851, 620504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1956 Paul Molitor, American baseball player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34672, 37462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1956 Peter Taylor, Australian cricketer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3189275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1957 Steve Davis, English snooker player, sportscaster, and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34606, 423779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1957 Holly Dunn, American country music singer-songwriter (d. 2016)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3452547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1958 Colm Feore, American-Canadian actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34953, 663991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1958 Stevie Ray, American semi-retired wrestler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1853765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1958 Vernon Reid, English-born American guitarist and songwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 739681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1959 Juan Croucier, Cuban-American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34662, 937784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1959 Pia Gjellerup, Danish lawyer and politician, Danish Minister of Finance", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1810790, 2819798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 55, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1959 Mark Williams, English actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1010928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1960 Holger Gehrke, German footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34664, 29537817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1960 Collin Raye, American country music singer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 884121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1961 Andrés Calamaro, Argentine singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34659, 2511995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1961 Iain Coucher, English businessman", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15121698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1961 Roland Orzabal, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2232500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1961 Debbi Peterson, American singer-songwriter and drummer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2638120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1962 Stefano Tilli, Italian sprinter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34717, 18283614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1963 Tori Amos, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34648, 31471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1963 James DeBarge, American R&B/soul singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1445303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1963 Terry Catledge, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", 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"plaintext": "1970 Charlie Connelly, English author and broadcaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34726, 2491095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1970 Giada De Laurentiis, Italian-American chef and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1645054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1970 Tímea Nagy, Hungarian fencer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3021120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1971 Craig Finn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34748, 7507422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1972 Okkert Brits, South African pole vaulter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34671, 2646872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Paul Doucette, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and drummer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2283332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Steve Kline, American baseball player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1552564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Max Wilson, German-Brazilian race car driver", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4546702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1973 Roslina Bakar, Malaysian sport shooter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34751, 63817004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1973 Howie Dorough, American singer-songwriter and dancer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 155696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1973 Kristen Wiig, American actress, comedian, and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, 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"plaintext": "1976 Marius Bezykornovas, Lithuanian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34661, 27660606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Bryn Davies, American bassist, cellist, and pianist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 13126304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Laurent Hernu, French decathlete", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8674199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Randy Wolf, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2088125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1977 Heiðar Helguson, Icelandic footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34549, 2277242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1977 Keren Cytter, Israeli visual artist and writer", "section_idx": 2, 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919802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 Seiko Yamamoto, Japanese wrestler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 39916589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 Alex Holmes, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 3655118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Jang Hyun-kyu, South Korean footballer (d. 2012)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20923061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Christina Obergföll, German athlete", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2534865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1983 Theo Bos, Dutch cyclist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34755, 2065121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Jahri Evans, American football player", 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"plaintext": "1986 Stephen Ireland, Irish footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 2731678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1986 Neville, English wrestler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9200779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1986 Tokushōryū Makoto, Japanese sumo wrestler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 41747943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Leonardo Moracci, Italian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34760, 27552454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Apollo Crews, American wrestler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 37742279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Giacomo Bonaventura, Italian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 18829541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 Randall Cobb, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 25369574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 Drew Hutchison, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34645241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 Robbie Rochow, Australian rugby league player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 29092220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Federico Macheda, Italian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 22290370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Brayden Schenn, Canadian ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 17894203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Ema Burgić Bucko, Bosnian tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 18797830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Olli Määttä, Finnish ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 36206234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 Dua Lipa, English singer-songwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34658, 49002318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1996 Jessica-Jane Applegate, British Paralympic swimmer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34636, 36900902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 408 Stilicho, Roman general (b. 359)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35608, 80475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1155 Emperor Konoe of Japan (b. 1139)", "section_idx": 3, 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"Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 118353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1485 Richard Ratcliffe, supporter of Richard III", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 266973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1485 William Brandon, supporter of Henry VII (b. 1426)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 433532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1532 William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1450)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38682, 153644, 2345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 22, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1545 Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, English politician and husband of Mary Tudor (b. c. 1484)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38675, 317211, 70449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 42 ], [ 78, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1553 John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, English admiral and politician, Lord President of the Council (b. 1504)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38667, 166935, 201871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 45 ], [ 79, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1572 Thomas Percy, 7th Earl of Northumberland, English leader of the Rising of the North (b. 1528)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34686, 1339102, 2540338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 46 ], [ 70, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1584 Jan Kochanowski, Polish poet and playwright (b. 1530)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38594, 474459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1599 Luca Marenzio, Italian singer-songwriter (b. 1553)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38588, 748810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1607 Bartholomew Gosnold, English lawyer and explorer, founded the London Company (b. 1572)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35087, 345383, 238524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ], [ 68, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1652 Jacob De la Gardie, Estonian-Swedish soldier and politician, Lord High Constable of Sweden (b. 1583)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34918, 234944, 5751491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 67, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1664 Maria Cunitz, Polish astronomer and author (b. 1610)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38622, 1098952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1680 John George II, Elector of Saxony (b. 1613)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34927, 1657072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1681 Philippe Delano, Dutch Plymouth Colony settler (b. 1602)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38653, 772042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1701 John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1628)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38641, 1122120, 170015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 38 ], [ 72, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1711 Louis François, duc de Boufflers, French general (b. 1644)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35542, 617976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1752 William Whiston, English mathematician, historian, and theologian (b. 1667)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34869, 188885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1773 George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton, English poet and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b. 1709)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35817, 1019715, 70075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 43 ], [ 74, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1793 Louis de Noailles, French general (b. 1713)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35416, 1188681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1797 Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser, French-Austrian field marshal (b. 1724)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34747, 2659526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1806 Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French painter and illustrator (b. 1732)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34978, 605652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1818 Warren Hastings, English lawyer and politician, 1st Governor-General of Bengal (b. 1732)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34592, 167887, 266209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 58, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1828 Franz Joseph Gall, Austrian neuroanatomist and physiologist (b. 1758)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34620, 310316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1850 Nikolaus Lenau, Romanian-Austrian poet and author (b. 1802)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34983, 390581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1861 Xianfeng, Emperor of China (b. 1831)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34680, 265942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1888 Ágoston Trefort, Hungarian jurist and politician, Hungarian Minister of Education (b. 1817)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34712, 26575355, 26539420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 56, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1891 Jan Neruda, Czech journalist, author, and poet (b. 1834)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34794, 297899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1903 Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, English academic and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1830)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34639, 232328, 24150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 54 ], [ 89, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1904 Kate Chopin, American novelist and poet (b. 1850)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34651, 50099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1909 Henry Radcliffe Crocker, English dermatologist and author (b. 1846)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19283284, 27448335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1914 Giacomo Radini-Tedeschi, Italian bishop and academic (b. 1859)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19283920, 8151130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1918 Korbinian Brodmann, German neurologist and academic (b. 1868)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34594, 419608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1920 Anders Zorn, Swedish artist (b. 1860)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34676, 183716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1922 Michael Collins, Irish rebel, counter-intelligence and military tactician, and politician; 2nd Irish Minister of Finance (b. 1890)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34866, 97509, 486289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 101, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1926 Charles William Eliot, American academic (b. 1834)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34609, 160591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1933 Alexandros Kontoulis, Greek general and diplomat (b. 1858)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34864, 38270705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1940 Oliver Lodge, English physicist and academic (b. 1851)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34708, 348879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1940 Gerald Strickland, 1st Baron Strickland, Maltese lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Malta (b. 1861)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1066388, 464388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 49 ], [ 86, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1942 Michel Fokine, Russian dancer and choreographer (b. 1880)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34629, 477185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1946 Döme Sztójay, Hungarian general and politician, 35th Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1883)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34631, 874421, 378359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 59, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1950 Kirk Bryan, American geologist and academic (b. 1888)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19283873, 2190240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1951 Jack Bickell, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (b. 1884)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34602, 19841945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1953 Jim Tabor, American baseball player (b. 1916)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34865, 1225439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1958 Roger Martin du Gard, French novelist and paleographer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1881)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34953, 7628810, 23385442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 62, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1960 Johannes Sikkar, Estonian soldier and politician, Prime Minister of Estonia in exile (b. 1897)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34664, 1612552, 11604118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 56, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1963 William Morris, 1st Viscount Nuffield, English businessman and philanthropist, founded Morris Motors (b. 1877)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34648, 375556, 206506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 43 ], [ 93, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1967 Gregory Goodwin Pincus, American biologist and academic, co-created the birth-control pill (b. 1903)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34749, 140788, 22623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ], [ 78, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1970 Vladimir Propp, Russian philologist and scholar (b. 1895)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34726, 739755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1974 Jacob Bronowski, Polish-English mathematician, biologist, and author (b. 1908)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34654, 241528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976 Gina Bachauer, Greek pianist and composer (b. 1913)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34661, 1176852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Juscelino Kubitschek, Brazilian physician and politician, 21st President of Brazil (b. 1902)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 314055, 273638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ], [ 73, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1977 Sebastian Cabot, English actor (b. 1918)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34549, 393194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1977 Chunseong, Korean monk, philosopher and writer (b. 1891)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 31753664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1978 Jomo Kenyatta, Kenyan journalist and politician, 1st President of Kenya (b. 1894)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34753, 171148, 392265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 59, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 James T. Farrell, American novelist, short-story writer, and poet (b. 1904)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 2548006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 James Smith McDonnell, American pilot, engineer, and businessman, founded McDonnell Aircraft (b. 1899)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 2244382, 307173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ], [ 80, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 Vicente Manansala, Filipino painter (b. 1910)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 7146549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1985 Charles Gibson (historian), Historian of Mexico and its Indians, President of the American Historical Association (b. 1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34846, 16863009, 526936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 32 ], [ 88, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Celâl Bayar, Turkish lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Turkey (b. 1883)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 1132228, 158560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 54, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Joseph P. Lash, American author and journalist (b. 1909)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34760, 25157592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Robert Grondelaers, Belgian cyclist (b. 1933)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 11361928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Huey P. Newton, American activist, co-founded the Black Panther Party (b. 1942)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 182440, 23278339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 60, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Colleen Dewhurst, Canadian-American actress (b. 1924)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 673359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Boris Pugo, Russian soldier and politician, Soviet Minister of Interior (b. 1937)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 765259, 53056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ], [ 54, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Gilles Groulx, Canadian director and screenwriter (b. 1931)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 2074258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1994 Allan Houser, American sculptor and painter (b. 1914)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4437034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 Johnny Carey, Irish footballer and manager (b. 1919)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34658, 1497850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1996 Erwin Komenda, Austrian car designer and engineer (b. 1904)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34636, 155706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2000 Abulfaz Elchibey, 2nd President of Azerbaijan (b. 1938)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34548, 776742, 938372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 28, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2003 Arnold Gerschwiler, Swiss figure skater and coach (b. 1914)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36163, 315425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2004 Konstantin Aseev, Russian chess player and trainer (b. 1960)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35524, 945384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2004 Angus Bethune, Australian soldier and politician, 33rd Premier of Tasmania (b. 1908)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2807522, 24658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 65, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2004 Daniel Petrie, Canadian director and producer (b. 1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 923395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2005 Luc Ferrari, French-Italian director and composer (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35984, 113049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2005 Ernest Kirkendall, American chemist and metallurgist (b. 1914)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16902326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2007 Grace Paley, American short story writer and poet (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36165, 1584935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2008 Gladys Powers, English-Canadian soldier (b. 1899)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35825, 10255528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2009 Muriel Duckworth, Canadian pacifist, feminist, and activist (b. 1908)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35983, 559693, 24956, 11185, 39766702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 33, 41 ], [ 43, 51 ], [ 57, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2009 Elmer Kelton, American journalist and author (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5312625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2010 Stjepan Bobek, Croatian footballer and manager (b. 1923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 43226, 3065148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011 Nick Ashford, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1942)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36225, 1408332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2011 Jack Layton, Canadian academic and politician (b. 1950)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 174454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2011 Casey Ribicoff, American philanthropist (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 33012924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 Nina Bawden, English author (b. 1925)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47374, 1630829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Paul Shan Kuo-hsi, Chinese cardinal (b. 1923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1695393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Jeffrey Stone, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 37080123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2013 Paul Poberezny, American pilot and businessman, founded the Experimental Aircraft Association (b. 1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 46945, 1024043, 178789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 66, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Andrea Servi, Italian footballer (b. 1984)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40345059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2014 U. R. Ananthamurthy, Indian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1932)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 48630, 1208300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Emmanuel Kriaras, Greek lexicographer and philologist (b. 1906)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 13258603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Pete Ladygo, American football player and coach (b. 1928)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28641902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Noella Leduc, American baseball player (b. 1933)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34818598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 John Sperling, American businessman, founded the University of Phoenix (b. 1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 456483, 489589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 59, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 John S. Waugh, American chemist and academic (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10244062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2015 Arthur Morris, Australian cricketer and journalist (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49708, 1866473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Ieng Thirith, Cambodian academic and politician (b. 1932)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2870594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Eric Thompson, English race car driver and book dealer (b. 1919)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3620716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2016 S. R. Nathan, 6th President of Singapore (b. 1924)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51387, 286847, 350660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 24, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2016 Toots Thielemans, Belgian and American jazz musician (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1036172, 35496498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2017 Michael J. C. Gordon, British Computer scientist (b. 1948)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51389, 2669026, 328784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 36, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2018 Ed King, American musician (b. 1949)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51390, 1047022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2018 Krishna Reddy, Indian printmaker, sculptor and teacher (b. 1925)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 12038990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2021 Rod Gilbert, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1941)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51397, 1991536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Christian feast day:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 180283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fabrizio", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 18433149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Guinefort, the holy greyhound, feast day traditionally.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1505145, 12938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 20, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Immaculate Heart of Mary (Roman Catholic calendar of 1960)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2062296, 15616213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Queenship of Mary", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 331311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Symphorian and Timotheus", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 7653450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 29506591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Earliest day on which National Heroes' Day (Philippines) can fall, while August 28 is the latest; celebrated on the fourth Monday in August.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 495001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flag Day (Russia)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 873520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Madras Day (Chennai and Tamil Nadu, India)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6568919, 45139, 29918, 14533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 12, 19 ], [ 24, 34 ], [ 36, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "End of Filseta feast in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 58231844, 229435, 38203093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 14 ], [ 28, 55 ], [ 60, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Day Commemorating the Victims of Acts of Violence Based on Religion or Belief (International)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 66746995, 15757659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 91 ], [ 93, 106 ] ] } ]

[ "Days_of_the_year", "August" ]

[ "August 22nd", "22nd of August", "22 August", "Aug 22" ]

[ { "plaintext": " 410 The sacking of Rome by the Visigoths ends after three days.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35115, 3162376, 521555, 32530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 10, 17 ], [ 21, 25 ], [ 33, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1172 Henry the Young King and Margaret of France are crowned junior king and queen of England.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36217, 70947, 2471885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 31, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1232 Shikken Hojo Yasutoki of the Kamakura shogunate promulgates the Goseibai Shikimoku, the first Japanese legal code governing the samurai class.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36068, 411028, 394108, 84505, 397196, 483566, 28288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ], [ 14, 27 ], [ 35, 53 ], [ 70, 88 ], [ 100, 119 ], [ 134, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1557 The Battle of St. Quentin results in Emmanuel Philibert becoming Duke of Savoy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34959, 708042, 1122808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 31 ], [ 43, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1593 Pierre Barrière failed an attempt to assassinate Henry IV of France.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35051, 2937738, 57876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 55, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1597 Jeongyu War: Battle of Chilcheollyang: A Japanese fleet of 500 ships decimates Joseon commander Won Gyun’s fleet of 200 ships at Chilcheollyang.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34718, 799679, 2278543, 324222, 2832686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 19, 43 ], [ 85, 91 ], [ 102, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1600 Ishida Mitsunari’s Western Army commences the Siege of Fushimi Castle, which is lightly defended by a much smaller Tokugawa garrison led by Torii Mototada.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35017, 315508, 8552551, 2019824, 1737542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 52, 75 ], [ 121, 129 ], [ 146, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1689 The Treaty of Nerchinsk is signed by Russia and the Qing Empire (Julian calendar).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36185, 521911, 8527874, 25310, 15651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 29 ], [ 43, 49 ], [ 58, 69 ], [ 71, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1776 American Revolutionary War: Members of the 1st Maryland Regiment repeatedly charged a numerically superior British force during the Battle of Long Island, allowing General Washington and the rest of the American troops to escape.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 8380114, 3640405, 218877, 11968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 49, 70 ], [ 138, 159 ], [ 170, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1791 French Revolution: Frederick William II of Prussia and Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, issue the Declaration of Pillnitz, declaring the joint support of the Holy Roman Empire and Prussia for the French monarchy, agitating the French revolutionaries and contributing to the outbreak of the War of the First Coalition.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34590, 11188, 213668, 148783, 460674, 13277, 371248, 2687967, 176739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 25, 56 ], [ 61, 91 ], [ 103, 126 ], [ 163, 180 ], [ 185, 192 ], [ 201, 216 ], [ 295, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1793 French Revolutionary Wars: The city of Toulon revolts against the French Republic and admits the British and Spanish fleets to seize its port, leading to the Siege of Toulon by French Revolutionary forces.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35416, 233039, 50992, 62243, 19861000, 1964536, 3413472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ], [ 45, 51 ], [ 72, 87 ], [ 139, 147 ], [ 164, 179 ], [ 183, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1798 Wolfe Tone's United Irish and French forces clash with the British 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371248, 157386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 21, 31 ], [ 58, 65 ], [ 69, 75 ], [ 83, 90 ], [ 100, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1828 Brazil and Argentina recognize the sovereignty of Uruguay in the Treaty of Montevideo", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34620, 19279988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 71, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1832 Black Hawk, leader of the Sauk tribe of Native Americans, surrenders to U.S. authorities, ending the Black Hawk War.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35518, 1720677, 44160, 84154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 32, 36 ], [ 107, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1859 Petroleum is discovered in Titusville, Pennsylvania, leading to the world's first commercially successful oil well.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34646, 23195, 132246, 198570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 33, 57 ], [ 112, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1881 The Georgia 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leading to its surrender two months later.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34679, 37806693, 11856071, 183897, 301940, 30874356, 301940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 33 ], [ 35, 54 ], [ 60, 75 ], [ 105, 113 ], [ 122, 130 ], [ 158, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1896 Anglo-Zanzibar War: The shortest war in world history (09:02 to 09:40), between the United Kingdom and Zanzibar.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34668, 1738794, 34414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 109, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1908 The Qing dynasty promulgates the Qinding Xianfa Dagang, the first constitutional document in the history of China, transforming the Qing empire into a constitutional monarchy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34600, 25310, 11936126, 5760, 5649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 22 ], [ 39, 60 ], [ 103, 119 ], [ 157, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1914 World War I: Battle of Étreux: A British rearguard action by the Royal Munster Fusiliers during the Great Retreat. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19283920, 4764461, 38441480, 2795250, 2658864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 19, 35 ], [ 71, 94 ], [ 106, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1914 World War I: Siege of Tsingtao: A Japanese fleet commanded by Vice Admiral Sadakichi Kato imposes a blockade along the whole coastline of German Tsingtao, initiating the Siege of Tsingtao.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 2500090, 43519276, 250171, 2500090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 40 ], [ 85, 99 ], [ 148, 163 ], [ 180, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1915 Attempted assassination of Bishop Patrick Heffron, bishop of the Diocese of Winona, by Rev. Louis M. 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An IRA bomb also kills British royal family member Lord Mountbatten and three others on his boat at Mullaghmore, Republic of Ireland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 30770, 5406679, 23299, 443313, 7345190, 46542, 10292, 2097448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 50, 69 ], [ 77, 110 ], [ 116, 127 ], [ 196, 212 ], [ 237, 257 ], [ 265, 281 ], [ 314, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 1980 South Korean presidential election: After successfully staging the Coup d'état of May Seventeenth, General Chun Doo-hwan, running unopposed, has the National Conference for Unification elect him President of the Fourth Republic of Korea.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 27634901, 31118951, 43954077, 98630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 45 ], [ 78, 108 ], [ 118, 131 ], [ 206, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 A massive bomb planted by extortionist John Birges explodes at Harvey's Resort Hotel in Stateline, Nevada, after a failed disarming attempt by the FBI. 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Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide claim to be avenging the massacre of 1 million Armenians in the 1915 Armenian genocide.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34756, 1433487, 936220, 22219, 1415428, 140376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 14, 31 ], [ 40, 54 ], [ 77, 83 ], [ 85, 127 ], [ 197, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1985 Nigeria's military government is overthrown by another clique of army officers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34846, 61226272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 39, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 The European Community recognizes the independence of the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 9578, 188675, 28222445, 17514, 17675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 28 ], [ 64, 77 ], [ 81, 88 ], [ 90, 96 ], [ 101, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Moldova declares independence from the USSR.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19260, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ], [ 49, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2003 Mars makes its closest approach to Earth in nearly 60,000 years, passing distant.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36163, 14640471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2003 The first six-party talks, involving South and North Korea, the United States, China, Japan and Russia, convene to find a peaceful resolution to the security concerns of the North Korean nuclear weapons program.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 1982051, 106424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 35 ], [ 184, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2006 Comair Flight 5191 crashes on takeoff from Blue Grass Airport in Lexington, Kentucky, bound for Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport in Atlanta. 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S. Forester, English novelist (d. 1966)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34790, 5769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1904 Alar Kotli, Estonian architect (d. 1963)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34651, 6509178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1904 Norah Lofts, English author (d. 1983)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2147857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1904 John Hay Whitney, American businessman, publisher, and diplomat, founded J.H. 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4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 58, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1928 Mangosuthu Buthelezi, South African politician, Chief Minister of KwaZulu", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 478139, 1919037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ], [ 58, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1928 Joan Kroc, American philanthropist (d. 2003)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 358691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1929 Ira Levin, American novelist, playwright, and songwriter (d. 2007)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34656, 143761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1929 George Scott, Canadian-American wrestler and promoter (d. 2014)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18184609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1930 Gholamreza Takhti, Iranian wrestler and politician (d. 1968)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34911, 1364840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1931 Sri Chinmoy, Indian-American guru and poet (d. 2007)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34608, 225620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1931 Joe Cunningham, American baseball player and coach (d. 2021)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3822910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1932 Cor Brom, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2008)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34775, 17305531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1932 Antonia Fraser, English historian and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 140356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1935 Ernie Broglio, American baseball player (d. 2019)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34980, 2672335 ], 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Campbell, Canadian lawyer and judge", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34624, 24027626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1946 Tony Howard, Barbadian cricketer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34631, 3076086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 Halil Berktay, Turkish historian and academic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2763900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 Kirk Francis, American engineer and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21213332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 Peter Krieg, German director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2009)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11331427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 John Morrison, New Zealand cricketer and politician", 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10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1958 Sergei Krikalev, Russian engineer and astronaut ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34953, 614929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1958 Tom Lanoye, Belgian author, poet, and playwright", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1669897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1958 Hugh Orde, British police officer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1484250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1959 Daniela Romo, Mexican singer, actress and TV hostess", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34662, 8016517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1959 Gerhard Berger, Austrian race car driver", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 343833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1959 Juan Fernando Cobo, Colombian painter 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3467041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1970 Andy Bichel, Australian cricketer and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34726, 953800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1970 Mark Ilott, English cricketer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3445394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1970 Tony Kanal, British-American bass player. songwriter, and record producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 697913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1970 Jim Thome, American baseball player and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 726320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1970 Karl Unterkircher, Italian mountaineer (d. 2008)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18474652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1971 Ernest 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[ 10, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1975 Jonny Moseley, Puerto Rican-American skier and television host", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1484237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1975 Mark Rudan, Australian footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2859099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976 Sarah Chalke, Canadian actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34661, 716155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Audrey C. Delsanti, French astronomer and biologist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1434186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Milano Collection A.T., Japanese wrestler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4885145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Carlos Moyá, Spanish-Swiss tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 669421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Mark Webber, Australian race car driver", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 564161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1977 Deco, Brazilian-Portuguese footballer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34549, 711941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1977 Justin Miller, American baseball player (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11086209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 Sarah Neufeld, Canadian violinist ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 3115175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1979 Aaron Paul, American actor and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15957378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1979 Rusty Smith, American speed skater ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4317002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 Maxwell Cabelino Andrade, Brazilian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 5716615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Alessandro Gamberini, Italian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5041377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1983 Joanna McGilchrist, English 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"target_page_ids": [ 515889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Sebastian Kurz, Austrian politician, 25th Chancellor of Austria", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 41350919, 60582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 48, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Joel Grant, English-Jamaican footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34760, 5598951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Darren McFadden, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4999613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Romain Amalfitano, French footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 34053114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Juliana Cannarozzo, American figure skater and actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7357887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 Tori Bowie, American athlete", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 42146544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 Luuk de Jong, Dutch footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20840639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Lee Sung-yeol, South Korean actor and singer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 41350457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Blake Jenner, American actor and singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 36576064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1992 Stephen Morris, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 37804805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1992 Kim Petras, German 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"anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 542 Caesarius of Arles, French bishop and saint (b. 470)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35775, 1196118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 749 Qahtaba ibn Shabib al-Ta'i, Persian general", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35412, 32459261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 827 Pope Eugene II", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35328, 24687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 923 Ageltrude, queen of Italy and Holy Roman Empress ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36421, 6940676, 6006557, 13277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 26, 31 ], [ 36, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1146 King Eric III of Denmark", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36048, 779437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 11, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1255 Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln (b. 1247)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 42491, 181973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1312 Arthur II, Duke of Brittany (b. 1261)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39955, 637192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1394 Emperor Chōkei of Japan (b. 1343)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36125, 45768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1450 Reginald West, 6th Baron De La Warr, English politician (b. 1395)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39510, 2103518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1521 Josquin des Prez, Flemish composer (b. 1450)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35225, 55021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1545 Piotr Gamrat, Polish archbishop (b. 1487)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38675, 2039008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1576 Titian, Italian painter and educator (b. 1488)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38601, 154239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1590 Pope Sixtus V (b. 1521)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38590, 44886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1611 Tomás Luis de Victoria, Spanish composer (b. c. 1548)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34992, 349641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1635 Lope de Vega, Spanish poet and playwright (b. 1562)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35192, 379771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1664 Francisco de Zurbarán, Spanish painter and educator (b. 1598)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38622, 646434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1748 James Thomson, Scottish poet and playwright (b. 1700)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35839, 275302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1782 John Laurens, American Revolutionary and abolitionist (b.1754)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34698, 430947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1828 Eise Eisinga, Dutch astronomer and academic, built the Eisinga Planetarium (b. 1744)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34620, 864727, 23371063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 61, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1857 Rufus Wilmot Griswold, American anthologist, poet, and critic (b. 1815)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34762, 1215064 ], 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E. B. Du Bois, American sociologist, historian, and activist (b. 1868)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34648, 89988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1963 Inayatullah Khan Mashriqi, Pakistani mathematician and scholar (b. 1888)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4146026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1964 Gracie Allen, American actress and comedian (b. 1895)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34550, 70014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1965 Le Corbusier, Swiss-French architect and urban planner, designed the Philips Pavilion (b. 1887)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34750, 17900, 17509460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 75, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1967 Brian Epstein, English businessman and manager (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34749, 129194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1968 Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark (b. 1906)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34655, 282963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1969 Ivy Compton-Burnett, English author (b. 1884)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34610, 542283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1969 Erika Mann, German actress and author (b. 1905)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 571699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1971 Bennett Cerf, American publisher, co-founded Random House (b. 1898)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34748, 510840, 182947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 51, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1971 Margaret Bourke-White, American photographer and journalist (b. 1906)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 490393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1975 Haile Selassie, Ethiopian emperor (b. 1892)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34752, 42120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1978 Gordon Matta-Clark, American painter and illustrator (b. 1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34753, 1586874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Ieva Simonaitytė, Lithuanian author and poet (b. 1897)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 23015710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, English admiral and politician, 44th Governor-General of India (b. 1900)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 10292, 266209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 54 ], [ 93, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 Douglas Kenney, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1947)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 1122723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 Valeri Kharlamov, Russian ice hockey player (b. 1948)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 935448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 Avdy Andresson, Estonian soldier and diplomat (b. 1899)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 4318769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 Stevie Ray Vaughan, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1954)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 166911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Frank Jeske, German footballer (b. 1960)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 34264591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1996 Greg Morris, American actor (b. 1933)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34636, 3364543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 Essie Summers, New Zealand author (b. 1912)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34647, 16276916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 Hélder Câmara, Brazilian archbishop and theologian (b. 1909)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34553, 1791905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2001 Michael Dertouzos, Greek-American computer scientist and academic (b. 1936)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34551, 1859085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2001 Abu Ali Mustafa, Palestinian politician (b. 1938)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 530580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2002 Edwin Louis Cole, American religious leader and author (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35502, 1950775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2003 Pierre Poujade, French soldier and politician (b. 1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36163, 306623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2004 Willie Crawford, American baseball player (b. 1946)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35524, 954510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2005 Giorgos Mouzakis, Greek trumpet player and composer (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35984, 24822760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2005 Seán Purcell, Irish footballer (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2560460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2006 Hrishikesh Mukherjee, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36164, 1933148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2006 Jesse Pintado, Mexican-American guitarist (b. 1969)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1853112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2007 Emma Penella, Spanish actress (b. 1930)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36165, 11958415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2009 Sergey Mikhalkov, Russian author and poet (b. 1913)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35983, 303534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2010 Anton Geesink, Dutch martial artist (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 43226, 104337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2010 Luna Vachon, Canadian-American wrestler and manager (b. 1962)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1883213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 Neville Alexander, South African linguist and activist (b. 1936)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47374, 21638351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Malcolm Browne, American journalist and photographer (b. 1931)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 12824745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Art Heyman, American basketball player (b. 1941)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8079264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Ivica Horvat, Croatian footballer and manager (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 14196292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Richard Kingsland, Australian captain and pilot (b. 1916)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36891920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2013 Chen Liting, Chinese director and playwright (b. 1910)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 46945, 40694237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Bill Peach, Australian journalist (b. 1935)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40366526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Dave Thomas, Welsh golfer and architect (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8368081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2014 Jacques Friedel, French physicist and academic (b. 1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 48630, 33408670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Valeri Petrov, Bulgarian poet, playwright, and screenwriter (b. 1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8918183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Benno Pludra, German author (b. 1925)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 43686417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2015 Kazi Zafar Ahmed, Bangladeshi politician, 8th Prime Minister of Bangladesh (b. 1939)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49708, 11762019, 21867159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 52, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Pascal Chaumeil, French director and screenwriter (b. 1961)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47669684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Darryl Dawkins, American basketball player and coach (b. 1957)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 596086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christian feast day:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 180283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baculus of Sorrento", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 30987715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Caesarius of Arles", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1196118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Decuman", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 3410683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gebhard of Constance", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 14897067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Euthalia", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 16784208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John of Pavia", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 24435051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Glycerius, Lizier)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 25614502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Máel Ruba (or Rufus) (Scotland)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 4692034, 26994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 22, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Margaret the Barefooted", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 18745093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Monica of Hippo, mother of Augustine of Hippo", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 740416, 2030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 27, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Narnus", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 15757889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Our Lady of La Vang", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6305935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Phanourios of Rhodes", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 19111494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rufus and Carpophorus", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 9198371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syagrius of Autun", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 8447164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thomas Gallaudet and Henry Winter Syle (Episcopal Church)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 431700, 11751863, 6054604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 21, 38 ], [ 40, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 27 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 29595255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Film and Movies Day (Russia)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 873520, 25391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 21, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independence Day (Republic of Moldova), celebrates the independence of Moldova from the USSR in 1991.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 27995148, 19260, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ], [ 71, 78 ], [ 88, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lyndon Baines Johnson Day (Texas, United States)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2153592, 29810, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 27, 32 ], [ 34, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Banana Lovers Day (United States)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 28, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Pots De Creme Day (United States)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 37534432, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 28, 41 ] ] } ]

[ "Days_of_the_year", "August" ]

[ "August 27th", "27th of August", "27 August", "Aug 27" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In chemistry, an alcohol is a type of organic compound that carries at least one hydroxyl functional group (−OH) bound to a saturated carbon atom. The term alcohol originally referred to the primary alcohol ethanol (ethyl alcohol), which is used as a drug and is the main alcohol present in alcoholic drinks. An important class of alcohols, of which methanol and ethanol are the simplest examples, includes all compounds which conform to the general formula . Simple monoalcohols that are the subject of this article include primary (), secondary () and tertiary () alcohols.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5180, 22203, 14386, 10911, 1786805, 5299, 10048, 43173137, 18948043, 19712, 10048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 38, 54 ], [ 81, 89 ], [ 90, 106 ], [ 124, 133 ], [ 134, 140 ], [ 207, 214 ], [ 241, 255 ], [ 291, 306 ], [ 350, 358 ], [ 363, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The suffix -ol appears in the IUPAC chemical name of all substances where the hydroxyl group is the functional group with the highest priority. When a higher priority group is present in the compound, the prefix hydroxy- is used in its IUPAC name. The suffix -ol in non-IUPAC names (such as paracetamol or cholesterol) also typically indicates that the substance is an alcohol. However, some compounds that contain hydroxyl functional groups have trivial names which do not include the suffix -ol or the prefix hydroxy-, e.g. the sugars glucose and sucrose.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 514402, 14870, 83406, 6437, 12950, 50563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 49 ], [ 236, 241 ], [ 291, 302 ], [ 306, 317 ], [ 537, 544 ], [ 549, 556 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The inflammable nature of the exhalations of wine was already known to ancient natural philosophers such as Aristotle (384–322 BCE), Theophrastus (–287 BCE), and Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE). However, this did not immediately lead to the isolation of alcohol, even despite the development of more advanced distillation techniques in second- and third-century Roman Egypt. An important recognition, first found in one of the writings attributed to Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (ninth century CE), was that by adding salt to boiling wine, which increases the wine's relative volatility, the flammability of the resulting vapors may be enhanced. The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed to al-Kindī (–873 CE) and to al-Fārābī (–950), and in the 28th book of al-Zahrāwī's (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) Kitāb al-Taṣrīf (later translated into Latin as Liber servatoris). In the twelfth century, recipes for the production of aqua ardens (\"burning water\", i.e., alcohol) by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of Latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century it had become a widely known substance among Western European chemists.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 308, 98409, 44920, 496519, 63140, 14500732, 13493012, 272065, 175040, 353215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 117 ], [ 133, 145 ], [ 162, 177 ], [ 360, 371 ], [ 448, 464 ], [ 497, 508 ], [ 553, 572 ], [ 699, 707 ], [ 725, 734 ], [ 767, 777 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The works of Taddeo Alderotti (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated fractional distillation through a water-cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90% could be obtained. The medicinal properties of ethanol were studied by Arnald of Villanova (1240–1311 CE) and John of Rupescissa (–1366), the latter of whom regarded it as a life-preserving substance able to prevent all diseases (the aqua vitae or \"water of life\", also called by John the quintessence of wine).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40491129, 213614, 2513642, 9009919, 1607028, 1949268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 29 ], [ 105, 128 ], [ 264, 283 ], [ 303, 321 ], [ 427, 437 ], [ 482, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The word \"alcohol\" derives from the Arabic kohl (), a powder used as an eyeliner. The first part of the word () is the Arabic definite article, equivalent to the in English. The second part of the word () has several antecedents in Semitic languages, ultimately deriving from the Akkadian 𒎎𒋆𒁉𒍣𒁕 (guḫlum), meaning stibnite or antimony.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nomenclature", "target_page_ids": [ 1780355, 48203, 26919, 50515, 898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 47 ], [ 126, 142 ], [ 232, 249 ], [ 280, 288 ], [ 325, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like its antecedents in Arabic and older languages, the term alcohol was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide . It was considered to be the essence or \"spirit\" of this mineral. It was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic. Later the meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed again to ethanol, when \"spirits\" was a synonym for hard liquor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nomenclature", "target_page_ids": [ 477661, 403400, 1114099, 65555, 1780355, 1318497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 141 ], [ 165, 173 ], [ 182, 201 ], [ 287, 297 ], [ 313, 321 ], [ 470, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bartholomew Traheron, in his 1543 translation of John of Vigo, introduces the word as a term used by \"barbarous\" authors for \"fine powder.\" Vigo wrote: \"the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or (as I fynde it sometymes wryten) alcofoll, for moost fine poudre.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nomenclature", "target_page_ids": [ 33492803, 32746189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 49, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1657 Lexicon Chymicum, by William Johnson glosses the word as \"antimonium sive stibium.\" By extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including \"alcohol of wine,\" the distilled essence of wine. Libavius in Alchymia (1594) refers to \"vini alcohol vel vinum alcalisatum\". Johnson (1657) glosses alcohol vini as \"quando omnis superfluitas vini a vino separatur, ita ut accensum ardeat donec totum consumatur, nihilque fæcum aut phlegmatis in fundo remaneat.\" The word's meaning became restricted to \"spirit of wine\" (the chemical known today as ethanol) in the 18th century and was extended to the class of substances so-called as \"alcohols\" in modern chemistry after 1850.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nomenclature", "target_page_ids": [ 394805, 10048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 237 ], [ 577, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term ethanol was invented in 1892, blending \"ethane\" with the \"-ol\" ending of \"alcohol\", which was generalized as a libfix.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nomenclature", "target_page_ids": [ 4063117, 163106, 66062215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 47 ], [ 49, 55 ], [ 120, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IUPAC nomenclature is used in scientific publications and where precise identification of the substance is important. In naming simple alcohols, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal e and adds the suffix -ol, e.g., as in \"ethanol\" from the alkane chain name \"ethane\". When necessary, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the -ol: propan-1-ol for , propan-2-ol for . If a higher priority group is present (such as an aldehyde, ketone, or carboxylic acid), then the prefix hydroxy-is used, e.g., as in 1-hydroxy-2-propanone (). Compounds having more than one hydroxy group are called polyols. They are named using suffixes -diol, -triol, etc., following a list of the position numbers of the hydroxyl groups, as in propane-1,2-diol for CH3CH(OH)CH2OH (propylene glycol).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nomenclature", "target_page_ids": [ 3141503, 3205366, 20888255, 37329, 16803, 6099, 1554995, 228900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 392, 403 ], [ 410, 421 ], [ 478, 486 ], [ 488, 494 ], [ 499, 514 ], [ 644, 650 ], [ 775, 791 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In cases where the hydroxy group is bonded to an sp2 carbon on an aromatic ring, the molecule is classified separately as a phenol and is named using the IUPAC rules for naming phenols. Phenols have distinct properties and are not classified as alcohols.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nomenclature", "target_page_ids": [ 1313, 23865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 79 ], [ 124, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In other less formal contexts, an alcohol is often called with the name of the corresponding alkyl group followed by the word \"alcohol\", e.g., methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol. Propyl alcohol may be n-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol, depending on whether the hydroxyl group is bonded to the end or middle carbon on the straight propane chain. As described under systematic naming, if another group on the molecule takes priority, the alcohol moiety is often indicated using the \"hydroxy-\" prefix.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nomenclature", "target_page_ids": [ 19839, 274692, 599040, 2411365, 20888255, 23643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 149 ], [ 159, 164 ], [ 174, 180 ], [ 196, 212 ], [ 216, 233 ], [ 329, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In archaic nomenclature, alcohols can be named as derivatives of methanol using \"-carbinol\" as the ending. For instance, can be named trimethylcarbinol.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nomenclature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alcohols are then classified into primary, secondary (sec-, s-), and tertiary (tert-, t-), based upon the number of carbon atoms connected to the carbon atom that bears the hydroxyl functional group. (The respective numeric shorthands 1°, 2°, and 3° are sometimes used in informal settings.) The primary alcohols have general formulas . The simplest primary alcohol is methanol (), for which R=H, and the next is ethanol, for which , the methyl group. Secondary alcohols are those of the form RR'CHOH, the simplest of which is 2-propanol (). For the tertiary alcohols the general form is RR'R\"COH. The simplest example is tert-butanol (2-methylpropan-2-ol), for which each of R, R', and R\" is . In these shorthands, R, R', and R\" represent substituents, alkyl or other attached, generally organic groups.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nomenclature", "target_page_ids": [ 14386, 10911, 19839, 2006095, 977244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 181 ], [ 182, 198 ], [ 438, 450 ], [ 622, 634 ], [ 740, 752 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alcohols have a long history of myriad uses. For simple mono-alcohols, which is the focus on this article, the following are most important industrial alcohols:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "methanol, mainly for the production of formaldehyde and as a fuel additive", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 63847, 4960716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 51 ], [ 61, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ethanol, mainly for alcoholic beverages, fuel additive, solvent", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1-propanol, 1-butanol, and isobutyl alcohol for use as a solvent and precursor to solvents", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "C6–C11 alcohols used for plasticizers, e.g. in polyvinylchloride", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 753475, 24458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ], [ 47, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "fatty alcohol (C12–C18), precursors to detergents", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 92514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Methanol is the most common industrial alcohol, with about 12 million tons/y produced in 1980. The combined capacity of the other alcohols is about the same, distributed roughly equally.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With respect to acute toxicity, simple alcohols have low acute toxicities. Doses of several milliliters are tolerated. For pentanols, hexanols, octanols and longer alcohols, LD50 range from 2–5 g/kg (rats, oral). Ethanol is less acutely toxic. All alcohols are mild skin irritants.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Toxicity", "target_page_ids": [ 170567, 3045, 4109268, 542972, 18644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 68 ], [ 123, 131 ], [ 134, 141 ], [ 144, 151 ], [ 174, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The metabolism of methanol (and ethylene glycol) is affected by the presence of ethanol, which has a higher affinity for liver alcohol dehydrogenase. In this way methanol will be excreted intact in urine.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Toxicity", "target_page_ids": [ 143129, 89198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 47 ], [ 121, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In general, the hydroxyl group makes alcohols polar. Those groups can form hydrogen bonds to one another and to most other compounds. Owing to the presence of the polar OH alcohols are more water-soluble than simple hydrocarbons. Methanol, ethanol, and propanol are miscible in water. Butanol, with a four-carbon chain, is moderately soluble.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Physical properties", "target_page_ids": [ 14386, 361038, 13609, 13036672, 5417532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 30 ], [ 46, 51 ], [ 75, 88 ], [ 266, 274 ], [ 285, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of hydrogen bonding, alcohols tend to have higher boiling points than comparable hydrocarbons and ethers. The boiling point of the alcohol ethanol is 78.29°C, compared to 69°C for the hydrocarbon hexane, and 34.6°C for diethyl ether.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Physical properties", "target_page_ids": [ 13609, 13257, 9263, 105952, 765457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 89, 100 ], [ 106, 111 ], [ 204, 210 ], [ 227, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Simple alcohols are found widely in nature. Ethanol is the most prominent because it is the product of fermentation, a major energy-producing pathway. Other simple alcohols, chiefly fusel alcohols, are formed in only trace amounts. More complex alcohols however are pervasive, as manifested in sugars, some amino acids, and fatty acids.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Occurrence in nature", "target_page_ids": [ 666105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Ziegler process, linear alcohols are produced from ethylene and triethylaluminium followed by oxidation and hydrolysis. An idealized synthesis of 1-octanol is shown:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 44470705, 10320021, 37423891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ], [ 71, 88 ], [ 153, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The process generates a range of alcohols that are separated by distillation.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 8301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many higher alcohols are produced by hydroformylation of alkenes followed by hydrogenation. When applied to a terminal alkene, as is common, one typically obtains a linear alcohol:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 1221168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Such processes give fatty alcohols, which are useful for detergents.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 1741326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some low molecular weight alcohols of industrial importance are produced by the addition of water to alkenes. Ethanol, isopropanol, 2-butanol, and tert-butanol are produced by this general method. Two implementations are employed, the direct and indirect methods. The direct method avoids the formation of stable intermediates, typically using acid catalysts. In the indirect method, the alkene is converted to the sulfate ester, which is subsequently hydrolyzed. The direct hydration using ethylene (ethylene hydration) or other alkenes from cracking of fractions of distilled crude oil.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 7891977, 240960, 9837, 10048, 423933, 23195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 415, 428 ], [ 475, 484 ], [ 491, 499 ], [ 501, 519 ], [ 543, 551 ], [ 578, 587 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hydration is also used industrially to produce the diol ethylene glycol from ethylene oxide.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 143129, 306169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 71 ], [ 77, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ethanol is obtained by fermentation using glucose produced from sugar from the hydrolysis of starch, in the presence of yeast and temperature of less than 37°C to produce ethanol. For instance, such a process might proceed by the conversion of sucrose by the enzyme invertase into glucose and fructose, then the conversion of glucose by the enzyme complex zymase into ethanol and carbon dioxide.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 6073894, 12950, 14385, 27711, 50563, 1737838, 50337, 1551578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 35 ], [ 42, 49 ], [ 79, 89 ], [ 93, 99 ], [ 244, 251 ], [ 266, 275 ], [ 293, 301 ], [ 356, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several species of the benign bacteria in the intestine use fermentation as a form of anaerobic metabolism. This metabolic reaction produces ethanol as a waste product. Thus, human bodies contain some quantity of alcohol endogenously produced by these bacteria. In rare cases, this can be sufficient to cause \"auto-brewery syndrome\" in which intoxicating quantities of alcohol are produced.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 6073980, 435420, 20374, 40566097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 72 ], [ 86, 106 ], [ 113, 122 ], [ 310, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like ethanol, butanol can be produced by fermentation processes. Saccharomyces yeast are known to produce these higher alcohols at temperatures above . The bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum can feed on cellulose to produce butanol on an industrial scale.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 5417532, 1782378, 6911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 21 ], [ 166, 192 ], [ 205, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Primary alkyl halides react with aqueous NaOH or KOH mainly to primary alcohols in nucleophilic aliphatic substitution. (Secondary and especially tertiary alkyl halides will give the elimination (alkene) product instead). Grignard reagents react with carbonyl groups to secondary and tertiary alcohols. Related reactions are the Barbier reaction and the Nozaki-Hiyama reaction.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 75075, 57877, 235343, 236445, 4671895, 158788, 2322053, 16680105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 20 ], [ 41, 45 ], [ 49, 52 ], [ 83, 118 ], [ 222, 238 ], [ 251, 259 ], [ 329, 345 ], [ 354, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aldehydes or ketones are reduced with sodium borohydride or lithium aluminium hydride (after an acidic workup). Another reduction by aluminiumisopropylates is the Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction. Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation is the asymmetric reduction of β-keto-esters.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 37329, 16803, 66313, 1213846, 514097, 5278376, 6845005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 13, 19 ], [ 25, 32 ], [ 38, 56 ], [ 60, 85 ], [ 163, 197 ], [ 199, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alkenes engage in an acid catalysed hydration reaction using concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst that gives usually secondary or tertiary alcohols. The hydroboration-oxidation and oxymercuration-reduction of alkenes are more reliable in organic synthesis. Alkenes react with NBS and water in halohydrin formation reaction. Amines can be converted to diazonium salts, which are then hydrolyzed.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [ 2761, 240960, 240990, 240986, 1805561, 1412, 2531152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 36, 54 ], [ 157, 180 ], [ 185, 209 ], [ 297, 326 ], [ 328, 333 ], [ 355, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The formation of a secondary alcohol via reduction and hydration is shown:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Production", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With aqueous pKa values of around 16–19, they are, in general, slightly weaker acids than water. With strong bases such as sodium hydride or sodium they form salts called alkoxides, with the general formula RO− M+.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 57555, 656, 24027000, 521877, 26826, 27558, 485854, 291166, 19042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 16 ], [ 79, 83 ], [ 90, 95 ], [ 123, 137 ], [ 141, 147 ], [ 158, 162 ], [ 171, 179 ], [ 207, 208 ], [ 211, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The acidity of alcohols is strongly affected by solvation. In the gas phase, alcohols are more acidic than in water. In DMSO, alcohols (and water) have a pKa of around 29–32. As a consequence, alkoxides (and hydroxide) are powerful bases and nucleophiles (e.g., for the Williamson ether synthesis) in this solvent. In particular, RO– or HO– in DMSO can be used to generate significant equilibrium concentrations of acetylide ions through the deprotonation of alkynes (see Favorskii reaction).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 44041, 485740, 10218541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 57 ], [ 270, 296 ], [ 472, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The OH group is not a good leaving group in nucleophilic substitution reactions, so neutral alcohols do not react in such reactions. However, if the oxygen is first protonated to give , the leaving group (water) is much more stable, and the nucleophilic substitution can take place. For instance, tertiary alcohols react with hydrochloric acid to produce tertiary alkyl halides, where the hydroxyl group is replaced by a chlorine atom by unimolecular nucleophilic substitution. If primary or secondary alcohols are to be reacted with hydrochloric acid, an activator such as zinc chloride is needed. In alternative fashion, the conversion may be performed directly using thionyl chloride.[1]", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 241440, 236445, 24027000, 19916686, 75075, 14386, 5667, 240935, 19916686, 752048, 1642767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 40 ], [ 44, 69 ], [ 205, 210 ], [ 326, 343 ], [ 364, 376 ], [ 389, 403 ], [ 421, 429 ], [ 438, 476 ], [ 534, 551 ], [ 574, 587 ], [ 670, 686 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alcohols may, likewise, be converted to alkyl bromides using hydrobromic acid or phosphorus tribromide, for example:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 601834, 1764772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 77 ], [ 81, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Barton-McCombie deoxygenation an alcohol is deoxygenated to an alkane with tributyltin hydride or a trimethylborane-water complex in a radical substitution reaction.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 2674293, 639, 10111265, 1895519, 1267110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 36 ], [ 70, 76 ], [ 82, 101 ], [ 107, 122 ], [ 142, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, the oxygen atom has lone pairs of nonbonded electrons that render it weakly basic in the presence of strong acids such as sulfuric acid. For example, with methanol:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 378994, 140459, 29247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 40 ], [ 87, 92 ], [ 133, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon treatment with strong acids, alcohols undergo the E1 elimination reaction to produce alkenes. The reaction, in general, obeys Zaitsev's Rule, which states that the most stable (usually the most substituted) alkene is formed. Tertiary alcohols eliminate easily at just above room temperature, but primary alcohols require a higher temperature.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 238527, 2761, 1227509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 78 ], [ 90, 96 ], [ 131, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is a diagram of acid catalysed dehydration of ethanol to produce ethylene:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 9837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A more controlled elimination reaction requires the formation of the xanthate ester.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tertiary alcohols react with strong acids to generate carbocations. The reaction is related to their dehydration, e.g. isobutylene from tert-butyl alcohol. A special kind of dehydration reaction involves triphenylmethanol and especially its amine-substituted derivatives. When treated with acid, these alcohols lose water to give stable carbocations, which are commercial dyes.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 3930613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alcohol and carboxylic acids react in the so-called Fischer esterification. The reaction usually requires a catalyst, such as concentrated sulfuric acid:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 6099, 530887, 5914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 27 ], [ 52, 74 ], [ 108, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other types of ester are prepared in a similar manner for example, tosyl (tosylate) esters are made by reaction of the alcohol with p-toluenesulfonyl chloride in pyridine.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 521915, 521915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 72 ], [ 134, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Primary alcohols () can be oxidized either to aldehydes (R-CHO) or to carboxylic acids (). The oxidation of secondary alcohols (R1R2CH-OH) normally terminates at the ketone (R1R2C=O) stage. Tertiary alcohols (R1R2R3C-OH) are resistant to oxidation.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 37329, 6099, 16803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 54 ], [ 70, 85 ], [ 166, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids normally proceeds via the corresponding aldehyde, which is transformed via an aldehyde hydrate () by reaction with water before it can be further oxidized to the carboxylic acid.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 10621177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reagents useful for the transformation of primary alcohols to aldehydes are normally also suitable for the oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones. These include Collins reagent and Dess-Martin periodinane. The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids can be carried out using potassium permanganate or the Jones reagent.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Reactions", "target_page_ids": [ 16712511, 10195736, 1880262, 483010, 30660953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 149 ], [ 165, 180 ], [ 185, 208 ], [ 296, 318 ], [ 326, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Enol", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1238210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ethanol fuel", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 608623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fatty alcohol", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1741326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Index of alcohol-related articles", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5213935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of alcohols", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 64393952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lucas test", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1767428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Polyol", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1554995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rubbing alcohol", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 267787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sugar alcohol", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 562526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Transesterification", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 190458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] } ]

[ "Alcohol", "Alcohols", "Antiseptics", "Functional_groups" ]

[ "alcohol" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Achill Island (; ) in County Mayo is the largest of the Irish isles, and is situated off the west coast of Ireland. It has a population of 2,594. Its area is . Achill is attached to the mainland by Michael Davitt Bridge, between the villages of Gob an Choire (Achill Sound) and Poll Raithní (Polranny). A bridge was first completed here in 1887. Other centres of population include the villages of Keel, Dooagh, Dumha Éige (Dooega), Dún Ibhir (Dooniver), and Dugort. The parish's main Gaelic football pitch and secondary school are on the mainland at Poll Raithní. Early human settlements are believed to have been established on Achill around 3000 BC.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5830, 330122, 14560, 1918880, 1918855, 30967052, 3397, 2025461, 15010113, 26594672, 23208277, 56119065, 37688, 554992, 6084894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 33 ], [ 56, 67 ], [ 107, 114 ], [ 198, 219 ], [ 260, 272 ], [ 292, 300 ], [ 305, 311 ], [ 398, 402 ], [ 404, 410 ], [ 424, 430 ], [ 444, 452 ], [ 459, 465 ], [ 485, 500 ], [ 511, 527 ], [ 571, 587 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The island is 87% peat bog. The parish of Achill consists of Achill Island, Achillbeg, Inishbiggle and the Corraun Peninsula.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 147341, 1960360, 2273683, 23457699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 26 ], [ 76, 85 ], [ 87, 98 ], [ 107, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roughly half of the island, including the villages of Achill Sound and Bunacurry are in the Gaeltacht (traditional Irish-speaking region) of Ireland, although the vast majority of the island's population speaks English as their daily language.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26581759, 101196, 8569916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 80 ], [ 92, 101 ], [ 211, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is believed that at the end of the Neolithic Period (around 4000 BC), Achill had a population of 500–1,000 people. The island would have been mostly forest until the Neolithic people began crop cultivation. Settlement increased during the Iron Age, and the dispersal of small promontory forts around the coast indicate the warlike nature of the times. Megalithic tombs and forts can be seen at Slievemore, along the Atlantic Drive and on Achillbeg.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21189, 627, 14711, 488761, 332248, 1960360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 54 ], [ 192, 208 ], [ 242, 250 ], [ 279, 294 ], [ 355, 370 ], [ 441, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Achill Island lies in the Barony of Burrishoole, in the territory of ancient Umhall (Umhall Uactarach and Umhall Ioctarach), that originally encompassed an area extending from the County Galway/Mayo border to Achill Head.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 27926977, 29155202, 92632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 47 ], [ 77, 83 ], [ 180, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The hereditary chieftains of Umhall were the O'Malleys, recorded in the area in 814 AD when they successfully repelled an onslaught by the Vikings in Clew Bay. The Anglo-Norman invasion of Connacht in 1235 AD saw the territory of Umhall taken over by the Butlers and later by the de Burgos. The Butler Lordship of Burrishoole continued into the late 14th century when Thomas le Botiller was recorded as being in possession of Akkyll and Owyll.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1053312, 257098, 74200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 158 ], [ 164, 176 ], [ 189, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 17th and 18th centuries, there was much migration to Achill from other parts of Ireland, particularly Ulster, due to the political and religious turmoil of the time. For a while there were two different dialects of Irish being spoken on Achill. This led to many townlands being recorded as having two names during the 1824 Ordnance Survey, and some maps today give different names for the same place. Achill Irish still has many traces of Ulster Irish.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32066, 8128, 19344100, 3610002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 115 ], [ 210, 217 ], [ 330, 345 ], [ 446, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carrickkildavnet Castle is a 15th-century tower house associated with the O'Malley Clan, who were once a ruling family of Achill. Grace O' Malley, or Granuaile, the most famous of the O'Malleys, was born on Clare Island around 1530. Her father was the chieftain of the barony of Murrisk. The O'Malleys were a powerful seafaring family, who traded widely. Grace became a fearless leader and gained fame as a sea captain and pirate. She is reputed to have met with Queen Elizabeth I in 1593. She died around 1603 and is buried in the O'Malley family tomb on Clare Island.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 52141392, 43279, 1471654, 1892784, 10128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 130, 145 ], [ 207, 219 ], [ 279, 286 ], [ 463, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of Achill's most famous historical sites is that of the Achill Mission or 'the Colony' at Dugort. In 1831, the Church of Ireland Reverend Edward Nangle founded a proselytising mission at Dugort. The Mission included schools, cottages, an orphanage, an infirmary and a guesthouse. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 56119065, 168130, 61515020, 234523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 100 ], [ 115, 132 ], [ 142, 155 ], [ 166, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Colony gave rise to mixed assessments, particularly during the Great Famine when charges of 'souperism' were leveled against Edward Nangle. The provision of food across the Achill Mission schools - which also provided 'scriptural' religious instruction - was particularly controversial. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For almost forty years Edward Nangle edited a newspaper called the Achill Missionary Herald and Western Witness which was printed in Achill. Nangle expanded his mission into Mweelin in west Achill where a school, church, rectory, cottages and a training school were built. Edward's wife Eliza suffered poor health in Achill and died in 1852; she is buried with six of the Nangle children on the slopes of Slievemore in North Achill. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28502316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1848, at the height of the Great Famine, the Achill Mission published a prospectus seeking to raise funds for the acquisition of significant additional lands from Sir Richard O'Donnell. The document gives an overview, from the Mission's perspective, of its activities in Achill over the previous decade and a half including considerable sectarian unrest. In 1851, Edward Nangle confirmed the purchase of the land which made the Achill Mission the largest landowner on the island. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Achill Mission began to decline slowly after Nangle was moved from Achill and was finally closed in the 1880s. When Edward Nangle died in 1883 there were opposing views on his legacy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1894, the Westport – Newport railway line was extended to Achill Sound. The railway station is now a hostel. The train provided a great service to Achill, but it also is said to have fulfilled an ancient prophecy. Brian Rua O' Cearbhain had prophesied that 'carts on iron wheels' would carry bodies into Achill on their first and last journey. In 1894, the first train on the Achill railway carried the bodies of victims of the Clew Bay Drowning. This tragedy occurred when a boat overturned in Clew Bay, drowning thirty-two young people. They had been going to meet the steamer which would take them to Scotland for potato picking.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26881497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 217, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Kirkintilloch Fire in 1937 almost fulfilled the second part of the prophecy when the bodies of ten victims were carried by rail to Achill. While it was not literally the last train, the railway would close just two weeks later. These people had died in a fire in a bothy in Kirkintilloch. This term referred to the temporary accommodation provided for those who went to Scotland to pick potatoes, a migratory pattern that had been established in the early nineteenth century.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1774993, 655628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 269, 274 ], [ 278, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kildamhnait on the south-east coast of Achill is named after St. Damhnait, or Dymphna, who founded a church there in the 7th century. There is also a holy well just outside the graveyard. The present church was built in the 1700s and the graveyard contains memorials to the victims of two of Achill's greatest tragedies, the Kirchintilloch Fire (1937) and the Clew Bay Drowning (1894).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 460466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1852, Dr. John MacHale, Archbishop of Tuam purchased land in Bunnacurry which became the location of a Franciscan Monastery which, for many years provided an education for local children. The building of the monastery was marked by a conflict between the followers of the Achill Mission colony and those building the monastery. The dispute is known in the island folklore as the Battle of the Stones. A notable monk who lived at the monastery for almost thirty years was Brother Paul Carney. He wrote a biography of James Lynchehaun who rose to fame following his conviction for the 1894 attack on the Valley House in North Achill. Brother Paul also wrote accounts of his lengthy church fundraising trips across the US at the start of the twentieth century. The ruins of this monastery are still to be seen in Bunnacurry today.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The historic Valley House is located in The Valley, near Dugort in the north-east of Achill Island. The present building sits on the site of a hunting lodge built by the Earl of Cavan in the 19th century. Its notoriety arises from an incident in 1894 in which the then owner, an English landlady named Agnes McDonnell, was savagely beaten and the house set alight, allegedly by a local man, James Lynchehaun. Lynchehaun had been employed by McDonnell as her land agent, but the two fell out and he was sacked and told to quit his accommodation on her estate. A lengthy legal battle ensued, with Lynchehaun refusing to leave. At the time, in the 1890s, the issue of land ownership in Ireland was politically charged, and after the events at the Valley House in 1895 Lynchehaun was to claim that his actions were motivated by politics. He escaped custody and fled to the United States, where he successfully defeated legal attempts by the British authorities to have him extradited to face charges arising from the attack and the burning of the Valley House. Agnes McDonnell suffered terrible injuries from the attack but survived and lived for another 23 years, dying in 1923. Lynchehaun is said to have returned to Achill on two occasions, once in disguise as an American tourist, and eventually died in Girvan, Scotland, in 1937. The Valley House is now a Hostel and Bar.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26577115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Close by Dugort, at the base of Slievemore mountain lies the Deserted Village. There are approximately 80 ruined houses in the village.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10182005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The houses were built of unmortared stone, which means that no cement or mortar was used to hold the stones together. Each house consisted of just one room and this room was used as a kitchen, living room, bedroom and even a stable.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If one looks at the fields around the Deserted Village and right up the mountain, one can see the tracks in the fields of 'lazy beds', which is the way crops like potatoes were grown. In Achill, as in many areas of Ireland, a system called 'Rundale' was used for farming. This meant that the land around a village was rented from a landlord. This land was then shared by all the villagers to graze their cattle and sheep. Each family would then have two or three small pieces of land scattered about the village, which they used to grow crops.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For many years people lived in the village and then in 1845 Famine struck in Achill as it did in the rest of Ireland. Most of the families moved to the nearby village of Dooagh, which is beside the sea, while some others emigrated. Living beside the sea meant that fish and shellfish could be used for food. The village was completely abandoned which is where the name 'Deserted Village' came from.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "No one has lived in these houses since the time of the Famine, however, the families that moved to Dooagh and their descendants, continued to use the village as a 'booley village'. This means that during the summer season, the younger members of the family, teenage boys and girls, would take the cattle to graze on the hillside and they would stay in the houses of the Deserted Village. This custom continued until the 1940s. Boolying was also carried out in other areas of Achill, including Annagh on Croaghaun mountain and in Curraun.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At Ailt, Kildownet, the remains of a similar deserted village can be found. This village was deserted in 1855 when the tenants were evicted by the local landlord so the land could be used for cattle grazing; the tenants were forced to rent holdings in Currane, Dooega and Slievemore. Others emigrated to America.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recent archaeological research suggests the village was occupied year-round at least as early as the 19th century, though it is known to have served as a seasonally occupied 'booley village' by the first half of the 20th century. A booley village (a number of which exist in a ruined state on the island) is a village occupied only during part of the year, such as a resort community, a lake community, or (as the case on Achill) a place to live while tending flocks or herds of ruminants during winter or summer pasturing. Specifically, some of the people of Dooagh and Pollagh would migrate in the summer to Slievemore and then go back to Dooagh in the autumn. The summer 2009 field school excavated Round House 2 on Slievemore Mountain under the direction of archaeologist Stuart Rathbone. Only the outside north wall, entrance way and inside of the Round House were completely excavated.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18842431, 291945, 246806, 221932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 387, 391 ], [ 452, 475 ], [ 479, 487 ], [ 513, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 2004 to 2006, the Achill Island Maritime Archaeology Project directed by Chuck Meide was sponsored by the College of William and Mary, the Institute of Maritime History, the Achill Folklife Centre (now the Achill Archaeology Centre), and the Lighthouse Archaeological Maritime Program (LAMP). This project focused on the documentation of archaeological resources related to Achill's rich maritime heritage. Maritime archaeologists recorded a 19th-century fishing station, an ice house, boat house ruins, a number of anchors which had been salvaged from the sea, 19th-century and more recent currach pens, a number of traditional vernacular watercraft including a possibly 100-year-old Achill yawl, and the remains of four historic shipwrecks.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 27496552, 175966, 4007948, 990368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 89 ], [ 111, 138 ], [ 247, 296 ], [ 597, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The cliffs of Croaghaun on the western end of the island are the third highest sea cliffs in Europe but are inaccessible by road. Near the westernmost point of Achill, Achill Head, is Keem Bay. Keel Beach is quite popular with tourists and some locals as a surfing location. South of Keem beach is Moytoge Head, which with its rounded appearance drops dramatically down to the ocean. An old British observation post, built during World War I to prevent the Germans from landing arms for the Irish Republican Army, is still standing on Moytoge. During the Second World War this post was rebuilt by the Irish Defence Forces as a Look Out Post for the Coast Watching Service wing of the Defence Forces. It operated from 1939 to 1945.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other places of interest", "target_page_ids": [ 12840902, 181897, 9239, 16940962, 29789, 28198, 18842359, 31717, 4764461, 11867, 14732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ], [ 83, 88 ], [ 93, 99 ], [ 184, 192 ], [ 227, 234 ], [ 257, 264 ], [ 377, 382 ], [ 391, 398 ], [ 430, 441 ], [ 457, 464 ], [ 491, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mountain of Slievemore, (672m) rises dramatically in the north of the island and the Atlantic Drive (along the south/west of the island) has some dramatic views. On the slopes of Slievemore, there is an abandoned village (the \"Deserted Village\") The Deserted Village is traditionally thought to be a remnant village from An Gorta Mór (The Great Hunger of 1845–1849).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other places of interest", "target_page_ids": [ 10182005, 1616198, 14726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 26 ], [ 207, 224 ], [ 339, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Just west of the deserted village is an old Martello tower, again built by the British to warn of any possible French invasion during the Napoleonic Wars. The area also boasts an approximately 5000-year-old Neolithic tomb.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other places of interest", "target_page_ids": [ 432015, 5843419, 45420, 405448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 58 ], [ 111, 117 ], [ 138, 153 ], [ 207, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Achillbeg (, Little Achill) is a small island just off Achill's southern tip. Its inhabitants were resettled on Achill in the 1960s. A plaque to Johnny Kilbane is situated on Achillbeg and was erected to celebrate 100 years since his first championship win.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other places of interest", "target_page_ids": [ 1960360, 4766257, 1960360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 145, 159 ], [ 175, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The villages of Dooniver and Askill have picturesque scenery and the cycle route is popular with tourists.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other places of interest", "target_page_ids": [ 23208277, 25843264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 24 ], [ 29, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Caisleán Ghráinne, also known as Kildownet Castle, is a small tower house built in the early 1400s. It is located in Cloughmore, on the south of Achill Island. It is noted for its associations with Grace O'Malley, along with the larger Rockfleet Castle in Newport.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other places of interest", "target_page_ids": [ 52141392, 43279, 1472550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 198, 212 ], [ 236, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While a number of attempts at setting up small industrial units on the island have been made, the economy of the island is largely dependent on tourism. Subventions from Achill people working abroad, in particular in the United Kingdom, the United States and Africa allowed many families to remain living in Achill throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Since the advent of Ireland's \"Celtic Tiger\" economy fewer Achill people were forced to look for work abroad. Agriculture plays a small role and the fact that the island is mostly bog means that its potential for agriculture is limited largely to sheep farming. In the past, fishing was a significant activity but this aspect of the economy is small now. At one stage, the island was known for its shark fishing, basking shark in particular was fished for its valuable shark liver oil. There was a big spurt of growth in tourism in the 1960s and 1970s before which life was tough and difficult on the island. Despite healthy visitor numbers each year, the common perception is that tourism in Achill has been slowly declining since its heyday. Currently, the largest employers on Achill are two hotels. In late 2009 Ireland's only turbot farm opened in the Bunnacurry Business Park.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 29789, 42677, 18933019, 627, 915258, 36581, 43617, 898756, 1933729, 1093780, 26581759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 151 ], [ 386, 398 ], [ 400, 407 ], [ 465, 476 ], [ 602, 615 ], [ 630, 637 ], [ 753, 758 ], [ 768, 781 ], [ 824, 839 ], [ 1186, 1192 ], [ 1212, 1222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most people on Achill are either Roman Catholic or Anglican (Church of Ireland).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 168130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 47 ], [ 61, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Overview of the churches", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 6325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Catholic:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bunnacurry Church (Saint Josephs)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 26581759, 19085400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 19, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Valley Church; Only open for certain events.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 26577115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dookinella Church", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Currane Church", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 23457699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pollagh Church", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 26594542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Derreens Church", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dooega Church", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 26594672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Belfarsed Church", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Achill Sound Church", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 1918855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Church of Ireland:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dugort Church (St. Thomas's church)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 56119065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Innisbiggle Island church", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 2273683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Other:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " House of Prayer, Achill", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Religion", "target_page_ids": [ 24946829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For almost two centuries, many artists have had a close relationship with Achill Island, including the prominent landscape painter Paul Henry. Within the emerging Irish Free State, Paul Henry's landscapes from Achill and other areas reinforced a vision of Ireland of communities living in harmony with the land. He lived in Achill for almost a decade with his wife, artist Grace Henry and, while using similar subject-matter, the pair developed very different styles.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Artists in Achill", "target_page_ids": [ 1241307, 47154128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 141 ], [ 373, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This relationship of artists with Achill was particularly intense in the early decades of the twentieth century when the figure of Eva O'Flaherty (1874-1963) became a focal point for artistic networking on the island. A network of over 200 artists linked to Achill is charted in Achill Painters - An Island History and includes painters such as the Belgian Marie Howet, the American Robert Henri, the leading modernist painter Mainie Jellett and contemporary artist Camille Souter.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Artists in Achill", "target_page_ids": [ 58100046, 9856385, 1000193, 1372568, 199609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 145 ], [ 357, 368 ], [ 383, 395 ], [ 427, 441 ], [ 466, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2018 Coming Home Art & The Great Hunger exhibition, in partnership with The Great Hunger Museum of Quinnipiac University, USA, featured Achill's Deserted Village and the island lazy beds prominently in works by Geraldine O'Reilly and Alanna O'Kelly; also included was an 1873 painting, 'Cottage, Achill Island' by Alexander Williams - one of the first artists to open up the island to a wider audience.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Artists in Achill", "target_page_ids": [ 69591593, 30707296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 215, 233 ], [ 318, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hedge schools existed in most villages of Achill in various periods of history. A university was started by the missions to Achill in Mweelin. In the modern age, there used to be two secondary schools in Achill, Mc Hale College and Scoil Damhnait. However, in August 2011, the two schools amalgamated to form Coláiste Pobail Acla. For primary education, there are eight National Schools including Bullsmouth NS, Valley NS, Bunnacurry NS, Dookinella NS, Dooagh NS, Saula NS, Achill Sound NS and Tonragee NS. National schools closed down include Dooega NS, Crumpaun NS, Ashleam NS and Currane NS.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 554992, 44652325, 44652325, 44652325, 552759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 199 ], [ 212, 227 ], [ 232, 246 ], [ 309, 329 ], [ 370, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Achill railway station was opened by the Midland Great Western Railway on 13 May 1895, the terminus of its line from Westport via Newport and Mulranny. The station, and the line, were closed by the Great Southern Railways on 1 October 1937. The Great Western Greenway, created during 2010 and 2011, follows the line's route and has proved to be very successful in attracting visitors to Achill and the surrounding areas.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 17920291, 2999381, 596580, 996619, 3829480, 1246882, 29512412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 41, 70 ], [ 117, 125 ], [ 130, 137 ], [ 142, 150 ], [ 198, 221 ], [ 245, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bus Éireann's route 450 operates several times daily to Westport and Louisburgh from the island's scattered villages. Bus Éireann also provides transport for the area's secondary school children.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 497860, 1474921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 69, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are many taxicab and hackney carriage services on the island.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 22026933, 391934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 22 ], [ 27, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Achill Island has many bars, cafes and restaurants which serve a full range of food. However, the island's Atlantic location seafood such as lobster, mussels, salmon, trout and winkles, are common meals. With a large sheep and cow populations, lamb and beef are popular on the island too.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Cuisine", "target_page_ids": [ 698, 662851, 144156, 36984, 47326, 2302383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 115 ], [ 142, 149 ], [ 151, 157 ], [ 160, 166 ], [ 168, 173 ], [ 178, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Achill has a Gaelic football club which competes in the junior championship and division 1E of the Mayo League. There are also Achill Rovers which play in the Mayo Association Football League.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 37688, 47029805, 20443131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ], [ 127, 140 ], [ 159, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a 9-hole links golf course on the island. Outdoor activities can be done through Achill Outdoor Education Centre. Achill Island's rugged landscape and the surrounding ocean offers multiple locations for outdoor adventure activities, like surfing, kite-surfing and sea kayaking. Fishing and watersports are also popular. Sailing regattas featuring a local vessel type, the Achill Yawl, have been popular since the 19th century, though most present-day yawls, unlike their traditional working boat ancestors, have been structurally modified to promote greater speed under sail. The island's waters and underwater sites are occasionally visited by scuba divers, though Achill's unpredictable weather generally has precluded a commercially successful recreational diving industry.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 1568469, 36581, 368262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 23 ], [ 287, 294 ], [ 299, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, the population was 2,594, with 5.2% claiming they spoke the Irish on a daily basis outside the education system. The island's population has declined from around 6,000 before the Great Hunger.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 14726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The table below reports data on Achill Island's population taken from Discover the Islands of Ireland (Alex Ritsema, Collins Press, 1999) and the census of Ireland. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 6889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of the inhospitable climate, few inhabited houses date from before the 20th century, though there are many examples of abandoned stone structures dating to the 19th century.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The best known of these earlier can be seen in the \"Deserted Village\" ruins near the graveyard at the foot of Slievemore. Even the houses in this village represent a relatively comfortable class of dwelling as, even as recently as a hundred years ago, some people still used \"Beehive\" style houses (small circular single-roomed dwellings with a hole in the ceiling to let out smoke).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many of the oldest inhabited cottages date from the activities of the Congested Districts Board for Ireland—a body set up around the turn of the 20th century in Ireland to improve the welfare of the inhabitants of small villages and towns. Most of the homes in Achill at the time were very small and tightly packed together in villages. The CDB subsidised the building of new, more spacious (though still small by modern standards) homes outside of the traditional villages.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 954882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some of the recent building development (1980 and onwards) on the island does fit as nicely in the landscape as the earlier style of whitewashed raised gable cottages. Many holiday homes have been built but many of these houses have been built in prominent scenic areas and have damaged traditional views of the island while lying empty for most of the year.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 464274, 908397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 142 ], [ 158, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Heinrich Böll, German writer who spent several summers with his family and later lived several months per year on the island", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 82384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charles Boycott (1832–1897), unpopular landowner from whom the term boycott arose", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1250193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nancy Corrigan, pioneer aviator, second female commercial pilot in the US.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 51509789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dermot Freyer (1883–1970), writer who opened a hotel on the island", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 60509856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The artist Paul Henry stayed on the island for a number of years in the early 1900s", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 1241307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Singer James Kilbane lives on the island", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 13408777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Johnny Kilbane, boxer", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 4766257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saoirse McHugh, former Green Party politician", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 71153723, 15081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 24, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Danny McNamara, musician", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 4434049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Richard McNamara, musician", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 4434597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eva O’Flaherty, Nationalist, model and milliner", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 58100046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thomas Patten, from Dooega. Died during the Siege of Madrid in December 1936", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 25845724, 5721983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 45, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Honor Tracy, author, lived there until her death in 1989", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 6299129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heinrich Böll: Irisches Tagebuch, Berlin, 1957", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 82384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bob Kingston The Deserted Village at Slievemore, Castlebar, 1990", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Theresa McDonald: Achill: 5000 B.C. to 1900 A.D.: Archeology History Folklore, I.A.S. Publications [1992]", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rosa Meehan: The Story of Mayo, Castlebar, 2003", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "James Carney: The Playboy & the Yellow lady, 1986 Poolbeg", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 21440696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hugo Hamilton: The Island of Talking, 2007", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 4476943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kevin Barry: Beatlebone, 2015", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 20365227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mealla Nī Ghiobúin: Dugort, Achill Island 1831–1861: The Rise and Fall of a Missionary Community, 2001", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Patricia Byrne: The Veiled Woman of Achill – Island Outrage & A Playboy Drama, 2012", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mary J. Murphy: Achill's Eva O'Flaherty – Forgotten Island Heroine, 2011", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Patricia Byrne: The Preacher and The Prelate – The Achill Mission Colony and The Battle for Souls in Famine Ireland, 2018", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mary J. Murphy, Achill Painters -An Island History, 2020", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Achill Island is the primary setting of the 2020 visual novel If Found...", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "In Popular Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 65919499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Achillbeg", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1960360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Innisbiggle", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2273683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of islands of County Mayo", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 63914858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Colaiste Pobail Acla students project on the Achill area", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Achill Island Maritime Archaeology Project", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " VisitAchill multilingual visitor's site", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Achill_Island", "Islands_of_County_Mayo", "Gaeltacht_places_in_County_Mayo" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Irwin Allen Ginsberg (; June 3, 1926– April 5, 1997) was an American poet and writer. As a student at Columbia University in the 1940s, he began friendships with William S. Burroughs and Jack Kerouac, forming the core of the Beat Generation. He vigorously opposed militarism, economic materialism, and sexual repression, and he embodied various aspects of this counterculture with his views on drugs, sex, multiculturalism, hostility to bureaucracy, and openness to Eastern religions.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6310, 33594, 15890, 157208, 199160, 565743, 15404618, 144633, 20949522, 2062976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 121 ], [ 162, 182 ], [ 187, 199 ], [ 225, 240 ], [ 264, 274 ], [ 276, 296 ], [ 302, 319 ], [ 361, 375 ], [ 437, 448 ], [ 466, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg is best known for his poem \"Howl\", in which he denounced what he saw as the destructive forces of capitalism and conformity in the United States. San Francisco police and US Customs seized \"Howl\" in 1956, and it attracted widespread publicity in 1957 when it became the subject of an obscenity trial, as it described heterosexual and homosexual sex at a time when sodomy laws made (male) homosexual acts a crime in every state. The poem reflected Ginsberg's own sexuality and his relationships with a number of men, including Peter Orlovsky, his lifelong partner. Judge Clayton W. Horn ruled that \"Howl\" was not obscene, stating: \"Would there be any freedom of press or speech if one must reduce his vocabulary to vapid innocuous euphemisms?\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 158051, 5416, 20757984, 372972, 1919143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 41 ], [ 107, 117 ], [ 122, 132 ], [ 373, 384 ], [ 535, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg was a Buddhist who extensively studied Eastern religious disciplines. He lived modestly, buying his clothing in second-hand stores and residing in apartments in New York City's East Village. One of his most influential teachers was Tibetan Buddhist Chögyam Trungpa, the founder of the Naropa Institute in Boulder, Colorado. At Trungpa's urging, Ginsberg and poet Anne Waldman started The Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics there in 1974.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3267529, 2062976, 286636, 203792, 721046, 94341, 395943, 5808844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 23 ], [ 48, 77 ], [ 186, 198 ], [ 258, 273 ], [ 294, 310 ], [ 314, 331 ], [ 372, 384 ], [ 393, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg took part in decades of political protest against everything from the Vietnam War to the War on Drugs. His poem \"September on Jessore Road\" called attention to the plight of Bengali refugees which was caused by the 1971 Genocide and it exemplifies what literary critic Helen Vendler described as Ginsberg's persistence in protesting against \"imperial politics\" and \"persecution of the powerless\". His collection The Fall of America shared the annual National Book Award for Poetry in 1974. In 1979, he received the National Arts Club gold medal and was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters. He was a Pulitzer Prize finalist in 1995 for his book Cosmopolitan Greetings: Poems 1986–1992.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32611, 1181646, 54984388, 4198908, 45547, 3347996, 2551967, 7832863, 7179363, 881480, 24230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 90 ], [ 98, 110 ], [ 122, 147 ], [ 183, 190 ], [ 191, 199 ], [ 224, 237 ], [ 278, 291 ], [ 459, 489 ], [ 524, 542 ], [ 580, 616 ], [ 627, 641 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg was born into a Jewish family in Newark, New Jersey, and grew up in nearby Paterson. He was the second son of Louis Ginsberg, also born in Newark, a schoolteacher and sometime poet, and the former Naomi Levy, born in Nevel (Russia) and a fervent Marxist.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 67234, 125665, 51439039, 5340603, 1904053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 60 ], [ 84, 92 ], [ 119, 133 ], [ 226, 231 ], [ 255, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a teenager, Ginsberg began to write letters to The New York Times about political issues, such as World War II and workers' rights. He published his first poems in the Paterson Morning Call. While in high school, Ginsberg became interested in the works of Walt Whitman, inspired by his teacher's passionate reading. In 1943, Ginsberg graduated from Eastside High School and briefly attended Montclair State College before entering Columbia University on a scholarship from the Young Men's Hebrew Association of Paterson.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 30680, 32927, 1125669, 33870, 5863313, 295218, 6310, 243642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 68 ], [ 101, 113 ], [ 118, 133 ], [ 259, 271 ], [ 352, 372 ], [ 394, 417 ], [ 434, 453 ], [ 480, 510 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1945, he joined the Merchant Marine to earn money to continue his education at Columbia. While at Columbia, Ginsberg contributed to the Columbia Review literary journal, the Jester humor magazine, won the Woodberry Poetry Prize, served as president of the Philolexian Society (literary and debate group), and joined Boar's Head Society (poetry society).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 10408269, 7180566, 1860537, 49652967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 38 ], [ 177, 183 ], [ 259, 278 ], [ 319, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was a resident of Hartley Hall, where other Beat Generation poets such as Jack Kerouac and Herbert Gold also lived. Ginsberg has stated that he considered his required freshman seminar in Great Books, taught by Lionel Trilling, to be his favorite Columbia course.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 7144445, 15890, 2982291, 432346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 33 ], [ 77, 89 ], [ 94, 106 ], [ 214, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to The Poetry Foundation, Ginsberg spent several months in a mental institution after he pleaded insanity during a hearing. He was allegedly being prosecuted for harboring stolen goods in his dorm room. It was noted that the stolen property was not his, but belonged to an acquaintance. Ginsberg also took part in public readings at the Episcopal St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery which would later hold a memorial service for him after his death.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 5123720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 357, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg referred to his parents in a 1985 interview as \"old-fashioned delicatessen philosophers\". His mother was also an active member of the Communist Party and took Ginsberg and his brother Eugene to party meetings. Ginsberg later said that his mother \"made up bedtime stories that all went something like: 'The good king rode forth from his castle, saw the suffering workers and healed them.'\" Of his father Ginsberg said: \"My father would go around the house either reciting Emily Dickinson and Longfellow under his breath or attacking T. S. Eliot for ruining poetry with his 'obscurantism.' I grew suspicious of both sides.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 452981, 159275, 66240, 30273, 851927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 158 ], [ 480, 495 ], [ 500, 510 ], [ 541, 552 ], [ 582, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Naomi Ginsberg had schizophrenia which often manifested as paranoid delusions, disordered thinking and multiple suicide tentatives. She would claim, for example, that the president had implanted listening devices in their home and that her mother-in-law was trying to kill her. Her suspicion of those around her caused Naomi to draw closer to young Allen, \"her little pet\", as Bill Morgan says in his biography of Ginsberg, titled I Celebrate Myself: The Somewhat Private Life of Allen Ginsberg. She also tried to kill herself by slitting her wrists and was soon taken to Greystone, a mental hospital; she would spend much of Ginsberg's youth in mental hospitals. His experiences with his mother and her mental illness were a major inspiration for his two major works, \"Howl\" and his long autobiographical poem \"Kaddish for Naomi Ginsberg (1894–1956)\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 27790, 24515, 125296, 273776, 16831059, 3963096, 158051, 722379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 32 ], [ 59, 67 ], [ 68, 77 ], [ 79, 98 ], [ 112, 130 ], [ 572, 581 ], [ 770, 774 ], [ 812, 850 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When he was in junior high school, he accompanied his mother by bus to her therapist. The trip deeply disturbed Ginsberg—he mentioned it and other moments from his childhood in \"Kaddish\". His experiences with his mother's mental illness and her institutionalization are also frequently referred to in \"Howl\". For example, \"Pilgrim State, Rockland, and Grey Stone's foetid halls\" is a reference to institutions frequented by his mother and Carl Solomon, ostensibly the subject of the poem: Pilgrim State Hospital and Rockland State Hospital in New York and Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospital in New Jersey. This is followed soon by the line \"with mother finally ******.\" Ginsberg later admitted the deletion was the expletive \"fucked.\" He also says of Solomon in section three, \"I'm with you in Rockland where you imitate the shade of my mother,\" once again showing the association between Solomon and his mother.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 680626, 48437843, 3963096, 21648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 439, 451 ], [ 516, 539 ], [ 556, 591 ], [ 595, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg received a letter from his mother after her death responding to a copy of \"Howl\" he had sent her. It admonished Ginsberg to be good and stay away from drugs; she says, \"The key is in the window, the key is in the sunlight at the window—I have the key—Get married Allen don't take drugs—the key is in the bars, in the sunlight in the window\". In a letter she wrote to Ginsberg's brother Eugene, she said, \"God's informers come to my bed, and God himself I saw in the sky. The sunshine showed too, a key on the side of the window for me to get out. The yellow of the sunshine, also showed the key on the side of the window.\" These letters and the absence of a facility to recite kaddish inspired Ginsberg to write \"Kaddish\", which makes references to many details from Naomi's life, Ginsberg's experiences with her, and the letter, including the lines \"the key is in the light\" and \"the key is in the window\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 16776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 686, 693 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Ginsberg's first year at Columbia he met fellow undergraduate Lucien Carr, who introduced him to a number of future Beat writers, including Jack Kerouac, William S. Burroughs, and John Clellon Holmes. They bonded, because they saw in one another an excitement about the potential of American youth, a potential that existed outside the strict conformist confines of post–World War II, McCarthy-era America. Ginsberg and Carr talked excitedly about a \"New Vision\" (a phrase adapted from Yeats' \"A Vision\"), for literature and America. Carr also introduced Ginsberg to Neal Cassady, for whom Ginsberg had a long infatuation. In the first chapter of his 1957 novel On the Road Kerouac described the meeting between Ginsberg and Cassady. Kerouac saw them as the dark (Ginsberg) and light (Cassady) side of their \"New Vision\", a perception stemming partly from Ginsberg's association with communism, of which Kerouac had become increasingly distrustful. Though Ginsberg was never a member of the Communist Party, Kerouac named him \"Carlo Marx\" in On the Road. This was a source of strain in their relationship.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1708462, 15890, 33594, 1600699, 43805, 195585, 340909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 76 ], [ 143, 155 ], [ 157, 177 ], [ 183, 202 ], [ 388, 396 ], [ 570, 582 ], [ 665, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also, in New York, Ginsberg met Gregory Corso in the Pony Stable Bar. Corso, recently released from prison, was supported by the Pony Stable patrons and was writing poetry there the night of their meeting. Ginsberg claims he was immediately attracted to Corso, who was straight, but understood of homosexuality after three years in prison. Ginsberg was even more struck by reading Corso's poems, realizing Corso was \"spiritually gifted.\" Ginsberg introduced Corso to the rest of his inner circle. In their first meeting at the Pony Stable, Corso showed Ginsberg a poem about a woman who lived across the street from him and sunbathed naked in the window. Amazingly, the woman happened to be Ginsberg's girlfriend that he was living with during one of his forays into heterosexuality. Ginsberg took Corso over to their apartment. There the woman proposed sex with Corso, who was still very young and fled in fear. Ginsberg introduced Corso to Kerouac and Burroughs and they began to travel together. Ginsberg and Corso remained lifelong friends and collaborators.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 227290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly after this period in Ginsberg's life, he became romantically involved with Elise Nada Cowen after meeting her through Alex Greer, a philosophy professor at Barnard College whom she had dated for a while during the burgeoning Beat generation's period of development. As a Barnard student, Elise Cowen extensively read the poetry of Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot, when she met Joyce Johnson and Leo Skir, among other Beat players. As Cowen had felt a strong attraction to darker poetry most of the time, Beat poetry seemed to provide an allure to what suggests a shadowy side of her persona. While at Barnard, Cowen earned the nickname \"Beat Alice\" as she had joined a small group of anti-establishment artists and visionaries known to outsiders as beatniks, and one of her first acquaintances at the college was the beat poet Joyce Johnson who later portrayed Cowen in her books, including \"Minor Characters\" and Come and Join the Dance, which expressed the two women's experiences in the Barnard and Columbia Beat community. Through his association with Elise Cowen, Ginsberg discovered that they shared a mutual friend, Carl Solomon, to whom he later dedicated his most famous poem \"Howl\". This poem is considered an autobiography of Ginsberg up to 1955, and a brief history of the Beat Generation through its references to his relationship to other Beat artists of that time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 4955719, 4237, 44203, 30273, 1803346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 99 ], [ 164, 179 ], [ 339, 349 ], [ 354, 365 ], [ 380, 393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1948, in an apartment in Harlem, Ginsberg had an auditory hallucination while reading the poetry of William Blake (later referred to as his \"Blake vision\"). At first, Ginsberg claimed to have heard the voice of God but later interpreted the voice as that of Blake himself reading Ah! Sun-flower, The Sick Rose, and The Little Girl Lost, also described by Ginsberg as \"voice of the ancient of days.\" The experience lasted several days. Ginsberg believed that he had witnessed the interconnectedness of the universe. He looked at latticework on the fire escape and realized some hand had crafted that; he then looked at the sky and intuited that some hand had crafted that also, or rather, that the sky was the hand that crafted itself. He explained that this hallucination was not inspired by drug use but said he sought to recapture that feeling later with various drugs. Ginsberg stated: \"[...] not that some hand had placed the sky but that the sky was the living blue hand itself. Or that God was in front of my eyes—existence itself was God\", and \"[...] it was a sudden awakening into a totally deeper real universe than I'd been existing in.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 54861, 33175, 9276386, 5627893, 9940940, 68669, 1638785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 34 ], [ 103, 116 ], [ 283, 297 ], [ 299, 312 ], [ 318, 338 ], [ 384, 399 ], [ 550, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg moved to San Francisco during the 1950s. Before Howl and Other Poems was published in 1956 by City Lights, he worked as a market researcher.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 10234166, 241911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 77 ], [ 103, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1954, in San Francisco, Ginsberg met Peter Orlovsky (1933–2010), with whom he fell in love and who remained his lifelong partner. Selections from their correspondence have been published.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1919143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in San Francisco, Ginsberg met members of the San Francisco Renaissance (James Broughton, Robert Duncan, Madeline Gleason and Kenneth Rexroth) and other poets who would later be associated with the Beat Generation in a broader sense. Ginsberg's mentor William Carlos Williams wrote an introductory letter to San Francisco Renaissance figurehead Kenneth Rexroth, who then introduced Ginsberg into the San Francisco poetry scene. There, Ginsberg also met three budding poets and Zen enthusiasts who had become friends at Reed College: Gary Snyder, Philip Whalen, and Lew Welch. In 1959, along with poets John Kelly, Bob Kaufman, A. D. Winans, and William Margolis, Ginsberg was one of the founders of the Beatitude poetry magazine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 424428, 50918, 359509, 30153241, 25417, 12710, 793900, 381799, 2662601, 13340937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 76 ], [ 257, 280 ], [ 350, 365 ], [ 482, 485 ], [ 524, 536 ], [ 538, 549 ], [ 551, 564 ], [ 570, 579 ], [ 619, 630 ], [ 632, 644 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wally Hedrick—a painter and co-founder of the Six Gallery—approached Ginsberg in mid-1955 and asked him to organize a poetry reading at the Six Gallery. At first, Ginsberg refused, but once he had written a rough draft of \"Howl\", he changed his \"fucking mind\", as he put it. Ginsberg advertised the event as \"Six Poets at the Six Gallery\". One of the most important events in Beat mythos, known simply as \"The Six Gallery reading\" took place on October 7, 1955. The event, in essence, brought together the East and West Coast factions of the Beat Generation. Of more personal significance to Ginsberg, the reading that night included the first public presentation of \"Howl\", a poem that brought worldwide fame to Ginsberg and to many of the poets associated with him. An account of that night can be found in Kerouac's novel The Dharma Bums, describing how change was collected from audience members to buy jugs of wine, and Ginsberg reading passionately, drunken, with arms outstretched.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 11578954, 2688777, 2688777, 2688777, 157208, 893325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 46, 57 ], [ 140, 151 ], [ 410, 429 ], [ 542, 557 ], [ 825, 840 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg's principal work, \"Howl\", is well known for its opening line: \"I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness, starving hysterical naked[...]\" \"Howl\" was considered scandalous at the time of its publication, because of the rawness of its language. Shortly after its 1956 publication by San Francisco's City Lights Bookstore, it was banned for obscenity. The ban became a cause célèbre among defenders of the First Amendment, and was later lifted, after Judge Clayton W. Horn declared the poem to possess redeeming artistic value. Ginsberg and Shig Murao, the City Lights manager who was jailed for selling \"Howl,\" became lifelong friends.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 241911, 31653, 33402636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 323, 344 ], [ 429, 444 ], [ 564, 574 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg claimed at one point that all of his work was an extended biography (like Kerouac's Duluoz Legend). \"Howl\" is not only a biography of Ginsberg's experiences before 1955, but also a history of the Beat Generation. Ginsberg also later claimed that at the core of \"Howl\" were his unresolved emotions about his schizophrenic mother. Though \"Kaddish\" deals more explicitly with his mother, \"Howl\" in many ways is driven by the same emotions. \"Howl\" chronicles the development of many important friendships throughout Ginsberg's life. He begins the poem with \"I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness\", which sets the stage for Ginsberg to describe Cassady and Solomon, immortalizing them into American literature. This madness was the \"angry fix\" that society needed to function—madness was its disease. In the poem, Ginsberg focused on \"Carl Solomon! I'm with you in Rockland\", and, thus, turned Solomon into an archetypal figure searching for freedom from his \"straightjacket\". Though references in most of his poetry reveal much about his biography, his relationship to other members of the Beat Generation, and his own political views, \"Howl\", his most famous poem, is still perhaps the best place to start.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 14639711, 722379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 106 ], [ 345, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1957, Ginsberg surprised the literary world by abandoning San Francisco. After a spell in Morocco, he and Peter Orlovsky joined Gregory Corso in Paris. Corso introduced them to a shabby lodging house above a bar at 9 rue Gît-le-Cœur that was to become known as the Beat Hotel. They were soon joined by Burroughs and others. It was a productive, creative time for all of them. There, Ginsberg began his epic poem \"Kaddish\", Corso composed Bomb and Marriage, and Burroughs (with help from Ginsberg and Corso) put together Naked Lunch from previous writings. This period was documented by the photographer Harold Chapman, who moved in at about the same time, and took pictures constantly of the residents of the \"hotel\" until it closed in 1963. During 1962–1963, Ginsberg and Orlovsky travelled extensively across India, living half a year at a time in Calcutta (now Kolkata) and Benares (Varanasi). On his road to India he stayed two months in Athens ( 29/08/1961 - 31/10/1961) where he visited various cites such as Delphi, Mycines, Crete, and then he coninued his journey to Israel, Kenya and finally India. Also during this time, he formed friendships with some of the prominent young Bengali poets of the time including Shakti Chattopadhyay and Sunil Gangopadhyay. Ginsberg had several political connections in India; most notably Pupul Jayakar who helped him extend his stay in India when the authorities were eager to expel him.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 19291, 68534214, 1150317, 265114, 11676938, 47905, 7951, 1246314, 6591, 4198908, 2174850, 539171, 11651909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 100 ], [ 220, 235 ], [ 268, 278 ], [ 523, 534 ], [ 606, 620 ], [ 853, 861 ], [ 1018, 1024 ], [ 1026, 1033 ], [ 1035, 1040 ], [ 1189, 1196 ], [ 1225, 1245 ], [ 1250, 1268 ], [ 1336, 1349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1965, Ginsberg arrived in London, and offered to read anywhere for free. Shortly after his arrival, he gave a reading at Better Books, which was described by Jeff Nuttall as \"the first healing wind on a very parched collective mind\". Tom McGrath wrote: \"This could well turn out to have been a very significant moment in the history of England—or at least in the history of English Poetry\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 23045986, 423551, 5867032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 140 ], [ 165, 177 ], [ 241, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soon after the bookshop reading, plans were hatched for the International Poetry Incarnation, which was held at the Royal Albert Hall in London on June 11, 1965. The event attracted an audience of 7,000, who heard readings and live and tape performances by a wide variety of figures, including Ginsberg, Adrian Mitchell, Alexander Trocchi, Harry Fainlight, Anselm Hollo, Christopher Logue, George MacBeth, Gregory Corso, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Michael Horovitz, Simon Vinkenoog, Spike Hawkins and Tom McGrath. The event was organized by Ginsberg's friend, the filmmaker Barbara Rubin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 8661429, 179238, 1176331, 51945, 19429808, 1491308, 437623, 2936910, 221280, 8280092, 3335670, 4204268, 5867032, 43772291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 92 ], [ 116, 133 ], [ 304, 319 ], [ 321, 338 ], [ 340, 355 ], [ 357, 369 ], [ 371, 388 ], [ 390, 404 ], [ 421, 442 ], [ 444, 460 ], [ 462, 477 ], [ 479, 492 ], [ 497, 508 ], [ 570, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peter Whitehead documented the event on film and released it as Wholly Communion. A book featuring images from the film and some of the poems that were performed was also published under the same title by Lorrimer in the UK and Grove Press in US.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 6120527, 6135133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 64, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though the term \"Beat\" is most accurately applied to Ginsberg and his closest friends (Corso, Orlovsky, Kerouac, Burroughs, etc.), the term \"Beat Generation\" has become associated with many of the other poets Ginsberg met and became friends with in the late 1950s and early 1960s. A key feature of this term seems to be a friendship with Ginsberg. Friendship with Kerouac or Burroughs might also apply, but both writers later strove to disassociate themselves from the name \"Beat Generation.\" Part of their dissatisfaction with the term came from the mistaken identification of Ginsberg as the leader. Ginsberg never claimed to be the leader of a movement. He claimed that many of the writers with whom he had become friends in this period shared many of the same intentions and themes. Some of these friends include: David Amram, Bob Kaufman; Diane di Prima; Jim Cohn; poets associated with the Black Mountain College such as Charles Olson, Robert Creeley, and Denise Levertov; poets associated with the New York School such as Frank O'Hara and Kenneth Koch. LeRoi Jones before he became Amiri Baraka, who, after reading \"Howl\", wrote a letter to Ginsberg on a sheet of toilet paper. Baraka's independent publishing house Totem Press published Ginsberg's early work. Through a party organized by Baraka, Ginsberg was introduced to Langston Hughes while Ornette Coleman played saxophone.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 157208, 1392307, 2662601, 404230, 21453876, 335025, 378767, 236281, 506924, 598652, 530095, 596748, 8568334, 21814770, 153079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 475, 490 ], [ 818, 829 ], [ 831, 842 ], [ 844, 858 ], [ 860, 868 ], [ 896, 918 ], [ 927, 940 ], [ 942, 956 ], [ 962, 977 ], [ 1005, 1020 ], [ 1029, 1041 ], [ 1046, 1058 ], [ 1089, 1101 ], [ 1332, 1347 ], [ 1354, 1369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later in his life, Ginsberg formed a bridge between the beat movement of the 1950s and the hippies of the 1960s, befriending, among others, Timothy Leary, Ken Kesey, Hunter S. Thompson, and Bob Dylan. Ginsberg gave his last public reading at Booksmith, a bookstore in the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco, a few months before his death. In 1993, Ginsberg visited the University of Maine at Orono to pay homage to the 90-year-old great Carl Rakosi.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 157208, 47646, 31088, 17257, 14328, 4637590, 13496962, 401349, 370467, 372221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 69 ], [ 91, 97 ], [ 140, 153 ], [ 155, 164 ], [ 166, 184 ], [ 190, 199 ], [ 242, 251 ], [ 272, 286 ], [ 379, 407 ], [ 447, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1950, Kerouac began studying Buddhism and shared what he learned from Dwight Goddard's Buddhist Bible with Ginsberg. Ginsberg first heard about the Four Noble Truths and such sutras as the Diamond Sutra at this time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 36286758, 11393, 329803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 89 ], [ 151, 168 ], [ 192, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg's spiritual journey began early on with his spontaneous visions, and continued with an early trip to India with Gary Snyder. Snyder had previously spent time in Kyoto to study at the First Zen Institute at Daitoku-ji Monastery. At one point, Snyder chanted the Prajnaparamita, which in Ginsberg's words \"blew my mind.\" His interest piqued, Ginsberg traveled to meet the Dalai Lama as well as the Karmapa at Rumtek Monastery. Continuing on his journey, Ginsberg met Dudjom Rinpoche in Kalimpong, who taught him: \"If you see something horrible, don't cling to it, and if you see something beautiful, don't cling to it.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 12710, 37652, 1089094, 145993, 20238168, 60195, 3500705, 394056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 132 ], [ 170, 175 ], [ 215, 225 ], [ 270, 284 ], [ 375, 389 ], [ 405, 412 ], [ 474, 489 ], [ 493, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After returning to the United States, a chance encounter on a New York City street with Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche (they both tried to catch the same cab), a Kagyu and Nyingma Tibetan Buddhist master, led to Trungpa becoming his friend and lifelong teacher. Ginsberg helped Trungpa and New York poet Anne Waldman in founding the Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics at Naropa University in Boulder, Colorado.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 203792, 1558883, 197699, 1482808, 30988, 395943, 721046, 94341 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 103 ], [ 104, 112 ], [ 156, 161 ], [ 166, 173 ], [ 174, 190 ], [ 298, 310 ], [ 373, 390 ], [ 394, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg was also involved with Krishnaism. He had started incorporating chanting the Hare Krishna mantra into his religious practice in the mid-1960s. After learning that A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, the founder of the Hare Krishna movement in the Western world had rented a store front in New York, he befriended him, visiting him often and suggesting publishers for his books, and a fruitful relationship began. This relationship is documented by Satsvarupa dasa Goswami in his biographical account Srila Prabhupada Lilamrta. Ginsberg donated money, materials, and his reputation to help the Swami establish the first temple, and toured with him to promote his cause.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 7866009, 191846, 45667, 174201, 2012172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 42 ], [ 86, 105 ], [ 172, 208 ], [ 229, 241 ], [ 459, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite disagreeing with many of Bhaktivedanta Swami's required prohibitions, Ginsberg often sang the Hare Krishna mantra publicly as part of his philosophy and declared that it brought a state of ecstasy. He was glad that Bhaktivedanta Swami, an authentic swami from India, was now trying to spread the chanting in America. Along with other counterculture ideologists like Timothy Leary, Gary Snyder, and Alan Watts, Ginsberg hoped to incorporate Bhaktivedanta Swami and his chanting into the hippie movement, and agreed to take part in the Mantra-Rock Dance concert and to introduce the swami to the Haight-Ashbury hippie community.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 174201, 67852993, 8544676, 12710, 202475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 76 ], [ 257, 262 ], [ 342, 356 ], [ 389, 400 ], [ 406, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On January 17, 1967, Ginsberg helped plan and organize a reception for Bhaktivedanta Swami at San Francisco International Airport, where fifty to a hundred hippies greeted the Swami, chanting Hare Krishna in the airport lounge with flowers in hands. To further support and promote Bhaktivendata Swami's message and chanting in San Francisco, Allen Ginsberg agreed to attend the Mantra-Rock Dance, a musical event 1967 held at the Avalon Ballroom by the San Francisco Hare Krishna temple. It featured some leading rock bands of the time: Big Brother and the Holding Company with Janis Joplin, the Grateful Dead, and Moby Grape, who performed there along with the Hare Krishna founder Bhaktivedanta Swami and donated proceeds to the Krishna temple. Ginsberg introduced Bhaktivedanta Swami to some three thousand hippies in the audience and led the chanting of the Hare Krishna mantra.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 250462, 30291715, 6001731, 174201, 610704, 16245, 12542, 168245, 45667, 191846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 129 ], [ 378, 395 ], [ 430, 445 ], [ 467, 479 ], [ 537, 572 ], [ 578, 590 ], [ 596, 609 ], [ 615, 625 ], [ 683, 702 ], [ 862, 881 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Music and chanting were both important parts of Ginsberg's live delivery during poetry readings. He often accompanied himself on a harmonium, and was often accompanied by a guitarist. It is believed that the Hindi and Buddhist poet Nagarjun had introduced Ginsberg to the harmonium in Banaras. According to Malay Roy Choudhury, Ginsberg refined his practice while learning from his relatives, including his cousin Savitri Banerjee. When Ginsberg asked if he could sing a song in praise of Lord Krishna on William F. Buckley, Jr.'s TV show Firing Line on September 3, 1968, Buckley acceded and the poet chanted slowly as he played dolefully on a harmonium. According to Richard Brookhiser, an associate of Buckley's, the host commented that it was \"the most unharried Krishna I've ever heard.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1848717, 1015524, 2808597, 42154, 300279, 819359, 6341870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 140 ], [ 232, 240 ], [ 307, 326 ], [ 494, 501 ], [ 505, 528 ], [ 539, 550 ], [ 669, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 1967 Human Be-In in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park, the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, and the 1970 Black Panther rally at Yale campus Allen chanted \"Om\" repeatedly over a sound system for hours on end.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 356950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg further brought mantras into the world of rock and roll when he recited the Heart Sutra in the song \"Ghetto Defendant\". The song appears on the 1982 album Combat Rock by British first wave punk band The Clash.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 460528, 841364, 841364, 30423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 96 ], [ 110, 126 ], [ 164, 175 ], [ 208, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg came in touch with the Hungryalist poets of Bengal, especially Malay Roy Choudhury, who introduced Ginsberg to the three fish with one head of Indian emperor Jalaluddin Mohammad Akbar. The three fish symbolised coexistence of all thought, philosophy and religion.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 2188119, 4862, 18945005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 43 ], [ 53, 59 ], [ 167, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In spite of Ginsberg's attraction to Eastern religions, the journalist Jane Kramer argues that he, like Whitman, adhered to an \"American brand of mysticism\" that was \"rooted in humanism and in a romantic and visionary ideal of harmony among men.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1540787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1960, he was treated for a tropical disease, and it is speculated that he contracted hepatitis from an unsterilized needle administered by a doctor, which played a role in his death 37 years later.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 889672, 38238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 46 ], [ 88, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg was a lifelong smoker, and though he tried to quit for health and religious reasons, his busy schedule in later life made it difficult, and he always returned to smoking.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1970s, Ginsberg had two minor strokes which were first diagnosed as Bell's palsy, which gave him significant paralysis and stroke-like drooping of the muscles in one side of his face.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 52957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later in life, he also had constant minor ailments such as high blood pressure. Many of these symptoms were related to stress, but he never slowed down his schedule.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 77432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg won a 1974 National Book Award for The Fall of America (split with Adrienne Rich, Diving into the Wreck).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 63097, 48171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 39 ], [ 76, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1986, Ginsberg was awarded the Golden Wreath by the Struga Poetry Evenings International Festival in Macedonia, the second American poet to be so awarded since W. H. Auden. At Struga, Ginsberg met with the other Golden Wreath winners, Bulat Okudzhava and Andrei Voznesensky.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 14077302, 33276, 604717, 2008097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 77 ], [ 163, 174 ], [ 238, 253 ], [ 258, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1989, Ginsberg appeared in Rosa von Praunheim's award-winning film Silence = Death about the fight of gay artists in New York City for AIDS-education and the rights of HIV infected people.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 5384578, 35811707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 48 ], [ 70, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1993, the French Minister of Culture appointed Ginsberg a Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1051522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg continued to help his friends as much as he could: he gave money to Herbert Huncke out of his own pocket, regularly supplied neighbor Arthur Russell with an extension cord to power his home recording setup, and housed a broke, drug-addicted Harry Smith.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1193663, 602666, 1453044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 91 ], [ 143, 157 ], [ 250, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the exception of a special guest appearance at the NYU Poetry Slam on February 20, 1997, Ginsberg gave what is thought to be his last reading at The Booksmith in San Francisco on December 16, 1996.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 7954455, 13496962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 59 ], [ 154, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After returning home from the hospital for the last time, where he had been unsuccessfully treated for congestive heart failure, Ginsberg continued making phone calls to say goodbye to nearly everyone in his address book. Some of the phone calls, were sad and interrupted by crying, and others were joyous and optimistic. Ginsberg continued to write through his final illness, with his last poem, \"Things I'll Not Do (Nostalgias)\", written on March 30.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 249930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He died on April 5, 1997, surrounded by family and friends in his East Village loft in Manhattan, succumbing to liver cancer via complications of hepatitis at the age of 70. Gregory Corso, Roy Lichtenstein, Patti Smith and others came by to pay their respects. He was cremated, and his ashes were buried in his family plot in Gomel Chesed Cemetery in Newark. He was survived by Orlovsky.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 286636, 12284396, 38238, 227290, 60143, 22995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 78 ], [ 112, 124 ], [ 146, 155 ], [ 174, 187 ], [ 189, 205 ], [ 207, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1998, various writers, including Catfish McDaris read at a gathering at Ginsberg's farm to honor Allen and the Beats.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 44048753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Good Will Hunting (released in December 1997) was dedicated to Ginsberg, as well as Burroughs, who died four months later.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 142456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg's willingness to talk about taboo subjects made him a controversial figure during the conservative 1950s, and a significant figure in the 1960s. In the mid-1950s, no reputable publishing company would even consider publishing Howl. At the time, such \"sex talk\" employed in Howl was considered by some to be vulgar or even a form of pornography, and could be prosecuted under law. Ginsberg used phrases such as \"cocksucker\", \"fucked in the ass\", and \"cunt\" as part of the poem's depiction of different aspects of American culture. Numerous books that discussed sex were banned at the time, including Lady Chatterley's Lover. The sex that Ginsberg described did not portray the sex between heterosexual married couples, or even longtime lovers. Instead, Ginsberg portrayed casual sex. For example, in Howl, Ginsberg praises the man \"who sweetened the snatches of a million girls\". Ginsberg used gritty descriptions and explicit sexual language, pointing out the man \"who lounged hungry and lonesome through Houston seeking jazz or sex or soup.\" In his poetry, Ginsberg also discussed the then-taboo topic of homosexuality. The explicit sexual language that filled Howl eventually led to an important trial on First Amendment issues. Ginsberg's publisher was brought up on charges for publishing pornography, and the outcome led to a judge going on record dismissing charges, because the poem carried \"redeeming social importance\", thus setting an important legal precedent. Ginsberg continued to broach controversial subjects throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. From 1970 to 1996, Ginsberg had a long-term affiliation with PEN American Center with efforts to defend free expression. When explaining how he approached controversial topics, he often pointed to Herbert Huncke: he said that when he first got to know Huncke in the 1940s, Ginsberg saw that he was sick from his heroin addiction, but at the time heroin was a taboo subject and Huncke was left with nowhere to go for help.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Social and political activism", "target_page_ids": [ 175656, 31653, 1750334, 1193663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 608, 631 ], [ 1216, 1231 ], [ 1634, 1653 ], [ 1770, 1784 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg was a signer of the anti-war manifesto \"A Call to Resist Illegitimate Authority\", circulated among draft resistors in 1967 by members of the radical intellectual collective RESIST. Other signers and RESIST members included Mitchell Goodman, Henry Braun, Denise Levertov, Noam Chomsky, William Sloane Coffin, Dwight Macdonald, Robert Lowell, and Norman Mailer. In 1968, Ginsberg signed the \"Writers and Editors War Tax Protest\" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War, and later became a sponsor of the War Tax Resistance project, which practiced and advocated tax resistance as a form of anti-war protest.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Social and political activism", "target_page_ids": [ 39766716, 42967597, 29995267, 48804263, 506924, 21566, 424217, 3319592, 341721, 189774, 4849012, 1670509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 37 ], [ 182, 188 ], [ 232, 248 ], [ 250, 261 ], [ 263, 278 ], [ 280, 292 ], [ 294, 315 ], [ 317, 333 ], [ 335, 348 ], [ 354, 367 ], [ 399, 434 ], [ 602, 616 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was present the night of the Tompkins Square Park riot (1988) and provided an eyewitness account to The New York Times.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Social and political activism", "target_page_ids": [ 6299115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg talked openly about his connections with communism and his admiration for past communist heroes and the labor movement at a time when the Red Scare and McCarthyism were still raging. He admired Fidel Castro and many other Marxist figures from the 20th century. In \"America\" (1956), Ginsberg writes: \"America, I used to be a communist when I was a kid I'm not sorry\". Biographer Jonah Raskin has claimed that, despite his often stark opposition to communist orthodoxy, Ginsberg held \"his own idiosyncratic version of communism\". On the other hand, when Donald Manes, a New York City politician, publicly accused Ginsberg of being a member of the Communist Party, Ginsberg objected: \"I am not, as a matter of fact, a member of the Communist party, nor am I dedicated to the overthrow of the U.S. government or any government by violence... I must say that I see little difference between the armed and violent governments both Communist and Capitalist that I have observed\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Social and political activism", "target_page_ids": [ 43805, 43805, 38301, 2111078, 2309323, 2517472, 452981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 156 ], [ 161, 172 ], [ 203, 215 ], [ 274, 281 ], [ 500, 513 ], [ 561, 573 ], [ 654, 669 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg travelled to several communist countries to promote free speech. He claimed that communist countries, such as China, welcomed him because they thought he was an enemy of capitalism, but often turned against him when they saw him as a troublemaker. For example, in 1965 Ginsberg was deported from Cuba for publicly protesting the persecution of homosexuals. The Cubans sent him to Czechoslovakia, where one week after being named the Král majálesu (\"King of May\", a students' festivity, celebrating spring and student life), Ginsberg was arrested for alleged drug use and public drunkenness, and the security agency StB confiscated several of his writings, which they considered to be lewd and morally dangerous. Ginsberg was then deported from Czechoslovakia on May 7, 1965, by order of the StB. Václav Havel points to Ginsberg as an important inspiration.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Social and political activism", "target_page_ids": [ 5042481, 1810963, 4408513, 63299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 305, 309 ], [ 389, 403 ], [ 624, 627 ], [ 805, 817 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One contribution that is often considered his most significant and most controversial was his openness about homosexuality. Ginsberg was an early proponent of freedom for gay people. In 1943, he discovered within himself \"mountains of homosexuality.\" He expressed this desire openly and graphically in his poetry. He also struck a note for gay marriage by listing Peter Orlovsky, his lifelong companion, as his spouse in his Who's Who entry. Subsequent gay writers saw his frank talk about homosexuality as an opening to speak more openly and honestly about something often before only hinted at or spoken of in metaphor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Social and political activism", "target_page_ids": [ 1919143, 857323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 364, 378 ], [ 425, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In writing about sexuality in graphic detail and in his frequent use of language seen as indecent, he challenged—and ultimately changed—obscenity laws. He was a staunch supporter of others whose expression challenged obscenity laws (William S. Burroughs and Lenny Bruce, for example).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Social and political activism", "target_page_ids": [ 33594, 50016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 233, 253 ], [ 258, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg was a supporter and member of the North American Man/Boy Love Association (NAMBLA), a pedophilia and pederasty advocacy organization in the United States that works to abolish age of consent laws and legalize sexual relations between adults and children. Saying that he joined the organization \"in defense of free speech\", Ginsberg stated: \"Attacks on NAMBLA stink of politics, witchhunting for profit, humorlessness, vanity, anger and ignorance...I'm a member of NAMBLA because I love boys too—everybody does, who has a little humanity\". In 1994, Ginsberg appeared in a documentary on NAMBLA called Men Who Love Boys (playing on the gay male slang term \"Chickenhawk\"), in which he read a \"graphic ode to youth\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Social and political activism", "target_page_ids": [ 16365325, 6341469, 19629641, 2168123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 82 ], [ 95, 105 ], [ 110, 119 ], [ 640, 677 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In her 2002 book Heartbreak, Andrea Dworkin claimed Ginsberg had ulterior motives for allying with NAMBLA:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Social and political activism", "target_page_ids": [ 22320587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg talked often about drug use. He organized the New York City chapter of LeMar (Legalize Marijuana). Throughout the 1960s he took an active role in the demystification of LSD, and, with Timothy Leary, worked to promote its common use. He remained for many decades an advocate of marijuana legalization, and, at the same time, warned his audiences against the hazards of tobacco in his Put Down Your Cigarette Rag (Don't Smoke): \"Don't Smoke Don't Smoke Nicotine Nicotine No / No don't smoke the official Dope Smoke Dope Dope.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Social and political activism", "target_page_ids": [ 17537, 31088, 8596369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 181 ], [ 193, 206 ], [ 286, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg worked closely with Alfred W. McCoy on the latter's book The Politics of Heroin in Southeast Asia, which claimed that the CIA was knowingly involved in the production of heroin in the Golden Triangle of Burma, Thailand, and Laos. In addition to working with McCoy, Ginsberg personally confronted Richard Helms, the director of the CIA in the 1970s, about the matter, but Helms denied that the CIA had anything to do with selling illegal drugs. Allen wrote many essays and articles, researching and compiling evidence of the CIA's alleged involvement in drug trafficking, but it took ten years, and the publication of McCoy's book in 1972, before anyone took him seriously. In 1978, Ginsberg received a note from the chief editor of The New York Times, apologizing for not having taken his allegations seriously. The political subject is dealt with in his song/poem \"CIA Dope calypso\". The United States Department of State responded to McCoy's initial allegations stating that they were \"unable to find any evidence to substantiate them, much less proof.\" Subsequent investigations by the Inspector General of the CIA, United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs, and United States Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, a.k.a. the Church Committee, also found the charges to be unsubstantiated.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Social and political activism", "target_page_ids": [ 4391508, 4478626, 5183633, 4525386, 19457, 140842, 30680, 31975, 24107138, 1267657, 1250883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 44 ], [ 66, 106 ], [ 131, 134 ], [ 193, 208 ], [ 212, 217 ], [ 305, 318 ], [ 741, 759 ], [ 899, 932 ], [ 1100, 1128 ], [ 1130, 1178 ], [ 1307, 1323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of Ginsberg's very early poetry was written in formal rhyme and meter like that of his father, and of his idol William Blake. His admiration for the writing of Jack Kerouac inspired him to take poetry more seriously. In 1955, upon the advice of a psychiatrist, Ginsberg dropped out of the working world to devote his entire life to poetry. Soon after, he wrote Howl, the poem that brought him and his Beat Generation contemporaries to national attention and allowed him to live as a professional poet for the rest of his life. Later in life, Ginsberg entered academia, teaching poetry as Distinguished Professor of English at Brooklyn College from 1986 until his death.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 33175, 15890, 157208, 320470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 129 ], [ 165, 177 ], [ 406, 421 ], [ 631, 647 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg claimed throughout his life that his biggest inspiration was Kerouac's concept of \"spontaneous prose\". He believed literature should come from the soul without conscious restrictions. Ginsberg was much more prone to revise than Kerouac. For example, when Kerouac saw the first draft of Howl he disliked the fact that Ginsberg had made editorial changes in pencil (transposing \"negro\" and \"angry\" in the first line, for example). Kerouac only wrote out his concepts of spontaneous prose at Ginsberg's insistence because Ginsberg wanted to learn how to apply the technique to his poetry.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 15890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The inspiration for Howl was Ginsberg's friend, Carl Solomon, and Howl is dedicated to him. Solomon was a Dada and Surrealism enthusiast (he introduced Ginsberg to Artaud) who had bouts of clinical depression. Solomon wanted to commit suicide, but he thought a form of suicide appropriate to dadaism would be to go to a mental institution and demand a lobotomy. The institution refused, giving him many forms of therapy, including electroshock therapy. Much of the final section of the first part of Howl is a description of this.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 680626, 8240, 28766, 215217, 46187, 24931, 44093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 60 ], [ 107, 111 ], [ 116, 126 ], [ 165, 171 ], [ 354, 362 ], [ 415, 422 ], [ 434, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg used Solomon as an example of all those ground down by the machine of \"Moloch\". Moloch, to whom the second section is addressed, is a Levantine god to whom children were sacrificed. Ginsberg may have gotten the name from the Kenneth Rexroth poem \"Thou Shalt Not Kill\", a poem about the death of one of Ginsberg's heroes, Dylan Thomas. Moloch is mentioned a few times in the Torah and references to Ginsberg's Jewish background are frequent in his work. Ginsberg said the image of Moloch was inspired by peyote visions he had of the Francis Drake Hotel in San Francisco which appeared to him as a skull; he took it as a symbol of the city (not specifically San Francisco, but all cities). Ginsberg later acknowledged in various publications and interviews that behind the visions of the Francis Drake Hotel were memories of the Moloch of Fritz Lang's film Metropolis (1927) and of the woodcut novels of Lynd Ward. Moloch has subsequently been interpreted as any system of control, including the conformist society of post-World War II America, focused on material gain, which Ginsberg frequently blamed for the destruction of all those outside of societal norms.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 143379, 1856409, 359509, 8783, 30343, 18952953, 11631, 49696, 2115815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 86 ], [ 144, 157 ], [ 235, 250 ], [ 331, 343 ], [ 385, 390 ], [ 514, 520 ], [ 848, 858 ], [ 866, 876 ], [ 913, 922 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He also made sure to emphasize that Moloch is a part of humanity in multiple aspects, in that the decision to defy socially created systems of control—and therefore go against Moloch—is a form of self-destruction. Many of the characters Ginsberg references in Howl, such as Neal Cassady and Herbert Huncke, destroyed themselves through excessive substance abuse or a generally wild lifestyle. The personal aspects of Howl are perhaps as important as the political aspects. Carl Solomon, the prime example of a \"best mind\" destroyed by defying society, is associated with Ginsberg's schizophrenic mother: the line \"with mother finally fucked\" comes after a long section about Carl Solomon, and in Part III, Ginsberg says: \"I'm with you in Rockland where you imitate the shade of my mother.\" Ginsberg later admitted that the drive to write Howl was fueled by sympathy for his ailing mother, an issue which he was not yet ready to deal with directly. He dealt with it directly with 1959's Kaddish, which had its first public reading at a Catholic Worker Friday Night meeting, possibly due to its associations with Thomas Merton.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 1477287, 154306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1040, 1055 ], [ 1116, 1129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg's poetry was strongly influenced by Modernism (most importantly the American style of Modernism pioneered by William Carlos Williams), Romanticism (specifically William Blake and John Keats), the beat and cadence of jazz (specifically that of bop musicians such as Charlie Parker), and his Kagyu Buddhist practice and Jewish background. He considered himself to have inherited the visionary poetic mantle handed down from the English poet and artist William Blake, the American poet Walt Whitman and the Spanish poet Federico García Lorca. The power of Ginsberg's verse, its searching, probing focus, its long and lilting lines, as well as its New World exuberance, all echo the continuity of inspiration that he claimed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 19547, 26094, 16455, 15613, 48145, 54408, 197699, 3267529, 33175, 33870, 100031, 2393552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 54 ], [ 144, 155 ], [ 188, 198 ], [ 225, 229 ], [ 252, 255 ], [ 274, 288 ], [ 299, 304 ], [ 305, 313 ], [ 459, 472 ], [ 492, 504 ], [ 526, 547 ], [ 653, 662 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He corresponded with William Carlos Williams, who was then in the middle of writing his epic poem Paterson about the industrial city near his home. After attending a reading by Williams, Ginsberg sent the older poet several of his poems and wrote an introductory letter. Most of these early poems were rhymed and metered and included archaic pronouns like \"thee.\" Williams disliked the poems and told Ginsberg, \"In this mode perfection is basic, and these poems are not perfect.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 50918, 719127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 44 ], [ 98, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though he disliked these early poems, Williams loved the exuberance in Ginsberg's letter. He included the letter in a later part of Paterson. He encouraged Ginsberg not to emulate the old masters, but to speak with his own voice and the voice of the common American. From Williams, Ginsberg learned to focus on strong visual images, in line with Williams' own motto \"No ideas but in things.\" Studying Williams' style led to a tremendous shift from the early formalist work to a loose, colloquial free verse style. Early breakthrough poems include Bricklayer's Lunch Hour and Dream Record.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carl Solomon introduced Ginsberg to the work of Antonin Artaud (To Have Done with the Judgement of God and Van Gogh: The Man Suicided by Society), and Jean Genet (Our Lady of the Flowers). Philip Lamantia introduced him to other Surrealists and Surrealism continued to be an influence (for example, sections of \"Kaddish\" were inspired by André Breton's Free Union). Ginsberg claimed that the anaphoric repetition of Howl and other poems was inspired by Christopher Smart in such poems as Jubilate Agno. Ginsberg also claimed other more traditional influences, such as: Franz Kafka, Herman Melville, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Edgar Allan Poe, and Emily Dickinson.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 215217, 167347, 1779171, 600493, 28766, 55167, 604073, 10858, 13623, 11625, 9549, 159275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 62 ], [ 151, 161 ], [ 163, 186 ], [ 189, 204 ], [ 229, 240 ], [ 338, 350 ], [ 453, 470 ], [ 569, 580 ], [ 582, 597 ], [ 599, 616 ], [ 618, 633 ], [ 639, 654 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg also made an intense study of haiku and the paintings of Paul Cézanne, from which he adapted a concept important to his work, which he called the Eyeball Kick. He noticed in viewing Cézanne's paintings that when the eye moved from one color to a contrasting color, the eye would spasm, or \"kick.\" Likewise, he discovered that the contrast of two seeming opposites was a common feature in haiku. Ginsberg used this technique in his poetry, putting together two starkly dissimilar images: something weak with something strong, an artifact of high culture with an artifact of low culture, something holy with something unholy. The example Ginsberg most often used was \"hydrogen jukebox\" (which later became the title of a song cycle composed by Philip Glass with lyrics drawn from Ginsberg's poems). Another example is Ginsberg's observation on Bob Dylan during Dylan's hectic and intense 1966 electric-guitar tour, fuelled by a cocktail of amphetamines, opiates, alcohol, and psychedelics, as a Dexedrine Clown. The phrases \"eyeball kick\" and \"hydrogen jukebox\" both show up in Howl, as well as a direct quote from Cézanne: \"Pater Omnipotens Aeterna Deus\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 13217, 24472, 69832, 308097, 24540, 471852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 44 ], [ 66, 78 ], [ 288, 293 ], [ 728, 738 ], [ 751, 763 ], [ 1002, 1011 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Allen Ginsberg also found inspiration in music. He frequently included music in his poetry, invariably composing his tunes on an old Indian harmonium, which he often played during his readings. He wrote and recorded music to accompany William Blake's Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience. He also recorded a handful of other albums. To create music for Howl and Wichita Vortex Sutra he worked with the minimalist composer, Philip Glass.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 33175, 2088652, 2088652, 24540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 235, 248 ], [ 251, 269 ], [ 274, 293 ], [ 429, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg worked with, drew inspiration from, and inspired artists such as Bob Dylan, The Clash, Patti Smith, Phil Ochs, and The Fugs. He worked with Dylan on various projects and maintained a friendship with him over many years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 4637590, 30423, 22995, 25123, 581411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 83 ], [ 85, 94 ], [ 96, 107 ], [ 109, 118 ], [ 124, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1981, Ginsberg recorded a song called \"Birdbrain.\" He was backed by the Gluons, and the track was released as a single. In 1996, he recorded a song co-written with Paul McCartney and Philip Glass, \"The Ballad of the Skeletons\", which reached number 8 on the Triple J Hottest 100 for that year.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 13736167, 1170933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 181 ], [ 261, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the study of his idols and mentors and the inspiration of his friends—not to mention his own experiments—Ginsberg developed an individualistic style that's easily identified as Ginsbergian. Ginsberg stated that Whitman's long line was a dynamic technique few other poets had ventured to develop further, and Whitman is also often compared to Ginsberg because their poetry sexualized aspects of the male form.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many of Ginsberg's early long line experiments contain some sort of anaphora, repetition of a \"fixed base\" (for example \"who\" in Howl, \"America\" in America) and this has become a recognizable feature of Ginsberg's style. He said later this was a crutch because he lacked confidence; he did not yet trust \"free flight\". In the 1960s, after employing it in some sections of Kaddish (\"caw\" for example) he, for the most part, abandoned the anaphoric form.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 341714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several of his earlier experiments with methods for formatting poems as a whole became regular aspects of his style in later poems. In the original draft of Howl, each line is in a \"stepped triadic\" format reminiscent of William Carlos Williams. He abandoned the \"stepped triadic\" when he developed his long line although the stepped lines showed up later, most significantly in the travelogues of The Fall of America. Howl and Kaddish, arguably his two most important poems, are both organized as an inverted pyramid, with larger sections leading to smaller sections. In America, he also experimented with a mix of longer and shorter lines.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 50918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ginsberg's mature style made use of many specific, highly developed techniques, which he expressed in the \"poetic slogans\" he used in his Naropa teaching. Prominent among these was the inclusion of his unedited mental associations so as to reveal the mind at work (\"First thought, best thought.\" \"Mind is shapely, thought is shapely.\") He preferred expression through carefully observed physical details rather than abstract statements (\"Show, don't tell.\" \"No ideas but in things.\") In these he carried on and developed traditions of modernism in writing that are also found in Kerouac and Whitman", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Howl and in his other poetry, Ginsberg drew inspiration from the epic, free verse style of the 19th-century American poet Walt Whitman. Both wrote passionately about the promise (and betrayal) of American democracy, the central importance of erotic experience, and the spiritual quest for the truth of everyday existence. J. D. McClatchy, editor of the Yale Review, called Ginsberg \"the best-known American poet of his generation, as much a social force as a literary phenomenon.\" McClatchy added that Ginsberg, like Whitman, \"was a bard in the old manner—outsized, darkly prophetic, part exuberance, part prayer, part rant. His work is finally a history of our era's psyche, with all its contradictory urges.\" McClatchy's barbed eulogies define the essential difference between Ginsberg (\"a beat poet whose writing was[...] journalism raised by combining the recycling genius with a generous mimic-empathy, to strike audience-accessible chords; always lyrical and sometimes truly poetic\") and Kerouac (\"a poet of singular brilliance, the brightest luminary of a 'beat generation' he came to symbolise in popular culture[...] [though] in reality he far surpassed his contemporaries[...] Kerouac is an originating genius, exploring then answering—like Rimbaud a century earlier, by necessity more than by choice—the demands of authentic self-expression as applied to the evolving quicksilver mind of America's only literary virtuoso[...]\").", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 9418, 11478, 33870, 2780101, 2780044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 72 ], [ 74, 84 ], [ 125, 137 ], [ 325, 340 ], [ 356, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Howl and Other Poems (1956), ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 10234166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kaddish and Other Poems (1961), ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 17105765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Early Poems (1961), ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Reality Sandwiches (1963), ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 7148833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Yage Letters (1963)with William S. Burroughs", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 2746713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Planet News (1968), ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 7470018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Indian Journals (1970), ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 61921387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rags, Ballads & Harmonium Songs 1971 - 1974 (1975), ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rhymed Poems 1948–1951 (1972), ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems of These States (1973), ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Iron Horse (1973)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 9360159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lectures on Poetry, Politics, Consciousness by Allen Ginsberg (1974), edited by Gordon Ball, ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " poems during work summer in woods (1975)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mind Breaths (1978), ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 7469895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Poems 1977–1980 (1981), ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collected Poems 1947–1980 (1984), . Republished with later material added as Collected Poems 1947-1997, New York, HarperCollins, 2006", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " White Shroud Poems: 1980–1985 (1986), ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 5154949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cosmopolitan Greetings Poems: 1986–1993 (1994)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Howl Annotated (1995)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Illuminated Poems (1996)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1947–1995 (1996)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems 1993–1997 (1999)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Deliberate Prose 1952–1995 (2000)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 6467977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Howl & Other Poems 50th Anniversary Edition (2006), ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " First Journals and Poems 1937-1952 (Da Capo Press, 2006)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Selected Letters of Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder (Counterpoint, 2009)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " I Greet You at the Beginning of a Great Career: The Selected Correspondence of Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Allen Ginsberg, 1955–1997 (City Lights, 2015)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \" A Literary History of the Beats\" (Grove Press, 2017)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "His collection The Fall of America shared the annual U.S. National Book Award for Poetry in 1974. In 1979, he received the National Arts Club gold medal and was inducted into the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters. Ginsberg was a Pulitzer Prize finalist in 1995 for his book Cosmopolitan Greetings: Poems 1986–1992. In 1993, he received a John Jay Award posthumously from Columbia.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Honors", "target_page_ids": [ 7832863, 7179363, 881480, 24230, 21781416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 88 ], [ 123, 141 ], [ 179, 229 ], [ 246, 260 ], [ 355, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, Ginsberg was one of the inaugural honorees in the Rainbow Honor Walk, a walk of fame in San Francisco's Castro neighborhood noting LGBTQ people who have \"made significant contributions in their fields.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Honors", "target_page_ids": [ 61383043, 563864, 44524651, 66936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 77 ], [ 81, 93 ], [ 113, 132 ], [ 140, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Life and Times of Allen Ginsberg (film)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12056396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Works by Allen Ginsberg", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Allen Ginsberg Live in London", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13467171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hungry generation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2188119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Howl (2010 film)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24770245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " LGBT culture in New York City", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 43815459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of LGBT people from New York City", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 62095501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Central Park Be-In", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10926530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trevor Carolan", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18449083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Counterculture of the 1960s", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8544676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the Movie by Howard Brookner", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31385016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of peace activists", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38646474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kill Your Darlings", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 35326709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jewish Buddhist", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1687587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American poetry", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 412032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Allen Ginsberg Papers, 1937–1994 (1,330 linear ft.) are housed in the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Stanford University Libraries", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Resources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Boer, Charles. Charles Olson in Connecticut. North Carolina Wesleyan College Press, 1991, (1975). .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bullough, Vern L. \"Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context.\" Harrington Park Press, 2002. pp 304–311.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Charters, Ann (ed.). The Portable Beat Reader. Penguin Books. New York. 1992. (hc); (pbk)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Clark, Thomas. \"Allen Ginsberg.\" Writers at WorkThe Paris Review Interviews. 3.1 (1968) pp.279–320.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collins, Ronald & Skover, David. Mania: The Story of the Outraged & Outrageous Lives that Launched a Cultural Revolution (Top-Five books, March 2013)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gifford, Barry (ed.). As Ever: The Collected Letters of Allen Ginsberg & Neal Cassady. Berkeley: Creative Arts Books (1977).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ginsberg, Allen. Travels with Ginsberg: A Postcard Book. San Francisco: City Lights (2002). ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hrebeniak, Michael. Action Writing: Jack Kerouac's Wild Form, Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois UP, 2006.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kashner, Sam, When I Was Cool, My Life at the Jack Kerouac School, New York: HarperCollins Perennial, 2005. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 908561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Podhoretz, Norman. \"At War with Allen Ginsberg\", in Ex-Friends (Free Press, 1999), 22–56. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " McBride, Dick: Cometh With Clouds (Memory: Allen Ginsberg) Cherry Valley Editions, 1982 ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 11904897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Morgan, Bill (ed.), I Greet You at the Beginning of a Great Career: The Selected Correspondence of Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Allen Ginsberg, 1955–1997. San Francisco: City Lights Publishers, 2015.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Schumacher, Michael (ed.). Family Business: Selected Letters Between a Father and Son. Bloomsbury (2002), paperback, 448 pages, ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Schumacher, Michael. Dharma Lion: A Biography of Allen Ginsberg. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Trigilio, Tony. Allen Ginsberg's Buddhist Poetics. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2007. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Trigilio, Tony. \"Strange Prophecies Anew\": Rereading Apocalypse in Blake, H.D., and Ginsberg. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2000. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tytell, John. Naked Angels: Kerouac, Ginsberg, Burroughs. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1976. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Warner, Simon (ed.). Howl for Now: A 50th anniversary celebration of Allen Ginsberg's epic protest poem. West Yorkshire, UK: Route (2005), paperback, 144 pages, ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Warner, Simon. \"Raising the Consciousness? Re-visiting Allen Ginsberg's 1965 trip to Liverpool\", chapter in Centre of the Creative Universe: Liverpool and the Avant Garde, edited by Christoph Grunenberg and Robert Knifton. Liverpool & Chicago: Liverpool University Press & Chicago University Press, 2007, (pbk); (hc)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Young, Allen Gay Sunshine interview with Allen Ginsberg. Grey Fox Press, 1974. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " First Thought is Best Thought, an interview with Allen Ginsberg, in Scottish International Volume 6, September 1973, pp.18–23", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " George Dowden papers on the Allen Ginsberg bibliography, 1966–1971 at Rare Book and Manuscripts Library, Columbia University Libraries", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Materials related to Allen Ginsberg in the Robert A. Wilson collection at Special Collections, University of Delaware Library", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Allen Ginsberg papers at Special Collections and University Archives, Stanford Libraries", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Audio recordings of Allen Ginsberg, from the Woodberry Poetry Room, Harvard University", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 44172833, 18426501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 67 ], [ 69, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Audio recordings of Allen Ginsberg, from Maryland Institute College of Art's Decker Library, Internet Archive", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 1150932, 176931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 75 ], [ 94, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Modern American Poetry, interview", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Allen Ginsberg Trust", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Case Histories: Allen Ginsberg at PEN.org honoring Ginsberg's work, from PEN American Center", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Allen Ginsberg on Poets.org With audio clips, poems, and related essays, from the Academy of American Poets", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"After 50 Years, Ginsberg's Howl Still Resonates\" NPR October 27, 2006", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Allen Ginsberg photographs with hand-written captions at LensCulture", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 9787101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Autobiographical Article in Shambhala Sun Magazine", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " FBI agents were warned against interviewing Allen Ginsberg, fearing it would result in \"embarrassment\" from MuckRock.com", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 41391191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Allen Ginsberg materials in \"Beat Visions and the Counterculture\" (online exhibition) at Special Collections, University of Delaware Library", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1926_births", "1997_deaths", "20th-century_American_male_writers", "20th-century_American_poets", "20th-century_Buddhists", "Activists_from_New_York_(state)", "American_anti–nuclear_weapons_activists", "American_anti–Vietnam_War_activists", "American_cannabis_activists", "American_expatriates_in_France", "American_LGBT_poets", "American_male_poets", "American_pacifists", "American_sailors", "American_social_commentators", "American_spoken_word_artists", "American_tax_resisters", "Beat_Generation_poets", "Brooklyn_College_faculty", "Columbia_College_(New_York)_alumni", "Converts_to_Buddhism", "Cultural_critics", "Deaths_from_cancer_in_New_York_(state)", "Deaths_from_liver_cancer", "Eastside_High_School_(Paterson,_New_Jersey)_alumni", "English-language_haiku_poets", "Free_speech_activists", "Gay_academics", "American_gay_writers", "Industrial_Workers_of_the_World_members", "Jewish_American_poets", "LGBT_Buddhists", "LGBT_Jews", "LGBT_people_from_Colorado", "LGBT_people_from_New_Jersey", "LGBT_people_from_New_York_(state)", "LGBT_rights_activists_from_the_United_States", "Military_personnel_from_New_Jersey", "Montclair_State_University_alumni", "National_Book_Award_winners", "Obscenity_controversies_in_literature", "Outlaw_poets", "Pedophile_advocacy", "Pedophilia_in_the_United_States", "People_from_Greenwich_Village", "People_from_the_East_Village,_Manhattan", "Poets_from_New_Jersey", "Postmodern_writers", "American_psychedelic_drug_advocates", "Social_critics", "Struga_Poetry_Evenings_Golden_Wreath_laureates", "Tibetan_Buddhists_from_the_United_States", "Transatlantic_Records_artists", "United_States_Merchant_Mariners_of_World_War_II", "Writers_from_Boulder,_Colorado", "Writers_from_Manhattan", "Writers_from_Newark,_New_Jersey", "Writers_from_Paterson,_New_Jersey", "Yippies", "Locust_Music_artists" ]

[ "Irwin Allen Ginsberg", "Ayālena Gīnasabārga", "Alen Ginzberg" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In mathematics, a field is algebraically closed if every non-constant polynomial in (the univariate polynomial ring with coefficients in ) has a root in .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18831, 10603, 5930652, 373065, 264210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 18, 23 ], [ 58, 81 ], [ 102, 117 ], [ 147, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As an example, the field of real numbers is not algebraically closed, because the polynomial equation x2+1=0 has no solution in real numbers, even though all its coefficients (1 and 0) are real. The same argument proves that no subfield of the real field is algebraically closed; in particular, the field of rational numbers is not algebraically closed. Also, no finite field F is algebraically closed, because if a1, a2, ..., an are the elements of F, then the polynomial (xa1)(xa2)⋯(xan)+1", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 20646438, 19727024, 11615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 39 ], [ 309, 324 ], [ 364, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "has no zero in F. By contrast, the fundamental theorem of algebra states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed. Another example of an algebraically closed field is the field of (complex) algebraic numbers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 51414, 5826, 1158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 65 ], [ 91, 105 ], [ 207, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Given a field F, the assertion \"F is algebraically closed\" is equivalent to other assertions:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The field F is algebraically closed if and only if the only irreducible polynomials in the polynomial ring F[x] are those of degree one.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [ 188725, 373065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 82 ], [ 91, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The assertion \"the polynomials of degree one are irreducible\" is trivially true for any field. If F is algebraically closed and p(x) is an irreducible polynomial of F[x], then it has some root a and therefore p(x) is a multiple of xa. Since p(x) is irreducible, this means that p(x)=k(xa), for some k∈F\\{0}. On the other hand, if F is not algebraically closed, then there is some non-constant polynomial p(x) in F[x] without roots in F. Let q(x) be some irreducible factor of p(x). Since p(x) has no roots in F, q(x) also has no roots in F. Therefore, q(x) has degree greater than one, since every first degree polynomial has one root in F.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The field F is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial p(x) of degree n≥1, with coefficients in F, splits into linear factors. In other words, there are elements k,x1,x2,...,xn of the field F such that p(x)=k(xx1)(xx2)⋯(xxn).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [ 51203, 82341 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 104 ], [ 112, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If F has this property, then clearly every non-constant polynomial in F[x] has some root in F; in other words, F is algebraically closed. On the other hand, that the property stated here holds for F if F is algebraically closed follows from the previous property together with the fact that, for any field K, any polynomial in K[x] can be written as a product of irreducible polynomials.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If every polynomial over F of prime degree has a root in F, then every non-constant polynomial has a root in F. It follows that a field is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial over F of prime degree has a root in F.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The field F is algebraically closed if and only if it has no proper algebraic extension.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [ 2125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If F has no proper algebraic extension, let p(x) be some irreducible polynomial in F[x]. Then the quotient of F[x] modulo the ideal generated by p(x) is an algebraic extension of F whose degree is equal to the degree of p(x). Since it is not a proper extension, its degree is 1 and therefore the degree of p(x) is1.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [ 184635, 25977, 4382697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 106 ], [ 126, 131 ], [ 187, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the other hand, if F has some proper algebraic extension K, then the minimal polynomial of an element in K\\F is irreducible and its degree is greater than1.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [ 9667106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The field F is algebraically closed if and only if it has no proper finite extension because if, within the The field has no proper algebraic extension, the term \"algebraic extension\" is replaced by the term \"finite extension\", then the proof is still valid. (Note that finite extensions are necessarily algebraic.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [ 4382697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The field F is algebraically closed if and only if, for each natural number n, every linear map from Fn into itself has some eigenvector.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [ 18102, 2161429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 95 ], [ 125, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An endomorphism of Fn has an eigenvector if and only if its characteristic polynomial has some root. Therefore, when F is algebraically closed, every endomorphism of Fn has some eigenvector. On the other hand, if every endomorphism of Fn has an eigenvector, let p(x) be an element of F[x]. Dividing by its leading coefficient, we get another polynomial q(x) which has roots if and only if p(x) has roots. But if q(x)=xn+an1xn1+⋯+a0, then q(x) is the characteristic polynomial of the n×n companion matrix", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [ 9569, 218268, 532542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 15 ], [ 60, 85 ], [ 487, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The field F is algebraically closed if and only if every rational function in one variable x, with coefficients in F, can be written as the sum of a polynomial function with rational functions of the form a/(x−b)n, where n is a natural number, and a and b are elements of F.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [ 361210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If F is algebraically closed then, since the irreducible polynomials in F[x] are all of degree 1, the property stated above holds by the theorem on partial fraction decomposition.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [ 247288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the other hand, suppose that the property stated above holds for the field F. Let p(x) be an irreducible element in F[x]. Then the rational function 1/p can be written as the sum of a polynomial function q with rational functions of the form a/(x–b)n. Therefore, the rational expression", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "can be written as a quotient of two polynomials in which the denominator is a product of first degree polynomials. Since p(x) is irreducible, it must divide this product and, therefore, it must also be a first degree polynomial.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For any field F, if two polynomials p(x),q(x)∈F[x] are relatively prime then they do not have a common root, for if a∈F was a common root, thenp(x) and q(x) would both be multiples of xa and therefore they would not be relatively prime. The fields for which the reverse implication holds (that is, the fields such that whenever two polynomials have no common root then they are relatively prime) are precisely the algebraically closed fields.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [ 6556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the field F is algebraically closed, let p(x) and q(x) be two polynomials which are not relatively prime and let r(x) be their greatest common divisor. Then, since r(x) is not constant, it will have some root a, which will be then a common root of p(x) and q(x).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [ 12354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If F is not algebraically closed, let p(x) be a polynomial whose degree is at least 1 without roots. Then p(x) and p(x) are not relatively prime, but they have no common roots (since none of them has roots).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equivalent properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If F is an algebraically closed field and n is a natural number, then F contains all nth roots of unity, because these are (by definition) the n (not necessarily distinct) zeroes of the polynomial xn1. A field extension that is contained in an extension generated by the roots of unity is a cyclotomic extension, and the extension of a field generated by all roots of unity is sometimes called its cyclotomic closure. Thus algebraically closed fields are cyclotomically closed. The converse is not true. Even assuming that every polynomial of the form xna splits into linear factors is not enough to assure that the field is algebraically closed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If a proposition which can be expressed in the language of first-order logic is true for an algebraically closed field, then it is true for every algebraically closed field with the same characteristic. Furthermore, if such a proposition is valid for an algebraically closed field with characteristic0, then not only is it valid for all other algebraically closed fields with characteristic0, but there is some natural number N such that the proposition is valid for every algebraically closed field with characteristicp when pN.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other properties", "target_page_ids": [ 10983, 1066621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 76 ], [ 187, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Every field F has some extension which is algebraically closed. Such an extension is called an algebraically closed extension. Among all such extensions there is one and only one (up to isomorphism, but not unique isomorphism) which is an algebraic extension of F; it is called the algebraic closure of F.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other properties", "target_page_ids": [ 44787, 7918341, 2125, 3129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 197 ], [ 207, 225 ], [ 239, 258 ], [ 282, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The theory of algebraically closed fields has quantifier elimination.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other properties", "target_page_ids": [ 2150441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 68 ] ] } ]

[ "Field_(mathematics)" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "1284 The Republic of Pisa is defeated in the Battle of Meloria by the Republic of Genoa, thus losing its naval dominance in the Mediterranean.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35327, 4837695, 3676634, 559961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 46, 63 ], [ 71, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1538 Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 38679, 211271, 5222, 332894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 12 ], [ 14, 22 ], [ 38, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1661 The Treaty of The Hague is signed by Portugal and the Dutch Republic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34588, 7988020, 52626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 29 ], [ 60, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1777 American Revolutionary War: The bloody Battle of Oriskany prevents American relief of the Siege of Fort Stanwix.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35815, 771, 401373, 19540170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 32 ], [ 45, 63 ], [ 96, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1787 Sixty proof sheets of the Constitution of the United States are delivered to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34634, 31644, 1743283, 50585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 32, 65 ], [ 87, 112 ], [ 116, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1806 Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, declares the moribund empire to be dissolved, although he retains power in the Austrian Empire.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34978, 11551, 266894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 36 ], [ 117, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1819 Norwich University is founded in Vermont as the first private military school in the United States.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34966, 2063664, 32578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 39, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1824 Peruvian War of Independence: The Battle of Junín.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35521, 5553868, 2661161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 34 ], [ 40, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1825 The Bolivian Declaration of Independence is proclaimed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35520, 23916098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1861 Britain imposes the Lagos Treaty of Cession to suppress slavery in what is now Nigeria.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34680, 45220478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 26, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1862 American Civil War: The Confederate ironclad is scuttled on the Mississippi River after suffering catastrophic engine failure near Baton Rouge, Louisiana.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34785, 863, 7023, 251489, 19579, 57835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 30, 41 ], [ 42, 50 ], [ 71, 88 ], [ 138, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1870 Franco-Prussian War: The Battle of Spicheren is fought, resulting in a German victory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34769, 44035, 1807917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ], [ 31, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1870 Franco-Prussian War: The Battle of Wörth results in a decisive German victory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 238859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1890 At Auburn Prison in New York, murderer William Kemmler becomes the first person to be executed by electric chair.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34707, 2403105, 303301, 5902, 75215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 9, 22 ], [ 45, 60 ], [ 92, 100 ], [ 104, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1901 Kiowa land in Oklahoma is opened for white settlement, effectively dissolving the contiguous reservation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34618, 268831, 22489, 784889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 11 ], [ 20, 28 ], [ 99, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1914 World War I: U-boat campaign: Two days after the United Kingdom had declared war on Germany over the German invasion of Belgium, ten German U-boats leave their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in the North Sea.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19283920, 4764461, 22620358, 31888, 193252, 26061, 21179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 19, 34 ], [ 146, 152 ], [ 174, 184 ], [ 195, 205 ], [ 222, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1914 World War I: Serbia declares war on Germany; Austria declares war on Russia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 29265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1915 World War I: Battle of Sari Bair: The Allies mount a diversionary attack timed to coincide with a major Allied landing of reinforcements at Suvla Bay.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34689, 422230, 2198871, 1184149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 19, 38 ], [ 44, 50 ], [ 146, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1917 World War I: Battle of Mărășești between the Romanian and German armies begins.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34595, 4335069, 25445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 19, 38 ], [ 51, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1926 Gertrude Ederle becomes the first woman to swim across the English Channel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34609, 335039, 9230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 65, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1926 In New York City, the Warner Bros.' Vitaphone system premieres with the movie Don Juan starring John Barrymore.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34052, 540849, 4524798, 68065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 44 ], [ 46, 55 ], [ 88, 96 ], [ 106, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1940 Estonia becomes part of the Soviet Union.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34708, 28222445, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ], [ 34, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1942 Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands becomes the first reigning queen to address a joint session of the United States Congress.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34629, 102298, 31756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 12, 41 ], [ 109, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1944 The Warsaw Uprising occurs on August 1. It is brutally suppressed and all able-bodied men in Kraków are detained afterwards to prevent a similar uprising, the Kraków Uprising, that was planned but never carried out.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34622, 376841, 1254, 12596854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 36, 44 ], [ 165, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1945 World War II: Hiroshima, Japan is devastated when the atomic bomb \"Little Boy\" is dropped by the United States B-29 Enola Gay. Around 70,000 people are killed instantly, and some tens of thousands die in subsequent years from burns and radiation poisoning.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34624, 32927, 59062, 11778948, 21785, 18597, 53179, 9597, 151196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 20, 29 ], [ 40, 50 ], [ 60, 71 ], [ 73, 83 ], [ 117, 121 ], [ 122, 131 ], [ 242, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1956 After going bankrupt in 1955, the American broadcaster DuMont Television Network makes its final broadcast, a boxing match from St. Nicholas Arena in New York in the Boxing from St. Nicholas Arena series.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34672, 34851, 66057, 19990609, 8964037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 30, 34 ], [ 61, 86 ], [ 134, 152 ], [ 172, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1958 Law of Permanent Defense of Democracy, outlawing the Communist Party of Chile and banning 26,650 persons from the electoral lists, is repealed in Chile.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34953, 32250320, 1579860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 43 ], [ 59, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1960 Cuban Revolution: Cuba nationalizes American and foreign-owned property in the nation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34664, 268111, 5042481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 24, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1962 Jamaica becomes independent from the United Kingdom.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34717, 15660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1965 US President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act of 1965 into law.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34750, 54533, 55791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 19, 36 ], [ 47, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 A low-pressure system that redeveloped off the New South Wales coast dumps a record 328 millimeters (13inches) of rain in a day on Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 21654, 27862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 53, 68 ], [ 137, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 Gulf War: The United Nations Security Council orders a global trade embargo against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 182000, 31956, 411315, 7515928, 7515890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ], [ 20, 51 ], [ 68, 81 ], [ 90, 94 ], [ 129, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Tim Berners-Lee releases files describing his idea for the World Wide Web. WWW makes its first appearance as a publicly available service on the Internet.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 30034, 33139, 14539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 65, 79 ], [ 151, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Takako Doi, chair of the Social Democratic Party, becomes Japan's first female speaker of the House of Representatives.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 367258, 375454, 217778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ], [ 35, 58 ], [ 104, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1996 The Ramones played their farewell concert at The Palace, Los Angeles, CA. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34636, 32216781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1996 NASA announces that the ALH 84001 meteorite, thought to originate from Mars, contains evidence of primitive life-forms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 18426568, 183691, 14640471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 14 ], [ 34, 43 ], [ 81, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1997 Korean Air Flight 801 crashed at Nimitz Hill, Guam killing 228 of 254 people on board.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34601, 22278969, 68595141, 11974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ], [ 39, 50 ], [ 52, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2001 Erwadi fire incident: Twenty-eight mentally ill persons tied to a chain are burnt to death at a faith based institution at Erwadi, Tamil Nadu.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34551, 32666729, 21406235, 29918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 129, 135 ], [ 137, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2008 A military junta led by Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz stages a coup d'état in Mauritania, overthrowing president Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35825, 18742934, 18742654, 18778516, 9265892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 30, 53 ], [ 63, 74 ], [ 78, 88 ], [ 113, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2010 Flash floods across a large part of Jammu and Kashmir, India, damages 71 towns and kills at least 255 people.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 43226, 28281226, 51299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 42, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011 War in Afghanistan: A United States military helicopter is shot down, killing 30 American special forces members and a working dog, seven Afghan soldiers, and one Afghan civilian. It was the deadliest single event for the United States in the War in Afghanistan.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36225, 19666611, 32654821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 26, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 NASA's Curiosity rover lands on the surface of Mars.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 47374, 18426568, 36645032, 453544, 14640471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 10 ], [ 13, 28 ], [ 29, 34 ], [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2015 A suicide bomb attack kills at least 15 people at a mosque in the Saudi city of Abha.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 49708, 47456056, 2451017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 8, 27 ], [ 86, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1180 Emperor Go-Toba of Japan (d. 1239)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36395, 195040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1504 Matthew Parker, English archbishop (d. 1575)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38702, 153638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1572 Fakhr-al-Din II, Ottoman prince (d. 1635)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34686, 391038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1605 Bulstrode Whitelocke, English lawyer (d. 1675)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35085, 491271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1609 Richard Bennett, English-American politician, Colonial Governor of Virginia (d. 1675)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35096, 14479195, 876531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 52, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1619 Barbara Strozzi, Italian composer and singer-songwriter (d. 1677)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35108, 408517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1622 Tjerk Hiddes de Vries, Dutch admiral (d. 1666)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34973, 11518492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1638 Nicolas Malebranche, French priest and philosopher (d. 1715)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35146, 174019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1644 Louise de La Vallière, French mistress of Louis XIV of France (d. 1710)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34860, 310745, 18553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ], [ 48, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1651 François Fénelon, French archbishop and poet (d. 1715)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36373, 178847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1656 Claude de Forbin, French general (d. 1733)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38613, 1103042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1666 Maria Sophia of Neuburg (d. 1699)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36223, 6596820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1667 Johann Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician (d. 1748)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38623, 268886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1697 Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1745)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36178, 51109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1715 Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues, French author (d. 1747)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38627, 1804818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1765 Petros Mavromichalis, Greek general and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1848)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34870, 1669114, 207787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 62, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1766 William Hyde Wollaston, English chemist and physicist (d. 1828)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35821, 157164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1768 Jean-Baptiste Bessières, French general and politician (d. 1813)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35820, 322542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1775 Daniel O'Connell, Irish lawyer and politician, Lord Mayor of Dublin (d. 1847)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35816, 168154, 181426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 53, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1809 Alfred, Lord Tennyson, English poet (d. 1892)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34705, 59209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1826 Thomas Alexander Browne, English-Australian author (d. 1915)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34597, 5738397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1835 Hjalmar Kiærskou, Danish botanist (d. 1900)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35516, 22826248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1844 Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (d. 1900)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34955, 167608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1844 James Henry Greathead, South African-English engineer (d. 1896)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 342842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1848 Susie Taylor, American writer and first black Army nurse (d. 1912)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34666, 3136457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1846 Anna Haining Bates, Canadian-American giant (d. 1888)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35068, 264377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1868 Paul Claudel, French poet and playwright (d. 1955)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34788, 99614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1874 Charles Fort, American author (d. 1932)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34770, 44490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1877 Wallace H. White Jr., American lawyer and politician (d. 1952)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34771, 1136523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1880 Hans Moser, Austrian actor and singer (d. 1964)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34773, 846310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1881 Leo Carrillo, American actor (d. 1961)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34716, 239793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1881 Alexander Fleming, Scottish biologist, pharmacologist, and botanist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1955)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1937, 52502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 79, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1881 Louella Parsons, American journalist (d. 1972)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 433343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1883 Constance Georgina Adams, South African botanist (d. 1968)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34701, 67159500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1883 Scott Nearing, American economist and educator (d. 1983)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 207960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1886 Edward Ballantine, American composer and academic (d. 1971)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34845, 26314623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1887 Dudley Benjafield, English racing driver (d. 1957)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34777, 3121461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1889 George Kenney, Canadian-American general (d. 1977)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34711, 3074047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1889 John Middleton Murry, English poet and author (d. 1957)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 912493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1890 Wentworth Beaumont, 2nd Viscount Allendale, English captain and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Northumberland (d. 1956)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34707, 3319856, 2781192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 48 ], [ 82, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1891 William Slim, 1st Viscount Slim, English field marshal and politician, 13th Governor-General of Australia (d. 1970)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34794, 353416, 12601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 37 ], [ 82, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1892 Hoot Gibson, American actor, director, and producer (d. 1962)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34793, 1585014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1893 Wright Patman, American lieutenant and politician (d. 1976)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34713, 766078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1895 Frank Nicklin, Australian politician, 28th Premier of Queensland (d. 1978)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1721069, 24677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 53, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1900 Cecil Howard Green, English-American geophysicist and businessman, co-founded Texas Instruments (d. 2003)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34653, 1274240, 47768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 84, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1901 Dutch Schultz, American gangster (d. 1935)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34618, 379568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1903 Virginia Foster Durr, American civil rights activist (d. 1999)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34639, 8876561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1904 Jean Dessès, Greek-Egyptian fashion designer (d. 1970)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34651, 5023650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1904 Henry Iba, American basketball player and coach (d. 1993)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1677106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1906 Vic Dickenson, American trombonist (d. 1984)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34650, 6305915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1908 Maria Ludwika Bernhard, Polish classical archaeologist and a member of WWII Polish resistance (d. 1998)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34600, 57621979, 606810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ], [ 38, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1908 Helen Jacobs, American tennis player and commander (d. 1997)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2144869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1908 Lajos Vajda, Hungarian painter and illustrator (d. 1941)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8502457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1909 Diana Keppel, Countess of Albemarle (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283284, 9462833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1910 Adoniran Barbosa, Brazilian musician, singer, composer, humorist, and actor (d. 1982)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34690, 3420375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1910 Charles Crichton, English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1999)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1210147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1911 Lucille Ball, American actress, television producer and businesswoman (d. 1989)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34605, 24191364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1911 Norman Gordon, South African cricketer (d. 2014) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3817090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1911 Constance Heaven, English author and actress (d. 1995)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22413540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1912 Richard C. Miller, American photographer (d. 2010)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34616, 26360473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1914 Gordon Freeth, Australian lawyer and politician, 24th Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs (d. 2001) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283920, 13565820, 591908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 60, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1916 Richard Hofstadter, American historian and academic (d. 1970)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34677, 514693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1916 Dom Mintoff, Maltese journalist and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Malta (d. 2012)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 382416, 464388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ], [ 62, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1917 Barbara Cooney, American author and illustrator (d. 2000)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34595, 5912238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1917 Robert Mitchum, American actor (d. 1997)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 87603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1918 Norman Granz, American-Swiss record producer and manager (d. 2001)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34594, 49906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1919 Pauline Betz, American tennis player (d. 2011)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34665, 2135999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1920 John Graves, American author (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34676, 21608159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1920 Ella Raines, American actress (d. 1988)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", 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Bowers, American activist, co-founded the White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan (d. 2006)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34675, 3340918, 9537085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 55, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1926 Elisabeth Beresford, English journalist and author (d. 2010)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34609, 8371320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1926 Frank Finlay, English actor (d. 2016)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1388987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1926 Clem Labine, American baseball player and manager (d. 2007)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2653407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1926 János Rózsás, Hungarian author (d. 2012)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7763577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1926 Norman Wexler, American screenwriter (d. 1999) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 30860458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1928 Herb Moford, American baseball player (d. 2005)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34674, 3501331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1928 Andy Warhol, American painter, photographer and film director (d. 1987)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1929 Mike Elliott, Jamaican saxophonist ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34656, 23002397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1929 Roch La Salle, Canadian politician, 42nd Canadian Minister of Public Works (d. 2007)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1383915, 852361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 51, 84 ] ] }, { 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"1933 A. G. Kripal Singh, Indian cricketer (d. 1987)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34864, 2631862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1934 Piers Anthony, English-American soldier and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34981, 23669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1934 Chris Bonington, English mountaineer and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 410279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1934 Billy Boston, Welsh rugby player and soldier", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2507081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1935 Fortunato Baldelli, Italian cardinal (d. 2012)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34980, 22824988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1935 Octavio Getino, Spanish-Argentinian director and 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"target_page_ids": [ 34632, 5936878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1942 Byard Lancaster, American saxophonist and flute player (d. 2012)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34629, 15055150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1943 Jon Postel, American computer scientist and academic (d. 1998)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34630, 15767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1944 Inday Badiday, Filipino journalist and actress (d. 2003)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34622, 29594242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1944 Michael Mingos, English chemist and academic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11456236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1944 Martin Wharton, English bishop", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8120125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1945 Ron Jones, English director and production manager (d. 1993)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34624, 2328623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1946 Allan Holdsworth, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 2017)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34631, 328261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1947 Radhia Cousot, French computer scientist and academic (d. 2014)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34584, 42793014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1949 Dino Bravo, Italian-Canadian wrestler (d. 1993) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34604, 1666380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1950 Dorian Harewood, American actor ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283873, 1595652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1951 Catherine Hicks, American actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34602, 1240271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1951 Daryl Somers, Australian television host and singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1625629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1952 Pat MacDonald, American singer-songwriter and guitarist ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34575, 5781040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1952 David McLetchie, Scottish lawyer and politician (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 523604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1952 Ton Scherpenzeel, Dutch keyboard player, songwriter, and producer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2197155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1954 Mark Hughes, English-Australian rugby league player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34982, 54755900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1956 Bill Emmott, English journalist and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34672, 512222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1957 Bob Horner, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34606, 801983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1957 Jim McGreevey, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Governor of New Jersey", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 410892, 214884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 62, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1958 Randy DeBarge, American singer-songwriter and bass player ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 16837906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1959 Rajendra Singh, Indian environmentalist ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34662, 5778574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1960 Dale Ellis, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34664, 2094639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1961 Mary Ann Sieghart, English journalist and radio host", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34659, 6840699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1962 Michelle Yeoh, Malaysian-Hong Kong actress and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34717, 147873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1963 Charles Ingram, English soldier, author, and game show contestant", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34648, 386112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1963 Kevin Mitnick, American computer hacker and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 77934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1964 Kemi Omololu-Olunloyo, Nigerian journalist, activist, social media expert, and pharmacist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34550, 46663467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1965 Stéphane Peterhansel, French racing driver", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34750, 3225966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1965 Yuki Kajiura, Japanese pianist and composer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 326257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1965 David Robinson, American basketball player and lieutenant", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 207750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1965 Vince Wells, English cricketer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3605301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1967 Lorna Fitzsimons, English businesswoman and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34749, 421614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1967 Mike Greenberg, American journalist and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1924730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1967 Julie Snyder, Canadian talk show host and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7731978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1968 Jack de Gier, Dutch footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34655, 9424853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1969 Simon Doull, New Zealand cricketer and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34610, 2799529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1969 Elliott Smith, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2003)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 80646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1970 M. Night Shyamalan, Indian-American director, producer, and screenwriter ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34726, 73631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1972 Paolo Bacigalupi, American author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34671, 7336385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Darren Eales, English footballer and lawyer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19828424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Geri Halliwell, English singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 256620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Ray Lucas, American football player and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4242049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1973 Vera Farmiga, American actress", 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10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1974 Alvin Williams, American basketball player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2431400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1975 Jason Crump, English-Australian motorcycle racer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34752, 7259642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1975 Renate Götschl, Austrian skier", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2424607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1975 Víctor Zambrano, Venezuelan baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 695458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976 Melissa George, Australian-American actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34661, 365318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1977 Leandro Amaral, Brazilian footballer", 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"plaintext": "1986 Raphael Pyrasch, German rugby player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 26588703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Leanne Crichton, Scottish footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34760, 38486456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Jiao Liuyang, Chinese swimmer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 18744819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 258 Pope Sixtus II", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 43758, 24274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 523 Pope Hormisdas (b. 450)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35692, 63010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 750 Marwan II, Umayyad general and caliph (b. 688)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35414, 437418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1027 Richard III, Duke of Normandy", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38727, 1351217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1162 Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona (b. 1113)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40012, 302865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1195 Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria (b. 1129)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40004, 70712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1221 Saint Dominic, Spanish priest, founded the Dominican Order (b. 1170)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36189, 681770, 8973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 49, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1272 Stephen V of Hungary (b. 1239)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39988, 161730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1384 Francesco I of Lesbos", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39545, 14211004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1412 Margherita of Durazzo, Queen consort of Charles III of Naples (b. 1347)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39896, 9522436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1414 Ladislaus of Naples (b. 1377)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39898, 541959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1458 Pope Callixtus III (b. 1378)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36131, 24221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1530 Jacopo Sannazaro, Italian poet (b. 1458)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38683, 163650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1553 Girolamo Fracastoro, Italian physician (b. 1478)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38667, 184263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1588 Josias I, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg (1578-1588) (b. 1554)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35147, 35520204, 34972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 42 ], [ 87, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1628 Johannes Junius, German lawyer and politician (b. 1573)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35142, 340959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1637 Ben Jonson, English poet and playwright (b. 1572)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35193, 48261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1645 Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex, English merchant and politician (b. 1575)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38607, 1799721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1657 Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Ukrainian soldier and politician, 1st Hetman of Zaporizhian Host (b. 1595)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34962, 4980, 39265419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 64, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1660 Diego Velázquez, Spanish painter and educator (b. 1599)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38618, 77423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1666 Tjerk Hiddes de Vries, Frisian naval hero and commander (b. 1622)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36223, 11518492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1679 John Snell, Scottish-English soldier and philanthropist, founded the Snell Exhibition (b. 1629)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38655, 977554, 5049369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 75, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1694 Antoine Arnauld, French mathematician and philosopher (b. 1612)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38646, 228442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1695 François de Harlay de Champvallon, French archbishop (b. 1625)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34896, 539245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1753 Georg Wilhelm Richmann, Estonian-Russian physicist and academic (b. 1711)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35827, 1560315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1757 Ádám Mányoki, Hungarian painter (b. 1673)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34900, 6682855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1794 Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst, English lawyer and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1714)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34946, 406186, 226197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 39 ], [ 72, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1815 James A. Bayard, American lawyer and politician (b. 1767)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34931, 661547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1828 Konstantin von Benckendorff, Russian general and diplomat (b. 1785)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34620, 3039850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1850 Edward Walsh, Irish poet and songwriter (b. 1805)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34983, 1694514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1866 John Mason Neale, English priest, scholar, and hymnwriter (b. 1818)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34667, 2391951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1881 James Springer White, American religious leader, co-founded the Seventh-day Adventist Church (b. 1821)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34716, 885653, 28632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 70, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1893 Jean-Jacques Challet-Venel, Swiss lawyer and politician (b. 1811)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34713, 240419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1904 Eduard Hanslick, Austrian author and critic (b. 1825)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34651, 364624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1906 George Waterhouse, English-New Zealand politician, 7th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1824)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34650, 2030342, 106321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 61, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1915 Jennie de la Montagnie Lozier, American physician (b. 1841)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34689, 55937010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1920 Stefan Bastyr, Polish pilot and author (b. 1890)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34676, 5114454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1925 Surendranath Banerjee, Indian academic and politician (b. 1848)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34867, 4451655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1925 Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro, Italian mathematician (b. 1853)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 499223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1931 Bix Beiderbecke, American cornet player, pianist, and composer (b. 1903)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34608, 41535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1945 Richard Bong, American soldier and pilot, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34624, 179025, 40331925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 48, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1945 Hiram Johnson, American lawyer and politician, 23rd Governor of California (b. 1866)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 175069, 62517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 62, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1946 Tony Lazzeri, American baseball player and coach (b. 1903)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34631, 742567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1952 Betty Allan, Australian statistician and biometrician (b. 1905)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34575, 61054166, 3878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 47, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1959 Preston Sturges, American director, screenwriter, and playwright (b. 1898)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34662, 401133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1964 Cedric Hardwicke, English actor and director (b. 1893)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34550, 173445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1969 Theodor W. Adorno, German sociologist and philosopher (b. 1903)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34610, 30391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1970 Nikos Tsiforos, Greek director and screenwriter (b. 1912)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34726, 21131130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1973 Fulgencio Batista, Cuban colonel and politician, 9th President of Cuba (b. 1901)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34751, 50206, 451867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 59, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976 Gregor Piatigorsky, Russian-American cellist and educator (b. 1903)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34661, 1254005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1978 Pope Paul VI (b. 1897)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34753, 24028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Edward Durell Stone, American architect, designed Radio City Music Hall and the Kennedy Center (b. 1902)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 53607, 170810, 380569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ], [ 60, 81 ], [ 90, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 755234, 52502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ], [ 65, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1983 Klaus Nomi, German singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1944)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34755, 240444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1985 Forbes Burnham, Guyanese politician, 2nd President of Guyana (b. 1923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34846, 1120089, 489597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 47, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Emilio Fernández, Mexican actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1904)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 2989519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Ira C. Eaker, American general (b. 1896)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34760, 1291209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 Jacques Soustelle, French anthropologist and politician (b. 1912)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 1211934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Shapour Bakhtiar, Iranian soldier and politician, 74th Prime Minister of Iran (b. 1915)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 2585292, 1078198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 61, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Roland Michener, Canadian lawyer and politician, 20th Governor General of Canada (b. 1900)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 289757, 38152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ], [ 64, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Harry Reasoner, American journalist, co-created 60 Minutes (b. 1923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 884714, 35061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 58, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Leszek Błażyński, Polish boxer (b. 1949)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 6807806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1993 Tex Hughson, American baseball player (b. 1916)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34598, 1397878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Domenico Modugno, Italian singer-songwriter and politician (b. 1928)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 291984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1997 Shin Ki-ha, South Korean lawyer and politician (b. 1941)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34601, 19242375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 André Weil, French-American mathematician and academic (b. 1906)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34647, 2019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2001 Jorge Amado, Brazilian novelist and poet (b. 1912)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34551, 421320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2001 Adhar Kumar Chatterji, Indian Naval officer (b. 1914)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 33456031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2001 Wilhelm Mohnke, German general (b. 1911)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1712046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2001 Shan Ratnam, Sri Lankan physician and academic (b. 1928)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1601334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2001 Dorothy Tutin, English actress (b. 1930)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 89458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2002 Edsger W. Dijkstra, Dutch physicist, computer scientist, and academic (b. 1930)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35502, 10018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2003 Julius Baker, American flute player and educator (b. 1915)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36163, 220271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2004 Rick James, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1948)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35524, 408259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2004 Donald Justice, American poet and academic (b. 1925)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 992398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2005 Robin Cook, Scottish educator and politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (b. 1946)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35984, 186803, 59655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 52, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2007 Zsolt Daczi, Hungarian guitarist (b. 1969)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36165, 12644249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2008 Angelos Kitsos, Greek lawyer and author (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35825, 19607662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2009 Riccardo Cassin, Italian mountaineer and author (b. 1909)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35983, 20426306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2009 Willy DeVille, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1950)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2642987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2009 John Hughes, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1950)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 102467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011 Fe del Mundo, Filipino pediatrician and educator (b. 1911)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36225, 13017167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 Richard Cragun, American-Brazilian ballet dancer and choreographer (b. 1944)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47374, 36650755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Marvin Hamlisch, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1944)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 364960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Robert Hughes, Australian-American author and critic (b. 1938)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 776149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Bernard Lovell, English physicist and astronomer (b. 1913)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 343808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Mark O'Donnell, American playwright (b. 1954)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 14649199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Ruggiero Ricci, American violinist and educator (b. 1918)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1254181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Dan Roundfield, American basketball player (b. 1953)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5136404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2013 Stan Lynde, American author and illustrator (b. 1931)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 46945, 2480405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Mava Lee Thomas, American baseball player (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40220726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Jerry Wolman, American businessman (b. 1927)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5873560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2014 Ralph Bryans, Northern Irish motorcycle racer (b. 1941)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 48630, 6138415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Ananda W.P. Guruge, Sri Lankan scholar and diplomat (b. 1928)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 25584244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 John Woodland Hastings, American biochemist and academic (b. 1927)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27989491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2015 Ray Hill, American football player (b. 1975)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49708, 12292340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Orna Porat, German-Israeli actress (b. 1924)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27282291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2017 Betty Cuthbert, Australian sprinter (b. 1938)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51389, 70740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2017 Darren Daulton, American baseball player (b. 1962)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1146323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2018 Joël Robuchon, French Chef (b. 1945) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51390, 988918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2018 Margaret Heckler, American politician (b. 1931)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 30865518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2018 Anya Krugovoy Silver, American poet (b. 1968)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 57051108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Blessed Anna Maria Rubatto", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 38977388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hormisdas", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 63010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Justus and Pastor", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 5764766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2386723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan's Accession Day. (United Arab Emirates)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 393639, 7105709, 69328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ], [ 36, 49 ], [ 52, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independence Day (Bolivia), celebrates the independence of Bolivia from Spain in 1825.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 780859, 3462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 59, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independence Day (Jamaica), celebrates the independence of Jamaica from the United Kingdom in 1962.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 47444517, 15660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 59, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hiroshima Peace Memorial Ceremony (Hiroshima, Japan)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 7868343, 59062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ], [ 35, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Russian Railway Troops Day (Russia)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 873520, 25391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 28, 34 ] ] } ]

[ "Days_of_the_year", "August" ]

[ "August 6th", "6th of August", "6 August", "Aug 6" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Anatoly Yevgenyevich Karpov (; born May 23, 1951) is a Russian and former Soviet chess grandmaster, former World Chess Champion, ⁣and politician. He was the 12th World Chess Champion from 1975 to 1985, a three-time FIDE World Champion (1993, 1996, 1998), twice World Chess champion as a member of the USSR team (1985, 1989), and a six-time winner of Chess Olympiads as a member of the USSR team (1972, 1974, 1980, 1982, 1986, 1988). The International Association of Chess Press awarded him nine Chess \"Oscars\" (1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1984).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5134, 166667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 86 ], [ 107, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov's tournament successes include over 160 first-place finishes. He had a peak Elo rating of 2780, and his 102 total months at world number one is the third-longest of all time, behind Magnus Carlsen and Garry Kasparov, since the inception of the FIDE ranking list in 1970.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 70421, 25659037, 442682, 12810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 93 ], [ 155, 180 ], [ 189, 203 ], [ 208, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov is also an elected Member of the Duma in Russia. Since 2006, he has chaired the Commission for Ecological Safety and Environmental Protection of the Civic Chamber of the Russian Federation, and since 2007, he has been a member of the Public Council under the Ministry of Defence.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 82288, 25391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 44 ], [ 48, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov was born into a Russian family on May 23, 1951, in Zlatoust, in the Urals region of the former Soviet Union, and learned to play chess at the age of four. His early rise in chess was swift, as he became a candidate master by age 11. At 12, he was accepted into Mikhail Botvinnik's prestigious chess school, though Botvinnik made the following remark about the young Karpov: \"The boy does not have a clue about chess, and there's no future at all for him in this profession.\" ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 59510, 1075006, 32152, 242416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 30 ], [ 58, 66 ], [ 75, 80 ], [ 268, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov acknowledged that his understanding of chess theory was very confused at that time, and later wrote that the homework Botvinnik assigned greatly helped him, since it required that he consult chess books and work diligently. Karpov improved so quickly under Botvinnik's tutelage that he became the youngest Soviet master in history at the age of fifteen in 1966; this tied the record established by Boris Spassky in 1952.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 63280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 405, 418 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov finished first in his first international tournament in Třinec several months later, ahead of Viktor Kupreichik. In 1967, he won the annual Niemeyer Tournament in Groningen. Karpov won a gold medal for academic excellence in high school, and entered Moscow State University in 1968 to study mathematics. He later transferred to Leningrad State University, eventually graduating from there in economics. One reason for the transfer was to be closer to his coach, grandmaster Semyon Furman, who lived in Leningrad. In his writings, Karpov credits Furman as a major influence on his development as a world-class player.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 3583349, 19356956, 13675874, 50118, 374544, 649879, 47438795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 69 ], [ 101, 118 ], [ 147, 166 ], [ 170, 179 ], [ 257, 280 ], [ 335, 361 ], [ 481, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1969, Karpov became the first Soviet player since Spassky (1955) to win the World Junior Championship, scoring an undefeated 10/11 in the final A at Stockholm. This victory earned him the international master title. In 1970, he tied for fourth and fifth places with Pal Benko at an international tournament in Caracas, Venezuela, and earned the international grandmaster title. FIDE awarded him the title during its 41st congress, held during the Chess Olympiad in Siegen, West Germany in September 1970.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 294931, 26741, 24431518, 1926740, 55289, 12304, 11146, 142333, 1069600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 104 ], [ 152, 161 ], [ 191, 211 ], [ 269, 278 ], [ 313, 320 ], [ 348, 373 ], [ 381, 385 ], [ 450, 464 ], [ 468, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He won the 1971 Alekhine Memorial tournament in Moscow (jointly with Leonid Stein), ahead of a star-studded field, for his first significant adult victory. His Elo rating shot from 2540 in 1971 to 2660 in 1973, when he shared second place in the USSR Chess Championship.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 72495, 298440, 70421, 295508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 24 ], [ 69, 81 ], [ 160, 170 ], [ 246, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov's world junior championship qualified him for one of the two Interzonals, a stage in the 1975 World Championship cycle to choose the challenger to play world champion Bobby Fischer. He finished equal first in the Leningrad Interzonal, qualifying for the 1974 Candidates Matches.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2630659, 18402206, 2073557, 1368341 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 78 ], [ 96, 125 ], [ 174, 187 ], [ 266, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov defeated Lev Polugaevsky by the score of +3=5 in the first Candidates' match, earning the right to face former champion Boris Spassky in the semifinal round. Karpov was on record saying that he believed Spassky would easily beat him and win the Candidates' cycle to face Fischer, and that he (Karpov) would win the following Candidates' cycle in 1977. Spassky won the first game as Black in good style, but tenacious, aggressive play from Karpov secured him overall victory by +4−1=6.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2396159, 63280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 31 ], [ 127, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Candidates' final was played in Moscow with Victor Korchnoi. Karpov took an early lead, winning the second game against the Sicilian Dragon, then scoring another victory in the sixth game. Following ten consecutive draws, Korchnoi threw away a winning position in the seventeenth game to give Karpov a 3–0 lead. In game 19, Korchnoi succeeded in winning a long endgame, then notched a speedy victory after a blunder by Karpov two games later. Three more draws, the last agreed by Karpov in a clearly better position, closed the match, as he thus prevailed +3−2=19, moving on to challenge Fischer for the world title.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 23987616, 497994, 264341, 150131, 566993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 63 ], [ 128, 143 ], [ 219, 224 ], [ 365, 372 ], [ 474, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though a world championship match between Karpov and Fischer was highly anticipated, those hopes were never realised. Fischer not only insisted that the match be the first to ten wins (draws not counting), but also that the champion retain the crown if the score was tied 9–9. FIDE, the International Chess Federation, refused to allow this proviso, and gave both players a deadline of April 1, 1975, to agree to play the match under the FIDE-approved rules. When Fischer did not agree, FIDE President Max Euwe declared on April 3, 1975, that Fischer had forfeited his title and Karpov was the new World Champion. Karpov later attempted to set up another match with Fischer, but the negotiations fell through. This thrust the young Karpov into the role of World Champion without having faced the reigning champion. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 264341, 11146, 118385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 190 ], [ 277, 281 ], [ 502, 510 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Garry Kasparov argued that Karpov would have had good chances because he had beaten Spassky convincingly and was a new breed of tough professional, and indeed had higher quality games, while Fischer had been inactive for three years. This view is echoed by Karpov himself. Spassky thought that Fischer would have won in 1975, but Karpov would have qualified again and beaten Fischer in 1978.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 12810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov has said that if he had had the opportunity to play Fischer for the championship in his twenties, he could have been a much better player as a result.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Determined to prove himself a legitimate champion, Karpov participated in nearly every major tournament for the next ten years. He convincingly won the Milan tournament in 1975, and captured his first of three Soviet titles in 1976. He created a phenomenal streak of tournament wins against the strongest players in the world. Karpov held the record for most consecutive tournament victories (9) until it was shattered by Garry Kasparov (14). As a result, most chess professionals soon agreed that Karpov was a legitimate world champion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 36511, 12810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 157 ], [ 422, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1978, Karpov's first title defence was against Viktor Korchnoi, the opponent he had defeated in the 1973–75 Candidates' cycle; the match was played at Baguio, Philippines, with the winner needing six victories.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 162480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As in 1974, Karpov took an early lead, winning the eighth game after seven draws to open the match. When the score was +5−2=20 in Karpov's favour, Korchnoi staged a comeback, and won three of the next four games to draw level with Karpov. Karpov then won the very next game to retain the title (+6−5=21).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Three years later, Korchnoi reemerged as the Candidates' winner against German finalist Robert Hübner to challenge Karpov in Merano, Italy. Karpov handily won this match, 11–7 (+6−2=10), in what is remembered as the \"Massacre in Merano\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1358965, 1093727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 101 ], [ 125, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov's tournament career reached a peak at the Montreal \"Tournament of Stars\" tournament in 1979, where he finished joint first (+7−1=10) with Mikhail Tal ahead of a field of strong grandmasters completed by Jan Timman, Ljubomir Ljubojević, Boris Spassky, Vlastimil Hort, Lajos Portisch, Robert Hübner, Bent Larsen and Lubomir Kavalek. He dominated Las Palmas in 1977 with 13½/15. He also won the prestigious Bugojno tournament in 1978 (shared), 1980 and 1986, the Linares tournament in 1981 (shared with Larry Christiansen) and 1994, the Tilburg tournament in 1977, 1979, 1980, 1982, and 1983, and the Soviet Championship in 1976, 1983, and 1988.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 7954681, 183145, 69125, 2630149, 63280, 2291341, 1430465, 319789, 2144329, 163701, 1233780, 446582, 2019233, 37147, 295508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 57 ], [ 145, 156 ], [ 210, 220 ], [ 222, 241 ], [ 243, 256 ], [ 258, 272 ], [ 274, 288 ], [ 305, 316 ], [ 321, 336 ], [ 351, 361 ], [ 411, 418 ], [ 467, 485 ], [ 507, 525 ], [ 541, 548 ], [ 605, 624 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov represented the Soviet Union at six Chess Olympiads, in all of which the USSR won the team gold medal. He played as the first reserve at Skopje 1972, winning the board prize with 13/15. At Nice 1974, he advanced to board one and again won the board prize with 12/14. At La Valletta 1980, he was again board one and scored 9/12. At Lucerne 1982, he scored 6½/8 on board one. At Dubai 1986, he scored 6/9 on board two. His last was Thessaloniki 1988, where on board two he scored 8/10. In Olympiad play, Karpov lost only two games out of 68 played.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 142333, 15120191, 15120145, 15120018, 15119979, 15119902, 15119798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 58 ], [ 144, 155 ], [ 196, 205 ], [ 277, 293 ], [ 338, 350 ], [ 384, 394 ], [ 437, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To illustrate Karpov's dominance over his peers as champion, his score was +11−2=20 versus Spassky, +5=12 versus Robert Hübner, +6−1=16 versus Ulf Andersson, +3−1=10 versus Vasily Smyslov, +1=16 versus Mikhail Tal, and +10−2=13 versus Ljubomir Ljubojević.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1358965, 499860, 245597, 183145, 2630149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 126 ], [ 143, 156 ], [ 173, 187 ], [ 202, 213 ], [ 235, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov had cemented his position as the world's best player and world champion by the time Garry Kasparov arrived on the scene. In their first match, the World Chess Championship 1984 in Moscow, the first player to win six games would win the match. Karpov built a 4–0 lead after nine games. The next 17 games were drawn, setting a record for world title matches, and it took Karpov until game 27 to gain his fifth win. In game 31, Karpov had a winning position but failed to take advantage and settled for a draw. He lost the next game, after which 14 more draws ensued. Karpov held a solidly winning position in Game 41, but again blundered and had to settle for a draw. After Kasparov won games 47 and 48, FIDE President Florencio Campomanes unilaterally terminated the match, citing the players' health. Karpov is said to have lost 10 kg over the course of the match. The match had lasted an unprecedented five months, with five wins for Karpov, three for Kasparov, and 40 draws.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 12810, 15463060, 1414189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 105 ], [ 154, 183 ], [ 724, 744 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A rematch was set for later in 1985, also in Moscow. The events of the so-called Marathon Match forced FIDE to return to the previous format, with a match limited to 24 games (with Karpov remaining champion if the match finished 12–12). Karpov needed to win the final game to draw the match and retain his title, but lost, surrendering the title to his opponent. The final score was 13–11 (+3−5=16) in favour of Kasparov.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov remained a formidable opponent (and the world No. 2) until the mid-1990s. He fought Kasparov in three more world championship matches in 1986 (held in London and Leningrad), 1987 (in Seville), and 1990 (in New York City and Lyon). All three matches were extremely close: the scores were 11½–12½ (+4−5=15), 12–12 (+4−4=16), and 11½–12½ (+3−4=17). In all three matches, Karpov had winning chances up to the last games. In particular, the 1987 Seville match featured an astonishing blunder by Kasparov in the 23rd game. In the final game, needing only a draw to win the title, Karpov cracked under time pressure at the end of the first session of play, missed a variation leading to an almost forced draw, and allowed Kasparov to adjourn the game with an extra pawn. After a further mistake in the second session, Karpov was slowly ground down and resigned on move 64, ending the match and allowing Kasparov to keep the title.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 24320051, 37770, 8638634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 178 ], [ 190, 197 ], [ 231, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In their five world championship matches, Karpov scored 19 wins, 21 losses, and 104 draws in 144 games. Overall, Karpov played five matches against Kasparov for the title from 1984 to 1990 without ever defeating him in a match.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1992, Karpov lost a Candidates Match against Nigel Short. But in the World Chess Championship 1993, Karpov reacquired the FIDE World Champion title when Kasparov and Short split from FIDE. Karpov defeated Timman – the loser of the Candidates' final against Short.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 217711, 12163181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 59 ], [ 72, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next major meeting of Kasparov and Karpov was the 1994 Linares chess tournament. The field, in eventual finishing order, was Karpov, Kasparov, Shirov, Bareev, Kramnik, Lautier, Anand, Kamsky, Topalov, Ivanchuk, Gelfand, Illescas, Judit Polgár, and Beliavsky; with an average Elo rating of 2685, the highest ever at that time. Impressed by the strength of the tournament, Kasparov had said several days before the tournament that the winner could rightly be called the world champion of tournaments. Perhaps spurred on by this comment, Karpov played the best tournament of his life. He was undefeated and earned 11 points out of 13 (the best world-class tournament winning percentage since Alekhine won San Remo in 1930), finishing 2½ points ahead of second-place Kasparov and Shirov. Many of his wins were spectacular (in particular, his win over Topalov is considered possibly the finest of his career). This performance against the best players in the world put his Elo rating tournament performance at 2985, the highest performance rating of any player in history up until 2009, when Magnus Carlsen won the category XXI Pearl Spring chess tournament with a performance of 3002. Chess statistician Jeff Sonas considers Karpov's Linares performance the best tournament result in history.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 446582, 360922, 2161987, 99647, 1827519, 281337, 556529, 348814, 1035992, 2095405, 8717151, 15937, 160549, 70421, 19362148, 70421, 27343166, 442682, 20701997, 20771201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 83 ], [ 147, 153 ], [ 155, 161 ], [ 163, 170 ], [ 172, 179 ], [ 181, 186 ], [ 188, 194 ], [ 196, 203 ], [ 205, 213 ], [ 215, 222 ], [ 224, 232 ], [ 234, 246 ], [ 252, 261 ], [ 279, 289 ], [ 706, 722 ], [ 972, 982 ], [ 1027, 1045 ], [ 1091, 1105 ], [ 1127, 1156 ], [ 1204, 1214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov defended his FIDE title against the rising star Gata Kamsky (+6−3=9) in 1996. In 1998, FIDE largely scrapped the old system of Candidates' Matches, instead having a large knockout event in which a large number of players contested short matches against each other over just a few weeks. In the first of these events, the FIDE World Chess Championship 1998, champion Karpov was seeded straight into the final, defeating Viswanathan Anand (+2−2=2, rapid tiebreak 2–0). In the subsequent cycle, the format was changed, with the champion having to qualify. Karpov refused to defend his title, and ceased to be FIDE World Champion after the FIDE World Chess Championship 1999.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 556529, 18209675, 281337, 18107847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 66 ], [ 328, 362 ], [ 426, 443 ], [ 643, 677 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov's classical tournament play has been seriously limited since 1997, since he prefers to be more involved in Russian politics. He had been a member of the Supreme Soviet Commission for Foreign Affairs and the president of the Soviet Peace Fund before the Soviet Union dissolved. In addition, he has been involved in several disputes with FIDE. In the September 2009 FIDE rating list, he dropped out of the world's Top 100 for the first time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 22463096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov usually limits his play to exhibition events, and has revamped his style to specialize in rapid chess. In 2002, he won a match against Kasparov, defeating him in a rapid time control match 2½–1½. In 2006, he tied for first with Kasparov in a blitz tournament, ahead of Korchnoi and Judit Polgár.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov and Kasparov played a mixed 12-game match from September 21–24, 2009, in Valencia, Spain. It consisted of four rapid (or semi-rapid) and eight blitz games and took place exactly 25 years after the two players' legendary encounter at the World Chess Championship 1984. Kasparov won the match 9–3.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 63861, 15463060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 88 ], [ 244, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov played a match against Yasser Seirawan in 2012 in St. Louis, Missouri, an important center of the North American chess scene, winning 8–6 (+5−3=6).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 161508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 2012, he won the Cap d'Agde rapid tournament that bears his name (Anatoly Karpov Trophy), beating Vasyl Ivanchuk (ranked 9th in the October 2012 FIDE world rankings) in the final.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2003, Karpov opened his first American chess school in Lindsborg, Kansas. On March 2, 2022, the school announced a name change to International School of Chess of the Midwest due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Professional and political career after retirement from chess", "target_page_ids": [ 114735, 70149799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 75 ], [ 189, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov has been a member of the sixth, seventh and eighth Russian State Dumas. Since 2005, he has been a member of the Public Chamber of Russia. He has involved himself in several humanitarian causes, such as advocating the use of iodised salt. On December 17, 2012, Karpov supported the law in the Russian Parliament banning adoption of Russian orphans by U.S. citizens.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Professional and political career after retirement from chess", "target_page_ids": [ 49742192, 51436266, 67386345, 8855284, 1232890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 37 ], [ 39, 46 ], [ 51, 77 ], [ 119, 143 ], [ 231, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov expressed support of the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, and accused Europe of trying to demonize Putin. In August 2019, Maxim Dlugy said that Karpov had been waiting since March for the approval of a non-immigrant visa to the United States, despite frequently visiting the country since 1972. Karpov had been scheduled to teach a summer camp at the Chess Max Academy. Dlugy said that Karpov had been questioned at the US embassy in Moscow about whether he planned to communicate with American politicians. Karpov was among the Russian State Duma members placed under sanctions by the EU during the prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. In March 2022, after the start of the invasion, the FIDE Council suspended Karpov's title of FIDE Ambassador for Life.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Professional and political career after retirement from chess", "target_page_ids": [ 42228673, 2619948, 19664350, 69580744, 70149799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 78 ], [ 144, 155 ], [ 442, 462 ], [ 622, 669 ], [ 709, 717 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2010 Karpov announced that he would be a candidate for the presidency of FIDE. The election took place in September 2010 at the 39th Chess Olympiad. In May, a fund-raising event took place in New York with the participation of Kasparov and of Magnus Carlsen, both of whom supported his bid and campaigned for him. Nigel Short also supported Karpov's candidacy. On September 29, 2010, Kirsan Ilyumzhinov was reelected as president of FIDE, 95 votes to 55.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Candidate for FIDE presidency", "target_page_ids": [ 20484243, 303988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 156 ], [ 393, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov's \"boa constrictor\" playing style is solidly positional, taking minimal risks but reacting mercilessly to the slightest error by his opponent. As a result, he is often compared to José Raúl Capablanca, the third world champion. Karpov himself describes his style as follows:Let us say the game may be continued in two ways: one of them is a beautiful tactical blow that gives rise to variations that don't yield to precise calculations; the other is clear positional pressure that leads to an endgame with microscopic chances of victory.... I would choose [the latter] without thinking twice. If the opponent offers keen play I don't object; but in such cases I get less satisfaction, even if I win, than from a game conducted according to all the rules of strategy with its ruthless logic.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [ 30863385, 170402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ], [ 187, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Viktor Korchnoi vs. Anatoly Karpov, Moscow 1973 Karpov sacrifices a pawn for a strong center and attack.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable games", "target_page_ids": [ 2386828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anatoly Karpov vs. Gyula Sax, Linares 1983 Karpov sacrifices for an attack that wins the game 20 moves later, after another spectacular sacrifice from Karpov and counter-sacrifice from Sax. It won the tournament's first . This was not the first time Karpov used the sharp Keres Attack (6.g4) – see his win in Anatoly Karpov vs. Vlastimil Hort, Alekhine Memorial Tournament, Moscow 1971.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable games", "target_page_ids": [ 2550579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anatoly Karpov vs. Veselin Topalov, Dos Hermanas 1994 This game features a sham sacrifice of two pieces, which Karpov regains with a variation, culminating in the win of an exchange with a technically won endgame.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Notable games", "target_page_ids": [ 2386828, 2982620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 89 ], [ 174, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov's extensive stamp collection of Belgian philately and Belgian Congo stamps and postal history covering mail from 1742 through 1980 was sold by David Feldman's auction company between December 2011 and 2012. He is also known to have large chess stamp and chess book collections. His private chess library consists of 9,000 books.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Hobbies", "target_page_ids": [ 24771359, 27283573, 12374758, 78813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 56 ], [ 61, 100 ], [ 150, 165 ], [ 297, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of Merit for the Fatherland, 3rd class (2001) – for outstanding contribution to the implementation of charitable programmes, the strengthening of peace and friendship between the peoples", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 34562233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of Friendship (2011) – for his great contribution to strengthening peace and friendship between peoples and productive social activities", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 6995756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of Lenin (1981)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 45137565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1978)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 1971962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of Merit, 2nd class (Ukraine) (November 13, 2006) – for his contribution to the victims of the Chernobyl disaster", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 24130512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of Holy Prince Daniel of Moscow, 2nd class (1996)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 33891160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of St. Sergius of Radonezh, 2nd class (2001)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Medal \"For outstanding contribution to the Collector business in Russia\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Honorary member of the Soviet Philately Society (1979)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Diploma of the State Duma of the Russian Federation No. 1", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Order \"For outstanding achievements in sport\" (Republic of Cuba)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Medal of Tsiolkovsky Cosmonautics Federation of Russia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Medal \"For Strengthening the penal system\", 1st and 2nd class", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Breastplate of the 1st degree of the Interior Ministry", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 53056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " International Association of Chess Press, 9 times voted the best chess player of the year and awarded the \"Chess Oscar\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 2559171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order of Saint Nestor the Chronicler, 1st class", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Asteroid 90414 Karpov is named after Karpov", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 791, 1003123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anatoly Karpov International Chess Tournament, an annual round-robin tournament held in his honour in Poikovsky, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, Russia since 2000", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 939742, 59324385, 482042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 80 ], [ 103, 112 ], [ 114, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karpov has authored or co-authored several books, most of which have been translated into English.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Karpov, A.E.\tNinth vertical. 1978. Moscow: Molodaya Gvardia.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (also a 1992 Simon & Schuster edition)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [ 1001882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fine, Rueben (1983). The World's Great Chess Games. Dover. .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 400897, 807056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 53, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hurst, Sarah (2002). Curse of Kirsan: Adventures in the Chess Underworld. Russell Enterprises. .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Karpov, Anatoly (2003). Anatoly Karpov's Best Games. Batsford. .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 253375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Winter, Edward G., editor (1981).World Chess Champions. Pergamon Press. .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 7320417, 1025821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 57, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Karpov's official homepage ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Edward Winter, \"Books about Korchnoi and Karpov\", Chess Notes", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 7320417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 25 minute video interview with Karpov, OnlineChessLessons.NET, June 19, 2012", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Anatoly Karpov tells all\" (2015 interview by Sport Express, translated by ChessBase): part 1, part 2, part 3, part 4", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 5558043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 60 ] ] } ]

[ "1951_births", "Living_people", "People_from_Zlatoust", "World_chess_champions", "Chess_grandmasters", "World_Junior_Chess_Champions", "Chess_Olympiad_competitors", "Russian_chess_players", "Soviet_chess_players", "Saint_Petersburg_State_University_alumni", "Russian_chess_writers", "Soviet_chess_writers", "Soviet_male_writers", "20th-century_male_writers", "Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union_members", "Members_of_the_Civic_Chamber_of_the_Russian_Federation", "Recipients_of_the_Order_\"For_Merit_to_the_Fatherland\",_3rd_class", "Recipients_of_the_Order_of_Lenin", "Recipients_of_the_Order_of_Merit_(Ukraine),_1st_class", "Recipients_of_the_Order_of_Holy_Prince_Daniel_of_Moscow", "Book_and_manuscript_collectors", "Russian_philatelists", "Russian_sportsperson-politicians", "Sixth_convocation_members_of_the_State_Duma_(Russian_Federation)", "Seventh_convocation_members_of_the_State_Duma_(Russian_Federation)", "Eighth_convocation_members_of_the_State_Duma_(Russian_Federation)" ]

[ "Anatoly Yevgenyevich Karpov" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The aspect ratio of a geometric shape is the ratio of its sizes in different dimensions. For example, the aspect ratio of a rectangle is the ratio of its longer side to its shorter side—the ratio of width to height, when the rectangle is oriented as a \"landscape\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18973446, 87837, 70048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 31 ], [ 45, 50 ], [ 124, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The aspect ratio is most often expressed as two integer numbers separated by a colon (x:y), less commonly as a simple or decimal fraction. The values x and y do not represent actual widths and heights but, rather, the proportion between width and height. As an example, 8:5, 16:10, 1.6:1, and 1.6 are all ways of representing the same aspect ratio.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1704824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In objects of more than two dimensions, such as hyperrectangles, the aspect ratio can still be defined as the ratio of the longest side to the shortest side.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1688550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term is most commonly used with reference to:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Graphic / image", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Image aspect ratio", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [ 30876233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Display aspect ratio", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [ 17455275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paper size", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [ 166105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Standard photographic print sizes", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [ 18326830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Motion picture film formats", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [ 4625137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Standard ad size", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [ 34044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pixel aspect ratio", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [ 5550368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Photolithography: the aspect ratio of an etched, or deposited structure is the ratio of the height of its vertical side wall to its width.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [ 23748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " HARMST High Aspect Ratios allow the construction of tall microstructures without slant", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [ 23431978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tire code", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3603676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tire sizing", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [ 4460809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Turbocharger impeller sizing", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [ 30886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wing aspect ratio of an aircraft or bird", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [ 272456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Astigmatism of an optical lens", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [ 585614, 18320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 19, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nanorod dimensions", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shape factor (image analysis and microscopy)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications and uses", "target_page_ids": [ 17642726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For a rectangle, the aspect ratio denotes the ratio of the width to the height of the rectangle. A square has the smallest possible aspect ratio of 1:1.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of simple shapes", "target_page_ids": [ 659939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Examples:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of simple shapes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 4:3 = 1.: Some (not all) 20th century computer monitors (VGA, XGA, etc.), standard-definition television", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of simple shapes", "target_page_ids": [ 73041, 28385304, 27767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 61 ], [ 63, 66 ], [ 75, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " : international paper sizes (ISO 216)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of simple shapes", "target_page_ids": [ 15275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 3:2 = 1.5: 35mm still camera film, iPhone (until iPhone 5) displays", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of simple shapes", "target_page_ids": [ 173458, 8841749, 33304644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 34 ], [ 36, 42 ], [ 50, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 10 = 1.6: commonly used widescreen computer displays (WXGA)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of simple shapes", "target_page_ids": [ 33263, 7677, 28385304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 35 ], [ 36, 52 ], [ 55, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Φ:1 = 1.618...: golden ratio, close to 16:10", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of simple shapes", "target_page_ids": [ 12386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 5:3 = 1.: super 16 mm, a standard film gauge in many European countries", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of simple shapes", "target_page_ids": [ 46224, 3868991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 36, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 16:9 = 1.: widescreen TV and most laptops", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of simple shapes", "target_page_ids": [ 33263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2:1 = 2: dominoes", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of simple shapes", "target_page_ids": [ 24838306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 64:27 = 2.: ultra-widescreen, 9", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of simple shapes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 32:9 = 3.: super ultra-widescreen", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of simple shapes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For an ellipse, the aspect ratio denotes the ratio of the major axis to the minor axis. An ellipse with an aspect ratio of 1:1 is a circle.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of simple shapes", "target_page_ids": [ 23409699, 23409699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 68 ], [ 76, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In geometry, there are several alternative definitions to aspect ratios of general compact sets in a d-dimensional space:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of general shapes", "target_page_ids": [ 18973446, 6042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 83, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The diameter-width aspect ratio (DWAR) of a compact set is the ratio of its diameter to its width. A circle has the minimal DWAR which is 1. A square has a DWAR of .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of general shapes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The cube-volume aspect ratio (CVAR) of a compact set is the d-th root of the ratio of the d-volume of the smallest enclosing axes-parallel d-cube, to the set's own d-volume. A square has the minimal CVAR which is 1. A circle has a CVAR of . An axis-parallel rectangle of width W and height H, where WH, has a CVAR of .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of general shapes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the dimension d is fixed, then all reasonable definitions of aspect ratio are equivalent to within constant factors.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aspect ratios of general shapes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aspect ratios are mathematically expressed as x:y (pronounced \"x-to-y\").", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cinematographic aspect ratios are usually denoted as a (rounded) decimal multiple of width vs unit height, while photographic and videographic aspect ratios are usually defined and denoted by whole number ratios of width to height. In digital images there is a subtle distinction between the display aspect ratio (the image as displayed) and the storage aspect ratio (the ratio of pixel dimensions); see Distinctions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notations", "target_page_ids": [ 503726, 30876233, 30876233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 235, 248 ], [ 346, 366 ], [ 404, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Axial ratio", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1938356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ratio", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 87837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Equidimensional ratios in 3D", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17732273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of film formats", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4625137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Squeeze mapping", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1140043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Scale (ratio)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 49526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vertical orientation", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4692870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] } ]

[ "Ratios" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Auto racing (also known as car racing, motor racing, or automobile racing) is a motorsport involving the racing of automobiles for competition.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 293861, 50857, 13673345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 90 ], [ 105, 111 ], [ 115, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Auto racing has existed since the invention of the automobile. Races of various sorts were organised, with the first recorded as early as 1867. Many of the earliest events were effectively reliability trials, aimed at proving these new machines were a practical mode of transport, but soon became an important way for automobile makers to demonstrate their machines. By the 1930s, specialist racing cars had developed.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3777211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are now numerous different categories, each with different rules and regulations.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first prearranged match race of two self-powered road vehicles over a prescribed route occurred at 4:30 A.M. on August 30, 1867, between Ashton-under-Lyne and Old Trafford, a distance of eight miles. It was won by the carriage of Isaac Watt Boulton.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 308036, 660592, 10476333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 158 ], [ 163, 175 ], [ 234, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Internal combustion auto racing events began soon after the construction of the first successful gasoline-fueled automobiles. The first organized contest was on April 28, 1887, by the chief editor of Paris publication Le Vélocipède, Monsieur Fossier. It ran from Neuilly Bridge to the Bois de Boulogne.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On July 22, 1894, the Parisian magazine Le Petit Journal organized what is considered to be the world's first motoring competition, from Paris to Rouen. One hundred and two competitors paid a 10-franc entrance fee.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9324068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first American automobile race is generally held to be the Thanksgiving Day Chicago Times-Herald race of November 28, 1895. Press coverage of the event first aroused significant American interest in the automobile.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22731138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Targa Florio was an open road endurance automobile race held in the mountains of Sicily near the island's capital of Palermo. Founded in 1906, it was the oldest sports car racing event, part of the World Sportscar Championship between 1955 and 1973.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 699018, 27619, 38881, 38249193, 52244, 3469386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 43 ], [ 85, 91 ], [ 121, 128 ], [ 141, 145 ], [ 165, 182 ], [ 202, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With auto construction and racing dominated by France, the French automobile club ACF staged a number of major international races, usually from or to Paris, connecting with another major city, in France or elsewhere in Europe.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aspendale Racecourse, in Australia, was the world's first purpose-built motor racing circuit, opening in January 1906. The pear shaped track was close to a mile in length, with slightly banked curves and a gravel surface of crushed cement.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10272510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brooklands, in Surrey, was the first purpose-built 'banked' motor racing venue, opening in June 1907. It featured a concrete track with high-speed banked corners.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 161321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the oldest existing purpose-built automobile racing circuits in the United States, still in use, is the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana. It is the largest capacity sports venue of any variety worldwide, with a top capacity of some 257,000+ seated spectators.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 227965, 112466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 139 ], [ 143, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NASCAR was founded by Bill France, Sr. on February 21, 1948, with the help of several other drivers of the time. The first NASCAR \"Strictly Stock\" race ever was held on June 19, 1949, at Daytona Beach, Florida.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 109820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1962, sports cars temporarily took a back seat to GT cars, with the FIA replacing the World Championship for Sports Cars with the International Championship for GT Manufacturers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From 1962 through 2003, NASCAR's premier series was called the Winston Cup Series, sponsored by R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company cigarette brand Winston. The changes that resulted from RJR's involvement, as well as the reduction of the schedule from 56 to 34 races a year, established 1972 as the beginning of NASCAR's \"modern era\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 142883, 3915251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 126 ], [ 143, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The IMSA GT Series evolved into the American Le Mans Series, which ran its first season in 1998. The European races eventually became the closely related Le Mans Series, both of which mix prototypes and GTs.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 657573, 895712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 59 ], [ 154, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Turismo Carretera (Road racing, lit., Road Touring) is a popular touring car racing series in Argentina, and one of the oldest car racing series still active in the world. The first TC competition took place in 1931 with 12 races, each in a different province. Future Formula One star Juan Manuel Fangio (Chevrolet) won the 1940 and 1941 editions of the TC. It was during this time that the series' Chevrolet-Ford rivalry began, with Ford acquiring most of its historical victories.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The two most popular varieties of open-wheel road racing are Formula One and the IndyCar Series.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 685673, 10854, 8511358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 56 ], [ 61, 72 ], [ 81, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "F1 is a worldwide series that runs only street circuit and race tracks. These cars are heavily based around technology and their aerodynamics. The speed record was set in 2005 by Juan Pablo Montoya hitting 373km/h (232mph). Some of the most prominent races are the Monaco Grand Prix, the Italian Grand Prix, and the British Grand Prix. The season ends with the crowning of the World Championship for drivers and constructors.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 23978336, 301925, 164992, 10946, 511451, 294253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 54 ], [ 59, 69 ], [ 179, 197 ], [ 265, 282 ], [ 288, 306 ], [ 316, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In single-seater (open-wheel), the wheels are not covered, and the cars often have aerofoil wings front and rear to produce downforce and enhance adhesion to the track. In Europe and Asia, open-wheeled racing is commonly referred to as 'Formula', with appropriate hierarchical suffixes. In North America, the 'Formula' terminology is not followed (with the exception of F1). The sport is usually arranged to follow an international format (such as F1), a regional format (such as the Formula 3 Euro Series), and/or a domestic, or country-specific, format (such as the German Formula 3 championship, or the British Formula Ford).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 22450, 475276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 28 ], [ 124, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, the most popular series is the IndyCar Series. The cars have traditionally been similar to, though less technologically sophisticated than, F1 cars, with more restrictions on technology aimed at controlling costs. While these cars are not as technologically advanced, they are faster, mainly because they compete on oval race tracks, being able to average a lap at 388km/h (241mph). The series' biggest race is the Indianapolis 500, which is commonly referred to as \"The Greatest Spectacle in Racing\" due to being the longest continuously run race and having the largest crowd for a single-day sporting event (350,000+).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 8511358, 645083, 159018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 67 ], [ 162, 169 ], [ 437, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The other major international single-seater racing series is Formula 2 (formerly known as Formula 3000 and GP2 Series). Regional series include Super Formula and Formula V6 Asia (specifically in Asia), Formula Renault 3.5 (also known as the World Series by Renault, succession series of World Series by Nissan), Formula Three, Formula Palmer Audi and Formula Atlantic. In 2009, the FIA Formula Two Championship brought about the revival of the F2 series. Domestic, or country-specific, series include Formula Three and Formula Renault, with the leading introductory series being Formula Ford.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 550495, 19350818, 1430822, 705320, 13473185, 4643016, 4643016, 553257, 8098431, 2309038, 20502223, 2022221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 70 ], [ 90, 102 ], [ 107, 117 ], [ 144, 157 ], [ 162, 177 ], [ 202, 221 ], [ 287, 309 ], [ 312, 325 ], [ 327, 346 ], [ 351, 367 ], [ 382, 410 ], [ 579, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Single-seater racing is not limited merely to professional teams and drivers. There exist many amateur racing clubs. In the UK, the major club series are the Monoposto Racing Club, BRSCC F3 (Formerly ClubF3, formerly ARP F3), Formula Vee and Club Formula Ford. Each series caters for a section of the market, with some primarily providing low-cost racing, while others aim for an authentic experience using the same regulations as the professional series (BRSCC F3).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 4224506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are other categories of single-seater racing, including kart racing, which employs a small, low-cost machine on small tracks. Many of the current top drivers began their careers in karts. Formula Ford represents the most popular first open-wheel category for up-and-coming drivers stepping up from karts. The series is still the preferred option, as it has introduced an aero package and slicks, allowing the junior drivers to gain experience in a race car with dynamics closer to F1. The Star Mazda Series is another entry-level series.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 54128, 2022221, 4519227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 73 ], [ 194, 206 ], [ 495, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Students at colleges and universities can also take part in single-seater racing through the Formula SAE competition, which involves designing and building a single-seater car in a multidisciplinary team and racing it at the competition. This also develops other soft skills, such as teamwork, while promoting motorsport and engineering.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 278148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The world's first all-female Formula racing team was created in 2006. The group was an assemblage of drivers from different racing disciplines and formed for an MTV reality pilot, which was shot at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 676326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2005, the FIA gave approval to Superleague Formula racing, which debuted in 2008, whereby the racing teams are owned and run by prominent sports clubs such as A.C. Milan and Liverpool F.C.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 248019, 11636222, 18940588, 18119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 25 ], [ 43, 62 ], [ 171, 181 ], [ 186, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After 25 years away from the sport, former Formula 2 champion Jonathan Palmer reopened the F2 category again; most drivers have graduated from the Formula Palmer Audi series. The category is officially registered as the FIA Formula Two championship. Most rounds have two races and are support races to the FIA World Touring Car Championship.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 550495, 1226340, 8098431, 248019, 2701925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 52 ], [ 62, 77 ], [ 147, 166 ], [ 220, 223 ], [ 306, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Touring car racing is a style of road racing that is run with production-derived race cars. It often features full-contact racing due to the small speed differentials and large grids.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The major touring car championships conducted worldwide are the Supercars Championship (Australia), British Touring Car Championship, Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (DTM), and the World Touring Car Championship. The European Touring Car Cup is a one-day event open to Super 2000 specification touring cars from Europe's many national championships.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 54162, 1513032, 822220, 2701925, 22860903, 10173133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 86 ], [ 100, 132 ], [ 134, 162 ], [ 178, 208 ], [ 214, 238 ], [ 266, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Sports Car Club of America's SPEED World Challenge Touring Car and GT championships are dominant in North America. America's historic Trans-Am Series is undergoing a period of transition, but is still the longest-running road racing series in the U.S. The National Auto Sport Association also provides a venue for amateurs to compete in home-built factory-derived vehicles on various local circuits.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 28242, 1400654, 689989, 4219071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 30 ], [ 33, 54 ], [ 138, 153 ], [ 260, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In sports car racing, production-derived versions of sports cars, also known as grand tourers (GTs), and purpose-built sports prototype cars compete within their respective classes on closed circuits. The premier championship series of sports car racing is the FIA World Endurance Championship. The main series for GT car racing is the Blancpain GT Series, divided into two separate championships: the Blancpain GT World Challenge Europe and the Blancpain GT Series Endurance Cup. This series has formed after the folding of the various FIA GT championships.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 52244, 146227, 4887676, 31981751, 45194914, 38188829, 29461918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 53, 64 ], [ 119, 135 ], [ 261, 293 ], [ 336, 355 ], [ 403, 438 ], [ 447, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other major GT championships include the Blancpain GT World Challenge America, Blancpain GT World Challenge Asia, Super GT, and the International GT Open. There are minor regional and national GT series using mainly GT4 and GT3 cars featuring both amateur and professional drivers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 1400654, 57111097, 1439662, 11262268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 77 ], [ 79, 112 ], [ 114, 122 ], [ 132, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sports prototypes, unlike GT cars, do not rely on road-legal cars as a base. They are closed-wheel and often closed-cockpit purpose-built race cars intended mainly for endurance racing. They have much lower weight and more down force compared to GT cars, making them much faster. They are raced in the 24 hours of Le Mans (held annually since 1923) and in the (European) Le Mans series, Asian Le Mans Series and the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship. These cars are referred to as LMP (Le Mans prototype) cars with LMP1 being run mainly by manufacturers and the slightly less powerful LMP2 cars run by privateer teams. All three Le Mans Series run GT cars in addition to Le Mans Prototypes; these cars have different restrictions than the FIA GT cars.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 895712, 21120477, 38814237, 1842464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 371, 385 ], [ 387, 407 ], [ 416, 450 ], [ 482, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another prototype and GT racing championship exists in the United States; the Grand-Am, which began in 2000, sanctions its own endurance series, the Rolex Sports Car Series, which consists of slower and lower-cost race cars compared to LMP and FIA GT cars. The Rolex Sports Car Series and American Le Mans Series announced a merger between the two series forming the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship starting in 2014.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 1396157, 8575214, 8575214, 657573, 38814237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 86 ], [ 149, 172 ], [ 261, 284 ], [ 289, 312 ], [ 367, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These races are often conducted over long distances, at least , and cars are driven by teams of two or more drivers, switching every few hours. Due to the performance difference between production-based sports cars and purpose-built sports prototypes, one race usually involves several racing classes, each fighting for their own championship.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Famous sports car races include the 24 Hours of Le Mans, the Rolex 24 at Daytona, 24 Hours of Spa-Franchorchamps, the 12 Hours of Sebring, the 6 Hours of Watkins Glen, and the Petit Le Mans at Road Atlanta. There is also the 24 Hours of the Nürburgring on the infamous Nordschleife track and the Dubai 24 Hour, which is aimed at GT3 and below cars with a mixture of professional and pro-am drivers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 1401596, 679720, 1253168, 685695, 17830249, 38337777, 1647473, 3673393, 25644277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 55 ], [ 61, 80 ], [ 82, 97 ], [ 118, 137 ], [ 143, 166 ], [ 177, 190 ], [ 194, 206 ], [ 226, 253 ], [ 297, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Production-car racing, otherwise known as \"showroom stock\" in the US, is an economical and rules-restricted version of touring-car racing, mainly used to restrict costs. Numerous production racing categories are based on particular makes of cars.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most series, with a few exceptions, follow the Group N regulation. There are several different series that are run all over the world, most notably, Japan's Super Taikyu and IMSA's Firehawk Series, which ran in the 1980s and 1990s all over the United States.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 3240663, 1199915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 54 ], [ 174, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One-make, or single marque, championships often employ production-based cars from a single manufacturer or even a single model from a manufacturer's range. There are numerous notable one-make formulae from various countries and regions, some of which– such as the Porsche Supercup and, previously, IROC– have fostered many distinct national championships. Single marque series are often found at club level, to which the production-based cars, limited modifications, and close parity in performance are very well suited. Some of the better-known single-make series are the Mini 7 Championship (Europe's longest-running one make championship), the Radical European Masters, John Cooper Mini Challenge, Clio Cup, Ginettas, Caterhams, BMWs, and MX5s. There are also single-chassis single seater formulae, such as Formula Renault and Formula BMW, usually as \"feeder\" series for \"senior\" race formula (in the fashion of farm teams).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 4515658, 659845, 25127039, 13754071, 2584867, 20278414, 9108020, 4568503, 22450, 3893335, 5774335, 819505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 280 ], [ 298, 302 ], [ 647, 671 ], [ 701, 709 ], [ 711, 719 ], [ 721, 730 ], [ 732, 736 ], [ 742, 746 ], [ 778, 791 ], [ 810, 825 ], [ 830, 841 ], [ 915, 924 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Time attack events began in Japan in the mid-1960s. They have since spread around the world.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Time Attack racing is a type of motorsport in which the racers compete for the best lap time. Each vehicle is timed through numerous circuits of the track. The racers make a preliminary circuit, then run the timed laps, and then finish with a cool-down lap.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Time Attack and time trial events differ by competition format and rules. Time Attack has a limited number of laps, time trial has open sessions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike other timed motorsport disciplines such as sprinting and hillclimbing, the car is required to start off under full rolling start conditions following a warm up lap in which they will have to accelerate out as fast as possible to determine how fast they enter their timed lap. Commonly, as the cars are modified road-going cars, they are required to have tires authorized for road use.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In North America, stock car racing is the most popular form of auto racing. Primarily raced on oval tracks, stock cars vaguely resemble production cars, but are in fact purpose-built racing machines that are built to tight specifications and, together with touring cars, also called Silhouette racing cars.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 28349, 863698, 19753270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 34 ], [ 95, 106 ], [ 283, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The largest stock car racing governing body is NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing). NASCAR's premier series is the NASCAR Cup Series, its most famous races being the Daytona 500, the Southern 500, the Coca-Cola 600, and the Brickyard 400. NASCAR also runs several feeder series, including the Xfinity Series and Gander RV & Outdoors Truck Series (a pickup truck racing series). The series conduct races across the entire continental United States. The NASCAR Pinty's Series conducts races across Canada and the NASCAR PEAK Mexico Series conducts races across Mexico.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 21114, 56571945, 39021, 22298383, 682856, 681310, 147515, 426494, 47877, 83759, 6966833, 8373438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 53 ], [ 135, 152 ], [ 186, 197 ], [ 203, 215 ], [ 221, 234 ], [ 244, 257 ], [ 313, 327 ], [ 332, 365 ], [ 369, 381 ], [ 441, 466 ], [ 472, 493 ], [ 531, 556 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NASCAR also governs several smaller regional series, such as the Whelen Modified Tour. Modified cars are best described as open-wheel cars. Modified cars have no parts related to the stock vehicle for which they are named after. A number of modified cars display a \"manufacturer's\" logo and \"vehicle name\", yet use components produced by another automobile manufacturer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 5082163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are also other stock car governing bodies, most notably the Automobile Racing Club of America (ARCA).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 2974189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the UK, British Stock car racing is also referred to as \"Short Circuit Racing\". UK Stock car racing started in the 1950s and grew rapidly through the 1960s and 1970s. Events take place on shale or tarmac tracks– usually around 1/4mile long. There are around 35 tracks in the UK and upwards of 7000 active drivers. The sport is split into three basic divisions– distinguished by the rules regarding car contact during racing. The most famous championship are the BriSCA F1 Stock Cars. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 18636708, 5758449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 35 ], [ 465, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Full-contact formulas include Bangers, Bombers and Rookie Bangers– and racing features Demolition Derbies, Figure of Eight and Oval Racing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 1341434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Semi Contact Formulas include BriSCA F1, F2 and Superstox– where bumpers are used tactically.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Non-contact formulas include National Hot Rods, Stock Rods, and Lightning Rods.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rallying at international and most national championship levels involves two classes of homologated road-legal production-based cars; Group N production cars and more modified Group A cars. Cars compete on closed public roads or off-road areas on a point-to-point format where participants and their co-drivers \"rally\" to a set of points, leaving in regular intervals from start points. A rally is typically conducted over a number of \"special stages\" on any terrain, which entrants are often allowed to scout beforehand at reduced speeds compiling detailed shorthand descriptions of the track or road as they go. These detailed descriptions are known as pace notes. During the actual rally, the co-driver reads the pace notes aloud (using an in-helmet intercom system) to the driver, enabling them to complete each stage as quickly as possible. Competition is based on lowest total elapsed time over the course of an event's special stages, including penalties.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 52245, 21166006, 3240663, 591683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 88, 99 ], [ 134, 141 ], [ 176, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The top series is the World Rally Championship (WRC), first contested in 1973, but there are also regional championships, and many countries have their own national championships. Some famous rallies include the Monte Carlo Rally, Rally Argentina, Rally Finland, and Rally GB. Another famous event (actually best described as a rally raid) is the Paris-Dakar Rally, conceived in 1978. There are also many smaller, club level, categories of rallies, which are popular with amateurs, making up the \"grass roots\" of motor sports. Cars at this level may not comply fully with the requirements of group A or group N homologation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 234243, 227411, 1445609, 881363, 275036, 15111200, 25136, 591683, 3240663, 21166006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 46 ], [ 212, 229 ], [ 231, 246 ], [ 248, 261 ], [ 267, 275 ], [ 328, 338 ], [ 347, 364 ], [ 592, 599 ], [ 603, 610 ], [ 611, 623 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other major rally events include the British Rally Championship, Intercontinental Rally Challenge, African Rally Championship, Asia-Pacific Rally Championship, and endurance rally events like the Dakar Rally.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 13615626, 9998921, 18119107, 10184430, 25136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 63 ], [ 65, 97 ], [ 99, 125 ], [ 127, 158 ], [ 196, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Targa Tasmania, held on the Australian island state of Tasmania and run annually since 1992, takes its name from the Targa Florio, a former motoring event held on the island of Sicily. The competition concept is drawn directly from the best features of the Mille Miglia, the Coupe des Alpes, and the Tour de Corse. Similarly named events around the world include the Targa Newfoundland based in Canada, Targa West based in Western Australia, Targa New Zealand, and other smaller events.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 266207, 772092, 27619, 617045, 34938854, 5368059, 700044, 6894907, 2236239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 121, 133 ], [ 181, 187 ], [ 261, 273 ], [ 279, 294 ], [ 304, 317 ], [ 371, 389 ], [ 407, 417 ], [ 446, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In drag racing, the objective is to complete a given straight-line distance, from a standing start, ahead of a vehicle in a parallel lane. This distance is traditionally , though has become popular since the 1990s. The vehicles may or may not be given the signal to start at the same time, depending on the class of racing. Vehicles range from the everyday car to the purpose-built dragster. Speeds and elapsed time differ from class to class. Average street cars cover the mile in 12 to 16seconds, whereas a top fuel dragster takes 4.5seconds or less, reaching speeds of up to . Drag racing was organized as a sport by Wally Parks in the early 1950s through the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA). The NHRA was formed to discourage street racing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 8373, 245703, 1300682, 227456, 1725470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 383, 391 ], [ 511, 528 ], [ 622, 633 ], [ 665, 693 ], [ 736, 749 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When launching, a top fuel dragster will accelerate at 3.4 g (33m/s²), and when braking parachutes are deployed the deceleration is 4g (39m/s²), more than the Space Shuttle experiences. A top fuel car can be heard over away and can generate a reading from 1.5 to 3.9 on the Richter scale.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 389836, 28189, 19467352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 60 ], [ 159, 172 ], [ 275, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Drag racing is two cars head-to-head, the winner proceeding to the next round. Professional classes are all first to the finish line wins. Sportsman racing is handicapped (slower car getting a head start) using an index (a lowest e.t. allowed), and cars running under (quicker than) their index \"break out\" and lose. The slowest cars, bracket racers, are also handicapped, but rather than an index, they use a dial-in.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 25119429, 8373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 203 ], [ 410, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In off-road racing, various classes of specially modified vehicles, including cars, compete in races through off-road environments. In North America these races often take place in the desert, such as the famous Baja 1000. Another format for off-road racing happens on closed-course short course tracks such as Crandon International Off-Road Raceway. In the 1980s and 1990s, short course was extended to racing inside stadiums in the Mickey Thompson Entertainment Group; this format was revived by Robby Gordon in 2013 with his Stadium Super Trucks series.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 30872402, 1381331, 37129972, 5015692, 6254766, 1507423, 39112292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 212, 221 ], [ 283, 302 ], [ 311, 349 ], [ 434, 469 ], [ 498, 510 ], [ 528, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Europe, \"offroad\" refers to events such as autocross or rallycross, while desert races and rally-raids such as the Paris-Dakar, Master Rallye or European \"bajas\" are called \"cross-country rallies.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 25136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The modern kart was invented by Art Ingels, a fabricator at the Indianapolis-car manufacturer Kurtis-Kraft, in Southern California in 1956. Ingels took a small chainsaw engine and mounted it to a simple tube-frame chassis weighing less than 100lb. Ingels, and everyone else who drove the kart, were startled at its performance capabilities. The sport soon blossomed in Southern California, and quickly spread around the world. Although often seen as the entry point for serious racers into the sport, kart racing, or karting, can be an economical way for amateurs to try racing and is also a fully fledged international sport in its own right. A large proportion of professional racing drivers began in karts, often from a very young age, such as Michael Schumacher and Fernando Alonso. Several former motorcycle champions have also taken up the sport, notably Wayne Rainey, who was paralysed in a racing accident and now races a hand-controlled kart. As one of the cheapest ways to race, karting is seeing its popularity grow worldwide.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 54128, 20396, 240390, 304325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 501, 512 ], [ 747, 765 ], [ 770, 785 ], [ 861, 873 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite their diminutive size, karts of the most powerful class, superkart (assuming a weight of 205kg (452lb), and a power output of 100hp (75kW)), can have a power-to-weight ratio (including the driver) of 490hp/tonne (0.22hp/lb). Without the driver, this figure doubles, to almost 980hp/tonne (0.44hp/lb).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 854425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As modern motor racing is centered on modern technology with many corporate sponsors and much politics involved, historical racing tends to be the opposite. Because it is based on a particular era it is more hobbyist oriented, reducing corporate sponsorship and politics. Events are regulated to only allow cars of a certain era to participate. The only modern equipment used is related to safety and timing. A historical event can be of a number of different motorsport disciplines.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 9753277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notably some of the most famous events of them all are the Goodwood Festival of Speed and Goodwood Revival in Britain and Monterey Historic in the United States. Championships range from \"grass root\" Austin Seven racing to the FIA Thoroughbred Grand Prix Championship for classic Formula One chassis.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 3397829, 13860843, 11614105, 2006780, 11637904, 10854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 85 ], [ 90, 106 ], [ 122, 139 ], [ 200, 212 ], [ 227, 267 ], [ 280, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While there are several professional teams and drivers in historical racing, this branch of auto sport tends to be contested by wealthy car owners and is thus more amateur and less competitive in its approach.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Categories", "target_page_ids": [ 293861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many types of auto races, particularly those held on closed courses, flags are displayed to indicate the general status of the track and to communicate instructions to competitors. While individual series have different rules, and the flags have changed from the first years (e.g., red used to start a race), these are generally accepted.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Use of flags", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The worst accident in racing history is the 1955 Le Mans disaster, where more than 80 people died, including the French driver Pierre Levegh.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Accidents", "target_page_ids": [ 3474442, 247325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 65 ], [ 127, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In auto racing, the racing setup or car setup is the set of adjustments made to the vehicle to optimize its behaviour (performance, handling, reliability, etc.). Adjustments can occur in suspensions, brakes, transmissions, engines, tires, and many others.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Racing-car setup", "target_page_ids": [ 8048591, 779651, 426955, 609147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 32 ], [ 132, 140 ], [ 187, 198 ], [ 208, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aerodynamics and airflow play big roles in the setup of a racecar. Aerodynamic downforce improves the race car's handling by lowering the center of gravity and distributing the weight of the car equally on each tire. Once this is achieved, fuel consumption decreases and the forces against the car are significantly lowered. Many aerodynamic experiments are conducted in wind tunnels, to simulate real life situations while measuring the various drag forces on the car. These \"Rolling roads\" produce many wind situations and direct air flow at certain speeds and angles. When a diffuser is installed under the car, the amount of drag force is significantly lowered, and the overall aerodynamics of the vehicle is positively adjusted. Wings and canards channel the airflow in the most efficient way to get the least amount of drag from the car. It is experimentally proven that downforce is gained and the vehicles handling is considerably changed when aerodynamic wings on the front and rear of the vehicle are installed.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Racing-car setup", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Suspension plays a huge part in giving the racecar the ability to be driven optimally. Shocks are mounted vertically or horizontally to prevent the body from rolling in the corners. The suspension is important because it makes the car stable and easier to control and keeps the tires on the road when driving on uneven terrain. It works in three different ways including vertically, longitudinally, and laterally to control movement when racing on various tracks.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Racing-car setup", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tyres called R-Compounds are commonly used in motorsports for high amounts of traction. The soft rubber allows them to expand when they are heated up, making more surface area on the pavement, therefore producing the most traction. These types of tyres do not have grooves on them. Tyre pressure is dependent on the temperature of the tyre and track when racing. Each time a driver pulls into the pits, the tyre pressure and temperature should be tested for optimal performance. When the tyres get too hot they will swell or inflate and need to be deflated to the correct pressure. When the tyres are not warmed up they will not perform as well.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Racing-car setup", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Brakes on a race car are imperative in slowing and stopping the car at precise times and wear quickly depending on the road or track on which the car is being raced, how many laps are being run, track conditions due to weather, and how many caution runs require more braking. There are three variables to consider in racing: brake pedal displacement, brake pedal force, and vehicle deceleration. Various combinations of these variables work together to determine the stiffness, sensitivity, and pedal force of the brakes. When using the brakes effectively, the driver must go through a buildup phase and end with a modulating phase. These phases include attaining maximum deceleration and modulating the brake pressure. Brake performance is measured in bite and consistency. Bite happens when the driver first applies the brakes and they have not warmed up to the correct temperature to operate efficiently. Consistency is measured in how consistent the friction is during the entire time of braking. These two measurements determine the wear of the brakes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Racing-car setup", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The race car's engine needs a considerable amount of air to produce maximum power. The air intake manifold sucks the air from scoops on the hood and front bumper and feeds it into the engine. Many engine modifications to increase horsepower and efficiency are commonly used in many racing sanctioning bodies. Engines are tuned on a machine called a dynamometer that is commonly known in the racing world as a DYNO. The car is driven onto the DYNO and many gauges and sensors are hooked up to the car that are controlled on an online program to test force, torque, or power. Through the testing, the car's engine maps can be changed to get the most horsepower and ultimately speed out of the vehicle.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Racing-car setup", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Racing drivers at the highest levels are usually paid by the team, or by sponsors, and can command very substantial salaries.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Racing driver", "target_page_ids": [ 545607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Contrary to what may be popularly assumed, racing drivers as a group do not have unusually better reflexes or peripheral response time. During repeated physiological (and psychological) evaluations of professional racing drivers, the two characteristics that stand out are racers' near-obsessive need to control their surroundings (the psychological aspect), and an unusual ability to process fast-moving information (physiological). In this, researchers have noted a strong correlation between racers' psychological profiles and those of fighter pilots. In tests comparing racers to members of the general public, the greater the complexity of the information processing matrix, the greater the speed gap between racers and the public.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Racing driver", "target_page_ids": [ 4778196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due partly to the performance capabilities of modern racing cars, racing drivers require a high level of fitness, focus and the ability to concentrate at high levels for long periods in an inherently difficult environment. Racing drivers mainly complain about pains in the lumbar, shoulder and neck regions.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Racing driver", "target_page_ids": [ 432986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Racing drivers experience extremely large g-forces because formula cars and sports prototypes generate more downforce and are able to corner at significantly higher speeds. Formula 1 drivers routinely experience g-loadings in excess of 4.5 g.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Racing driver", "target_page_ids": [ 389836, 1618495, 4887676, 475276, 10854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 49 ], [ 59, 71 ], [ 76, 92 ], [ 108, 117 ], [ 173, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Outline of auto racing", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34658784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of auto racing tracks", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2308524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Motorcycle racing", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7501246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Race track", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 301925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of auto racing films", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 64478093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Racing video game", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 306085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sanctioning bodies", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Motorsports UK Association ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " American Le Mans Series (ALMS)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Indy Racing League (IRL)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " World Rally Championship (WRC)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Grand American Road Racing Association", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " International Conference of Sports Car Clubs (ICSCC)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " International Hot Rod Association (IHRA)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " International Motor Sports Association (IMSA)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National Auto Sport Association", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National Hot Rod Association (NHRA)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " No Prep Racing", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " SCORE International Off-Road Racing", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sports Car Club of America (SCCA)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " United States Auto Club (USAC)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Formula One (F1)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Confederation of Australian Motorsport (CAMS)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Best In The Desert Off-Road Racing", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Auto_racing" ]

[ "automobile racing", "motorcar racing", "car racing", "motor racing" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Anarcho-capitalism (or, colloquially, ancap) is an anti-statist libertarian political philosophy and economic theory that seeks to abolish centralized states in favor of stateless societies with systems of private property enforced by private agencies, the non-aggression principle, free markets and the right-libertarian interpretation of self-ownership, which extends the concept to include control of private property as part of the self. In the absence of statute, anarcho-capitalists hold that society tends to contractually self-regulate and civilize through participation in the free market which they describe as a voluntary society. In a theoretical anarcho-capitalist society, the system of private property would still exist and be enforced by private defense agencies and/or insurance companies selected by customers which would operate competitively in a market and fulfill the roles of courts and the police.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 44589737, 3225498, 23040, 9223, 23604120, 4228181, 147767, 8233130, 2100873, 11826, 5318741, 766834, 26783, 18007705, 15176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 63 ], [ 64, 75 ], [ 76, 96 ], [ 101, 116 ], [ 139, 156 ], [ 170, 189 ], [ 206, 222 ], [ 235, 251 ], [ 257, 281 ], [ 283, 294 ], [ 304, 321 ], [ 340, 354 ], [ 460, 467 ], [ 623, 640 ], [ 787, 806 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to its proponents, various historical theorists have espoused philosophies similar to anarcho-capitalism, but the first person to use the term anarcho-capitalism was Murray Rothbard, in the 1940s. Rothbard synthesized elements from the Austrian School, classical liberalism and 19th-century American individualist anarchists and mutualists Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker while rejecting their labor theory of value and the anti-capitalist and socialist norms they derived from it. Rothbard's anarcho-capitalist society would operate under a mutually agreed-upon \"legal code which would be generally accepted, and which the courts would pledge themselves to follow\". This legal code would recognize contracts, private property, self-ownership and tort law in keeping with the non-aggression principle.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20217, 1030, 6677, 5879835, 1799997, 79355, 39490694, 17629, 44443, 43069513, 29813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 191 ], [ 246, 261 ], [ 263, 283 ], [ 310, 334 ], [ 339, 349 ], [ 350, 366 ], [ 371, 386 ], [ 409, 430 ], [ 439, 454 ], [ 459, 468 ], [ 762, 770 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anarcho-capitalists and right-libertarians cite several historical precedents of what they believe to be examples of anarcho-capitalism, including Anglo‐​Saxon England, the Free cities of medieval Europe, Medieval Iceland, the American Old West, Gaelic Ireland, Somalia from 1991 to 2006, and law merchant, admiralty law, and early common law.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2645367, 18836, 64578, 252507, 10288875, 5675209, 6731231, 77396, 5254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 167 ], [ 188, 203 ], [ 205, 221 ], [ 227, 244 ], [ 246, 260 ], [ 262, 287 ], [ 293, 305 ], [ 307, 320 ], [ 332, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anarcho-capitalism is distinguished from both minarchism, which advocates a night-watchman state limited to protecting individuals from aggression and enforcing private property; anarchism, an anti-capitalist movement which holds that capitalism is incompatible with social and economic equality; and social anarchism, a branch of anarchism that sees individual freedom as interrelated with mutual aid. Anarcho-capitalists reject the libertarian socialist economic theories of anarchism, arguing that they are inherently authoritarian or require authoritarianism to achieve, while believing that there is no coercion under capitalism. Despite its name, anarcho-capitalism lies outside the tradition of anarchism and is more closely affiliated with capitalism, right-libertarianism, and liberalism. Traditional anarchist schools of thought oppose and reject capitalism, and consider 'anarcho-capitalism' to be a contradiction in terms. Anarcho-capitalism is usually seen as part of the New Right.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 973781, 973781, 12, 41207422, 1417282, 39353100, 15181, 11419474, 18048, 19280734, 4307268, 333245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 56 ], [ 76, 96 ], [ 179, 188 ], [ 267, 273 ], [ 278, 295 ], [ 301, 317 ], [ 351, 369 ], [ 391, 401 ], [ 434, 455 ], [ 786, 796 ], [ 911, 933 ], [ 985, 994 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Author J Michael Oliver says that during the 1960s, a philosophical movement arose in the United States that championed \"reason, ethical egoism, and free-market capitalism\". According to Oliver, anarcho-capitalism is a political theory which logically follows the philosophical conclusions of Objectivism, a philosophical system developed by Russian-American writer Ayn Rand. Professor Lisa Duggan also says that Rand's anti-statist, pro–\"free market\" stances went on to shape the politics of anarcho-capitalism.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 22256, 339, 54386176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 293, 304 ], [ 366, 374 ], [ 386, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Patrik Schumacher, the political ideology and programme of Anarcho-capitalism envisages the radicalization of the neoliberal \"rollback of the state\", and calls for the extension of \"entrepreneurial freedom\" and \"competitive market rationality\" to the point where the scope for private enterprise is all-encompassing and \"leaves no space for state action whatsoever\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 52043854, 93088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 30 ], [ 127, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anarcho-capitalists opposition to the state is reflected in their goal of keeping but privatizing all functions of the state. They see capitalism and the \"free market\" as the basis for a free and prosperous society. Murray Rothbard, who is credited with coining the term anarcho-capitalism, stated that the difference between free-market capitalism and state capitalism is the difference between \"peaceful, voluntary exchange\" and a \"collusive partnership\" between business and government that \"uses coercion to subvert the free market\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 24661, 5416, 11826, 20217, 48852, 29665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 97 ], [ 135, 145 ], [ 155, 166 ], [ 216, 231 ], [ 326, 348 ], [ 353, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rothbard argued that all government services, including defense, are inefficient because they lack a market-based pricing mechanism regulated by \"the voluntary decisions of consumers purchasing services that fulfill their highest-priority needs\" and by investors seeking the most profitable enterprises to invest in. Furthermore, Linda and Morris Tannehill believe that no coercive monopoly of force can arise on a truly free market and that a government's citizenry can not desert them in favor of a competent protection and defense agency.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 255625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maverick Edwards of the Liberty University describes anarcho-capitalism as a political, social, and economic theory that places markets as the central \"governing body\" and where government no longer \"grants\" rights to its citizenry.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 456375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Writer Stanisław Wójtowicz says that although anarcho-capitalists are against centralized states, they hold that all people would naturally share and agree to a specific moral theory based on the non-aggression principle. While the Friedmanian formulation of anarcho-capitalism is robust to the presence of violence and in fact, assumes some degree of violence will occur, anarcho-capitalism as formulated by Rothbard and others holds strongly to the central libertarian nonaggression axiom, sometimes non-aggression principle. Rothbard wrote:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2100873, 3225498, 928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 220 ], [ 459, 470 ], [ 485, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rothbard's defense of the self-ownership principle stems from what he believed to be his falsification of all other alternatives, namely that either a group of people can own another group of people, or that no single person has full ownership over one's self. Rothbard dismisses these two cases on the basis that they cannot result in a universal ethic, i.e. a just natural law that can govern all people, independent of place and time. The only alternative that remains to Rothbard is self-ownership which he believes is both axiomatic and universal.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 141628, 766834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 338, 353 ], [ 487, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In general, the non-aggression axiom is described by Rothbard as a prohibition against the initiation of force, or the threat of force, against persons (in which he includes direct violence, assault and murder) or property (in which he includes fraud, burglary, theft and taxation). The initiation of force is usually referred to as aggression or coercion. The difference between anarcho-capitalists and other libertarians is largely one of the degree to which they take this axiom. Minarchist libertarians such as libertarian political parties would retain the state in some smaller and less invasive form, retaining at the very least public police, courts, and military. However, others might give further allowance for other government programs. In contrast, Rothbard rejects any level of \"state intervention\", defining the state as a coercive monopoly and as the only entity in human society, excluding acknowledged criminals, that derives its income entirely from coercion, in the form of taxation, which Rothbard describes as \"compulsory seizure of the property of the State's inhabitants, or subjects.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 58687, 6512, 973781, 18173, 436940, 397654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 333, 343 ], [ 347, 355 ], [ 483, 493 ], [ 515, 544 ], [ 793, 811 ], [ 838, 855 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some anarcho-capitalists such as Rothbard accept the non-aggression axiom on an intrinsic moral or natural law basis. It is in terms of the non-aggression principle that Rothbard defined his interpretation of anarchism, \"a system which provides no legal sanction for such aggression ['against person and property']\"; and wrote that \"what anarchism proposes to do, then, is to abolish the State, i.e. to abolish the regularized institution of aggressive coercion\". In an interview published in the American libertarian journal The New Banner, Rothbard stated that \"capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism, and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2100873, 3264383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 164 ], [ 497, 517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anarcho-capitalists postulate the privatization of everything, including cities with all their infrastructures, public spaces, streets and urban management systems.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 24661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Central to Rothbardian anarcho-capitalism are the concepts of self-ownership and original appropriation that combines personal and private property. Hans-Hermann Hoppe wrote:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 766834, 6070822, 24695, 147767, 229870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 76 ], [ 81, 103 ], [ 118, 126 ], [ 131, 147 ], [ 149, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rothbard however rejected the Lockean proviso, and followed the rule of \"first come, first served\", without any consideration of how much resources are left for other individuals, which opposed John Locke's beliefs.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2507999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anarcho-capitalists advocate private ownership of the means of production and the allocation of the product of labor created by workers within the context of wage labour and the free market – that is through decisions made by property and capital owners, regardless of what an individual needs or does not need. Original appropriation allows an individual to claim any never-before-used resources, including land and by improving or otherwise using it, own it with the same \"absolute right\" as their own body, and retaining those rights forever, regardless of whether the resource is still being used by them. According to Rothbard, property can only come about through labor, therefore original appropriation of land is not legitimate by merely claiming it or building a fence around it—it is only by using land and by mixing one's labor with it that original appropriation is legitimized: \"Any attempt to claim a new resource that someone does not use would have to be considered invasive of the property right of whoever the first user will turn out to be\". Rothbard argued that the resource need not continue to be used in order for it to be the person's property as \"for once his labor is mixed with the natural resource, it remains his owned land. His labor has been irretrievably mixed with the land, and the land is therefore his or his assigns' in perpetuity\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1650227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rothbard also spoke about a theory of justice in property rights:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Justice and Property Right, Rothbard wrote that \"any identifiable owner (the original victim of theft or his heir) must be accorded his property\". In the case of slavery, Rothbard claimed that in many cases \"the old plantations and the heirs and descendants of the former slaves can be identified, and the reparations can become highly specific indeed\". Rothbard believed slaves rightfully own any land they were forced to work on under the homestead principle. If property is held by the state, Rothbard advocated its confiscation and \"return to the private sector\", writing that \"any property in the hands of the State is in the hands of thieves, and should be liberated as quickly as possible\". Rothbard proposed that state universities be seized by the students and faculty under the homestead principle. Rothbard also supported the expropriation of nominally \"private property\" if it is the result of state-initiated force such as businesses that receive grants and subsidies. Rothbard further proposed that businesses who receive at least 50% of their funding from the state be confiscated by the workers, writing: \"What we libertarians object to, then, is not government per se but crime, what we object to is unjust or criminal property titles; what we are for is not 'private' property per se but just, innocent, non-criminal private property\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 7858726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 724, 742 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly, Karl Hess wrote that \"libertarianism wants to advance principles of property but that it in no way wishes to defend, willy nilly, all property which now is called private ... Much of that property is stolen. Much is of dubious title. All of it is deeply intertwined with an immoral, coercive state system\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 330964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By accepting an axiomatic definition of private property and property rights, anarcho-capitalists deny the legitimacy of a state on principle. Hans-Hermann Hoppe argues:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anarchists view capitalism as an inherently authoritarian and hierarchical system and seek the abolishment of private property. There is disagreement between anarchists and anarcho-capitalists as the former generally rejects anarcho-capitalism as a form of anarchism and considers anarcho-capitalism a contradiction in terms, while the latter holds that the abolishment of private property would require expropriation which is \"counterproductive to order\" and would require a state.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As opposed to anarchists, most anarcho-capitalists reject the commons. However, some of them propose that non-state public or community property can also exist in an anarcho-capitalist society. For anarcho-capitalists, what is important is that it is \"acquired\" and transferred without help or hindrance from what they call the \"compulsory state\". Deontological anarcho-capitalists believe that the only just and most economically beneficial way to acquire property is through voluntary trade, gift, or labor-based original appropriation, rather than through aggression or fraud. Robert Ellickson presented a Hayekian case against anarcho-capitalism, calling it a \"pipe-dream\" and stating that anarcho-capitalists \"by imagining a stable system of competing private associations, ignore both the inevitability of territorial monopolists in governance, and the importance of institutions to constrain those monopolists' abuses\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2273689, 612358, 42510588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 69 ], [ 515, 537 ], [ 580, 596 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Negative and positive rights are rights that oblige either action (positive rights) or inaction (negative rights). Anarcho-capitalists believe that negative rights should be recognized as legitimate, but positive rights should be rejected as an intrusion. Some critics reject the distinction between positive and negative rights. Peter Marshall also states that the anarcho-capitalist definition of freedom is entirely negative and that it cannot guarantee the positive freedom of individual autonomy and independence.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 3558732, 20585895, 454151, 338327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ], [ 330, 344 ], [ 419, 427 ], [ 461, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "About anarcho-capitalism, anarcho-syndicalist and anti-capitalist intellectual Noam Chomsky says:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 49938, 21566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 45 ], [ 79, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Social anarchists argue that anarcho-capitalism allows individuals to accumulate significant power through free markets and private property.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anarchists argue that certain capitalist transactions are not voluntary and that maintaining the class structure of a capitalist society requires coercion which violates anarchist principles. Anthropologist David Graeber noted his skepticism about anarcho-capitalism along the same lines, arguing:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1292447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some critics argue that the anarcho-capitalist concept of voluntary choice ignores constraints due to both human and non-human factors such as the need for food and shelter as well as active restriction of both used and unused resources by those enforcing property claims. If a person requires employment in order to feed and house himself, the employer-employee relationship could be considered involuntary. Another criticism is that employment is involuntary because the economic system that makes it necessary for some individuals to serve others is supported by the enforcement of coercive private property relations. Some philosophies view any ownership claims on land and natural resources as immoral and illegitimate. Objectivist philosopher Harry Binswanger criticizes anarcho-capitalism by arguing that \"capitalism requires government\", questioning who or what would enforce treaties and contracts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1165295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 749, 765 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some right-libertarian critics of anarcho-capitalism who support the full privatization of capital such as geolibertarians argue that land and the raw materials of nature remain a distinct factor of production and cannot be justly converted to private property because they are not products of human labor. Some socialists, including market anarchists and mutualists, adamantly oppose absentee ownership. Anarcho-capitalists have strong abandonment criteria, namely that one maintains ownership until one agrees to trade or gift it. Anti-state critics of this view posit comparatively weak abandonment criteria, arguing that one loses ownership when one stops personally occupying and using it as well as the idea of perpetually binding original appropriation is anathema to traditional schools of anarchism.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 409890, 143338, 11231, 26847, 470052, 1799997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 122 ], [ 134, 138 ], [ 189, 209 ], [ 312, 322 ], [ 334, 351 ], [ 356, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following is a partial list of notable nonfiction works discussing anarcho-capitalism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bruce L. Benson, The Enterprise of Law: Justice Without The State", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 11136802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " To Serve and Protect: Privatization and Community in Criminal Justice", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " David D. Friedman, The Machinery of Freedom", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 7935, 30385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 20, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Edward P. Stringham, Anarchy and the Law: The Political Economy of Choice", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 25162953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George H. Smith, \"Justice Entrepreneurship in a Free Market\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 1765100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gerard Casey, Libertarian Anarchy: Against the State", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 4215185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Anarcho-Capitalism: An Annotated Bibliography", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 229870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Theory of Socialism and Capitalism", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The God That Failed", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Economics and Ethics of Private Property", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 229870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Linda and Morris Tannehill, The Market for Liberty", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 7699151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michael Huemer, The Problem of Political Authority", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 40567577, 41192248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 17, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Murray Rothbard, founder of anarcho-capitalism:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 20217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For a New Liberty", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 7184908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Man, Economy, and State", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 620909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Power and Market", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 84630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Ethics of Liberty", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 6375999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Agorism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 770975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anarchapulco", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60179010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anarcho-capitalism and minarchism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5318741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Consequentialist libertarianism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16018981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Counter-economics", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4821491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Creative disruption", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39523117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crypto-anarchism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 222427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dark Enlightenment", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41887454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Definition of anarchism and libertarianism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60255933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Issues in anarchism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5773736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Left-wing market anarchism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 470052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Natural-rights libertarianism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15898495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Privatization in criminal justice", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18118666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Propertarianism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2838370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stateless society", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4228181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Libertarian Forum", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6017141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Voluntaryism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 242155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brown, Susan Love (1997). \"The Free Market as Salvation from Government: The Anarcho-Capitalist View\". In Carrier, James G., ed. Meanings of the Market: The Free Market in Western Culture (illustrated ed.). Oxford: Berg Publishers. p.99. .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 3869348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anarcho-capitalist FAQ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " LewRockwell.com – website run by Lew Rockwell", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 261695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mises Institute – research and educational center of classical liberalism, including anarcho-capitalism, Austrian School of economics and American libertarian political theory", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Property and Freedom Society – international anarcho-capitalist society", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Strike The Root – an anarcho-capitalist website featuring essays, news, and a forum", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Anarcho-capitalism", "Austrian_School", "Capitalist_systems", "Economic_ideologies", "Free_market", "Ideologies_of_capitalism", "Classical_liberalism", "Libertarianism_by_form", "Political_ideologies", "Right-libertarianism", "Syncretic_political_movements", "Right-wing_ideologies" ]

[ "ancap" ]

[ { "plaintext": "48 BC Caesar's Civil War: Battle of Pharsalus: Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus and Pompey flees to Egypt.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35009, 3158354, 4005, 15924, 23867, 2267367, 874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 7, 25 ], [ 27, 46 ], [ 48, 61 ], [ 81, 87 ], [ 91, 100 ], [ 121, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 378 Gothic War: Battle of Adrianople: A large Roman army led by Emperor Valens is defeated by the Visigoths. Valens is killed along with over half of his army.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35605, 4370435, 57015, 25507, 32519, 32530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 18, 38 ], [ 48, 53 ], [ 74, 80 ], [ 100, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1173 Construction of the campanile of the Cathedral of Pisa (now known as the Leaning Tower of Pisa) begins; it will take two centuries to complete.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36052, 611249, 6524843, 46889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 26, 35 ], [ 43, 60 ], [ 79, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1329 Quilon, the first Indian Christian Diocese, is erected by Pope John XXII; the French-born Jordanus is appointed the first Bishop.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 39970, 3523713, 1683930, 37670, 1657769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 12 ], [ 24, 48 ], [ 64, 78 ], [ 96, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1428 Sources cite biggest caravan trade between Podvisoki and Republic of Ragusa. Vlachs committed to Ragusan lord Tomo Bunić, that they will with 600 horses deliver 1,500 modius of salt. Delivery was meant for Dobrašin Veseoković, and Vlachs price was half of delivered salt.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 39912, 15375164, 4974264, 2946786, 321954, 47384488, 13645, 2347026, 1605200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 27, 40 ], [ 49, 58 ], [ 63, 81 ], [ 83, 89 ], [ 103, 110 ], [ 152, 157 ], [ 173, 179 ], [ 183, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1500 Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503): The Ottomans capture Methoni, Messenia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35019, 8321177, 5117416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 38 ], [ 61, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1610 The First Anglo-Powhatan War begins in colonial Virginia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35097, 8265384, 188900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 34 ], [ 45, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1810 Napoleon annexes Westphalia as part of the First French Empire.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 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philosopher Henry David Thoreau publishes his memoir Walden.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34781, 164646, 43421, 291978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 15, 32 ], [ 45, 64 ], [ 86, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1855 Åland War: The Battle of Suomenlinna begins.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35075, 65361352, 17996021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 21, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1862 American Civil War: Battle of Cedar Mountain: At Cedar Mountain, Virginia, Confederate General Stonewall Jackson narrowly defeats Union forces under General John Pope.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34785, 863, 1351994, 91336, 7023, 31485, 360126, 563367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 26, 50 ], [ 55, 79 ], [ 81, 92 ], [ 101, 118 ], [ 136, 141 ], [ 163, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1877 American Indian Wars: Battle of the Big Hole: A small band of Nez Percé Indians clash with the United States Army.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34771, 386555, 1522450, 21187, 32087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 28, 50 ], [ 68, 85 ], [ 101, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1892 Thomas Edison receives a patent for a two-way telegraph.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34793, 29778, 23273, 30010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 31, 37 ], [ 52, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1897 The first International Congress of Mathematicians is held in Zürich, Switzerland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34714, 627842, 40334603, 26748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 16, 56 ], [ 68, 74 ], [ 76, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1902 Edward VII and Alexandra of Denmark are crowned King and Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34652, 46721, 48918, 152256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 21, 41 ], [ 76, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1907 The first Boy Scout encampment concludes at Brownsea Island in southern England.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34649, 27918, 5891779, 272956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 16, 25 ], [ 26, 36 ], [ 50, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1925 A train robbery takes place in Kakori, near Lucknow, India, by the Indian independence revolutionaries, against British government.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34867, 6181880, 5222150, 392095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 8, 21 ], [ 37, 43 ], [ 50, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1936 Summer Olympics: Jesse Owens wins his fourth gold medal at the games.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34673, 39721, 46827, 526488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 23, 34 ], [ 51, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1942 World War II: Battle of Savo Island: Allied naval forces protecting their amphibious forces during the 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Vice President Gerald Ford becomes president.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34654, 52382, 25473, 32759, 5030380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 32, 49 ], [ 51, 64 ], [ 137, 151 ], [ 152, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 The Italian prosecuting magistrate Antonino Scopelliti is murdered by the 'Ndrangheta on behalf of the Sicilian Mafia while preparing the government's case in the final appeal of the Maxi Trial.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 31169531, 44944, 893141, 2786578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 41, 60 ], [ 80, 91 ], [ 109, 123 ], [ 189, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1993 The Liberal Democratic Party of Japan loses a 38-year hold on national leadership.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34598, 164231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 Russian President Boris Yeltsin fires his Prime Minister, Sergei Stepashin, and for the fourth time fires his entire cabinet.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34553, 23278520, 520746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 24, 37 ], [ 64, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2006 At least 21 suspected terrorists are arrested in the 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot that happened in the United Kingdom. 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(d. 1900)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34666, 27108728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1861 Dorothea Klumpke, American astronomer and academic (d. 1942)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34680, 4848459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1867 Evelina Haverfield, Scottish nurse and activist (d. 1920)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34787, 25921514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1872 Archduke Joseph August of Austria (d. 1962)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34768, 547863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1874 Reynaldo Hahn, Venezuelan composer and conductor (d. 1947)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34770, 787829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1875 Albert Ketèlbey, English pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1959)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34763, 732460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1878 Eileen Gray, Irish architect and furniture designer (d. 1976)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34938, 609895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1879 John Willcock, Australian politician, 15th Premier of Western Australia, (d. 1956)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34968, 5060480, 24680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 49, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1881 Prince Antônio Gastão of Orléans-Braganza, Brazilian prince (d. 1918)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34716, 12660968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1890 Eino Kaila, Finnish philosopher and psychologist, attendant of the Vienna circle (d. 1958)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34707, 1286759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1896 Erich Hückel, German physicist and chemist (d. 1980)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34668, 38418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1896 Jean Piaget, Swiss psychologist and philosopher (d. 1980)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 95274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1899 P. L. Travers, Australian-English author and actress (d. 1996)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34790, 215141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1900 Charles Farrell, American actor and singer (d. 1990)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34653, 4946558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1902 Zino Francescatti, French violinist (d. 1991)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34652, 1239391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1902 Panteleimon Ponomarenko, Russian general and politician (d. 1984)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7688617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1905 Leo Genn, British actor and barrister (d. 1978)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34637, 1369859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1909 Vinayaka Krishna Gokak, Indian scholar, author, and academic (d. 1992)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283284, 1710617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1909 Willa Beatrice Player, American educator, first Black woman college president (d. 2003)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 46188400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1909 Adam von Trott zu Solz, German lawyer and diplomat (d. 1944)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 548963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1911 William Alfred Fowler, American astronomer and astrophysicist, Nobel Laureate (d. 1996)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34605, 577678, 52497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ], [ 69, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1911 Eddie Futch, American boxer and trainer (d. 2001)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3332957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1911 John McQuade, Northern Irish soldier, boxer, and politician (d. 1984)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5784754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1913 Wilbur Norman Christiansen, Australian astronomer and engineer (d. 2007)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34617, 11388330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1914 Ferenc Fricsay, Hungarian-Austrian conductor and director (d. 1963)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283920, 2190446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1914 Tove Jansson, Finnish author and illustrator (d. 2001)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 49274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1914 Joe Mercer, English footballer and manager (d. 1990)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 760513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1915 Mareta West, American astronomer and geologist (d. 1998)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34689, 2910421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1918 Kermit Beahan, American colonel (d. 1989)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34594, 3214426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1918 Giles Cooper, Irish soldier and playwright (d. 1966)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 12041418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1918 Albert Seedman, American police officer (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 39437911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1919 Joop den Uyl, Dutch journalist, economist, and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1987)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34665, 98052, 9499078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 65, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1919 Ralph Houk, American baseball player and manager (d. 2010)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2523027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1920 Enzo Biagi, Italian journalist and author (d. 2007)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34676, 668450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1921 Ernest Angley, American evangelist and author (d. 2021)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34724, 1575787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1921 J. James Exon, American soldier and politician, 33rd Governor of Nebraska (d. 2005)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 780720, 252395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 63, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1922 Philip Larkin, English poet and novelist (d. 1985)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34866, 43923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1924 Mathews Mar Barnabas, Indian metropolitan (d. 2012)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34675, 36563993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1924 Frank Martínez, American soldier and painter (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 40461144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1925 David A. 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"target_page_ids": [ 575611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1939 The Mighty Hannibal, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2014)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27175628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1939 Billy Henderson, American singer (d. 2007)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9307478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1939 Bulle Ogier, French actress and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1883808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1939 Romano Prodi, Italian academic and politician, 52nd Prime Minister of Italy", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 197983, 273741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ], [ 62, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1939 Butch Warren, American bassist (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 678525 ], 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Gerritsen, Dutch rock bass player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34631, 10231764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1947 Roy Hodgson, English footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34584, 2394550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 Barbara Mason, American R&B/soul singer-songwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4170058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 John Varley, American author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 90216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1948 Bill Campbell, American baseball player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34612, 2782381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1949 Jonathan Kellerman, American psychologist and author", "section_idx": 2, 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Sweeney, American lawyer and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34851, 963972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1956 Gordon Singleton, Canadian Olympic cyclist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34672, 45063189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1957 Melanie Griffith, American actress and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34606, 484101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1958 Amanda Bearse, American actress, comedian and director", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34953, 212541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1958 James Lileks, American journalist and blogger", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1198099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1958 Calie Pistorius, South African engineer 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1973 Gene Luen Yang, American author and illustrator", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7619558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1974 Derek Fisher, American basketball player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34654, 1246851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1974 Stephen Fung, Hong Kong actor, singer, director, and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4608894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1974 Lesley McKenna, Scottish snowboarder", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11078188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1974 Matt Morris, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1601763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1974 Kirill Reznik, American lawyer and politician", "section_idx": 2, 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12139056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1977 Adewale Ogunleye, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1150391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1977 Ime Udoka, American basketball player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4186327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1977 Mikaël Silvestre, French footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1302425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1978 Dorin Chirtoacă, Moldavian lawyer and politician, Mayor of Chișinău", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34753, 14636390, 24144009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 56, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Ana Serradilla, Mexican actress and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5107175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Wesley Sonck, Belgian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2527088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 Michael Kingma, Australian basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 3087614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1979 Lisa Nandy, British politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27266258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1979 Tony Stewart, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4451487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 Jarvis Hayes, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 1723360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Li Jiawei, Singaporean table tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", 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Masakadza, Zimbabwean cricketer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2873611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Shane O'Brien, Canadian ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7383083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Alicja Smietana, Polish-English violinist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 26727866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 Paul Gallagher, Scottish footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34578, 1370335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1985 Luca Filippi, Italian racing driver", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34846, 4023915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1985 Filipe Luís, Brazilian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5529117 ], 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"section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 26676865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1986 Tyler Smith, American singer-songwriter and bass player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 25128450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Marek Niit, Estonian sprinter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34760, 18844370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 Anthony Castonzo, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34670, 23862768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Willian, Brazilian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9431059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Vasilios Koutsianikoulis, Greek footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20242337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Jason Heyward, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 11652868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Stefano Okaka, Italian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2831728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Kento Ono, Japanese actor and model", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 46980177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 İshak Doğan, Turkish footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 38207031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 Stuart McInally, Scottish rugby player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 33277917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 Brice Roger, French skier", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 42088768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 Sarah McBride, American LGBT activist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 42422187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 D'Arcy Short, Australian cricketer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 33913865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Alice Barlow, English actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 27546447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Alexa Bliss, American bodybuilder and wrestler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 42301410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Hansika Motwani, Indian actress ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6743683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Farahnaz Forotan, Afghan journalist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 66743099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1993 Jun.Q, South Korean singer and actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34598, 62353549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1993 Dipa Karmakar, Indian gymnast", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 43441591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Kelli Hubly, American soccer player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 56938310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 Eli Apple, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34658, 45688399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1996 Sanya Lopez, Filipino actress and model", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34636, 50782814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 Deniss Vasiļjevs, Latvian figure skater", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34553, 42207594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2000 Arlo Parks, British singer-songwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34548, 62621220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 378 Traianus, Roman general", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35605, 26825385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 378 Valens, Roman emperor (b. 328)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 32519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 803 Irene of Athens, Byzantine ruler (b. 752)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35338, 74213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 833 Al-Ma'mun, Iraqi caliph (b. 786)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35894, 341374, 804036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 23, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1048 Pope Damasus II", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40046, 67385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1107 Emperor Horikawa of Japan (b. 1079)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38339, 202161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1173 Najm ad-Din Ayyub, Kurdish soldier and politician", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36052, 7025174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1211 William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber, exiled Anglo-Norman baron (b. 1144/53)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39997, 170557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1260 Walter of Kirkham, Bishop of Durham", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 42495, 8452006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1296 Hugh, Count of Brienne, French crusader", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39977, 1944302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1341 Eleanor of Anjou, queen consort of Sicily (b. 1289)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36364, 9481998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1354 Stephen, Duke of Slavonia, Hungarian prince (b. 1332)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39521, 17657832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1420 Pierre d'Ailly, French theologian and cardinal (b. 1351)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39904, 581822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1516 Hieronymus Bosch, Early Netherlandish painter (b. circa 1450)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38692, 45732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1534 Thomas Cajetan, Italian cardinal and philosopher (b. 1470)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36116, 1338245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1580 Metrophanes III of Constantinople (b. 1520)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38597, 32131219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1601 Michael the Brave, Romanian prince (b. 1558)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35080, 2468688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1634 William Noy, English lawyer and judge (b. 1577)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35191, 197277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1720 Simon Ockley, English orientalist and academic (b. 1678)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34945, 28164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1744 James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos, English academic and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Radnorshire (b. 1673)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35843, 1307208, 3094786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 40 ], [ 75, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1816 Johann August Apel, German jurist and author (b. 1771)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35531, 3637546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1861 Vincent Novello, English composer and publisher (b. 1781)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34680, 211617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1886 Samuel Ferguson, Irish lawyer and poet (b. 1810)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34845, 771665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1910 Huo Yuanjia, Chinese martial artist, co-founded the Chin Woo Athletic Association (b. 1868)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34690, 2266302, 2562912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 58, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1919 Ruggero Leoncavallo, Italian composer and educator (b. 1857)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34665, 37938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1920 Samuel Griffith, Welsh-Australian politician, 9th Premier of Queensland (b. 1845)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34676, 327696, 24677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 56, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1932 John Charles Fields, Canadian mathematician, founder of the Fields Medal (b. 1863)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34775, 805652, 10859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ], [ 66, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1941 Richard Goss, Executed Irish Republican (b. 1915)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34632, 64687452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1942 Edith Stein, German nun and saint (b. 1891)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34629, 43501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1943 Chaïm Soutine, Belarusian-French painter and educator (b. 1893)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34630, 63075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1945 Robert Hampton Gray, Canadian lieutenant and pilot, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1917)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34624, 1215224, 17491404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ], [ 58, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1945 Harry Hillman, American runner and coach (b. 1881)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 602134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1946 Bert Vogler, South African cricketer (b. 1876)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34631, 3780897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1948 Hugo Boss, German fashion designer, founded Hugo Boss (b. 1885)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34612, 1373395, 1696801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 50, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1949 Edward Thorndike, American psychologist and academic (b. 1874)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34604, 84864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1957 Carl Clauberg, German Nazi physician (b. 1898)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34606, 1269219, 31045316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 28, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1962 Hermann Hesse, German-born Swiss poet, novelist, and painter, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34717, 13578, 23385442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 68, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1963 Patrick Bouvier Kennedy, American son of John F. Kennedy (b. 1963)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34648, 584368, 5119376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ], [ 47, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1967 Joe Orton, English author and playwright (b. 1933)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34749, 16486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1969 Wojciech Frykowski, Polish-American actor and author (b. 1936)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34610, 47729021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1969 Sharon Tate, American model and actress (b. 1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 44735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1969 C. F. Powell, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1903)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 396517, 52497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ], [ 56, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1972 Sıddık Sami Onar, Turkish lawyer and academic (b. 1897)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34671, 45651684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1974 Bill Chase, American trumpet player and bandleader (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34654, 477704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1975 Dmitri Shostakovich, Russian pianist and composer (b. 1906)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34752, 8520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1978 James Gould Cozzens, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1903)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34753, 739496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 Walter O'Malley, American businessman (b. 1903)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 1333861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1979 Raymond Washington, American gang leader, founded the Crips (b. 1953)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 301012, 3434023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ], [ 64, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 Jacqueline Cochran, American pilot (b. 1906)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 229679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 Max Hoffman, Austrian-born car importer and businessman (b. 1904)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 5193707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1985 Clive Churchill, Australian rugby league player and coach (b. 1927)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34846, 3427264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 M. Carl Holman, American author, educator, poet, and playwright (b. 1919)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34670, 2321285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 Giacinto Scelsi, Italian composer (b. 1905)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34670, 650379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 Joe Mercer, English footballer and manager (b. 1914)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 760513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Fereydoun Farrokhzad, Iranian singer and actor (b. 1938)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 9559601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 Jerry Garcia, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1942)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34658, 75758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1996 Frank Whittle, English soldier and engineer, invented the jet engine (b. 1907)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34636, 42707, 15944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 64, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 Helen Rollason, English sports journalist and sportscaster (b. 1956)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34553, 2717394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1999 Fouad Serageddin, Egyptian journalist and politician (b. 1910)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6630268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2000 John Harsanyi, Hungarian-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34548, 442291, 23535306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 64, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2000 Nicholas Markowitz, American murder victim (b. 1984)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 9589911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2002 Paul Samson, English guitarist (b. 1953)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35502, 2108857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2003 Jacques Deray, French director and screenwriter (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36163, 2455161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2003 Ray Harford, English footballer and manager (b. 1945)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 292438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2003 Gregory Hines, American actor, dancer, and choreographer (b. 1946)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 293359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2003 R. Sivagurunathan, Sri Lankan lawyer, journalist, and academic (b. 1931)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39684986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2004 Robert Lecourt, French lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of France (b. 1908)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35524, 16715981, 597226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 52, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2004 Tony Mottola, American guitarist and composer (b. 1918)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4507768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2004 David Raksin, American composer and educator (b. 1912)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 890787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2005 Judith Rossner, American author (b. 1935)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35984, 2087822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2006 Philip E. High, English author (b. 1914)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36164, 7147655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2006 James Van Allen, American physicist and academic (b. 1914)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 255286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2007 Joe O'Donnell, American photographer and journalist (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36165, 12770102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2008 Bernie Mac, American comedian, actor, screenwriter, and producer (b. 1957)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35825, 525038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2008 Mahmoud Darwish, Palestinian author and poet (b. 1941)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1548362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2010 Calvin \"Fuzz\" Jones, American singer and bass player (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 43226, 38834181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2010 Ted Stevens, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 181094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 Carl Davis, American record producer (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47374, 33240944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Gene F. Franklin, American engineer, theorist, and academic (b. 1927)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 17131955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Al Freeman, Jr., American actor, director, and educator (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 961547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 David Rakoff, Canadian-American actor and journalist (b. 1964)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2508913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Carmen Belen Richardson, Puerto Rican-American actress (b. 1930)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1699660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Mel Stuart, American director and producer (b. 1928)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2111767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2013 Harry Elliott, American baseball player and coach (b. 1923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 46945, 32606120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Eduardo Falú, Argentinian guitarist and composer (b. 1923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 23316470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 William Lynch, Jr., American lawyer and politician (b. 1947)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 25351591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2014 J. F. Ade Ajayi, Nigerian historian and academic (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 48630, 10598809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Andriy Bal, Ukrainian footballer and coach (b. 1958)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 9123803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Arthur G. Cohen, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Arlen Realty and Development Corporation (b. 1930)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36834968, 36837927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ], [ 79, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Ed Nelson, American actor (b. 1928)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 915092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2015 Frank Gifford, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (b. 1930)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49708, 445861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 John Henry Holland, American computer scientist and academic (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1713373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Walter Nahún López, Honduran footballer (b. 1977)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 12764572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 David Nobbs, English author and screenwriter (b. 1935)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2661463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Kayyar Kinhanna Rai, Indian journalist, author, and poet (b. 1915)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10752099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Fikret Otyam, Turkish painter and journalist (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47495659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2016 Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster, third-richest British citizen (b. 1951)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51387, 242736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2021 Pat Hitchcock, English actress and producer (b. 1928)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51397, 217418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2021 Killer Kau, South African rapper, dancer and record producer (b. 1998)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 68448811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2021 Zairaini Sarbini, 48, Malaysian voice actress (b. 1972)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35664529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Battle of Gangut Day (Russia)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 27865138, 25391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 22, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christian feast day:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 180283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Candida Maria of Jesus", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 18040909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edith Stein (St Teresa Benedicta of the Cross)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 43501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Firmus and Rusticus", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 5854811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Herman of Alaska (Russian Orthodox Church and related congregations; Episcopal Church (USA))", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 14293, 40157, 10186, 19280748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 18, 41 ], [ 46, 67 ], [ 69, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Vianney (1950s – currently August 4)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 876383, 4056451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 14, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mary Sumner (Church of England)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 5532601, 5955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 13, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nath Í of Achonry", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6393096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romanus Ostiarius", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 12930874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Secundian, Marcellian and Verian", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 14214160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2522468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples (United Nations)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 28311789, 31769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 51 ], [ 53, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meyboom (Brussels and Leuven, Belgium)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 58550935, 3708, 76931, 3343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 9, 17 ], [ 22, 28 ], [ 30, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Day, celebrates the independence of Singapore from Malaysia in 1965.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 19381587, 27318, 3607937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 45, 54 ], [ 60, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Peacekeepers' Day, celebrated on Sunday closest to the day (Canada)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 19286134, 5042916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 69, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Women's Day (South Africa)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6308029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] } ]

[ "Days_of_the_year", "August" ]

[ "August 9th", "9th of August", "9 August", "Aug 9" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Aristophanes (; , ; c. 446 – c. 386 BC), son of Philippus, of the deme Kydathenaion (), was a comic playwright or comedy-writer of ancient Athens and a poet of Old Attic Comedy. Eleven of his forty plays survive virtually complete. These provide the most valuable examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy and are used to define it, along with fragments from dozens of lost plays by Aristophanes and his contemporaries.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 543955, 43170343, 20914042, 39262, 13517898, 1420518, 1420518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 70 ], [ 71, 83 ], [ 94, 99 ], [ 100, 110 ], [ 131, 145 ], [ 160, 176 ], [ 308, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also known as \"The Father of Comedy\" and \"the Prince of Ancient Comedy\", Aristophanes has been said to recreate the life of ancient Athens more convincingly than any other author. His powers of ridicule were feared and acknowledged by influential contemporaries; Plato singled out Aristophanes' play The Clouds as slander that contributed to the trial and subsequent condemning to death of Socrates, although other satirical playwrights had also caricatured the philosopher.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22954, 157337, 28661, 25664190, 25664190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 268 ], [ 300, 310 ], [ 314, 321 ], [ 390, 398 ], [ 415, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aristophanes' second play, The Babylonians (now lost), was denounced by Cleon as a slander against the Athenian polis. It is possible that the case was argued in court, but details of the trial are not recorded and Aristophanes caricatured Cleon mercilessly in his subsequent plays, especially The Knights, the first of many plays that he directed himself. \"In my opinion,\" he says through that play's Chorus, \"the author-director of comedies has the hardest job of all.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 231338, 131855, 157471, 197034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 77 ], [ 112, 117 ], [ 294, 305 ], [ 402, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Less is known about Aristophanes than about his plays. In fact, his plays are the main source of information about him and his life. It was conventional in Old Comedy for the chorus to speak on behalf of the author during an address called the Parabasis and thus some biographical facts can be found there. However, these facts relate almost entirely to his career as a dramatist and the plays contain few clear and unambiguous clues about his personal beliefs or his private life. He was a comic poet in an age when it was conventional for a poet to assume the role of teacher (didaskalos), and though this specifically referred to his training of the Chorus in rehearsal, it also covered his relationship with the audience as a commentator on significant issues.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1443944, 197034, 103078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 166 ], [ 175, 181 ], [ 579, 589 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aristophanes claimed to be writing for a clever and discerning audience, yet he also declared that \"other times\" would judge the audience according to its reception of his plays. He sometimes boasts of his originality as a dramatist yet his plays consistently espouse opposition to radical new influences in Athenian society. He caricatured leading figures in the arts (notably Euripides, whose influence on his own work however he once grudgingly acknowledged), in politics (especially the populist Cleon), and in philosophy/religion (where Socrates was the most obvious target). Such caricatures seem to imply that Aristophanes was an old-fashioned conservative, yet that view of him leads to contradictions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 9808, 231338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 378, 387 ], [ 500, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It has been argued that Aristophanes produced plays mainly to entertain the audience and to win prestigious competitions. His plays were written for production at the great dramatic festivals of Athens, the Lenaia and City Dionysia, where they were judged and awarded prizes in competition with the works of other comic dramatists. An elaborate series of lotteries, designed to prevent prejudice and corruption, reduced the voting judges at the City Dionysia to just five. These judges probably reflected the mood of the audiences yet there is much uncertainty about the composition of those audiences. The theatres were certainly huge, with seating for at least 10,000 at the Theatre of Dionysus. The day's program at the City Dionysia for example was crowded, with three tragedies and a satyr play ahead of a comedy, but it is possible that many of the poorer citizens (typically the main supporters of demagogues like Cleon) occupied the festival holiday with other pursuits. The conservative views expressed in the plays might therefore reflect the attitudes of the dominant group in an unrepresentative audience.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 478716, 465578, 29067, 489743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 213 ], [ 218, 231 ], [ 789, 794 ], [ 905, 915 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The production process might also have influenced the views expressed in the plays. Throughout most of Aristophanes' career, the Chorus was essential to a play's success and it was recruited and funded by a choregus, a wealthy citizen appointed to the task by one of the archons. A choregus could regard his personal expenditure on the Chorus as a civic duty and a public honour, but Aristophanes showed in The Knights that wealthy citizens might regard civic responsibilities as punishment imposed on them by demagogues and populists like Cleon. Thus the political conservatism of the plays may reflect the views of the wealthiest section of Athenian society, on whose generosity all dramatists depended for putting on their plays.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 5842698, 164556, 157471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 215 ], [ 271, 277 ], [ 407, 418 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Aristophanes' first play The Banqueters was produced, Athens was an ambitious, imperial power and the Peloponnesian War was only in its fourth year. His plays often express pride in the achievement of the older generation (the victors at Marathon) yet they are not jingoistic, and they are staunchly opposed to the war with Sparta. The plays are particularly scathing in criticism of war profiteers, among whom populists such as Cleon figure prominently. By the time his last play was produced (around 386 BC) Athens had been defeated in war, its empire had been dismantled and it had undergone a transformation from being the political to the intellectual centre of Greece. Aristophanes was part of this transformation and he shared in the intellectual fashions of the period—the structure of his plays evolves from Old Comedy until, in his last surviving play, Wealth II, it more closely resembles New Comedy. However it is uncertain whether he led or merely responded to changes in audience expectations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 24121, 327628, 1102098, 1420518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 124 ], [ 232, 251 ], [ 868, 877 ], [ 905, 915 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aristophanes won second prize at the City Dionysia in 427 BC with his first play The Banqueters (now lost). He won first prize there with his next play, The Babylonians (also now lost). It was usual for foreign dignitaries to attend the City Dionysia, and The Babylonians caused some embarrassment for the Athenian authorities since it depicted the cities of the Delian League as slaves grinding at a mill. Some influential citizens, notably Cleon, reviled the play as slander against the polis and possibly took legal action against the author. The details of the trial are unrecorded but, speaking through the hero of his third play The Acharnians (staged at the Lenaia, where there were few or no foreign dignitaries), the poet carefully distinguishes between the polis and the real targets of his acerbic wit:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 465578, 2037, 231338, 131855, 603021, 478716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 50 ], [ 363, 376 ], [ 442, 447 ], [ 489, 494 ], [ 635, 649 ], [ 665, 671 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aristophanes repeatedly savages Cleon in his later plays. But these satirical diatribes appear to have had no effect on Cleon's political career—a few weeks after the performance of The Knights—a play full of anti-Cleon jokes—Cleon was elected to the prestigious board of ten generals. Cleon also seems to have had no real power to limit or control Aristophanes: the caricatures of him continued up to and even beyond his death.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the absence of clear biographical facts about Aristophanes, scholars make educated guesses based on interpretation of the language in the plays. Inscriptions and summaries or comments by Hellenistic and Byzantine scholars can also provide useful clues. We know from a combination of these sources, and especially from comments in The Knights and The Clouds, that Aristophanes' first three plays were not directed by him—they were instead directed by Callistratus and Philoneides, an arrangement that seemed to suit Aristophanes since he appears to have used these same directors in many later plays as well (Philoneides for example later directed The Frogs and he was also credited, perhaps wrongly, with directing The Wasps.) Aristophanes's use of directors complicates our reliance on the plays as sources of biographical information because apparent self-references might have been made with reference to his directors instead. Thus for example a statement by the chorus in The Acharnians seems to indicate that the \"poet\" had a close, personal association with the island of Aegina. Similarly, the hero in The Acharnians complains about Cleon \"dragging me into court\" over \"last year's play.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 13564103, 2627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 160 ], [ 1082, 1088 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Comments made by the Chorus referring to Aristophanes in The Clouds have been interpreted as evidence that he can hardly have been more than 18 years old when his first play The Banqueters was produced. The second parabasis in Wasps appears to indicate that he reached some kind of temporary accommodation with Cleon following either the controversy over The Babylonians or a subsequent controversy over The Knights. It has been inferred from statements in The Clouds and Peace that Aristophanes was prematurely bald.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 157337, 1591660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 67 ], [ 472, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aristophanes was probably victorious at least once at the City Dionysia (with Babylonians in 427) and at least three times at the Lenaia, with The Acharnians in 425, Knights in 424, and Frogs in 405. Frogs in fact won the unique distinction of a repeat performance at a subsequent festival. A son of Aristophanes, Araros, was also a comic poet and he could have been heavily involved in the production of his father's play Wealth II in 388. Araros is also thought to have been responsible for the posthumous performances of the now lost plays Aeolosicon II and Cocalus, and it is possible that the last of these won the prize at the City Dionysia in 387. It appears that a second son, Philippus, was twice victorious at the Lenaia and he could have directed some of Eubulus’ comedies. A third son was called either Nicostratus or Philetaerus, and a man by the latter name appears in the catalogue of Lenaia victors with two victories, the first probably in the late 370s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1102098, 5884078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 423, 432 ], [ 766, 773 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Plato's The Symposium appears to be a useful source of biographical information about Aristophanes, but its reliability is open to doubt. It purports to be a record of conversations at a dinner party at which both Aristophanes and Socrates are guests, held some seven years after the performance of The Clouds, the play in which Socrates was cruelly caricatured. One of the guests, Alcibiades, even quotes from the play when teasing Socrates over his appearance and yet there is no indication of any ill-feeling between Socrates and Aristophanes. Plato's Aristophanes is in fact a genial character and this has been interpreted as evidence of Plato's own friendship with him (their friendship appears to be corroborated by an epitaph for Aristophanes, reputedly written by Plato, in which the playwright's soul is compared to an eternal shrine for the Graces). Plato was only a boy when the events in The Symposium are supposed to have occurred and it is possible that his Aristophanes is in fact based on a reading of the plays. For example, conversation among the guests turns to the subject of Love and Aristophanes explains his notion of it in terms of an amusing allegory, a device he often uses in his plays. He is represented as suffering an attack of hiccups and this might be a humorous reference to the crude physical jokes in his plays. He tells the other guests that he is quite happy to be thought amusing but he is wary of appearing ridiculous. This fear of being ridiculed is consistent with his declaration in The Knights that he embarked on the career of comic playwright warily after witnessing the public contempt and ridicule that other dramatists had incurred.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 246725, 61322, 79539, 18600477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 21 ], [ 382, 392 ], [ 852, 858 ], [ 1259, 1266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aristophanes survived The Peloponnesian War, two oligarchic revolutions and two democratic restorations; this has been interpreted as evidence that he was not actively involved in politics despite his highly political plays. He was probably appointed to the Council of Five Hundred for a year at the beginning of the fourth century but such appointments were very common in democratic Athens.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 24121, 335824, 51992830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 43 ], [ 258, 281 ], [ 374, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The language of Aristophanes' plays, and in Old Comedy generally, was valued by ancient commentators as a model of the Attic dialect. The orator Quintilian believed that the charm and grandeur of the Attic dialect made Old Comedy an example for orators to study and follow, and he considered it inferior in these respects only to the works of Homer. A revival of interest in the Attic dialect may have been responsible for the recovery and circulation of Aristophanes' plays during the fourth and fifth centuries AD, resulting in their survival today. In Aristophanes' plays, the Attic dialect is couched in verse and his plays can be appreciated for their poetic qualities.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [ 85436, 97092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 132 ], [ 145, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For Aristophanes' contemporaries the works of Homer and Hesiod formed the cornerstones of Hellenic history and culture. Thus poetry had a moral and social significance that made it an inevitable topic of comic satire. Aristophanes was very conscious of literary fashions and traditions and his plays feature numerous references to other poets. These include not only rival comic dramatists such as Eupolis and Hermippus and predecessors such as Magnes, Crates and Cratinus, but also tragedians, notably Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, all three of whom are mentioned in e.g. The Frogs. Aristophanes was the equal of these great tragedians in his subtle use of lyrics. He appears to have modelled his approach to language on that of Euripides in particular, so much so that the comic dramatist Cratinus labelled him a 'Euripidaristophanist' addicted to hair-splitting niceties.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [ 13633, 13700, 1032098, 1525058, 14862130, 5922153, 1332129, 2023, 26984, 9808, 1332129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 51 ], [ 56, 62 ], [ 398, 405 ], [ 410, 419 ], [ 445, 451 ], [ 453, 459 ], [ 464, 472 ], [ 503, 512 ], [ 514, 523 ], [ 528, 537 ], [ 797, 805 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A full appreciation of Aristophanes' plays requires an understanding of the poetic forms he employed with virtuoso skill, and of their different rhythms and associations. There were three broad poetic forms: iambic dialogue, tetrameter verses and lyrics:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Iambic dialogue: Aristophanes achieves an effect resembling natural speech through the use of the iambic trimeter (corresponding to the effects achieved by English poets such as Shakespeare using iambic pentameters). His realistic use of the meter makes it ideal for both dialogue and soliloquy, as for instance in the prologue, before the arrival of the Chorus, when the audience is introduced to the main issues in the plot. The Acharnians opens with these three lines by the hero, Dikaiopolis (rendered here in English as iambic pentameters):", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [ 3501090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "How many are the things that vex my heart!", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pleasures are few, so very few– just four –", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "But stressful things are manysandthousandsandheaps!", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Here Aristophanes employs a frequent device, arranging the syntax so that the final word in a line comes as a comic climax. The hero's pleasures are so few he can number them (, four) but his causes for complaint are so many they beggar numerical description and he must invent his own word for them (, literally \"sandhundredheaps\", here paraphrased \"manysandthousandsandheaps\"). The use of invented compound words is another comic device frequently found in the plays.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [ 887473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 400, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tetrameter catalectic verses: These are long lines of anapests, trochees or iambs (where each line is ideally measured in four dipodes or pairs of feet), used in various situations within each play such as:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [ 187406, 187505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 63 ], [ 65, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " formal debates or agons between characters (typically in anapestic rhythm);", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " excited dialogue or heated argument (typically trochaic rhythm, the same as in early tragedy);", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " long speeches declaimed by the Chorus in Parabasis (in either anapestic or trochaic rhythms);", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " informal debates barely above the level of ordinary dialogue (typically iambic).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anapestic rhythms are naturally jaunty (as in many limericks) and trochaic meter is suited to rapid delivery (the word \"trochee\" is in fact derived from trechein, \"to run\", as demonstrated for example by choruses who enter at speed, often in aggressive mood) However, even though both these rhythms can seem to \"bowl along\" Aristophanes often varies them through use of complex syntax and substituted meters, adapting the rhythms to the requirements of serious argument. In an anapestic passage in The Frogs, for instance, the character Aeschylus presents a view of poetry that is supposed to be serious but which leads to a comic interruption by the god, Dionysus:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [ 48994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AES.:It was Orpheus singing who taught us religion and how wrong people are when they kill,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [ 22877693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "And we learned from Musaeus medicinal cures and the science of divination.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [ 35948073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If it's farming you want, Hesiod knows it all, when to plant, when to harvest. How godlike", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [ 13700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Homer got to be famous, I'll tell if you ask: he taught us what all good men should know,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Discipline, fortitude, battle-readiness. DIO.: But no-one taught Pantocles– yesterday", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He was marching his men up and down on parade when the crest of his helmet fell off!", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The rhythm begins at a typical anapestic gallop, slows down to consider the revered poets Hesiod and Homer, then gallops off again to its comic conclusion at the expense of the unfortunate Pantocles. Such subtle variations in rhythm are common in the plays, allowing for serious points to be made while still whetting the audience's appetite for the next joke.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lyrics: Almost nothing is known about the music that accompanied Greek lyrics, and the meter is often so varied and complex that it is difficult for modern readers or audiences to get a feel for the intended effects, yet Aristophanes still impresses with the charm and simplicity of his lyrics. Some of the most memorable and haunting lyrics are dignified hymns set free of the comic action. In the example below, taken from The Wasps, the lyric is merely a comic interlude and the rhythm is steadily trochaic. The syntax in the original Greek is natural and unforced and it was probably accompanied by brisk and cheerful music, gliding to a concluding pun at the expense of Amynias, who is thought to have lost his fortune gambling.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The pun here in English translation (Penestes–penniless) is a weak version of the Greek pun , Penéstaisi-penéstĕs, \"destitute\". Many of the puns in the plays are based on words that are similar rather than identical, and it has been observed that there could be more of them than scholars have yet been able to identify. Others are based on double meanings. Sometimes entire scenes are constructed on puns, as in The Acharnians with the Megarian farmer and his pigs: the Megarian farmer defies the Athenian embargo against Megarian trade, and tries to trade his daughters disguised as pigs, except \"pig\" was ancient slang for \"vagina\". Since the embargo against Megara was the pretext for the Peloponnesian War, Aristophanes naturally concludes that this whole mess happened because of \"three cunts\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [ 24145, 20344, 771351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 91 ], [ 437, 445 ], [ 646, 668 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It can be argued that the most important feature of the language of the plays is imagery, particularly the use of similes, metaphors and pictorial expressions. In The Knights, for example, the ears of a character with selective hearing are represented as parasols that open and close. In The Frogs, Aeschylus is said to compose verses in the manner of a horse rolling in a sandpit. Some plays feature revelations of human perfectibility that are poetic rather than religious in character, such as the marriage of the hero Pisthetairos to Zeus's paramour in The Birds and the \"recreation\" of old Athens, crowned with roses, at the end of The Knights.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Use of language", "target_page_ids": [ 2023, 34398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 299, 308 ], [ 538, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is widely believed that Aristophanes condemned rhetoric on both moral and political grounds. He states, \"a speaker trained in the new rhetoric may use his talents to deceive the jury and bewilder his opponents so thoroughly that the trial loses all semblance of fairness\" He is speaking to the \"art\" of flattery, and evidence points towards the fact that many of Aristophanes' plays were actually created with the intent to attack the view of rhetoric. The most noticeable attack can be seen in his play Banqueters, in which two brothers from different educational backgrounds argue over which education is better. One brother comes from a background of \"old-fashioned\" education while the other brother appears to be a product of the sophistic education", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rhetoric", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The chorus was mainly used by Aristophanes as a defense against rhetoric and would often talk about topics such as the civic duty of those who were educated in classical teachings. In Aristophanes' opinion it was the job of those educated adults to protect the public from deception and to stand as a beacon of light for those who were more gullible than others. One of the main reasons why Aristophanes was so against the sophists came into existence from the requirements listed by the leaders of the organization. Money was essential, which meant that roughly all of the pupils studying with the sophists came from upper-class backgrounds and excluded the rest of the polis. Aristophanes believed that education and knowledge was a public service and that anything that excluded willing minds was nothing but an abomination. He concludes that all politicians that study rhetoric must have \"doubtful citizenships, unspeakable morals, and too much arrogance\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Rhetoric", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The plays of Aristophanes are among the defining examples of Old Comedy. For this reason, an understanding of Old Comedy and Aristophanes' place in it is useful to comprehend his plays in their historical and cultural context. The themes of Old Comedy included: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Inclusive comedy: Old Comedy provided a variety of entertainments for a diverse audience. It accommodated a serious purpose, light entertainment, hauntingly beautiful lyrics, the buffoonery of puns and invented words, obscenities, disciplined verse, wildly absurd plots and a formal, dramatic structure.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fantasy and absurdity: Fantasy in Old Comedy is unrestricted and impossibilities are ignored. Situations are developed logically to absurd conclusions, an approach to humour that is echoed for instance in the works of Lewis Carroll and Eugène Ionesco (the Theatre of the Absurd). The crazy costume worn by Dionysus in The Frogs is typical of an absurd result obtained on logical grounds—he wears a woman's saffron-coloured tunic because effeminacy is an aspect of his divinity, buskin boots because he is interested in reviving the art of tragedy, and a lion skin cape because, like Heracles, his mission leads him into Hades. Absurdities develop logically from initial premises in a plot. In The Knights for instance, Cleon's corrupt service to the people of Athens is originally depicted as a household relationship in which the slave dupes his master. The introduction of a rival, who is not a member of the household, leads to an absurd shift in the metaphor, so that Cleon and his rival become erastai competing for the affections of an eromenos, hawkers of oracles competing for the attention of a credulous public, athletes in a race for approval and orators competing for the popular vote.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [ 26586083, 72590, 85248, 13225, 3352973, 887710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 232 ], [ 237, 251 ], [ 257, 278 ], [ 621, 626 ], [ 1000, 1007 ], [ 1043, 1051 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The resourceful hero: In Aristophanic comedy, the hero is an independent-minded and self-reliant individual. He has something of the ingenuity of Homer's Odysseus and much of the shrewdness of the farmer idealized in Hesiod's Works and Days, subjected to corrupt leaders and unreliable neighbours. Typically he devises a complicated and highly fanciful escape from an intolerable situation. Thus Dikaiopolis in The Acharnians contrives a private peace treaty with the Spartans; Bdelucleon in The Wasps turns his own house into a private law court in order to keep his jury-addicted father safely at home; Trygaeus in Peace flies to Olympus on a giant dung beetle to obtain an end to the Peloponnesian War; Pisthetairus in Birds sets off to establish his own colony and becomes instead the ruler of the bird kingdom and a rival to the gods.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [ 22537, 13700, 2621292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 163 ], [ 218, 224 ], [ 227, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The resourceful cast: The numerous surprising developments in an Aristophanic plot, the changes in scene, and the farcical comings and goings of minor characters towards the end of a play, were managed according to theatrical convention with only three principal actors (a fourth actor, often the leader of the chorus, was permitted to deliver short speeches). Songs and addresses to the audience by the Chorus gave the actors hardly enough time off-stage to draw breath and to prepare for changes in scene.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Complex structure: The action of an Aristophanic play obeyed a crazy logic of its own and yet it always unfolded within a formal, dramatic structure that was repeated with minor variations from one play to another. The different, structural elements are associated with different poetic meters and rhythms and these are generally lost in English translations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The structural elements of a typical Aristophanic plot can be summarized as follows:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " prologue – an introductory scene with a dialogue and/or soliloquy addressed to the audience, expressed in iambic trimeter and explaining the situation that is to be resolved in the play;", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [ 3501090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " parodos – the arrival of the chorus, dancing and singing, sometimes followed by a choreographed skirmish with one or more actors, often expressed in long lines of tetrameters;", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " symmetrical scenes – passages featuring songs and declaimed verses in long lines of tetrameters, arranged symmetrically in two sections such that each half resembles the other in meter and line length; the agon and parabasis can be considered specific instances of symmetrical scenes:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " parabasis – verses through which the Chorus addresses the audience directly, firstly in the middle of the play and again near the end (see the section below, Parabasis);", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " agon – a formal debate that decides the outcome of the play, typically in anapestic tetrameter, though iambs are sometimes used to delineate inferior arguments;", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " episodes – sections of dialogue in iambic trimeter, often in a succession of scenes featuring minor characters towards the end of a play;", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " songs ('strophes'/'antistrophes' or 'odes'/'antodes') – often in symmetrical pairs where each half has the same meter and number of lines as the other, used as transitions between other structural elements, or between scenes while actors change costume, and often commenting on the action;", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " exodus – the departure of the Chorus and the actors, in song and dance celebrating the hero's victory and sometimes celebrating a symbolic marriage.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The rules of competition did not prevent a playwright arranging and adjusting these elements to suit his particular needs. In The Acharnians and Peace, for example, there is no formal agon whereas in The Clouds there are two agons.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The parabasis is an address to the audience by the chorus or chorus leader while the actors leave or have left the stage. In this role, the chorus is sometimes out of character, as the author's voice, and sometimes in character, although these capacities are often difficult to distinguish. Generally the parabasis occurs somewhere in the middle of a play and often there is a second parabasis towards the end. The elements of a parabasis have been defined and named by scholars but it is probable that Aristophanes' own understanding was less formal. The selection of elements can vary from play to play and it varies considerably within plays between first and second parabasis. The early plays (The Acharnians to The Birds) are fairly uniform in their approach however and the following elements of a parabasis can be found within them.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " kommation: This is a brief prelude, comprising short lines and often including a valediction to the departing actors, such as (Go rejoicing!).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " parabasis proper: This is usually a defense of the author's work and it includes criticism of the audience's attitude. It is declaimed in long lines of 'anapestic tetrameters'. Aristophanes himself refers to the parabasis proper only as 'anapests'.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " pnigos: Sometimes known as 'a choker', it comprises a few short lines appended to the parabasis proper as a kind of rapid patter (it has been suggested that some of the effects achieved in a pnigos can be heard in \"The Lord Chancellor's Nightmare Song\", in act 2 of Gilbert and Sullivan's Iolanthe).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " epirrhematic syzygies: These are symmetrical scenes that mirror each other in meter and number of lines. They form part of the first parabasis and they often comprise the entire second parabasis. They are characterized by the following elements:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " strophe or ode: These are lyrics in a variety of meters, sung by the Chorus in the first parabasis as an invocation to the gods and as a comic interlude in the second parabasis.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " epirrhema: These are usually long lines of trochaic tetrameters. Broadly political in their significance, they were probably spoken by the leader of the Chorus in character.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " antistrophe or antode: These are songs that mirror the strophe/ode in meter, length and function.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " antepirrhema. This is another declaimed passage and it mirrors the epirrhema in meter, length and function.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Wasps is thought to offer the best example of a conventional approach and the elements of a parabasis can be identified and located in that play as follows.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [ 617361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "{| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"margin: 1em auto 1em auto; background-color: #ffffff\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! Elements in The Wasps", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! 1st parabasis", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! 2nd parabasis", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| kommation", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| lines 1009–1014", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ---", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| parabasis proper", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| lines 1015–1050", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ---", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| pnigos", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| lines 1051–1059", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| ---", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| strophe", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| lines 1060–1070", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| lines 1265–1274", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| epirrhema", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| lines 1071–1090", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| lines 1275–1283", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| antistrophe", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| lines 1091–1101", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| missing", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| antepirrhema", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| lines 1102–1121", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| lines 1284–1291", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Textual corruption is probably the reason for the absence of the antistrophe in the second parabasis.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, there are several variations from the ideal even within the early plays. For example, the parabasis proper in The Clouds (lines 518–562) is composed in eupolidean meter rather than in anapests and the second parabasis includes a kommation but it lacks strophe, antistrophe and antepirrhema (The Clouds lines 1113–1130). The second parabasis in The Acharnians lines 971–999 can be considered a hybrid parabasis/song (i.e. the declaimed sections are merely continuations of the strophe and antistrophe) and, unlike the typical parabasis, it seems to comment on actions that occur on stage during the address. An understanding of Old Comedy conventions such as the parabasis is necessary for a proper understanding of Aristophanes' plays; on the other hand, a sensitive appreciation of the plays is necessary for a proper understanding of the conventions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aristophanes and Old Comedy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The tragic dramatists, Sophocles and Euripides, died near the end of the Peloponnesian War and the art of tragedy thereafter ceased to develop, yet comedy did continue to evolve after the defeat of Athens and it is possible that it did so because, in Aristophanes, it had a master craftsman who lived long enough to help usher it into a new age. Indeed, according to one ancient source (Platonius, c.9th Century AD), one of Aristophanes's last plays, Aioliskon, had neither a parabasis nor any choral lyrics (making it a type of Middle Comedy), while Kolakos anticipated all the elements of New Comedy, including a rape and a recognition scene. Aristophanes seems to have had some appreciation of his formative role in the development of comedy, as indicated by his comment in Clouds that his audience would be judged by other times according to its reception of his plays. Clouds was awarded third (i.e. last) place after its original performance and the text that has come down to the modern age was a subsequent draft that Aristophanes intended to be read rather than acted. The circulation of his plays in manuscript extended their influence beyond the original audience, over whom in fact they seem to have had little or no practical influence: they did not affect the career of Cleon, they failed to persuade the Athenians to pursue an honourable peace with Sparta and it is not clear that they were instrumental in the trial and execution of Socrates, whose death probably resulted from public animosity towards the philosopher's disgraced associates (such as Alcibiades), exacerbated of course by his own intransigence during the trial. The plays, in manuscript form, have been put to some surprising uses—as indicated Aristophanes the Poet, they were used in the study of rhetoric on the recommendation of Quintilian and by students of the Attic dialect in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries AD. It is possible that Plato sent copies of the plays to Dionysius of Syracuse so that he might learn about Athenian life and government.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 26984, 9808, 231338, 61322, 97092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 32 ], [ 37, 46 ], [ 1284, 1289 ], [ 1567, 1577 ], [ 1815, 1825 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Latin translations of the plays by Andreas Divus (Venice 1528) were circulated widely throughout Europe in the Renaissance and these were soon followed by translations and adaptations in modern languages. Racine, for example, drew Les Plaideurs (1668) from The Wasps. Goethe (who turned to Aristophanes for a warmer and more vivid form of comedy than he could derive from readings of Terence and Plautus) adapted a short play Die Vögel from The Birds for performance in Weimar. Aristophanes has appealed to both conservatives and radicals in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries—Anatoly Lunacharsky, first Commissar of Enlightenment for the USSR in 1917, declared that the ancient dramatist would have a permanent place in proletarian theatre and yet conservative, Prussian intellectuals interpreted Aristophanes as a satirical opponent of social reform. The avant-gardist stage-director Karolos Koun directed a version of The Birds under the Acropolis in 1959 that established a trend in modern Greek history of breaking taboos through the voice of Aristophanes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1252525, 52201, 19242322, 296234, 9501168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 48 ], [ 205, 211 ], [ 268, 274 ], [ 581, 600 ], [ 890, 902 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The plays have a significance that goes beyond their artistic function, as historical documents that open the window on life and politics in classical Athens, in which respect they are perhaps as important as the writings of Thucydides. The artistic influence of the plays is immeasurable. They have contributed to the history of European theatre and that history in turn shapes our understanding of the plays. Thus for example the operettas of Gilbert and Sullivan can give us insights into Aristophanes' plays and similarly the plays can give us insights into the operettas. The plays are a source of famous sayings, such as \"By words the mind is winged.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 13517898, 30864, 13021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 157 ], [ 225, 235 ], [ 445, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Listed below are some of the many works influenced (more or less) by Aristophanes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1909: Wasps, original Greek, Cambridge University undergraduate production, music by Vaughan Williams;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 79448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2004, July–October: The Frogs (musical), adapted by Nathan Lane, music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, performed at The Vivian Beaumont Theater Broadway;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 3558994, 29268, 4401162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 40 ], [ 86, 102 ], [ 121, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1962–2006: various plays by students and staff, King's College London, in the original Greek: Frogs 1962, 1971, 1988; Thesmophoriazusae 1965, 1974, 1985; The Acharnians 1968, 1992, 2004; Clouds 1977, 1990; Birds 1982, 2000; Ecclesiazusae 2006; Peace 1970; Wasps 1981", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2002: Lysistrata, adapted by Robert Brustein, music by Galt McDermot, performed by American Repertory Theatre, Boston US;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2008, May–June: Frogs, adapted by David Greenspan, music by Thomas Cabaniss, performed by Classic Stage Company, New York, US.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 7973497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The romantic poet, Percy Shelley, wrote a comic, lyrical drama (Swellfoot the Tyrant) in imitation of Aristophanes' play The Frogs after he was reminded of the Chorus in that play by a herd of pigs passing to market under the window of his lodgings in San Giuliano, Italy.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 26094, 20502020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 13 ], [ 20, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aristophanes (particularly in reference to The Clouds) is mentioned frequently by the character Menedemos in the Hellenic Traders series of novels by H. N. Turteltaub.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 6757364, 40212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 130 ], [ 151, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A liberal version of the comedies have been published in comic book format, initially by \"Agrotikes Ekdoseis\" during the 1980s and republished over the years by other companies. The plot was written by Tasos Apostolidis and the sketches were of George Akokalidis. The stories feature either Aristophanes narrating them, directing the play, or even as a character inside one of his stories.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 6231, 292910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 68 ], [ 349, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Acropolis Now is a comedy radio show for the BBC set in Ancient Greece. It features Aristophanes, Socrates and many other famous Greeks. (Not to be confused with the Australian sitcom of the same name.) Aristophanes is characterised as a celebrity playwright, and most of his plays have the title formula: One of Our [e.g] Slaves has an Enormous Knob (a reference to the exaggerated appendages worn by Greek comic actors)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 4481458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aristophanes Against the World was a radio play by Martyn Wade and broadcast on BBC Radio 4. Loosely based on several of his plays, it featured Clive Merrison as Aristophanes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 72758, 2300380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 92 ], [ 145, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Wasps, radio play adapted by David Pountney, music by Vaughan Williams, recorded 26–28 July 2005, Albert Halls, Bolten, in association with BBC, under Halle label", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 79448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Satiric Dances for a Comedy by Aristophanes is a three-movement piece for concert band composed by Norman Dello Joio. It was commissioned in commemoration of the Bicentennial of 19 April 1775 (the start of the American Revolutionary War) by the Concord (Massachusetts) Band. The commission was funded by the Town of Concord and assistance was given by the Eastern National Park and Monument Association in cooperation with the National Park Service.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1532700, 771, 1645518, 116838, 161535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 117 ], [ 211, 237 ], [ 255, 268 ], [ 317, 324 ], [ 428, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ralph Vaughan Williams wrote The Wasps for a 1909 Cambridge University production of the play.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Influence and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 79448, 3668803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 30, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alan H. Sommerstein believes that although there are good translations of Aristophanes' comedies in English, none could be flawless, \"for there is much truth in the paradox that the only really perfect translation is the original.\" In spite of that, it is crucial to be cited that there are competent respectable translations in other languages such as Farsi (by Reza Shirmarz, a well-known Iranian playwright, translator and researcher), French and German. Despite the fact that English translations of Aristophanes might not be perfect, \"the reception of Aristophanes has gained extraordinary momentum as a topic of academic interest in the last few years.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Translation of Aristophanes", "target_page_ids": [ 64963438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 363, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of these are traditionally referred to by abbreviations of their Latin titles; Latin remains a customary language of scholarship in classical studies.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Acharnians ( Akharneis; Attic ; ), 425 BC", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 603021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Knights ( Hippeis; Attic ; Latin: ), 424 BC", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 157471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Clouds ( Nephelai; Latin: ), original 423 BC, uncompleted revised version from 419 to 416 BC survives", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 157337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Wasps ( Sphekes; Latin: ), 422 BC", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 617361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peace ( Eirene; Latin: ), first version, 421 BC", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 1591660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Birds ( Ornithes; Latin: ), 414 BC", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 304147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lysistrata ( Lysistrate), 411 BC", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 189894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thesmophoriazusae or The Women Celebrating the Thesmophoria ( Thesmophoriazousai), first version c.411 BC", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 969353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Frogs ( Batrakhoi; Latin: ), 405 BC", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 494640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ecclesiazusae or The Assemblywomen; ( Ekklesiazousai), c. 392 BC", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 157476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wealth ( Ploutos; Latin Plutus) second version, 388 BC", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 1102098, 1102098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 25, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The standard modern edition of the fragments is Rudolf Kassel and Colin François Lloyd Austin's, Poetae Comici Graeci III.2.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 64067736, 44974155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 61 ], [ 66, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Banqueters (Δαιταλεῖς Daitaleis, 427 BC)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Babylonians (Βαβυλώνιοι Babylonioi, 426 BC)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Farmers (Γεωργοί Georgoi, 424 BC)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Merchant Ships (Ὁλκάδες Holkades, 423 BC)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Clouds (first version, 423 BC)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 157337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Proagon (Προάγων, 422 BC)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Amphiaraus (Ἀμφιάραος, 414 BC)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Plutus (Wealth, first version, 408 BC)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 1102098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gerytades (Γηρυτάδης, uncertain, probably 407 BC)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cocalus (Κώκαλος, 387 BC)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aiolosicon (Αἰολοσίκων, second version, 386 BC)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aiolosicon (first version)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anagyrus (Ἀνάγυρος)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Frying-Pan Men (Ταγηνισταί Tagenistai)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Daedalus (Δαίδαλος)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Danaids (Δαναΐδες Danaides)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Centaur (Κένταυρος Kentauros)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Heroes (Ἥρωες)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lemnian Women (Λήμνιαι Lemniai)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Old Age (Γῆρας Geras)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Peace (second version)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Phoenician Women (Φοίνισσαι Phoinissai)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Polyidus (Πολύιδος)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Seasons (Ὧραι Horai)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Storks (Πελαργοί Pelargoi)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Telemessians (Ίελμησσείς Telmesseis)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Triphales (Τριφάλης)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thesmophoriazusae (Women at the Thesmophoria Festival, second version)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 969353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Women in Tents (Σκηνὰς Καταλαμβάνουσαι Skenas Katalambanousai)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Agathon", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ancient Greek comedy", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1420518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asteroid 2934 Aristophanes, named after the dramatist", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 629616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Greek literature", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Onomasti komodein, the witty personal attack made with total freedom against the most notable individuals", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16716823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hubert Parry wrote music for The Birds", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 144461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Theatre of ancient Greece", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 528520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Codex Ravennas 429", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 64694632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " reviewed by W. J. Slater, Phoenix, Vol. 30, No. 3 (Autumn, 1976), pp.291–293 ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lee, Jae Num. \"Scatology in Continental Satirical Writings from Aristophanes to Rabelais\" and \"English Scatological Writings from Skelton to Pope.\" Swift and Scatological Satire. Albuquerque: U of New Mexico P, 1971. 7–22; 23–53.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aristophanes and the Comic Hero by Cedric H. Whitman Author(s) of Review: H. Lloyd Stow The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 87, No. 1 (Jan., 1966), pp.111–113", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " G. M. Sifakis The Structure of Aristophanic Comedy The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 112, 1992 (1992), pp.123–142 ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Van Steen, Gonda. 2000 Venom in Verse: Aristophanes in Modern Greece. Princeton University Press.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jstor.org, The American Journal of Philology, 1996.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Life, death and Aristophanes' concept of Eros in Saul Bellow's \"Ravelstein\".", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Eleven Comedies (in translation) at the University of Adelaide Library", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Aristophanes", "440s_BC_births", "380s_BC_deaths", "4th-century_BC_Athenians", "4th-century_BC_writers", "5th-century_BC_Athenians", "5th-century_BC_writers", "Ancient_Athenians", "Ancient_Greek_dramatists_and_playwrights", "Ancient_Greek_satirists", "Old_Comic_poets", "Writers_of_lost_works" ]

[ "Father of Comedy" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Ludwig Philipp Albert Schweitzer (; 14 January 1875– 4 September 1965) was an Alsatian-German/French polymath. He was a theologian, organist, musicologist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician. A Lutheran minister, Schweitzer challenged both the secular view of Jesus as depicted by the historical-critical method current at this time, as well as the traditional Christian view. His contributions to the interpretation of Pauline Christianity concern the role of Paul's mysticism of \"being in Christ\" as primary and the doctrine of Justification by Faith as secondary.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 48129, 25121, 23371382, 496253, 7355, 611833, 24140, 29174999, 58674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 87 ], [ 102, 110 ], [ 209, 226 ], [ 275, 326 ], [ 376, 390 ], [ 435, 455 ], [ 476, 480 ], [ 483, 492 ], [ 545, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize for his philosophy of \"Reverence for Life\", becoming the eighth Frenchman to be awarded that prize. His philosophy was expressed in many ways, but most famously in founding and sustaining the Albert Schweitzer Hospital in Lambaréné, which up to 1958 was situated in French Equatorial Africa, and after this in Gabon. As a music scholar and organist, he studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ Reform Movement (Orgelbewegung).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26230922, 20025013, 10257142, 1795551, 52893, 12027, 9906294, 18854656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 38 ], [ 62, 80 ], [ 231, 257 ], [ 261, 270 ], [ 305, 329 ], [ 349, 354 ], [ 429, 450 ], [ 470, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schweitzer was born 14 January 1875 in Kaysersberg in Alsace, in what had less than four years previously become the Imperial Territory of Alsace-Lorraine in the German Empire after being French for more than two centuries; he later became a citizen of France after World War I, when Alsace became French territory again. He was the son of Louis Schweitzer and Adèle Schillinger. He spent his childhood in Gunsbach, also in Alsace, where his father, the local Lutheran-Evangelical pastor of the EPCAAL, taught him how to play music. The tiny village would become home to the Association Internationale Albert Schweitzer (AIAS). The medieval parish church of Gunsbach was shared by the Protestant and Catholic congregations, which held their prayers in different areas at different times on Sundays. This compromise arose after the Protestant Reformation and the Thirty Years' War. Schweitzer, the pastor's son, grew up in this exceptional environment of religious tolerance, and developed the belief that true Christianity should always work towards a unity of faith and purpose.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 2582664, 206997, 12674, 13770465, 23371382, 40047495, 13770465, 37857, 30583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 50 ], [ 117, 154 ], [ 162, 175 ], [ 406, 414 ], [ 460, 480 ], [ 495, 501 ], [ 575, 619 ], [ 831, 853 ], [ 862, 879 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schweitzer's first language was the Alsatian dialect of German. At the Mulhouse gymnasium he received his \"Abitur\" (the certificate at the end of secondary education) in 1893. He studied organ in Mulhouse from 1885 to 1893 with Eugène Munch, organist at the Protestant cathedral, who inspired Schweitzer with his enthusiasm for the music of German composer Richard Wagner. In 1893, he played for the French organist Charles-Marie Widor (at Saint-Sulpice, Paris), for whom Johann Sebastian Bach's organ music contained a mystic sense of the eternal. Widor, deeply impressed, agreed to teach Schweitzer without fee, and a great and influential friendship thus began.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 82044, 364964, 217203, 217428, 25452, 141849, 2935826, 9906294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 52 ], [ 71, 79 ], [ 80, 89 ], [ 107, 113 ], [ 357, 371 ], [ 416, 435 ], [ 440, 460 ], [ 472, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1893 Schweitzer studied Protestant theology at the Kaiser Wilhelm University in Strasbourg. There he also received instruction in piano and counterpoint from professor Gustav Jacobsthal, and associated closely with Ernest Munch, the brother of his former teacher, organist of St William church, who was also a passionate admirer of J. S. Bach's music. Schweitzer served his one-year compulsory military service in 1894. Schweitzer saw many operas of Richard Wagner in Strasbourg (under Otto Lohse) and in 1896 he managed to afford a visit to the Bayreuth Festival to see Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen and Parsifal, both of which impressed him. In 1898, he returned to Paris to write a PhD dissertation on The Religious Philosophy of Kant at the Sorbonne, and to study in earnest with Widor. Here he often met with the elderly Aristide Cavaillé-Coll. He also studied piano at that time with Marie Jaëll. In 1899, Schweitzer spent the summer semester at the University of Berlin and eventually obtained his theology degree at the University of Strasbourg. He published his PhD thesis at the University of Tübingen in 1899.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 25814008, 722824, 37407, 5909, 9762838, 314163, 31381, 38235, 14631, 84692, 313202, 15550123, 308234, 722824, 262301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 48 ], [ 56, 81 ], [ 85, 95 ], [ 145, 157 ], [ 491, 501 ], [ 551, 568 ], [ 585, 608 ], [ 613, 621 ], [ 741, 745 ], [ 753, 761 ], [ 834, 856 ], [ 898, 909 ], [ 964, 984 ], [ 1036, 1060 ], [ 1097, 1119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1905, Schweitzer began his study of medicine at the University of Strasbourg, culminating in the degree of M.D. in 1913.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Schweitzer rapidly gained prominence as a musical scholar and organist, dedicated also to the rescue, restoration and study of historic pipe organs. With theological insight, he interpreted the use of pictorial and symbolical representation in J. S. Bach's religious music. In 1899, he astonished Widor by explaining figures and motifs in Bach's Chorale Preludes as painter-like tonal and rhythmic imagery illustrating themes from the words of the hymns on which they were based. They were works of devotional contemplation in which the musical design corresponded to literary ideas, conceived visually. Widor had not grown up with knowledge of the old Lutheran hymns.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 149996, 9906294, 1151608, 23371382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 146 ], [ 244, 256 ], [ 346, 362 ], [ 653, 661 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The exposition of these ideas, encouraged by Widor and Munch, became Schweitzer's last task, and appeared in the masterly study J. S. Bach: Le Musicien-Poète, written in French and published in 1905. There was great demand for a German edition, but, instead of translating it, he decided to rewrite it. The result was two volumes (J. S. Bach), which were published in 1908 and translated into English by Ernest Newman in 1911. Ernst Cassirer, a contemporaneous German philosopher, called it \"one of the best interpretations\" of Bach. During its preparation Schweitzer became a friend of Cosima Wagner, then resident in Strasbourg, with whom he had many theological and musical conversations, exploring his view of Bach's descriptive music, and playing the major Chorale Preludes for her at the Temple Neuf. Schweitzer's interpretative approach greatly influenced the modern understanding of Bach's music. He became a welcome guest at the Wagners' home, Wahnfried. He also corresponded with composer Clara Faisst, who became a good friend.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 2067217, 556846, 627541, 14732550, 43629935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 404, 417 ], [ 427, 441 ], [ 587, 600 ], [ 953, 962 ], [ 999, 1011 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His pamphlet \"The Art of Organ Building and Organ Playing in Germany and France\" (1906, republished with an appendix on the state of the organ-building industry in 1927) effectively launched the 20th-century Orgelbewegung, which turned away from romantic extremes and rediscovered baroque principles—although this sweeping reform movement in organ building eventually went further than Schweitzer had intended. In 1909, he addressed the Third Congress of the International Society of Music at Vienna on the subject. Having circulated a questionnaire among players and organ-builders in several European countries, he produced a very considered report. This provided the basis for the International Regulations for Organ Building. He envisaged instruments in which the French late-romantic full-organ sound should work integrally with the English and German romantic reed pipes, and with the classical Alsace Silbermann organ resources and baroque flue pipes, all in registers regulated (by stops) to access distinct voices in fugue or counterpoint capable of combination without loss of distinctness: different voices singing the same music together.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 18854656, 55866, 4223137, 3958508, 1700018, 522212, 10897, 5909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 221 ], [ 493, 499 ], [ 866, 875 ], [ 908, 918 ], [ 947, 956 ], [ 990, 995 ], [ 1026, 1031 ], [ 1035, 1047 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schweitzer also studied piano under Isidor Philipp, head of the piano department at the Paris Conservatory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 11391868, 465942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 50 ], [ 88, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1905, Widor and Schweitzer were among the six musicians who founded the Paris Bach Society, a choir dedicated to performing J. S. Bach's music, for whose concerts Schweitzer took the organ part regularly until 1913. He was also appointed organist for the Bach Concerts of the Orféo Català at Barcelona, Spain, and often travelled there for that purpose. He and Widor collaborated on a new edition of Bach's organ works, with detailed analysis of each work in three languages (English, French, German). Schweitzer, who insisted that the score should show Bach's notation with no additional markings, wrote the commentaries for the Preludes and Fugues, and Widor those for the Sonatas and Concertos: six volumes were published in 1912–14. Three more, to contain the Chorale Preludes with Schweitzer's analyses, were to be worked on in Africa, but these were never completed, perhaps because for him they were inseparable from his evolving theological thought.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 4443, 15910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 295, 304 ], [ 403, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On departure for Lambaréné in 1913, he was presented with a pedal piano, a piano with pedal attachments to operate like an organ pedal-keyboard. Built especially for the tropics, it was delivered by river in a huge dug-out canoe to Lambaréné, packed in a zinc-lined case. At first, he regarded his new life as a renunciation of his art, and fell out of practice, but after some time he resolved to study and learn by heart the works of Bach, Mendelssohn, Widor, César Franck, and Max Reger systematically. It became his custom to play during the lunch hour and on Sunday afternoons. Schweitzer's pedal piano was still in use at Lambaréné in 1946. According to a visitor, Dr. Gaine Cannon, of Balsam Grove, N.C., the old, dilapidated piano-organ was still being played by Dr. Schweitzer in 1962, and stories told that \"his fingers were still lively\" on the old instrument at 88 years of age.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 5410063, 76370, 292471, 298396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 71 ], [ 442, 453 ], [ 462, 474 ], [ 480, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sir Donald Tovey dedicated his conjectural completion of Bach's The Art of Fugue to Schweitzer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 209882, 265768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 64, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schweitzer's recordings of organ-music, and his innovative recording technique, are described Sound recordings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One of his pupils was conductor and composer Hans Münch.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 27760358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1899, Schweitzer became a deacon at the church of Saint Nicholas in Strasbourg. In 1900, with the completion of his licentiate in theology, he was ordained as curate, and that year he witnessed the Oberammergau Passion Play. In the following year he became provisional Principal of the Theological College of Saint Thomas, from which he had just graduated, and in 1903 his appointment was made permanent.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 40782112, 185250, 291284, 12487165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 67 ], [ 162, 168 ], [ 201, 226 ], [ 312, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1906, he published Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung [History of Life-of-Jesus research]. This book, which established his reputation, was first published in English in 1910 as The Quest of the Historical Jesus. Under this title the book became famous in the English-speaking world. A second German edition was published in 1913, containing theologically significant revisions and expansions: this revised edition did not appear in English until 2001. In 1931, he published Mystik des Apostels Paulus (The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle); a second edition was published in 1953.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 22020272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In The Quest, Schweitzer criticised the liberal view put forward by liberal and romantic scholars during the first quest for the historical Jesus. Schweitzer maintained that the life of Jesus must be interpreted in the light of Jesus' own convictions, which reflected late Jewish eschatology and apocalypticism. Schweitzer writes:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 1603511, 9760, 840055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 145 ], [ 280, 291 ], [ 296, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Instead of these liberal and romantic views, Schweitzer wrote that Jesus and his followers expected the imminent end of the world.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Schweitzer cross-referenced the many New Testament verses declaring imminent fulfilment of the promise of the World's ending within the lifetime of Jesus's original followers. He wrote that in his view, in the Gospel of Mark, Jesus speaks of a \"tribulation\", with his \"coming in the clouds with great power and glory\" (St. Mark), and states that it will happen but it has not: \"This generation shall not pass, till all these things be fulfilled\" (St. Matthew, 24:34) or, \"have taken place\" (Luke 21:32). Similarly, in 1st Peter 1:20, \"Christ, who verily was foreordained before the foundation of the world but was manifest in these last times for you\", as well as \"But the end of all things is at hand\" (1 Peter 4:7) and \"Surely, I come quickly.\" (Revelation 22:20).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Schweitzer concluded his treatment of Jesus with what has been called the most famous words of twentieth-century theology:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"He comes to us as One unknown, without a name, as of old, by the lake-side, He came to those men who knew him not. He speaks to us the same word: 'Follow thou me' and sets us to the task which He has to fulfill for our time. He commands. And to those who obey Him, whether they be wise or simple, He will reveal Himself in the toils, the conflicts, the sufferings which they shall pass through in His fellowship, and as an ineffable mystery, they shall learn in their own experience Who He is.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle, Schweitzer first distinguishes between two categories of mysticism: primitive and developed. Primitive mysticism \"has not yet risen to a conception of the universal, and is still confined to naive views of earthly and super-earthly, temporal and eternal\". Additionally, he argues that this view of a \"union with the divinity, brought about by efficacious ceremonies, is found even in quite primitive religions\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 29174999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the other hand, a more developed form of mysticism can be found in the Greek mystery-cults that were popular in first-century A.D. society. These included the cults of Attis, Osiris, and Mithras. A developed form of mysticism is attained when the \"conception of the universal is reached and a man reflects upon his relation to the totality of being and to Being in itself\". Schweitzer claims that this form of mysticism is more intellectual and can be found \"among the Brahmans and in the Buddha, in Platonism, in Stoicism, in Spinoza, Schopenhauer, and Hegel\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 313449, 22763, 20826, 20646880, 3395, 2221011, 19224834, 3408, 700, 12598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 176 ], [ 178, 184 ], [ 190, 197 ], [ 472, 479 ], [ 492, 498 ], [ 503, 512 ], [ 517, 525 ], [ 530, 537 ], [ 539, 551 ], [ 557, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Next, Schweitzer poses the question: \"Of what precise kind then is the mysticism of Paul?\" He locates Paul between the two extremes of primitive mysticism and developed mysticism. Paul stands high above primitive mysticism, due to his intellectual writings, but never speaks of being one with God or being in God. Instead, he conceives of sonship to God as \"mediated and effected by means of the mystical union with Christ\". He summarizes Pauline mysticism as \"being in Christ\" rather than \"being in God\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 418657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 339, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paul's imminent eschatology (from his background in Jewish eschatology) causes him to believe that the kingdom of God has not yet come and that Christians are now living in the time of Christ. Christ-mysticism holds the field until God-mysticism becomes possible, which is in the near future. Therefore, Schweitzer argues that Paul is the only theologian who does not claim that Christians can have an experience of \"being-in-God\". Rather, Paul uses the phrase \"being-in-Christ\" to illustrate how Jesus is a mediator between the Christian community and God. Additionally, Schweitzer explains how the experience of \"being-in-Christ\" is not a \"static partaking in the spiritual being of Christ, but as the real co-experiencing of His dying and rising again\". The \"realistic\" partaking in the mystery of Jesus is only possible within the solidarity of the Christian community.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 9760, 16162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 27 ], [ 52, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of Schweitzer's major arguments in The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle is that Paul's mysticism, marked by his phrase \"being in Christ\", gives the clue to the whole of Pauline theology. Rather than reading justification by faith as the main topic of Pauline thought, which has been the most popular argument set forward by Martin Luther, Schweitzer argues that Paul's emphasis was on the mystical union with God by \"being in Christ\". Jaroslav Pelikan, in his foreword to The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle, points out that:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 58674, 7567080, 1777366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 230 ], [ 325, 338 ], [ 436, 452 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schweitzer contrasts Paul's \"realistic\" dying and rising with Christ to the \"symbolism\" of Hellenism. Although Paul is widely influenced by Hellenistic thought, he is not controlled by it. Schweitzer explains that Paul focused on the idea of fellowship with the divine being through the \"realistic\" dying and rising with Christ rather than the \"symbolic\" Hellenistic act of becoming like Christ through deification. After baptism, Christians are continually renewed throughout their lifetimes due to participation in the dying and rising with Christ (most notably through the Sacraments). On the other hand, the Hellenist \"lives on the store of experience which he acquired in the initiation\" and is not continually affected by a shared communal experience.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 455379, 494683, 30139976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 100 ], [ 403, 414 ], [ 576, 586 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another major difference between Paul's \"realism\" and Hellenistic \"symbolism\" is the exclusive nature of the former and the inclusive nature of the latter. Schweitzer unabashedly emphasizes the fact that \"Paul's thought follows predestinarian lines\". He explains, \"only the man who is elected thereto can enter into relation with God\". Although every human being is invited to become a Christian, only those who have undergone the initiation into the Christian community through baptism can share in the \"realistic\" dying and rising with Christ.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theology", "target_page_ids": [ 23705, 38808299, 4298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 242 ], [ 285, 292 ], [ 479, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the age of 30, in 1905, Schweitzer answered the call of The Society of the Evangelist Missions of Paris, which was looking for a physician. The committee of this missionary society was not ready to accept his offer, considering his Lutheran theology to be \"incorrect\". He could easily have obtained a place in a German evangelical mission, but wished to follow the original call despite the doctrinal difficulties. Amid a hail of protests from his friends, family and colleagues, he resigned his post and re-entered the university as a student in a three-year course towards the degree of Doctorate in Medicine, a subject in which he had little knowledge or previous aptitude. He planned to spread the Gospel by the example of his Christian labour of healing, rather than through the verbal process of preaching, and believed that this service should be acceptable within any branch of Christian teaching.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Medicine", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Even in his study of medicine, and through his clinical course, Schweitzer pursued the ideal of the philosopher-scientist. By extreme application and hard work, he completed his studies successfully at the end of 1911. His medical degree dissertation was another work on the historical Jesus, The Psychiatric Study of Jesus. He defended Jesus' mental health in it. In June 1912, he married Helene Bresslau, municipal inspector for orphans and daughter of the Jewish pan-Germanist historian Harry Bresslau.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 58240033, 48695014, 17322472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 337, 357 ], [ 390, 405 ], [ 490, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1912, now armed with a medical degree, Schweitzer made a definite proposal to go as a physician to work at his own expense in the Paris Missionary Society's mission at Lambaréné on the Ogooué river, in what is now Gabon, in Africa (then a French colony). He refused to attend a committee to inquire into his doctrine, but met each committee member personally and was at last accepted. Through concerts and other fund-raising, he was ready to equip a small hospital. In early 1913, he and his wife set off to establish a hospital (Albert Schweitzer Hospital) near an existing mission post. The site was nearly 200 miles (14 days by raft) upstream from the mouth of the Ogooué at Port Gentil (Cape Lopez) (and so accessible to external communications), but downstream of most tributaries, so that internal communications within Gabon converged towards Lambaréné.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 1795551, 341919, 10257142, 1248129, 13794879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 180 ], [ 188, 194 ], [ 533, 559 ], [ 681, 692 ], [ 694, 704 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the first nine months, he and his wife had about 2,000 patients to examine, some travelling many days and hundreds of kilometres to reach him. In addition to injuries, he was often treating severe sandflea and crawcraw sores, framboesia (yaws), tropical eating sores, heart disease, tropical dysentery, tropical malaria, sleeping sickness, leprosy, fevers, strangulated hernias, necrosis, abdominal tumours and chronic constipation and nicotine poisoning, while also attempting to deal with deliberate poisonings, fetishism and fear of cannibalism among the Mbahouin.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 1471115, 301373, 245969, 63764, 20423, 141029, 44700, 76347, 39936, 168509, 1730242, 38193, 6173994, 186414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 208 ], [ 229, 239 ], [ 257, 269 ], [ 295, 304 ], [ 315, 322 ], [ 324, 341 ], [ 343, 350 ], [ 373, 380 ], [ 382, 390 ], [ 422, 434 ], [ 439, 457 ], [ 517, 526 ], [ 539, 550 ], [ 561, 569 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schweitzer's wife, Helene Schweitzer, was an anaesthetist for surgical operations. After briefly occupying a shed formerly used as a chicken hut, in late 1913 they built their first hospital of corrugated iron, with two 13-foot rooms (consulting room and operating theatre) and with a dispensary and sterilising room in spaces below the broad eaves. The waiting room and dormitory (42 by 20 feet) were built, like native huts, of unhewn logs along a 30-yard path leading from the hospital to the landing-place. The Schweitzers had their own bungalow and employed as their assistant Joseph, a French-speaking Galoa (Mpongwe) who first came as a patient.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 1230064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 615, 622 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After World War I broke out in July 1914, Schweitzer and his wife, German citizens in a French colony when the countries were at war, were put under supervision by the French military at Lambaréné, where Schweitzer continued his work. In 1917, exhausted by over four years' work and by tropical anaemia, they were taken to Bordeaux and interned first in Garaison and then from March 1918 in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence. In July 1918, after being transferred to his home in Alsace, he was a free man again. At this time Schweitzer, born a German citizen, had his parents' former (pre-1871) French citizenship reinstated and became a French citizen. Then, working as medical assistant and assistant-pastor in Strasbourg, he advanced his project on the philosophy of civilization, which had occupied his mind since 1900. By 1920, his health recovering, he was giving organ recitals and doing other fund-raising work to repay borrowings and raise funds for returning to Gabon. In 1922, he delivered the Dale Memorial Lectures in the University of Oxford, and from these in the following year appeared Volumes I and II of his great work, The Decay and Restoration of Civilization and Civilization and Ethics. The two remaining volumes, on The World-View of Reverence for Life and a fourth on the Civilized State, were never completed.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 83537, 4097, 4855209, 91851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 17 ], [ 295, 302 ], [ 323, 331 ], [ 354, 362 ], [ 391, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1924, Schweitzer returned without his wife, with an Oxford undergraduate Noel Gillespie as his assistant. Everything was heavily decayed, and building and doctoring progressed together for months. He now had salvarsan for treating syphilitic ulcers and framboesia. Additional medical staff, nurse (Miss) Kottmann and Dr. Victor Nessmann, joined him in 1924, and Dr. Mark Lauterberg in 1925; the growing hospital was manned by native orderlies. Later Dr. Trensz replaced Nessmann, and Martha Lauterberg and Hans Muggenstorm joined them. Joseph also returned. In 1925–6, new hospital buildings were constructed, and also a ward for white patients, so that the site became like a village. The onset of famine and a dysentery epidemic created fresh problems. Much of the building work was carried out with the help of local people and patients. Drug advances for sleeping sickness included Germanin and . Trensz conducted experiments showing that the non-amoebic strain of dysentery was caused by a paracholera vibrion (facultative anaerobic bacteria). With the new hospital built and the medical team established, Schweitzer returned to Europe in 1927, this time leaving a functioning hospital at work.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 99714, 301373, 732808, 20707347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 220 ], [ 256, 266 ], [ 889, 897 ], [ 1010, 1017 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was there again from 1929 to 1932. Gradually his opinions and concepts became acknowledged, not only in Europe, but worldwide. There was a further period of work in 1935. In January 1937, he returned again to Lambaréné and continued working there throughout World War II.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 261, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The journalist James Cameron visited Lambaréné in 1953 (when Schweitzer was 78) and found significant flaws in the practices and attitudes of Schweitzer and his staff. The hospital suffered from squalor and was without modern amenities, and Schweitzer had little contact with the local people. Cameron did not make public what he had seen at the time: according to a BBC dramatisation, he made the unusual journalistic decision to withhold the story, and resisted the expressed wish of his employers to publish an exposé.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 213490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The poor conditions of the hospital in Lambaréné were also famously criticized by Nigerian professor and novelist Chinua Achebe in his essay on Joseph Conrad's novel Heart of Darkness: \"In a comment which has often been quoted Schweitzer says: 'The African is indeed my brother but my junior brother.' And so he proceeded to build a hospital appropriate to the needs of junior brothers with standards of hygiene reminiscent of medical practice in the days before the germ theory of disease came into being.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Medicine", "target_page_ids": [ 262625, 15823, 13535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 127 ], [ 144, 157 ], [ 166, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schweitzer considered his work as a medical missionary in Africa to be his response to Jesus' call to become \"fishers of men\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Schweitzer's views", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Schweitzer was one of colonialism's harshest critics. In a sermon that he preached on 6 January 1905, before he had told anyone of his plans to dedicate the rest of his life to work as a physician in Africa, he said:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Schweitzer's views", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Schweitzer was nonetheless still sometimes accused of being paternalistic in his attitude towards Africans. For instance, he thought that Gabonese independence came too early, without adequate education or accommodation to local circumstances. Edgar Berman quotes Schweitzer as having said in 1960, \"No society can go from the primeval directly to an industrial state without losing the leavening that time and an agricultural period allow.\" Schweitzer believed dignity and respect must be extended to blacks, while also sometimes characterizing them as children. He summarized his views on European-African relations by saying \"With regard to the negroes, then, I have coined the formula: 'I am your brother, it is true, but your elder brother.'\" Chinua Achebe has criticized him for this characterization, though Achebe acknowledges that Schweitzer's use of the word \"brother\" at all was, for a European of the early 20th century, an unusual expression of human solidarity between Europeans and Africans. Schweitzer eventually emended and complicated this notion with his later statement that \"The time for speaking of older and younger brothers has passed\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Schweitzer's views", "target_page_ids": [ 306053, 12028, 41337502, 18855505, 262625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 73 ], [ 138, 159 ], [ 244, 256 ], [ 648, 653 ], [ 748, 761 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American journalist John Gunther visited Lambaréné in the 1950s and reported Schweitzer's patronizing attitude towards Africans. He also noted the lack of Africans trained to be skilled workers. By comparison, his English contemporary Albert Ruskin Cook in Uganda had been training nurses and midwives since the 1910s, and had published a manual of midwifery in the local language of Luganda. After three decades in Africa, Schweitzer still depended on Europe for nurses.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Schweitzer's views", "target_page_ids": [ 362879, 3756560, 87812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 32 ], [ 235, 253 ], [ 384, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The keynote of Schweitzer's personal philosophy (which he considered to be his greatest contribution to mankind) was the idea of Reverence for Life (\"Ehrfurcht vor dem Leben\"). He thought that Western civilization was decaying because it had abandoned affirmation of life as its ethical foundation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reverence for life", "target_page_ids": [ 20025013, 21208262, 9258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 147 ], [ 193, 213 ], [ 279, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Preface to Civilization and Ethics (1923) he argued that Western philosophy from Descartes to Kant had set out to explain the objective world expecting that humanity would be found to have a special meaning within it. But no such meaning was found, and the rational, life-affirming optimism of the Age of Enlightenment began to evaporate. A rift opened between this world-view, as material knowledge, and the life-view, understood as Will, expressed in the pessimist philosophies from Schopenhauer onward. Scientific materialism (advanced by Herbert Spencer and Charles Darwin) portrayed an objective world process devoid of ethics, entirely an expression of the will-to-live.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reverence for life", "target_page_ids": [ 25525, 14631, 30758, 79432, 24743, 700, 19376, 248859, 8145410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 97 ], [ 101, 105 ], [ 305, 325 ], [ 441, 445 ], [ 464, 473 ], [ 492, 504 ], [ 524, 535 ], [ 549, 564 ], [ 569, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schweitzer wrote, \"True philosophy must start from the most immediate and comprehensive fact of consciousness, and this may be formulated as follows: 'I am life which wills to live, and I exist in the midst of life which wills to live.'\" In nature one form of life must always prey upon another. However, human consciousness holds an awareness of, and sympathy for, the will of other beings to live. An ethical human strives to escape from this contradiction so far as possible.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reverence for life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Though we cannot perfect the endeavour we should strive for it: the will-to-live constantly renews itself, for it is both an evolutionary necessity and a spiritual phenomenon. Life and love are rooted in this same principle, in a personal spiritual relationship to the universe. Ethics themselves proceed from the need to respect the wish of other beings to exist as one does towards oneself. Even so, Schweitzer found many instances in world religions and philosophies in which the principle was denied, not least in the European Middle Ages, and in the Indian Brahminic philosophy.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reverence for life", "target_page_ids": [ 244747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 562, 569 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For Schweitzer, mankind had to accept that objective reality is ethically neutral. It could then affirm a new Enlightenment through spiritual rationalism, by giving priority to volition or ethical will as the primary meaning of life. Mankind had to choose to create the moral structures of civilization: the world-view must derive from the life-view, not vice versa. Respect for life, overcoming coarser impulses and hollow doctrines, leads the individual to live in the service of other people and of every living creature. In contemplation of the will-to-life, respect for the life of others becomes the highest principle and the defining purpose of humanity.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reverence for life", "target_page_ids": [ 317508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 177, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Such was the theory which Schweitzer sought to put into practice in his own life. According to some authors, Schweitzer's thought, and specifically his development of reverence for life, was influenced by Indian religious thought and in particular the Jain principle of ahimsa, or non-violence. Albert Schweitzer noted the contribution of Indian influence in his book Indian Thought and Its Development:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reverence for life", "target_page_ids": [ 14605, 16016, 13323241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 221 ], [ 252, 256 ], [ 270, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Further on ahimsa and the reverence for life in the same book, he elaborates on the ancient Indian didactic work of the Tirukkural, which he observed that, like the Buddha and the Bhagavad Gita, \"stands for the commandment not to kill and not to damage\". Translating several couplets from the work, he remarked that the Kural insists on the idea that \"good must be done for its own sake\" and said, \"There hardly exists in the literature of the world a collection of maxims in which we find so much lofty wisdom.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reverence for life", "target_page_ids": [ 23672622, 3395, 23277715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 130 ], [ 165, 171 ], [ 180, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the birth of their daughter (Rhena Schweitzer Miller), Albert's wife, Helene Schweitzer was no longer able to live in Lambaréné due to her health. In 1923, the family moved to Königsfeld im Schwarzwald, Baden-Württemberg, where he was building a house for the family. This house is now maintained as a Schweitzer museum.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 21752753, 10042428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 58 ], [ 182, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1939 to 1948, he stayed in Lambaréné, unable to go back to Europe because of the war. Three years after the end of World War II, in 1948, he returned for the first time to Europe and kept travelling back and forth (and once to the US) as long as he was able. During his return visits to his home village of Gunsbach, Schweitzer continued to make use of the family house, which after his death became an archive and museum to his life and work. His life was portrayed in the 1952 movie Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer, starring Pierre Fresnay as Albert Schweitzer and Jeanne Moreau as his nurse Marie. Schweitzer inspired actor Hugh O'Brian when O'Brian visited in Africa. O'Brian returned to the United States and founded the Hugh O'Brian Youth Leadership Foundation (HOBY).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 1623566, 800094, 1558601, 2034486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 534, 548 ], [ 574, 587 ], [ 634, 646 ], [ 733, 773 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schweitzer was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize of 1952, accepting the prize with the speech, \"The Problem of Peace\". With the $33,000 prize money, he started the leprosarium at Lambaréné. From 1952 until his death he worked against nuclear tests and nuclear weapons with Albert Einstein, Otto Hahn and Bertrand Russell. In 1957 and 1958, he broadcast four speeches over Radio Oslo which were published in Peace or Atomic War. In 1957, Schweitzer was one of the founders of The Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy. On 23 April 1957, Schweitzer made his \"Declaration of Conscience\" speech; it was broadcast to the world over Radio Oslo, pleading for the abolition of nuclear weapons. His speech ended, \"The end of further experiments with atom bombs would be like the early sunrays of hope which suffering humanity is longing for.\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 26230922, 422025, 337775, 21785, 736, 46825, 4163, 424227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 44 ], [ 160, 171 ], [ 230, 243 ], [ 248, 262 ], [ 269, 284 ], [ 286, 295 ], [ 300, 316 ], [ 471, 510 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Weeks prior to his death, an American film crew was allowed to visit Schweitzer and Drs. Muntz and Friedman, both Holocaust survivors, to record his work and daily life at the hospital. The film The Legacy of Albert Schweitzer, narrated by Henry Fonda, was produced by Warner Brothers and aired once. It resides in their vault today in deteriorating condition. Although several attempts have been made to restore and re-air the film, all access has been denied.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 10396793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1955, he was made an honorary member of the Order of Merit (OM) by Queen Elizabeth II. He was also a chevalier of the Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 326833, 12153654, 16897, 1547207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 61 ], [ 70, 88 ], [ 104, 113 ], [ 121, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schweitzer died on 4 September 1965 at his beloved hospital in Lambaréné, now in independent Gabon. His grave, on the banks of the Ogooué River, is marked by a cross he made himself.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 341919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His cousin Anne-Marie Schweitzer Sartre was the mother of Jean-Paul Sartre. Her father, Charles Schweitzer, was the older brother of Albert Schweitzer's father, Louis Théophile.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 16340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schweitzer is often cited in vegetarian literature as being an advocate of vegetarianism in his later years. Schweitzer was not a vegetarian in his earlier life. For example, in 1950, biographer Magnus C. Ratter commented that Schweitzer never \"commit[ted] himself to the anti- vivisection, vegetarian, or pacifist positions, though his thought leads in this direction\". Biographer James Bentley has written that Schweitzer became a vegetarian after his wife's death in 1957 and he was \"living almost entirely on lentil soup\". In contrast to this, historian David N. Stamos has written that Schweitzer was not a vegetarian in his personal life nor imposed it on his missionary hospital but he did help animals and was opposed to hunting. Stamos noted that Schweitzer held the view that evolution ingrained humans with an instinct for meat so it was useless in trying to deny it.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 15941657, 13575276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 382, 395 ], [ 558, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Albert Schweitzer Fellowship was founded in 1940 by Schweitzer to unite US supporters in filling the gap in support for his Hospital when his European supply lines were cut off by war, and continues to support the Lambaréné Hospital today. Schweitzer considered his ethic of Reverence for Life, not his hospital, his most important legacy, saying that his Lambaréné Hospital was just \"my own improvisation on the theme of Reverence for Life. Everyone can have their own Lambaréné\". Today ASF helps large numbers of young Americans in health-related professional fields find or create \"their own Lambaréné\" in the US or internationally. ASF selects and supports nearly 250 new US and Africa Schweitzer Fellows each year from over 100 of the leading US schools of medicine, nursing, public health, and every other field with some relation to health (including music, law, and divinity). The peer-supporting lifelong network of \"Schweitzer Fellows for Life\" numbered over 2,000 members in 2008, and is growing by nearly 1,000 every four years. Nearly 150 of these Schweitzer Fellows have served at the Hospital in Lambaréné, for three-month periods during their last year of medical school.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 30916651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The prize was first awarded on 29 May 2011 to Eugen Drewermann and the physician couple Rolf and Raphaela Maibach in Königsfeld im Schwarzwald, where Schweitzer's former residence now houses the Albert Schweitzer Museum.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "International Albert Schweitzer Prize", "target_page_ids": [ 1713229, 10042428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 62 ], [ 117, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Recordings of Schweitzer playing the music of Bach are available on CD. During 1934 and 1935 he resided in Britain, delivering the Gifford Lectures at Edinburgh University, and those on Religion in Modern Civilization at Oxford and London. He had originally conducted trials for recordings for HMV on the organ of the old Queen's Hall in London. These records did not satisfy him, the instrument being too harsh. In mid-December 1935 he began to record for Columbia Records on the organ of All Hallows, Barking-by-the-Tower, London. Then at his suggestion the sessions were transferred to the church of Ste Aurélie in Strasbourg, on a mid-18th-century organ by Johann Andreas Silbermann (brother of Gottfried), an organ-builder greatly revered by Bach, which had been restored by the Lorraine organ-builder Frédéric Härpfer shortly before the First World War. These recordings were made in the course of a fortnight in October 1936.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sound recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 23592200, 31797, 60919, 765155, 165108, 642735, 41093322, 3958508, 2393620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 171 ], [ 221, 227 ], [ 232, 238 ], [ 322, 334 ], [ 457, 473 ], [ 490, 523 ], [ 593, 614 ], [ 676, 686 ], [ 784, 792 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schweitzer developed a technique for recording the performances of Bach's music. Known as the \"Schweitzer Technique\", it is a slight improvement on what is commonly known as mid-side. The mid-side sees a figure-8 microphone pointed off-axis, perpendicular to the sound source. Then a single cardioid microphone is placed on axis, bisecting the figure-8 pattern. The signal from the figure-8 is mult-ed, panned hard left and right, one of the signals being flipped out of polarity. In the Schweitzer method, the figure-8 is replaced by two small diaphragm condenser microphones pointed directly away from each other. The information that each capsule collects is unique, unlike the identical out-of-polarity information generated from the figure-8 in a regular mid-side. The on-axis microphone is often a large diaphragm condenser. The technique has since been used to record many modern instruments.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sound recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 65886, 65886, 65886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 223 ], [ 291, 310 ], [ 555, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Altogether his early Columbia discs included 25 records of Bach and eight of César Franck. The Bach titles were mainly distributed as follows:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sound recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Queen's Hall: Organ Prelude and Fugue in E minor (Edition Peters Vol 3, 10); (BWV 727); (Vol 7, 58 (Leipzig 18)).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sound recordings", "target_page_ids": [ 12058481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " All Hallows: Prelude and Fugue in C major; Fantasia and Fugue in G minor (the Great); Prelude and Fugue in G major; Prelude and Fugue in F minor; Little Fugue in G minor; Toccata and Fugue in D minor.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sound recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ste Aurélie: Prelude and Fugue in C minor; Prelude and Fugue in E minor; Toccata and Fugue in D minor. Chorale Preludes: (Peters Vol 7, 49 (Leipzig 4)); (Vol 5, 45); (Vol 7, 48 (Leipzig 6)); (Vol 5, 8); (Vol 5, 9); (Vol 6, 12b); (Vol 5, 6); (Vol 5, app 5); (Vol 5, 4); (Var 11, Vol 5, app. 3); (Vol 6, 31 (Leipzig 15)); Christ lag in Todesbanden (Vol 5, 5); Erschienen ist der herrlich Tag (Vol 5, 15).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sound recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Later recordings were made at Parish church, Günsbach: These recordings were made by C. Robert Fine during the time Dr. Schweitzer was being filmed in Günsbach for the documentary \"Albert Schweitzer\". Fine originally self-released the recordings but later licensed the masters to Columbia.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sound recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fugue in A minor (Peters, Vol 2, 8); Fantasia and Fugue in G minor (Great) (Vol 2, 4); Toccata, Adagio and Fugue in C major (Vol 3, 8).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sound recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Prelude in C major (Vol 4, 1); Prelude in D major (Vol 4, 3); Canzona in D minor (Vol 4, 10) (with Mendelssohn, Sonata in D minor op 65.6).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sound recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chorale-Preludes: (1st and 2nd versions, Peters Vol 5, 45); (vol 7, 58 (Leipzig 18)); (Vol 5, 30); (Vol 5, 17); (Vol 5, 27); (vol 7, 45 (BWV 659a)).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sound recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The above were released in the United States as Columbia Masterworks boxed set SL-175.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sound recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " J. S. Bach: Prelude and Fugue in A major, BWV 536; Prelude and Fugue in F minor, BWV 534; Prelude and Fugue in B minor, BWV 544; Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 538.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sound recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " J. S. Bach: Passacaglia in C minor, BWV 582; Prelude and Fugue in E minor, BWV 533; Prelude and Fugue in A minor, BWV 543; Prelude and Fugue in G major, BWV 541; Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sound recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " César Franck: Organ Chorales, no. 1 in E major; no. 2 in B minor; no. 3 in A minor.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sound recordings", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dramatisations of Schweitzer's life include:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The 1952 biographical film Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer, with Pierre Fresnay as Schweitzer", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 1623566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 1957 biographical film Albert Schweitzer in which Schweitzer appears as himself and Phillip Eckert portrays him", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 8316451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 1962 TV remake of Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer, with Jean-Pierre Marielle as Schweitzer", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 3486187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 1990 biographical film The Light in the Jungle, with Malcolm McDowell as Schweitzer", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 49827921, 198606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 51 ], [ 58, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Two 1992 episodes of the television series The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles (\"German East Africa, December 1916\" and \"Congo, January 1917\"), with Friedrich von Thun as Schweitzer", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 1547551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 1995 biographical film Le Grand blanc de Lambaréné, with André Wilms as Schweitzer", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 19591132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 2006 TV biographical film Albert Schweitzer: Called to Africa, with Jeff McCarthy as Schweitzer", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 2147091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 2009 biographical film , with Jeroen Krabbé as Schweitzer", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Portrayals", "target_page_ids": [ 1134006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " . English translation by Ernest Newman, with author's alterations and additions, London 1911. Fulltext scans (English): Vol. 1, Vol. 2.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 2067217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (first printed in Musik, vols 13 and 14 (5th year)).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (translation of Zwischen Wasser und Urwald, 1921)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Decay and the Restoration of Civilization and Civilization and Ethics (The Philosophy of Civilization, Vols I & II of the projected but not completed four-volume work), A. & C. Black, London 1923. Material from these volumes is rearranged in a modern compilation, The Philosophy of Civilization (Prometheus Books, 1987), ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " translated as ; ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Afrikanische Geschichten (Felix Meiner, Leipzig and Hamburg 1938): tr. Mrs C. E. B. Russell as From My African Notebook (George Allen and Unwin, London 1938/Henry Holt, New York 1939). Modern edition with foreword by L. Forrow (Syracuse University Press, 2002).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "List of peace activists", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38646474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cultural depictions of Albert Schweitzer", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Helene Bresslau Schweitzer", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 48695014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (translation of Zwischen Wasser und Urwald, 1921)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bartolf, Christian; Gericke, Marion; Miething, Dominique (2020): Dr. Albert Schweitzer: \"My Address to the People\" – Commitment against Nuclear War. Berlin: Freie Universität Berlin, Gandhi-Informations-Zentrum. ISBN 978-3-96110-357-7.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Award-winning documentary about him ", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Albert Schweitzer info at Internet Archive", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 176931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Albert Schweitzer Papers at Syracuse University", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " John D. Regester Collection on Albert Schweitzer", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Helfferich Collection, collected by Reginald H. Helfferich on Albert Schweitzer, is at the Andover-Harvard Theological Library at Harvard Divinity School in Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 1074613, 5685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 158 ], [ 162, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " What Jesus was thinking An interpretation and restatement of Schweitzer's last book, The Kingdom of God and Primitive Christianity", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

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[ "Ludwig Philipp Albert Schweitzer" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Austrian School is a heterodox school of economic thought that advocates strict adherence to methodological individualism, the concept that social phenomena result exclusively from the motivations and actions of individuals. Austrians school theorists hold that economic theory should be exclusively derived from basic principles of human action.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2399697, 8693555, 227569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 34 ], [ 35, 61 ], [ 97, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Austrian School originated in late-19th and early-20th-century Vienna with the work of Carl Menger, Eugen Böhm von Bawerk, Friedrich von Wieser, and others. It was methodologically opposed to the Historical School (based in Germany), in a dispute known as Methodenstreit, or methodology struggle. Current-day economists working in this tradition are located in many different countries, but their work is still referred to as Austrian economics. Among the theoretical contributions of the early years of the Austrian School are the subjective theory of value, marginalism in price theory and the formulation of the economic calculation problem, each of which has become an accepted part of mainstream economics.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 55866, 6255, 219257, 220553, 220362, 220366, 316058, 221419, 18819, 9297, 4852076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 73 ], [ 91, 102 ], [ 104, 125 ], [ 127, 147 ], [ 200, 217 ], [ 260, 274 ], [ 536, 562 ], [ 564, 575 ], [ 579, 591 ], [ 619, 647 ], [ 694, 714 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the mid-20th century, mainstream economists have been critical of the modern-day Austrian School and consider its rejection of mathematical modeling, econometrics and macroeconomic analysis to be outside mainstream economics, or \"heterodox\". In the 1970s, the Austrian School attracted some renewed interest after Friedrich Hayek shared the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Gunnar Myrdal.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20590, 10390, 18820, 4852076, 11646, 23535306, 743437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 151 ], [ 156, 168 ], [ 173, 186 ], [ 210, 230 ], [ 320, 335 ], [ 352, 393 ], [ 399, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Austrian School owes its name to members of the German historical school of economics, who argued against the Austrians during the late-19th century Methodenstreit (\"methodology struggle\"), in which the Austrians defended the role of theory in economics as distinct from the study or compilation of historical circumstance. In 1883, Menger published Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics, which attacked the methods of the historical school. Gustav von Schmoller, a leader of the historical school, responded with an unfavorable review, coining the term \"Austrian School\" in an attempt to characterize the school as outcast and provincial. The label endured and was adopted by the adherents themselves.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 220362, 220366, 234878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 89 ], [ 153, 167 ], [ 498, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The school originated in Vienna in the Austrian Empire. Carl Menger's 1871 book Principles of Economics is generally considered the founding of the Austrian School. The book was one of the first modern treatises to advance the theory of marginal utility. The Austrian School was one of three founding currents of the marginalist revolution of the 1870s, with its major contribution being the introduction of the subjectivist approach in economics. Despite such claim, John Stuart Mill had used value in use in this sense in 1848 in Principles of Political Economy, where he wrote: \"Value in use, or as Mr. De Quincey calls it, teleologic value, is the extreme limit of value in exchange. The exchange value of a thing may fall short, to any amount, of its value in use; but that it can ever exceed the value in use, implies a contradiction; it supposes that persons will give, to possess a thing, more than the utmost value which they themselves put upon it as a means of gratifying their inclinations.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 55866, 266894, 6255, 220354, 23014670, 15626, 12366254, 162587, 80757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 31 ], [ 39, 54 ], [ 56, 67 ], [ 80, 103 ], [ 237, 253 ], [ 468, 484 ], [ 532, 563 ], [ 602, 616 ], [ 627, 637 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While marginalism was generally influential, there was also a more specific school that began to coalesce around Menger's work, which came to be known as the \"Psychological School\", \"Vienna School\", or \"Austrian School\". Menger's contributions to economic theory were closely followed by those of Eugen Böhm von Bawerk and Friedrich von Wieser. These three economists became what is known as the \"first wave\" of the Austrian School. Böhm-Bawerk wrote extensive critiques of Karl Marx in the 1880s and 1890s as was part of the Austrians' participation in the late 19th-century Methodenstreit, during which they attacked the Hegelian doctrines of the historical school.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 219257, 220553, 16743, 220366, 43472912, 220362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 297, 318 ], [ 323, 343 ], [ 474, 483 ], [ 576, 590 ], [ 623, 631 ], [ 649, 666 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frank Albert Fetter (1863–1949) was a leader in the United States of Austrian thought. He obtained his PhD in 1894 from the University of Halle and then was made Professor of Political Economy and Finance at Cornell in 1901. Several important Austrian economists trained at the University of Vienna in the 1920s and later participated in private seminars held by Ludwig von Mises. These included Gottfried Haberler, Friedrich Hayek, Fritz Machlup, Karl Menger (son of Carl Menger), Oskar Morgenstern, Paul Rosenstein-Rodan, Abraham Wald, and Michael A. Heilperin, among others, as well as the sociologist Alfred Schütz.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6115025, 33565249, 7954422, 4826588, 4666052, 11646, 1545985, 149431, 840132, 1239430, 106139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 124, 143 ], [ 208, 215 ], [ 363, 379 ], [ 396, 414 ], [ 416, 431 ], [ 433, 446 ], [ 448, 459 ], [ 482, 499 ], [ 524, 536 ], [ 605, 618 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the mid-1930s, most economists had embraced what they considered the important contributions of the early Austrians. Fritz Machlup quoted Hayek's statement that \"the greatest success of a school is that it stops existing because its fundamental teachings have become parts of the general body of commonly accepted thought\". Sometime during the middle of the 20th century, Austrian economics became disregarded or derided by mainstream economists because it rejected model building and mathematical and statistical methods in the study of economics. Mises' student Israel Kirzner recalled that in 1954, when Kirzner was pursuing his PhD, there was no separate Austrian School as such. When Kirzner was deciding which graduate school to attend, Mises had advised him to accept an offer of admission at Johns Hopkins because it was a prestigious university and Fritz Machlup taught there.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 638834, 220602, 1545985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 469, 474 ], [ 567, 581 ], [ 861, 874 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the 1940s, Austrian economics can be divided into two schools of economic thought and the school \"split\" to some degree in the late 20th century. One camp of Austrians, exemplified by Mises, regards neoclassical methodology to be irredeemably flawed; the other camp, exemplified by Friedrich Hayek, accepts a large part of neoclassical methodology and is more accepting of government intervention in the economy. Henry Hazlitt wrote economics columns and editorials for a number of publications and wrote many books on the topic of Austrian economics from the 1930s to the 1980s. Hazlitt's thinking was influenced by Mises. His book Economics in One Lesson (1946) sold over a million copies and he is also known for The Failure of the \"New Economics\" (1959), a line-by-line critique of John Maynard Keynes's General Theory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21634, 11646, 215751, 580769, 623581, 37973, 319373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 217 ], [ 288, 303 ], [ 419, 432 ], [ 639, 662 ], [ 722, 756 ], [ 792, 811 ], [ 814, 828 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The reputation of the Austrian School rose in the late 20th century due in part to the work of Israel Kirzner and Ludwig Lachmann at New York University and to renewed public awareness of the work of Hayek after he won the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. Hayek's work was influential in the revival of laissez-faire thought in the 20th century.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 220606, 7954455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 129 ], [ 133, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Economist Leland Yeager discussed the late 20th-century rift and referred to a discussion written by Murray Rothbard, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Joseph Salerno and others in which they attack and disparage Hayek. Yeager stated: \"To try to drive a wedge between Mises and Hayek on [the role of knowledge in economic calculation], especially to the disparagement of Hayek, is unfair to these two great men, unfaithful to the history of economic thought\". He went on to call the rift subversive to economic analysis and the historical understanding of the fall of Eastern European communism.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25039817, 20217, 229870, 5625713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 101, 116 ], [ 118, 136 ], [ 138, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a 1999 book published by the Ludwig von Mises Institute, Hoppe asserted that Rothbard was the leader of the \"mainstream within Austrian Economics\" and contrasted Rothbard with Nobel Laureate Friedrich Hayek, whom he identified as a British empiricist and an opponent of the thought of Mises and Rothbard. Hoppe acknowledged that Hayek was the most prominent Austrian economist within academia, but stated that Hayek was an opponent of the Austrian tradition which led from Carl Menger and Böhm-Bawerk through Mises to Rothbard. Austrian economist Walter Block says that the Austrian School can be distinguished from other schools of economic thought through two categories—economic theory and political theory. According to Block, while Hayek can be considered an Austrian economist, his views on political theory clash with the libertarian political theory which Block sees as an integral part of the Austrian School.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 229887, 10174, 15044030, 3264383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 58 ], [ 235, 253 ], [ 550, 562 ], [ 832, 843 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both criticism from Hoppe and Block to Hayek apply to Carl Menger, the founder of the Austrian School. Hoppe emphasizes that Hayek, which for him is from the English empirical tradition, is an opponent of the supposed rationalist tradition of the Austrian School; Menger made strong critiques to rationalism in his works in similar vein as Hayek's. He emphasized the idea that there are several institutions which were not deliberately created, have a kind of \"superior wisdom\" and serve important functions to society. He also talked about Burke and the English tradition to sustain these positions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When saying that the libertarian political theory is an integral part of the Austrian School and supposing Hayek is not a libertarian, Block excludes Menger from the Austrian School too since Menger seems to defend broader state activity than Hayek—for example, progressive taxation and extensive labour legislation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Economists of the Hayekian view are affiliated with the Cato Institute, George Mason University (GMU) and New York University, among other institutions. They include Peter Boettke, Roger Garrison, Steven Horwitz, Peter Leeson and George Reisman. Economists of the Mises–Rothbard view include Walter Block, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Jesús Huerta de Soto and Robert P. Murphy, each of whom is associated with the Mises Institute and some of them also with academic institutions. According to Murphy, a \"truce between (for lack of better terms) the GMU Austro-libertarians and the Auburn Austro-libertarians\" was signed around 2011.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 151432, 12566, 4477694, 7799189, 20520512, 22369298, 868006, 15044030, 229870, 3003021, 3541940, 229887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 70 ], [ 72, 95 ], [ 166, 179 ], [ 181, 195 ], [ 197, 211 ], [ 213, 225 ], [ 230, 244 ], [ 292, 304 ], [ 306, 324 ], [ 326, 346 ], [ 351, 367 ], [ 405, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many theories developed by \"first wave\" Austrian economists have long been absorbed into mainstream economics. These include Carl Menger's theories on marginal utility, Friedrich von Wieser's theories on opportunity cost and Eugen Böhm von Bawerk's theories on time preference, as well as Menger and Böhm-Bawerk's criticisms of Marxian economics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4852076, 45528, 42824033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 109 ], [ 204, 220 ], [ 328, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Former American Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan said that the founders of the Austrian School \"reached far into the future from when most of them practiced and have had a profound and, in my judgment, probably an irreversible effect on how most mainstream economists think in this country\". In 1987, Nobel Laureate James M. Buchanan told an interviewer: \"I have no objections to being called an Austrian. Hayek and Mises might consider me an Austrian but, surely some of the others would not\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10819, 161947, 57515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 31 ], [ 41, 55 ], [ 323, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Currently, universities with a significant Austrian presence are George Mason University, New York University, Grove City College, Loyola University New Orleans and Auburn University in the United States; King Juan Carlos University in Spain; and Universidad Francisco Marroquín in Guatemala. Austrian economic ideas are also promoted by privately funded organizations such as the Mises Institute and the Cato Institute.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12566, 7954455, 437041, 465754, 327945, 4459411, 2380028, 229887, 151432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 88 ], [ 90, 109 ], [ 111, 129 ], [ 131, 160 ], [ 165, 182 ], [ 205, 232 ], [ 247, 278 ], [ 381, 396 ], [ 405, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Austrian School theorizes that the subjective choices of individuals including individual knowledge, time, expectation and other subjective factors cause all economic phenomena. Austrians seek to understand the economy by examining the social ramifications of individual choice, an approach called methodological individualism. It differs from other schools of economic thought, which have focused on aggregate variables, equilibrium analysis and societal groups rather than individuals.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 227569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 302, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 20th and 21st centuries, economists with a methodological lineage to the early Austrian School developed many diverse approaches and theoretical orientations. Ludwig von Mises organized his version of the subjectivist approach, which he called \"praxeology\", in a book published in English as Human Action in 1949. In it, Mises stated that praxeology could be used to deduce a priori theoretical economic truths and that deductive economic thought experiments could yield conclusions which follow irrefutably from the underlying assumptions. He wrote that conclusions could not be inferred from empirical observation or statistical analysis and argued against the use of probabilities in economic models.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 4826588, 424562, 236925, 49535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 182 ], [ 252, 262 ], [ 299, 311 ], [ 446, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since Mises' time, some Austrian thinkers have accepted his praxeological approach while others have adopted alternative methodologies. For example, Fritz Machlup, Friedrich Hayek and others did not take Mises' strong a priori approach to economics. Ludwig Lachmann, a radical subjectivist, also largely rejected Mises' formulation of Praxeology in favor of the verstehende Methode (\"interpretive method\") articulated by Max Weber.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 1545985, 11646, 220606, 19455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 162 ], [ 164, 179 ], [ 250, 265 ], [ 421, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 20th century, various Austrians incorporated models and mathematics into their analysis. Austrian economist Steven Horwitz argued in 2000 that Austrian methodology is consistent with macroeconomics and that Austrian macroeconomics can be expressed in terms of microeconomic foundations. Austrian economist Roger Garrison writes that Austrian macroeconomic theory can be correctly expressed in terms of diagrammatic models. In 1944, Austrian economist Oskar Morgenstern presented a rigorous schematization of an ordinal utility function (the Von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem) in Theory of Games and Economic Behavior.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 20520512, 18820, 18819, 598669, 26898094, 578469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 129 ], [ 190, 204 ], [ 267, 280 ], [ 409, 428 ], [ 548, 587 ], [ 592, 629 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1981, Fritz Machlup listed the typical views of Austrian economic thinking as such:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 1545985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Methodological individualism: in the explanation of economic phenomena, we have to go back to the actions (or inaction) of individuals; groups or \"collectives\" cannot act except through the actions of individual members. Groups don't think; people think.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 227569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Methodological subjectivism: in the explanation of economic phenomena, we have to go back to judgments and choices made by individuals on the basis of whatever knowledge they have or believe to have and whatever expectations they entertain regarding external developments and especially the perceived consequences of their own intended actions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tastes and preferences: subjective valuations of goods and services determine the demand for them so that their prices are influenced by (actual and potential) consumers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Opportunity costs: the costs with which producers and other economic actors calculate reflect the alternative opportunities that must be foregone; as productive services are employed for one purpose, all alternative uses have to be sacrificed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 45528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marginalism: in all economic designs, the values, costs, revenues, productivity and so on are determined by the significance of the last unit added to or subtracted from the total.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 221419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Time structure of production and consumption: decisions to save reflect \"time preferences\" regarding consumption in the immediate, distant, or indefinite future and investments are made in view of larger outputs expected to be obtained if more time-taking production processes are undertaken.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He included two additional tenets held by the Mises branch of Austrian economics:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Consumer sovereignty: the influence consumers have on the effective demand for goods and services and through the prices which result in free competitive markets, on the production plans of producers and investors, is not merely a hard fact but also an important objective, attainable only by complete avoidance of governmental interference with the markets and of restrictions on the freedom of sellers and buyers to follow their own judgment regarding quantities, qualities and prices of products and services.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 827098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Political individualism: only when individuals are given full economic freedom will it be possible to secure political and moral freedom. Restrictions on economic freedom lead, sooner or later, to an extension of the coercive activities of the state into the political domain, undermining and eventually destroying the essential individual liberties which the capitalistic societies were able to attain in the 19th century.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Methodology", "target_page_ids": [ 15181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The opportunity cost doctrine was first explicitly formulated by the Austrian economist Friedrich von Wieser in the late 19th century. Opportunity cost is the cost of any activity measured in terms of the value of the next best alternative foregone (that is not chosen). It is the sacrifice related to the second best choice available to someone, or group, who has picked among several mutually exclusive choices.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to economic thought", "target_page_ids": [ 220553, 312648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 108 ], [ 386, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Opportunity cost is a key concept in mainstream economics and has been described as expressing \"the basic relationship between scarcity and choice\". The notion of opportunity cost plays a crucial part in ensuring that resources are used efficiently.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to economic thought", "target_page_ids": [ 9223, 18933400, 45479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 57 ], [ 127, 135 ], [ 140, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Austrian theory of capital and interest was first developed by Eugen Böhm von Bawerk. He stated that interest rates and profits are determined by two factors, namely supply and demand in the market for final goods and time preference.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to economic thought", "target_page_ids": [ 219257, 29664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 88 ], [ 170, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Böhm-Bawerk's theory equates capital intensity with the degree of roundaboutness of production processes. Böhm-Bawerk also argued that the law of marginal utility necessarily implies the classical law of costs. Some Austrian economists therefore entirely reject the notion that interest rates are affected by liquidity preference.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to economic thought", "target_page_ids": [ 221296, 221292, 23014670, 3059780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 46 ], [ 66, 80 ], [ 146, 162 ], [ 309, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Mises's definition, inflation is an increase in the supply of money: ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to economic thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hayek pointed out that inflationary stimulation exploits the lag between an increase in money supply and the consequent increase in the prices of goods and services: ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to economic thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The economic calculation problem refers to a criticism of planned economies which was first stated by Max Weber in 1920. Mises subsequently discussed Weber's idea with his student Friedrich Hayek, who developed it in various works including The Road to Serfdom. What the calculation problem essentially states is that without price signals, the factors of production cannot be allocated in the most efficient way possible, rendering planned economies inefficacious.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to economic thought", "target_page_ids": [ 7843, 19455, 824889, 11231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 75 ], [ 102, 111 ], [ 241, 260 ], [ 345, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austrian theory emphasizes the organizing power of markets. Hayek stated that market prices reflect information, the totality of which is not known to any single individual, which determines the allocation of resources in an economy. Because socialist systems lack the individual incentives and price discovery processes by which individuals act on their personal information, Hayek argued that socialist economic planners lack all of the knowledge required to make optimal decisions. Those who agree with this criticism view it as a refutation of socialism, showing that socialism is not a viable or sustainable form of economic organization. The debate rose to prominence in the 1920s and 1930s and that specific period of the debate has come to be known by historians of economic thought as the socialist calculation debate.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to economic thought", "target_page_ids": [ 866764, 19528635, 44379754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 47 ], [ 295, 310 ], [ 798, 826 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mises argued in a 1920 essay \"Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth\" that the pricing systems in socialist economies were necessarily deficient because if the government owned the means of production, then no prices could be obtained for capital goods as they were merely internal transfers of goods in a socialist system and not \"objects of exchange\", unlike final goods. Therefore, they were unpriced and hence the system would be necessarily inefficient since the central planners would not know how to allocate the available resources efficiently. This led him to write \"that rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to economic thought", "target_page_ids": [ 26758489, 47155, 447351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 80 ], [ 193, 212 ], [ 251, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Austrian theory of the business cycle (ABCT) focuses on banks' issuance of credit as the cause of economic fluctuations. Although later elaborated by Hayek and others, the theory was first set forth by Mises, who posited that fractional reserve banks extend credit at artificially low interest rates, causing businesses to invest in relatively roundabout production processes which leads to an artificial \"boom\". Mises stated that this artificial \"boom\" then led to a misallocation of resources which he called \"malinvestment\" - which eventually must end in a \"bust\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to economic thought", "target_page_ids": [ 168918, 221292, 20003579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 41 ], [ 348, 358 ], [ 516, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mises surmised how government manipulation of money and credit in the banking system throws savings and investment out of balance, resulting in misdirected investment projects that are eventually found to be unsustainable, at which point the economy has to rebalance itself through a period of corrective recession. Austrian economist Fritz Machlup summarized the Austrian view by stating, \"monetary factors cause the cycle but real phenomena constitute it.\" For Austrians, the only prudent strategy for government is to leave money and the financial system to the free market's competitive forces to eradicate the business cycle's inflationary booms and recessionary busts, allowing markets to keep people's saving and investment decisions in place for well-coordinated economic stability and growth.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to economic thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A Keynesian would suggest government intervention during a recession to inject spending into the economy when people are not. However, the heart of Austrian macroeconomic theory states the government \"fine tuning\" through expansions and contractions in the money supply orchestrated by the government are actually the cause of business cycles because of the differing impact of the resulting interest rate changes on different stages in the structure of production. Austrian economist Thomas Woods further supports this view by arguing it is not consumption, but rather production that should be emphasized. A country cannot become rich by consuming, and therefore, by using up all their resources. Instead, production is what enables consumption as a possibility in the first place, since a producer would be working for nothing, if not for the desire to consume.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to economic thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Ludwig von Mises, central banks enable the commercial banks to fund loans at artificially low interest rates, thereby inducing an unsustainable expansion of bank credit and impeding any subsequent contraction and argued for a gold standard to constrain growth in fiduciary media. Friedrich Hayek took a different perspective not focusing on gold but focusing on regulation of the banking sector via strong central banking.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to economic thought", "target_page_ids": [ 4826588, 5666, 195493, 11646, 5666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 29 ], [ 31, 43 ], [ 56, 71 ], [ 293, 308 ], [ 419, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mainstream economists generally reject modern-day Austrian economics, and argue that modern-day Austrian economists are excessively averse to the use of mathematics and statistics in economics. Austrian opposition to mathematization extends to economic theorizing only, as they argue that human behavior is too variable for overarching mathematical models to hold true across time and context. Austrians do, however, support analyzing revealed preference via mathematization to aid business and finance.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 1956359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 435, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Economist Paul Krugman has stated that Austrians are unaware of holes in their own thinking because they do not use \"explicit models\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 313701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Economist Benjamin Klein has criticized the economic methodological work of Austrian economist Israel M. Kirzner. While praising Kirzner for highlighting shortcomings in traditional methodology, Klein argued that Kirzner did not provide a viable alternative for economic methodology. Economist Tyler Cowen has written that Kirzner's theory of entrepreneurship can ultimately be reduced to a neoclassical search model and is thus not in the radical subjectivist tradition of Austrian praxeology. Cowen states that Kirzner's entrepreneurs can be modeled in mainstream terms of search.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 220602, 2216379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 112 ], [ 294, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Economist Jeffrey Sachs argues that among developed countries, those with high rates of taxation and high social welfare spending perform better on most measures of economic performance compared to countries with low rates of taxation and low social outlays. He concludes that Friedrich Hayek was wrong to argue that high levels of government spending harms an economy and \"a generous social-welfare state is not a road to serfdom but rather to fairness, economic equality and international competitiveness\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 368418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Economist Bryan Caplan has noted that Mises has been criticized for overstating the strength of his case in describing socialism as \"impossible\" rather than as something that would need to establish non-market institutions to deal with the inefficiency.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 215740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Critics generally argue that Austrian economics lacks scientific rigor and rejects scientific methods and the use of empirical data in modelling economic behavior. Some economists describe Austrian methodology as being a priori or non-empirical.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 6679056, 307139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 227 ], [ 231, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Economist Mark Blaug has criticized over-reliance on methodological individualism, arguing it would rule out all macroeconomic propositions that cannot be reduced to microeconomic ones, and hence reject almost the whole of received macroeconomics.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 9772354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Economist Thomas Mayer has stated that Austrians advocate a rejection of the scientific method which involves the development of empirically falsifiable theories. Furthermore, economists have developed numerous experiments that elicit useful information about individual preferences.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 33258107, 26833, 198507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ], [ 77, 94 ], [ 153, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although economist Leland Yeager is sympathetic to Austrian economics, he rejects many favorite views of the Misesian group of Austrians, in particular \"the specifics of their business-cycle theory, ultra-subjectivism in value theory and particularly in interest-rate theory, their insistence on unidirectional causality rather than general interdependence, and their fondness for methodological brooding, pointless profundities, and verbal gymnastics\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Economist Paul A. Samuelson wrote in 1964 that most economists believe that economic conclusions reached by pure logical deduction are limited and weak. According to Samuelson and Caplan, Mises' deductive methodology also embraced by Murray Rothbard and to a lesser extent by Mises' student Israel Kirzner was not sufficient in and of itself.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 216669, 20217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 234, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mainstream economic research regarding Austrian business cycle theory finds that it is inconsistent with empirical evidence. Noted economists such as Gordon Tullock, Milton Friedman and Paul Krugman have said that they regard the theory as incorrect. Austrian economist Ludwig Lachmann noted that the Austrian theory was rejected during the 1930s: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 2630062, 1495631, 19640, 313701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 69 ], [ 150, 164 ], [ 166, 181 ], [ 186, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some economists have argued that Austrian business cycle theory requires bankers and investors to exhibit a kind of irrationality because the Austrian theory posits that investors will be fooled repeatedly (by temporarily low interest rates) into making unprofitable investment decisions. Milton Friedman objected to the policy implications of the theory, stating the following in a 1998 interview: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1969, Milton Friedman examined the history of business cycles in the United States and wrote that there \"appears to be no systematic connection between the size of an expansion and of the succeeding contraction\", contradicting business cycle theories (such as the Austrian business cycle theory) which rely on that premise. He analyzed the issue using newer data in 1993, and again reached the same conclusion. Referring to Friedman's discussion of the business cycle, Austrian economist Roger Garrison argued that Friedman's empirical findings are \"broadly consistent with both Monetarist and Austrian views\" and goes on to argue that although Friedman's model \"describes the economy's performance at the highest level of aggregation, Austrian theory offers an insightful account of the market process that might underlie those aggregates\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Carl Menger", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chicago school of economics", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 417454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Criticism of the Federal Reserve", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1291858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 219257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Friedrich Hayek", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hans-Hermann Hoppe", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 229870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Henry Hazlitt", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 215751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Israel Kirzner", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 220602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Austrian intellectual traditions", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 176057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Austrian School economists", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18576657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ludwig von Mises", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4826588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " New institutional economics", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3348591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29136076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " School of Salamanca", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1062850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (PDF in English).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (Excerpt via Amazon).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Understanding Austrian Economics by Henry Hazlitt ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 215751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 49 ] ] } ]

[ "Austrian_School", "Schools_of_economic_thought", "Libertarian_theory" ]

[ "Austrian economics", "Austrian school of economics" ]

[ { "plaintext": "An abscess is a collection of pus that has built up within the tissue of the body. Signs and symptoms of abscesses include redness, pain, warmth, and swelling. The swelling may feel fluid-filled when pressed. The area of redness often extends beyond the swelling. Carbuncles and boils are types of abscess that often involve hair follicles, with carbuncles being larger.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19719185, 103915, 712333, 995668, 464073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 33 ], [ 63, 69 ], [ 264, 273 ], [ 279, 283 ], [ 325, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "They are usually caused by a bacterial infection. Often many different types of bacteria are involved in a single infection. In many areas of the world, the most common bacteria present is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Rarely, parasites can cause abscesses; this is more common in the developing world. Diagnosis of a skin abscess is usually made based on what it looks like and is confirmed by cutting it open. Ultrasound imaging may be useful in cases in which the diagnosis is not clear. In abscesses around the anus, computer tomography (CT) may be important to look for deeper infection.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 15464966, 192595, 43937, 78449, 31780, 2500, 50982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 48 ], [ 189, 232 ], [ 242, 251 ], [ 300, 316 ], [ 427, 437 ], [ 530, 534 ], [ 536, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Standard treatment for most skin or soft tissue abscesses is cutting it open and drainage. There appears to be some benefit from also using antibiotics. A small amount of evidence supports not packing the cavity that remains with gauze after drainage. Closing this cavity right after draining it rather than leaving it open may speed healing without increasing the risk of the abscess returning. Sucking out the pus with a needle is often not sufficient.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1805, 13785147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 150 ], [ 230, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Skin abscesses are common and have become more common in recent years. Risk factors include intravenous drug use, with rates reported as high as 65% among users. In 2005, in the United States, 3.2 million people went to the emergency department for an abscess. In Australia, around 13,000 people were hospitalized in 2008 with the condition.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6447865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abscesses may occur in any kind of tissue but most frequently within the skin surface (where they may be superficial pustules known as boils or deep skin abscesses), in the lungs, brain, teeth, kidneys, and tonsils. Major complications may include spreading of the abscess material to adjacent or remote tissues, and extensive regional tissue death (gangrene).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 995668, 2452670, 3840, 8917820, 237977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 139 ], [ 173, 178 ], [ 180, 185 ], [ 187, 192 ], [ 350, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main symptoms and signs of a skin abscess are redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function. There may also be high temperature (fever) and chills. If superficial, abscesses may be fluctuant when palpated; this wave-like motion is caused by movement of the pus inside the abscess.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [ 532849, 1404351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 57 ], [ 206, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An internal abscess is more difficult to identify, but signs include pain in the affected area, a high temperature, and generally feeling unwell.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Internal abscesses rarely heal themselves, so prompt medical attention is indicated if such an abscess is suspected. An abscess can potentially be fatal depending on where it is located.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Signs and symptoms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Risk factors for abscess formation include intravenous drug use. Another possible risk factor is a prior history of disc herniation or other spinal abnormality, though this has not been proven.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 6447865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abscesses are caused by bacterial infection, parasites, or foreign substances.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 15464966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bacterial infection is the most common cause, particularly Staphylococcus aureus. The more invasive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) may also be a source of infection, though is much rarer. Among spinal subdural abscesses, methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus is the most common organism involved.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 118212, 192595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 80 ], [ 100, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rarely parasites can cause abscesses and this is more common in the developing world. Specific parasites known to do this include dracunculiasis and myiasis.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 43937, 1041031, 931973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 16 ], [ 130, 144 ], [ 149, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Surgery of the anal fistula to drain an abscess treats the fistula and reduces likelihood of its recurrence and the need for repeated surgery. There is no evidence that fecal incontinence is a consequence of this surgery for abscess drainage.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 3591909, 179404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ], [ 169, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Perianal abscesses can be seen in people with, for example, inflammatory bowel disease (such as Crohn's disease) or diabetes. Often the abscess will start as an internal wound caused by ulceration, hard stool, or penetrative objects with insufficient lubrication. This wound typically becomes infected as a result of the normal presence of feces in the rectal area, and then develops into an abscess. This often presents itself as a lump of tissue near the anus which grows larger and more painful with time. Like other abscesses, perianal abscesses may require prompt medical treatment, such as an incision and debridement or lancing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 8724250, 616967, 63522, 40017873, 2500, 712345, 12686237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 60, 86 ], [ 96, 111 ], [ 116, 124 ], [ 460, 464 ], [ 616, 627 ], [ 631, 638 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An incisional abscess is one that develops as a complication secondary to a surgical incision. It presents as redness and warmth at the margins of the incision with purulent drainage from it. If the diagnosis is uncertain, the wound should be aspirated with a needle, with aspiration of pus confirming the diagnosis and availing for Gram stain and bacterial culture.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 29316888, 12935, 541900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 93 ], [ 333, 343 ], [ 348, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An abscess is a defensive reaction of the tissue to prevent the spread of infectious materials to other parts of the body.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Pathophysiology", "target_page_ids": [ 14958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The organisms or foreign materials kill the local cells, resulting in the release of cytokines. The cytokines trigger an inflammatory response, which draws large numbers of white blood cells to the area and increases the regional blood flow.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Pathophysiology", "target_page_ids": [ 4230, 153663, 70425, 25164668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 55 ], [ 85, 93 ], [ 122, 143 ], [ 174, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The final structure of the abscess is an abscess wall, or capsule, that is formed by the adjacent healthy cells in an attempt to keep the pus from infecting neighboring structures. However, such encapsulation tends to prevent immune cells from attacking bacteria in the pus, or from reaching the causative organism or foreign object.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Pathophysiology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An abscess is a localized collection of pus (purulent inflammatory tissue) caused by suppuration buried in a tissue, an organ, or a confined space, lined by the pyogenic membrane. Ultrasound imaging can help in a diagnosis.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 31780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abscesses may be classified as either skin abscesses or internal abscesses. Skin abscesses are common; internal abscesses tend to be harder to diagnose, and more serious. Skin abscesses are also called cutaneous or subcutaneous abscesses.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For those with a history of intravenous drug use, an X-ray is recommended before treatment to verify that no needle fragments are present. If there is also a fever present in this population, infectious endocarditis should be considered.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 34197, 560154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 58 ], [ 192, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abscesses should be differentiated from empyemas, which are accumulations of pus in a preexisting, rather than a newly formed, anatomical cavity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 19000867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other conditions that can cause similar symptoms include: cellulitis, a sebaceous cyst, and necrotising fasciitis. Cellulitis typically also has an erythematous reaction, but does not confer any purulent drainage.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Diagnosis", "target_page_ids": [ 732173, 1258603, 287543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 68 ], [ 72, 86 ], [ 92, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The standard treatment for an uncomplicated skin or soft tissue abscess is the act of opening and draining. There does not appear to be any benefit from also using antibiotics in most cases. A small amount of evidence did not find a benefit from packing the abscess with gauze.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [ 1805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The abscess should be inspected to identify if foreign objects are a cause, which may require their removal. If foreign objects are not the cause, incising and draining the abscess is standard treatment.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In critical areas where surgery presents a high risk, it may be delayed or used as a last resort. The drainage of a lung abscess may be performed by positioning the affected individual in a way that enables the contents to be discharged via the respiratory tract. Warm compresses and elevation of the limb may be beneficial for a skin abscess.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [ 287885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most people who have an uncomplicated skin abscess should not use antibiotics. Antibiotics in addition to standard incision and drainage is recommended in persons with severe abscesses, many sites of infection, rapid disease progression, the presence of cellulitis, symptoms indicating bacterial illness throughout the body, or a health condition causing immunosuppression. People who are very young or very old may also need antibiotics. If the abscess does not heal only with incision and drainage, or if the abscess is in a place that is difficult to drain such as the face, hands, or genitals, then antibiotics may be indicated.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [ 732173, 168944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 264 ], [ 355, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In those cases of abscess which do require antibiotic treatment, Staphylococcus aureus bacteria is a common cause and an anti-staphylococcus antibiotic such as flucloxacillin or dicloxacillin is used. The Infectious Diseases Society of America advises that the draining of an abscess is not enough to address community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and in those cases, traditional antibiotics may be ineffective. Alternative antibiotics effective against community-acquired MRSA often include clindamycin, doxycycline, minocycline, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. The American College of Emergency Physicians advises that typical cases of abscess from MRSA get no benefit from having antibiotic treatment in addition to the standard treatment. If the condition is thought to be cellulitis rather than an abscess, consideration should be given to the possibility of the strep species as a cause, that are still sensitive to traditional anti-staphylococcus agents such as dicloxacillin or cephalexin. This would be in the case of people that are able to tolerate penicillin. Antibiotic therapy alone without surgical drainage of the abscess is seldom effective due to antibiotics often being unable to get into the abscess and their ineffectiveness at low pH levels.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [ 118212, 3219247, 3850556, 7340420, 192595, 635885, 660870, 249270, 995634, 896955, 732173, 1805, 24530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 86 ], [ 160, 174 ], [ 178, 191 ], [ 205, 243 ], [ 328, 371 ], [ 524, 535 ], [ 537, 548 ], [ 550, 561 ], [ 567, 596 ], [ 602, 642 ], [ 812, 822 ], [ 1107, 1117 ], [ 1288, 1290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Culturing the wound is not needed if standard follow-up care can be provided after the incision and drainage. Performing a wound culture is unnecessary because it rarely gives information which can be used to guide treatment.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [ 1106830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In North America, after drainage, an abscess cavity is often packed, perhaps with cloth, in an attempt to protect the healing wound. However, evidence from emergency medicine literature reports that packing wounds after draining causes pain to the person and does not decrease the rate of recurrence, nor bring faster healing, or fewer physician visits.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "More recently, several North American hospitals have opted for less-invasive loop drainage over standard drainage and wound packing. In one study of 143 pediatric outcomes, a failure rate of 1.4% was reported in the loop group versus 10.5% in the packing group (P<.030), while a separate study reported a 5.5% failure rate among the loop group.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Closing an abscess immediately after draining it appears to speed healing without increasing the risk of recurrence. This may not apply to anorectal abscesses as while they may heal faster, there may be a higher rate of recurrence than those left open.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Treatment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Even without treatment, skin abscesses rarely result in death, as they will naturally break through the skin. Other types of abscess are more dangerous. Brain abscesses are fatal if untreated. When treated, the mortality rate reduces to 5–10%, but is higher if the abscess ruptures.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Prognosis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Skin abscesses are common and have become more common in recent years. Risk factors include intravenous drug use, with rates reported as high as 65% among users. In 2005, in the United States 3.2 million people went to the emergency department for an abscess. In Australia around 13,000 people were hospitalized in 2008 for the disease.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Epidemiology", "target_page_ids": [ 6447865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Latin medical aphorism \"ubi pus, ibi evacua\" expresses \"where there is pus, there evacuate it\" and is classical advice in the culture of Western medicine.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 256799, 1791194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ], [ 18, 26 ], [ 28, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Needle exchange programmes often administer or provide referrals for abscess treatment to injection drug users as part of a harm reduction public health strategy.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 320340, 6447865, 137986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 90, 110 ], [ 124, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An abscess is so called \"abscess\" because there is an abscessus (a going away or departure) of portions of the animal tissue from each other to make room for the suppurated matter lodged between them.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The word carbuncle is believed to have originated from the Latin: carbunculus, originally a small coal; diminutive of carbon-, carbo: charcoal or ember, but also a carbuncle stone, \"precious stones of a red or fiery colour\", usually garnets.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 8899765, 37506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 179 ], [ 233, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following types of abscess are listed in the medical dictionary:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "General_surgery", "Animal_bacterial_diseases", "Wikipedia_medicine_articles_ready_to_translate", "Wikipedia_emergency_medicine_articles_ready_to_translate" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Aalborg Municipality is a municipality (Danish, kommune) in Region Nordjylland on the Jutland peninsula in northern Denmark. The municipality straddles the Limfjord, the waterway which connects the North Sea and the Kattegat east-to-west, and which separates the main body of the Jutland peninsula from the island of Vendsyssel-Thy north-to-south. It has a land area of 1,143.99km2, population 197,426 (2010) and belongs to Region Nordjylland (\"North Jutland Region\").", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8227, 19038, 2521548, 22235683, 76972, 1026821, 21179, 16712, 546388, 2521548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 46 ], [ 48, 55 ], [ 60, 78 ], [ 86, 93 ], [ 116, 123 ], [ 156, 164 ], [ 198, 207 ], [ 216, 224 ], [ 317, 331 ], [ 424, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is also the name of the municipality's main city Aalborg and the site of its municipal council, as well as the name of a seaport.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5479136, 97169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 59 ], [ 124, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The municipality and the town have chosen to retain the traditional spelling of the name as Aalborg, although the new spelling Ålborg is used in other contexts, such as Ålborg Bight (Ålborg Bugt), the body of water which lies to the east of the Jutland peninsula.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1763934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 1 January 2007 Aalborg municipality joined with the municipalities of Hals, Nibe, and Sejlflod to form a new Aalborg municipality. The former Aalborg municipality, including the island of Egholm, covered an area of , with a total population of 192,353 (2005). Its last mayor was Henning G. Jensen, a member of the Social Democrats (Socialdemokraterne) political party. The former municipality was bordered by Sejlflod and Hals to the east, Dronninglund and Brønderslev to the north, Aabybro and Nibe to the west, and Støvring and Skørping to the south. It belonged to North Jutland County.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Municipal reform of 2007", "target_page_ids": [ 145734, 145739, 145743, 1863375, 403131, 25187361, 145727, 145725, 5479280, 145747, 145746, 145721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 80 ], [ 82, 86 ], [ 92, 100 ], [ 194, 200 ], [ 321, 337 ], [ 359, 374 ], [ 447, 459 ], [ 464, 475 ], [ 490, 497 ], [ 524, 532 ], [ 537, 545 ], [ 575, 595 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The waters in the Limfjord splitting the municipality are called Langerak to the east and Gjøl Bredning to the west. The island of Egholm is located in Gjøl Bredning, and is connected by ferry to the city of Aalborg at its southern shore.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 1026821, 1863375, 50771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 26 ], [ 132, 138 ], [ 188, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The area is typical for the north of Jutland. To the west the Limfjord broadens into an irregular lake (salt water), with low, marshy shores and many islands. Northwest is Store Vildmose (\"Greater Wild bog\"), a swamp where a mirage is sometimes seen in summer. Southeast lies the similar Lille Vildmose (\"Lesser Wild bog\"). Store Vildmose was drained and farmed in the beginning of the 20th century, and Lille Vildmose is now the largest moor in Denmark.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 40413082, 40432727, 147341 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 188 ], [ 290, 304 ], [ 441, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aalborg City has a total population at 123,432. The metropolitan area is a conurbation of the Aalborg urban area in Himmerland (102,312) and the Nørresundby urban area in Vendsyssel (21,120).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 5479136, 75253, 265943, 2665496, 2248738, 892953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 52, 69 ], [ 75, 86 ], [ 116, 126 ], [ 145, 156 ], [ 171, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "North Flying has its head office on the property of Aalborg Airport in Nørresundby, Aalborg Municipality.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 3020677, 2248738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 67 ], [ 71, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aalborg's municipal council consists of 31 members, elected every four years.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Below are the municipal councils elected since the Municipal Reform of 2007.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 23030114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aalborg is twinned with 34 cities, more than any other city in Denmark. Every four years Aalborg gathers young people from most of its twin towns for a week of sports, known as Ungdomslegene (Youth Games).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 1155299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Almere, Netherlands", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 118444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antibes, France", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 230124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Büdelsdorf, Germany", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 4882175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 9602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fredrikstad, Norway", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 66228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fuglafjørður, Faroe Islands", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 1148112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Galway, Ireland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 92639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gdynia, Poland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 12665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Haifa, Israel", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 55606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hefei, China", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 144777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Innsbruck, Austria", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 55857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ittoqqortoormiit, Greenland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 3884463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Karlskoga, Sweden", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 38719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lancaster, England", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 87578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lerum, Sweden", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 66944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Liperi, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 782580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Norðurþing, Iceland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 14860204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Orsa, Sweden", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 128251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Orust, Sweden", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 128732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ośno Lubuskie, Poland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 14928891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pushkin, Russia", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 297454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Racine, United States", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 139613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rapperswil-Jona, Switzerland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 313723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rendalen, Norway", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 178029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rendsburg, Germany", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 92964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Riga, Latvia", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 25508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Riihimäki, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 784031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sermersooq, Greenland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 19717233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Solvang, United States", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 108142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tulcea, Romania", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 381177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Varna, Bulgaria", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 86762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vilnius, Lithuania", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 32597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wismar, Germany", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Twin towns – sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 73672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Municipal statistics: NetBorger Kommunefakta, delivered from KMD a.k.a. Kommunedata (Municipal Data)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Municipal mergers and neighbors: Eniro map with named municipalities", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aalborg in figures 2008, a publication from Aalborg Municipality.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "About Aalborg from Nordjyske Medier", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aalborg Municipality's official website", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "VisitAalborg (Aalborg Tourist Office)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Website for Aalborg Municipality's former Municipality Reformation Board", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Public Transport in Aalborg and surroundings", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Searchable map", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Aalborg_Municipality", "Aalborg", "Municipalities_of_the_North_Jutland_Region", "Municipalities_of_Denmark", "Populated_places_established_in_2007" ]

[ "Ålborg Kommune" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Aarhus (, , ; officially spelled Århus from 1948 until 1 January 2011) is the second-largest city in Denmark and the seat of Aarhus municipality. It is located on the eastern shore of Jutland in the Kattegat sea and approximately northwest of Copenhagen.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 76972, 2014377, 22235683, 16712, 5166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 108 ], [ 125, 144 ], [ 184, 191 ], [ 199, 207 ], [ 244, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The largest city in Jutland, Aarhus anchors the Central Denmark Region and the statistical region Landsdel Østjylland (LØ) (lit.: Province East Jutland). The LØ is the second most populous statistical region in Denmark with an estimated population of 903,974 (). Aarhus Municipality defines the greater Aarhus area as itself and eight adjacent municipalities totalling 952,824 inhabitants () which is roughly analogous to the municipal and commercial collaboration Business Region Aarhus. The city proper, with an estimated population of 285,273 inhabitants (as of 2022), ranks as the 2nd-largest city in Denmark.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2521480, 13123910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 70 ], [ 465, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus dates back to at least the late 8th century and is among the oldest cities in Denmark. It was founded as a harbour settlement at the mouth of the Aarhus River and quickly became a trade hub. The first Christian church was built here around the year 900 and later in the Viking Age the town was fortified with defensive ramparts. The Viking Age was turbulent and violent, also for Aros, as the town was called back then, but in spite of the difficulties, the bishopric of Aarhus grew steadily stronger and more prosperous, building several religious institutions in the town during the early Middle Ages. Trade continued to improve, although it was not until 1441 that Aarhus was granted Market town privileges, and the population of Aarhus remained relatively stable until the 19th century. The 1600s, in particular, was a difficult time for Aarhus as the town suffered from several wars and the plague, and trade was also dampened by the state in favour of the royal seat of Copenhagen. Nevertheless, Aarhus grew to become the second biggest town in Denmark during that time, and in the middle of the 1700s, the once prosperous trade growth returned. The industrial revolution became an inflection point in the 19th century, as industry drove a rapid population growth, outpacing regional rivals, and the first railway line in Jutland was built here in 1862. In 1928, the first university in Jutland was founded in Aarhus and today it is a university city and the largest centre for trade, services, industry, and tourism in Jutland.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33184583, 2660230, 18836, 145965, 14914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 165 ], [ 465, 484 ], [ 598, 609 ], [ 694, 705 ], [ 1163, 1184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Designated as a \"Sufficiency\" global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, the city's major cultural institutions include Den Gamle By, ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, Moesgård Museum, Kvindemuseet, Musikhuset and Aarhus Theatre. Known as Smilets By (lit. City of Smiles) it is the Danish city with the youngest and fastest growing demographics and home to Scandinavia's largest university, Aarhus University. Commercially, the city is the principal container port in the country and major Danish companies are headquartered here such as Vestas, Arla Foods, Salling Group, and Jysk.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 784781, 29141681, 4638188, 4744346, 15039023, 12784368, 43405863, 3236422, 26740, 401280, 2427716, 2377378, 360270, 1485424, 7693402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 41 ], [ 49, 96 ], [ 145, 157 ], [ 159, 182 ], [ 184, 199 ], [ 201, 213 ], [ 215, 225 ], [ 230, 244 ], [ 373, 384 ], [ 407, 424 ], [ 466, 480 ], [ 554, 560 ], [ 562, 572 ], [ 574, 587 ], [ 593, 597 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name originates from the city's location at the mouth of (Aarhus River). It is a compound of the two words , genitive of (\"river\", Modern Danish ), and (\"mouth\", in Modern Icelandic this word, spelt , is still used for \"river delta\"). In Valdemar's Census Book (1231) the city was called Arus, and in Icelandic it was known as , later written as Aars.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 33184583, 13944517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 75 ], [ 245, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The spelling \"Aarhus\" is first found in 1406 and gradually became the norm in the 17thcentury. With the Danish spelling reform of 1948, \"Aa\" was changed to \"Å\". Some Danish cities resisted the change but Aarhus city council opted to change the name. In 2010, the city council voted to change the name back from to again with effect from 1 January 2011.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 184311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is still grammatically correct to write geographical names with the letter Å and local councils are allowed to use the Aa spelling as an alternative and most newspapers and public institutions will accept either. Some official authorities such as the Danish Language Committee, publisher of the Danish Orthographic Dictionary, still retain as the main name, providing as a second option, in brackets and some institutions are still using explicitly in their official name, such as the local newspaper and the schools and . \"Aa\" was used by some major institutions between 1948 and 2011 as well, such as Aarhus University or the largest local sports club, (AGF), which has never used the \"Å\"-spelling. Certain geographically affiliated names have been updated to reflect the name of the city, such as the Aarhus River, changed from to .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 2181711, 37196892, 401280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 279 ], [ 298, 328 ], [ 611, 628 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Founded in the early Viking Age, Aarhus is one of the oldest cities in Denmark, along with Ribe and Hedeby. The original Aros settlement was situated on the northern shores of a fjord by the mouth of the Aarhus River, right where the city center is today. It quickly became a hub for sea-going trade due to its position on intersecting trade routes in the Danish straits and the fertile countryside. The trade, however, was not nearly as prominent as that in Ribe and Hedeby during the Viking Age, and it was primarily linked to Norway as evidenced by archaeological finds. A shipbuilding yard from the Viking Age was uncovered upriver in 2002 by archaeologists. It was located at a place formerly known as Snekkeeng, or Snekke Meadow in English ('Snekke' is a type of longship), east of the Brabrand Lake close to Viby, and it was in use for more than 400 years from the late 700s till around the mid-1200s.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32538, 146492, 14130, 17494818, 33184583, 3130422, 18025, 40096356, 311515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ], [ 91, 95 ], [ 100, 106 ], [ 178, 183 ], [ 204, 216 ], [ 356, 370 ], [ 769, 777 ], [ 792, 805 ], [ 815, 819 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archaeological evidence indicate Aarhus was a town as early as the last quarter of the 8thcentury. Discoveries after a 2003 archaeological dig, includes half-buried longhouses, firepits, glass pearls and a road dated to the late 700s. Several excavations in the inner city since the 1960s, has revealed wells, streets, homes and workshops, and inside the buildings and adjoining archaeological layers, everyday utensils like combs, jewellery and basic multi-purpose tools from approximately the year 900 has been unearthed. The early town was fortified with defensive earthen ramparts in the first part of the 900s, possibly in the year 934 on order from king Gorm the Old. The fortifications were later improved and expanded by his son Harald Bluetooth, encircling the settlement much like the defence structures found at Viking ring fortresses elsewhere. Together with the town's geographical placement, this suggests that Aros became an important military centre in the Viking Age. There are also strong indications of a former royal residence from the same period in Viby, a few kilometres south of the Aarhus city centre.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 755061, 233507, 42419, 644130, 311515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 174 ], [ 660, 672 ], [ 737, 753 ], [ 823, 843 ], [ 1071, 1075 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The centre of Aarhus was originally a pagan burial site until Aarhus's first Christian church, Holy Trinity Church, a timber structure, was built upon it during the reign of Frode, King of Jutland, around 900. The bishopric of Aarhus dates back to at least 948 when Adam of Bremen reported that the missionary bishop Reginbrand of Aros attended the synod of Ingelheim in Germany, but the late Viking Age during the Christianization of Scandinavia was a turbulent and violent time with several naval attacks on the town, such as Harald Hardrada's assault around 1050, when the Holy Trinity Church was burned to the ground. Despite the conflicts, Aarhus continued to prosper from the trade and the finding of six runestones in and around Aarhus indicates the city had some significance around the year 1000, as only wealthy nobles traditionally used them. The bishopric diocese was obliterated for almost a hundred years after Reginbrand in 988, but in 1060 a new bishop Christian was ordained and he founded a new church in Aarhus, Sankt Nicolai Domkirke (St. Nicholas Cathedral), this time in stone. It was erected outside the town fortifications, and stood finished in 1070 at the site where Church of Our Lady stands today, but only an underground crypt remains.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 850864, 256067, 18169343, 2552, 51772811, 15326872, 7135314, 66054, 482589, 2660230, 51796744, 54938, 45883, 4504235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 55 ], [ 174, 179 ], [ 214, 233 ], [ 266, 280 ], [ 317, 327 ], [ 349, 367 ], [ 415, 446 ], [ 528, 543 ], [ 711, 720 ], [ 858, 875 ], [ 969, 978 ], [ 1055, 1067 ], [ 1068, 1077 ], [ 1193, 1211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The growing influence of the Church during the Middle Ages gradually turned Aarhus, with its bishopric, into a prosperous religious centre. Many public and religious buildings were built in and around the town; notably Aarhus Cathedral was initiated in the late 12thcentury by the influential bishop Peder Vognsen, and around 1200, Aros had a total of four churches. The 13th century also marks a thorough reorganisation, erasing most of the town's original layout with new streets, relocations, dismantling and new constructions. The Church clearly had the upper hand in the Aarhus region during medieval times, and the large bishopric of Aarhus prospered and expanded territory, reaching as far as Viborg in extent. In 1441, Christopher III issued the oldest known charter granting market town status, although similar privileges may have existed as far back as the 12thcentury. The charter is the first official recognition of the town as a regional power and is by some considered Aarhus's birth certificate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18836, 2250358, 43392398, 2660230, 930548, 187755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 58 ], [ 219, 235 ], [ 300, 313 ], [ 627, 646 ], [ 700, 706 ], [ 727, 742 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The commercial and religious status spurred town growth so in 1477 the defensive earthen ramparts, ringing the town since the Viking Age, were abandoned to accommodate expansion. Parts of the ramparts are still in existence today and can be experienced as steep slopes at the riverside and they have also survived in some place names of the inner city, including the streets of Volden (The Rampart) and Graven (The Moat). Aarhus grew to become one of the largest cities in the country by the early 16thcentury. In 1657, octroi was imposed in larger Danish cities which changed the layout and face of Aarhus over the following decades. Wooden city walls were erected to prevent smuggling, with gates and toll booths on the major thoroughfares, Mejlgade and Studsgade. The city gates funnelled most traffic through a few streets where merchant quarters were built.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 52777089, 52557626, 1326862, 49287677, 49443252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 378, 384 ], [ 403, 409 ], [ 520, 526 ], [ 743, 751 ], [ 756, 765 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 17thcentury, Aarhus entered a period of recession as it suffered blockades and bombardments during the Swedish wars and trade was dampened by the preferential treatment of the capital by the state. It was not until the middle of the 18thcentury growth returned in large part due to trade with the large agricultural catchment areas around the city; particularly grain proved to be a remunerative export. The first factories were established at this time as the industrial revolution reached the country and in 1810 the harbour was expanded to accommodate growing trade.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14447565, 8749373, 14914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 122 ], [ 323, 337 ], [ 468, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the Napoleonic wars, Denmark lost Norway and was excluded from international trade for some years which caused a recession for Aarhus's trade-based economy that lasted until the 1830s. The economy turned around as the industrial revolution reached the city and factories with steam-driven machinery became more productive.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 45420, 54327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 29 ], [ 228, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1838, the electoral laws were reformed leading to elections for the 15 seats on the city council. The rules were initially very strict, allowing only the wealthiest citizens to run. In the 1844 elections, only 174 citizens qualified out of a total population of more than 7,000. The first city council, mainly composed of wealthy merchants and industrialists, quickly looked to improve the harbour, situated along the Aarhus River. Larger ships and growing freight volumes made a river harbour increasingly impractical. In 1840, the harbour was moved to the coast, north of the river, where it became the largest industrial harbour outside Copenhagen over the following 15 years. From the outset, the new harbour was controlled by the city council, as it is to this day.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 33184583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 421, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the First Schleswig War, Aarhus was occupied by German troops from 21 June to 24 July 1849. The city was spared any fighting, but in Vejlby north of the city a cavalry skirmish known as Rytterfægtningen took place which stopped the German advance through Jutland. The war and occupation left a notable impact on the city as many streets, particularly on Frederiksbjerg, are named after Danish officers of the time. Fifteen years later, in 1864, the city was occupied again, this time for seven months, during the Second Schleswig War.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 554232, 15040154, 47571573, 15040130, 554236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 30 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 193, 209 ], [ 361, 375 ], [ 520, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In spite of wars and occupation, the city continued to expand and develop. In 1851, the octroi was abolished and the city walls were removed to provide easier access for trade. Regular steamship links with Copenhagen had begun with the Jylland in 1825-26 and the Dania (1827–36), and in 1862 Jutland's first railway was established between Aarhus and Randers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1326862, 146635, 65960853, 66228960, 6698240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 94 ], [ 185, 194 ], [ 236, 243 ], [ 263, 268 ], [ 351, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the second half of the 19thcentury, industrialisation came into full effect and a number of new industries emerged around production and refinement of agricultural products, especially oil and butter. Many companies from this time would come to leave permanent iconic marks on Aarhus. The Ceres Brewery was established in 1856 and served as Aarhus's local brewery for more than 150 years, gradually expanding into an industrial district known as Ceres-grunden (lit.: the Ceres-ground). In 1896, local farmers and businessmen created Korn- og Foderstof Kompagniet (KFK), focused on grain and feedstuffs. KFK established departments all over the country, while its headquarters remained in Aarhus where its large grain silos still stand today. Otto Mønsted created the Danish Preserved Butter Company in 1874, focusing on butter export to England, China and Africa and later founded the Aarhus Butterine Company in 1883, the first Danish margarine factory. His company became an important local employer, with factory employees increasing from 100 in 1896 to 1,000 in 1931, partaking in the effective transformation of the city from a regional trade hub to an industrial centre. Other new factories of note included the dockyard Aarhus Flydedok, the oil mill Århus Oliefabrik and the ironworks Frichs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6796, 50255291, 14193930, 38445583, 213654, 52869640, 30820393, 47609401, 1997191, 47625848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 292, 305 ], [ 536, 565 ], [ 594, 604 ], [ 745, 757 ], [ 1221, 1229 ], [ 1230, 1245 ], [ 1251, 1259 ], [ 1260, 1276 ], [ 1285, 1294 ], [ 1295, 1301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus became the largest provincial city in the country by the turn of the century and the city marketed itself as the \"Capital of Jutland\". The population increased from 15,000 in 1870 to 52,000 in 1901 and, in response, the city annexed large land areas to develop new residential quarters such as Trøjborg, Frederiksbjerg and Marselisborg. Many of its cultural institutions were also established at this time such as Aarhus Theatre (1900), the original State Library (1902), Aarhus University (1928) and several hospitals.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 47528680, 15040130, 43366717, 3236422, 49255266, 401280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 301, 309 ], [ 311, 325 ], [ 330, 342 ], [ 421, 435 ], [ 457, 470 ], [ 479, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 9 April 1940, Nazi Germany invaded Denmark, occupying Aarhus the following day and 5 years hence. The occupation was a destructive period with major disasters, loss of life and economic depression. The Port of Aarhus became a hub for supplies to the Baltics and Norway, while the surrounding rail network supplied the Atlantic Wall in west Jutland and cargo headed for Germany. Combined, these factors resulted in a strong German presence, especially in 1944–45. The first years were peaceful in conjunction with the policies of the Danish Protectorate Government, but following the enactment of the Communist Law in August 1941, armed resistance and reprisals escalated.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21212, 47496637, 188675, 21241, 149270, 276438, 22719821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 29 ], [ 205, 219 ], [ 253, 260 ], [ 265, 271 ], [ 321, 334 ], [ 543, 566 ], [ 603, 616 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Small resistance groups first appeared in 1941–42 but the first to co-ordinate with the Freedom Council was the Samsing Group, responsible for most operations from early 1943. The Samsing group, along with others in and around Aarhus, was dismantled in June 1944 when Grethe \"Thora\" Bartram turned her family and acquaintances over to German authorities. In response, requests for assistance were sent to contacts in England and in October 1944 the Royal Air Force bombed the Gestapo headquarters successfully destroying archives and obstructing the ongoing investigation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 470962, 16884347, 47652697, 47657738, 25679, 43520244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 23 ], [ 88, 103 ], [ 112, 125 ], [ 268, 290 ], [ 449, 464 ], [ 465, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the summer of 1944 the Copenhagen-based resistance group Holger Danske helped establish the 5 Kolonne group and an SOE agent arrived from England to liaison with the L-groups. Subsequently, resistance operations escalated which was countered with Schalburgtage terror operations by the Peter group. The increasingly destructive occupation was compounded when an ammunition barge exploded in July 1944, destroying much of the harbour area. On 5 May 1945 German forces in Denmark surrendered but during the transitional period fighting broke out resulting in 22 dead. On 8 May the British Royal Dragoons entered the city.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13062329, 47858695, 28898, 50696428, 22574135, 22574573, 47581287, 5866485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 73 ], [ 95, 104 ], [ 118, 121 ], [ 169, 177 ], [ 250, 263 ], [ 289, 300 ], [ 365, 390 ], [ 590, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1980s the city entered a period of rapid growth and the service sector overtook trade, industry and crafts as the leading sector of employment for the first time. Workers gradually began commuting to the city from most of east and central Jutland as the region became more interconnected. The student population tripled between 1965 and 1977 turning the city into a Danish centre of research and education. The growing and comparably young population initiated a period of creativity and optimism; Gaffa and the KaosPilot school were founded in 1983 and 1991 respectively, and Aarhus was at the centre of a renaissance in Danish rock and pop music launching bands and musicians such as TV2, Gnags, Thomas Helmig, Bamses Venner, Anne Dorte Michelsen, Mek Pek and Shit & Chanel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23078658, 28430232, 2931050, 18463102, 18048123, 1005055, 5892613, 51714346, 36359398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 505, 510 ], [ 519, 528 ], [ 693, 696 ], [ 698, 703 ], [ 705, 718 ], [ 720, 733 ], [ 735, 755 ], [ 757, 764 ], [ 769, 782 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the turn of the millennium, Aarhus has seen an unprecedented building boom with many new institutions, infrastructure projects, city districts and recreational areas. Several of the construction projects are among the largest in Europe, such as the New University Hospital (DNU) and the harbourfront redevelopment.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40939631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 255, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both the skyline and land use of the inner city is changing, as former industrial sites are being redeveloped into new city districts and neighbourhoods. Starting in 2008, the former docklands known as De Bynære Havnearealer (The Peri-urban Harbour-areas), and closest to the city seaside, are being converted to new mixed use districts. It is among the largest harbourfront projects in Europe. The northern part dubbed Aarhus Ø (Aarhus Docklands) is almost finished as of 2018, while the southern district dubbed Sydhavnskvarteret (The South-harbour neighbourhood) is only starting to be developed. The adjacent site of Frederiks Plads at the former DSB repair facilities have been under construction since 2014 as a new business and residential quarter. The main bus terminal close by is planned to be moved to the central railway station and the site will be redeveloped to a new residential neighbourhood. Elsewhere in the inner city, the site of the former Ceres breweries was redeveloped in 2012-2019 as a new mixed use neighbourhood known as CeresByen.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17795634, 287088, 6796, 47536040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 430, 446 ], [ 651, 654 ], [ 962, 977 ], [ 1049, 1058 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Construction of Aarhus Letbane, the first light rail system in the country, commenced in 2013, and the first increment was finished in December 2017. Since then, the lightrail service has been expanded with two intercity sections to the towns of Odder and Grenå, respectively, and also includes a northward leg to the suburb of Lisbjerg. The light rail system is planned to tie many other suburbs closer to central Aarhus in the future, with the next phase including local lines to Brabrand in the east and Hinnerup to the north.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 35790174, 50943, 144269, 23736246, 15039997, 892565, 144261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 30 ], [ 42, 52 ], [ 246, 251 ], [ 256, 261 ], [ 328, 336 ], [ 482, 490 ], [ 507, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Accelerating growth since the early 2000s, brought the inner urban area to roughly 260,000 inhabitants by 2014. The rapid growth is expected to continue until at least 2030 when Aarhus municipality has set an ambitious target for 375,000 inhabitants.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus is located at the Bay of Aarhus facing the Kattegat sea in the east with the peninsulas of Mols and Helgenæs across the bay to the northeast. Mols and Helgenæs are both part of the larger regional peninsula of Djursland. A number of larger cities and towns is within easy reach from Aarhus by road and rail, including Randers ( by road north), Grenå (northeast), Horsens ( south) and Silkeborg ( east).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 47338856, 16712, 654212, 7861024, 3641041, 6698240, 23736246, 823440, 144277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 38 ], [ 50, 58 ], [ 98, 102 ], [ 107, 115 ], [ 217, 226 ], [ 325, 332 ], [ 351, 356 ], [ 370, 377 ], [ 391, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At Aarhus's location, the Bay of Aarhus provides a natural harbour with a depth of quite close to the shore. Aarhus was founded at the mouth of a brackish water fjord, but the original fjord no longer exists, as it has gradually narrowed into what is now the Aarhus River and the Brabrand Lake, due to natural sedimentation. The land around Aarhus was once covered by forests, remains of which exist in parts of Marselisborg Forest to the south and Riis Skov to the north. Several lakes extend west from the inner city as the landscape merges with the larger region of Søhøjlandet with heights exceeding at Himmelbjerget between Skanderborg and Silkeborg. The highest natural point in Aarhus Municipality is Jelshøj at 128 metres above sea level, in the southern district of Højbjerg. The hilltop is home to a Bronze Age barrow shrouded in local myths and legends.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 17494818, 33184583, 40096356, 7999492, 40705174, 26150633, 41832454, 742155, 144278, 144277, 15039984, 1021554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 167 ], [ 260, 272 ], [ 281, 294 ], [ 311, 324 ], [ 413, 432 ], [ 450, 459 ], [ 570, 581 ], [ 609, 622 ], [ 631, 642 ], [ 647, 656 ], [ 777, 785 ], [ 812, 822 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The hilly area around Aarhus consists of a morainal plateau from the last ice age, broken by a complex system of tunnel valleys. The most prominent valleys of this network are the Aarhus Valley in the south, stretching inland east–west with the Aarhus River, Brabrand Lake, Årslev Lake and Tåstrup Lake, and the Egå Valley to the north, with the stream of Egåen, Egå Engsø, the bog of Geding-Kasted Mose and Geding Lake. Most parts of the two valleys have been drained and subsequently farmed, but in the early 2000s some of the drainage was removed and parts of the wetlands were restored for environmental reasons. The valley system also includes the stream of Lyngbygård Å in the west and valleys to the south of the city, following erosion channels from the pre-quaternary. By contrast, the Aarhus River Valley and the Giber River Valley are late glacial meltwater valleys. The coastal cliffs along the Bay of Aarhus consist of shallow tertiary clay from the Eocene and Oligocene (57 to 24 million years ago).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 44299, 4387889, 15039701, 15039701, 33241449, 52873721, 52875090, 25198, 26700324, 30253, 9419, 22286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 59 ], [ 113, 126 ], [ 312, 322 ], [ 356, 359 ], [ 363, 372 ], [ 385, 403 ], [ 408, 419 ], [ 762, 776 ], [ 851, 875 ], [ 940, 948 ], [ 963, 969 ], [ 974, 983 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb) and the weather is constantly influenced by major weather systems from all four ordinal directions, resulting in unstable conditions throughout the year. Temperature varies a great deal across the seasons with a mild spring in April and May, warmer summer months from June to August, frequently rainy and windy autumn months in October and September and cooler winter months, often with frost and occasional snow, from December to March. The city centre experiences the same climatic effects as other larger cities with higher wind speeds, more fog, less precipitation and higher temperatures than the surrounding, open land.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 560047, 484254, 339183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 30 ], [ 40, 46 ], [ 124, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Western winds from the Atlantic and North Sea are dominant resulting in more precipitation in western Denmark. In addition, Jutland rises sufficiently in the centre to lift air to higher, colder altitudes contributing to increased precipitation in eastern Jutland. Combined, these factors make east and south Jutland comparatively wetter than other parts of the country. Average temperature over the year is with February being the coldest month () and August the warmest (). Temperatures in the sea can reach in June to August, but it is not uncommon for beaches to register locally.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 21179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The geography in the area affects the local climate of the city with the Aarhus Bay imposing a temperate effect on the low-lying valley floor where central Aarhus is located. Brabrand Lake to the west further contributes to this effect and as a result, the valley has a comparably mild, temperate climate. The sandy ground on the valley floor dries up quickly after winter and warms faster in the summer than the surrounding hills of moist-retaining boulder clay. These conditions affect crops and plants that often bloom 1–2 weeks earlier in the valley than on the northern and southern hillsides.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 40096356, 2929696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 188 ], [ 450, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of the northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter. On the summer solstice, the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58, providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight. On the winter solstice, it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 2 minutes of daylight. The difference in length of days and nights between summer and winter solstices is 10 hours and 30 minutes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus is the seat of Aarhus Municipality, and Aarhus City Council (Aarhus Byråd) is also the municipal government with headquarters in Aarhus City Hall. The Mayor of Aarhus since 2010 is Jacob Bundsgaard of the Social Democrats. Municipal elections are held every fourth year on the third Tuesday of November with the next election in 2021. The city council consists of 31 members elected for four-year terms. When an election has determined the composition of the council, it elects a mayor, two deputy mayors and five aldermen from their ranks. Anyone who is eligible to vote and who resides within the municipality can run for a seat on the city council provided they can secure endorsements and signatures from 50 inhabitants of the municipality.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Politics and administration", "target_page_ids": [ 4518084, 41630620, 403131, 286925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 152 ], [ 188, 204 ], [ 212, 228 ], [ 521, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first publicly elected mayor of Aarhus was appointed in 1919. In the 1970 Danish Municipal Reform the current Aarhus municipality was created by merging 20 municipalities. Aarhus was the seat of Aarhus County until the 2007 Danish municipal reform, which substituted the Danish counties with five regions and replaced Aarhus County with Central Denmark Region (Region Midtjylland), seated in Viborg.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Politics and administration", "target_page_ids": [ 35286684, 143770, 2521480, 930548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 101 ], [ 199, 212 ], [ 341, 363 ], [ 396, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus Municipality has 45 electoral wards and polling stations in four electoral districts for the Folketing (national Parliament). The diocese of Aarhus has four deaneries composed of 60 parishes within Aarhus municipality. Aarhus municipality contains 21 postal districts and some parts of another 9. The urban area of Aarhus and the immediate suburbs are divided into the districts Aarhus C, Aarhus N, Aarhus V, Viby J, Højbjerg and Brabrand.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Politics and administration", "target_page_ids": [ 6041592, 763947, 667057, 429743, 18169343, 4456859, 51549, 2431256, 17393287, 17413938, 311515, 15039984, 892565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 42 ], [ 47, 62 ], [ 72, 91 ], [ 100, 109 ], [ 137, 154 ], [ 164, 173 ], [ 258, 274 ], [ 386, 394 ], [ 396, 404 ], [ 406, 414 ], [ 416, 422 ], [ 424, 432 ], [ 437, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus has increasingly been investing in environmental planning and, in accordance with national policy, aims to be -neutral and independent of fossil fuels for heating by 2030. The municipal power plants were adapted for this purpose in the 2010s. In 2015, the municipality took over three private straw-fired heating plants and the year after, a new 77 MW combined heat and power biomass plant at Lisbjerg Power Station was completed while Studstrup Power Station finished a refit to move from coal to wood chips. In conjunction with the development of the Docklands district there are plans for a utility-scale seawater heat pump which will take advantage of fluctuating electricity prices to supply the district heating system. Since 2015, the city has been implementing energy saving LED technology in street lighting; by January 2019, about half of the municipal street lighting had been changed. Apart from reducing the city's CO2 emissions, it saves 30% on the electricity bill, thereby making it a self-financed project over a 20-year period.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Politics and administration", "target_page_ids": [ 3909826, 48146, 46594, 21347693, 763555, 52905890, 28602631, 17795634, 68316, 1669741, 18290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 64 ], [ 145, 156 ], [ 300, 305 ], [ 356, 358 ], [ 359, 382 ], [ 400, 422 ], [ 443, 466 ], [ 560, 578 ], [ 624, 633 ], [ 708, 724 ], [ 790, 793 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The municipality aims for a coherent and holistic administration of the water cycle to protect against, or clean up, previous pollution and encourage green growth and self-sufficiency. The main issues are excessive nutrients, adapting to increased (and increasing) levels of precipitation brought on by climate change, and securing the water supply. These goals have manifested in a number of large water treatment projects often in collaboration with private partners. In the 2000s, underground rainwater basins were built across the city while the two lakes Årslev Engsø and Egå Engsø were created in 2003 and 2006 respectively. The number of sewage treatment plants is planned to be reduced from 17 to 2 by 2025, as the treatment plants in Marselisborg and Egå are scheduled for expansion to take over all waste water treatment. They have already been refitted for biogas production to become net producers of electricity and heat. To aid the new treatment plants, and avoid floodings, sewage and stormwater throughout the municipality is planned to be separated into two different drainage systems. Construction began in 2017 in several areas, but it is a long process that is scheduled to be finished by 2085.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Politics and administration", "target_page_ids": [ 200167, 23129804, 23618578, 5042951, 40096356, 33241449, 16079692, 54838, 192021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 83 ], [ 150, 162 ], [ 205, 224 ], [ 303, 317 ], [ 560, 572 ], [ 577, 586 ], [ 645, 661 ], [ 868, 874 ], [ 1000, 1010 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Afforestation projects have been undertaken to prevent groundwater pollution, secure drinking water, sequester, increase biodiversity, create an attractive countryside, provide easy access to nature and offer outdoor activities to the public. In 2000, the first project, the New Forests of Aarhus, was completed, which aimed to double the forest cover in the municipality and, in 2009, another phase was announced to double forest cover once more before the year 2030. The afforestation plans were realised as a local project in collaboration with private landowners, under a larger national agenda. Other projects to expand natural habitats include a rewilding effort in Geding-Kasted Bog and continuous monitoring of the four Natura 2000 areas in the municipality.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Politics and administration", "target_page_ids": [ 1968338, 44413707, 4535852, 45086, 41317039, 20690782, 52873721, 52878953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 55, 76 ], [ 101, 110 ], [ 121, 133 ], [ 275, 296 ], [ 652, 661 ], [ 672, 689 ], [ 719, 739 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus has a population of 261,570 on for a density of 2,874/km2 (7,444/sq mi). Aarhus municipality has a population of 330,639 on 468km2 with a density of 706/km2 (1,829/sq mi). Less than a fifth of the municipal population resides beyond city limits and almost all live in an urban area. The population of Aarhus is both younger and better-educated than the national average which can be attributed to the high concentration of educational institutions. More than 40% of the population have an academic degree while only some 14% have no secondary education or trade. The largest age group is 20- to 29-year-olds and the average age is 37.5, making it the youngest city in the country and one of its youngest municipalities. Women have slightly outnumbered men for many years.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The city is home to 75 different religious groups and denominations, most of which are Christian or Muslim with a smaller number of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jewish communities. Since the 1990s there has been a marked growth in diverse new spiritual groups although the total number of followers remains small. The majority of the population are members of the Protestant state church, Church of Denmark, which is by far the largest religious institution both in the city and the country as a whole. Some 20% of the population are not officially affiliated with any religion, a percentage that has been slowly rising for many years.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 271956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 381, 398 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1990s there was significant immigration from Turkey and in the 2000s, there was a fast growth in the overall immigrant community, from 27,783 people in 1999 to 40,431 in 2008. The majority of immigrants have roots outside Europe and the developed world, comprising some 25,000 people from 130 different nationalities, with the largest groups coming from the Middle East and North Africa. Some 15,000 have come from within Europe, with Poland, Germany, Romania and Norway being the largest contributors.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many immigrants have established themselves in the suburbs of Brabrand, Hasle and Viby, where the percentage of inhabitants with foreign origins has risen by 66% since 2000. This has resulted in a few so-called ghettos, defined as residential areas with more than half of inhabitants from non-Western countries and with relatively high levels of poverty and/or crime. Gellerup is the most notable neighbourhood in that respect. The ghetto-labelling has been criticized as unnecessarily stigmatising and counterproductive for social and economical development of the related areas.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 892565, 15039951, 311515, 92903, 21208200, 2407525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 70 ], [ 72, 77 ], [ 82, 86 ], [ 211, 218 ], [ 289, 310 ], [ 368, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The economy of Aarhus is predominantly knowledge- and service-based, strongly influenced by the University of Aarhus and the large healthcare industry. The service sector dominates the economy and is growing as the city transitions away from manufacturing. Trade and transportation remain important sectors, benefiting from the large port and central position on the rail network. Manufacturing has been in slow but steady decline since the 1960s while agriculture has long been a marginal sector within the municipality. The municipality is home to 175,000 jobs with some 100,000 in the private sector and the rest split between state, region and municipality. The region is a major agricultural producer, with many large farms in the outlying districts. People commute to Aarhus from as far away as Randers, Silkeborg and Skanderborg and almost a third of those employed within the Aarhus municipality commute from neighbouring communities. Aarhus is a centre for retail in the Nordic and Baltic countries, with expansive shopping centres, the busiest commercial street in the country and a dense urban core with many speciality shops.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 401280, 627, 6698240, 144277, 144278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 116 ], [ 684, 705 ], [ 801, 808 ], [ 810, 819 ], [ 824, 835 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The job market is knowledge- and service-based, and the largest employment sectors are healthcare and social services, trade, education, consulting, research, industry and telecommunications. The municipality has more high- and middle-income jobs, and fewer low-income jobs, than the national average. Today, te majority of the largest companies in the municipality are in the sectors of trade, transport and media. The wind power industry has strong roots in Aarhus and the larger region of Central Jutland, and nationally, most of the revenue in the industry is generated by companies in the greater Aarhus area. The wind industry employs about a thousand people within the municipality, making it a central component in the local economy. The biotech industry is well-established in the city, with many small- and medium-sized companies mainly focused on research and development.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 2521480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 492, 507 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several major companies are headquartered in Aarhus, including four of the ten largest in the country. These include Arla Foods, one of the largest dairy groups in Europe, Salling Group, Denmark's largest retailer, Jysk, a worldwide retailer of household goods, Vestas, a global wind turbine manufacturer, Terma A/S, a major defence and aerospace manufacturer, Per Aarsleff, a civil engineering company and several large retail companies. Other large employers of note include Krifa, Systematic A/S,), and Bestseller A/S. Since the early 2000s, the city has experienced an influx of larger companies moving from other parts of the Jutland peninsula.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 360270, 1485424, 7693402, 2377378, 1365579, 50936273, 4927021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 127 ], [ 172, 185 ], [ 215, 219 ], [ 262, 268 ], [ 306, 315 ], [ 361, 373 ], [ 506, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Port of Aarhus is one of the largest industrial ports in northern Europe with the largest container terminal in Denmark, processing more than 50% of Denmark's container traffic and accommodating the largest container vessels in the world. It is a municipal self-governing port with independent finances. The facilities handle some 9.5million tonnes of cargo a year (2012). Grain is the principal export, while feedstuffs, stone, cement and coal are among the chief imports. Since 2012 the port has faced increasing competition from the Port of Hamburg and freight volumes have decreased somewhat from the peak in 2008.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 14193930, 2158876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 414, 423 ], [ 540, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ferry terminal presents the only alternative to the Great Belt Link for passenger transport between Jutland and Zealand. It has served different ferry companies since the first steamship route to Copenhagen opened in 1830. Currently, Mols-Linien operates the route and annually transports some two million passengers and a million vehicles. Additional roll-on/roll-off cargo ferries serve Finland and Kalundborg on a weekly basis and smaller outlying Danish ports at irregular intervals. Since the early 2000s the port has increasingly become a destination for cruise lines operating in the Baltic Sea.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 47610, 47914, 2348862, 1457484, 10577, 1509405, 3335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 71 ], [ 116, 123 ], [ 238, 249 ], [ 356, 372 ], [ 393, 400 ], [ 405, 415 ], [ 595, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ARoS Art Museum, the Old Town Museum and Tivoli Friheden are among Denmark's top tourist attractions. With a combined total of almost 1.4million visitors they represent the driving force behind tourism but other venues such as Moesgård Museum and Kvindemuseet are also popular. The city's extensive shopping facilities are also said to be a major attraction for tourists, as are festivals, especially NorthSide and SPOT. Many visitors arrive on cruise ships: in 2012, 18 vessels visited the port with over 38,000 passengers.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 4744346, 4638188, 13616884, 32836503, 15039023, 12784368, 34324601, 3739936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 25, 40 ], [ 45, 60 ], [ 81, 104 ], [ 231, 246 ], [ 251, 263 ], [ 405, 414 ], [ 419, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2010s, there was a significant expansion of tourist facilities, culminating in the opening of the 240-room Comwell Hotel in July 2014, which increased the number of hotel rooms in the city by 25%. Some estimates put the number of visitors spending at least one night as high as 750,000 a year, most of them Danes from other regions, with the remainder coming mainly from Norway, Sweden, northern Germany and the United Kingdom. Overall, they spend roughly DKK 3billion (€402million) in the city each year. The primary motivation for tourists choosing Aarhus as a destination is experiencing the city and culture, family and couples vacation or as a part of a round trip in Denmark. The average stay is little more than three days on average.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are more than 30 tourist information spots across the city. Some of them are staffed, while others are online, publicly accessible touchscreens. The official tourist information service in Aarhus is organised under VisitAarhus, a corporate foundation initiated in 1994 by Aarhus Municipality and local commercial interest organisations.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The largest research park in Aarhus is INCUBA Science Park, focused on IT and biomedical research, It is based on Denmark's first research park, Forskerpark Aarhus (Research Park Aarhus), founded in 1986, which in 2007 merged with another research park to form INCUBA Science Park. The organisation is owned partly by Aarhus University and private investors and aims to foster close relationships between public institutions and startup companies. It is physically divided across 4 locations after a new department was inaugurated in Navitas Park in 2015, which it will share with the Aarhus School of Marine and Technical Engineering and AU Engineering. Another major centre for knowledge is Agro Food Park in Skejby, established to facilitate co-operation between companies and public institutions working within food science and agriculture. In January 2017 Arla Foods will open the global innovation centre Arla Nativa in Agro Food Park and in 2018 Aarhus University is moving the Danish Centre for Food and Agriculture there as well. In 2016, some 1000 people worked at Agro Food Park, spread across 50 companies and institutions and in August 2016 Agro Food Park management published plans to expand facilities from 92,000 m2 to .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 47339608, 36674345, 2245783, 401280, 51856996, 47664452, 48830683, 50013792, 596423, 360270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 58 ], [ 71, 73 ], [ 78, 97 ], [ 318, 335 ], [ 534, 546 ], [ 585, 634 ], [ 639, 653 ], [ 693, 707 ], [ 711, 717 ], [ 861, 871 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition, Aarhus is home to the Aarhus School of Architecture, one of two Danish Ministry of Education institutions that provide degree programs in architecture, and some of the largest architecture firms in the Nordic countries such as Schmidt Hammer Lassen Architects, Arkitema Architects and C. F. Møller Architects. Taken together these organisations form a unique concentration of expertise and knowledge in architecture outside Copenhagen, which the Danish Ministry of Business and Growth refers to as (the architecture cluster). To promote the \"cluster\", the School of Architecture will be given new school buildings centrally in the new Freight Station Neighborhood, planned for development in the 2020s. In the interim, the city council supports a culture, business and education centre in the area, which may continue in the future neighbourhood in some form. The future occupants of the neighbourhood will be businesses and organisations selected for their ability to be involved in the local community, and it is hoped that the area will evolve into a hotspot for creativity and design.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 26104093, 3088252, 23711165, 17160070, 33181658, 21189651, 37186553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 64 ], [ 84, 105 ], [ 215, 231 ], [ 240, 272 ], [ 274, 293 ], [ 298, 321 ], [ 649, 677 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus has developed in stages, from the Viking Age to modern times, all visible in the city today. Many architectural styles are represented in different parts of the city such as Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, National Romantic, Nordic Classicism, Neoclassical, Empire and Functionalism. The city has developed around the main transport hubs - the river, the harbour, and later the railway station -, and as a result, the oldest parts are also the most central and busiest today.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cityscape", "target_page_ids": [ 52686, 54044, 25532, 3957, 36886, 5645353, 7999544, 2682331, 1727363, 568755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 191 ], [ 193, 199 ], [ 201, 212 ], [ 214, 221 ], [ 223, 229 ], [ 231, 248 ], [ 250, 267 ], [ 269, 281 ], [ 283, 289 ], [ 294, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The streets of Volden (The Rampart) and Graven (The Moat) testify to the defences of the initial Viking town, and Allégaderingen in Midtbyen roughly follows the boundaries of that settlement. The street network in the inner city formed during the Middle Ages with narrow, curved streets and low, dense housing by the river and the coast. Vesterport (Westward Gate) still bears the name of the medieval city gate and the narrow alleyways Posthussmøgen and Telefonsmøgen are remnants of toll stations from that time. The inner city has the oldest preserved buildings, especially the Latin Quarter, with houses dating back to the early 17thcentury in Mejlgade and Skolegade. Medieval merchants' mansions with courtyards can be seen in Klostergade, Studsgade and Skolegade. By far, the largest part of the present-day city was built during and after the industrialization of the late 1800s, and the most represented architectural styles today are historicism and modernism, especially the subgenre of Danish functionalism of which there are many fine examples. The building boom of the 2000s has imprinted itself on Aarhus with a redeveloped harbourfront, many new neighbourhoods (also in the inner city), and a revitalized public space. It is also beginning to change the skyline with several dominating high-rises.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cityscape", "target_page_ids": [ 52777089, 52557626, 17374081, 17374081, 17478190, 49287677, 49460470, 49455355, 49443252, 14317754, 2387013, 568755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 21 ], [ 40, 46 ], [ 132, 140 ], [ 218, 228 ], [ 581, 594 ], [ 648, 656 ], [ 661, 670 ], [ 732, 743 ], [ 745, 754 ], [ 943, 954 ], [ 959, 968 ], [ 997, 1017 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In recent years, Aarhus has experienced a large demand in housing and offices, spurring a construction boom in some parts of the city. The newly built city district of Aarhus Ø, formerly docklands where shipping houses major housing developments, mostly consisting of privately owned apartments, designed by architects such as, CEBRA, and JDS Architects. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cityscape", "target_page_ids": [ 30886529, 22722596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 328, 333 ], [ 339, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2nd quarter of 2012, the population of the area stood at only 5, however that number had risen to 3,940 by October 2019.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cityscape", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The main public transportation service is bus line 23, as well as train station Østbanetorvet. In addition to this, the area will be serviced by the light rail line, Aarhus Letbane.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cityscape", "target_page_ids": [ 35790174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus Cathedral (Århus Domkirke) in the centre of Aarhus, is the longest and tallest church in Denmark at and in length and height respectively. Originally built as a Romanesque basilica in the 13thcentury, it was rebuilt and enlarged as a Gothic cathedral in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Even though the cathedral stood finished around 1300, it took more than a century to build; the associated cathedral school of Aarhus Katedralskole was already founded in 1195 and ranks as the 44th oldest school in the world. Another important and historic landmark in the inner city, is the Church of Our Lady (Vor Frue Kirke) also from the 13thcentury in Romanesque and Gothic style. It is smaller and less impressive, but it was the first cathedral of Aarhus and founded on an even older church constructed in 1060; the oldest stone church in Scandinavia. Langelandsgade Kaserne in National Romantic Style from 1889 is the oldest former military barracks left in the country; home to the university Department of Aesthetics and Communication since 1989.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cityscape", "target_page_ids": [ 2250358, 52686, 54044, 43360603, 13338475, 4504235, 47342558, 5645353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 170, 180 ], [ 243, 249 ], [ 430, 450 ], [ 496, 527 ], [ 595, 613 ], [ 862, 884 ], [ 888, 911 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marselisborg Palace (Marselisborg Slot), designed by Hack Kampmann in Neoclassical and Art Nouveau styles, was donated by the city to Prince Christian and Princess Alexandrine as a wedding present in 1898. The Aarhus Custom House (Toldkammeret) from 1898, is said to be Hack Kampmann's finest work.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cityscape", "target_page_ids": [ 5442305, 3235837, 2682331, 59551, 72708, 793946, 43335389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 53, 66 ], [ 70, 82 ], [ 87, 98 ], [ 134, 150 ], [ 155, 175 ], [ 210, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tivoli Friheden (Tivoli Freedom) opened in 1903 and has since been the largest amusement park in the city and a tourist attraction. Aarhus Theatre from 1916 in the Art Nouveau style is the largest provincial theatre in Denmark. The early buildings of Aarhus University, especially the main building completed in 1932, designed by Kay Fisker, Povl Stegmann and by C.F. Møller have gained an international reputation for their contribution to functionalist architecture. The City Hall (Aarhus Rådhus) from 1941 with an iconic tower clad in marble, was designed by Arne Jacobsen and Erik Møller in a modern Functionalist style.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cityscape", "target_page_ids": [ 13616884, 3236422, 401280, 23533888, 38244841, 17938608, 568755, 4518084, 86768, 21958385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 132, 146 ], [ 251, 268 ], [ 330, 340 ], [ 342, 355 ], [ 363, 374 ], [ 441, 467 ], [ 473, 482 ], [ 563, 576 ], [ 581, 592 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus is home to many annual cultural events and festivals, museums, theatres, and sports events of both national and international importance, and presents some of the largest cultural attractions in Denmark. There is a long tradition in music of all genres and many Danish bands, have emerged from Aarhus. Libraries, cultural centres and educational institutions present free or easy opportunities for the citizens to participate in, engage in, or be creative with cultural events and productions of all kinds.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1938, Aarhus has marketed itself as Smilets by (City of smiles) which has become both an informal moniker and official slogan. In 2011, the city council opted to change the slogan to \"Aarhus. Danish for Progress\" but it was unpopular and abandoned after just a few years. Other slogans that have occasionally been used are Byen ved havet (City by the sea), Mellem bugt og bøgeskov (Between bay and beechwood) and Verdens mindste storby (World's smallest big city). Aarhus is featured in popular songs such as Hjem til Aarhus by På Slaget 12, Lav sol over Aarhus by Gnags, 8000 Aarhus C by Flemming Jørgensen, Pigen ud af Aarhus by Tina Dickow and Slingrer ned ad Vestergade by Gnags. In 1919, the number Sangen til Aarhus (Song to Aarhus) had become a popular hit for a time, but the oldest and perhaps best known \"national anthem\" for the city is the classical Aarhus Tappenstreg from 1872 by Carl Christian Møller which is occasionally played at official events or at performances by local marching bands and orchestras.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 51713998, 18463102, 30271755, 4340603, 18463102, 52736286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 534, 546 ], [ 571, 576 ], [ 595, 613 ], [ 637, 648 ], [ 683, 688 ], [ 900, 921 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus has a range of museums, including two of the largest in the country, measured by the number of paying guests, Den Gamle By and ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum. Den Gamle By (The Old Town), officially Danmarks Købstadmuseum (Denmark's Market Town Museum), presents Danish townscapes from the 16thcentury to the 1970s with individual areas focused on different time periods. 75 historic buildings collected from different parts of the country have been brought here to create a small town in its own right.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 32836503, 4638188, 4744346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 59 ], [ 117, 129 ], [ 134, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, the city's main art museum, is one of the largest art museums in Scandinavia with a collection covering Danish art from the 18thcentury to the present day as well as paintings, installations and sculptures representing international art movements and artists from all over the world. The iconic glass structure on the roof, Your Rainbow Panorama, was designed by Olafur Eliasson and features a promenade offering a colourful panorama of the city.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 228568, 2376660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 258, 270 ], [ 388, 403 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Moesgård Museum specialises in archaeology and ethnography in collaboration with Aarhus University with exhibits on Denmark's prehistory, including weapon sacrifices from Illerup Ådal and the Grauballe Man. Kvindemuseet, the Women's Museum, from 1984 contains collections of the lives and works of women in Danish cultural history. The Occupation Museum (Besættelsesmuseum) presents exhibits illustrating the German occupation of the city during the Second World War; the University Park on the campus of Aarhus University includes the Natural History Museum with 5,000 species of animals, many in their natural surroundings; and the Steno Museum is a museum of the history of science and medicine with a planetarium. Kunsthal Aarhus (Aarhus Art Hall) hosts exhibitions of contemporary art including painting, sculpture, photography, performance art, film and video. Strictly speaking it is not a museum but an arts centre, and one of the oldest in Europe, built and founded in 1917.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 15039023, 18951655, 152626, 18994022, 23798480, 4435807, 12784368, 47756126, 276438, 32927, 401280, 47745849, 44038891, 14400, 14194, 60548, 11042211, 2601548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 35, 46 ], [ 51, 62 ], [ 130, 140 ], [ 175, 187 ], [ 196, 209 ], [ 211, 223 ], [ 340, 357 ], [ 413, 430 ], [ 454, 470 ], [ 509, 526 ], [ 540, 562 ], [ 638, 650 ], [ 670, 688 ], [ 693, 701 ], [ 709, 720 ], [ 722, 737 ], [ 915, 926 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Public libraries in Denmark are also cultural and community centres. They play an active role in cultural life and host many events, exhibitions, discussion groups, workshops, educational courses and facilitate everyday cultural activities for and by the citizens. In June 2015, the large central library and cultural centre of Dokk1 opened at the harbour front. Dokk1 also includes civil administrations and services, commercial office rentals and a large underground robotic car park and aims to be a landmark for the city and a public meeting place. The building of Dokk1 and the associated squares and streetscape is also collectively known as Urban Mediaspace Aarhus and it is the largest construction project Aarhus municipality has yet undertaken. Apart from this large main library, some neighbourhoods in Aarhus have a local library engaged in similar cultural and educational activities, but on a more local scale.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 182010, 49374492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 328, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The State Library (Statsbiblioteket) at the university campus has status of a national library. The city is a member of the ICORN organisation (International Cities of Refuge Network) in an effort to provide a safe haven to authors and writers persecuted in their countries of origin.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 49477812, 847835, 48171977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 78, 94 ], [ 144, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are several cultural and community centres throughout the city. This includes Folkestedet in the central Åparken, facilitating events for and by non-commercial associations, organisations and clubs, and activities for the elderly, the nearby Godsbanen at the railway yard, with workshops, events and exhibitions, and Globus1 in Brabrand facilitating sports and various cultural activities.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 47699999, 37186553, 892565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 118 ], [ 248, 257 ], [ 334, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city enjoys strong musical traditions, both classical and alternative, underground and popular, with educational and performance institutions such as the concert halls of Musikhuset, the opera of Den Jyske Opera, Aarhus Symfoniorkester (Aarhus Symphony Orchestra) and Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium (Royal Academy of Music, Aarhus/Aalborg). Musikhuset is the largest concert hall in Scandinavia, with seating for more than 3,600 people. Other major music venues include VoxHall, rebuilt in 1999, and the associated venue of Atlas, Train nightclub at the harbourfront, and Godsbanen, a former rail freight station.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 43405863, 43407698, 43448807, 19902993, 37186553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 185 ], [ 200, 215 ], [ 217, 239 ], [ 272, 301 ], [ 575, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The acting scene in Aarhus is diverse, with many groups and venues engaged in a broad span of genres, from animation theatre and children's theatre to classical theatre and improvisational theatre. Aarhus Teater is the oldest and largest venue with mostly professional classical acting performances. Svalegangen, the second largest theatre, is more experimental with its performances and other notable groups and venues includes EntréScenen, Katapult, Gruppe 38, Helsingør Teater, Det Andet Teater and Teater Refleksion as well as dance venues like Bora Bora. The cultural center of Godsbanen includes several scenes and stages and the Concert Halls of Musikhuset also stage theatrical plays regularly and is home to the children's theatre Filuren and a comedy club. The city hosts a biannual international theatre festival, International Living Theatre (ILT), with the next event being scheduled for 2021.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 156593, 20913771, 2032, 15041, 7885, 37186553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 124 ], [ 129, 147 ], [ 151, 168 ], [ 173, 196 ], [ 531, 536 ], [ 583, 592 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 2010 the music production centre of PROMUS (Produktionscentret for Rytmisk Musik) has supported the rock scene in the city along with the publicly funded ROSA (Dansk Rock Samråd), which promotes Danish rock music in general.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus is known for its musical history. Fuelled by a relatively young population jazz clubs sprang up in the 1950s which became a tour stop for many iconic American Jazz musicians. By the 1960s, the music scene diversified into rock and other genres and in the 1970s and 1980s, Aarhus became a centre for rock music, fostering iconic bands such as Kliché, TV-2 and Gnags and artists such as Thomas Helmig and Anne Linnet. Acclaimed bands since the 1970s include Under Byen, Michael Learns to Rock, Nephew, Carpark North, Spleen United, VETO, Hatesphere and Illdisposed in addition to individual performers such as Medina and Tina Dico.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 15613, 4717240, 2931050, 18463102, 18048123, 3086457, 9367120, 904878, 7654910, 3986610, 5411934, 16588962, 2955032, 2353683, 24642416, 4340603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 86 ], [ 349, 355 ], [ 357, 361 ], [ 366, 371 ], [ 392, 405 ], [ 410, 421 ], [ 463, 473 ], [ 475, 497 ], [ 499, 505 ], [ 507, 520 ], [ 522, 535 ], [ 537, 541 ], [ 543, 553 ], [ 558, 569 ], [ 615, 621 ], [ 626, 635 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus hosts many annual or recurring festivals, concerts and events, with the festival of Aarhus Festuge as the most popular and wide-ranging, along with large sports events. Aarhus Festuge is the largest multicultural festival in Scandinavia, always based on a special theme and takes place every year for ten days between late August and early September, transforming the inner city with festive activities and decorations of all kinds.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 4640060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are numerous music festivals; the eight-day Aarhus Jazz Festival features jazz in many venues across the city. It was founded in 1988 and usually takes place in July every year, occasionally August or September. There are several annually recurring music festivals for contemporary popular music in Aarhus. NorthSide Festival presents well-known bands every year in mid-June on large outdoor scenes. It is a relatively new event, founded in 2010, but grew from a one-day event to a three-day festival in its first three years, now with 35,000 paying guests in 2015. Spot festival is aiming to showcase up-and-coming Danish and Scandinavian talents at selected venues of the inner city. The outdoor Grøn Koncert music festival takes place every year in many cities across Denmark, including Aarhus. Danmarks grimmeste festival (lit. Denmark's ugliest Festival) is a small summer music festival held in Skjoldhøjkilen, Brabrand.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 43457376, 34324601, 3739936, 23608992, 2926767, 40069963, 892565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 70 ], [ 313, 331 ], [ 572, 585 ], [ 704, 716 ], [ 804, 831 ], [ 907, 921 ], [ 923, 931 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus also hosts recurring events dedicated to specific art genres. International Living Theatre (ILT) is a bi-annual festival, established in 2009, with performing arts and stage art on a broad scale. The festival has a vision of showing the best plays and stage art experiences of the world, while at the same time attracting thespians and stage art interested people from both Aarhus and Europe at large. LiteratureXchange is a new annual festival from 2018, focused on literature from around the world as well as regional talents. The city actively promotes its gay and lesbian community and celebrates the annual Aarhus Pride gay pride festival while Aarhus Festuge usually includes exhibits, concerts and events designed for the LGBT communities.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 22938, 66936, 51715507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 170 ], [ 567, 582 ], [ 619, 631 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notable events of a local scope include the university boat-race, held in the University Park since 1991, which has become a local spectator event attracting some 20,000 people. The boat race pits costumed teams from the university departments against each other in inflatable boats in a challenge to win the Gyldne Bækken (Golden Chamber Pot) trophy. The annual lighting of the Christmas lights on the Salling department store in Søndergade has also become an attraction in recent times, packing the pedestrianised city centre with thousands of revellers. Significant dates such as Saint Lucy's Day, Sankt Hans (Saint John's Eve) and Fastelavn are traditionally celebrated with numerous events across the city.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 401280, 20962031, 52649818, 1299530, 474728, 7668289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 54 ], [ 403, 410 ], [ 431, 441 ], [ 583, 599 ], [ 613, 629 ], [ 635, 644 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The beech forests of Riis Skov and Marselisborg occupy the hills along the coast to the north and south, and apart from the city centre, sandy beaches form the coastline of the entire municipality. There are two public sea baths, the northern Den Permanente below Riis Skov and close to the harbour area, and the southern Ballehage Beach in the Marselisborg Forests. As in most of Denmark, there are no private beaches in the municipality, but access to Den Permanente requires a membership, except in the summer.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 26150633, 40705174, 12781720, 52147769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 30 ], [ 35, 47 ], [ 243, 257 ], [ 322, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The relatively mild, temperate marine climate, allows for outdoor recreation year round, including walking, hiking, cycling, and outdoor team sports. Mountain biking is usually restricted to marked routes. Watersports like sailing, kayaking, motor boating, etc. are also popular, and since the bay rarely freezes up in winter, they can also be practised most of the year. Recreational and transportational pathways for pedestrians and cyclists, radiate from the city centre to the countryside, providing safety from motorised vehicles and a more tranquil experience. This includes the 19 kilometre long pathway of Brabrandstien, encircling the Brabrand Lake. The long-range hiking route Aarhus-Silkeborg, starts off from Brabrandstien.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 40096356, 144277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 644, 657 ], [ 694, 703 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus has an unusually high number of parks and green spaces, 134 of them, covering a total area of around . The central Botanical Gardens (Botanisk Have) from 1875 are a popular destination, as they include The Old Town open-air museum and host a number of events throughout the year. Originally used to cultivate fruit trees and other useful plants for the local citizens, there are now a significant collection of trees and bushes from different habitats and regions of the world, including a section devoted to native Danish plants. Recently renovated tropical and subtropical greenhouses, exhibit exotic plants from throughout the world. Also in the city centre is the undulating University Park, recognised for its unique landscaped design with large old oak trees. The Memorial Park (Mindeparken) at the coast below Marselisborg Palace, offers a panoramic view across the Bay of Aarhus and is popular with locals for outings, picnics or events. Other notable parks include the small central City Hall Park (Rådhusparken) and Marienlyst Park (Marienlystparken). Marienlyst Park is a relatively new park from 1988, situated in Hasle out of the inner city and is less crowded, but it is the largest park in Aarhus, including woodlands, large open grasslands and soccer fields.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 17854334, 4638188, 47716433, 40690198, 47338856, 47703109, 52109134, 15039951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 139 ], [ 209, 221 ], [ 686, 701 ], [ 777, 790 ], [ 880, 893 ], [ 999, 1013 ], [ 1033, 1048 ], [ 1133, 1138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marselisborg Forests and Riis Skov, has a long history of recreational activities of all kinds, including several restaurants, hotels and opportunities for green exercise. There are marked routes here for jogging, running and mountain biking and large events are hosted regularly. This includes running events, cycle racing and orienteering, the annual Classic Race Aarhus with historic racing cars, all attracting thousands of people. Marselisborg Deer Park (Marselisborg Dyrehave) in Marselisborg Forests, comprises of fenced woodland pastures with free-roaming sika and roe deer. Below the Moesgård Museum in the southern parts of the Marselisborg Forests, is a large historical landscape of pastures and woodlands, presenting different eras of Denmark's prehistory. Sections of the forest comprise trees and vegetation representing specific climatic epochs from the last Ice Age to the present. Dotted across the landscape are reconstructed Stone Age and Bronze Age graves, buildings from the Iron Age, Viking Age and medieval times, with grazing goats, sheep and horses in between.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 17077895, 857311, 22520, 40709753, 372787, 274788, 15039023, 20930890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 170 ], [ 311, 323 ], [ 328, 340 ], [ 436, 458 ], [ 565, 569 ], [ 574, 582 ], [ 594, 609 ], [ 871, 883 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus has a large variety of restaurants and eateries offering food from cultures all over the world, especially Mediterranean and Asian, but also international gourmet cuisine, traditional Danish food and New Nordic Cuisine. Among the oldest restaurants are Rådhuscafeen (lit. The City Hall Café), opened in 1924, serving a menu of traditional Danish meals, and Peter Gift from 1906, a tavern with a broad beer selection and a menu of smørrebrød and other Danish dishes. In Aarhus, New Nordic can be experienced at Kähler Villa Dining, Hærværk and Domestic, but local produce can be had at many places, especially at the twice-weekly food markets in Frederiksbjerg. Aarhus and Central Denmark Region was selected as European Region of Gastronomy in 2017. The city (and municipality) is a member of the Délice Network, an international non-profit organization nurturing and facilitating knowledge exchange in gastronomy.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 488597, 34054697, 1945997, 2521480, 63787254, 1071756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 202 ], [ 207, 225 ], [ 437, 447 ], [ 679, 701 ], [ 718, 747 ], [ 910, 920 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Appraised high-end restaurants serving international gourmet cuisine include Frederikshøj, Substans, Gastromé, Det Glade Vanvid, Nordisk Spisehus, Restaurant Varna, Restaurant ET, Gäst, Brasserie Belli, Møf and Pondus, all considered among the best places to eat in Denmark. Restaurants in Aarhus were the first in provincial Denmark to receive Michelin stars since 2015, when Michelin inspectors ventured outside Copenhagen for the first time.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2036409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 345, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vendors of street food are numerous throughout the centre, often selling from small trailers on permanent locations formally known as Pølsevogne (lit. sausage wagons), traditionally serving a Danish variety of hot dogs, sausages and other fast food. There are increasingly more outlets inspired by other cultural flavours such as sushi, kebab and currywurst.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2437826, 192368, 28271, 877704, 1692047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 143 ], [ 210, 217 ], [ 330, 335 ], [ 337, 342 ], [ 347, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city centre is packed with cafés, especially along the river and the Latin quarter. Some of them also include an evening restaurant, such as Café Casablanca, Café Carlton, Café Cross and Gyngen. Aarhus Street Food and Aarhus Central Food Market are two indoor food courts from 2016 in the city centre, comprising a variety of street food restaurants, cafés and bars.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 17478190, 13465541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 86 ], [ 264, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus has a robust and diverse nightlife. The action tends to concentrate in the inner city, with the pedestrianised riverside, Frederiksgade, the Latin Quarter, and Jægergårdsgade on Frederiksbjerg as the most active centres at night, but things are stirring elsewhere around the city too. The nightlife scene offers everything from small joints with cheap alcohol and a homely atmosphere to fashionable nightclubs serving champagne and cocktails or small and large music venues with bars, dance floors and lounges. A short selection of well-established places where you can have a drink and socialise, include the fashionable lounge and night club of Kupé at the harbourfront, the relaxed Ris Ras Filliongongong offering waterpipes and an award-winning beer selection, Fatter Eskild with a broad selection of Danish bands playing mostly blues and rock, the wine and book café of Løve's in Nørregade, Sherlock Holmes, a British-style pub with live music and the brew pub of Sct. Clemens with A Hereford Beefstouw restaurant across the cathedral. A few nightlife spots are aimed at gays and lesbians specifically, including Gbar (nightclub) and Café Sappho.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 168176, 5654394, 370815, 24578, 362355, 40018540, 19321330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 725, 735 ], [ 861, 865 ], [ 870, 879 ], [ 937, 940 ], [ 965, 973 ], [ 995, 1015 ], [ 1132, 1141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Århus Set (Danish: Århus Sæt) is a set of drinks often ordered together, named for the city and consisting of two beverages, one Ceres Top beer and one shot Arnbitter, both originally from Aarhus. Ordering \"a set\" suffices in most bars and pubs. Aarhus Bryghus is a local craft brewery with a sizeable production. The brewery is located in the southern district of Viby and a large variety of their craft brews are available there, in most larger well-assorted stores in the city, and in some bars and restaurants as well. They also export.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 8227, 6796, 49541144, 362355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 21 ], [ 133, 142 ], [ 161, 170 ], [ 276, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Aarhus dialect, commonly called Aarhusiansk (Aarhusian in English), is a Jutlandic dialect in the Mid-Eastern Jutland dialect area, traditionally spoken in and around Aarhus. Aarhusian, as with most local dialects in Denmark, has diminished in use through the 20th century and most Danes today speak some version of Standard Danish with slight regional features. Aarhusian, however, still has a strong presence in older segments of the population and in areas with high numbers of immigrants, surprisingly. Some examples of common, traditional and unique Aarhusian words are: træls (tiresome), noller (silly or dumb) and dælme (Excl. damn me). The dialect is notable for single-syllable words ending in \"d\" being pronounced with stød while the same letter in multiple-syllable words is pronounced as \"j\", i.e., Odder is pronounced \"Ojjer\". Like other dialects in East Jutland, it has two grammatical genders, similar to Standard Danish, but different from West Jutlandic dialects, which have only one. In 2009, the University of Aarhus compiled a list of contemporary public figures who best exemplify the dialect, including Jacob Haugaard, Thomas Helmig, Steffen Brandt, Stig Tøfting, Flemming Jørgensen, Tina Dickow and Camilla Martin. In popular culture, the dialect features prominently in Niels Malmros's movie Aarhus by Night and in 90s comedy sketches by Jacob Haugaard and Finn Nørbygaard.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1343808, 14566123, 44836, 2832874, 144269, 13068, 22256708, 18048123, 22492843, 3485943, 30271755, 4340603, 927477, 10235881, 51714235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 94 ], [ 102, 134 ], [ 632, 636 ], [ 733, 737 ], [ 815, 820 ], [ 892, 910 ], [ 1129, 1143 ], [ 1145, 1158 ], [ 1160, 1174 ], [ 1176, 1188 ], [ 1190, 1208 ], [ 1210, 1221 ], [ 1226, 1240 ], [ 1298, 1311 ], [ 1385, 1400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus has three major men's professional sports teams: the Superliga team Aarhus Gymnastikforening (AGF), Danish Handball League's Aarhus GF Håndbold, and Danish Basketball League's Bakken Bears. Notable or historic clubs include Aarhus 1900, Aarhus Fremad, Idrætsklubben Skovbakken and Aarhus Sejlklub. Aarhus Idrætspark has hosted matches in the premiere Danish soccer league since it was formed in 1920 and matches for the national men's soccer team in 2006 and 2007. The five sailing clubs routinely win national and international titles in a range of disciplines and the future national watersports stadium will be located on the Aarhus Docklands in the city centre. The Bakken Bears have most recently won the Danish basketball championships in 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 1984091, 2094707, 17691289, 44566629, 35179632, 14190585, 15727078, 4442093, 18209220, 47588925, 64366015, 17795634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 74 ], [ 75, 99 ], [ 107, 129 ], [ 132, 150 ], [ 156, 180 ], [ 183, 195 ], [ 231, 242 ], [ 244, 257 ], [ 259, 283 ], [ 288, 303 ], [ 305, 322 ], [ 636, 652 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The municipality actively supports sports organisations in and around the city, providing public organisations that aim to attract major sporting events and strengthen professional sports. The National Olympic Committee and Sports Confederation of Denmark counts some 380 sports organisations within the municipality and about one third of the population are members of one. Soccer is by far the most popular sport followed by Gymnastics, Handball and Badminton.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 25045537, 12551, 13730, 3956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 255 ], [ 427, 437 ], [ 439, 447 ], [ 452, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In recent decades, many free and public sports facilities have sprung up across the city, such as street football, basketball, climbing walls, skateboarding and beach volley. Several natural sites also offer green exercise, with exercise equipment installed along the paths and tracks reserved for mountain biking. The newly reconstructed area of Skjoldhøjkilen is a prime example.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 1101673, 42766, 28027, 224587, 17077895, 188773, 40069963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 113 ], [ 127, 140 ], [ 143, 156 ], [ 161, 173 ], [ 208, 222 ], [ 298, 313 ], [ 347, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus has hosted many sporting events including the 2010 European Women's Handball Championship, the 2014 European Men's Handball Championship, the 2013 Men's European Volleyball Championships, the 2005 European Table Tennis Championships, the Denmark Open in badminton, the UCI Women's Road Cycling World Cup, the 2006 World Orienteering Championships, the 2006 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships and the GF World Cup (women's handball). On average, Aarhus is hosting one or two international sailing competitions every year. In 2008, the city hosted the ISAF Youth Sailing World Championships and in 2018 it was host to the ISAF Sailing World Championships, the world championship for the 12 Olympic sailing disciplines. Aarhus is an important qualifier for the 2020 Olympics.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 22108228, 29019372, 51694909, 23861306, 3984493, 3956, 400658, 1863658, 4207525, 7589083, 23602887, 33873503, 13076941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 96 ], [ 102, 143 ], [ 149, 193 ], [ 204, 239 ], [ 245, 257 ], [ 261, 270 ], [ 276, 279 ], [ 280, 310 ], [ 321, 353 ], [ 359, 403 ], [ 412, 424 ], [ 562, 600 ], [ 632, 664 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus is the principal centre for education in the Jutland region. It draws students from a large area, especially from the western and southern parts of the peninsula. The relatively large influx of young people and students creates a natural base for cultural activities. Aarhus has the greatest concentration of students in Denmark, fully 12% of citizens attending short, medium or long courses of study. In addition to around 25 institutions of higher education, several research forums have evolved to assist in the transfer of expertise from education to business. The city is home to more than 52,000 students.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since 2012, Aarhus University (AU) has been the largest university in Denmark by number of students enrolled. It is ranked among the top 100 universities in the world by several of the most influential and respected rankings. The university has approximately 41,500 Bachelor and Master students enrolled as well as about 1,500 PhD students. It is possible to engage in higher academic studies in many areas, from the traditional spheres of natural science, humanities and theology to more vocational academic areas like engineering and dentistry.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 401280, 448834, 188874, 170346, 38890, 53132, 8005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 29 ], [ 116, 122 ], [ 266, 274 ], [ 279, 285 ], [ 440, 455 ], [ 457, 467 ], [ 536, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus Tech is one of the largest technical colleges in Denmark, teaching undergraduate study programmes in English, including vocational education and training (VET), continuing vocational training (CVT), and human resource development. Business Academy Aarhus is among the largest business academies in Denmark and offers undergraduate and some academic degrees, in IT, business and technical fields. The academic level technical aspects are covered in a collaboration with Aarhus Tech, Aarhus School of Marine and Technical Engineering and Aarhus Educational Centre for Agriculture. The Danish School of Media and Journalism (DMJX) is the oldest and largest of the colleges, offering journalism courses since 1946, with approximately 1,700 students as of 2014. DMJX has been an independent institution since 1974, conducting research and teaching at undergraduate level, and in 2004, master's courses in journalism was established in a collaboration with Aarhus University. The latter is offered through the Centre for University studies in Journalism, granting degrees through the university.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 27321709, 56551, 19842905, 47666443, 36674345, 47664452, 47667218, 46523147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 127, 160 ], [ 210, 236 ], [ 238, 261 ], [ 368, 370 ], [ 489, 538 ], [ 543, 584 ], [ 590, 627 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Royal Academy of Music in Aarhus (Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium) is a conservatoire, established under the auspices of the Danish Ministry of Culture in 1927. In 2010, it merged administratively with the Royal Academy of Music in Aalborg, which was founded in 1930. Under the patronage of His Royal Highness Crown Prince Frederik, it offers graduate level studies in areas such as music teaching, and solo and professional musicianship. VIA University College was established in January 2008 and is one of eight new regional organisations offering bachelor courses of all kinds, throughout the Central Denmark Region. It offers over 50 higher educations, taught in Danish or sometimes in English, with vocational education and it participates in various research and development projects. Aarhus School of Architecture (Arkitektskolen Aarhus) was founded in 1965. Along with the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts of Copenhagen, it is responsible for the education of architects in Denmark. With an enrolment of approximately 900 students, it teaches in five main departments: architecture and aesthetics, urban and landscape, architectonic heritage, design and architectural design. Also of note is KaosPilots and several other higher education centres.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 19902993, 24782280, 25915224, 339155, 24070376, 188874, 2521480, 26104093, 2523193, 28430232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 36 ], [ 74, 87 ], [ 127, 153 ], [ 312, 333 ], [ 441, 463 ], [ 552, 560 ], [ 598, 620 ], [ 793, 822 ], [ 883, 916 ], [ 1203, 1213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus has two ring roads; Ring 1, roughly encircling the central district of Aarhus C, and the outlying Ring 2. Six major intercity motorways radiate from the city centre, connecting with nearby cities Grenå, Randers, Viborg, Silkeborg, Skanderborg and Odder.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 51922, 47608407, 47608466, 23736246, 6698240, 930548, 144277, 144278, 144269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 24 ], [ 27, 33 ], [ 105, 111 ], [ 203, 208 ], [ 210, 217 ], [ 219, 225 ], [ 227, 236 ], [ 238, 249 ], [ 254, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the inner city, motorised traffic is highly regulated, larger parts are pedestrianised and in the 2000s, a system of roads prioritised for cyclists have been implemented, connecting to suburban areas.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The main railway station in Aarhus is Aarhus Central Station located in the city centre. DSB has connections to destinations throughout Denmark and also services to Flensburg and Hamburg in Germany.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 17316396, 287088, 88374, 13467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 60 ], [ 89, 92 ], [ 165, 174 ], [ 179, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus Letbane is a local electric light rail or tram system that opened in December 2017, connecting the central station and the inner city with the University Hospital in Skejby and also replaced local railway services to Grenaa and Odder in late 2018. It is the first electric light rail system in Denmark and more routes are planned to open in coming years. Tickets for the light rail are also available in local yellow bus lines.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 35790174, 50943, 30733, 23736246, 144269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 35, 45 ], [ 49, 53 ], [ 224, 230 ], [ 235, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most city bus lines go through the inner city and pass through either Park Allé or Banegårdspladsen, or both, right at the central station. Regional and Inter-city buses terminate at Aarhus Bus Terminal, just east of the central station. FlixBus provides long-distance buses that travel to other cities in Denmark and Europe.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 49688422, 52793467, 48082827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 79 ], [ 83, 99 ], [ 238, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ferries administered by Danish ferry company Mols-Linien transports passengers and motorvehicles between Aarhus and Sjællands Odde on Zealand. The ferries comprises HSC KatExpress 1 and HSC KatExpress 2, the world's largest diesel-powered catamarans, and HSC Max Mols.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 2348862, 24056028, 47914, 31260931, 46711710, 195952, 27887626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 56 ], [ 116, 130 ], [ 134, 141 ], [ 165, 181 ], [ 186, 202 ], [ 239, 248 ], [ 255, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus Airport is located on Djursland, north-east of Aarhus near Tirstrup, and provides links to both Copenhagen and international destinations. The larger Billund Airport is situated south-west of Aarhus. There has been much discussion about constructing a new airport closer to the city for many years, but so far no plans have been realised. In August 2014, the city council officially initiated a process to assert the viability of a new international airport. A small seaplane now operates four flights daily between Aarhus harbour and Copenhagen harbour.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 774675, 23814228, 1904249, 291731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 67, 75 ], [ 158, 173 ], [ 476, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus has a free bike sharing system, Aarhus Bycykler (Aarhus City Bikes). The bicycles are available from 1 April to 30 October at 57 stands throughout the city and can be obtained by placing a DKK 20 coin in a release slot, like caddies in a supermarket. The coin can be retrieved when the bike is returned at a random stand. Bicycles can also be hired from many shops.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transport", "target_page_ids": [ 47598533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus is home to Aarhus University Hospital, one of six Danish \"Super Hospitals\" officially established in 2007 when the regions reformed the Danish healthcare sector. The university hospital is the result of a series of mergers in the 2000s between the local hospitals of Skejby Sygehus, the Municipal Hospital, the County Hospital, Marselisborg Hospital and Risskov Psychiatric Hospital. It is today the largest hospital in Denmark with a combined staff of some 10,000 and 1,150 patient beds, and has been ranked the best hospital in Denmark consecutively since 2008. In 2012, construction of a new large hospital building began, known as Det Nye Universitetshospital (DNU) or The New University Hospital in English, and it is centralising and accommodating all of the former departments, ending in 2019. The new hospital is divided in four clinical centres, a service centre and one administrative unit along with twelve research centres.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Healthcare", "target_page_ids": [ 40939631, 2522192, 2533976, 49802259, 49868987, 50283939, 49254157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 44 ], [ 118, 129 ], [ 274, 288 ], [ 294, 312 ], [ 318, 333 ], [ 335, 356 ], [ 361, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Private hospitals specialised in different areas from plastic surgery to fertility treatments operate in Aarhus as well. Ciconia Aarhus Private Hospital founded in 1984 is a leading Danish fertility clinic and the first of its kind in Denmark. Ciconia has provided for the birth of 6,000 children by artificial insemination and continually conducts research into the field of fertility. Aagaard Clinic, established in 2004, is another private fertility and gynaecology clinic which since 2004 has undertaken fertility treatments that has resulted in 1550 births. Aarhus Municipality also offers a number of specialised services in the areas of nutrition, exercise, sex, smoking and drinking, activities for the elderly, health courses and lifestyle.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Healthcare", "target_page_ids": [ 52967, 2014377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 457, 468 ], [ 563, 582 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first daily newspaper to appear in Aarhus was Århus Stiftstidende, established in 1794 as Aarhuus Stifts Adresse-Contoirs Tidender, with a moderately conservative approach. Once one of Denmark's largest, it was a leading provincial newspaper for a time, but after the Second World War it increasingly faced competition from Demokraten (1884–1974) and Jyllands-Posten, both published in Aarhus. In 1998, it merged with Randers Amtsavis and is now run by Midtjyske Medier, part of Berlingske Media. The daily newspaper of Jyllands-Posten was established in 1871 in Aarhus, and takes a generally right-wing editorial approach. With a reputation as a serious news publication, the paper has always included news from Jutland in particular, but somewhat less so since its promotion as a national newspaper in the 1960s. Today it is one of the three bestselling serious newspapers in Denmark, the others being Berlingske and Politiken. Jyllands-Posten publishes JP Aarhus, a section dedicated to news in and around Aarhus, and hosted a free cityguide website from 2010 to 2016. The Copenhagen-based media company of Politiken, also publishes several free local papers once a week in parts of Denmark and Sweden. In Aarhus, they publish a total of five local newspapers; Aarhus Midt, Aarhus Nord, Aarhus Vest, Aarhus Syd and Aarhus Onsdag. Aarhus Onsdag (Aarhus Wednesday) is financed completely by advertisements and available in both paperform and online. It was bought from Århus Stiftstidende in June 2017, but has been published for many years previous.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 33701554, 27668313, 6485029, 3020403, 22235683, 1431148, 287100, 1365643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 69 ], [ 328, 338 ], [ 483, 499 ], [ 524, 539 ], [ 717, 724 ], [ 908, 918 ], [ 923, 932 ], [ 1148, 1165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Danmarks Radio has a large department in Aarhus with over 200 employees. It runs the DR Østjylland radio programme, provides local contributions to DR P4, and produces local regional television programmes. In 1999, TV 2 moved its Jutland headquarters from Randers to Skejby in northern Aarhus. The station broadcasts regional news and current affairs television and radio programmes. Since 2012, it has run its own TV channel, TV 2 Østjylland. Aarhus has its own local TV channel TVAarhus, transmitting since 1984. After an agreement on 1 July 2014, TVAarhus can be watched by 130,000 households in Aarhus, making it the largest cable-transmitted local TV channel in Denmark.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 1500564, 23493214, 334485, 6698240, 596423, 3584142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 148, 153 ], [ 215, 219 ], [ 256, 263 ], [ 267, 273 ], [ 427, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With over 1,700 students, the Danish School of Media and Journalism (Danmarks Medie- og Journalisthøjskole) is the country's largest and oldest school of journalism. The school works closely with Aarhus University, where the first journalism course was established in 1946. In 2004, the two institutions established the Centre for University Studies in Journalism, which offers master's courses.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 46523147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus is home to 32 consulates:", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus practices twinning on the municipal level. For the twin towns, see twin towns of Aarhus Municipality.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1155299, 2014377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 25 ], [ 74, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Publications", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Citations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aarhus Kommune Official municipal and city portal ", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Visit Aarhus Official tourist site", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Aarhus", "Cities_and_towns_in_the_Central_Denmark_Region", "Cities_and_towns_in_Aarhus_Municipality", "Municipal_seats_of_the_Central_Denmark_Region", "Municipal_seats_of_Denmark", "Port_cities_and_towns_in_Denmark", "Viking_Age_populated_places" ]

[ "Arhus", "Århus", "Aarhuus" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The northern cavefish or northern blindfish, Amblyopsis spelaea, is found in caves through Kentucky and southern Indiana. It is listed as a threatened species in the United States and the IUCN lists the species as near threatened.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17685478, 16846, 21883857, 101884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 82 ], [ 91, 99 ], [ 113, 120 ], [ 188, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During a 2013 study of Amblyopsis spelaea, scientists found that the species was divided into two distinct evolutionary lineages: one north of the Ohio River, in Indiana, and one south of the river, in Kentucky. The southern population retained the name A. spelaea and the northern was re-designated Amblyopsis hoosieri in a 2014 paper published in the journal ZooKeys. Neither species is found north of the White River, flowing east to west south of Bedford, Indiana.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22388, 16846, 45189703, 24117210, 427269, 112441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 157 ], [ 202, 210 ], [ 301, 320 ], [ 362, 369 ], [ 409, 420 ], [ 452, 468 ] ] } ]

[ "Amblyopsidae", "Cave_fish", "Fish_of_North_America", "Fish_of_the_United_States", "Fish_described_in_1842", "Taxa_named_by_James_Ellsworth_De_Kay", "Mammoth_Cave_National_Park" ]

[ "Amblyopsis spelaea" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Abatement refers generally to a lessening, diminution, reduction, or moderation; specifically, it may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abatement of debts and legacies, a common law doctrine of wills", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abatement in pleading, a legal defense to civil and criminal actions based purely on procedural and technical issues involving the death of parties", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4343823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abatement (heraldry), a modification of the shield or coat of arms that supposedly can be imposed by authority (in England supposedly by the Court of Chivalry) for misconduct", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 459352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asbestos abatement", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10181586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bird abatement, driving or removing undesired birds from an area", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8871658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dust abatement, the process of inhibiting the creation of excess soil dust, a pollutant that contributes to excess levels of particulate matter", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1766544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Graffiti abatement", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14862149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nuisance abatement", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16551085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abate (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12243320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Noise mitigation, also known as noise abatement", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3550569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tax holiday (or tax abatement) is used in the field of economic development to encourage businesses to relocate, expand, and more currently to retain facilities in a community", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1458816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 421-a tax abatement, a specific tax abatement program for affordable housing in New York City", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 54176504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marginal abatement cost, the marginal cost of reducing pollution", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26127533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "An amateur (; ; ) is generally considered a person who pursues an avocation independent from their source of income. Amateurs and their pursuits are also described as popular, informal, self-taught, user-generated, DIY, and hobbyist.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 15399684, 255591, 3878926, 42719, 13287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 75 ], [ 186, 197 ], [ 199, 213 ], [ 215, 218 ], [ 224, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historically, the amateur was considered to be the ideal balance between pure intent, open mind, and the interest or passion for a subject. That ideology spanned many different fields of interest. It may have its roots in the ancient Greek philosophy of amateur athletes competing in the Olympics. The ancient Greek citizens spent most of their time in other pursuits, but competed according to their natural talents and abilities.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 171171, 579830, 22576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 250 ], [ 254, 270 ], [ 288, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"gentleman amateur\" was a phenomenon among the gentry of Great Britain from the 17th century until the 20th century. With the start of the Age of Reason, with people thinking more about how the world works around them, (see Science in the Age of Enlightenment), things like the Cabinet of Curiosities, and the writing of the book The Christian Virtuoso, started to shape the idea of the gentleman amateur. He was vastly interested in a particular topic, and studied, observed, and collected things and information on his topic of choice. The Royal Society in Great Britain was generally composed of these \"gentleman amateurs\", and is one of the reasons science today exists the way it does. A few examples of these gentleman amateurs are Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, and Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21244171, 31717, 30758, 17912788, 1198160, 17910755, 496064, 11319, 14627, 340359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 57 ], [ 61, 74 ], [ 143, 156 ], [ 228, 263 ], [ 282, 304 ], [ 334, 356 ], [ 546, 559 ], [ 742, 755 ], [ 757, 769 ], [ 775, 820 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amateurism can be seen in both a negative and positive light. Since amateurs often do training and be self-taught, some amateur work may be considered sub-par. For example, amateur athletes in sports such as basketball, baseball, or football are regarded as possessing a lower level of ability than professional athletes. On the other hand, an amateur may be in a position to approach a subject with an open mind (as a result of the lack of formal training) and in a financially disinterested manner. An amateur who dabbles in a field out of interest rather than as a profession, or possesses a general but superficial interest in any art or a branch of knowledge, is often referred to as a dilettante.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3921, 3850, 23976719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 218 ], [ 220, 228 ], [ 233, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Through most of the 20th century the Olympics allowed only amateur athletes to participate and this amateur code was strictly enforced - Jim Thorpe was stripped of track and field medals for having taken expense money for playing baseball in 1912.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Olympics", "target_page_ids": [ 53869, 194904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 147 ], [ 164, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later on, the nations of the Communist bloc entered teams of Olympians who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Olympics", "target_page_ids": [ 97477, 155526, 37338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 43 ], [ 94, 101 ], [ 104, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Near the end of the 1960s, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive against the Soviet team's full-time athletes and the other constantly improving European teams. They pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues but met opposition from the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) and the International Olympic Committee (IOC). At the IIHF Congress in 1969, the IIHF decided to allow Canada to use nine non-NHL professional hockey players at the 1970 World Championships in Montreal and Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The decision was reversed in January 1970 after IOC President Avery Brundage said that ice hockey's status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made. In response, Canada withdrew from all international ice hockey competitions and officials stated that they would not return until \"open competition\" was instituted. Günther Sabetzki became president of the IIHF in 1975 and helped to resolve the dispute with the CAHA. In 1976, the IIHF agreed to allow \"open competition\" between all players in the World Championships. However, NHL players were still not allowed to play in the Olympics, because of the unwillingness of the NHL to take a break mid-season and the IOC's amateur-only policy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Olympics", "target_page_ids": [ 3089758, 16760449, 15147, 7954681, 100730, 18926, 412059, 11595365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 66 ], [ 325, 360 ], [ 376, 407 ], [ 561, 569 ], [ 574, 582 ], [ 584, 592 ], [ 664, 678 ], [ 939, 955 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the 1984 Winter Olympics, a dispute formed over what made a player a professional. The IOC had adopted a rule that made any player who had signed an NHL contract but played less than ten games in the league eligible. However, the United States Olympic Committee maintained that any player contracted with an NHL team was a professional and therefore not eligible to play. The IOC held an emergency meeting that ruled NHL-contracted players were eligible, as long as they had not played in any NHL games. This made five players on Olympic rosters—one Austrian, two Italians and two Canadians—ineligible. Players who had played in other professional leagues—such as the World Hockey Association—were allowed to play. Canadian hockey official Alan Eagleson stated that the rule was only applied to the NHL and that professionally contracted players in European leagues were still considered amateurs. Murray Costello of the CAHA suggested that a Canadian withdrawal was possible. In 1986, the IOC voted to allow all athletes to compete in Olympic Games starting in 1988, but let the individual sport federations decide if they wanted to allow professionals.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Olympics", "target_page_ids": [ 240143, 1539390, 3058001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 675, 699 ], [ 747, 760 ], [ 905, 920 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the 1972 retirement of IOC President Avery Brundage, the Olympic amateurism rules were steadily relaxed, amounting only to technicalities and lip service, until being completely abandoned in the 1990s (In the United States, the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 prohibits national governing bodies from having more stringent standards of amateur status than required by international governing bodies of respective sports. The act caused the breakup of the Amateur Athletic Union as a wholesale sports governing body at the Olympic level).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Olympics", "target_page_ids": [ 15147, 412059, 3434750, 9935153, 427019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 32 ], [ 43, 57 ], [ 215, 228 ], [ 234, 260 ], [ 457, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Olympic regulations regarding amateur status of athletes were eventually abandoned in the 1990s with the exception of wrestling, where the amateur fight rules are used due to the fact that professional wrestling is largely staged with pre-determined outcomes. Starting from the 2016 Summer Olympics, professionals were allowed to compete in boxing, though amateur fight rules are still used for the tournament.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Olympics", "target_page_ids": [ 961522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many amateurs make valuable contributions in the field of computer programming through the open source movement. Amateur dramatics is the performance of plays or musical theater, often to high standards, but lacking the budgets of professional West End or Broadway performances. Astronomy, chemistry, history, linguistics, and the natural sciences are among the fields that have benefited from the activities of amateurs. Gregor Mendel was an amateur scientist who never held a position in his field of study. Radio astronomy was founded by Grote Reber, an amateur radio operator. Radio itself was greatly advanced by Guglielmo Marconi, a young Italian gentleman who started out by tinkering with a coherer and a spark coil as an amateur electrician. Pierre de Fermat was a highly influential mathematician whose primary vocation was law.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Contribution of amateurs", "target_page_ids": [ 5311, 25190769, 4182183, 26744396, 20572, 1154952, 725252, 50650, 12562, 336860, 5397065, 12104, 296058, 2015982, 7576966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 78 ], [ 91, 102 ], [ 113, 130 ], [ 153, 158 ], [ 162, 177 ], [ 244, 252 ], [ 256, 264 ], [ 279, 288 ], [ 422, 435 ], [ 541, 552 ], [ 557, 579 ], [ 618, 635 ], [ 699, 706 ], [ 713, 723 ], [ 751, 767 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2000s and 2010s, the distinction between amateur and professional has become increasingly blurred, especially in areas such as computer programming, music and astronomy. The term amateur professionalism, or pro-am, is used to describe these activities.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Contribution of amateurs", "target_page_ids": [ 1367052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amateur astronomy, including a list of notable amateur astronomers", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "List of amateur pursuits", "target_page_ids": [ 748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amateur chemistry, including a list of notable amateur chemists", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "List of amateur pursuits", "target_page_ids": [ 18504176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amateur film", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "List of amateur pursuits", "target_page_ids": [ 2829763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amateur geology or rockhounding, including a list of notable amateur geologists", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "List of amateur pursuits", "target_page_ids": [ 753081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amateur journalism", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "List of amateur pursuits", "target_page_ids": [ 35484701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amateur radio", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "List of amateur pursuits", "target_page_ids": [ 23275402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amateur sports", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "List of amateur pursuits", "target_page_ids": [ 579830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amateur theatre", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "List of amateur pursuits", "target_page_ids": [ 4182183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amateur pornography", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "List of amateur pursuits", "target_page_ids": [ 19541404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arts and crafts or handicraft, including a list of handicrafts carried out by amateurs", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "List of amateur pursuits", "target_page_ids": [ 49690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fan fiction", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "List of amateur pursuits", "target_page_ids": [ 18949848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fan art", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "List of amateur pursuits", "target_page_ids": [ 18938054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Independent scholar", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "List of amateur pursuits", "target_page_ids": [ 59301865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Independent scientist or gentleman scientist, including a list of notable amateur scientists", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "List of amateur pursuits", "target_page_ids": [ 8215233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Professional", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 290809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Semi-professional", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1102335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amateurism in the NCAA", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 49582338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amateur professionalism", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1367052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hobby", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of amateur chess players", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31537104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of amateur mathematicians", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 621769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of amateur wrestlers", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7881575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Volunteering", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30874303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] } ]

[ "Amateurism", "Occupations" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Alexis Carrel (; 28 June 1873 – 5 November 1944) was a French surgeon and biologist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1912 for pioneering vascular suturing techniques. He invented the first perfusion pump with Charles A. Lindbergh opening the way to organ transplantation. His positive description of a miraculous healing he witnessed during a pilgrimage earned him scorn of some of his colleagues. This prompted him to relocate to the United States, where he lived most of his life. He had a leading role in implementing eugenic policies in Vichy France.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 52502, 13896574, 3626600, 82981, 167166, 9737, 20599016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 141 ], [ 174, 182 ], [ 217, 231 ], [ 237, 257 ], [ 277, 298 ], [ 549, 556 ], [ 569, 581 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Nobel Prize laureate in 1912, Alexis Carrel was also elected twice, in 1924 and 1927, as an honorary member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21201, 4645722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 13 ], [ 117, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born in Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, Rhône, Carrel was raised in a devout Catholic family and was educated by Jesuits, though he had become an agnostic by the time he became a university student. He was a pioneer in transplantology and thoracic surgery. Alexis Carrel was also a member of learned societies in the U.S., Spain, Russia, Sweden, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Vatican City, Germany, Italy and Greece and received honorary doctorates from Queen's University of Belfast, Princeton University, California, New York, Brown University and Columbia University.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 923700, 80791, 16083, 167166, 598741, 364319, 322010, 23922, 4157, 6310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 27 ], [ 29, 34 ], [ 102, 109 ], [ 208, 223 ], [ 228, 244 ], [ 281, 298 ], [ 447, 476 ], [ 478, 498 ], [ 522, 538 ], [ 543, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1902, he was claimed to have witnessed the miraculous cure of Marie Bailly at Lourdes, made famous in part because she named Carrel as a witness of her cure. After the notoriety surrounding the event, Carrel could not obtain a hospital appointment because of the pervasive anticlericalism in the French university system at the time. In 1903, he emigrated to Montreal, Canada, but soon relocated to Chicago, Illinois, to work for Hull Laboratory. While there he collaborated with American physician Charles Claude Guthrie in work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs as well as the head, and Carrel was awarded the 1912 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for these efforts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 181096, 8129333, 167339, 52502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 88 ], [ 502, 524 ], [ 619, 623 ], [ 657, 694 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1906, he joined the newly formed Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research in New York where he spent the rest of his career. There he did significant work on tissue cultures with pathologist Montrose Thomas Burrows. In the 1930s, Carrel and Charles Lindbergh became close friends not only because of the years they worked together but also because they shared personal, political, and social views. Lindbergh initially sought out Carrel to see if his sister-in-law's heart, damaged by rheumatic fever, could be repaired. When Lindbergh saw the crudeness of Carrel's machinery, he offered to build new equipment for the scientist. Eventually they built the first perfusion pump, an invention instrumental to the development of organ transplantation and open heart surgery. Lindbergh considered Carrel his closest friend, and said he would preserve and promote Carrel's ideals after his death.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 605466, 47377701, 82981, 412735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 77 ], [ 195, 218 ], [ 245, 262 ], [ 489, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to his close proximity with Jacques Doriot's fascist Parti Populaire Français (PPF) during the 1930s and his role in implementing eugenics policies during Vichy France, he was accused after the Liberation of collaboration, but died before the trial.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 904731, 3239136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 46 ], [ 57, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his later life he returned to his Catholic roots. In 1939, he met with Trappist monk Alexis Presse on a recommendation. Although Carrel was skeptical about meeting with a priest, Presse ended up having a profound influence on the rest of Carrel's life. In 1942, he said \"I believe in the existence of God, in the immortality of the soul, in Revelation and in all the Catholic Church teaches.\" He summoned Presse to administer the Catholic Sacraments on his death bed in November 1944.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 401287, 30139998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 87 ], [ 442, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For much of his life, Carrel and his wife spent their summers on the , which they owned. After he and Lindbergh became close friends, Carrel persuaded him to also buy a neighboring island, the Ile Illiec, where the Lindberghs often resided in the late 1930s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 11777374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carrel was a young surgeon in 1894, when the French president Sadi Carnot was assassinated with a knife. Carnot bled to death due to severing of his portal vein, and surgeons who treated the president felt that the vein could not be successfully reconnected. This left a deep impression on Carrel, and he set about developing new techniques for suturing blood vessels. The technique of \"triangulation\", using three stay-sutures as traction points in order to minimize damage to the vascular wall during suturing, was inspired by sewing lessons he took from an embroideress and is still used today. Julius Comroe wrote: \"Between 1901 and 1910, Alexis Carrel, using experimental animals, performed every feat and developed every technique known to vascular surgery today.\" He had great success in reconnecting arteries and veins, and performing surgical grafts, and this led to his Nobel Prize in 1912.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Contributions to science", "target_page_ids": [ 154770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During World War I (1914–1918), Carrel and the English chemist Henry Drysdale Dakin developed the Carrel–Dakin method of treating wounds based on chlorine (Dakin's solution) which, preceding the development of antibiotics, was a major medical advance in the care of traumatic wounds. For this, Carrel was awarded the Légion d'honneur. Carrel also advocated the use of wound debridement (cutting away necrotic or otherwise damaged tissue) and irrigation of wounds. His method of wound irrigation involved flushing the tissues with a high volume of antiseptic fluid so that dirt and other contaminants would be washed away (this is known today as \"mechanical irrigation.\") The World War I era Rockefeller War Demonstration Hospital (United States Army Auxiliary Hospital No. 1) was created, in part, to promote the Carrel–Dakin method:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Contributions to science", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 2604445, 6347687, 1805, 160188, 66761003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ], [ 63, 83 ], [ 98, 117 ], [ 210, 221 ], [ 317, 333 ], [ 693, 731 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"The war demonstration hospital of the Rockefeller Institute was planned as a school in which to teach military surgeons the principles of and art of applying the Carrel-Dakin treatment.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Contributions to science", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carrel co-authored a book with pilot Charles A. Lindbergh, The Culture of Organs, and worked with Lindbergh in the mid-1930s to create the \"perfusion pump,\" which allowed living organs to exist outside the body during surgery. The advance is said to have been a crucial step in the development of open-heart surgery and organ transplants, and to have laid the groundwork for the artificial heart, which became a reality decades later. Some critics of Lindbergh claimed that Carrel overstated Lindbergh's role to gain media attention, but other sources say Lindbergh played an important role in developing the device. Both Lindbergh and Carrel appeared on the cover of Time magazine on 13 June 1938.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Contributions to science", "target_page_ids": [ 82981, 804779, 167166, 256461, 31600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 57 ], [ 297, 315 ], [ 320, 337 ], [ 379, 395 ], [ 668, 681 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carrel was also interested in the phenomenon of senescence, or aging. He claimed that all cells continued to grow indefinitely, and this became a dominant view in the early 20th century. Carrel started an experiment on 17 January 1912, where he placed tissue cultured from an embryonic chicken heart in a stoppered Pyrex flask of his own design. He maintained the living culture for over 20 years with regular supplies of nutrient. This was longer than a chicken's normal lifespan. The experiment, which was conducted at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, attracted considerable popular and scientific attention.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Contributions to science", "target_page_ids": [ 146539, 36624, 320056, 605466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 58 ], [ 276, 282 ], [ 315, 320 ], [ 525, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carrel's experiment was never successfully replicated, and in the 1960s Leonard Hayflick and Paul Moorhead proposed that differentiated cells can undergo only a limited number of divisions before dying. This is known as the Hayflick limit, and is now a pillar of biology.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Contributions to science", "target_page_ids": [ 482990, 152611, 1404523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 88 ], [ 121, 141 ], [ 224, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is not certain how Carrel obtained his anomalous results. Leonard Hayflick suggests that the daily feeding of nutrient was continually introducing new living cells to the alleged immortal culture. J. A. Witkowski has argued that, while \"immortal\" strains of visibly mutated cells have been obtained by other experimenters, a more likely explanation is deliberate introduction of new cells into the culture, possibly without Carrel's knowledge.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Contributions to science", "target_page_ids": [ 482990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1972, the Swedish Post Office honored Carrel with a stamp that was part of its Nobel stamp series. In 1979, the lunar crater Carrel was named after him as a tribute to his scientific breakthroughs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Contributions to science", "target_page_ids": [ 1621514, 978401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 127 ], [ 128, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2002, as part of celebrations of the 100th anniversary of Charles Lindbergh's birth, the Medical University of South Carolina at Charleston established the Lindbergh-Carrel Prize, given to major contributors to \"development of perfusion and bioreactor technologies for organ preservation and growth\". Michael DeBakey and nine other scientists received the prize, a bronze statuette created for the event by the Italian artist C. Zoli and named \"Elisabeth\" after Elisabeth Morrow, sister of Lindbergh's wife Anne Morrow, who died from heart disease. It was in fact Lindbergh's disappointment that contemporary medical technology could not provide an artificial heart pump which would allow for heart surgery on her that led to Lindbergh's first contact with Carrel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Contributions to science", "target_page_ids": [ 382279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 313, 328 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1902, Alexis Carrel went from being a skeptic of the visions and miracles reported at Lourdes to being a believer in spiritual cures after experiencing a healing of Marie Bailly that he could not explain. The Catholic journal Le nouvelliste reported that she named him as the prime witness of her cure. Alexis Carrel refused to discount a supernatural explanation and steadfastly reiterated his beliefs, even writing the book The Voyage to Lourdes describing his experience, although it was not published until four years after his death. This was a detriment to his career and reputation among his fellow doctors, and feeling he had no future in academic medicine in France, he emigrated to Canada with the intention of farming and raising cattle. After a brief period, he accepted an appointment at the University of Chicago and, two years later, at the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Alexis Carrel and Lourdes", "target_page_ids": [ 181096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1935, Carrel published a book titled L'Homme, cet inconnu (Man, the Unknown), which became a best-seller. In the book, he attempted to outline a comprehensive account of what is known and more importantly unknown of the human body and human life \"in light of discoveries in biology, physics, and medicine\", to elucidate problems of the modern world, and to provide possible routes to a better life for human beings.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Man, the Unknown (1935, 1939)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For Carrel, the fundamental problem was that:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Man, the Unknown (1935, 1939)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "[M]en cannot follow modern civilization along its present course, because they are degenerating. They have been fascinated by the beauty of the sciences of inert matter. They have not understood that their body and consciousness are subjected to natural laws, more obscure than, but as inexorable as, the laws of the sidereal world. Neither have they understood that they cannot transgress these laws without being punished. They must, therefore, learn the necessary relations of the cosmic universe, of their fellow men, and of their inner selves, and also those of their tissues and their mind. Indeed, man stands above all things. Should he degenerate, the beauty of civilization, and even the grandeur of the physical universe, would vanish. ... Humanity's attention must turn from the machines of the world of inanimate matter to the body and the soul of man, to the organic and mental processes which have created the machines and the universe of Newton and Einstein.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Man, the Unknown (1935, 1939)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carrel advocated, in part, that mankind could better itself by following the guidance of an elite group of intellectuals, and by incorporating eugenics into the social framework. He argued for an aristocracy springing from individuals of potential, writing:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Man, the Unknown (1935, 1939)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "We must single out the children who are endowed with high potentialities, and develop them as completely as possible. And in this manner give to the nation a non-hereditary aristocracy. Such children may be found in all classes of society, although distinguished men appear more frequently in distinguished families than in others. The descendants of the founders of American civilization may still possess the ancestral qualities. These qualities are generally hidden under the cloak of degeneration. But this degeneration is often superficial. It comes chiefly from education, idleness, lack of responsibility and moral discipline. The sons of very rich men, like those of criminals, should be removed while still infants from their natural surroundings. Thus separated from their family, they could manifest their hereditary strength. In the aristocratic families of Europe there are also individuals of great vitality. The issue of the Crusaders is by no means extinct. The laws of genetics indicate the probability that the legendary audacity and love of adventure can appear again in the lineage of the feudal lords. It is possible also that the offspring of the great criminals who had imagination, courage, and judgment, of the heroes of the French or Russian Revolutions, of the high-handed business men who live among us, might be excellent building stones for an enterprising minority. As we know, criminality is not hereditary if not united with feeble-mindedness or other mental or cerebral defects. High potentialities are rarely encountered in the sons of honest, intelligent, hard-working men who have had ill luck in their careers, who have failed in business or have muddled along all their lives in inferior positions. Or among peasants living on the same spot for centuries. However, from such people sometimes spring artists, poets, adventurers, saints. A brilliantly gifted and well-known New York family came from peasants who cultivated their farm in the south of France from the time of Charlemagne to that of Napoleon.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Man, the Unknown (1935, 1939)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carrel advocated for euthanasia for criminals, and the criminally insane, specifically endorsing the use of gassing:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Man, the Unknown (1935, 1939)", "target_page_ids": [ 9587, 142788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ], [ 108, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(t)he conditioning of petty criminals with the whip, or some more scientific procedure, followed by a short stay in hospital, would probably suffice to insure order. Those who have murdered, robbed while armed with automatic pistol or machine gun, kidnapped children, despoiled the poor of their savings, misled the public in important matters, should be humanely and economically disposed of in small euthanasic institutions supplied with proper gasses. A similar treatment could be advantageously applied to the insane, guilty of criminal acts.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Man, the Unknown (1935, 1939)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Otherwise he endorsed voluntary positive eugenics. He wrote:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Man, the Unknown (1935, 1939)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "We have mentioned that natural selection has not played its part for a long while. That many inferior individuals have been conserved through the efforts of hygiene and medicine. But we cannot prevent the reproduction of the weak when they are neither insane nor criminal. Or destroy sickly or defective children as we do the weaklings in a litter of puppies. The only way to obviate the disastrous predominance of the weak is to develop the strong. Our efforts to render normal the unfit are evidently useless. We should, then, turn our attention toward promoting the optimum growth of the fit. By making the strong still stronger, we could effectively help the weak; For the herd always profits by the ideas and inventions of the elite. Instead of leveling organic and mental inequalities, we should amplify them and construct greater men.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Man, the Unknown (1935, 1939)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He continued:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Man, the Unknown (1935, 1939)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carrel's endorsement of euthanasia of the criminal and insane was published in the mid-1930s, prior to the implementation of death camps and gas chambers in Nazi Germany. In the 1936 German introduction of his book, at the publisher's request, he added the following praise of the Nazi regime which did not appear in the editions in other languages:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Man, the Unknown (1935, 1939)", "target_page_ids": [ 10335, 142788, 21212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 135 ], [ 141, 152 ], [ 157, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(t)he German government has taken energetic measures against the propagation of the defective, the mentally diseased, and the criminal. The ideal solution would be the suppression of each of these individuals as soon as he has proven himself to be dangerous.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Man, the Unknown (1935, 1939)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1937, Carrel joined Jean Coutrot's Centre d'Etudes des Problèmes Humains - Coutrot's aim was to develop what he called an \"economic humanism\" through \"collective thinking.\" In 1941, through connections to the cabinet of Vichy France president Philippe Pétain (specifically, French industrial physicians André Gros and Jacques Ménétrier) he went on to advocate for the creation of the French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems ( which was created by decree of the Vichy regime in 1941, and where he served as \"regent\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems", "target_page_ids": [ 34275885, 20599016, 66083, 67784602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 35 ], [ 223, 235 ], [ 246, 261 ], [ 387, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The foundation was at the origin of the 11 October 1946, law, enacted by the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF), which institutionalized the field of occupational medicine. It worked on demographics (Robert Gessain, Paul Vincent, Jean Bourgeois-Pichat), on economics, (François Perroux), on nutrition (Jean Sutter), on habitation (Jean Merlet) and on the first opinion polls (Jean Stoetzel). \"The foundation was chartered as a public institution under the joint supervision of the ministries of finance and public health. It was given financial autonomy and a budget of forty million francs—roughly one franc per inhabitant—a true luxury considering the burdens imposed by the German Occupation on the nation's resources. By way of comparison, the whole Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) was given a budget of fifty million francs.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems", "target_page_ids": [ 4693765, 8417064, 45642, 9223, 17031062, 21525, 277315, 144610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 122 ], [ 168, 189 ], [ 204, 216 ], [ 275, 284 ], [ 287, 303 ], [ 309, 318 ], [ 379, 391 ], [ 772, 816 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Foundation made many positive accomplishments during its time. It promoted the 16 December 1942 Act which established the prenuptial certificate, which was required before marriage, and was aimed at insuring the good health of the spouses, in particular in regard to sexually transmitted diseases (STD) and \"life hygiene\". The institute also established the , which could be used to record students' grades in the French secondary schools, and thus classify and select them according to scholastic performance.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Gwen Terrenoire, writing in Eugenics in France (1913–1941) : a review of research findings, \"The foundation was a pluridisciplinary centre that employed around 300 researchers (mainly statisticians, psychologists, physicians) from the summer of 1942 to the end of the autumn of 1944. After the liberation of Paris, Carrel was suspended by the Minister of Health; he died in November 1944, but the Foundation itself was \"purged\", only to reappear in a short time as the Institut national d'études démographiques (INED) that is still active.\" Although Carrel himself was dead most members of his team did move to the INED, which was led by demographist Alfred Sauvy, who coined the expression \"Third World\". Others joined Robert Debré's \"Institut national d'hygiène\" (National Hygiene Institute), which later became the INSERM.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems", "target_page_ids": [ 741843, 4923749, 45642, 481673, 30305, 1618140, 6885694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 307, 326 ], [ 482, 523 ], [ 651, 663 ], [ 664, 676 ], [ 705, 716 ], [ 733, 745 ], [ 831, 837 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " HeLa", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 324834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Etienne Lepicard. L'Homme, cet inconnu d'Alexis Carrel (1935). Anatomie d'un succès, analyse d'un échec, Paris, Classiques Garnier, « Littérature, Histoire, Politique, 38 », 2019.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Feuerwerker, Elie. Alexis Carrel et l'eugénisme. Le Monde, 1er Juillet 1986.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bonnafé, Lucien and Tort, Patrick. L'Homme, cet inconnu? Alexis Carrel, Jean-Marie le Pen et les chambres a gaz Editions Syllepse, 1996. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " David Zane Mairowitz. \"Fascism à la mode: in France, the far right presses for national purity\", Harper's Magazine; 10/1/1997", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 4663029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Berman, Paul. Terror and Liberalism W. W. Norton, 2003.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Walther, Rudolph. Die seltsamen Lehren des Doktor Carrel, DIE ZEIT, 31.07.2003 Nr. 32", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Terrenoire, Gwen, CNRS. Eugenics in France (1913–1941) : a review of research findings Joint Programmatic Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, 24 March 2003 (Comité de Liaison ONG-UNESCO)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 144610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Borghi L. (2015) \"Heart Matters. The Collaboration Between Surgeons and Engineers in the Rise of Cardiac Surgery\". In: Pisano R. (eds) A Bridge between Conceptual Frameworks. History of Mechanism and Machine Science, vol 27. Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 53–68", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " including the Nobel Lecture on December 11, 1912 Suture of Blood-Vessels and Transplantation of Organs", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Research Foundation entitled to Alexis Carrel", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Time, 16 October 1944", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Death of Alexis Carrel, Time, 13 November 1944", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1873_births", "1944_deaths", "French_eugenicists", "Converts_to_Roman_Catholicism_from_atheism_or_agnosticism", "French_Nobel_laureates", "Nobel_laureates_in_Physiology_or_Medicine", "French_Roman_Catholics", "French_collaborators_with_Nazi_Germany", "Chevaliers_of_the_Légion_d'honneur", "Members_of_the_Pontifical_Academy_of_Sciences", "Corresponding_Members_of_the_Russian_Academy_of_Sciences_(1917–1925)", "Corresponding_Members_of_the_USSR_Academy_of_Sciences", "Honorary_Members_of_the_USSR_Academy_of_Sciences", "People_from_Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon", "French_vascular_surgeons", "History_of_transplant_surgery", "Rockefeller_University_people", "20th-century_French_physicians" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "All Souls' Day, also known as the Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed and the Day of the Dead, is a day of prayer and remembrance for the faithful departed, which is observed by Roman Catholics and other Christian denominations annually on 2 November. All Souls' Day is often celebrated in Western Christianity; Saturday of Souls is a related tradition more frequently observed in Eastern Christianity. Adherents of All Souls' Day traditions often remember deceased friends and relatives in various ways on the day. Through prayer, intercessions, alms and visits to cemeteries, people commemorate the poor souls in purgatory and gain them indulgences.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 342411, 21461, 42206, 7110631, 42207, 1055, 26305234, 286356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 201 ], [ 212, 235 ], [ 248, 258 ], [ 298, 318 ], [ 320, 337 ], [ 389, 409 ], [ 609, 619 ], [ 623, 632 ], [ 647, 657 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beliefs and practices associated with All Souls' Day vary widely among Christian denominations.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The annual celebration is the last day of Allhallowtide, after All Saints' Day (1 November) and Halloween (October 31). Prior to the standardization of Catholic observance on 2 November by St. Odilo of Cluny during the 10th century, many Catholic congregations celebrated All Souls Day on various dates during the Easter season as it is still observed in some Eastern Orthodox Churches and associated Eastern Catholic and Eastern Lutheran churches. Churches of the East Syriac Rite (Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Chaldean Catholic Church, Assyrian Church of the East, Ancient Church of the East) commemorate all the faithful departed on the Friday before Lent.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 355032, 7709600, 13855, 5302095, 10186, 214903, 11529982, 4543158, 541298, 698821, 268342, 2860123, 42208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 55 ], [ 63, 78 ], [ 96, 105 ], [ 193, 207 ], [ 360, 383 ], [ 401, 417 ], [ 422, 438 ], [ 465, 481 ], [ 483, 511 ], [ 513, 537 ], [ 539, 566 ], [ 568, 594 ], [ 655, 659 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Known in Latin as Commemoratio Omnium Fidelium Defunctorum, All Souls' Day is known:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In other languages", "target_page_ids": [ 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in other Germanic languages as Allerseelen (German), Allerzielen (Dutch), Alla själars dag (Swedish), and Alle Sjæles Dag (Danish);", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In other languages", "target_page_ids": [ 11883, 11884, 19985174, 26689, 8227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ], [ 45, 51 ], [ 67, 72 ], [ 93, 100 ], [ 124, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in the Romance languages as Dia de Finados or Dia dos Fiéis Defuntos (Portuguese), Commémoration de tous les fidèles Défunts (French), Día de los Fieles Difuntos (Spanish), Commemorazione di tutti i fedeli defunti (Italian), and Ziua morților or Luminația (Romanian);", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In other languages", "target_page_ids": [ 25401, 23915, 10597, 26825, 14708, 25534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 25 ], [ 71, 81 ], [ 127, 133 ], [ 164, 171 ], [ 216, 223 ], [ 258, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " and in the Slavic languages as Wspomnienie Wszystkich Wiernych Zmarłych (Polish), Vzpomínka na všechny věrné zesnulé (Czech), Spomen svih vjernih mrtvih (Croatian), and День всех усопших верных or День поминовения всех усопших(Den' vsekh usopshikh vernykh; Den' pominoveniya vsekh usopshih) (Russian).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "In other languages", "target_page_ids": [ 26757, 22975, 6343, 26276394, 25431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ], [ 74, 80 ], [ 119, 124 ], [ 155, 163 ], [ 293, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Catholic Church, \"the faithful\" refers essentially to baptized Catholics; \"all souls\" commemorates the church penitent of souls in purgatory, whereas \"all saints\" commemorates the church triumphant of saints in heaven. In the liturgical books of the Latin Church it is called the Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed ().", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 25333223, 522984, 26305234, 522984, 28436, 30701025, 86364, 30869117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ], [ 25, 37 ], [ 110, 125 ], [ 138, 147 ], [ 187, 204 ], [ 208, 213 ], [ 218, 224 ], [ 233, 243 ], [ 257, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Catholic Church teaches that the purification of the souls in purgatory can be assisted by the actions of the faithful on earth. Its teaching is based also on the practice of prayer for the dead mentioned as far back as 2 Maccabees 12:42–46. The theological basis for the feast is the doctrine that the souls which, on departing from the body, are not perfectly cleansed from venial sins, or have not fully atoned for past transgressions, are debarred from the Beatific vision, and that the faithful on earth can help them by prayers, alms, deeds, and especially by the sacrifice of the Holy Mass.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 357034, 1126101, 68636, 5684685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 380, 390 ], [ 465, 480 ], [ 539, 543 ], [ 591, 600 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Saturday of Souls (or Soul Saturday) is a day set aside for the commemoration of the dead within the liturgical year of the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches. Saturday is a traditional day of prayer for the dead, because Christ lay dead in the Tomb on Saturday.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 7110631, 55525, 1834723, 7810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 101, 116 ], [ 124, 140 ], [ 259, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These days are devoted to prayer for departed relatives and others among the faithful who would not be commemorated specifically as saints. The Divine Services on these days have special hymns added to them to commemorate the departed. There is often a Panikhida (Memorial Service) either after the Divine Liturgy on Saturday morning or after Vespers on Friday evening, for which Koliva (a dish made of boiled wheatberries or rice and honey) is prepared and placed on the Panikhida table. After the Service, the priest blesses the Koliva. It is then eaten as a memorial by all present.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 203688, 7139278, 191634, 185242, 1566697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 159 ], [ 253, 262 ], [ 299, 313 ], [ 343, 350 ], [ 380, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another Memorial Day in the East, Radonitsa, does not fall on a Saturday, but on either Monday or Tuesday of the second week after Pascha (Easter). Radonitsa does not have special hymns for the dead at the Divine Services. Instead a Panikhida will follow the Divine Liturgy, and then all will bring paschal foods to the cemeteries to greet the departed with the joy of the Resurrection.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "East Syriac churches including the Syro Malabar Church and Chaldean Catholic Church commemorates the feast of departed faithful on the last Friday of Epiphany season (which means Friday just before start of Great Lent). The season of Epiphany remembers the revelation of Christ to the world. Each Friday of Epiphany season, the church remembers important evangelistic figures.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 541298, 698821, 2223432, 42208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 54 ], [ 59, 83 ], [ 150, 165 ], [ 207, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Syro Malabar Church, the Friday before the parish festival is also celebrated as feast of departed faithful when the parish remembers the activities of forebearers who worked for the parish and faithful. They also request the intercession of all departed souls for the faithful celebration of parish festival. In East Syriac liturgy, the church remembers departed souls including saints on every Friday throughout the year since the Christ was crucified and died on Friday.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 541298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the West there is ample evidence of the custom of praying for the dead in the inscriptions of the catacombs, with their constant prayers for the peace of the souls of the departed and in the early liturgies, which commonly contain commemorations of the dead. Tertullian, Cyprian and other early Western Fathers witness to the regular practice of praying for the dead among the early Christians.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 64523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the sixth century, it was customary in Benedictine monasteries to hold a commemoration of the deceased members at Whitsuntide. In the time of St. Isidore of Seville (d. 636) who lived in what is today Spain, the Monday after Pentecost was designated to remember the deceased. At the beginning of the ninth century, Abbot Eigil of Fulda set 17 December as commemoration of all deceased in part of what is today Germany.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 15506, 15521770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 167 ], [ 324, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Widukind of Corvey (c. 975), there also existed a ceremony praying for the dead on 1 October in Saxony. But it was the day after All Saints' Day that Saint Odilo of Cluny chose when in the 11th century he instituted for all the monasteries dependent on the Abbey of Cluny an annual commemoration of all the faithful departed, to be observed with alms, prayers, and sacrifices for the relief of the suffering souls in purgatory. Odilo decreed that those requesting a Mass be offered for the departed should make an offering for the poor, thus linking almsgiving with fasting and prayer for the dead.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 59184, 7709600, 5302095, 2418110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 31 ], [ 142, 157 ], [ 169, 183 ], [ 270, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2 November date and customs spread from the Cluniac monasteries to other Benedictine monasteries and thence to the Western Church in general. The Diocese of Liège was the first diocese to adopt the practice under Bishop Notger (d. 1008). 2 November was adopted in Italy and Rome in the thirteenth century.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 17200239, 4969384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 166 ], [ 217, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 15th century the Dominicans instituted a custom of each priest offering three Masses on the Feast of All Souls. During World War I, given the great number of war dead and the many destroyed churches where Mass could no longer be said, Pope Benedict XV, granted all priests the privilege of offering three Masses on All Souls Day.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 8973, 147855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 33 ], [ 242, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Roman Rite as revised in 1969, if 2 November falls on a Sunday, the Mass is of All Souls, but the Liturgy of the Hours is that of the Sunday. However, public celebration of Lauds and Vespers of the Dead with the people participating is permitted. While celebration of a Sunday, a solemnity or a feast of the Lord replacing a Sunday begins on the previous evening with Vespers and perhaps evening Mass, the general norms do not allow for anticipation on Saturday evening of the liturgy of All Souls' Day falling on a Sunday, and so they suggest that the formula of the Mass on that Saturday evening is that of the solemnity of All Saints, which outranks the Sunday of Ordinary Time whose Mass would be celebrated on that evening. However, in 2014, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops decided that for that year the Saturday evening (Sunday vigil) Mass in that country was to be that of All Souls; in countries such as Italy the situation was less clear.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 1951124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In countries where All Saints' Day is not a holy day of obligation attendance at an evening Mass of All Saints on Saturday 1 November satisfies the Sunday obligation. In England and Wales, where holy days of obligation that fall on a Saturday are transferred to the following day, if 2 November is a Sunday, the solemnity of All Saints is transferred to that date, and All Souls Day is transferred to 3 November. In pre-1970 forms of the Roman Rite, still observed by some, if All Souls Day falls on a Sunday, it is always transferred to 3 November.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 301945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In The Missal the minor propers (Introit, Gradual, Tract, Sequence, Offertory, and Communion) are those used for Renaissance and Classical musical requiem settings, including the Dies Irae. This permits the performance of traditional requiem settings in the context of the Divine Worship Form of the Roman Rite on All Souls Day as well as at funerals, votive celebrations of all faithful departed, and anniversaries of deaths.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 184798, 183669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 155 ], [ 180, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the ordinary form of the Roman Rite, as well as in the Personal Ordinariates established by Benedict XVI for former Anglicans, it remains on 2 November if this date falls on a Sunday; in the 1962–1969 form of the Roman Rite, use of which is still authorized, it is transferred to Monday, 3 November.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 24765072, 39660, 2493448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 79 ], [ 95, 107 ], [ 216, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Every priest is allowed to celebrate three holy masses on All Souls' Day.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Enchiridion of Indulgences, an indulgence applicable only to the souls in purgatory (commonly called the poor souls) is granted to the faithful who devoutly visit a cemetery and pray for the departed. The indulgence is plenary each day from the first to the eighth of November; a partial indulgence is granted on other days of the year.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 286356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among continental Protestants its tradition has been more tenaciously maintained. During Luther's lifetime, All Souls' Day was widely observed in Saxony although the Roman Catholic meaning of the day was discarded; ecclesiastically in the Lutheran Church, the day was merged with, and is often seen as an extension of All Saints' Day, with many Lutherans still visiting and decorating graves on all the days of Allhallowtide, including All Souls' Day. Just as it is the custom of French people, of all ranks and creeds, to decorate the graves of their dead on the jour des morts, so German, Polish and Hungarian people stream to the graveyards once a year with offerings of flowers and special grave lights. Among Czech people the custom of visiting and tidying graves of relatives on the day is quite common. In 1816, Prussia introduced a new date for the remembrance of the Dead among its Lutheran citizens: Totensonntag, the last Sunday before Advent. This custom was later also adopted by the non-Prussian Lutherans in Germany, but it has not spread much beyond the Protestant areas of Germany.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 25814008, 7567080, 28395, 23371382, 962731, 152735, 275297, 17106358, 151873, 371248, 25164407, 83490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 146, 152 ], [ 239, 254 ], [ 480, 493 ], [ 583, 589 ], [ 591, 597 ], [ 602, 611 ], [ 714, 726 ], [ 819, 826 ], [ 910, 922 ], [ 947, 953 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Church of England it is called The Commemoration of the Faithful Departed and is an optional celebration; Anglicans view All Souls' Day as an extension of the observance of All Saints' Day and it serves to \"remember those who have died\", in connection with the theological doctrines of the resurrection of the body and the Communion of Saints.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 5955, 30875824, 702531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 24 ], [ 297, 321 ], [ 330, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Anglican Communion, All Souls' Day is known liturgically as the Commemoration of All Faithful Departed, and is an optional observance seen as \"an extension of All Saints' Day\", the latter of which marks the second day of Allhallowtide. Historically and at present, several Anglican churches are dedicated to All Souls. During the English Reformation, the observance of All Souls' Day lapsed, although a new Anglican theological understanding of the day has \"led to a widespread acceptance of this commemoration among Anglicans\". Patricia Bays, with regard to the Anglican view of All Souls' Day, wrote that:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 909, 355032, 18974659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 25 ], [ 228, 241 ], [ 337, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As such, Anglican parishes \"now commemorate all the faithful departed in the context of the All Saints' Day celebration\", in keeping with this fresh perspective. Contributing to the revival was the need \"to help Anglicans mourn the deaths of millions of soldiers in World War I\". Members of the Guild of All Souls, an Anglican devotional society founded in 1873, \"are encouraged to pray for the dying and the dead, to participate in a requiem of All Souls' Day and say a Litany of the Faithful Departed at least once a month\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 2334782, 6374157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 277 ], [ 295, 313 ], [ 318, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the Reformation the celebration of All Souls' Day was fused with All Saints' Day in the Church of England or, in the judgement of some, it was \"deservedly abrogated\". It was reinstated in certain parishes in connection with the Oxford Movement of the 19th century and is acknowledged in United States Anglicanism in the Holy Women, Holy Men calendar and in the Church of England with the 1980 Alternative Service Book. It features in Common Worship as a Lesser Festival called \"Commemoration of the Faithful Departed (All Souls' Day)\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 37857, 7709600, 5955, 275099, 4173442, 1230640, 7163717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ], [ 68, 83 ], [ 91, 108 ], [ 231, 246 ], [ 396, 420 ], [ 437, 451 ], [ 457, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Methodist Church, saints refer to all Christians and therefore, on All Saint's Day, the Church Universal, as well as the deceased members of a local congregation are honoured and remembered. In Methodist congregations that celebrate the liturgy on All Souls Day, the observance, as with Anglicanism and Lutheranism, is viewed as an extension of All Saints' Day and as such, Methodists \"remember our loved ones who had died\" in their observance of this feast.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Religious observance by denomination", "target_page_ids": [ 20119, 22184046, 18337522, 7709600, 522984, 3125398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ], [ 25, 31 ], [ 45, 55 ], [ 74, 89 ], [ 95, 111 ], [ 150, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many All Souls' Day traditions are associated with popular notions about purgatory. Bell tolling is meant to comfort those being cleansed. Lighting candles serves to kindle a light for the poor souls languishing in the darkness. Soul cakes are given to children coming to sing or pray for the dead (cf. trick-or-treating), giving rise to the traditions of \"going souling\" and the baking of special types of bread or cakes (cf. Pão-por-Deus).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Popular customs", "target_page_ids": [ 26305234, 15727617, 30861, 24919840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 82 ], [ 229, 239 ], [ 303, 320 ], [ 427, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All Souls' Day is celebrated in many European countries with vigils, candles, the decoration of graves, and special prayers as well as many regional customs. Examples of regional customs include leaving cakes for departed loved ones on the table and keeping the room warm for their comfort in Tirol and the custom in Brittany, where people flock to the cemeteries at nightfall to kneel, bareheaded, at the graves of their loved ones and anoint the hollow of the tombstone with holy water or to pour libations of milk on it. At bedtime, supper is left on the table for the souls. All Souls' Day is known in Maltese as Jum il-Mejtin, and is accompanied a traditional supper including roasted pig, based on a custom of letting a pig loose on the streets with a bell around its neck, to be fed by the entire neighborhood and cooked on that day to feed the poor. In Linz, funereal musical pieces known as aequales were played from tower tops on All Souls' Day and the evening before. In the Czech Republic All Souls' Day is called Dušičky, or \"little souls\". Traditionally, candles are left on graves on Dušičky. In Sicily and other regions of southern Italy, All Souls' Day is celebrated as the Festa dei Morti or U juornu rii morti, the \"Commemoration of the Dead\" or the \"Day of the Dead\", which according to Joshua Nicolosi of the Sicilian Post could be seen \"halfway between Christian and pagan traditions\". Families visit and clean grave sites, home altars are decorated with family photos and votive candles, and children are gifted a special basket or cannistru of chocolates, pomegranate, and other gifts from their ancestors. Because of the gifting of sugary sweets and the emphasis on sugar puppet decorations, the Commemoration Day has spurred local Sicilian events such as the Notte di Zucchero (\"Night of Sugar\") in which communities celebrate the dead.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Popular customs", "target_page_ids": [ 148994, 38748, 603121, 847357, 19031, 55856, 15096577, 5321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 293, 298 ], [ 317, 325 ], [ 462, 471 ], [ 477, 487 ], [ 606, 613 ], [ 861, 865 ], [ 900, 907 ], [ 986, 1000 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Philippines, Hallow mas is variously called \"Undás\", \"Todos los Santos\" (Spanish, \"All Saints\"), and sometimes \"Araw ng mga Patay / Yumao\" (Tagalog, \"Day of the dead / those who have passed away\"), which incorporates All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day. Filipinos traditionally observe this day by visiting the family dead to clean and repair their tombs. Offerings of prayers, flowers, candles, and food. Chinese Filipinos additionally burn incense and kim. Many also spend the day and ensuing night holding reunions at the cemetery with feasts and merriment.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Popular customs", "target_page_ids": [ 31438, 1167856, 175254, 561564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 154 ], [ 412, 429 ], [ 448, 455 ], [ 460, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Day of the Dead", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Festival of the Dead", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16350608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " International Day of Prayer for the Persecuted Church", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 62082024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Office of the Dead", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2127308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prayer for the dead", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 639226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thursday of the Dead", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16314358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zaduszki", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 907481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flowering Sunday", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 61772885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Decoration Day (Appalachia and Liberia)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60913972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cemetery Sunday", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40159141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tracey OSM, Liam. \"The liturgy of All Souls Day\", Catholic Ireland, 30 November 1999", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Notes on Russian Orthodox observance by N. Bulgakov", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " N. Bulgakov", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Pope offers Mass for faithful departed on All Souls' Day\", Vatican radio, 2 November 2016", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Allhallowtide", "Christianity_and_death", "Eastern_Orthodox_liturgical_days", "Holidays_based_on_the_date_of_Easter", "November_observances", "Observances_honoring_the_dead" ]

[ "Commemoration of All Faithful solemne eparted", "Feast of All Souls", "Holy Souls", "All Souls Day" ]

[ { "plaintext": " (; born , ; 16 April 1844 – 12 October 1924) was a French poet, journalist, and novelist with several best-sellers. Ironic and skeptical, he was considered in his day the ideal French man of letters. He was a member of the Académie française, and won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Literature \"in recognition of his brilliant literary achievements, characterized as they are by a nobility of style, a profound human sympathy, grace, and a true Gallic temperament\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 105232, 23385442, 962731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 224, 242 ], [ 261, 286 ], [ 438, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "France is also widely believed to be the model for narrator Marcel's literary idol Bergotte in Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21018, 69919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 108 ], [ 111, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The son of a bookseller, France, a bibliophile, spent most of his life around books. His father's bookstore specialized in books and papers on the French Revolution and was frequented by many writers and scholars. France studied at the Collège Stanislas, a private Catholic school, and after graduation he helped his father by working in his bookstore. After several years, he secured the position of cataloguer at Bacheline-Deflorenne and at Lemerre. In 1876, he was appointed librarian for the French Senate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 369453, 11188, 4072943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 46 ], [ 147, 164 ], [ 236, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "France began his literary career as a poet and a journalist. In 1869, Le Parnasse Contemporain published one of his poems, \"\". In 1875, he sat on the committee in charge of the third Parnasse Contemporain compilation. As a journalist, from 1867, he wrote many articles and notices. He became known with the novel (1881). Its protagonist, skeptical old scholar Sylvester Bonnard, embodied France's own personality. The novel was praised for its elegant prose and won him a prize from the Académie française. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In (1893) France ridiculed belief in the occult; and in (1893), France captured the atmosphere of the . He was elected to the Académie française in 1896.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "France took a part in the Dreyfus affair. He signed Émile Zola's manifesto supporting Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer who had been falsely convicted of espionage. France wrote about the affair in his 1901 novel Monsieur Bergeret.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [ 66179, 44980, 71839, 10501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 40 ], [ 52, 62 ], [ 86, 100 ], [ 158, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "France's later works include L'Île des Pingouins (Penguin Island, 1908) which satirizes human nature by depicting the transformation of penguins into humans – after the birds have been baptized by mistake by the almost-blind Abbot Mael. It is a satirical history of France, starting in Medieval times, going on to the author's own time with special attention to the Dreyfus affair and concluding with a dystopian future. (The Gods Are Athirst, 1912) is a novel, set in Paris during the French Revolution, about a true-believing follower of Maximilien Robespierre and his contribution to the bloody events of the Reign of Terror of 1793–94. It is a wake-up call against political and ideological fanaticism and explores various other philosophical approaches to the events of the time. La Revolte des Anges (Revolt of the Angels, 1914) is often considered Anatole France's most profound and ironic novel. Loosely based on the Christian understanding of the War in Heaven, it tells the story of Arcade, the guardian angel of Maurice d'Esparvieu. Bored because Bishop d'Esparvieu is sinless, Arcade begins reading the bishop's books on theology and becomes an atheist. He moves to Paris, meets a woman, falls in love, and loses his virginity causing his wings to fall off, joins the revolutionary movement of fallen angels, and meets the Devil, who realizes that if he overthrew God, he would become just like God. Arcade realizes that replacing God with another is meaningless unless \"in ourselves and in ourselves alone we attack and destroy Ialdabaoth.\" \"Ialdabaoth\", according to France, is God's secret name and means \"the child who wanders\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [ 1677916, 13854, 20785969, 11188, 23860776, 25975, 10254657, 8796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 48 ], [ 255, 272 ], [ 403, 411 ], [ 487, 504 ], [ 541, 563 ], [ 613, 628 ], [ 957, 970 ], [ 1542, 1552 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921. He died in 1924 and is buried in the Neuilly-sur-Seine community cemetery near Paris.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [ 481822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 31 May 1922, France's entire works were put on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (Prohibited Books Index) of the Catholic Church. He regarded this as a \"distinction\". This Index was abolished in 1966.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Literary career", "target_page_ids": [ 154374, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 81 ], [ 114, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1877, France married Valérie Guérin de Sauville, a granddaughter of Jean-Urbain Guérin, a miniaturist who painted Louis XVI. Their daughter Suzanne was born in 1881 (and died in 1918).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 57540045, 928317, 51271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 89 ], [ 93, 104 ], [ 117, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "France's relations with women were always turbulent, and in 1888 he began a relationship with Madame Arman de Caillavet, who conducted a celebrated literary salon of the Third Republic. The affair lasted until shortly before her death in 1910.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 17668037, 227177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 119 ], [ 170, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After his divorce, in 1893, France had many liaisons, notably with a Madame Gagey, who committed suicide in 1911.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1920, France married for the second time, to Emma Laprévotte.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "France was a socialist and an outspoken supporter of the 1917 Russian Revolution. In 1920, he gave his support to the newly founded French Communist Party. In his book The Red Lily, France famously wrote, \"The law, in its majestic equality, forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal loaves of bread.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 26847, 25762, 319197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 22 ], [ 62, 80 ], [ 132, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The English writer George Orwell defended France and declared that his work remained very readable, and that \"it is unquestionable that he was attacked partly from political motives\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reputation", "target_page_ids": [ 11891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Les Légions de Varus\", poem published in 1867 in the Gazette rimée.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poèmes dorés (1873)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Les Noces corinthiennes (The Bride of Corinth) (1876)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jocaste et le chat maigre (Jocasta and the Famished Cat) (1879)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Le Crime de Sylvestre Bonnard (The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard) (1881)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 43115469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Les Désirs de Jean Servien (The Aspirations of Jean Servien) (1882)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abeille (Honey-Bee) (1883)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Balthasar (1889)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thaïs (1890)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 18719484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " L'Étui de nacre (Mother of Pearl) (1892)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " La Rôtisserie de la reine Pédauque (At the Sign of the Reine Pédauque) (1892)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 43120218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Les Opinions de Jérôme Coignard (The Opinions of Jerome Coignard) (1893)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Le Lys rouge (The Red Lily) (1894)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Le Puits de Sainte Claire (The Well of Saint Clare) (1895)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " L'Histoire contemporaine (A Chronicle of Our Own Times)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1: L'Orme du mail (The Elm-Tree on the Mall)(1897)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2: Le Mannequin d'osier (The Wicker-Work Woman) (1897)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 3: L'Anneau d'améthyste (The Amethyst Ring) (1899)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 4: Monsieur Bergeret à Paris (Monsieur Bergeret in Paris) (1901)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Clio (1900)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Histoire comique (A Mummer's Tale) (1903)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sur la pierre blanche (The White Stone) (1905)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " L'Affaire Crainquebille (1901)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " L'Île des Pingouins (Penguin Island) (1908)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 1677916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Les Contes de Jacques Tournebroche (The Merrie Tales of Jacques Tournebroche) (1908)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Les Sept Femmes de Barbe bleue et autres contes merveilleux (The Seven Wives of Bluebeard and Other Marvelous Tales) (1909)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bee The Princess of the Dwarfs (1912)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Les dieux ont soif (The Gods Are Athirst) (1912)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 29899923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " La Révolte des anges (The Revolt of the Angels) (1914)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 47109009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Le Livre de mon ami (My Friend's Book) (1885)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pierre Nozière (1899)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Le Petit Pierre (Little Pierre) (1918)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " La Vie en fleur (The Bloom of Life) (1922)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Au petit bonheur (1898)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Crainquebille (1903)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " La Comédie de celui qui épousa une femme muette (The Man Who Married A Dumb Wife) (1908)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Le Mannequin d'osier (The Wicker Woman) (1928)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Vie de Jeanne d'Arc (The Life of Joan of Arc) (1908)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alfred de Vigny (1869)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Le Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte (1888)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Le Génie Latin (The Latin Genius) (1909)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Le Jardin d'Épicure (The Garden of Epicurus) (1895)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Opinions sociales (1902)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Le Parti noir (1904)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Vers les temps meilleurs (1906)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sur la voie glorieuse (1915)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Trente ans de vie sociale, in four volumes, (1949, 1953, 1964, 1973)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of Works", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Anatole France, Nobel Prize Winner\" by Herbert S. Gorman, The New York Times'', 20 November 1921", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 30680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Correspondence with architect Jean-Paul Oury at Syracuse University", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anatole France, his work in audio version ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1844_births", "1924_deaths", "Writers_from_Paris", "French_bibliophiles", "Collège_Stanislas_de_Paris_alumni", "French_fantasy_writers", "French_Nobel_laureates", "19th-century_French_poets", "French_satirists", "Members_of_the_Académie_Française", "Nobel_laureates_in_Literature", "Dreyfusards", "19th-century_French_novelists", "20th-century_French_novelists", "French_socialists", "French_male_poets", "French_male_novelists", "19th-century_male_writers", "French_historical_novelists", "Burials_at_Neuilly-sur-Seine_community_cemetery", "19th-century_pseudonymous_writers", "20th-century_pseudonymous_writers", "Christian_novelists" ]

[ "Jacques François-Anatole Thibault", "François-Anatole Thibault", "Anatole Thibault" ]

[ { "plaintext": "André Paul Guillaume Gide (; 22 November 1869 – 19 February 1951) was a French author and winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature (in 1947). Gide's career ranged from its beginnings in the symbolist movement, to the advent of anticolonialism between the two World Wars. The author of more than fifty books, at the time of his death his obituary in The New York Times described him as \"France's greatest contemporary man of letters\" and \"judged the greatest French writer of this century by the literary cognoscenti.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23385442, 95157, 44494572, 30680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 129 ], [ 189, 198 ], [ 226, 241 ], [ 348, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Known for his fiction as well as his autobiographical works, Gide exposed to public view the conflict and eventual reconciliation of the two sides of his personality (characterized by a Protestant austerity and a transgressive sexual adventurousness, respectively), which a strict and moralistic education had helped set at odds. Gide's work can be seen as an investigation of freedom and empowerment in the face of moralistic and puritanical constraints, and centers on his continuous effort to achieve intellectual honesty. As a self-professed pederast, his self-exploratory texts reflect his search of how to be fully oneself, including owning one's sexual nature, without at the same time betraying one's values. His political activity was shaped by the same ethos, as indicated by his repudiation of communism after his 1936 journey to the USSR.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24091, 19629641, 9209651, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 431, 438 ], [ 546, 554 ], [ 805, 814 ], [ 845, 849 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gide was born in Paris on 22 November 1869, into a middle-class Protestant family. His father was a Paris University professor of law who died in 1880, Jean Paul Guillaume Gide, and his mother was Juliette Maria Rondeaux. His uncle was the political economist Charles Gide. His paternal family traced its roots back to Italy, with his ancestors, the Guidos, moving to France and other western and northern European countries after converting to Protestantism during the 16th century, due to persecution.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 25814008, 84692, 5806990, 14532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 74 ], [ 100, 116 ], [ 260, 272 ], [ 319, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gide was brought up in isolated conditions in Normandy and became a prolific writer at an early age, publishing his first novel, The Notebooks of André Walter (French: Les Cahiers d'André Walter), in 1891, at the age of twenty-one.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 21724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1893 and 1894, Gide traveled in Northern Africa, and it was there that he came to accept his attraction to boys.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He befriended Oscar Wilde in Paris, and in 1895 Gide and Wilde met in Algiers. Wilde had the impression that he had introduced Gide to homosexuality, but, in fact, Gide had already discovered this on his own.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 22614, 1644, 5488304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 25 ], [ 70, 77 ], [ 135, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1895, after his mother's death, he married his cousin Madeleine Rondeaux, but the marriage remained unconsummated. In 1896, he became mayor of La Roque-Baignard, a commune in Normandy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The middle years", "target_page_ids": [ 675083, 410219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 163 ], [ 167, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1901, Gide rented the property Maderia in St. Brélade's Bay and lived there while residing in Jersey. This period, 1901–07, is commonly seen as a time of apathy and turmoil for him.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The middle years", "target_page_ids": [ 2046845, 15693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 62 ], [ 97, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1908, Gide helped found the literary magazine Nouvelle Revue Française (The New French Review).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The middle years", "target_page_ids": [ 4930897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During The Great War Gide visited England. One of his friends there was the artist William Rothenstein. Rothenstein described Gide's visit to his Gloucestershire home in his autobiography:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The middle years", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 1333137, 47751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ], [ 83, 102 ], [ 146, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "André Gide was in England during the war. ... He came to stay with us for a time, and brought with him a young nephew, whose English was better than his own. The boy made friends with my son John, while Gide and I discussed everything under the sun. Once again I delighted in the range and subtlety of a Frenchman's intelligence; and I regretted my long severance from France. Nobody understood art more profoundly than Gide, no one's view of life was more penetrating. ...", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The middle years", "target_page_ids": [ 3865468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 191, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gide had a half satanic, half monk-like mien; he put one in mind of portraits of Baudelaire. Withal there was something exotic about him. He would appear in a red waistcoat, black velvet jacket and beige-coloured trousers and, in lieu of collar and tie, a loosely knotted scarf. ...", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The middle years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The heart of man held no secrets for Gide. There was little that he didn't understand, or discuss. He suffered, as I did, from the banishment of truth, one of the distressing symptoms of war. The Germans were not all black, and the Allies all white, for Gide.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The middle years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1916, Marc Allégret, only 15 years old, became his lover. Marc was the son – one of five children – of Élie Allégret, who years before had been hired by Gide's mother to tutor her son in light of his weak grades in school, after which he and Gide became fast friends; Élie Allégret was best man at Gide's wedding. Gide and Marc fled to London, in retribution for which his wife burned all his correspondence – \"the best part of myself,\" he later commented. In 1918, he met Dorothy Bussy, who was his friend for over thirty years and translated many of his works into English.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The middle years", "target_page_ids": [ 1711984, 70468016, 2494522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ], [ 106, 119 ], [ 476, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gide was close friends with the critic Charles Du Bos. Together they were part of the Foyer Franco-Belge, in which capacity they worked to find employment, food and housing for Franco-Belgian refugees who arrived in Paris following the German invasion of Belgium. Their friendship later declined, due to Du Bos' perception of Gide as disavowing or betraying his spiritual faith, in contrast to Du Bos' own return to faith. Du Bos' essay Dialogue avec André Gide was published in 1929. The essay, informed by Du Bos' Catholic convictions, condemned Gide's homosexuality. Gide and Du Bos' mutual friend Ernst Robert Curtius criticised the book in a letter to Gide, writing that \"he [Du Bos] judges you according to Catholic morals suffices to neglect his complete indictment. It can only touch those who think like him and are convinced in advance. He has abdicated his intellectual liberty.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The middle years", "target_page_ids": [ 24825039, 33568297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 53 ], [ 236, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1920s, Gide became an inspiration for writers such as Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre. In 1923, he published a book on Fyodor Dostoyevsky; however, when he defended homosexuality in the public edition of Corydon (1924) he received widespread condemnation. He later considered this his most important work.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The middle years", "target_page_ids": [ 983, 16340, 11625, 9393712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 73 ], [ 78, 94 ], [ 128, 146 ], [ 213, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1923, he sired a daughter, Catherine, by Elisabeth van Rysselberghe, a woman who was much younger than he. He had known her for a long time, as she was the daughter of his closest female friend, Maria Monnom, the wife of his friend the Belgian neo-impressionist painter Théo van Rysselberghe. This caused the only crisis in the long-standing relationship between Allégret and Gide and damaged the relation with van Rysselberghe. This was possibly Gide's only sexual relationship with a woman, and it was brief in the extreme. Catherine became his only descendant by blood. He liked to call Elisabeth \"La Dame Blanche\" (\"The White Lady\"). Elisabeth eventually left her husband to move to Paris and manage the practical aspects of Gide's life (they had adjoining apartments built for each on the rue Vavin). She worshiped him, but evidently they no longer had a sexual relationship.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The middle years", "target_page_ids": [ 69634971, 69680856, 1647086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 39 ], [ 44, 70 ], [ 273, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gide's legal wife, Madeleine, died in 1938. Later he explored their unconsummated marriage in his memoir of Madeleine, Et nunc manet in te.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The middle years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1924, he published an autobiography, If it Die... (French: Si le grain ne meurt).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The middle years", "target_page_ids": [ 2179, 12093939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 38 ], [ 62, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the same year, he produced the first French language editions of Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness and Lord Jim.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The middle years", "target_page_ids": [ 15823, 13535, 854427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 81 ], [ 84, 101 ], [ 106, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After 1925, he began to campaign for more humane conditions for convicted criminals.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The middle years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From July 1926 to May 1927, he traveled through the French Equatorial Africa colony with his lover Marc Allégret. Gide went successively to Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo), Ubangi-Shari (now the Central African Republic), briefly to Chad and then to Cameroon before returning to France. He related his peregrinations in a journal called Travels in the Congo (French: Voyage au Congo) and Return from Chad (French: Retour du Tchad). In this published journal, he criticized the behavior of French business interests in the Congo and inspired reform. In particular, he strongly criticized the Large Concessions regime (French: Régime des Grandes Concessions), i.e., a regime that conceded part of the colony to French companies and where these companies could exploit all of the area's natural resources, in particular rubber. He related, for instance, how natives were forced to leave their village for several weeks to collect rubber in the forest, and went as far as comparing their exploitation to slavery. The book had important influence on anti-colonialism movements in France and helped re-evaluate the impact of colonialism.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Africa", "target_page_ids": [ 52893, 1711984, 333517, 19599929, 663408, 5478, 5488, 5447, 57146783, 21675, 40067623, 27992, 302084, 5090455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 76 ], [ 99, 112 ], [ 140, 152 ], [ 162, 183 ], [ 186, 198 ], [ 208, 232 ], [ 246, 250 ], [ 263, 271 ], [ 350, 370 ], [ 797, 813 ], [ 997, 1009 ], [ 1013, 1020 ], [ 1058, 1074 ], [ 1122, 1143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1930s, he briefly became a communist, or more precisely, a fellow traveler (he never formally joined any communist party). As a distinguished writer sympathizing with the cause of communism, he was invited to speak at Maxim Gorky's funeral and to tour the Soviet Union as a guest of the Soviet Union of Writers. He encountered censorship of his speeches and was particularly disillusioned with the state of culture under Soviet communism, breaking with his socialist friends in Retour de L'U.R.S.S. in 1936.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Soviet Union", "target_page_ids": [ 784344, 85036, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 85 ], [ 229, 240 ], [ 267, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1949 anthology The God That Failed Gide describes his early enthusiasm:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Soviet Union", "target_page_ids": [ 2021469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1930 Gide published a book about the Blanche Monnier case called La Séquestrée de Poitiers, changing little but the names of the protagonists. Monnier was a young woman who was kept captive by her own mother for more than 25 years.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "1930s and 1940s", "target_page_ids": [ 46800059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1939, Gide became the first living author to be published in the prestigious Bibliothèque de la Pléiade.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "1930s and 1940s", "target_page_ids": [ 2645560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He left France for Africa in 1942 and lived in Tunis from December 1942 until it was re-taken by French, British and American forces in May 1943 and he was able to travel to Algiers where he stayed until the end of World War II. In 1947, he received the Nobel Prize in Literature \"for his comprehensive and artistically significant writings, in which human problems and conditions have been presented with a fearless love of truth and keen psychological insight\". He devoted much of his last years to publishing his Journal. Gide died in Paris on 19 February 1951. The Roman Catholic Church placed his works on the Index of Forbidden Books in 1952.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "1930s and 1940s", "target_page_ids": [ 57659, 1644, 23385442, 154374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 52 ], [ 174, 181 ], [ 254, 279 ], [ 615, 639 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gide's biographer Alan Sheridan summed up Gide's life as a writer and an intellectual:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Gide's life as a writer", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Gide's fame rested ultimately, of course, on his literary works. But, unlike many writers, he was no recluse: he had a need of friendship and a genius for sustaining it.\" But his \"capacity for love was not confined to his friends: it spilled over into a concern for others less fortunate than himself.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Gide's life as a writer", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "André Gide's writings spanned many genres – \"As a master of prose narrative, occasional dramatist and translator, literary critic, letter writer, essayist, and diarist, André Gide provided twentieth-century French literature with one of its most intriguing examples of the man of letters.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Gide's life as a writer", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "But as Gide's biographer Alan Sheridan points out, \"It is the fiction that lies at the summit of Gide's work.\" \"Here, as in the oeuvre as a whole, what strikes one first is the variety. Here, too, we see Gide's curiosity, his youthfulness, at work: a refusal to mine only one seam, to repeat successful formulas...The fiction spans the early years of Symbolism, to the \"comic, more inventive, even fantastic\" pieces, to the later \"serious, heavily autobiographical, first-person narratives\"...In France Gide was considered a great stylist in the classical sense, \"with his clear, succinct, spare, deliberately, subtly phrased sentences.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Gide's life as a writer", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gide's surviving letters run into the thousands. But it is the Journal that Sheridan calls \"the pre-eminently Gidean mode of expression.\" \"His first novel emerged from Gide's own journal, and many of the first-person narratives read more or less like journals. In Les faux-monnayeurs, Edouard's journal provides an alternative voice to the narrator's.\" \"In 1946, when Pierre Herbert asked Gide which of his books he would choose if only one were to survive,\" Gide replied, 'I think it would be my Journal.'''\" Beginning at the age of eighteen or nineteen, Gide kept a journal all of his life and when these were first made available to the public, they ran to thirteen hundred pages.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Gide's life as a writer", "target_page_ids": [ 8597133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Each volume that Gide wrote was intended to challenge itself, what had preceded it, and what could conceivably follow it. This characteristic, according to Daniel Moutote in his Cahiers de André Gide essay, is what makes Gide's work 'essentially modern': the 'perpetual renewal of the values by which one lives.'\" Gide wrote in his Journal in 1930: \"The only drama that really interests me and that I should always be willing to depict anew, is the debate of the individual with whatever keeps him from being authentic, with whatever is opposed to his integrity, to his integration. Most often the obstacle is within him. And all the rest is merely accidental.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Gide's life as a writer", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As a whole, \"The works of André Gide reveal his passionate revolt against the restraints and conventions inherited from 19th-century France. He sought to uncover the authentic self beneath its contradictory masks.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Gide's life as a writer", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In his journal, Gide distinguishes between adult-attracted \"sodomites\" and boy-loving \"pederasts\", categorizing himself as the latter.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sexuality", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One, but not the first, of his early sexual encounters with a young boy was in the company of Oscar Wilde. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sexuality", "target_page_ids": [ 22614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gide's novel Corydon, which he considered his most important work, erects a defense of pederasty. At that time, the age of consent for any type of sexual activity was set at thirteen.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sexuality", "target_page_ids": [ 9393712, 19629641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ], [ 87, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Colonialism", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " LGBT culture in Paris", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 43935909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mise en abyme", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1127639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Edmund White, André Gide: A Life in the Present. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998.]", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1757499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Noel I. Garde [Edgar H. Leoni], Jonathan to Gide: The Homosexual in History. New York:Vangard, 1964. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " For a chronology of Gide's life, see pp.13–15 in Thomas Cordle, André Gide (The Griffin Authors Series). Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1969.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " For a detailed bibliography of Gide's writings and works about Gide, see pp.655–678 in Alan Sheridan, André Gide: A Life in the Present. Harvard, 1999.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Website of the Catherine Gide Foundation, held by Catherine Gide, his daughter.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Center for Gidian Studies", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "List of Works", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " André Gide at Goodreads", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Amis d'André Gide in French", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Period newspaper articles on Gide interface in French''", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " André Gide, 1947 Nobel Laureate for Literature", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " André Gide: A Brief Introduction", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gide at Maderia in Jersey, 1901–07", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "19th-century_LGBT_people", "1869_births", "1951_deaths", "Writers_from_Paris", "French_novelists", "French_Protestants", "French_travel_writers", "French_anti-communists", "French_communists", "LGBT_rights_activists_from_France", "LGBT_Nobel_laureates", "Nobel_laureates_in_Literature", "French_Nobel_laureates", "Writers_about_the_Soviet_Union", "Modernist_writers", "Fyodor_Dostoyevsky_scholars", "Lycée_Henri-IV_alumni", "French_LGBT_novelists", "French_male_essayists", "French_male_novelists", "French_people_of_Italian_descent", "Anti-Stalinist_left", "Nouvelle_Revue_Française_editors", "20th-century_LGBT_people" ]

[ "André Paul Guillaume Gide", "Andre Gide", "Andre Paul Guillaume Gide" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Algorithms for calculating variance play a major role in computational statistics. A key difficulty in the design of good algorithms for this problem is that formulas for the variance may involve sums of squares, which can lead to numerical instability as well as to arithmetic overflow when dealing with large values.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 15832717, 775, 32344, 233807, 2151421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 81 ], [ 122, 131 ], [ 175, 183 ], [ 231, 252 ], [ 267, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A formula for calculating the variance of an entire population of size N is:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Naïve algorithm", "target_page_ids": [ 27585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Using Bessel's correction to calculate an unbiased estimate of the population variance from a finite sample of n observations, the formula is:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Naïve algorithm", "target_page_ids": [ 13384414, 8450479, 160361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 25 ], [ 42, 50 ], [ 101, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Therefore, a naïve algorithm to calculate the estimated variance is given by the following:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Naïve algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Let ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Naïve algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " For each datum :", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Naïve algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This algorithm can easily be adapted to compute the variance of a finite population: simply divide by n instead of n−1 on the last line.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Naïve algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Because and can be very similar numbers, cancellation can lead to the precision of the result to be much less than the inherent precision of the floating-point arithmetic used to perform the computation. Thus this algorithm should not be used in practice, and several alternate, numerically stable, algorithms have been proposed. This is particularly bad if the standard deviation is small relative to the mean.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Naïve algorithm", "target_page_ids": [ 19985542, 317062, 11376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 55 ], [ 72, 81 ], [ 147, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The variance is invariant with respect to changes in a location parameter, a property which can be used to avoid the catastrophic cancellation in this formula.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Naïve algorithm", "target_page_ids": [ 1126638, 17516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 25 ], [ 55, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "with any constant, which leads to the new formula", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Naïve algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "the closer is to the mean value the more accurate the result will be, but just choosing a value inside the", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Naïve algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "samples range will guarantee the desired stability. If the values are small then there are no problems with the sum of its squares, on the contrary, if they are large it necessarily means that the variance is large as well. In any case the second term in the formula is always smaller than the first one therefore no cancellation may occur.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Naïve algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If just the first sample is taken as the algorithm can be written in Python programming language as", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Naïve algorithm", "target_page_ids": [ 23862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This formula also facilitates the incremental computation that can be expressed as", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Naïve algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An alternative approach, using a different formula for the variance, first computes the sample mean,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Two-pass algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and then computes the sum of the squares of the differences from the mean,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Two-pass algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where s is the standard deviation. This is given by the following code:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Two-pass algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This algorithm is numerically stable if n is small. However, the results of both of these simple algorithms (\"naïve\" and \"two-pass\") can depend inordinately on the ordering of the data and can give poor results for very large data sets due to repeated roundoff error in the accumulation of the sums. Techniques such as compensated summation can be used to combat this error to a degree.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Two-pass algorithm", "target_page_ids": [ 373216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 319, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is often useful to be able to compute the variance in a single pass, inspecting each value only once; for example, when the data is being collected without enough storage to keep all the values, or when costs of memory access dominate those of computation. For such an online algorithm, a recurrence relation is required between quantities from which the required statistics can be calculated in a numerically stable fashion.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Welford's online algorithm", "target_page_ids": [ 8756788, 22716, 146806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 70 ], [ 274, 290 ], [ 294, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following formulas can be used to update the mean and (estimated) variance of the sequence, for an additional element xn. Here, denotes the sample mean of the first n samples , their biased sample variance, and their unbiased sample variance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Welford's online algorithm", "target_page_ids": [ 19192, 32344, 32344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 53 ], [ 189, 211 ], [ 224, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These formulas suffer from numerical instability, as they repeatedly subtract a small number from a big number which scales with n. A better quantity for updating is the sum of squares of differences from the current mean, , here denoted :", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Welford's online algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This algorithm was found by Welford, and it has been thoroughly analyzed. It is also common to denote and .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Welford's online algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An example Python implementation for Welford's algorithm is given below.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Welford's online algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This algorithm is much less prone to loss of precision due to catastrophic cancellation, but might not be as efficient because of the division operation inside the loop. For a particularly robust two-pass algorithm for computing the variance, one can first compute and subtract an estimate of the mean, and then use this algorithm on the residuals.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Welford's online algorithm", "target_page_ids": [ 19985542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Parallel algorithm below illustrates how to merge multiple sets of statistics calculated online.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Welford's online algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The algorithm can be extended to handle unequal sample weights, replacing the simple counter n with the sum of weights seen so far. West (1979) suggests this incremental algorithm:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Weighted incremental algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chan et al. note that Welford's online algorithm detailed above is a special case of an algorithm that works for combining arbitrary sets and :", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parallel algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parallel algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This may be useful when, for example, multiple processing units may be assigned to discrete parts of the input.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parallel algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chan's method for estimating the mean is numerically unstable when and both are large, because the numerical error in is not scaled down in the way that it is in the case. In such cases, prefer .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parallel algorithm", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This can be generalized to allow parallelization with AVX, with GPUs, and computer clusters, and to covariance.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parallel algorithm", "target_page_ids": [ 16779711, 390214, 18949896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 57 ], [ 64, 68 ], [ 74, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Assume that all floating point operations use standard IEEE 754 double-precision arithmetic. Consider the sample (4, 7, 13, 16) from an infinite population. Based on this sample, the estimated population mean is 10, and the unbiased estimate of population variance is 30. Both the naïve algorithm and two-pass algorithm compute these values correctly.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Example", "target_page_ids": [ 405039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Next consider the sample (, , , ), which gives rise to the same estimated variance as the first sample. The two-pass algorithm computes this variance estimate correctly, but the naïve algorithm returns 29.333333333333332 instead of 30.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Example", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While this loss of precision may be tolerable and viewed as a minor flaw of the naïve algorithm, further increasing the offset makes the error catastrophic. Consider the sample (, , , ). Again the estimated population variance of 30 is computed correctly by the two-pass algorithm, but the naïve algorithm now computes it as −170.66666666666666. This is a serious problem with naïve algorithm and is due to catastrophic cancellation in the subtraction of two similar numbers at the final stage of the algorithm.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Example", "target_page_ids": [ 19985542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 410, 435 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Terriberry extends Chan's formulae to calculating the third and fourth central moments, needed for example when estimating skewness and kurtosis:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 19983, 28212, 16848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 85 ], [ 123, 131 ], [ 136, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Here the are again the sums of powers of differences from the mean , giving", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For the incremental case (i.e., ), this simplifies to:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By preserving the value , only one division operation is needed and the higher-order statistics can thus be calculated for little incremental cost.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An example of the online algorithm for kurtosis implemented as described is:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pébaÿ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "further extends these results to arbitrary-order central moments, for the incremental and the pairwise cases, and subsequently Pébaÿ et al.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 19983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "for weighted and compound moments. One can also find there similar formulas for covariance.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 157059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Choi and Sweetman", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "offer two alternative methods to compute the skewness and kurtosis, each of which can save substantial computer memory requirements and CPU time in certain applications. The first approach is to compute the statistical moments by separating the data into bins and then computing the moments from the geometry of the resulting histogram, which effectively becomes a one-pass algorithm for higher moments. One benefit is that the statistical moment calculations can be carried out to arbitrary accuracy such that the computations can be tuned to the precision of, e.g., the data storage format or the original measurement hardware. A relative histogram of a random variable can be constructed in the conventional way: the range of potential values is divided into bins and the number of occurrences within each bin are counted and plotted such that the area of each rectangle equals the portion of the sample values within that bin:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 8756788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 365, 383 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where and represent the frequency and the relative frequency at bin and is the total area of the histogram. After this normalization, the raw moments and central moments of can be calculated from the relative histogram:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where the superscript indicates the moments are calculated from the histogram. For constant bin width these two expressions can be simplified using :", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The second approach from Choi and Sweetman is an analytical methodology to combine statistical moments from individual segments of a time-history such that the resulting overall moments are those of the complete time-history. This methodology could be used for parallel computation of statistical moments with subsequent combination of those moments, or for combination of statistical moments computed at sequential times.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If sets of statistical moments are known:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " for , then each can", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "be expressed in terms of the equivalent raw moments:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is generally taken to be the duration of the time-history, or the number of points if is constant.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The benefit of expressing the statistical moments in terms of is that the sets can be combined by addition, and there is no upper limit on the value of .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where the subscript represents the concatenated time-history or combined . These combined values of can then be inversely transformed into raw moments representing the complete concatenated time-history", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Known relationships between the raw moments () and the central moments ()", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "are then used to compute the central moments of the concatenated time-history. Finally, the statistical moments of the concatenated history are computed from the central moments:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Higher-order statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Very similar algorithms can be used to compute the covariance. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Covariance", "target_page_ids": [ 157059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The naïve algorithm is", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Covariance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For the algorithm above, one could use the following Python code:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Covariance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As for the variance, the covariance of two random variables is also shift-invariant, so given any two constant values and it can be written:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Covariance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and again choosing a value inside the range of values will stabilize the formula against catastrophic cancellation as well as make it more robust against big sums. Taking the first value of each data set, the algorithm can be written as:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Covariance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The two-pass algorithm first computes the sample means, and then the covariance:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Covariance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The two-pass algorithm may be written as:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Covariance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A slightly more accurate compensated version performs the full naive algorithm on the residuals. The final sums and should be zero, but the second pass compensates for any small error.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Covariance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A stable one-pass algorithm exists, similar to the online algorithm for computing the variance, that computes co-moment :", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Covariance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The apparent asymmetry in that last equation is due to the fact that , so both update terms are equal to . Even greater accuracy can be achieved by first computing the means, then using the stable one-pass algorithm on the residuals.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Covariance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thus the covariance can be computed as", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Covariance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A small modification can also be made to compute the weighted covariance:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Covariance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Likewise, there is a formula for combining the covariances of two sets that can be used to parallelize the computation:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Covariance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A version of the weighted online algorithm that does batched updated also exists: let denote the weights, and write", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Covariance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The covariance can then be computed as", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Covariance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kahan summation algorithm", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 373216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Squared deviations from the mean", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9830367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yamartino method", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7878238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] } ]

[ "Statistical_algorithms", "Statistical_deviation_and_dispersion", "Articles_with_example_pseudocode", "Articles_with_example_Python_(programming_language)_code" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The almond (Prunus amygdalus, syn. Prunus dulcis) is a species of tree native to Iran and surrounding countries, including the Levant. The almond is also the name of the edible and widely cultivated seed of this tree. Within the genus Prunus, it is classified with the peach in the subgenus Amygdalus, distinguished from the other subgenera by corrugations on the shell (endocarp) surrounding the seed.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8166296, 14653, 18138, 37694, 67656, 51257, 15881720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 35 ], [ 82, 86 ], [ 128, 134 ], [ 200, 204 ], [ 236, 242 ], [ 270, 275 ], [ 372, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fruit of the almond is a drupe, consisting of an outer hull and a hard shell with the seed, which is not a true nut. Shelling almonds refers to removing the shell to reveal the seed. Almonds are sold shelled or unshelled. Blanched almonds are shelled almonds that have been treated with hot water to soften the seedcoat, which is then removed to reveal the white embryo. Once almonds are cleaned and processed, they can be stored over time. Almonds are used in many food cuisines, often featuring prominently in desserts, such as marzipan. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 57425, 2282439, 251647, 436668, 37694, 36624, 454514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 34 ], [ 70, 80 ], [ 111, 119 ], [ 226, 234 ], [ 315, 319 ], [ 367, 373 ], [ 534, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The almond tree prospers in a moderate Mediterranean climate with cool winter weather. California produces over half of the world's almond supply. Due to high acreage and water demand for almond cultivation, and need for pesticides, California almond production may be unsustainable, especially during the persistent drought and heat from climate change in the 21st century. Droughts in California have caused some producers to leave the industry, leading to lower supply and increased prices.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 349628, 5407, 1797, 48340, 37335, 18159949, 18938115, 46809441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 60 ], [ 87, 97 ], [ 159, 163 ], [ 221, 230 ], [ 317, 324 ], [ 339, 353 ], [ 361, 373 ], [ 375, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The almond is a deciduous tree growing to in height, with a trunk of up to in diameter. The young twigs are green at first, becoming purplish where exposed to sunlight, then gray in their second year. The leaves are long, with a serrated margin and a petiole.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 66722, 169193, 18973622, 8202648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 25 ], [ 100, 104 ], [ 207, 213 ], [ 255, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The flowers are white to pale pink, diameter with five petals, produced singly or in pairs and appearing before the leaves in early spring. Almond grows best in Mediterranean climates with warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters. The optimal temperature for their growth is between and the tree buds have a chilling requirement of 200 to 700 hours below to break dormancy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 4576465, 13285352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 309, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almonds begin bearing an economic crop in the third year after planting. Trees reach full bearing five to six years after planting. The fruit matures in the autumn, 7–8 months after flowering.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The almond fruit is long. It is not a nut but a drupe. The outer covering, consisting of an outer exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh, fleshy in other members of Prunus such as the plum and cherry, is instead a thick, leathery, gray-green coat (with a downy exterior), called the hull. Inside the hull is a woody endocarp which forms a reticulated, hard shell (like the outside of a peach pit) called the pyrena. Inside the shell is the edible seed, commonly called a nut. Generally, one seed is present, but occasionally two occur. After the fruit matures, the hull splits and separates from the shell, and an abscission layer forms between the stem and the fruit so that the fruit can fall from the tree.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 251647, 57425, 15881720, 15881720, 56884, 54773, 15881720, 2282439, 2530844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 42 ], [ 49, 54 ], [ 99, 106 ], [ 121, 129 ], [ 187, 191 ], [ 196, 202 ], [ 319, 327 ], [ 411, 417 ], [ 617, 633 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The seeds of Prunus dulcis var. dulcis are predominantly sweet but some individual trees produce seeds that are somewhat more bitter. The genetic basis for bitterness involves a single gene, the bitter flavor furthermore being recessive, both aspects making this trait easier to domesticate. The fruits from Prunus dulcis var. amara are always bitter, as are the kernels from other species of genus Prunus, such as apricot, peach and cherry (although to a lesser extent).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 68300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 227, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bitter almond is slightly broader and shorter than the sweet almond and contains about 50% of the fixed oil that occurs in sweet almonds. It also contains the enzyme emulsin which, in the presence of water, acts on the two soluble glucosides amygdalin and prunasin yielding glucose, cyanide and the essential oil of bitter almonds, which is nearly pure benzaldehyde, the chemical causing the bitter flavor. Bitter almonds may yield 4–9milligrams of hydrogen cyanide per almond and contain 42 times higher amounts of cyanide than the trace levels found in sweet almonds. The origin of cyanide content in bitter almonds is via the enzymatic hydrolysis of amygdalin. P450 monooxygenases are involved in the amygdalin biosynthetic pathway. A point mutation in a bHLH transcription factor prevents transcription of the two cytochrome P450 genes, resulting in the sweet kernel trait.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 5624982, 59497, 435043, 3252, 38333382, 12950, 5910, 281028, 19217866, 42078, 20971043, 709137, 15080460, 2408868, 31474, 167544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 177 ], [ 227, 234 ], [ 235, 244 ], [ 246, 255 ], [ 260, 268 ], [ 278, 285 ], [ 287, 294 ], [ 303, 316 ], [ 357, 369 ], [ 453, 469 ], [ 633, 653 ], [ 668, 672 ], [ 673, 686 ], [ 762, 766 ], [ 767, 787 ], [ 797, 810 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The word \"almond\" comes from Old French almande or alemande, Late Latin *amandula, *amindula, derived from amygdala from the Ancient Greek ἀμυγδάλη (amygdálē) (cf. amygdala, an almond-shaped portion of the brain). The al- in English, for the a- used in other languages may be due a confusion with the Arabic article al, the word having first dropped the a- as in the Italian form mandorla; the British pronunciation ah-mond and the modern Catalan ametlla and modern French amande show a form of the word closer to the original.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 320082, 852563, 148363, 146000, 803, 14708, 4179, 5282, 10597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 39 ], [ 61, 71 ], [ 125, 138 ], [ 164, 172 ], [ 301, 307 ], [ 367, 374 ], [ 394, 401 ], [ 439, 446 ], [ 466, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The adjective \"amygdaloid\" (literally \"like an almond\") is used to describe objects which are roughly almond-shaped, particularly a shape which is part way between a triangle and an ellipse. For example, the amygdala of the brain, which uses a direct borrowing of the Greek term amygdalē.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 30654, 9277, 146000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 174 ], [ 182, 189 ], [ 208, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almond is native to Iran and surrounding countries and ancient remains of almonds were discovered in the Levant area. It was spread by humans in ancient times along the shores of the Mediterranean into northern Africa and southern Europe, and more recently transported to other parts of the world, notably California, United States. The wild form of domesticated almond grows in parts of the Levant.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 14653, 18138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 24 ], [ 105, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Selection of the sweet type from the many bitter types in the wild marked the beginning of almond domestication. It is unclear as to which wild ancestor of the almond created the domesticated species. The species Prunus fenzliana may be the most likely wild ancestor of the almond, in part because it is native to Armenia and western Azerbaijan, where it was apparently domesticated. Wild almond species were grown by early farmers, \"at first unintentionally in the garbage heaps, and later intentionally in their orchards\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Distribution and habitat", "target_page_ids": [ 58205840, 10918072, 746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 229 ], [ 314, 321 ], [ 326, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees, due to \"the ability of the grower to raise attractive almonds from seed. Thus, in spite of the fact that this plant does not lend itself to propagation from suckers or from cuttings, it could have been domesticated even before the introduction of grafting\". Domesticated almonds appear in the Early Bronze Age (3000–2000 BC), such as the archaeological sites of Numeira (Jordan), or possibly earlier. Another well-known archaeological example of the almond is the fruit found in Tutankhamun's tomb in Egypt (c. 1325 BC), probably imported from the Levant. An article on almond tree cultivation in Spain is brought down in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural work, Book on Agriculture.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 98341, 14080493, 4620, 3368302, 30437, 26667, 12167141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 57 ], [ 306, 314 ], [ 352, 368 ], [ 421, 428 ], [ 538, 549 ], [ 656, 661 ], [ 681, 694 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of the European countries that the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh reported as cultivating almonds, Germany is the northernmost, though the domesticated form can be found as far north as Iceland.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 1105269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almond trees are small to medium sized but commercial cultivars can be grafted onto a different root-stock to produce smaller trees. Varieties include:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 14080493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nonpareil - originates in the 1800s. A large tree that produces large, smooth, thin-shelled almonds with 60–65% edible kernel per nut. Requires pollination from other almond varieties for good nut production.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tuono - originates in Italy. Has thicker, hairier shells with only 32% of edible kernel per nut. The thicker shell gives some protection from pests such as the navel orangeworm. Does not require pollination by other almond varieties.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 32963153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mariana - used as a rootstock to result in smaller trees", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Breeding programs have found the high shell-seal trait.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 1464802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most widely planted varieties of almond are self-incompatible; hence these trees require pollen from a tree with different genetic characters in order to produce seeds. Almond orchards therefore must grow mixtures of almond varieties. In addition, the pollen is transferred from flower to flower by insects; therefore commercial growers must ensure there are enough insects to perform this task. The large scale of almond production in the U.S. creates a significant problem of providing enough pollinating insects. Additional pollinating insects are therefore brought to the trees. The pollination of California's almonds is the largest annual managed pollination event in the world, with 1.4 million hives (nearly half of all beehives in the US) being brought to the almond orchards each February.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 1048987, 233609, 59029407, 325663, 223508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 65 ], [ 591, 602 ], [ 606, 626 ], [ 649, 668 ], [ 732, 740 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Much of the supply of bees is managed by pollination brokers, who contract with migratory beekeepers from at least 49 states for the event. This business was heavily affected by colony collapse disorder at the turn of the 21st century, causing a nationwide shortage of honey bees and increasing the price of insect pollination. To partially protect almond growers from these costs, researchers at the USA government Agricultural Research Service have developed self-pollinating almond trees that combine this character with quality characters such as a flavor and yield. Self-pollinating almond varieties exist, but they lack some commercial characters. However, through natural hybridisation between different almond varieties, a new variety that was self-pollinating with a high yield of commercial quality nuts was produced.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 318412, 20610449, 233609, 2390680, 251892, 407234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 99 ], [ 178, 202 ], [ 295, 304 ], [ 308, 326 ], [ 416, 445 ], [ 461, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almond trees can be attacked by an array of damaging microbes, fungal pathogens, plant viruses, and bacteria.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pavement ants (Tetramorium caespitum), southern fire ants (Solenopsis xyloni), and thief ants (Solenopsis molesta) are seed predators. Bryobia rubrioculus mites are most known for their damage to this crop.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 12955317, 836539, 14325023, 6984635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 36 ], [ 59, 76 ], [ 95, 113 ], [ 119, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almond production in California is concentrated mainly in the Central Valley, where the mild climate, rich soil, abundant sunshine and water supply make for ideal growing conditions. Due to the persistent droughts in California in the early 21st century, it became more difficult to raise almonds in a sustainable manner. The issue is complex because of the high amount of water needed to produce almonds: a single almond requires roughly of water to grow properly. Regulations related to water supplies are changing so some growers have destroyed their current almond orchards to replace with either younger trees or a different crop such as pistachio that needs less water.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 82140, 46809441, 40584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 76 ], [ 194, 227 ], [ 644, 653 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sustainability strategies implemented by the Almond Board of California and almond farmers include:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 59029407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " tree and soil health, and other farming practices", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 13364000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " minimizing dust production during the harvest", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " bee health", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 4654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " irrigation guidelines for farmers", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 42261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " food safety", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " use of waste biomass as coproducts with a goal to achieve zero waste", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 7906908, 1255961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 21 ], [ 59, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " use of solar energy during processing", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 27743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " job development", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " support of scientific research to investigate potential health benefits of consuming almonds", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 26833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " international education about sustainability practices", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2020, world production of almonds was 4.1 million tonnes, led by the United States providing 57% of the world total (table). Other leading producers were Spain, Australia, and Iran.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 31185, 26667, 4689264, 14653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 59 ], [ 157, 162 ], [ 164, 173 ], [ 179, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, production is concentrated in California where and six different almond varieties were under cultivation in 2017, with a yield of of shelled almonds. California production is marked by a period of intense pollination during late winter by rented commercial bees transported by truck across the U.S. to almond groves, requiring more than half of the total U.S. commercial honeybee population. The value of total U.S. exports of shelled almonds in 2016 was $3.2 billion.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 342324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All commercially grown almonds sold as food in the U.S. are sweet cultivars. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration reported in 2010 that some fractions of imported sweet almonds were contaminated with bitter almonds, which contain cyanide.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 11632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spain has diverse commercial cultivars of almonds grown in Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, Andalusia, and Aragón regions, and the Balearic Islands. Production in 2016 declined 2% nationally compared to 2015 production data.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 6822, 63861, 59727, 2736, 39443, 21336521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 68 ], [ 70, 78 ], [ 80, 86 ], [ 88, 97 ], [ 103, 109 ], [ 127, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 'Marcona' almond cultivar is recognizably different from other almonds and is marketed by name. The kernel is short, round, relatively sweet, and delicate in texture. Its origin is unknown and has been grown in Spain for a long time; the tree is very productive, and the shell of the nut is very hard.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Australia is the largest almond production region in the Southern Hemisphere. Most of the almond orchards are located along the Murray River corridor in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Cultivation", "target_page_ids": [ 261273, 19811, 21654, 26716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 76 ], [ 128, 140 ], [ 153, 168 ], [ 184, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bitter almonds contain 42 times higher amounts of cyanide than the trace levels found in sweet almonds. Extract of bitter almond was once used medicinally but even in small doses, effects are severe or lethal, especially in children; the cyanide must be removed before consumption. The acute oral lethal dose of cyanide for adult humans is reported to be of body weight (approximately 50 bitter almonds), so that for children consuming 5–10 bitter almonds may be fatal. Symptoms of eating such almonds include vertigo and other typical cyanide poisoning effects.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Toxicity", "target_page_ids": [ 2614714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 511, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almonds may cause allergy or intolerance. Cross-reactivity is common with peach allergens (lipid transfer proteins) and tree nut allergens. Symptoms range from local signs and symptoms (e.g., oral allergy syndrome, contact urticaria) to systemic signs and symptoms including anaphylaxis (e.g., urticaria, angioedema, gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Toxicity", "target_page_ids": [ 679350, 1395311, 51257, 58859, 21818683, 6945843, 3678047, 904954, 74240, 904954, 960896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 25 ], [ 29, 40 ], [ 74, 79 ], [ 80, 88 ], [ 91, 114 ], [ 120, 138 ], [ 192, 213 ], [ 215, 232 ], [ 275, 286 ], [ 294, 303 ], [ 305, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almonds are susceptible to aflatoxin-producing molds. Aflatoxins are potent carcinogenic chemicals produced by molds such as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. The mold contamination may occur from soil, previously infested almonds, and almond pests such as navel-orange worm. High levels of mold growth typically appear as gray to black filament like growth. It is unsafe to eat mold-infected tree nuts.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Toxicity", "target_page_ids": [ 177303, 6445, 698043, 55235852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 36 ], [ 76, 86 ], [ 125, 143 ], [ 148, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some countries have strict limits on allowable levels of aflatoxin contamination of almonds and require adequate testing before the nuts can be marketed to their citizens. The European Union, for example, introduced a requirement since 2007 that all almond shipments to EU be tested for aflatoxin. If aflatoxin does not meet the strict safety regulations, the entire consignment may be reprocessed to eliminate the aflatoxin or it must be destroyed.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Toxicity", "target_page_ids": [ 9317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Breeding programs have found the trait. High shell-seal provides resistance against these Aspergillus species and so against the developlment of their toxins.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Toxicity", "target_page_ids": [ 22590461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After tracing cases of salmonellosis to almonds, the USDA approved a proposal by the Almond Board of California to pasteurize almonds sold to the public. After publishing the rule in March 2007, the almond pasteurization program became mandatory for California companies effective September 1, 2007. Raw, untreated California almonds have not been available in the U.S. since then.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Toxicity", "target_page_ids": [ 1046292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "California almonds labeled \"raw\" must be steam-pasteurized or chemically treated with propylene oxide (PPO). This does not apply to imported almonds or almonds sold from the grower directly to the consumer in small quantities. The treatment also is not required for raw almonds sold for export outside of North America.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Toxicity", "target_page_ids": [ 600925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Almond Board of California states: \"PPO residue dissipates after treatment\". The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has reported: \"Propylene oxide has been detected in fumigated food products; consumption of contaminated food is another possible route of exposure\". PPO is classified as Group 2B (\"possibly carcinogenic to humans\").", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Toxicity", "target_page_ids": [ 58666, 1917748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 121 ], [ 293, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The USDA-approved marketing order was challenged in court by organic farmers organized by the Cornucopia Institute, a Wisconsin-based farm policy research group which filed a lawsuit in September 2008. According to the institute, this almond marketing order has imposed significant financial burdens on small-scale and organic growers and damaged domestic almond markets. A federal judge dismissed the lawsuit in early 2009 on procedural grounds. In August 2010, a federal appeals court ruled that the farmers have a right to appeal the USDA regulation. In March 2013, the court vacated the suit on the basis that the objections should have been raised in 2007 when the regulation was first proposed.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Toxicity", "target_page_ids": [ 29472829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almonds are 4% water, 22% carbohydrates, 21% protein, and 50% fat (table). In a reference amount, almonds supply of food energy. The almond is a nutritionally dense food (table), providing a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of the B vitamins riboflavin and niacin, vitamin E, and the essential minerals calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, and zinc. Almonds are a moderate source (10–19% DV) of the B vitamins thiamine, vitamin B6, and folate, choline, and the essential mineral potassium. They also contain substantial dietary fiber, the monounsaturated fat, oleic acid, and the polyunsaturated fat, linoleic acid. Typical of nuts and seeds, almonds are a source of phytosterols such as beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, sitostanol, and campestanol.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 33306, 5932, 23634, 11042, 182303, 267488, 457926, 26229, 53735803, 54104, 235195, 5668, 125293, 14734, 18909, 19051, 23318, 34420, 30500, 54110, 54117, 23055, 66554, 11042, 661100, 11042, 880497, 1862004, 4662967, 2966168, 2966163, 31386451, 40836844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 20 ], [ 26, 38 ], [ 45, 52 ], [ 62, 65 ], [ 118, 129 ], [ 225, 236 ], [ 249, 258 ], [ 260, 270 ], [ 275, 281 ], [ 283, 292 ], [ 302, 319 ], [ 321, 328 ], [ 330, 336 ], [ 338, 342 ], [ 344, 353 ], [ 355, 364 ], [ 366, 376 ], [ 382, 386 ], [ 448, 456 ], [ 458, 468 ], [ 474, 480 ], [ 517, 526 ], [ 558, 571 ], [ 577, 596 ], [ 598, 608 ], [ 618, 637 ], [ 639, 652 ], [ 705, 716 ], [ 726, 741 ], [ 743, 755 ], [ 757, 768 ], [ 770, 780 ], [ 786, 797 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almonds are included as a good source of protein among recommended healthy foods by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). A 2016 review of clinical research indicated that regular consumption of almonds may reduce the risk of heart disease by lowering blood levels of LDL cholesterol.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 70896, 4857593, 512662, 51521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 118 ], [ 144, 161 ], [ 231, 244 ], [ 273, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the almond is often eaten on its own, raw or toasted, it is also a component of various dishes. Almonds are available in many forms, such as whole, slivered, and ground into flour. Almond pieces around in size, called \"nibs\", are used for special purposes such as decoration.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Almonds are a common addition to breakfast muesli or oatmeal.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 371579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A wide range of classic sweets feature almonds as a central ingredient. Marzipan was developed in the Middle Ages. Since the 19th century almonds have been used to make bread, almond butter, cakes and puddings, candied confections, almond cream-filled pastries, nougat, cookies (macaroons, biscotti and qurabiya), and cakes (financiers, Esterházy torte), and other sweets and desserts.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 454514, 5084308, 344611, 595367, 1446854, 33040025, 2719447, 31989385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 80 ], [ 176, 189 ], [ 262, 268 ], [ 280, 288 ], [ 291, 299 ], [ 304, 312 ], [ 326, 336 ], [ 338, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The young, developing fruit of the almond tree can be eaten whole (green almonds) when they are still green and fleshy on the outside and the inner shell has not yet hardened. The fruit is somewhat sour, but is a popular snack in parts of the Middle East, eaten dipped in salt to balance the sour taste. Also in the Middle East they are often eaten with dates. They are available only from mid-April to mid-June in the Northern Hemisphere; pickling or brining extends the fruit's shelf life.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Marzipan, a smooth, sweetened almond paste, is used in a number of elegant cakes and desserts. Princess cake is covered by marzipan (similar to fondant), as is Battenberg cake. In Sicily, sponge cake is covered with marzipan to make cassatella di sant'Agata and cassata siciliana, and marzipan is dyed and crafted into realistic fruit shaped to make frutta martorana. The Andalusian Christmas pastry pan de Cádiz is filled with marzipan and candied fruit.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3215241, 24782112, 2003927, 2668132, 27619, 454514, 62296522, 3089396, 44813, 3777892, 42163788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 42 ], [ 95, 108 ], [ 144, 151 ], [ 160, 175 ], [ 180, 186 ], [ 216, 224 ], [ 233, 257 ], [ 262, 279 ], [ 350, 366 ], [ 372, 382 ], [ 400, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In French cuisine, alternating layers of almond and hazelnut meringue are used to make the dessert dacquoise. Pithivier is one of many almond cream-filled pastries.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 11002, 142212, 11908954, 6696690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 17 ], [ 61, 69 ], [ 99, 108 ], [ 110, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Germany, Easter bread called Deutsches Osterbrot is baked with raisins and almonds.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 12485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Greece almond flour is used to make amygdalopita, a glyka tapsiou dessert cake baking in a tray. Almonds are used for kourabiedes, a Greek version of the traditional quarabiya almond biscuits. A soft drink known as soumada is made from almonds in various regions.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 64534329, 433851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 51 ], [ 218, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Saudi Arabia, almonds are a typical embellishment for the rice dish kabsa.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 349303, 9589941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 15 ], [ 71, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Iran, green almonds are dipped in sea salt and eaten as snacks on street markets; they are called chaqale bâdam. Candied almonds called noghl are served alongside tea and coffee. Also, sweet almonds are used to prepare special food for babies, named harire badam. Almonds are added to some foods, cookies, and desserts, or are used to decorate foods. People in Iran consume roasted nuts for special events, for example, during New Year (Nowruz) parties.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 231065, 19338911, 200561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 45 ], [ 139, 144 ], [ 440, 446 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Italy, colomba di Pasqua is a traditional Easter cake made with almonds. Bitter almonds are the base for amaretti cookies, a common dessert. Almonds are also a common choice as the nuts to include in torrone.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 6444033, 63934283, 1064, 25086155, 421897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 45, 56 ], [ 67, 74 ], [ 108, 116 ], [ 203, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Morocco, almonds in the form of sweet almond paste are the main ingredient in pastry fillings, and several other desserts. Fried blanched whole almonds are also used to decorate sweet tajines such as lamb with prunes. Southwestern Berber regions of Essaouira and Souss are also known for amlou, a spread made of almond paste, argan oil, and honey. Almond paste is also mixed with toasted flour and among others, honey, olive oil or butter, anise, fennel, sesame seeds, and cinnamon to make sellou (also called zamita in Meknes or slilou in Marrakech), a sweet snack known for its long shelf life and high nutritive value.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3215241, 3572766, 1068539, 398027, 3820407, 398081, 20513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 53 ], [ 116, 124 ], [ 187, 193 ], [ 252, 261 ], [ 329, 338 ], [ 523, 529 ], [ 543, 552 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Indian cuisine, almonds are the base ingredients of pasanda-style and Mughlai curries. Badam halva is a sweet made from almonds with added coloring. Almond flakes are added to many sweets (such as sohan barfi), and are usually visible sticking to the outer surface. Almonds form the base of various drinks which are supposed to have cooling properties. Almond sherbet or sherbet-e-badaam, is a popular summer drink. Almonds are also sold as a snack with added salt.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 227809, 2407861, 24217897, 6597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 17 ], [ 55, 62 ], [ 73, 80 ], [ 81, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Israel almonds are used as a topping for tahini cookies or eaten as a snack.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 44840414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Spain Marcona almonds are usually toasted in oil and lightly salted. They are used by Spanish confectioners to prepare a sweet called turrón.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 421897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Arabian cuisine, almonds are commonly used as garnishing for Mansaf.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2053043, 1608006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 64, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Certain natural food stores sell \"bitter almonds\" or \"apricot kernels\" labeled as such, requiring significant caution by consumers for how to prepare and eat these products.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Almonds can be processed into a milk substitute called almond milk; the nut's soft texture, mild flavor, and light coloring (when skinned) make for an efficient analog to dairy, and a soy-free choice for lactose intolerant people and vegans. Raw, blanched, and lightly toasted almonds work well for different production techniques, some of which are similar to that of soymilk and some of which use no heat, resulting in raw milk.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2753115, 56873, 32587, 474943, 575131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 47 ], [ 204, 222 ], [ 234, 240 ], [ 369, 376 ], [ 421, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almond milk, along with almond butter and almond oil, are a versatile products used in both sweet and savoury dishes.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 5084308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Moroccan cuisine, sharbat billooz is one of the best known beverages, served for weddings, it is made by blending blanched almonds with milk, sugar and other flavorings.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 19761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almond flour or ground almond meal combined with sugar or honey as marzipan is often used as a gluten-free alternative to wheat flour in cooking and baking.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3215233, 3215233, 454514, 708662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 23, 34 ], [ 67, 75 ], [ 95, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almonds contain polyphenols in their skins consisting of flavonols, flavan-3-ols, hydroxybenzoic acids and flavanones analogous to those of certain fruits and vegetables. These phenolic compounds and almond skin prebiotic dietary fiber have commercial interest as food additives or dietary supplements.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 37694, 8143021, 292346, 29831537, 8142930, 1365531, 66554, 11815, 104444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 42 ], [ 57, 65 ], [ 68, 79 ], [ 82, 101 ], [ 107, 116 ], [ 212, 221 ], [ 222, 235 ], [ 264, 277 ], [ 282, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historically, almond syrup was an emulsion of sweet and bitter almonds, usually made with barley syrup (orgeat syrup) or in a syrup of orange flower water and sugar, often flavored with a synthetic aroma of almonds. Orgeat syrup is an important ingredient in the Mai Tai and many other Tiki drinks.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 10290, 1705278, 433851, 10534327, 161074, 4251987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 42 ], [ 90, 102 ], [ 104, 116 ], [ 135, 154 ], [ 263, 270 ], [ 286, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the cyanide found in bitter almonds, modern syrups generally are produced only from sweet almonds. Such syrup products do not contain significant levels of hydrocyanic acid, so are generally considered safe for human consumption.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 5910, 42078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 163, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almonds are a rich source of oil, with 50% of kernel dry mass as fat (whole almond nutrition table). In relation to total dry mass of the kernel, almond oil contains 32% monounsaturated oleic acid (an omega-9 fatty acid), 13% linoleic acid (a polyunsaturated omega-6 essential fatty acid), and 10% saturated fatty acid (mainly as palmitic acid). Linolenic acid, a polyunsaturated omega-3 fat, is not present (table). Almond oil is a rich source of vitamin E, providing 261% of the Daily Value per 100 millilitres.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 11042, 661100, 3110439, 880497, 11042, 681218, 105948, 264746, 542488, 4421561, 22594, 54104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 185 ], [ 186, 196 ], [ 201, 219 ], [ 226, 239 ], [ 243, 258 ], [ 259, 266 ], [ 267, 287 ], [ 298, 318 ], [ 330, 343 ], [ 346, 360 ], [ 380, 387 ], [ 448, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When almond oil is analyzed separately and expressed per 100 grams as a reference mass, the oil provides of food energy, 8 grams of saturated fat (81% of which is palmitic acid), 70 grams of oleic acid, and 17 grams of linoleic acid (oil table).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Oleum amygdalae, the fixed oil, is prepared from either sweet or bitter almonds, and is a glyceryl oleate with a slight odour and a nutty taste. It is almost insoluble in alcohol but readily soluble in chloroform or ether. Almond oil is obtained from the dried kernel of almonds. Sweet almond oil is used as a carrier oil in aromatherapy and cosmetics while bitter almond oil, containing benzaldehyde, is used as a food flavouring and in perfume.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 10048, 82933, 765457, 37694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 178 ], [ 202, 212 ], [ 216, 221 ], [ 261, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The almond is highly revered in some cultures. The tree originated in the Middle East. In the Bible the almond is mentioned ten times, beginning with Genesis 43:11, where it is described as \"among the best of fruits\". In Numbers 17 Levi is chosen from the other tribes of Israel by Aaron's rod, which brought forth almond flowers. The almond blossom supplied a model for the menorah which stood in the Holy Temple, \"Three cups, shaped like almond blossoms, were on one branch, with a knob and a flower; and three cups, shaped like almond blossoms, were on the other...on the candlestick itself were four cups, shaped like almond blossoms, with its knobs and flowers\" (Exodus 25:33–34; 37:19–20). Many Sephardic Jews give five almonds to each guest before special occasions like weddings.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In culture", "target_page_ids": [ 12667, 4376, 246921, 49940, 20735, 30526, 9662, 150185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 157 ], [ 221, 228 ], [ 232, 236 ], [ 282, 293 ], [ 375, 382 ], [ 402, 413 ], [ 669, 675 ], [ 702, 716 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly, Christian symbolism often uses almond branches as a symbol of the virgin birth of Jesus; paintings and icons often include almond-shaped haloes encircling the Christ Child and as a symbol of Mary. The word \"Luz\", which appears in Genesis 30:37, sometimes translated as \"hazel\", may actually be derived from the Aramaic name for almond (Luz), and is translated as such in the New International Version and other versions of the Bible. The Arabic name for almond is لوز \"lauz\" or \"lūz\". In some parts of the Levant and North Africa it is pronounced \"loz\", which is very close to its Aramaic origin.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In culture", "target_page_ids": [ 10326216, 146054, 14800, 1699474, 1357327, 73513, 623636, 396686, 2303, 21734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 30 ], [ 77, 98 ], [ 114, 118 ], [ 134, 154 ], [ 170, 182 ], [ 202, 206 ], [ 218, 221 ], [ 281, 286 ], [ 322, 329 ], [ 386, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Entrance of the flower (La entrada de la flor) is an event celebrated on 1 February in Torrent, Spain, in which the clavarios and members of the Confrerie of the Mother of God deliver a branch of the first-blooming almond-tree to the Virgin.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In culture", "target_page_ids": [ 49940133, 3421528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 91, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fruit tree forms", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 78928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fruit tree propagation", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 78175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fruit tree pruning", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 79888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of almond dishes", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47927072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of edible seeds", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1654614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " University of California Fruit and Nut Research and Information Center ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Almonds", "Prunus", "Edible_nuts_and_seeds", "Flora_of_Asia", "Pollination_management", "Snack_foods", "Nut_oils", "Crops", "Fruit_trees", "Symbols_of_California", "Flora_of_Lebanon_and_Syria" ]

[ "almond tree", "Almond" ]

[ { "plaintext": "This article is a demography of the population of Antigua and Barbuda including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 45642, 22949, 951, 128608, 105004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 28 ], [ 36, 46 ], [ 50, 69 ], [ 80, 98 ], [ 100, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the 2011 census the estimated resident population of Antigua and Barbuda was 86,295.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The estimated population of is ().", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Structure of the population (27.05.2011) (Census) :", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The population of Antigua and Barbuda, is predominantly black (91.0%) or mixed (4.4%). 1.9% of the population is white and 0.7% East Indian. There is also a small Amerindian population: 177 in 1991 and 214 in 2001 (0.3% of the total population). The remaining 1.6% of the population includes people from the Middle East (0.6%) and China (0.2%).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethnic groups", "target_page_ids": [ 951, 2402376, 19323, 372983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 37 ], [ 163, 173 ], [ 308, 319 ], [ 331, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2001 census disclosed that 19,425, or 30 per cent of the total population of Antigua and Barbuda, reported their place of birth as a foreign country. Over 15,000 of these persons were from other Caribbean states, representing 80 of the total foreign born. The main countries of", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethnic groups", "target_page_ids": [ 951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "origin were Guyana, Dominica and Jamaica. Approximately 4,500 or 23 per cent of all foreign", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethnic groups", "target_page_ids": [ 17238691, 11898195, 15660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 18 ], [ 20, 28 ], [ 33, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "born came from Guyana, 3,300 or 17 per cent came from Dominica and 2,800 or 14 per cent", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethnic groups", "target_page_ids": [ 17238691, 11898195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 21 ], [ 54, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "came from Jamaica. The largest single group from a country outside the region came from the", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethnic groups", "target_page_ids": [ 15660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "United States. Of the total of 1,715 persons, nine per cent of the foreign born, came", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethnic groups", "target_page_ids": [ 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "from the United States while three per cent and one per cent came from the United Kingdom and Canada, respectively. Many of these are the children of Antiguans and Barbudans who had emigrated to these countries, mainly during the 1980s, and subsequently returned.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ethnic groups", "target_page_ids": [ 31717, 5042916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 89 ], [ 94, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2019.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One birth every 360 minutes\t", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One death every 720 minutes\t", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One net migrant every Infinity minutes\t", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Net gain of one person every 720 minutes", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Demographic statistics according to the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 5163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Population", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "99,287 (Feb. 2022 est.)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nationality", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Noun: Antiguan(s), Barbudan(s)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Adjective: Antiguan, Barbudan", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ethnic groups ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "African descent 87.3%, mixed 4.7%, Hispanic 2.7%, white 1.6%, other 2.7%, unspecified 0.9% (2011 est.)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "note: data represent population by ethnic group", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Age structure ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "0-14 years: 22.52% (male 11,243/female 10,871)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "15-24 years: 16.15% (male 7,891/female 7,961)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "25-54 years: 41.68% (male 18,757/female 22,167)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "55-64 years: 10.74% (male 4,693/female 5,848)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "65 years and over: 8.91% (male 3,736/female 5,012) (2020 est.)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Median age", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Total: 32.7 years Country comparison to the world: 106th", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Male: 30.7 years", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Female: 34.4 years (2020 est.)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Birth rate ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "15.3 births/1,000 population (2021 est.) Country comparison to the world: 113th", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Death rate ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "5.63 deaths/1,000 population (2021 est.) Country comparison to the world: 177th", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Total fertility rate ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 636806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1.96 children born/woman (2021 est.) Country comparison to the world: 117th", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Net migration rate ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2.06 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2021 est.) Country comparison to the world: 49th", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Population growth rate", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1.17% (2021 est.) Country comparison to the world: 84th", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Population distribution", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The island of Antigua is home to approximately 97% of the population; nearly the entire population of Barbuda lives in Codrington", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Languages", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "English (official), Antiguan creole", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Religions", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Protestant 68.3% (Anglican 17.6%, Seventh Day Adventist 12.4%, Pentecostal 12.2%, Moravian 8.3%, Methodist 5.6%, Wesleyan Holiness 4.5%, Church of God 4.1%, Baptist 3.6%), Roman Catholic 8.2%, other 12.2%, unspecified 5.5%, none 5.9% (2011 est.)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Life expectancy at birth", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Total population: 77.6 years Country comparison to the world: 92nd", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "male: 75.4 years ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "female: 79.9 years (2021 est.)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Urbanization", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "urban population: 24.4% of total population (2020)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "rate of urbanization: 0.55% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dependency ratios", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 591931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Total dependency ratio: 45.3 (2020 est.)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Youth dependency ratio: 31.8 (2020 est.)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Elderly dependency ratio: 13.6 (2020 est.)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Potential support ratio: 7.4 (2020 est.)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 8081883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Education expenditures", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2.5% of GDP (2009) Country comparison to the world: 160th", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Obesity - adult prevalence rate ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "18.9% (2016) Country comparison to the world: 113rd", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Literacy", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Definition: age 15 and over has completed five or more years of schooling", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Total population: 99% ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Male: 98.4% ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Female: 99.4% (2015)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education) ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Total: 15 years ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Male: 14 years ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Female: 16 years (2012)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other demographics statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Demographics_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda", "Society_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The politics of Antigua and Barbuda takes place in a framework of a unitary parliamentary representative democratic monarchy, wherein the Sovereign of Antigua and Barbuda is the head of state, appointing a Governor-General to act as vice-regal representative in the nation. A Prime Minister is appointed by the Governor-General as the head of government, and of a multi-party system; the Prime Minister advises the Governor-General on the appointment of a Council of Ministers. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the Parliament. The bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (seventeen-member body appointed by the Governor General) and the House of Representatives (seventeen seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve five-year terms).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 216400, 182113, 52318, 4509347, 13456, 450170, 180708, 450172, 37570, 233475, 10263, 44421, 3726960, 204299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 75 ], [ 76, 89 ], [ 90, 115 ], [ 138, 170 ], [ 178, 191 ], [ 206, 222 ], [ 233, 243 ], [ 276, 290 ], [ 335, 353 ], [ 364, 382 ], [ 478, 493 ], [ 526, 543 ], [ 605, 615 ], [ 621, 630 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antigua and Barbuda has a long history of free elections, three of which have resulted in peaceful changes of government. Since the 1951 general election, the party system has been dominated by the Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party (ABLP), for a long time was dominated by the Bird family, particularly Prime Ministers Vere and Lester Bird. The opposition claimed to be disadvantaged by the ABLP's longstanding monopoly on patronage and its control of the media, especially in the 1999 general election. However, the opposition United Progressive Party (UPP) won 2004 elections, following its leader Winston Baldwin Spencer was Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda from 2004 to 2014.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20995038, 408255, 395100, 393729, 2905698, 408256, 553436, 555532, 450172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 153 ], [ 198, 230 ], [ 318, 322 ], [ 327, 338 ], [ 480, 501 ], [ 527, 551 ], [ 562, 576 ], [ 599, 622 ], [ 627, 664 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The elections to the House of Representatives were held on 12 June 2014. The Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party (ABLP) government was elected with fourteen seats. The United Progressive Party had three seats in the House of Representatives. ABLP won 15 of the 17 seats in the 2018 snap election under the leadership of incumbent Prime Minister Gaston Browne. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41607444, 408255, 408256, 56704585, 43045866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 77, 109 ], [ 165, 189 ], [ 274, 292 ], [ 342, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech, press, worship, movement, and association. Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the eastern Caribbean court system. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Jurisprudence is based on English common law.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 59564, 85441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 180 ], [ 260, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As head of state, Queen Elizabeth II is represented in Antigua and Barbuda by a governor general who acts on the advice of the prime minister and the cabinet.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Executive branch", "target_page_ids": [ 12153654, 951, 450170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ], [ 55, 74 ], [ 80, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antigua and Barbuda elects on national level a legislature. Parliament has two chambers. The House of Representatives has 19 members, 17 members elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies, 2 ex-officio member (President and Speaker). The Senate has 17 appointed members. The prime minister is the leader of the majority party in the House and conducts affairs of state with the cabinet. The prime minister and the cabinet are responsible to the Parliament. Elections must be held at least every five years but may be called by the prime minister at any time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legislative branch", "target_page_ids": [ 3726960, 204299, 3727100, 667057, 4477617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 70 ], [ 79, 87 ], [ 93, 117 ], [ 189, 203 ], [ 254, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are special legislative provisions to account for Barbuda's low population relative to that of Antigua. Barbuda is guaranteed one member of the House of Representatives and two members of the Senate. In addition, there is a Barbuda Council to govern the internal affairs of the island.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Legislative branch", "target_page_ids": [ 51336, 1967554, 4542874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 63 ], [ 101, 108 ], [ 230, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The country is divided into six parishes, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mary, Saint Paul, Saint Peter, and Saint Philip, which are all on the island of Antigua. Additionally, the islands of Barbuda and Redonda are considered dependencies.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Administrative divisions", "target_page_ids": [ 51336, 1025166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 199 ], [ 204, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court. This court is headquartered in Saint Lucia, but at least one judge of the Supreme Court resides in Antigua and Barbuda, and presides over the High Court of Justice. The current High Court judges are Jennifer Remy and Keith Thom.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Judicial branch", "target_page_ids": [ 3273724, 38313516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 70 ], [ 289, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antigua is also a member of the Caribbean Court of Justice, although it has not yet acceded to Part III of the 2001 Agreement Establishing a Caribbean Court of Justice. Its supreme appellate court therefore remains the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Indeed, of the signatories to the Agreement, as of December 2010, only Barbados has replaced appeals to Her Majesty in Council with the Caribbean Court of Justice.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Judicial branch", "target_page_ids": [ 1770299, 643, 15960, 1770299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 58 ], [ 181, 196 ], [ 227, 266 ], [ 404, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court, Antigua and Barbuda has a Magistrates' Court, which deals with lesser civil and criminal cases.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Judicial branch", "target_page_ids": [ 3273724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antigua Trades and Labor Union or ATLU [William ROBINSON]; People's Democratic Movement or PDM [Hugh MARSHALL]", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Political pressure groups and leaders", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "ACP Countries, ALBA, Caricom, Caribbean Development Bank, CELAC, Commonwealth of Nations, ECLAC, FAO, Group of 77, IBRD, ICAO, International Criminal Court, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, International Finance Corporation, IFRCS, International Labour Organization, International Monetary Fund, International Maritime Organization, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, Non-Aligned Movement (observer), Organization of American States, OECS, OPANAL, United Nations, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UPU, WCL, World Federation of Trade Unions, WHO, WMO, WTrO", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "International organisation participation", "target_page_ids": [ 1044202, 3223124, 57357, 891066, 26313243, 21175158, 998073, 11107, 213948, 36751, 14985, 14880, 36760, 15487, 36834, 36754, 9720597, 14987, 15251, 14986, 15516, 14338129, 15147, 14836, 68702564, 22788, 489119, 3185836, 36587, 21786641, 31713, 1392118, 38332, 33583, 33584, 33873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 15, 19 ], [ 21, 28 ], [ 30, 56 ], [ 58, 63 ], [ 65, 88 ], [ 90, 95 ], [ 97, 100 ], [ 102, 113 ], [ 115, 119 ], [ 121, 125 ], [ 127, 155 ], [ 157, 162 ], [ 164, 168 ], [ 170, 174 ], [ 176, 209 ], [ 211, 216 ], [ 218, 251 ], [ 253, 280 ], [ 282, 317 ], [ 319, 327 ], [ 349, 357 ], [ 359, 362 ], [ 364, 367 ], [ 369, 389 ], [ 402, 433 ], [ 435, 439 ], [ 441, 447 ], [ 465, 471 ], [ 473, 479 ], [ 481, 484 ], [ 486, 489 ], [ 491, 523 ], [ 525, 528 ], [ 530, 533 ], [ 535, 539 ] ] } ]

[ "Politics_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Telecommunications in Antigua and Barbuda are via media in the telecommunications industry. This article is about communications systems in Antigua and Barbuda.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 928324, 951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 90 ], [ 140, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Telephones – main lines in use: 37,500 (2006)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Telephone", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 168", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Telephone", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Telephones – mobile cellular: 110,200 (2006) (APUA PCS, Cable & Wireless, Digicel)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Telephone", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 177", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Telephone", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Telephone system:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Telephone", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "domestic: good automatic telephone system", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Telephone", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "international: 3 fiber optic submarine cables (2 to Saint Kitts and 1 to Guadeloupe); satellite earth station – 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Telephone", "target_page_ids": [ 27737, 12343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 63 ], [ 73, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Radio broadcast stations: AM 4, FM 6, shortwave 0 (2002)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Radio", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Radios: 36,000 (1997)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Radio", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Television broadcast stations: 2 (1997)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Televisions: 31,000 (1997)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Television", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Internet Service Providers (ISPs): Cable & Wireless, Antigua Computer Technologies (ACT), Antigua Public Utilities Authority (APUA INET)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Internet", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Internet hosts: 2,215 (2008)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Internet", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 140", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Internet", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Internet users: 60,000 (2007)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Internet", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 158", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Internet", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Country codes: AG", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Internet", "target_page_ids": [ 5375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antigua and Barbuda", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of telecommunication", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3276921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of telecommunications terminology", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 63823809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Outline of telecommunication", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7531293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antigua and Barbuda, SubmarineCableMap.com", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Telecommunications_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda", "Telecommunications_by_country", "Telecommunications_in_the_Caribbean_by_country" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force is the armed forces of Antigua and Barbuda. The ABDF has responsibility for several different roles: internal security, prevention of drug smuggling, the protection and support of fishing rights, prevention of marine pollution, search and rescue, ceremonial duties, assistance to government programs, provision of relief during natural disasters, assistance in the maintenance of essential services, and support of the police in maintaining law and order.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 92357, 951, 2127046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 56 ], [ 61, 80 ], [ 248, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ABDF is one of the world's smallest militaries, consisting of 245 personnel. It is much better equipped for fulfilling its civil roles as opposed to providing a deterrence against would-be aggressors or in defending the nation during a war.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ABDF consists of five major units:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Antigua and Barbuda Regiment — comprises four line companies and is the infantry unit and fighting arm of the defence force.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [ 1537503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Service and Support Unit — provides administrative, logistic and engineer support to the rest of the defence force.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Coast Guard — the maritime element of the defence force, and is divided into four units:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Commanding Officer's Office", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Engineer Unit", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Administration Unit", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Flotilla — the flotilla is the operational part of the Coast Guard, and consists of the following water-craft:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 Swiftships Shipbuilders 19.81-metre Commercial Cruiser-class patrol boat (P-01 Liberta), in service since 1984", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [ 536773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1 SeaArk Boats Dauntless-class patrol boat (P-02 Palmetto), in service since 1995", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 Point-class cutter (P-03 Hermitage), transferred from the U.S. Coast Guard in 1998", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [ 16084732, 36800882, 32223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 20 ], [ 22, 36 ], [ 60, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1 Defender 380X-class all-weather interceptor (D-8), date of acquisition unknown", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [ 4043193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2 Boston Whaler 8.23-metre launches (071 and 072), in service since 1988", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [ 5501649, 1257504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 15 ], [ 27, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1 Zodiac Marine & Pool 8.23-metre Hurricane-type rigid-hulled inflatable boat (RHIB) in service since 1998", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [ 29241197, 491456, 491456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 22 ], [ 49, 77 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force Air Wing", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [ 70534747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antigua and Barbuda Cadet Corps", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organisation", "target_page_ids": [ 22966715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 1983, fourteen men of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force were deployed to Grenada during the Operation Urgent Fury.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Former deployments", "target_page_ids": [ 159273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 1990, twelve soldiers were sent to Trinidad and Tobago after a failed coup attempt by a radical group against the constitutionally elected government headed by Prime Minister A.N.R. Robinson.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Former deployments", "target_page_ids": [ 3565457, 1688582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 58 ], [ 67, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 1995, members of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force were deployed in Haiti as a part of Operation Uphold Democracy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Former deployments", "target_page_ids": [ 532767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – Mercian Regiment", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Alliances", "target_page_ids": [ 1306656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Regional Security System", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7220000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force official page", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Article on the ABDF by Dr Dion Phillips", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Military_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda", "Military_units_and_formations_established_in_1981" ]

[ "RABDF", "Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force", "mil Antigua and Barbuda" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is considered to be a form of racism.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25955086, 25613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 125 ], [ 229, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antisemitism may be manifested in many ways, ranging from expressions of hatred of or discrimination against individual Jews to organized pogroms by mobs or police forces, or even military attacks on entire Jewish communities. Although the term did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is also applied to previous and later anti-Jewish incidents. Notable instances of persecution include the Rhineland massacres preceding the First Crusade in 1096, the Edict of Expulsion from England in 1290, the 1348–1351 persecution of Jews during the Black Death, the massacres of Spanish Jews in 1391, the persecutions of the Spanish Inquisition, the expulsion from Spain in 1492, the Cossack massacres in Ukraine from 1648 to 1657, various anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire between 1821 and 1906, the 1894–1906 Dreyfus affair in France, the Holocaust in German-occupied Europe during World War II and Soviet anti-Jewish policies. Though historically most manifestations of antisemitism have taken place in Christian Europe, since the early 20th century antisemitism has increased in the Middle East.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19328052, 140704, 23627, 1262054, 1304081, 106128, 1041878, 34879097, 2268706, 5980301, 1464947, 1191347, 16701812, 66179, 10396793, 9140389, 32927, 26305081, 2187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 79 ], [ 138, 144 ], [ 157, 170 ], [ 385, 396 ], [ 409, 428 ], [ 443, 456 ], [ 470, 488 ], [ 525, 567 ], [ 573, 598 ], [ 632, 651 ], [ 657, 677 ], [ 691, 719 ], [ 747, 788 ], [ 826, 840 ], [ 852, 865 ], [ 869, 891 ], [ 899, 911 ], [ 916, 943 ], [ 1068, 1113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The root word Semite gives the false impression that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic people, e.g., including Arabs, Assyrians, and Arameans. The compound word ('antisemitism') was first used in print in Germany in 1879 as a scientific-sounding term for ('Jew-hatred'), and this has been its common use since then.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 507851, 58695, 2185, 266350, 470212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 47 ], [ 90, 104 ], [ 122, 127 ], [ 129, 138 ], [ 144, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The origin of \"antisemitic\" terminologies is found in the responses of Moritz Steinschneider to the views of Ernest Renan. As Alex Bein writes: \"The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic prejudices' [i.e., his derogation of the \"Semites\" as a race].\" Avner Falk similarly writes: \"The German word antisemitisch was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907) in the phrase antisemitische Vorurteile (antisemitic prejudices). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renan's false ideas about how 'Semitic races' were inferior to 'Aryan races'\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 1582515, 191819, 17202821, 25614, 5974411, 58695, 42277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 92 ], [ 109, 121 ], [ 126, 135 ], [ 332, 336 ], [ 340, 350 ], [ 663, 676 ], [ 696, 706 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pseudoscientific theories concerning race, civilization, and \"progress\" had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as Prussian nationalistic historian Heinrich von Treitschke did much to promote this form of racism. He coined the phrase \"the Jews are our misfortune\" which would later be widely used by Nazis. According to Avner Falk, Treitschke uses the term \"Semitic\" almost synonymously with \"Jewish\", in contrast to Renan's use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples, based generally on linguistic criteria.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 23047, 371248, 228428, 31045316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 164, 171 ], [ 197, 220 ], [ 349, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Jonathan M. Hess, the term was originally used by its authors to \"stress the radical difference between their own 'antisemitism' and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1879, German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet (The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective) in which he used the word Semitismus interchangeably with the word Judentum to denote both \"Jewry\" (the Jews as a collective) and \"jewishness\" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 70175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This use of Semitismus was followed by a coining of \"Antisemitismus\" which was used to indicate opposition to the Jews as a people and opposition to the Jewish spirit, which Marr interpreted as infiltrating German culture. His next pamphlet, Der Weg zum Siege des Germanenthums über das Judenthum (The Way to Victory of the Germanic Spirit over the Jewish Spirit, 1880), presents a development of Marr's ideas further and may present the first published use of the German word Antisemitismus, \"antisemitism\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year he founded the Antisemiten-Liga (League of Antisemites), apparently named to follow the \"Anti-Kanzler-Liga\" (Anti-Chancellor League). The league was the first German organization committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence and advocating their forced removal from the country.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 42175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 378, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte, and Wilhelm Scherer used the term Antisemiten in the January issue of Neue Freie Presse.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 585725, 3245251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 144 ], [ 195, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Jewish Encyclopedia reports, \"In February 1881, a correspondent of the Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums speaks of 'Anti-Semitism' as a designation which recently came into use (\"Allg. Zeit. d. Jud.\" 1881, p.138). On 19 July 1882, the editor says, 'This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old.'\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 225815, 24197895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 75, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The word \"antisemitism\" was borrowed into English from German in 1881. Oxford English Dictionary editor James Murray wrote that it was not included in the first edition because \"Anti-Semite and its family were then probably very new in English use, and not thought likely to be more than passing nonce-words... Would that anti-Semitism had had no more than a fleeting interest!\" The related term \"philosemitism\" was used by 1881.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 22641, 581410, 182894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 96 ], [ 104, 116 ], [ 397, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the outset the term \"anti-Semitism\" bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews. The term is confusing, for in modern usage 'Semitic' designates a language group, not a race. In this sense, the term is a misnomer, since there are many speakers of Semitic languages (e.g. Arabs, Ethiopians, and Arameans) who are not the objects of antisemitic prejudices, while there are many Jews who do not speak Hebrew, a Semitic language. Though 'antisemitism' could be construed as prejudice against people who speak other Semitic languages, this is not how the term is commonly used.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 25955086, 26919, 2185, 1834548, 470212, 13450, 77182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 119 ], [ 287, 304 ], [ 311, 316 ], [ 318, 328 ], [ 334, 342 ], [ 438, 444 ], [ 510, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (antisemitism or anti-Semitism). Many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated form. Shmuel Almog argued, \"If you use the hyphenated form, you consider the words 'Semitism', 'Semite', 'Semitic' as meaningful... [I]n antisemitic parlance, 'Semites' really stands for Jews, just that.\" Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to \"[dispel] the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes.\" Others endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance, historian Deborah Lipstadt, Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for the Study of Jewish-Christian-Muslim Relations at Merrimack College; and historians Yehuda Bauer and James Carroll. According to Carroll, who first cites O'Hare and Bauer on \"the existence of something called 'Semitism'\", \"the hyphenated word thus reflects the bipolarity that is at the heart of the problem of antisemitism\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 1369237, 24174657, 410210, 824003, 1630416, 6024052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 341, 356 ], [ 564, 608 ], [ 620, 636 ], [ 782, 799 ], [ 816, 828 ], [ 833, 846 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, and, according to Olaf Blaschke, has become an \"umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews\", a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 51549272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Holocaust scholar and City University of New York professor Helen Fein defines it as \"a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions—social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence—which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 7541, 24466621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 49 ], [ 60, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of the University of Cologne writes that, to antisemites, \"Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 42754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For Sonja Weinberg, as distinct from economic and religious anti-Judaism, antisemitism in its modern form shows conceptual innovation, a resort to 'science' to defend itself, new functional forms and organisational differences. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist. It promoted the myth that Jews conspired to 'judaise' the world; it served to consolidate social identity; it channeled dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system; and it was used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and liberalism.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 8814638, 19349705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 72 ], [ 302, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bernard Lewis defined antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of \"cosmic evil.\" Thus, \"it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic\" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 185034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. The United States Department of State states that \"while there is no universally accepted definition, there is a generally clear understanding of what the term encompasses.\" For the purposes of its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism, the term was considered to mean \"hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 31975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (now Fundamental Rights Agency), then an agency of the European Union, developed a more detailed working definition, which states: \"Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities.\" It also adds that \"such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity,\" but that \"criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic.\" It provides contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself, including: promoting the harming of Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish person or group; denying the Holocaust or accusing Jews or Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews of dual loyalty or a greater allegiance to Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, and states that denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor, can be a manifestation of antisemitism—as can applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation, or holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel. The definition has been adopted by the European Parliament Working Group on Antisemitism, in 2010 it was adopted by the United States Department of State, in 2014 it was adopted in the Operational Hate Crime Guidance of the UK College of Policing and was also adopted by the Campaign Against Antisemitism,. In 2016, the definition was adopted by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance. The Working Definition of Antisemitism is among the most controversial documents related to opposition to antisemitism, and critics argue that it has been used to censor criticism of Israel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 34141, 3311742, 9317, 58031606, 65651, 293526, 9581, 38480967, 24174657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 64 ], [ 70, 95 ], [ 120, 134 ], [ 162, 180 ], [ 1016, 1037 ], [ 1106, 1118 ], [ 1683, 1702 ], [ 1871, 1890 ], [ 1994, 2038 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1879, Wilhelm Marr founded the Antisemiten-Liga (Anti-Semitic League). Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe during the late 19th century. For example, Karl Lueger, the popular mayor of fin de siècle Vienna, skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage. In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, The New York Times notes that Lueger was \"Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria. In 1895, A. C. Cuza organized the Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle in Bucharest. In the period before World War II, when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, an organization, or a political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 70175, 220238, 173433, 55866, 3896997, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 21 ], [ 210, 221 ], [ 244, 257 ], [ 258, 264 ], [ 569, 579 ], [ 665, 677 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The early Zionist pioneer Leon Pinsker, a professional physician, preferred the clinical-sounding term Judeophobia to antisemitism, which he regarded as a misnomer. The word Judeophobia first appeared in his pamphlet \"Auto-Emancipation\", published anonymously in German in September 1882, where it was described as an irrational fear or hatred of Jews. According to Pinsker, this irrational fear was an inherited predisposition. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 34484, 997924, 3172417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ], [ 26, 38 ], [ 218, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the aftermath of the Kristallnacht pogrom in 1938, German propaganda minister Goebbels announced: \"The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 83530, 15777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 37 ], [ 81, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the 1945 victory of the Allies over Nazi Germany, and particularly after the full extent of the Nazi genocide against the Jews became known, the term antisemitism acquired pejorative connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when \"Jew\" was used as a pejorative term. Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: \"There are no anti-Semites in the world... Nobody says, 'I am anti-Semitic.' You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 360422, 10396793, 23658801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 54 ], [ 102, 132 ], [ 178, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The study of antisemitism has become politically controversial because of differing interpretations of the Holocaust and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. There are two competing views of antisemitism, eternalism and contextualism. The eternalist view sees antisemitism as separate from other forms of racism and prejudice and an exceptionalist, transhistorical force teleologically culminating in the Holocaust. Hannah Arendt criticized this approach, writing that it provoked \"the uncomfortable question: 'Why the Jews of all people?' . . . with the question begging reply: Eternal hostility.\" Zionist thinkers and antisemites draw different conclusions from what they perceive as the eternal hatred of Jews; according to antisemites, it proves the inferiority of Jews, while for Zionists it means that Jews need their own state as a refuge. Most Zionists do not believe that antisemitism can be combatted with education or other means.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 80757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 368, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The contextual approach treats antisemitism as a type of racism and focuses on the historical context in which hatred of Jews emerges. Some contextualists restrict the use of \"antisemitism\" to refer exclusively to the era of modern racism, treating anti-Judaism as a separate phenomenon. Historian David Engel has challenged the project to define antisemitism, arguing that it essentializes Jewish history as one of persecution and discrimination. Engel argues that the term \"antisemitism\" is not useful in historical analysis because it implies that there are links between anti-Jewish prejudices expressed in different contexts, without evidence of such a connection.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin and usage", "target_page_ids": [ 17628334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 298, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways. René König mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points out that these different forms demonstrate that the \"origins of anti-Semitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods.\" König asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create \"serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of anti-Semitism.\" These difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize the forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ. Bernard Lazare identifies three forms of antisemitism: Christian antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and ethnologic antisemitism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 10980987, 3918938, 6728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 62 ], [ 853, 867 ], [ 908, 930 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Brustein names four categories: religious, racial, economic and political. The Roman Catholic historian Edward Flannery distinguished four varieties of antisemitism:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 34496711, 606848, 8836833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 87, 101 ], [ 112, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "political and economic antisemitism, giving as examples Cicero and Charles Lindbergh;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 6046, 82981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 62 ], [ 67, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "theological or religious antisemitism, sometimes known as anti-Judaism;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 507981, 8814638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ], [ 58, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "nationalistic antisemitism, citing Voltaire and other Enlightenment thinkers, who attacked Jews for supposedly having certain characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing customs such as kashrut and Shabbat;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 32375, 30758, 16881, 28809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 43 ], [ 54, 67 ], [ 206, 213 ], [ 218, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and racial antisemitism, with its extreme form resulting in the Holocaust by the Nazis.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 6487512, 10396793, 31045316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 60, 73 ], [ 81, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Louis Harap separates \"economic antisemitism\" and merges \"political\" and \"nationalistic\" antisemitism into \"ideological antisemitism\". Harap also adds a category of \"social antisemitism\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " religious (Jew as Christ-killer),", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " economic (Jew as banker, usurer, money-obsessed),", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " social (Jew as social inferior, \"pushy,\" vulgar, therefore excluded from personal contact),", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " racist (Jews as an inferior \"race\"),", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ideological (Jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary),", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " cultural (Jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber of civilization).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Louis Harap defines cultural antisemitism as \"that species of anti-Semitism that charges the Jews with corrupting a given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform, crude, \"Jewish\" culture.\" Similarly, Eric Kandel characterizes cultural antisemitism as being based on the idea of \"Jewishness\" as a \"religious or cultural tradition that is acquired through learning, through distinctive traditions and education.\" According to Kandel, this form of antisemitism views Jews as possessing \"unattractive psychological and social characteristics that are acquired through acculturation.\" Niewyk and Nicosia characterize cultural antisemitism as focusing on and condemning \"the Jews' aloofness from the societies in which they live.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 193622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 261, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of Judaism to be redeemable by education or by religious conversion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Religious antisemitism, also known as anti-Judaism, is antipathy towards Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. In theory, antisemitism and attacks against individual Jews would stop if Jews stopped practicing Judaism or changed their public faith, especially by conversion to the official or right religion. However, in some cases, discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of Marranos (Christianized Jews in Spain and Portugal) in the late 15th century and 16th century, who were suspected of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 507981, 25597, 151826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 275, 285 ], [ 406, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserts that \"most scholars ignore the Christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism and the like.\" William Nichols draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: \"The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion [...] a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism.\" From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however, \"the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism.[...] From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews[...] Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 4298, 30758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 619, 626 ], [ 755, 768 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some Christians such as the Catholic priest Ernest Jouin, who published the first French translation of the Protocols, combined religious and racial antisemitism, as in his statement that \"From the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity.\" The virulent antisemitism of Édouard Drumont, one of the most widely read Catholic writers in France during the Dreyfus Affair, likewise combined religious and racial antisemitism. Drumont founded the Antisemitic League of France.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 58716308, 290852, 10638590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 56 ], [ 329, 344 ], [ 501, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that Jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by Jews.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 32078647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linking Jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting antisemitic canards. Antisemites claim that Jews control the world finances, a theory promoted in the fraudulent Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and later repeated by Henry Ford and his Dearborn Independent. In the modern era, such myths continue to be spread in books such as The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews published by the Nation of Islam, and on the internet.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 9214439, 19349705, 13371, 207776, 28335112, 21709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 81 ], [ 176, 207 ], [ 231, 241 ], [ 250, 270 ], [ 341, 388 ], [ 406, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Derek Penslar writes that there are two components to the financial canards:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 21751627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "a) Jews are savages that \"are temperamentally incapable of performing honest labor\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "b) Jews are \"leaders of a financial cabal seeking world domination\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Abraham Foxman describes six facets of the financial canards:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 939157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All Jews are wealthy", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jews are stingy and greedy", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Powerful Jews control the business world", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jewish religion emphasizes profit and materialism", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is okay for Jews to cheat non-Jews", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jews use their power to benefit \"their own kind\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gerald Krefetz summarizes the myth as \"[Jews] control the banks, the money supply, the economy, and businesses—of the community, of the country, of the world\". Krefetz gives, as illustrations, many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which suggest that Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive bargainers. During the nineteenth century, Jews were described as \"scurrilous, stupid, and tight-fisted\", but after the Jewish Emancipation and the rise of Jews to the middle- or upper-class in Europe were portrayed as \"clever, devious, and manipulative financiers out to dominate [world finances]\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 31220715, 1022009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 443, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Léon Poliakov asserts that economic antisemitism is not a distinct form of antisemitism, but merely a manifestation of theologic antisemitism (because, without the theological causes of the economic antisemitism, there would be no economic antisemitism). In opposition to this view, Derek Penslar contends that in the modern era, the economic antisemitism is \"distinct and nearly constant\" but theological antisemitism is \"often subdued\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 3261122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An academic study by Francesco D'Acunto, Marcel Prokopczuk, and Michael Weber showed that people who live in areas of Germany that contain the most brutal history of antisemitic persecution are more likely to be distrustful of finance in general. Therefore, they tended to invest less money in the stock market and make poor financial decisions. The study concluded \"that the persecution of minorities reduces not only the long-term wealth of the persecuted, but of the persecutors as well.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Racial antisemitism is prejudice against Jews as a racial/ethnic group, rather than Judaism as a religion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 25955086, 15624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 44 ], [ 84, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Racial antisemitism is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the eugenics movement, which categorized non-Europeans as inferior. It more specifically claimed that Northern Europeans, or \"Aryans\", were superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their non-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 9737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the Industrial Revolution, following the Jewish Emancipation, Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing nationalism, the rise of eugenics, and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 14914, 1022009, 21748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 130 ], [ 146, 165 ], [ 354, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to William Nichols, religious antisemitism may be distinguished from modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds. \"The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion... a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism.\" However, with racial antisemitism, \"Now the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism.... From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews... Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 25614, 105004, 30758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 114 ], [ 118, 124 ], [ 349, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 19th century, a number of laws enabling emancipation of the Jews were enacted in Western European countries. The old laws restricting them to ghettos, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights, rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded. Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by racial antisemitism, encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as Joseph Arthur de Gobineau and particularly his Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race of 1853–1855. Nationalist agendas based on ethnicity, known as ethnonationalism, usually excluded the Jews from the national community as an alien race. Allied to this were theories of Social Darwinism, which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by northern Europeans, advocated the superiority of white Aryans to Semitic Jews.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 92903, 6487512, 141013, 21748, 105004, 40362569, 45541, 24558035, 58695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 161 ], [ 393, 412 ], [ 465, 490 ], [ 568, 579 ], [ 597, 606 ], [ 617, 633 ], [ 739, 755 ], [ 929, 934 ], [ 939, 946 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Brustein defines political antisemitism as hostility toward Jews based on the belief that Jews seek national and/or world power. Yisrael Gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to \"lay responsibility on the Jews for defeats and political economic crises\" while seeking to \"exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish influence as elements in political party platforms.\" Derek J. Penslar wrote, \"Political antisemitism identified the Jews as responsible for all the anxiety-provoking social forces that characterized modernity.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 34496711, 21751627, 185130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 394, 410 ], [ 540, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Viktor Karády, political antisemitism became widespread after the legal emancipation of the Jews and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Holocaust denial and Jewish conspiracy theories are also considered forms of antisemitism. Zoological conspiracy theories have been propagated by Arab media and Arabic language websites, alleging a \"Zionist plot\" behind the use of animals to attack civilians or to conduct espionage.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 65651, 69417974, 30330215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 21, 38 ], [ 91, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of new antisemitism, coming simultaneously from the left, the right, and radical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the State of Israel, and they argue that the language of anti-Zionism and criticism of Israel are used to attack Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel and Zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and they attribute this to antisemitism. Jewish scholar Gustavo Perednik posited in 2004 that anti-Zionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against Jews, in that it singles out Jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist endeavor, and \"proposes actions that would result in the death of millions of Jews\". It is asserted that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs, including older motifs such as the blood libel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 675582, 18499, 56522, 15012, 9282173, 19698503, 30074296, 30074296, 34484, 18282596, 4941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 82 ], [ 115, 119 ], [ 125, 130 ], [ 136, 149 ], [ 230, 245 ], [ 283, 295 ], [ 300, 319 ], [ 419, 439 ], [ 444, 451 ], [ 565, 581 ], [ 958, 969 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism, and as exploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, misusing it to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manifestations", "target_page_ids": [ 30074296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Traditional Muslim antisemitism which was—at least, in its classical form—nuanced in that Jews were a protected class", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism in the 20th century", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the New Antisemitism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 675582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: \"ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature; Christian antisemitism, which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century BCE to Alexandria, the home to the largest Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was produced. Manetho, an Egyptian priest and historian of that era, wrote scathingly of the Jews. His themes are repeated in the works of Chaeremon, Lysimachus, Poseidonius, Apollonius Molon, and in Apion and Tacitus. Agatharchides of Cnidus ridiculed the practices of the Jews and the \"absurdity of their Law\", making a mocking reference to how Ptolemy Lagus was able to invade Jerusalem in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the Shabbat. One of the earliest anti-Jewish edicts, promulgated by Antiochus IV Epiphanes in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the Maccabees in Judea.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3080, 27915, 30344, 555313, 1435104, 249313, 87868, 1257178, 153238, 19594563, 99435, 30343, 84096, 16043, 28809, 248344, 92459, 163320, 21491730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 100 ], [ 191, 201 ], [ 230, 242 ], [ 258, 265 ], [ 383, 392 ], [ 394, 404 ], [ 406, 417 ], [ 419, 435 ], [ 444, 449 ], [ 454, 461 ], [ 463, 486 ], [ 545, 554 ], [ 591, 604 ], [ 624, 633 ], [ 688, 695 ], [ 729, 734 ], [ 752, 774 ], [ 821, 830 ], [ 834, 839 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by \"the Greek retelling of Ancient Egyptian prejudices\". The ancient Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died. The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews being portrayed as misanthropes. Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the poleis. Bohak has argued, however, that early animosity against the Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 42056, 874, 210191, 47172, 131855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 114 ], [ 128, 141 ], [ 189, 208 ], [ 372, 384 ], [ 514, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers. Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses \"in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life.\" Manetho, an Egyptian historian, wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian lepers who had been taught by Moses \"not to adore the gods.\" Edward Flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially \"cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23340, 66540, 521555, 555313, 44700, 19577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 103 ], [ 104, 109 ], [ 114, 119 ], [ 450, 457 ], [ 525, 531 ], [ 555, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are examples of Hellenistic rulers desecrating the Temple and banning Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, Shabbat observance, study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 455379, 30526, 8718425, 3080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 33 ], [ 57, 63 ], [ 112, 124 ], [ 235, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Jewish diaspora on the Nile island Elephantine, which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21244, 340282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 31 ], [ 39, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying Roman Empire were at times antagonistic and resulted in several rebellions. According to Suetonius, the emperor Tiberius expelled from Rome Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon identified a more tolerant period in Roman-Jewish relations beginning in about 160 CE. However, when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire, the state's attitude towards the Jews gradually worsened.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25507, 1356252, 37323, 30536, 10310, 405419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 70 ], [ 114, 132 ], [ 147, 156 ], [ 170, 178 ], [ 266, 279 ], [ 479, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "James Carroll asserted: \"Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors such as pogroms and conversions had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6024052, 25507, 140704, 7079135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 79, 91 ], [ 133, 139 ], [ 145, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbade Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days. Continuing throughout the 7th century, both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social aggression and towards Jews with \"civic and ecclesiastic punishments\", ranging between forced conversion, slavery, exile and death.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From the 9th century, the medieval Islamic world classified Jews and Christians as dhimmis, and allowed Jews to practice their religion more freely than they could do in medieval Christian Europe. Under Islamic rule, there was a Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain that lasted until at least the 11th century. It ended when several Muslim pogroms against Jews took place on the Iberian Peninsula, including those that occurred in Córdoba in 1011 and in Granada in 1066. Several decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were also enacted in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen from the 11th century. In addition, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th centuries. The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusian territories by 1147, were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their predecessors, and they treated the dhimmis harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated. Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37477763, 9090, 18836, 355643, 411091, 140704, 14883, 53669, 9892028, 48559, 8087628, 7515849, 7515928, 350939, 6037917, 350939, 19291, 4492, 49867, 1649, 346014, 19445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 48 ], [ 83, 90 ], [ 170, 195 ], [ 203, 215 ], [ 229, 266 ], [ 341, 347 ], [ 380, 397 ], [ 432, 439 ], [ 455, 470 ], [ 516, 525 ], [ 548, 553 ], [ 555, 560 ], [ 562, 566 ], [ 571, 576 ], [ 644, 649 ], [ 681, 686 ], [ 688, 695 ], [ 700, 707 ], [ 763, 771 ], [ 802, 812 ], [ 814, 822 ], [ 1086, 1096 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In medieval Europe, Jews were persecuted with blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and massacres. These persecutions were often justified on religious grounds and reached a first peak during the Crusades. In 1096, hundreds or thousands of Jews were killed during the First Crusade. This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Christian Europe outside Spain and was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of Israel. In 1147, there were several massacres of Jews during the Second Crusade. The Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320 both involved attacks, as did Rintfleisch massacres in 1298. Expulsions followed, such as in 1290, the banishment of Jews from England; in 1394, the expulsion of 100,000 Jews in France; and in 1421, the expulsion of thousands from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland. In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders, the Franciscans (especially Bernardino of Feltre) and Dominicans (especially Vincent Ferrer), who combed Europe and promoted antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional appeals.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18836, 4941, 7079135, 30923647, 4412145, 1304081, 106128, 106130, 14923181, 14923262, 5181939, 9316, 9458994, 1195103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 46, 57 ], [ 72, 89 ], [ 95, 103 ], [ 203, 211 ], [ 247, 263 ], [ 275, 288 ], [ 531, 545 ], [ 551, 578 ], [ 583, 587 ], [ 618, 639 ], [ 715, 722 ], [ 1111, 1131 ], [ 1160, 1174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the Black Death epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, causing the death of a large part of the population, Jews were used as scapegoats. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed in numerous persecutions. Although Pope Clement VI tried to protect them by issuing two papal bulls in 1348, the first on 6 July and an additional one several months later, 900 Jews were burned alive in Strasbourg, where the plague had not yet affected the city.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4501, 179076, 34879097, 24103, 210043, 21765396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ], [ 143, 153 ], [ 267, 301 ], [ 312, 327 ], [ 365, 375 ], [ 464, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Martin Luther, an ecclesiastical reformer whose teachings inspired the Reformation, wrote antagonistically about Jews in his pamphlet On the Jews and their Lies, written in 1543. He portrays the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriates them and provides detailed recommendations for a pogrom against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion. At one point he writes: \"...we are at fault in not slaying them...\", a passage that, according to historian Paul Johnson, \"may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism, and a giant step forward on the road to the Holocaust.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7567080, 618254, 37857, 3078844, 140704, 735553, 10396793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 18, 32 ], [ 71, 82 ], [ 134, 160 ], [ 286, 292 ], [ 469, 481 ], [ 577, 590 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the mid-to-late 17th century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these conflicts was the Khmelnytsky Uprising, when Bohdan Khmelnytsky's supporters massacred tens of thousands of Jews in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's Ukraine). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases, and captivity in the Ottoman Empire, called jasyr.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 343234, 1191347, 4980, 416798, 31750, 13993862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 70 ], [ 292, 312 ], [ 319, 337 ], [ 382, 386 ], [ 444, 451 ], [ 656, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "European immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to the country as early as the 17th century. Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor of New Amsterdam, implemented plans to prevent Jews from settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government limited the political and economic rights of Jews. It was not until the American Revolutionary War that Jews gained legal rights, including the right to vote. However, even at their peak, the restrictions on Jews in the United States were never as stringent as they had been in Europe.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 24968, 21685, 771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 123 ], [ 147, 160 ], [ 344, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Zaydi imamate of Yemen, Jews were also singled out for discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general expulsion of all Jews from places in Yemen to the arid coastal plain of Tihamah and which became known as the Mawza Exile.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 430074, 350939, 4055142, 43679677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ], [ 24, 29 ], [ 202, 209 ], [ 240, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1744, Archduchess of Austria Maria Theresa ordered Jews out of Bohemia but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This extortion was known among the Jews as malke-geld (\"queen's money\" in Yiddish). In 1752, she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 48449, 4345, 162449, 30494448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 45 ], [ 66, 73 ], [ 181, 190 ], [ 219, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1782, Joseph II abolished most of these persecution practices in his Toleranzpatent, on the condition that Yiddish and Hebrew were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled. Moses Mendelssohn wrote that \"Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 148313, 3984024, 34272, 13450, 44893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 18 ], [ 72, 86 ], [ 110, 117 ], [ 122, 128 ], [ 206, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Arnold Ages, Voltaire's \"Lettres philosophiques, Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but a few of his better known works, are saturated with comments on Jews and Judaism and the vast majority are negative\". Paul H. Meyer adds: \"There is no question but that Voltaire, particularly in his latter years, nursed a violent hatred of the Jews and it is equally certain that his animosity...did have a considerable impact on public opinion in France.\" Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's Dictionnaire Philosophique concerned Jews and described them in consistently negative ways.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 65594439, 32375, 1170055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 24 ], [ 26, 34 ], [ 513, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The counter-revolutionary Catholic royalist Louis de Bonald stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of the French Revolution. Bonald's attacks on the Jews are likely to have influenced Napoleon's decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews. Bonald's article Sur les juifs (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a defense of a rural society, traditional Christian antisemitism, and the identification of Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such as Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux, Charles Maurras, and Édouard Drumont, nationalists such as Maurice Barrès and Paolo Orano, and antisemitic socialists such as Alphonse Toussenel. Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews were an \"alien\" people, a \"state within a state\", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 43440724, 629224, 11188, 69880, 34244703, 219709, 290852, 160525, 24181454, 2957918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 44, 59 ], [ 176, 193 ], [ 254, 262 ], [ 671, 699 ], [ 701, 716 ], [ 722, 737 ], [ 760, 774 ], [ 779, 790 ], [ 827, 845 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under the French Second Empire, the popular counter-revolutionary Catholic journalist Louis Veuillot propagated Bonald's arguments against the Jewish \"financial aristocracy\" along with vicious attacks against the Talmud and the Jews as a \"deicidal people\" driven by hatred to \"enslave\" Christians. Between 1882 and 1886 alone, French priests published twenty antisemitic books blaming France's ills on the Jews and urging the government to consign them back to the ghettos, expel them, or hang them from the gallows. Gougenot des Mousseaux's Le Juif, le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens (1869) has been called a \"Bible of modern antisemitism\" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 212877, 50050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 100 ], [ 708, 724 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thousands of Jews were slaughtered by Cossack Haidamaks in the 1768 massacre of Uman in the Kingdom of Poland. In 1772, the empress of Russia Catherine II forced the Jews into the Pale of Settlement which was located primarily in present-day Poland, Ukraine and Belarus and to stay in their shtetls and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the partition of Poland. From 1804, Jews were banned from their villages, and began to stream into the towns. A decree by emperor Nicholas I of Russia in 1827 conscripted Jews under 18 years of age into the cantonist schools for a 25-year military service in order to promote baptism.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 410055, 2568909, 393169, 44240, 360094, 231961, 43794, 46641, 922665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 55 ], [ 68, 84 ], [ 92, 109 ], [ 142, 154 ], [ 180, 198 ], [ 293, 300 ], [ 376, 395 ], [ 502, 522 ], [ 579, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Policy towards Jews was liberalised somewhat under Czar Alexander II (). However, his assassination in 1881 served as a pretext for further repression such as the May Laws of 1882. Konstantin Pobedonostsev, nicknamed the \"black czar\" and tutor to the czarevitch, later crowned Czar Nicholas II, declared that \"One third of the Jews must die, one third must emigrate, and one third be converted to Christianity\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 41988252, 1031603, 764621, 400270, 30172853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 68 ], [ 163, 171 ], [ 181, 205 ], [ 251, 261 ], [ 277, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historian Martin Gilbert writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: \"I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1573210, 19541, 302876, 1647637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 102, 108 ], [ 120, 132 ], [ 537, 546 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the middle of the 19th century, J. J. Benjamin wrote about the life of Persian Jews, describing conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century: \"…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt….\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6848030, 1694940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 49 ], [ 74, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Jerusalem at least, conditions for some Jews improved. Moses Montefiore, on his seventh visit in 1875, noted that fine new buildings had sprung up and, \"surely we're approaching the time to witness God's hallowed promise unto Zion.\" Muslim and Christian Arabs participated in Purim and Passover; Arabs called the Sephardis 'Jews, sons of Arabs'; the Ulema and the Rabbis offered joint prayers for rain in time of drought.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 33589731, 193455, 23059, 150185, 165511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 74 ], [ 279, 284 ], [ 289, 297 ], [ 316, 324 ], [ 353, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the time of the Dreyfus trial in France, \"Muslim comments usually favoured the persecuted Jew against his Christian persecutors\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1850, the German composer Richard Wagner – who has been called \"the inventor of modern antisemitism\" – published Das Judenthum in der Musik (roughly \"Jewishness in Music\") under a pseudonym in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries, and rivals, Felix Mendelssohn and Giacomo Meyerbeer, but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in German culture, who corrupted morals and were, in fact, parasites incapable of creating truly \"German\" art. The crux was the manipulation and control by the Jews of the money economy:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25452, 149714, 40594, 4196164, 76370, 187895, 1195868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 43 ], [ 116, 142 ], [ 183, 192 ], [ 200, 226 ], [ 328, 345 ], [ 350, 367 ], [ 437, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although originally published anonymously, when the essay was republished 19 years later, in 1869, the concept of the corrupting Jew had become so widely held that Wagner's name was affixed to it.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Antisemitism can also be found in many of the Grimms' Fairy Tales by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, published from 1812 to 1857. It is mainly characterized by Jews being the villain of a story, such as in \"The Good Bargain\" (\"Der gute Handel\") and \"The Jew Among Thorns\" (\"Der Jude im Dorn\").", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3017525, 16514, 41973, 254515, 57870011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 65 ], [ 69, 74 ], [ 79, 92 ], [ 168, 175 ], [ 243, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The middle 19th century saw continued official harassment of the Jews, especially in Eastern Europe under Czarist influence. For example, in 1846, 80 Jews approached the governor in Warsaw to retain the right to wear their traditional dress, but were immediately rebuffed by having their hair and beards forcefully cut, at their own expense.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In America, even such influential figures as Walt Whitman tolerated bigotry toward the Jews. During his time as editor of the Brooklyn Eagle (1846–1848), the newspaper published historical sketches casting Jews in a bad light.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Dreyfus Affair was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century. Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery captain in the French Army, was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. The actual spy, Marie Charles Esterhazy, was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French, with the public choosing sides on the issue of whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. Émile Zola accused the army of corrupting the French justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: 80% of the press in France condemned him. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 66179, 71839, 611740, 148681, 163536, 44980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 102, 116 ], [ 152, 163 ], [ 289, 306 ], [ 310, 324 ], [ 521, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adolf Stoecker (1835–1909), the Lutheran court chaplain to Kaiser Wilhelm I, founded in 1878 an antisemitic, anti-liberal political party called the Christian Social Party. This party always remained small, and its support dwindled after Stoecker's death, with most of its members eventually joining larger conservative groups such as the German National People's Party.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1392460, 23371382, 151112, 19280734, 7733080, 405670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 32, 40 ], [ 59, 75 ], [ 109, 121 ], [ 149, 171 ], [ 339, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some scholars view Karl Marx's essay \"On The Jewish Question\" as antisemitic, and argue that he often used antisemitic epithets in his published and private writings. These scholars argue that Marx equated Judaism with capitalism in his essay, helping to spread that idea. Some further argue that the essay influenced National Socialist, as well as Soviet and Arab antisemites. Marx himself had Jewish ancestry, and Albert Lindemann and Hyam Maccoby have suggested that he was embarrassed by it. Others argue that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities' struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that \"On the Jewish Question\" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism. Iain Hamphsher-Monk wrote that \"This work [On The Jewish Question] has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation.\" David McLellan and Francis Wheen argue that readers should interpret On the Jewish Question in the deeper context of Marx's debates with Bruno Bauer, author of The Jewish Question, about Jewish emancipation in Germany. Wheen says that \"Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that Jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as Christians\". According to McLellan, Marx used the word Judentum colloquially, as meaning commerce, arguing that Germans must be emancipated from the capitalist mode of production not Judaism or Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as \"an extended pun at Bauer's expense\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16743, 2267751, 31045316, 15223093, 1236517, 2581131, 407314, 73157, 17219082, 1022009, 40508191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 30 ], [ 38, 60 ], [ 318, 336 ], [ 416, 432 ], [ 437, 449 ], [ 477, 494 ], [ 1082, 1095 ], [ 1200, 1211 ], [ 1223, 1242 ], [ 1250, 1269 ], [ 1794, 1823 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75million Jews migrated to America, the bulk from Eastern Europe escaping the pogroms. Before 1900 American Jews had always amounted to less than 1% of America's total population, but by 1930 Jews formed about 3.5%. This increase, combined with the upward social mobility of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the US, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The lynching of Leo Frank by a mob of prominent citizens in Marietta, Georgia, in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States. The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the Ku Klux Klan which had been inactive since 1870.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16701812, 420088, 401936, 109987, 16779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 124 ], [ 288, 310 ], [ 659, 668 ], [ 703, 720 ], [ 852, 864 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the beginning of the 20th century, the Beilis Trial in Russia represented modern incidents of blood-libels in Europe. During the Russian Civil War, close to 50,000 Jews were killed in pogroms.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 543618, 4941, 26295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 54 ], [ 97, 108 ], [ 132, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the interwar period. The pioneer automobile manufacturer Henry Ford propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper The Dearborn Independent (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). The radio speeches of Father Coughlin in the late 1930s attacked Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians shared such views: Louis T. McFadden, Chairman of the United States House Committee on Banking and Currency, blamed Jews for Roosevelt's decision to abandon the gold standard, and claimed that \"in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 900011, 13371, 207776, 168968, 10979, 19283361, 6017835, 1735163, 37412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 67 ], [ 105, 115 ], [ 162, 186 ], [ 248, 263 ], [ 291, 312 ], [ 315, 323 ], [ 428, 445 ], [ 463, 516 ], [ 570, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Germany, Nazism led Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, who came to power on 30 January 1933 shortly afterwards instituted repressive legislation which denied the Jews basic civil rights.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 31045316, 2731583, 21736, 3796622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 18 ], [ 23, 35 ], [ 44, 54 ], [ 60, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws prohibited sexual relations and marriages between \"Aryans\" and Jews as Rassenschande (\"race disgrace\") and stripped all German Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, of their citizenship, (their official title became \"subjects of the state\"). It instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbed Kristallnacht, in which Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues torched. Antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were extended to German-occupied Europe in the wake of conquest, often building on local antisemitic traditions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3191713, 2370223, 2162702, 83530, 9140389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 37 ], [ 109, 122 ], [ 189, 197 ], [ 343, 356 ], [ 500, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1940, the famous aviator Charles Lindbergh and many prominent Americans led the America First Committee in opposing any involvement in a European war. Lindbergh alleged that Jews were pushing America to go to war against Germany. Lindbergh adamantly denied being antisemitic, and yet he refers numerous times in his private writings his letters and diary to Jewish control of the media being used to pressure the U.S. to get involved in the European war. In one diary entry in November 1938, he responded to Kristallnacht by writing \"I do not understand these riots on the part of the Germans. ... They have undoubtedly had a difficult Jewish problem, but why is it necessary to handle it so unreasonably?\", acknowledgement on Lindbergh's part that he agreed with the Nazis that Germany had a \"Jewish problem.\" An article by Jonathan Marwil in Antisemitism, A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution claims that \"no one who ever knew Lindbergh thought him antisemitic\" and that claims of his antisemitism were solely tied to the remarks he made in that one speech.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 82981, 229281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 45 ], [ 83, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the east the Third Reich forced Jews into ghettos in Warsaw, in Kraków, in Lvov, in Lublin and in Radom. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 42395, 1777303, 4238632, 23354805, 24681037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 62 ], [ 64, 73 ], [ 75, 82 ], [ 84, 93 ], [ 98, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the beginning of the war between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1941 a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the Einsatzgruppen, culminated from 1942 to 1945 in systematic genocide: the Holocaust. Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22618, 510764, 12441, 10396793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 19 ], [ 125, 139 ], [ 184, 192 ], [ 194, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There have continued to be antisemitic incidents since WWII, some of which had been state sponsored. In the Soviet Union, antisemitism has been used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts starting with the conflict between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky and continuing through numerous conspiracy-theories spread by official propaganda. Antisemitism in the USSR reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the \"rootless cosmopolitan\" (euphemism for \"Jew\") in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters and sculptors were killed or arrested. This culminated in the so-called Doctors' Plot in 1952.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Contemporary antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [ 26779, 15641, 17888, 26305081, 523202, 411986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 120 ], [ 233, 246 ], [ 251, 263 ], [ 347, 371 ], [ 436, 457 ], [ 613, 626 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similar antisemitic propaganda in Poland resulted in the flight of Polish Jewish survivors from the country. After the war, the Kielce pogrom and the \"March 1968 events\" in communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The anti-Jewish violence in postwar Poland has a common theme of blood libel rumours.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Contemporary antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [ 35976019, 1193609, 2291645, 15485840, 4941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 40 ], [ 128, 141 ], [ 151, 168 ], [ 251, 289 ], [ 312, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Physical assaults against Jews in Europe has included beatings, stabbings and other violence, which increased markedly, sometimes resulting in serious injury and death. A 2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom declared that \"European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Contemporary antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with both Muslim antisemitism and the rise of far-right political parties as a result of the economic crisis of 2008. This rise in the support for far right ideas in western and eastern Europe has resulted in the increase of antisemitic acts, mostly attacks on Jewish memorials, synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks against Jews.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Contemporary antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [ 165391, 33800, 37403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 76 ], [ 213, 220 ], [ 225, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Eastern Europe the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the instability of the new states has brought the rise of nationalist movements and the accusation against Jews for the economic crisis, taking over the local economy and bribing the government, along with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such as blood libels. Writing on the rhetoric surrounding the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Jason Stanley relates these perceptions to broader historical narratives: \"the dominant version of antisemitism alive in parts of eastern Europe today is that Jews employ the Holocaust to seize the victimhood narrative from the 'real' victims of the Nazis, who are Russian Christians (or other non-Jewish eastern Europeans)\". He calls out the \"myths of contemporary eastern European antisemitism – that a global cabal of Jews were (and are) the real agents of violence against Russian Christians and the real victims of the Nazis were not the Jews, but rather this group.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Contemporary antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [ 4941, 25447, 70149799, 7731647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 323, 334 ], [ 352, 360 ], [ 377, 409 ], [ 411, 424 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of the antisemitic incidents in Eastern Europe are against Jewish cemeteries and buildings (community centers and synagogues). Nevertheless, there were several violent attacks against Jews in Moscow in 2006 when a neo-Nazi stabbed 9 people at the Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue, the failed bomb attack on the same synagogue in 1999, the threats against Jewish pilgrims in Uman, Ukraine and the attack against a menorah by extremist Christian organization in Moldova in 2009.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Contemporary antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [ 20735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 413, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Paul Johnson, antisemitic policies are a sign of a state which is poorly governed. While no European state currently has such policies, the Economist Intelligence Unit notes the rise in political uncertainty, notably populism and nationalism, as something that is particularly alarming for Jews.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Contemporary antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [ 735553, 15303116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ], [ 153, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robert Bernstein, founder of Human Rights Watch, says that antisemitism is \"deeply ingrained and institutionalized\" in \"Arab nations in modern times.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Contemporary antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [ 2648581, 46530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 29, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a 2011 survey by the Pew Research Center, all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held significantly negative opinions of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2% of Egyptians, 3% of Lebanese Muslims, and 2% of Jordanians reported having a positive view of Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East similarly held markedly negative views of Jews, with 4% of Turks and 9% of Indonesians viewing Jews favorably.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Contemporary antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [ 3091083, 8087628, 17771, 7515964, 11125639, 14579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 43 ], [ 183, 188 ], [ 200, 208 ], [ 228, 234 ], [ 389, 394 ], [ 405, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to a 2011 exhibition at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, United States, some of the dialogue from Middle East media and commentators about Jews bear a striking resemblance to Nazi propaganda. According to Josef Joffe of Newsweek, \"anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab world, Jew hatred remains culturally endemic.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Contemporary antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [ 2845897, 214169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 226 ], [ 256, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Contemporary antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to professor Robert Wistrich, director of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel by Iran or by Hamas, Hezbollah, Islamic Jihad, or the Muslim Brotherhood, represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Contemporary antisemitism", "target_page_ids": [ 6573517, 5294776, 14653, 13913, 13919, 13093253, 20742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 38 ], [ 56, 120 ], [ 173, 177 ], [ 184, 189 ], [ 191, 200 ], [ 202, 215 ], [ 224, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antisemitism has been explained in terms of racism, xenophobia, projected guilt, displaced aggression, and the search for a scapegoat. Some explanations assign partial blame to the perception of Jewish people as unsociable. Such a perception may have arisen by many Jews having strictly kept to their own communities, with their own practices and laws.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 25613, 34141, 299609, 71031955, 26132634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 50 ], [ 52, 62 ], [ 64, 79 ], [ 81, 101 ], [ 124, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It has also been suggested that parts of antisemitism arose from a perception of Jewish people as greedy (as often used in stereotypes of Jews), and this perception has probably evolved in Europe during Medieval times where a large portion of money lending was operated by Jews. Factors contributing to this situation included that Jews were restricted from other professions, while the Christian Church declared for their followers that money lending constituted immoral \"usury\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 20900142, 208852, 320768, 234706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 142 ], [ 243, 256 ], [ 387, 403 ], [ 473, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Education plays an important role in addressing and overcoming prejudice and countering social discrimination. However, education is not only about challenging the conditions of intolerance and ignorance in which antisemitism manifests itself; it is also about building a sense of global citizenship and solidarity, respect for, and enjoyment of diversity and the ability to live peacefully together as active, democratic citizens. Education equips learners with the knowledge to identify antisemitism and biased or prejudiced messages, and raises awareness about the forms, manifestations and impact of antisemitism faced by Jews and Jewish communities.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Prevention through education", "target_page_ids": [ 9252, 77182, 8900, 43616057, 25955086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 63, 72 ], [ 95, 109 ], [ 281, 299 ], [ 626, 630 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A March 2008 report by the U.S. State Department found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist. A 2012 report by the U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor also noted a continued global increase in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust denial and opposition to Israeli policy at times was used to promote or justify blatant antisemitism. In 2014, the Anti-Defamation League conducted a study titled Global 100: An Index of Anti-Semitism, which also reported high antisemitism figures around the world and, among other findings, that as many as \"27% of people who have never met a Jew nevertheless harbor strong prejudices against him\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Geographical variation", "target_page_ids": [ 31975, 4664600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 48 ], [ 205, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 Polish political crisis", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2291645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anti-antisemitism", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 70650259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anti-Jewish violence in Eastern Europe, 1944–1946", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19786940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anti-Middle Eastern sentiment", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39498321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anti-Semite and Jew", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3631762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antisemitism around the world", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6668914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antisemitism in the anti-globalization movement", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 675582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antisemitism in the Arab world", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antisemitism in the United States", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16988965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of antisemitism in the United States", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14171216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Criticism of Judaism", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5104141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Farhud, 1941 Baghdad pogrom", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1079076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Host desecration", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 307681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jacob Barnet affair", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27788616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12478624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Martyrdom in Judaism", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23146011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Secondary antisemitism", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21407518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stab-in-the-back legend", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timeline of antisemitism", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10307620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Xenophobia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of anti-cultural, anti-national, and anti-ethnic topics", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1765303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poliakov, Léon. The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 1: From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 3261122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poliakov, Léon. The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 2: From Mohammad to the Marranos, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 3261122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poliakov, Léon. The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 3: From Voltaire to Wagner, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 3261122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poliakov, Léon. The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 4: Suicidal Europe 1870–1933, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 3261122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poliakov, Léon (1997). \"Anti-Semitism\". Encyclopaedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. Cecil Roth. Keter Publishing House. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 3261122, 867520, 1945722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 40, 61 ], [ 96, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tausch, Arno (2018). The Return of Religious Antisemitism? The Evidence from World Values Survey Data (17 November 2018). Available at SSRN", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tausch, Arno (2015). Islamism and Antisemitism. Preliminary Evidence on Their Relationship from Cross-National Opinion Data (14 August 2015). Available at SSRN or Islamism and Antisemitism. Preliminary Evidence on Their Relationship from Cross-National Opinion Data", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tausch, Arno (2014). The New Global Antisemitism: Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data (14 January 2015). Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Fall 2014). Available at SSRN or The New Global Antisemitism: Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anti-semitism entry by Gotthard Deutsch in the Jewish Encyclopedia, 1901–1906 ed.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 225815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Attribution", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Brustein, William I., and Ryan D. King. \"Anti-semitism in Europe before the Holocaust.\" International Political Science Review 25.1 (2004): 35–53. online", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Carr, Steven Alan. Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II, Cambridge University Press 2001.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cohn, Norman. Warrant for Genocide, Eyre & Spottiswoode 1967; Serif, 1996.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fischer, Klaus P. The History of an Obsession: German Judeophobia and the Holocaust, The Continuum Publishing Company, 1998.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Freudmann, Lillian C. Antisemitism in the New Testament, University Press of America, 1994.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 13576372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gerber, Jane S. (1986). \"Anti-Semitism and the Muslim World\". In History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism, ed. David Berger. Jewish Publications Society. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 11065160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Goldberg, Sol; Ury, Scott; Weiser, Kalman (eds.). Key Concepts in the Study of Antisemitism (Palgrave Macmillan, 2021) online review", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hanebrink, Paul. A Specter Haunting Europe: The Myth of Judeo-Bolshevism, Harvard University Press, 2018. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1251937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hilberg, Raul. The Destruction of the European Jews. Holmes & Meier, 1985. 3 volumes.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 945226, 944387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 16, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Isser, Natalie. Antisemitism during the French Second Empire (1991)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "McKain, Mark. Anti-Semitism: At Issue, Greenhaven Press, 2005.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Marcus, Kenneth L. The Definition of Anti-Semitism, 2015, Oxford University Press", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Michael, Robert and Philip Rosen. Dictionary of Antisemitism, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2007", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Michael, Robert. Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nirenberg, David. Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2013) 610 pp. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 42129213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roth, Philip. The Plot Against America, 2004", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1013901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Selzer, Michael (ed.). \"Kike!\" : A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America, New York 1972.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Small, Charles Asher ed. The Yale Papers: Antisemitism In Comparative Perspective (Institute For the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy, 2015). online, scholarly studies.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stav, Arieh (1999). Peace: The Arabian Caricature – A Study of Anti-semitic Imagery. Gefen Publishing House. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Steinweis, Alan E. Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany. Harvard University Press, 2006. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stillman, Norman. The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. 1979). ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 5430716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stillman, N.A. (2006). \"Yahud\". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1791208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " , United States Department of State, 2008. Retrieved 25 November 2010. See HTML version.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 31975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vital, David. People Apart: The Jews in Europe, 1789-1939 (1999); 930pp highly detailed", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bibliographies, calendars, etc.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles, \"Experts explore effects of Ahmadinejad anti-Semitism\", 9 March 2007", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lazare, Bernard, Antisemitism: Its History and Causes", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 3918938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anti-Defamation League Arab Antisemitism ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 27243620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Why the Jews? A perspective on causes of anti-Semitism", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism (with up to date calendar of antisemitism today)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Annotated bibliography of anti-Semitism hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Council of Europe, ECRI Country-by-Country Reports", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Porat, Dina. \"What makes an anti-Semite?\", Haaretz, 27 January 2007. Retrieved 24 November 2010.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 64878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yehoshua, A.B., An Attempt to Identify the Root Cause of Antisemitism, Azure, Spring 2008.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1384646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antisemitism in modern Ukraine", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Antisemitism and Special Relativity", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Antisemitism", "Prejudice_and_discrimination_by_type", "Racism", "Orientalism" ]

[ "Judeophobe", "anti-Jewism", "Judophobia", "anti-semitism", "Jew bashing", "Judenhass", "Judeophobia", "Jew-baiting", "Judaeophobia", "Jewphobia", "anti-Jewish sentiment", "hatred of Jews", "anti-Jew sentiment", "blame the jew", "anti-Jew hate", "the longest hatred", "hate of Jews", "persecution of Jews", "anti-Semitism", "blaming the jews" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The economy of Azerbaijan has completed its post-Soviet transition into a major oil-based economy (with the completion of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline), from one where the state played the major role. The transition to oil production led to remarkable growth figures as projects came online; reaching 26.4% in 2005 (second highest GDP growth in the world in 2005 only to Equatorial Guinea) and 34.6% in 2006 (world highest) before subsiding to 10.8% and 9.3% in 2008 and 2009 respectively. The real GDP growth rate for 2011 was expected at 3.7% but had dropped to 0.1%.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 397567, 12594, 9366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 154 ], [ 335, 338 ], [ 375, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Large oil reserves are a major contributor to Azerbaijan's economy. The national currency, the Azerbaijani manat, was stable in 2000, depreciating 3.8% against the dollar. The budget deficit equaled 1.3% of GDP in 2000.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23195, 746, 1151523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 9 ], [ 46, 56 ], [ 95, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Progress on economic reform has generally lagged behind macroeconomic stabilization. The government has undertaken regulatory reforms in some areas, including the substantial opening of trade policy, but inefficient public administration in which commercial and regulatory interests are co-mingled limit the impact of these reforms. The government has largely completed privatization of agricultural lands and small and medium-sized enterprises. In August 2000, the government launched a second-stage privatization program, in which many large state enterprises will be privatized. Since 2001, the economic activity in the country is regulated by the Ministry of Economy of Azerbaijan Republic.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18820, 24661, 29449447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 69 ], [ 370, 383 ], [ 651, 693 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout the Soviet period, Azerbaijan had always been more developed industrially than Armenia and Georgia, two neighboring Transcaucasia countries but also less diversified, as a result of slow investment in the non-oil sector. With a history of industrial development of more than 100 years, Azerbaijan proved to be a leading nation in the Southern Caucasus throughout the turmoil of the Soviet Union collapse in the early 1990s until nowadays.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Economic history of Azerbaijan", "target_page_ids": [ 54645339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oil remains the most prominent product of Azerbaijan's economy with cotton, natural gas and agriculture products contributing to its economic growth over the last five years. More than $60 billion was invested into Azerbaijan's oil by major international oil companies in AIOC consortium operated by BP. Oil production under the first of these PSAs, with the Azerbaijan International Operating Company, began in November 1997 and now is about 500,000 barrels per day. People visit petroleum spas (or \"oil spas\") to bathe in the local crude in Naftalan A leading caviar producer and exporter in the past, Azerbaijan's fishing industry today is concentrated on the dwindling stocks of sturgeon and beluga in the Caspian Sea.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Economic history of Azerbaijan", "target_page_ids": [ 18998720, 1492787, 825876, 491120, 220776, 1334840, 19653787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 300, 302 ], [ 543, 551 ], [ 562, 568 ], [ 617, 633 ], [ 683, 691 ], [ 696, 702 ], [ 710, 721 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan shares all the problems of the former Soviet republics in making the transition from a command to a market economy, but its energy resources brighten its long-term prospects. Azerbaijan has begun making progress on economic reform, and old economic ties and structures are slowly being replaced. An obstacle to economic progress, including stepped up foreign investment, is the continuing conflict with Armenia over the Nagorno-Karabakh region.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Economic history of Azerbaijan", "target_page_ids": [ 7843, 48852, 65220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 105 ], [ 111, 125 ], [ 431, 447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1992, Azerbaijan became member of the Economic Cooperation Organization. In 2002, the Azerbaijani merchant marine had 54 ships. In March 2001, Azerbaijan concluded a natural gas agreement with Turkey, providing a future export market for Azerbaijan.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Economic history of Azerbaijan", "target_page_ids": [ 653196, 10408269, 22131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 74 ], [ 101, 116 ], [ 169, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan has concluded 21 production-sharing agreements with various oil companies. An export pipeline that transports Caspian oil to the Mediterranean from Baku through Tbilisi, Georgia to Ceyhan, Turkey (the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline) became operational in 2006. The pipeline is expected to generate as much as $160 billion in revenues for the country over the next 30 years. The recent high price of oil is highly beneficial to Azerbaijan's economy as the nation is in the midst of an oil boom. Eastern Caspian producers in Kazakhstan also have expressed interest in accessing this pipeline to transport a portion of their production.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Economic history of Azerbaijan", "target_page_ids": [ 4566, 42298, 48768, 875130, 11125639, 397567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 163 ], [ 172, 179 ], [ 181, 188 ], [ 192, 198 ], [ 200, 206 ], [ 212, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, Azerbaijan entered into the top eight biggest oil suppliers to EU countries with €9.46 billion. In 2011, the amount of foreign investments in Azerbaijan was $20 billion, a 61% increase from 2010. According to Minister of Economic Development of Azerbaijan, Shahin Mustafayev, in 2011, \"$15.7 billion was invested in the non-oil sector, while the rest in the oil sector.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Economic history of Azerbaijan", "target_page_ids": [ 29449447, 29451022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 264 ], [ 266, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012, because of its economic performance after the Soviet breakup, Azerbaijan was predicted to become \"Tiger of Caucasus\". In 2012, Globalization and World Cities Research Network study ranked Baku as a Gamma-level global city.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Economic history of Azerbaijan", "target_page_ids": [ 1377505, 29141681, 784781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 124 ], [ 136, 183 ], [ 219, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, Turkey and Azerbaijan agreed to boost mutual trade to US$15 billion by 2023.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Economic history of Azerbaijan", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Azerbaijan at market prices with figures in USD.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Macro-economic trend", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US dollar was exchanged at 1,565.88 Manats only. Currently, the new Manat is in use, with an exchange rate of about 1 manat = $1.10. Mean graduate pay was $5.76 per man-hour in 2010.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Macro-economic trend", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Macro-economic trend", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Source: IMF", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Macro-economic trend", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For more than a century the backbone of the Azerbaijani economy has been petroleum, which represented 50 percent of Azerbaijan's GDP in 2005, and is projected to double to almost 125 percent of GDP in 2007. Now that Western oil companies are able to tap deepwater oilfields untouched by the Soviets because of poor technology, Azerbaijan is considered one of the most important areas in the world for oil exploration and development. Proven oil reserves in the Caspian Basin, which Azerbaijan shares with Russia, Kazakhstan, Iran, and Turkmenistan, are comparable in size to the North Sea, although exploration is still in the early stages.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Macro-economic trend", "target_page_ids": [ 23195, 26779, 2053440, 19653787, 25391, 16642, 14653, 198149, 858340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 82 ], [ 291, 298 ], [ 441, 453 ], [ 461, 474 ], [ 505, 511 ], [ 513, 523 ], [ 525, 529 ], [ 535, 547 ], [ 579, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan has the largest agricultural basin in the region. About 54.9 percent of Azerbaijan is agricultural lands. At the beginning of 2007 there were of utilized agricultural area. In the same year the total wood resources counted . Azerbaijan's agricultural scientific research institutes are focused on meadows and pastures, horticulture and subtropical crops, leaf vegetables, viticulture and wine-making, cotton growing and medicinal plants. In some lands it is profitable to grow grain, potatoes, sugar beets, cotton and tobacco. Livestock, dairy products, and wine and spirits are also important farm products. The Caspian fishing industry is concentrated on the dwindling stocks of sturgeon and beluga.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 402679, 1594759, 513591, 30210593, 822244, 50245, 8097, 1318497, 491120, 220776, 1334840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 348, 359 ], [ 367, 381 ], [ 384, 395 ], [ 400, 411 ], [ 432, 448 ], [ 506, 516 ], [ 550, 563 ], [ 579, 586 ], [ 633, 649 ], [ 693, 701 ], [ 706, 712 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some portions of most products that were previously imported from abroad have begun to be produced locally (among them are Coca-Cola by Coca-Cola Bottlers LTD, beer by Baki-Kastel, parquet by Nehir and oil pipes by EUPEC Pipe Coating Azerbaijan).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A new program which is prepared by the European Union is aimed to support the economic diversification of Azerbaijan. Program is considered for southern region Lankaran which has the lowest economic indicator and the lowest income per capita, as well as, the lowest level of investment, but at the same time, high potential for the production of garden products in high quality. The program will be focused on the development of the region at the local and international levels.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan produced in 2018:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2.0 million tons of wheat;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 36858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 916 thousand tons of barley;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 19541428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 898 thousand tons of potato;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 23501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 609 thousand tons of tomato;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 9940234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 307 thousand tons of watermelon;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 20596557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 277 thousand tons of sugar beet;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 50245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 277 thousand tons of apple;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 18978754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 247 thousand tons of maize;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 20656228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 235 thousand tons of onion;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 51258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 233 thousand tons of cotton;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 36806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 223 thousand tons of cucumber;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 164491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 167 thousand tons of grape;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 12436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 160 thousand tons of persimmon (5th largest world producer);", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 152288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 108 thousand tons of cabbage;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 55115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, like melon (94 thousand tons), pear (52 thousand tons) and apricot (28 thousand tons).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 169720, 24278, 56668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 77 ], [ 98, 102 ], [ 126, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, mining and hydrocarbon industries accounted for well over 95 percent of the Azerbaijani economy. Diversification of the economy into manufacturing industries remains a long-term issue.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As of late 2000s, the defense industry of Azerbaijan has emerged as an autonomous entity with a growing defense production capability. The ministry is cooperating with the defense sectors of Ukraine, Belarus and Pakistan. Along with other contracts, Azerbaijani defence industries and Turkish companies, Azerbaijan will produce 40mm revolver grenade launchers, 107mm and 122mm MLRS systems, Cobra 4×4 vehicles and joint modernization of BTR vehicles in Baku.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The GDP growth rates observed in Azerbaijan during the last years made the country one of the fastest growing economies in the world. But the banking sector of Azerbaijan has yet to tap the vast growth potential that should be achievable due to the continuation of the high economic growth. For this reason the banking sector remains small in relation to the size of the Azerbaijani economy. Since 2002, important stages of restructuring of the banking system have started to be carried out. Taking into consideration the entry of big oil revenues in the country, as a logical result of successful oil strategy, and in this base, as the banks were ready to an effective transfer of their financial resources to the strategic goals, development strategy was made for 2002–2005.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 69415, 2374703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 424, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1 April 2010, 47 banks, 631 bank branches function in Azerbaijan. One of the banks was founded with the participation of state capital, 23 of foreign capital. To the same date, 98 non-bank credit organizations operate in the republic along with banks. Growth of real money incomes of population, development of trust in the bank system, improving the legal bases of protection of interests of creditors and depositors, in particular launch of 'Deposits Insurance Fund' were the criteria characterizing rapid growth of deposits of population. As of 1 April 2010, bank deposits of population were equal to 2,4 billion AZN. 33,3% of them were long-term deposits (higher than a year). As of 1 April 2010, bank credits to customers is 8.5 bn AZN, which makes 70.5% of bank assets. Special weight of private sector in structure of credit investments is higher than 82% (7 bn AZN).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 30873450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 565, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 21st century, a new oil and gas boom helped to improve the situation in Azerbaijan's science and technology sectors, and the government launched a campaign aimed at modernization and innovation. The government estimates that profits from the information technology and communication industry will grow and become comparable with those from oil production.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 40776935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan has a large and steadily growing Internet sector, mostly uninfluenced by the financial crisis of 2007–2008; rapid growth is forecast for at least five more years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 14539, 32005855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 52 ], [ 88, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The country has also been making progress in developing its telecoms sector. The Ministry of Communications & Information Technologies (MCIT), as well as being an operator through its role in Aztelekom, is both a policy-maker and regulator. Public payphones are available for local calls and require the purchase of a token from the telephone exchange or some shops and kiosks. Tokens allow a call of indefinite duration. As of 2009, there were 1,397,000 main telephone lines and 1,485,000 internet users. There are five GSM providers: Azercell, Bakcell, Azerfon (Nar Mobile), Aztrank, Catel mobile network operators and one CDMA.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 946963, 12808, 9719883, 21447824, 53738669, 481601, 7143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 460, 474 ], [ 521, 524 ], [ 536, 544 ], [ 564, 574 ], [ 586, 591 ], [ 592, 615 ], [ 625, 629 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tourism is an important part of the economy of Azerbaijan. The country was a well-known tourist spot in the 1980s. However, the fall of the Soviet Union, and the First Nagorno-Karabakh War during the 1988–1994 period, damaged the tourist industry and the image of Azerbaijan as a tourist destination.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 4020775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was not until the 2000s that the tourism industry began to recover, and the country has since experienced a high rate of growth in the number of tourist visits and overnight stays. In recent years, Azerbaijan has also become a popular destination for religious, spa, and health care tourism. During winter, the Shahdag Winter Complex offers skiing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 42446709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 314, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The government of Azerbaijan has set the development of Azerbaijan as an elite tourist destination a top priority. It is a national strategy to make tourism a major, if not the single largest, contributor to the Azerbaijani economy. These activities are regulated by the State Tourism Agency and the Ministry of Culture.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 67639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Formula One Grand Prix is held in Baku, the capital city and has been held here for years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sectors of the economy", "target_page_ids": [ 622129, 4566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Azerbaijani manat is the currency of Azerbaijani, denominated as the manat, subdivided into 100 qapik. The manat is issued by the Central Bank of Azerbaijan, the monetary authority of Azerbaijan. The ISO 4217 abbreviation is AZN. The Latinised symbol is ().", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Currency system", "target_page_ids": [ 1151523, 1151523, 1151523, 4116970, 15403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 73, 78 ], [ 100, 105 ], [ 134, 160 ], [ 204, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The manat is held in a floating exchange-rate system managed primarily against the US dollar. The rate of exchange (Azerbaijani manat per US$1) for 28 January 2016, was AZN 1.60.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Currency system", "target_page_ids": [ 180311, 180311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 45 ], [ 98, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a complex relationship between Azerbaijan's balance of trade, inflation, measured by the consumer price index and the value of its currency. Despite allowing the value of the manat to \"float\", Azerbaijan's central bank has decisive ability to control its value with relationship to other currencies.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Currency system", "target_page_ids": [ 4810, 217152, 5666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 69 ], [ 98, 118 ], [ 215, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two-thirds of Azerbaijan is rich in oil and natural gas. The region of the Lesser Caucasus accounts for most of the country's gold, silver, iron, copper, titanium, chromium, manganese, cobalt, molybdenum, complex ore and antimony. In September 1994, a 30-year contract was signed between the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic (SOCAR) and 13oil companies, among them Amoco, BP, ExxonMobil, Lukoil and Statoil. As Western oil companies are able to tap deepwater oilfields untouched by the Soviet exploitation, Azerbaijan is considered one of the most important spots in the world for oil exploration and development. Meanwhile, the State Oil Fund of Azerbaijan was established as an extra-budgetary fund to ensure the macroeconomic stability, transparency in the management of oil revenue, and the safeguarding of resources for future generations.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 2342673, 30040, 5669, 19051, 24580536, 19052, 22595, 898, 3493617, 59418, 18998720, 18848197, 1027881, 11866976, 2910801, 614302, 28309128, 18820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 90 ], [ 154, 162 ], [ 164, 172 ], [ 174, 183 ], [ 185, 191 ], [ 193, 203 ], [ 213, 216 ], [ 221, 229 ], [ 292, 332 ], [ 373, 378 ], [ 380, 382 ], [ 384, 394 ], [ 396, 402 ], [ 407, 414 ], [ 467, 476 ], [ 589, 604 ], [ 637, 665 ], [ 723, 736 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azeriqaz, a sub-company of SOCAR, intends to ensure full gasification of the country by 2021.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The convenient location of Azerbaijan on the crossroad of major international traffic arteries, such as the Silk Road and the south–north corridor, highlights the strategic importance of the transportation sector for the country's economy. The transport sector in the country includes roads, railways, aviation, and maritime transport.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 54253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan is also an important economic hub in the transportation of raw materials. The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline (BTC) became operational in May 2006 and extends more than 1,774kilometers through the territories of Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey. The BTC is designed to transport up to 50million tons of crude oil annually and carries oil from the Caspian Sea oilfields to global markets. The South Caucasus Pipeline, also stretching through the territory of Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey, became operational at the end of 2006 and offers additional gas supplies to the European market from the Shah Deniz gas field. Shah Deniz is expected to produce up to 296billion cubic meters of natural gas per year. Azerbaijan also plays a major role in the EU-sponsored Silk Road Project.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 397567, 6919644, 5172583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 117 ], [ 398, 421 ], [ 601, 621 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2002, the Azerbaijani government established the Ministry of Transport with a broad range of policy and regulatory functions. In the same year, the country became a member of the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic. The highest priority being; upgrading the transport network and transforming transportation services into one of the key comparative advantages of the country, as this would be highly conducive to the development of other sectors of the economy.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 29650359, 2301394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 73 ], [ 182, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012, the construction of Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway expected to provide transportation between Asia and Europe through connecting the railways of China and Kazakhstan in the east with Turkey's Marmaray to the European railway system in the west. Broad gauge railways in 2010 stretched for and electrified railways numbered . By 2010, there were 35 airports and one heliport.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 12963525, 16642, 1040340, 4466138, 558959, 249182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 54 ], [ 159, 169 ], [ 196, 204 ], [ 249, 260 ], [ 297, 316 ], [ 369, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Single window system shares needed information through a single gateway with all organizations serving in trade field, as well as abolishes useless processes and raises the effectiveness of cooperation among different parties. 73 economies implement single window system in the world. Azerbaijan started to implement this system in 2009. It implemented an E-Government portal as well.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 4795810, 746, 196649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 285, 295 ], [ 356, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A single-window system was established by a decree of the Azerbaijani President issued in 2007, 30 April, in order to simplify export-import procedures, innovate customs services, and improve the trade environment. According to the decree, Ministry of Justice, Ministry of Economic Development, Ministry of Taxes, Ministry of Labor and Social Protection, State Social Protection Fund, and State Statistics Committee should present a proposal on the organization of entrepreneurial activities by single registration body based on single window principle.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 4795810, 938372, 29346301, 29449447, 29639893, 29608718, 30247505, 29764723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 22 ], [ 58, 79 ], [ 240, 259 ], [ 261, 293 ], [ 295, 312 ], [ 314, 353 ], [ 355, 383 ], [ 389, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The president appointed the State Customs Committee as the leading body of controlling goods and transportation passing through the borders of the country in 2008.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 29802825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A \"single authority principle\" requires customs officials to be more responsible in dealing with all types of border control operations for other authorities. The Netherlands and Sweden were the countries of which practice studied. A \"single system\" works on and then shares standardized information accumulated from traders to all entities taking part in international trade. The practice of US was explored in this phase. An \"automated system\" provides a single electronic statement to responsible agencies submitted by traders to be worked on and confirmed, and after that, these authorities send electronic confirmations and announcements. In this case, practice of Mauritius and Singapore was studied.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 21148, 5058739, 3434750, 19201, 27318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 174 ], [ 179, 185 ], [ 393, 395 ], [ 670, 679 ], [ 684, 693 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Customs Committee formed a commission to realize the new system. Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Healthcare, Ministry of Internal Affairs, Ministry of Taxes, Ministry of Transportation, Central Bank, State Road Police, State Committee for Standardization, Metrology and Patents, State Maritime Administration were selected as important agencies to implement single window system along with the State Customs Committee. The government supported Customs Committee in preparing its staff to deal with the new system by improving recruitment of local customs offices, providing with software and hardware upgrades for the system.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 29802825, 29399462, 29555118, 28013699, 29639893, 29650359, 4116970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 69, 92 ], [ 94, 116 ], [ 118, 146 ], [ 148, 165 ], [ 167, 193 ], [ 195, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijani government supports financially single window system. In the first phase, the government realized customs clearance system on the process of border crossing to country beginning from 1 January 2009. This system was free to all users. Then it was expanded to Baku and Sumgayit in 2011. Customs code of the Republic of Azerbaijan was amended based on the inclusion of the article on single window system which became operative on 1 January 2012. After this amendment, all of Azerbaijan's 29 customs checkpoints started to implement new single window system.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Presidential Decree (11 November 2008), the \"single window\" principle started to be applied from 1 January 2009 on the inspection of goods and transportation at the border checkpoints. Customs Committee established a commission working on the implementation of \"single window\" principle in customs agencies on 18 November 2008 based on the Presidential Decree of 11 November 2008. Technological scheme determining the sequence of issuance of \"permit\" certificates was approved by the Customs Committee on 22 December 2009. Scheme provided customs officers to issue \"permit\" certificates at border checkpoints to vehicles, which perform customs, veterinary, photo-sanitary and sanitary quarantine control activities and international automobile transportation in accordance with legislation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The State Migration Service issues appropriate permits for foreigners and stateless persons coming to Azerbaijan to live and work on legal grounds, simplifying the procedure of their registration at the place of residence, and ensuring transparency in these processes. The \"single window\" principle has been applied on migration management processes starting from 1 July 2009 according to the Decree.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 30076029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of October 2014, Azerbaijan holds the highest foreign investment per capita among the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) countries. Germany, for example, has invested approximately $760 million into the Azerbaijani economy, and approximately 177 German companies operate within Azerbaijan. Since gaining its independence, companies have invested $174 billion into Azerbaijan. Foreign investment accounts for around half of that amount.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2008, Azerbaijan was cited as the top reformer by the World Bank's Doing Business report:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 45358446, 6866136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 67 ], [ 70, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to World Bank's Doing Business report 2019, Azerbaijan improved its position in the Ease of doing business rank from 57 to 25, as well as ranked 4th among the top 10 improvers. Implementing a record number of reforms mainly involving institutional changes have made it easier to do business in Azerbaijan in 2017–2018 period, as a result time and cost to get construction permit reduced significantly (time by 80 days and cost by 12.563 AZN), process of connecting electricity grid rationalized, as well as getting credit simplified.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 45358446, 6866136, 746, 1151523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 23 ], [ 26, 47 ], [ 54, 64 ], [ 447, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Data from CIA World Factbook unless noted otherwise", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Investment (gross fixed)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "17% of GDP (2011 est.)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Household income or consumption by percentage share", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " lowest 10%: 3.4%", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " highest 10%: 27.4% (2008)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Inflation rate (consumer prices)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1.1% (2012 est.)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Agriculture", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " utilized agricultural land: (2011)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " total wood resources: 144,2 million cubic metres", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " crops: cotton, grain, rice, grapes, fruit, vegetables, tea, tobacco", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [ 29761493, 6700, 36979, 12436, 10843, 5791492, 29969, 30942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 14 ], [ 16, 21 ], [ 23, 27 ], [ 29, 34 ], [ 37, 42 ], [ 44, 53 ], [ 56, 59 ], [ 61, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " livestock products: beef, mutton, poultry, milk, eggs", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [ 36968, 229275, 23197, 19714, 19196010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 25 ], [ 27, 33 ], [ 35, 42 ], [ 44, 48 ], [ 50, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Industrial production growth rate", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "-3% (2011 est.)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Electricity", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " production: 22,55 billion kWh (2008)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " consumption: 18,8 billion kWh (2008)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " exports: 812 million kWh (2008)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " imports: 596 million kWh (2008)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Current account balance", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " $11,12 billion (2011 est.)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Exports commodities", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " petroleum and natural gas, petroleum products, oilfield equipment; steel, iron ore, cement; chemicals, petrochemicals, textiles, machinery, cotton, foodstuffs.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [ 23195, 22131, 1428868, 27058, 145352, 6670, 9722260, 67728, 51892, 51462, 36806, 10646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 15, 26 ], [ 28, 46 ], [ 68, 73 ], [ 75, 83 ], [ 85, 91 ], [ 93, 102 ], [ 104, 118 ], [ 120, 127 ], [ 130, 139 ], [ 141, 147 ], [ 149, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reserves of foreign exchange and gold", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " $7,146 billion (2011 est.)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Debt external", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " $3.89 billion (2011 est.)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Currency", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1 Manat = 100 gepik", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [ 1151523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Exchange rates", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Azerbaijani manat per US dollar 1.7 (for 22 November 2020)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Azerbaijani manat per Euro 2.01 (for 22 November 2020)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fiscal year", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Calendar year", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other economic indicators", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Azerbaijan and the International Monetary Fund", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52119515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of companies of Azerbaijan", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21447694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 397567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " State Oil Company of Azerbaijan", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3493617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Petroleum industry in Azerbaijan", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6131588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Agriculture in Azerbaijan", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22576829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tourism in Azerbaijan", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23575502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Baku", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Military of Azerbaijan", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Judiciary of Azerbaijan", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 55284726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Habibov, Nazim: \"Poverty in Azerbaijan\" in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 34", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hübner, Gerald: \"As If Nothing Happened? How Azerbaijan's Economy Manages to Sail Through Stormy Weather\" in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 18", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Economy_of_Azerbaijan", "Economies_of_Europe_by_country" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan is a country in the Caucasus region, situated at the juncture of Europe and Western Asia. Three physical features dominate Azerbaijan: the Caspian Sea, whose shoreline forms a natural boundary to the east; the Greater Caucasus mountain range to the north; and the extensive flatlands at the country's center. About the size of Portugal or the US state of Maine, Azerbaijan has a total land area of approximately 86,600 square kilometers, less than 1% of the land area of the former Soviet Union. Of the three Transcaucasian states, Azerbaijan has the greatest land area. Special administrative subdivisions are the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, which is separated from the rest of Azerbaijan by a strip of Armenian territory, and the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region, entirely within Azerbaijan. The status of Nagorno-Karabakh is disputed by Armenia. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 746, 39282, 9239, 399656, 19653787, 2342501, 23033, 19977, 26779, 385358, 10918072, 65220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 31, 39 ], [ 76, 82 ], [ 87, 99 ], [ 150, 161 ], [ 221, 237 ], [ 338, 346 ], [ 366, 371 ], [ 493, 505 ], [ 626, 656 ], [ 719, 726 ], [ 747, 781 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Located in the region of the southern Caucasus Mountains, Azerbaijan borders the Caspian Sea to the east, Georgia and Russia to the north, Iran to the south, and Armenia to the southwest and west. A small part of Nakhchivan also borders Turkey to the northwest. The capital of Azerbaijan is the ancient city of Baku, which has the largest and best harbor on the Caspian Sea and has long been the center of the republic's oil industry.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 230497, 19653787, 48768, 25391, 14653, 10918072, 11125639, 4566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 56 ], [ 81, 92 ], [ 106, 113 ], [ 118, 124 ], [ 139, 143 ], [ 162, 169 ], [ 237, 243 ], [ 311, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The elevation changes over a relatively short distance from lowlands to highlands; nearly half the country is considered mountainous. Notable physical features are the gently undulating hills of the subtropical southeastern coast, which are covered with tea plantations, orange groves, and lemon groves; numerous mud volcanoes and mineral springs in the ravines of Kobustan Mountain near Baku; and coastal terrain that lies as much as twenty-eight meters below sea level.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Topography and drainage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Except for its eastern Caspian shoreline and some areas bordering Georgia and Iran, Azerbaijan is ringed by mountains. To the northeast, bordering Russia's Dagestan Autonomous Republic, is the Greater Caucasus range; to the west, bordering Armenia, is the Lesser Caucasus range. To the extreme southeast, the Talysh Mountains form part of the border with Iran. The highest elevations occur in the Greater Caucasus, where Mount Bazar-dyuzi rises 4,466 meters above sea level. Eight large rivers flow down from the Caucasus ranges into the central Kura-Aras Lowlands, alluvial flatlands and low delta areas along the seacoast designated by the Azerbaijani name for the Mtkvari River (Kura) and its main tributary, the Aras. The Mtkvari, the longest river in the Caucasus region, forms the delta and drains into the Caspian a short distance downstream from the confluence with the Aras. The Mingechaur Reservoir, with an area of 605 square kilometers that makes it the largest body of water in Azerbaijan, was formed by damming the Kura in western Azerbaijan. The waters of the reservoir provide hydroelectric power and irrigation of the Kura-Aras plain. Most of the country's rivers are not navigable. About 15% of the land in Azerbaijan is arable.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Topography and drainage", "target_page_ids": [ 2342501, 2342673, 10660215, 4446419, 349764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 209 ], [ 256, 271 ], [ 309, 325 ], [ 421, 438 ], [ 667, 680 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The country's highest peak, Bazardyuze Dagi, rises to 4,485 m in this range near the Azerbaijan-Russia border.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mountains", "target_page_ids": [ 4446419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The climate varies from subtropical and humid in the southeast to subtropical and dry in central and eastern Azerbaijan. Baku, on the Caspian, enjoys mild weather that averages in January and in July.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Climate", "target_page_ids": [ 4566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Physiographic conditions and different atmosphere circulations admit 8 types of air currents including continental, sea, arctic, tropical currents of air that formulates the climate of the Republic. The maximum annual precipitation falls in Lenkeran (1,600 to 1,800mm.) and the minimum in Absheron (200 to 350mm.). The maximum daily precipitation of 334mm was observed at the Bilieser Station in 1955.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Climate", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Air and water pollution are widespread and pose great challenges to economic development. Major sources of pollution include oil refineries and chemical and metallurgical industries, which in the early 1990s continued to operate as inefficiently as they had in the Soviet era. Air quality is extremely poor in Baku, the center of oil refining. Some reports have described Baku's air as the most polluted in the former Soviet Union, and other industrial centers suffer similar problems.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environmental problems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Caspian Sea, including Baku Bay, has been polluted by oil leakages and the dumping of raw or inadequately treated sewage, reducing the yield of caviar and fish. In the Soviet period, Azerbaijan was pressed to use extremely heavy applications of pesticides to improve its output of scarce subtropical crops for the rest of the Soviet Union. The continued regular use of the pesticide DDT in the 1970s and 1980s was an egregious lapse, although that chemical was officially banned in the Soviet Union because of its toxicity to humans. Excessive application of pesticides and chemical fertilizers has caused extensive groundwater pollution and has been linked by Azerbaijani scientists to birth defects and illnesses. Rising water levels in the Caspian Sea, mainly caused by natural factors exacerbated by man-made structures, have reversed the decades-long drying trend and now threaten coastal areas; the average level rose 1.5 meters between 1978 and 1993. Because of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, large numbers of trees were felled, roads were built through pristine areas, and large expanses of agricultural land were occupied by military forces.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environmental problems", "target_page_ids": [ 44413707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 620, 641 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like other former Soviet republics, Azerbaijan faces a gigantic environmental cleanup complicated by the economic uncertainties left in the wake of the Moscow-centered planning system. The Committee for the Protection of the Natural Environment is part of the Azerbaijani government, but in the early 1990s it was ineffective at targeting critical applications of limited funds, establishing pollution standards, or monitoring compliance with environmental regulations. Early in 1994, plans called for Azerbaijan to participate in the international Caspian Sea Forum, sponsored by the European Union (EU).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environmental problems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Natural hazards", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environmental problems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Droughts and floods; some lowland areas threatened by rising levels of the Caspian Sea", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environmental problems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Environment—current issues", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environmental problems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Local scientists consider the Abseron Yasaqligi (Apsheron Peninsula) (including Baky and Sumqayit) and the Caspian Sea to be the ecologically most devastated area in the world because of severe air, water, and soil pollution; soil pollution results from the use of DDT as a pesticide and also from toxic defoliants used in the production of cotton.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environmental problems", "target_page_ids": [ 8494, 29761493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 269 ], [ 342, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Environment - international agreements", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environmental problems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environmental problems", "target_page_ids": [ 10934212, 45086, 8104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 24 ], [ 26, 38 ], [ 56, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Area", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Total: 86,600 km² - country comparison to the world: 113", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Land: 82,629 km²", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Water: 3,971 km²", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Note: Includes the exclave of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic and the Nagorno-Karabakh region; the region's autonomy was abolished by Azerbaijani Supreme Soviet on November 26, 1991.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 385358, 65220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 61 ], [ 70, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Area comparative", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Australia comparative: larger than Tasmania", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 29944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Canada comparative: larger than New Brunswick", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 21182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " United Kingdom comparative: slightly larger than Scotland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 26994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " United States comparative: slightly smaller than Maine", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 19977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " EU comparative: slightly smaller than Portugal", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 9317, 23033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 3 ], [ 39, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Land boundaries", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Total: 2,468 km", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Border countries: Armenia (with Azerbaijan-proper) 566 km, Armenia (with Azerbaijan-Nakhchivan exclave) 221 km, Georgia 428 km, Iran (with Azerbaijan-proper) 432 km, Iran (with Azerbaijan-Nakhchivan exclave) 700 km, Russia 338 km, Turkey 17 km", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 10918072, 48768, 14653, 11125639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 26 ], [ 113, 120 ], [ 167, 171 ], [ 232, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Coastline", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mostly landlocked, but has a 713 km coastline with the Caspian Sea.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 19653787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maritime claims", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " None ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Terrain", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " large, flat lowland (much of it below sea-level) with Great Caucasus Mountains to the north, uplands in the west", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Elevation extremes", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lowest point: Caspian Sea -28 m", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Highest point: Bazarduzu Dagi 4,466 m (on the border with Russia)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 4446419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Highest peak entirely within Azeri territory: Shah Dagi 4,243 m", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Natural resources", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, nonferrous metals, bauxite", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [ 23195, 22595, 3760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 30, 33 ], [ 54, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Land use", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Arable land: 22.95%", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [ 903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Permanent crops: 2.79%", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Other: 74.26% (2012 est.)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Irrigated land", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 14,250 km² (2010)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Total renewable water resources", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 34.68 km3 (2011)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Total: 12.21 km3/yr (4%/18%/78%)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Per capita: 1,384 cu m/yr (2010)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Geography_of_Azerbaijan" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Republic of Azerbaijan is a member of the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, NATO's Partnership for Peace, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, the World Health Organization, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development; the Council of Europe, CFE Treaty, the Community of Democracies; the International Monetary Fund; and the World Bank.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 746, 68702564, 22796, 21133, 368530, 54022, 33583, 37963, 5865, 1300375, 4969042, 15251, 45358446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 66, 86 ], [ 92, 143 ], [ 145, 149 ], [ 152, 173 ], [ 179, 212 ], [ 218, 243 ], [ 249, 297 ], [ 303, 320 ], [ 322, 332 ], [ 338, 362 ], [ 368, 395 ], [ 405, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The major trends in the foreign relations of the Republic of Azerbaijan toward both global and regional powers active in Caucasus area. External variables are categorized depending on their original nature into two groups: global and regional. The former category includes global players such as Moscow and Washington, while the latter category rival regional players, namely Ankara and Tehran. Azerbaijan has formal involvement with senior ex-U.S. government officials including James Baker and Henry Kissinger, as they serve on the Honorary Council of Advisors of the U.S.-Azerbaijan Chamber of Commerce (USACC). USACC is co-chaired by Tim Cejka, President of ExxonMobil and Reza Vaziri, President of R.V. Investment Group and Chairman of the Anglo Asian Mining Plc (LSE Ticker: AAZ).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 213137, 13765, 27066917, 18848197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 480, 491 ], [ 496, 511 ], [ 570, 605 ], [ 662, 672 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2022, Azerbaijan maintains diplomatic relations with 183 United Nations member states, the State of Palestine and the Holy See. Azerbaijan does not have diplomatic relations with the following countries:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 31769, 241405, 13393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 77 ], [ 97, 115 ], [ 124, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 10918072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Botswana", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 3464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Central African Republic", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 5478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cyprus", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 5593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Republic of the Congo", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 19599929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kiribati", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 16674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Federated States of Micronesia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 11448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Papua New Guinea", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 22943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tonga", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 30158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan also maintains good relations with the European Union, in the framework of its Eastern European Neighbourhood Policy (See Azerbaijan and the European Union).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 9317, 3319779, 15721449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 64 ], [ 98, 127 ], [ 133, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of countries with which Azerbaijan maintains diplomatic relations with:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AsDB", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 2512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "BSEC", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 1373429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CE", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 5865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 2 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CIS", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 36870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "EAPC", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 54022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "EBRD", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 37963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ECE", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 37960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ECO", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 653196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ESCAP", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 998194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "FAO", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 11107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GUAM", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 1048116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IAEA", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 14984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IBRD", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 36751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ICAO", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 14985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ICRM", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 15487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IDA", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 36755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IDB", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 400014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IFAD", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 36834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IFC", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 36754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IFRCS", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 9720597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ILO", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 14987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IMF", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 15251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IMO", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 14986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Interpol", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 14338129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IOC, IOM", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 15147, 36893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ], [ 5, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ISO (correspondent)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 14934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ITU", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 14836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ITUC", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 7719021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "OAS (observer)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 22788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "OIC", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 47725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "OPCW", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 36832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "OSCE", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 22796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "PFP", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 368530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "United Nations", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "UNCTAD", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 36587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "UNESCO", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 21786641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "UNIDO", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 32315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "UPU", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 31713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "WCO", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 140594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "WFTU", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 38332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "WHO", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 33583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "WIPO", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 33294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "WMO", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 33584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "WToO", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 34121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "WTrO(observer)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 33873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sovereign Military Order of Malta – there are no relations", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 76835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " States with limited recognition", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 523670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The frozen conflict over currently largely Armenian-populated region of Nagorno-Karabakh within the Republic of Azerbaijan began when in 1988 the Armenian majority of Nagorno-Karabakh demanded autonomy with demonstrations and persecutions against ethnic Azeris following in Armenia. This led to anti-Armenian rioting in Azerbaijan, with Azerbaijani militias beginning their effort to expel Armenians from the enclave. In 1992, a war broke out and pogroms of Armenians and Azeris forced both groups to flee their homes. In 1994, a Russian-brokered ceasefire ended the war but more than 1 million ethnic Armenians and Azeris are still not able to return home. The conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh remains unresolved despite negotiations, that are ongoing since 1992 under the aegis of the Minsk Group of the OSCE, to resolve the conflict peacefully.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 746, 4419723, 140704, 22796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 122 ], [ 295, 316 ], [ 447, 453 ], [ 804, 808 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The European Stability Initiative (ESI) has revealed in a report from 2012 with the title \"Caviar diplomacy: How Azerbaijan silenced the Council of Europe\", that since Azerbaijan's entry into the Council of Europe, each year 30 to 40 deputies are invited to Azerbaijan and generously paid with expensive gifts, including caviar (worth up to 1,400 euro), silk carpets, gold, silver and large amounts of money. In return they become lobbyists for Azerbaijan. This practice has been widely referred to as \"Caviar diplomacy\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 40150669, 54689553, 5865, 825876, 48934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 33 ], [ 91, 107 ], [ 196, 213 ], [ 321, 327 ], [ 431, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ESI also published a report on 2013 Presidential elections in Azerbaijan titled \"Disgraced: Azerbaijan and the end of election monitoring as we know it\". The report revealed the ties between Azerbaijani government and the members of certain observation missions who praised the elections. Azerbaijan's \"Caviar diplomacy\" at 2013 presidential elections sparked a major international scandal, as the reports of two authoritative organizations Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe/European Parliament and OSCE/ODIHR completely contradicted one another in their assessments of elections.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 2760852, 9581, 21506862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 441, 488 ], [ 489, 508 ], [ 513, 523 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Non-governmental anti-corruption organization Transparency International has regularly judged Azerbaijan to be one of the most corrupt countries in the world and has also criticized Azerbaijan for the \"Caviar diplomacy\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 66241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At June 2016 the public prosecutor of Milan has accused the former leader of the (Christian) Union of the center and of the European People's Party of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe Luca Volonte of accepting large bribes from representatives of the Azerbaijani government. Two people with high-level experience of the Council of Europe's parliamentary assembly (Pace) have told the Guardian they believe its members have been offered bribes for votes by Azerbaijan. Former Azerbaijani diplomat, Arif Mammadov, alleged that a member of Azerbaijan's delegation at the Council of Europe had €30m (£25m) to spend on lobbying its institutions, including the Council of Europe assembly. PACE ratified the terms of reference of an independent external investigation body to carry out a detailed independent inquiry into the allegations of corruption at the council involving Azerbaijan.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 6 March 2017, ESISC (European Strategic Intelligence and Security Center) published a scandalous report called \"The Armenian Connection\" where it veraciously attacked human rights NGOs and research organisations criticising human rights violations and corruption in Azerbaijan, Turkey, and Russia.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 54892449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ESISC in that report asserted that \"Caviar diplomacy\" report elaborated by ESI aimed to create climate of suspicion based on slander to form a network of MPs that would engage in a political war against Azerbaijan. In the Second Chapter of the report called \"The Armenian Connection: «Mr X», Nils Muižnieks, Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights\" that was published on 18 April 2017 ESISC asserted that the network composed of European PMs, Armenian officials and some NGOs: Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, \"Human Rights House Foundation\", \"Open Dialog\", European Stability Initiative, and Helsinki Committee for Human Rights, was financed by the Soros Foundation. According to ESISC the key figure of the network since 2012 has been Nils Muižnieks, Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe and the network has served to the interests of George Soros and the Republic of Armenia.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 54892449, 46530, 18947898, 40150669, 450530, 335528, 34485548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 485, 503 ], [ 505, 526 ], [ 576, 605 ], [ 611, 646 ], [ 668, 684 ], [ 755, 769 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"The report is written in the worst traditions of authoritarian propaganda, makes absurd claims, and is clearly aimed at deflecting the wave of criticism against cover-up of unethical lobbying and corruption in PACE and demands for change in the Assembly\", said Freedom Files Analytical Centre.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According Robert Coalson (Radio Free Europe), ESISC is a part of Baku's lobbying efforts to extend to the use of front think tanks to shift public opinion.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "European Stability Initiative said that \"ESISC report is full of lies (such as claiming that German PACE member Strasser holds pro-Armenian views and citing as evidence that he went to Yerevan in 2015 to commemorate the Armenian genocide, when Strasser has never in his life been to independent Armenia)\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 140376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan and the European Union", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15721449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan and the International Monetary Fund", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52119515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of diplomatic missions in Azerbaijan", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13658060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of diplomatic missions of Azerbaijan", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7286297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Visa requirements for Azerbaijani citizens", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25972666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Valiyev, Anar: \"Azerbaijan and the North Caucasus: A Pragmatic Relationship\" in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 27", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hübner, Gerald: \"Foreign Direct Investment in Azerbaijan—the Quality of Quantity\" in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 28", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abbasov, Shahin: \"Azerbaijan's Eurovision Story: Great Chances to Improve, But No Political Will\" in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 32", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mazziotti, Marius; Sauerborn, Djan; Scianna, Bastian Matteo: \"Multipolarity is key: Assessing Azerbaijan's foreign policy\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "CIA World Factbook 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 5163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " U.S. Embassy in Azerbaijan in Baku", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Embassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan in Washington", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tajikistan & Kyrgyzstan relations ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Foreign_relations_of_Azerbaijan" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Armed Forces of Azerbaijan () were re-established according to the Law of the Republic of Azerbaijan on the Armed Forces from 9 October 1991. The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR) had originally formed its own armed forces from 26 June 1918 but were dissolved after Azerbaijan was absorbed into the Soviet Union as the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic from 28 April 1920. After the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991–92, the armed forces were reformed based on Soviet bases and equipment left on Azerbaijani soil.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 746, 2409969, 404448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 104 ], [ 150, 180 ], [ 326, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The armed forces have three branches: the Azerbaijani Land Forces, the Azerbaijani Air and Air Defence Force, and the Azerbaijani Navy. Associated forces include the Azerbaijani National Guard, the Internal Troops of Azerbaijan, and the State Border Service, which can be involved in state defense under certain circumstances.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4941797, 4318954, 4941803, 10927351, 10927665, 10927369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 65 ], [ 71, 108 ], [ 118, 134 ], [ 166, 192 ], [ 198, 227 ], [ 237, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Azerbaijani media sources the military expenditures of Azerbaijan for 2009 were set at US$2.46billion, however according to Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, only $1.473billion was spent in that year. IISS also suggests that the defence budget in 2009 was $1.5billion. The Ministry of Defence Industry of Azerbaijan supervises the design, manufacturing, regulation and maintenance of military equipment. In the future, Azerbaijan hopes to start building tanks, armored vehicles, military planes and military helicopters.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1127085, 85455, 11169023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 189 ], [ 234, 238 ], [ 306, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the fall of the Soviet Union, Azerbaijan has been trying to further develop its armed forces into a professional, well trained, and mobile military. Azerbaijan has been undergoing extensive modernization and capacity expanding programs, with the military budget increasing from around $300million in 2005 to $2.46billion in 2009. The total armed forces number 56,840 men in the land forces, 7,900 men in the air force and air defence force, and 2,200 men in the navy. There are also 19,500 personnel in the National Guard, State Border Service, and Internal Troops. In addition, there are 300,000 former service personnel who have had military service in the last 15 years. The military hardware of Azerbaijan consists of 220 main battle tanks, an additional 162 T-80's were acquired between 2005 and 2010, 595 armored combat vehicles and 270 artillery systems. The air force has about 106 aircraft and 35 helicopters.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan has acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapons state. Azerbaijan participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace. Azerbaijan joined the multi-national force in 2003. It sent 150 troops to Iraq, and later troops to Kosovo. Azerbaijani troops are still serving in Afghanistan.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 22107, 400821, 21133, 368530, 5215751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 62 ], [ 72, 93 ], [ 122, 126 ], [ 129, 150 ], [ 174, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the rise in Azerbaijan's defence budget, the armed forces were assessed in 2008 as not having a high state of battle readiness and being ill-prepared for wide scale combat operations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, in 2017 Global Firepower ranked Azerbaijan 59th among 127 countries for its military strength. It was the best performance among the countries of South Caucasus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The history of the modern Azerbaijan army dates back to Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918, when the Armed Forces of Azerbaijan Republic were created on 26 June 1918. First de facto Minister of Defense of ADR was Dr. Khosrov bey Sultanov. When the Ministry was formally established Gen. Samedbey Mehmandarov became the minister, and then Lt-Gen. Ali-Agha Shikhlinski his deputy. Chiefs of Staff of ADR Army were Lt-Gen. Maciej Sulkiewicz (March 1919 – 10 December 1919) and Maj-Gen. Abdulhamid bey Gaitabashi (10 December 1919 – April 1920).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of the Azerbaijani armed forces", "target_page_ids": [ 2409969, 28087409, 3404677, 4424746, 11197435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 86 ], [ 221, 241 ], [ 291, 311 ], [ 350, 370 ], [ 424, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Red Army invaded Azerbaijan on 28 April 1920. Although the bulk of the newly formed Azerbaijani army was engaged in putting down an Armenian revolt that had just broken out in Karabakh, the Azerbaijanis did not surrender their brief independence of 1918–20 quickly or easily. As many as 20,000 of the total 30,000 soldiers died resisting what was effectively a Russian reconquest. The national Army of Azerbaijan was abolished by the Bolshevik government, 15 of the 21 army generals were executed by the Bolsheviks.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of the Azerbaijani armed forces", "target_page_ids": [ 25682, 9322682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 180, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Sovietisation of Azerbaijan, the newly formed Azerbaijani Red Army replaced the previous army, taking part in the Russian Civil War, and the invasion of Georgia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of the Azerbaijani armed forces", "target_page_ids": [ 66404258, 26295, 7761715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 76 ], [ 124, 141 ], [ 151, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During World War II, Azerbaijan played a crucial role in the strategic energy policy of Soviet Union. Much of the Soviet Union's oil on the Eastern Front was supplied by Baku. By a decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in February 1942, the commitment of more than 500 workers and employees of the oil industry of Azerbaijan was recognised with orders and medals.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of the Azerbaijani armed forces", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 519489, 29062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 140, 153 ], [ 195, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Operation Edelweiss carried out by the German Wehrmacht targeted Baku because of the importance of its oil fields to the USSR.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of the Azerbaijani armed forces", "target_page_ids": [ 3249624, 21376046, 4566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 46, 55 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some 800,000 Azerbaijanis fought within the ranks of the Soviet Army of which 400,000 died. Azerbaijani national formations of the Red Army included the 223rd, 227th, 396th, 402nd, and 416th Rifle Divisions. Azerbaijani Major-General Hazi Aslanov was awarded a second Hero of the Soviet Union after a long post-war fight for recognition of his accomplishments.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of the Azerbaijani armed forces", "target_page_ids": [ 25682, 70313300, 70680595, 61255624, 61388359, 49004749, 2563036, 400853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 139 ], [ 153, 158 ], [ 160, 165 ], [ 167, 172 ], [ 174, 179 ], [ 185, 205 ], [ 234, 246 ], [ 268, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Cold War, Azerbaijan had been the deployment area of units of the Soviet 4th Army whose principle formations in 1988 included four motor rifle divisions (23rd Guards, 60th, 75th, and 295th). The 75th Motor Rifle Division was isolated in Nakhchivan. The 4th Army also included missile and air defense brigades and artillery and rocket regiments. The 75th Division's stores and equipment were apparently transferred to the Nakhchivan authorities. Azerbaijan also hosted the 49th Arsenal of the Soviet Main Agency of Missiles and Artillery, which contained over 7,000 train-car loads of ammunition to the excess of one billion units.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of the Azerbaijani armed forces", "target_page_ids": [ 2192452, 39140285, 45541218, 385358, 4060056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 92 ], [ 165, 176 ], [ 194, 199 ], [ 248, 258 ], [ 510, 547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first president of Azerbaijan, Ayaz Mutallibov, did not wish to build an independent army, wanting to rely instead largely on Soviet troops. Even when the Parliament decided that an army should be formed in September 1991, disagreements between the government and the opposition Azerbaijani Popular Front Party impeded creation of a unified force. Around this time, the first unit of the new army was formed on the basis of the 18–110 military unit of mechanized infantry of the Soviet Ground Forces (probably part of the 4th Army) located in Shikhov, south of Baku. At the time of the parliamentary decision, Lieutenant-General Valeh Barshadli became the first Minister of Defense of Azerbaijan, from 5 September to 11 December 1991. Later from May to 4 September 1992 he served as Chief of General Staff of Azerbaijani Armed Forces.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of the Azerbaijani armed forces", "target_page_ids": [ 917076, 408283, 20282, 13824438, 2192452, 18838818, 28017509, 27911049, 30322746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 50 ], [ 283, 314 ], [ 456, 475 ], [ 483, 503 ], [ 526, 534 ], [ 547, 554 ], [ 633, 648 ], [ 666, 699 ], [ 787, 837 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In summer 1992, the nascent Defense Ministry received a resolution by the Azerbaijani president on the takeover of units and formations in Azerbaijani territory. It then forwarded an ultimatum to Moscow demanding control over vehicles and armaments of the 135th and 139th Motor Rifle Regiments of the 295th Motor Rifle Division. In July 1992, Azerbaijan ratified the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE), which establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of conventional military equipment. Azerbaijan approved the CFE flank agreement in May 1997.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of the Azerbaijani armed forces", "target_page_ids": [ 45541218, 1300375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 301, 327 ], [ 367, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The transfer of the property of the 4th Army (except for part of the property of the 366th Motor Rifle Regiment of the 23rd Guards Motor Rifle Division captured by Armenian armed formations in 1992 during the regiment's withdrawal from Stepanakert) and the 49th arsenal was completed in 1992. Thus, by the end of 1992, Azerbaijan received arms and military hardware sufficient for approximately four motor rifle divisions with prescribed army units. It also inherited naval ships. There are also reports that 50 combat aircraft from the disbanded 19th Army of the Soviet Air Defence Forces came under Azerbaijani control.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of the Azerbaijani armed forces", "target_page_ids": [ 39140285, 11886584, 873945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 151 ], [ 547, 556 ], [ 564, 589 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Azerbaijani armed forces took a series of devastating defeats by Armenian forces during the 1992–1994 Nagorno-Karabakh War, which resulted in the loss of control of Nagorno-Karabakh proper and seven surrounding rayons, comprising roughly 20% of the territory of Azerbaijan. Azerbaijani sources insist that Armenian victory was largely due to military help from Russia and the wealthy Armenian diaspora. Armenians partially deny the allegation, claiming that Russian side was equally supplying Armenian and Azerbaijani sides with weapons and mercenaries. During the war, the Azerbaijani armed forces were also aided by Turkish military advisers, and Russian, Ukrainian, Chechen and Afghan volunteers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of the Azerbaijani armed forces", "target_page_ids": [ 4020775, 162017, 214413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 126 ], [ 215, 220 ], [ 388, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of Azerbaijani human rights groups have been tracking non-combat deaths and have noted an upward trend in early 2010s. Based on Defense Ministry statistics that had not been released to the public, the Group of Monitoring Compliance with Human Rights in the Army (GMCHRA) has recorded the deaths of 76 soldiers to date in non-combat incidents for 2011, and the injury of 91 others. In comparison, there were 62 non-combat deaths and 71 cases of injury in 2010. The string of non-combat deaths raises questions about the reform progress of the military. Factors behind the deaths include bullying, hazing, and the systemic corruption within the Azerbaijani military.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of the Azerbaijani armed forces", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Second Karabakh War (also known in Azerbaijan as \"The Patriotic War\" or \"Operation Iron Fist\") began on the morning of 27 September 2020 when Azerbaijan launched an offensive along the Line of Contact. On the seventh day of the war, a major offensive was launched by the ground forces, advancing in the north, making some territorial gains while the fighting gradually shifted to the south. Following the capture of Shusha, the second-largest settlement in Nagorno-Karabakh, by Azerbaijani forces, a ceasefire agreement was signed between Azerbaijan, and Armenia, ending all hostilities in the area. Under the agreement, Armenia returned the surrounding territories it occupied in 1994 to Azerbaijan while Azerbaijan gained land access to its Nakhchivan exclave. Total casualties were in the low thousands.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of the Azerbaijani armed forces", "target_page_ids": [ 65431221, 65787844, 1492790, 65804585, 385358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 405, 416 ], [ 420, 426 ], [ 504, 523 ], [ 747, 757 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the war, the Azerbaijani army was widely accused of committing war crimes against Armenian soldiers and civilians. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International both condemned Azerbaijan's “indiscriminate” shelling of Armenian civilians, including the use of cluster munitions. In addition, videos of Azerbaijani soldiers mistreating or executing captive Armenians were circulated online and received widespread condemnation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of the Azerbaijani armed forces", "target_page_ids": [ 46530, 18947898, 79745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 140 ], [ 145, 166 ], [ 265, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 10 December, a victory parade was held in honor of the Azerbaijani Army on Azadliq Square, with 3,000 distinguished military servicemen marching alongside military equipment, unmanned aerial vehicles and aircraft.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History of the Azerbaijani armed forces", "target_page_ids": [ 66065854, 23597901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 41 ], [ 78, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the fall of the Soviet Union, there have been attempts in the defence ministry to reform the military to be more in line with the Turkish/NATO model, resulting in Soviet-legacy officers such as Rovshan Akbarov and Najmeddin Sadikov being removed from power.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 67228635, 30314065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 215 ], [ 220, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan periodically holds drills to improve interaction and combat coordination between the servicemen during operations, its military personnel’s combat readiness, as well as to develop commanders' military decision-making and unit management skills. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Azerbaijani Land Forces number 85,000 strong, according to UK Advanced Research and Assessment Group estimates. The 2,500 men of the National Guard are also part of the ground forces. In addition, there are 300,000 former service personnel who have had military service in the last 15 years. Other paramilitary agencies consist of Interior Ministry Internal Troops of Azerbaijan, 12,000 strong, and the land component of the State Border Service, 5,000 strong.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 4941797, 2884207, 10927665, 10927369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ], [ 66, 104 ], [ 353, 382 ], [ 429, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan has signed numerous contracts to strengthen its armed forces and to train its military with Turkey's assistance. Over the last 15 years, Azerbaijan has been preparing its military for possible action against Armenian forces in Nagorno-Karabakh.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 65220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Land Forces consist of five army corps:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1st Army Corps also known as Barda Army Corps (concentrated near Ganja)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 66149221, 7115553, 661551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 29, 34 ], [ 65, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2nd Army Corps also known as Beylagan Army Corps (concentrated against Armenian occupied territories and part is deployed on the Azerbaijan-Iranian border)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 66176862, 20024921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 71, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "3rd Army Corps also known as Shamkir Army Corps (concentrated against Armenian occupied territories)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 66150419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "4th Army Corps also known as Baku Army Corps (covers Absheron Peninsula and the coast)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 66185091, 14465664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 53, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nakhchivan Separate Combined Arms Army (deployed in Nakhchivan)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 64398883, 385358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ], [ 52, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Land Forces include 23 motor rifle brigades, an artillery brigade, a multiple rocket launcher brigade, and an anti-tank regiment. The IISS Military Balance reported in 2007 that the Land Forces had an estimated 40 SA-13 Gopher, SA-4 Ganef, and SA-8 Gecko air defence missile systems, with '80–240 eff.' to support the army in the battlefield. (IISS 2007, p.157)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The peacekeeping forces of Azerbaijan are mostly supplied from the Land Forces, though the Internal Troops of Azerbaijan do also supply some. As of March 2011, 94 peacekeepers were deployed with the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan. In the past, it also actively supported the peacekeeping operation in Kosovo and Iraq.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 22469823, 10927665, 194200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 37 ], [ 91, 120 ], [ 199, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Azerbaijani peacekeeping unit deployed in Iraq consisted of 14 officers, 16 sergeants and 120 privates, a total of 150 troops. The unit secured the hydroelectric power station and reservoir in Al Haditha from August 2003. In December 2008, Azerbaijan withdrew the unit from Iraq.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 22469823, 381399, 2385877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 33 ], [ 152, 179 ], [ 197, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reportedly in December 2014 Azerbaijan created the Separate Combined Arms Army in Nakhchivan. Karam Mustafayev became commander of the corps. The army was created based on the Nakhchivan 5th Army Corps to strengthen defense capability of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, increase of combat capability of military units and formations of the Armed Forces, improve central control, reports quoting the Defence Ministry said.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 66286297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Azerbaijani Air and Air Defence Force is a single unified service branch. Some 8,000 men serve in the air force and air defence force. The Air and Air Defence Force has around 106 aircraft and 35 helicopters. The country has four major airbases. Nasosnaya (air base) has fighters, Kyurdamir Air Base a bomber regiment, Ganja Air Base transports, and Baku Kala Air Base the helicopter unit. There are also four other airbases which do not appear to have aircraft based there. These are Dollyar Air Base, Nakhchivan Airport, Sanqacal Air Base, and Sitalcay Air Base.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 4318954, 19859966, 19859962, 9422011, 19859938, 19859955, 9422061, 18838790, 18910054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 41 ], [ 250, 270 ], [ 285, 303 ], [ 323, 337 ], [ 354, 372 ], [ 489, 505 ], [ 507, 525 ], [ 527, 535 ], [ 550, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Azerbaijani Air Force using MiG-21, Su-24 and Su-25 aircraft, as well as the MiG-29 purchased from Ukraine in 2006 and Il-76 transport aircraft. The MiG-29 have been designated as the standard aircraft for the AzAF. Azerbaijan is holding talks with either the People's Republic of China or Pakistan to purchase JF-17 Thunder aircraft. MiG-25s previously in service have been retired seemingly in the 2007–09 period.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 61962, 382335, 366696, 185653, 229943, 1928578, 247960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 38 ], [ 40, 45 ], [ 50, 55 ], [ 81, 87 ], [ 123, 128 ], [ 315, 320 ], [ 339, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan's helicopter force is concentrated at Baku Kala Air Base and according to the IISS consists of a single regiment with around 14–15 Mi-24, 12–13 Mi-8 and 7 Mi-2. Jane's Information Group and the IISS give figures which agree with only a single aircraft's difference. Recently, end of 2010 Russian Rosvertol announced that Azerbaijan armed forces signed a deal for 24 pieces of Mi-35M (Hind-E) gunships what would further enhance the Azerbaijani ground attack formations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 19859938, 1092026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 67 ], [ 172, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Air Force has L-39 advanced training aircraft in store. The Azerbaijan Border Guard and Voluntary Society of Defense, Patriotism and Sport have Yakovlev light training aircraft.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 493727, 10927369, 187660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 22 ], [ 64, 87 ], [ 148, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan has missile and radar systems intended to defend Azerbaijani airspace. There are at least 2 divisions of S-300PMU2. Thereby the country has one of the most capable SAM surface-to-air missile system in the region. Azerbaijan also operates two S-200 (SA-5 GAMMON) batteries near Baku and Mingachevir; the S-300PMU-2 represents a logical replacement for these systems offering coverage of the majority of the nation. The country also has about 100 NATO designated SA-2 Guideline (original name S-75), SA-3 Goa (S-125 Pechora-2M), and the SA-5 Gammon (S-200) are in static installations. These may be around Baku and the central part to cover the whole Azerbaijani aerospace.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 546105, 182664, 3047625, 1377417, 1380590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 121 ], [ 179, 201 ], [ 472, 476 ], [ 509, 517 ], [ 546, 557 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, August 2011 investigations shows that after purchase of S-300 surface-to-air missiles, the largest apparent gap in Azerbaijan's air defense system may have been filled.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 546105, 182664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 70 ], [ 71, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in Azerbaijan there was a former Soviet early warning radar. The Gabala Radar Station was a bistatic phased-array installation, operated by the Russian Space Forces. The contract was signed in 2002 and was due to expire in 2012 where it was to be given back to the Azerbaijani government. The contract costed Russia $7million per year. The radar station had a range of up to , and was designed to detect intercontinental ballistic missile launches as far as from the Indian Ocean. In December 2012 Russia announced that negotiations had been unsuccessful and that they had stopped using the radar station. The site was given back to Azerbaijan and all the equipment dismantled and transported to Russia. Nowadays, Russia covers the area from the Armavir Radar Station.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 11670391, 8486749, 14939, 746, 25391, 35482625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 90 ], [ 149, 169 ], [ 409, 443 ], [ 638, 648 ], [ 701, 707 ], [ 751, 772 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main naval base of the Soviet Union in the Caspian Sea was based in Baku. When the Soviet Union collapsed, Azerbaijan inherited the naval base and parts of the Caspian Sea Flotilla. The Azerbaijan Navy has about 2,200 personnel. In 2010, the navy had a Petya class light frigate, Qusar (G 121), and a number of patrol craft, including one Turk class, Araz, P 223, one Brya (Project 722) class, P 218, one Shelon (Project 1388M) class, P 212, one Poluchat class (Project 368), P 219, one Luga class (Project 888), T 710, and four Petrushka (Polish UK-3 class), P 213, P 214, P 215, and P 216. There are four minesweepers consisting of 2 Sonya class minesweeper and 2 Yevgenya class minesweepers. (Jane's Fighting Ships 2010)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 1933658, 4941803, 7427466, 536773, 217118, 20415771, 20416401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 184 ], [ 190, 205 ], [ 257, 268 ], [ 315, 327 ], [ 611, 622 ], [ 640, 663 ], [ 670, 696 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Navy is also attributed with 5 landing craft, 3 Polnochny and 2 Vydra (IISS 2007), plus three research ships, 1 Project 10470, A 671, ex Svyaga, 1 Balerian Uryvayev class survey vessel (AG) and one Vadim Popov class survey vessel (AG).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 539716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The U.S. Navy has helped train the Azerbaijani Navy. There is also an agreement to provide US support to refurbish Azerbaijani warships in the Caspian Sea. In 2006, the US Government donated 3 motorboats to the Azerbaijani Navy. In 2007, an agreement between the Azerbaijani Navy and a US military company was concluded, which stated that a part of the Azerbaijani Navy would be equipped with advanced laser marksmanship systems. The US company specialists were also to give training on the use of the new equipment. A number of separate U.S. programmes are underway under the Caspian Guard Initiative, focused mostly on enhancing Azerbaijani and Kazakh maritime border security.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 19653787, 10927815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 154 ], [ 577, 601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 2011, the president of the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic Rovnag Abdullayev stated that Azerbaijan would start production of national warships after 2013.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 3493617, 20823682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 74 ], [ 75, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Naval Intelligence of Azerbaijan maintains the 641st Special Warfare Naval Unit. The special forces were trained by the U.S. Navy SEALs Unit 641 has several midget submarines such as Triton-1M and Triton 2 at their disposal as well as underwater tool motion for individual divers. The special unit is composed of 3 reconnaissance groups, 2 groups for mountainous warfare, and one diving group. Obligatory training includes parachute jumping day and night, on land and on water.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 65948171, 38188, 612372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 83 ], [ 124, 139 ], [ 161, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Special Forces of Azerbaijan are part of the Ministry of Defence. It was established in April 1999 with officers and warrant officers who had participated in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War of 1991–1994. The Turkish Special Forces Command played a role in the formation of the unit. During the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War, personnel of the Special Forces reclaimed the city of Jebrayil and nine surrounding villages from the Armenian Army. On November 8, Aliyev congratulated the commander of the Special Forces on their \"liberation of Shusha\". The war was considered to be first time Azerbaijan has actively used all of its special forces units.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 41902310, 4020775, 7193518, 18846287, 1097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 32 ], [ 166, 192 ], [ 219, 241 ], [ 378, 386 ], [ 426, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ministry of Defence Industry of Azerbaijan directs domestic military supplies for Azerbaijan. It was established in 2005. The Defence Industries Ministry subsumed the State Department for Military Industry and for Armaments and the Military Science Center, each of which was formerly a separate agency within the Azerbaijani Defense Ministry.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Defense industry", "target_page_ids": [ 11169023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The defense industry has emerged as an autonomous entity with a growing production capability. The ministry is cooperating with the defense sectors of Ukraine, Belarus and Pakistan. Along with other contracts, Azerbaijani defence industries and Turkish companies, Azerbaijan will produce 40mm revolver grenade launchers, 107mm and 122mm MLRS systems, Cobra 4×4 vehicles and joint modernization of BTR vehicles in Baku.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Defense industry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The major military companies of Azerbaijan are:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Defense industry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " RPE Iglim, aviation and shipbuilding", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Defense industry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Radiogurashdirma, communication means and radio-electronic", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Defense industry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " RPE Neftgazavtomat, devices and automation systems for monitoring technological processes", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Defense industry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " RPE Automatic Lines, non-standard equipment and products for application in electrotechnical and machine engineering", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Defense industry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Avia-Agregat, multi-purpose aviation equipment, various airdrome conditioners, universal container of board conductor, air-to-air radiators, fuel-oil, air-to-air heat exchangers and ventilators", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Defense industry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In early 2008, reports indicated that an agreement with Turkey had been signed which would lead to Azerbaijan producing armoured personnel carriers, infantry fighting vehicles, and small calibre artillery pieces.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Defense industry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan cooperates with about 60 countries in the military-technical sphere and has an agreement on military-technical cooperation with more than 30 countries.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2009, an agreement on military assistance was signed by Turkey and Azerbaijan. The agreement envisions Ankara supplying Azerbaijan with weapons, military equipment, and, if necessary, soldiers in case war with Armenia over Karabakh resumes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Turkey has provided Azerbaijan with infantry weapons, tactical vehicles (jeeps, trucks, etc.) professional training, military organization, technology transfer, licensed military hardware production, and other services. Due to help from Turkish specialists and instructors, thousands of Azerbaijani officers have been trained to western standards.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The military position as international importance of Azerbaijan increased with an agreement between Azerbaijan and Turkey on the participation an Azerbaijani peacekeeping platoon in the staff of the Turkish battalion in Kosovo.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1992, Azerbaijan and Turkey have signed more than 100 military protocols, some of the major protocols include:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cooperation of staff members", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National security cooperation in the topographical area", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Forming and training of professional school of forces in Baku", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Carrying out of the material and technical purchasing", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Military industry cooperation", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Development of the 5th Army Corps also known as Nakhchivan Army Corps in Nakhchivan", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 385358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cooperation in the area of military history, military archives and museum work and military publication", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Assistance on training, material and technical between the Azerbaijan Border Guard and the Turkish Armed Forces.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 10927369, 30205 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 83 ], [ 92, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Long-term economical and military cooperation and application of the financial aid", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Application of material and technical provision", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In May 2011, Azerbaijan had discussed the purchase of long-range rockets from two Chinese companies, the minister of the defence industry has said. Other arms deals were signed with Turkey. Turkish Defence Minister Vecdi Gonul and Yaver Jamalov signed a protocol of intent on future joint production of two types of output – 107-mm rockets and the national rifle, possibly the Mehmetçik-1. A protocol of intent was signed the same day with the Mechanical and Chemical Industry Corporation MKEK on the joint production of 120-mm mortar launchers. This project will come into force in a few months time. Agreement has also been reached with Turkish company Aselsan on the production of some types of defence output in Azerbaijan, specifically the latest types of weapons' sights. These projects will probably happen in the near future too. Recently, Turkish defense industries secretariat told that an export version of the T-155 Firtina self-propelled howitser is almost done and could start production. T-155 has been powered by a German MTU power pack, which restricts the sale to some countries like Azerbaijan. The Turkish manufacturer MKEK, has announced that they have found an alternate supplier for the power pack where Azerbaijan showed interest to buy the high tech, more capable 155mm 52 caliber from Turkish authorities.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 9917552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 489, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Section 907 of the United States Freedom Support Act bans any kind of direct United States aid to the Azerbaijani government. Since a waiver was made in 2001 there has been extensive U.S. military cooperation with Azerbaijan. This has included Special Forces and naval aid, consultations with United States European Command, and linkages through the U.S. National Guard State Partnership Program.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 7658483, 11623685, 1908551, 1711234, 6446390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 33, 52 ], [ 91, 94 ], [ 293, 323 ], [ 370, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 19 May 2006, Azerbaijani Defense Minister Safar Abiyev and the then commander of United States Air Forces in Europe General Tom Hobbins met in Baku to discuss military cooperation. He said the objective of his visit was to become familiar with the state of Azerbaijani armed forces. Hobbins pointed to the progress made in the NATO-Azerbaijan relations, saying that the successful implementation of the NATO Partnership for Peace program in Azerbaijan has brought the country even closer to the alliance. He said that the two countries' air forces will expand cooperation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 12975707, 1030868, 4566, 368530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 57 ], [ 84, 118 ], [ 146, 150 ], [ 411, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The U.S. state of Oklahoma is linked with Azerbaijan through the U.S. National Guard State Partnership Program (SPP). Oklahoma National Guard troops have been sent on training and humanitarian missions to Baku.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 22489, 37988, 6446390, 4562230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 26 ], [ 65, 84 ], [ 85, 110 ], [ 118, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Russia is one of Azerbaijan's main supplier of arms. \"As of today, military and technical cooperation with Russia is measured at $4 billion and it tends to grow further,\" President Ilham Aliyev said after meeting with Russian President Vladimir Putin in Baku in 2013.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 22765442, 32817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 193 ], [ 236, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan and Israel cooperate on numerous areas of the defense industry. Israel is Azerbaijan's largest weapon supplier with $4.85 billion in sales during 2016 alone. Azerbaijan has shown great interest in Israeli technology over the years. In particular, an agreement was reached over the construction of the factory of intelligence and combat drones in Azerbaijan.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Israeli defense company Elta Systems Ltd has had cooperation from Azerbaijan in building the TecSAR reconnaissance satellite system, which can take high-definition photos of ground surfaces in all weather conditions. According to Azerbaijani military experts, the TecSAR system will be indispensable for military operations in the mountainous terrains of Azerbaijan.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 5654343, 14836618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 32 ], [ 97, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of June 2009, Israel and Azerbaijan had been negotiating on the production of Namer armoured infantry fighting vehicles in Azerbaijan. There is no further information as to whether any agreement has been made.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 22912571, 15166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 86 ], [ 96, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Azerbaijan actively cooperate on defence institutional reforms and have developed practical cooperation in many other areas. Azerbaijan's Individual Partnership Action Plan (IPAP) and its Partnership for Peace (PfP) linkages lay out the programme of cooperation between Azerbaijan and NATO.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 21133, 7877570, 368530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 38 ], [ 188, 222 ], [ 238, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Azerbaijani government has however delayed implementing IPAP-recommended reforms, however, in part at least because no decision had been taken to seek NATO membership. This is because Azerbaijan's foreign policy 'seeks to balance interests with the U.S., EU, Russia and Iran.'", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to a NATO diplomatic source some key officials at NATO headquarters in Brussels were pushing hard for engaging Azerbaijan on the membership question. \"Turkey, Romania, Italy, Poland, the United Kingdom and the Baltic states,\" are among the member-states also backing a fast track for Azerbaijan's NATO membership.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 3708, 188675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 89 ], [ 220, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, Azerbaijan made its policy of not being aligned with a geopolitical/military structure official when it became a full member of the Non-Aligned Movement in 2011.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 638594, 68702564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 56 ], [ 141, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is also a limited amount of military cooperation with the other countries of GUAM: Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, and Moldova.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "International cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 1048116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The purpose of Azerbaijani military education & training is to train soldiers, officers, and non-commissioned officers to have independent and creative thinking and commitment to the Azerbaijani people and the government. Military education in the Azerbaijani Armed Forces have been described as either being Secondary education, Further education, or Higher education.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijani pilots were formerly trained in the Azerbaijan Air Force School, where they would then develop their skills in operational units. Azerbaijan has an experience exchange with Turkey, Ukraine, the United States and a number of NATO countries. The Turkish Air Force School has a great role in the training of Azerbaijani military pilots. Azerbaijani pilots are also trained in Ukraine's Pilot Training School.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 9874605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 256, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following is a list of educational institutions in the armed forces:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Military academies", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " War College of the Armed Forces", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 60555433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Training and Education Center of the Armed Forces", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 67101223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Azerbaijan Higher Military Academy", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 60544953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Azerbaijan Higher Naval Academy (former independent institution)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 64334706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Azerbaijan High Military Aviation School (former independent institution)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 4318954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Other educational institutions", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Secondary Military Medical School of Azerbaijan", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Military Medical Faculty of Azerbaijan Medical University", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 4788086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Military lyceums", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jamshid Nakhchivanski Military Lyceum", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 28096514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Heydar Aliyev Military Lyceum", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 66096407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military Courts act as courts of first instance deals. The Military Court is composed of a President and judges. The following military courts exist in Azerbaijan:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Military Court of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 385358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Baku Military Court (formed in August 1992)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ganja Military Court", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lankaran Military Court", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fuzuli-Gubadli Military Court", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tartar Military Court", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Agdam Military Court", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gazakh Military Court", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sumgait Military Court", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the first war, Russians, who were a large minority in Azerbaijan at the time, served in the units of the Azerbaijani Army, many of whom formerly served in the Soviet Army. According to the Russian Ministry of Defence more than 300 officers of the 7th Army, based in the capital of Baku, refused to leave Azerbaijan at the outset of the war. During the Second Karabakh War, the death of an ethnic Russian Azerbaijani soldier, Dmitry Solntsev, was reported. There was also Denis Aliyev (born as Denis Pronin) from the Xətai raion, who was killed in Jabrayil. He was later posthumously awarded the Medal \"For the Liberation of Jabrayil\" in December. Cossacks, associated with the Association of Cossacks of Azerbaijan, often join the Azerbaijani Armed Forces.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 33570513, 7875884, 59510, 19374465, 18846287, 65910935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 83 ], [ 197, 224 ], [ 404, 411 ], [ 524, 535 ], [ 555, 563 ], [ 603, 641 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Female military personnel in the military are generally involved in education, office work, medical care, and the development of international cooperation. They also serve in the rear, signal troops, and intelligence forces. Women are exempt from conscription, which means that female service is purely on a voluntary basis. There are currently 1,000 female personnel in the Azerbaijani military, accounting for 3% of the armed forces. During the Karabakh Conflict, 2,000 of the 74,000 Azerbaijani soldiers were women, and 600 of them directly took part in military operations, with a women's battalion being established in 1992. The enrollment of females in Azerbaijani higher military schools began in 1999. According to soldier Tehrana Bahruzi in her book, “Zakir Hasanov: the Ideal Minister\", Defence Minister Zakir Hasanov was responsible for launching the first female unit in the Special Forces of Azerbaijan. In October 2020, the first female military casualty was reported, a combat medic who died while taking wounded soldiers from the battlefield.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 40963939, 41902310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 814, 827 ], [ 887, 915 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medal \"For Bravery\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Medal \"For Fatherland\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Medal \"For Faultless Service\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 38938602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Medal \"For blameless service\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Medal \"For distinction in military service\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Medal \"For distinction in the border\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Medal \"For merit in military collaboration\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Medal \"For military merit\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Veteran of the Armed Forces Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Brave Warrior Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 65911067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For Distinction in Battle Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 65911037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For Heroism Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 35527299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For military services medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 36926008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Herbi Xidmlete Gore Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anniversary medals", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"10th Anniversary of the Armed Forces of Azerbaijan (1991–2001)\" Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"90th Anniversary of the Armed Forces of Azerbaijan (1918–2008)\" Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 61912815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"95th Anniversary of the Armed Forces of Azerbaijan (1918–2013)\" Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 61912686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijani Army 100th anniversary medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 61170719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Battle/war awards", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hero of the Patriotic War", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 66058582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hero of the Patriotic War Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 65910610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Participant of the Patriotic War Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 65911100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For Services in the Rear in the Patriotic War Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 65911124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For the Liberation of Aghdam Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 65910757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For the Liberation of Fuzuli Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 65910916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For the Liberation of Gubadly Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 65910891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For the Liberation of Jabrayil Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 65910935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For the Liberation of Kalbajar Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 65910879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For the Liberation of Khojavend Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 65910929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For the Liberation of Lachin Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 65910861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For the Liberation of Shusha Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 65910824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For the Liberation of Sugovushan Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 65910946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For the Liberation of Zangilan Medal", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 65910908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today 'National Hero of Azerbaijan' is the highest national title in the country, awarded for outstanding services of national importance to Azerbaijan in defense, as well as other deeds in other spheres.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 11505052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The military oath () is taken by conscripts as a legal basis of the beginning of their military service. The oath is administered by the commanding officer of the unit. The following is the text for the current version of the oath:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Traditions and military institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 5735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A battle flag for a military unit is a symbol of honor which remains forever in the unit unless it is dissolved. By military law, if the battle flag is lost in battle, the commander of the military unit and the servicemen under its command are brought to court, and the unit is abolished. Battle flags have the color of the State Flag, with the slogan \"For Azerbaijan\" being embroidered with golden silk on a blue stripe along the upper edge of the fabric. Outside the battle flag, the Azerbaijani military also utilizes the Turkish military tradition of pennants as symbols.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Traditions and military institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 339643, 1177214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 324, 334 ], [ 555, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These are the military holidays observed by all service personnel the Armed Forces:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Traditions and military institutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 14 February – Air Force Day", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Traditions and military institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 33949683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 26 June – Day of the Armed Forces", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Traditions and military institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 35450533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 5 August – Day of the Azerbaijani Navy", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Traditions and military institutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 27 September – Memorial Day", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Traditions and military institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 66016112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 18 October – Day of the First Military Unit", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Traditions and military institutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 8 November – Victory Day", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Traditions and military institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 66016006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan Military History Museum is a structure under the Ministry of Defense. It was established on 10 December 1992 by the order of the Minister of Defense and in accordance with a decree signed on 29 October 1992 \"On the transfer of the Museum of Combat Glory of the VI Army Garrison of the Commonwealth of Independent States\". Today, the museum displays 5 tanks, 9 armored personnel carriers, 16 artillery pieces, 6 aircraft, 4 helicopters, 6 different military equipment of the Air Force. Currently, the number of exhibits totals 11,000.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Traditions and military institutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the Second World War, veterans movements were launched in Azerbaijan, with the Baku Veterans Committee being established on 10 June 1960. The activity of the committee was limited to Baku until the early 1970s. During the leadership of First Secretary Heydar Aliyev, there was a revival in the veteran movement, during which the committee gradually expanded to the republic. The establishment of the Republican Veterans Organization took place on 21 March 1987. Despite the official registration of the RVO with the Ministry of Justice, the activity of the organization was largely formal due to the tensions in the country with the Karabakh War, as well as the attitude of the government towards Red Army veterans in general. One of the first laws signed by the President Aliyev was the Law \"On Veterans\" (28 June 1994), which restored the mandate for the RVO.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Traditions and military institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Judiciary of Azerbaijan", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 55284726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Special Purpose Police Unit", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28119649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "U.S. Army War College Center for Strategic Leadership, Transformation of the Azerbaijani Armed Forces, October 2008", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Official YouTube Channel of Azerbaijani Soldier program", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Azerbaijani_Armed_Forces", "1918_establishments_in_Azerbaijan" ]

[ "military of Azerbaijan", "mil Azerbaijan", "Armed Forces of Azerbaijan" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Armenia is a landlocked country in West Asia, situated in the Transcaucasus region of the South Caucasus, bordered on the north and east by Georgia and Azerbaijan and on the south and west by Iran, Azerbaijan's exclave Nakhchivan (which has historically been part of Armenia), and Turkey. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10918072, 297503, 399656, 353358, 353358, 48768, 746, 14653, 385358, 11125639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 13, 31 ], [ 35, 44 ], [ 62, 75 ], [ 90, 104 ], [ 140, 147 ], [ 152, 162 ], [ 192, 196 ], [ 219, 229 ], [ 281, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The terrain is mostly mountainous and flat, with fast flowing rivers and few forests but with many trees. The climate is highland continental: hot summers and cold winters. The land rises to 4,090 m above sea-level at Mount Aragats.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1015981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia is located in the southern Caucasus, the region southwest of Russia between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. Modern Armenia occupies part of historical Armenia, whose ancient centers were in the valley of the Araks River and the region around Lake Van in Turkey. Armenia is bordered on the north by Georgia, on the east by Azerbaijan, on the southeast by Artsakh, on the south by Iran, and on the west by Turkey.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Physical environment", "target_page_ids": [ 39282, 25391, 3386, 19653787, 10918072, 87368, 446210, 46772, 1000530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 43 ], [ 69, 75 ], [ 88, 97 ], [ 106, 117 ], [ 126, 133 ], [ 151, 169 ], [ 219, 230 ], [ 253, 261 ], [ 365, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Twenty-five million years ago, a geological upheaval pushed up the Earth's crust to form the Armenian Plateau, creating the complex topography of modern Armenia. The Lesser Caucasus range extends through northern Armenia, runs southeast between Lake Sevan and Azerbaijan, then passes roughly along the Armenian-Azerbaijani border to Iran. Thus situated, the mountains make travel from north to south difficult. Geological turmoil continues in the form of devastating earthquakes, which have plagued Armenia. In December 1988, the second largest city in the republic, Leninakan (now Gyumri), was heavily damaged by a massive quake that killed more than 25,000 people.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Topography and drainage", "target_page_ids": [ 792215, 1529357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 255 ], [ 582, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "About half of Armenia's area of approximately has an elevation of at least , and only 3% of the country lies below . The lowest points are in the valleys of the Araks River and the Debed River in the far north, which have elevations of , respectively. Elevations in the Lesser Caucasus vary between . To the southwest of the range is the Armenian Plateau, which slopes southwestward toward the Araks River on the Turkish border. The plateau is masked by intermediate mountain ranges and extinct volcanoes. The largest of these, Mount Aragats, high, is also the highest point in Armenia. Most of the population lives in the western and northwestern parts of the country, where the two major cities, Yerevan and Gyumri, are located.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Topography and drainage", "target_page_ids": [ 446210, 8638010, 1015981, 10918072, 34352, 1529357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 173 ], [ 182, 193 ], [ 529, 542 ], [ 580, 587 ], [ 700, 707 ], [ 712, 718 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The valleys of the Debed and Akstafa rivers form the chief routes into Armenia from the north as they pass through the mountains. Lake Sevan, across at its widest point and long, is by far the largest lake. It lies above sea level on the plateau and is large. Other main lakes are: Arpi, , Sev, , Akna .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Topography and drainage", "target_page_ids": [ 18638028, 792215, 8651172, 8340599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 36 ], [ 130, 140 ], [ 286, 290 ], [ 301, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Terrain is most rugged in the extreme southeast, which is drained by the Bargushat River, and most moderate in the Araks River valley to the extreme southwest. Most of Armenia is drained by the Araks or its tributary, the Hrazdan, which flows from Lake Sevan. The Araks forms most of Armenia's border with Turkey and Iran, while the Zangezur Mountains form the border between Armenia's southern province of Syunik and Azerbaijan's adjacent Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Topography and drainage", "target_page_ids": [ 446210, 1368894, 7239321, 470515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 199 ], [ 222, 229 ], [ 333, 351 ], [ 395, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Temperatures in Armenia generally depend upon elevation. Mountain formations block the moderating climatic influences of the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea, creating wide seasonal variations with cold snowy winters, and warm to hot summers. On the Armenian Plateau, the mean midwinter temperature is to , and the mean midsummer temperature is to . Average precipitation ranges from per year in the lower Araks River valley to at the highest altitudes. Despite the harshness of winter in most parts (with frosts reaching and lower in Shirak region), the fertility of the plateau's volcanic soil made Armenia one of the world's earliest sites of agricultural activity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Climate", "target_page_ids": [ 470511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 543, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Area:total: 29,743km2", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 143", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "land: 28,203km2water: 1,540km2", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Area comparative", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Australia comparative: about one third (33%) the size of Tasmania", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 4689264, 29944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 57, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Canada comparative: greater than half (56%) the size of Nova Scotia", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 5042916, 21184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 56, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Turkey comparative: about a quarter (24%) smaller than the size of Konya Province.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 11125639, 915825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 68, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "United Kingdom comparative: about one third larger (30%) than Wales", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 31717, 69894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 62, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "United States comparative: slightly smaller (7%) than Maryland", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 3434750, 18858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 54, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "EU comparative: slightly smaller (8%) than Belgium", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 9317, 3343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 2 ], [ 43, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Land boundaries:total: 1,570kmborder countries:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Azerbaijan and Republic of Artsakh-proper 566km, Azerbaijan-Nakhchivan exclave 221km, Georgia 219km, Iran 44km, Turkey 311km", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 746, 1000530, 385358, 48768, 14653, 11125639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 15, 34 ], [ 49, 70 ], [ 86, 93 ], [ 101, 105 ], [ 112, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coastline:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "0km (landlocked)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Elevation extremes:lowest point: 375mhighest point: Mount Aragats 4,090 m", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 1015981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Extreme points of Armenia:North:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tavush ()South:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 470516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syunik' ()West:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 470515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shirak ()East:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [ 470511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syunik' ()", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Area and boundaries", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Natural resources:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "deposits of gold, copper, molybdenum, zinc, bauxite", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [ 12240, 125293, 19052, 34420, 3760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 16 ], [ 18, 24 ], [ 26, 36 ], [ 38, 42 ], [ 44, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Land use:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "arable land:4.456 km², 15.8%permanent crops: 1.9%permanent pastures: 4.2%forest (2018): 11.2%other: 31.2% (2011)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Irrigated land: 2.084km2 (2018)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Total renewable water resources:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "7.77 m³ (2011) Armenia is considered to be a big water “supplier” in the Caspian basin; as a result, the country lacks water, especially in summer when the rate of evaporation exceeds the amount of precipitation. That is the main reason why since ancient times inhabitants have built water reservoirs and irrigation canals in the area. Lake Sevan contains the largest amount of water in the country.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [ 792215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 336, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):total: 2.86km³/yr (40%/6%/54%)per capita: 929.7 m³/yr (2010)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resources and land use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Atlas of Armenia", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Biogeographic regions of Europe", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 61629694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Geography of Asia", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1318227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Geography of Europe", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1187515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Geology of Armenia", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47223068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] } ]

[ "Geography_of_Armenia", "Environmental_issues_by_country" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "After registering steady increases during the Soviet period, the population of Armenia declined from its peak value of 3.633 million in 1992 to 2.986 million in 2017.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4361444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whilst the country's population increased steadily during the Soviet Union as a result of periods of repatriation and low emigration rates, it has declined in recent times due to the exodus of peoples following the Soviet break-up. The rates of emigration and population decline, however, have decreased in recent years, and there has been a moderate influx of Armenians returning to Armenia.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26779, 40494892, 387816, 10918072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 74 ], [ 215, 230 ], [ 361, 370 ], [ 384, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon its Sovietization, the territory of modern-day Armenia had a population of some 720,000, a decline of nearly 30% from its peak of more than a million in 1914 before the outbreak of war. Furthermore, half of the population (~360,000) consisted of refugees, mainly from areas subject to genocide and massacres such as within the Ottoman Empire, Kars, Surmalu, and Nakhichevan. American historian Richard Pipes describes the demographic changes in Armenia:According to Soviet estimates, the Armenian population of Transcaucasia declined between 1914 and 1920 by one half million: 200,000 in consequence of Turkish, and, presumably, Communist, massacres, and 300,000 from other causes, mostly famine and disease.The drastic decline of the population was addressed by the Soviet Armenian government by allowing the repatriation of displaced Azerbaijanis to districts where they had formed a significant population in Armenia. The Azerbaijani population of Armenia which numbered some 10,000 in 1920 (attributed to the ARF government's expulsion of at least 200,000 Turks and Kurds) rose to 72,596 in 1922 as a result of the repatriation of some 60,000 refugees. In addition to this, the Soviet government repatriated 44,000 Armenian refugees from Greece, Iraq, Turkey, and elsewhere throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Between 1946–1948, 86,000 Armenians had been repatriated to Soviet Armenia to offset the country's wartime losses. At the same time, by agreement of Armenian and Azerbaijani Soviet leaderships, tens of thousands of Azerbaijanis in Armenia were resettled to Azerbaijan to make room for the repatriates.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Historical statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 55289023, 22278, 15356627, 40199667, 32767659, 1071397, 380353, 408270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ], [ 332, 346 ], [ 348, 352 ], [ 354, 361 ], [ 367, 378 ], [ 399, 412 ], [ 772, 787 ], [ 1018, 1021 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the 2018 HDI statistical update (with data for 2017), compared to all its neighboring countries Armenia has:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human development", "target_page_ids": [ 261460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the lowest coefficient of human inequality,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the lowest gender inequality (ranked 55th on Gender Inequality Index), ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human development", "target_page_ids": [ 35287503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " highest percentage of men and highest percentage of women with at least some secondary education,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " highest share of seats in parliament held by women,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " highest share of women who reported to feel safe,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " highest GDP growth rate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1990, Armenia recorded steady growth of average annual HDI scores in every reported period (1990–2000, 2000–2010, 2010–2017).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human development", "target_page_ids": [ 261460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the 2016 Sustainable Society Index, Armenia has a higher rank of Human Wellbeing than all its neighbours. At the same time its Economic Wellbeing rank is below neighbouring countries.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human development", "target_page_ids": [ 25527838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2011 census counted 539,394 persons (19.4% of the population above 6 years of age) with higher professional education.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Human development", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the 2018 HDI statistical update, compared to all its neighboring countries Armenia has the highest health expenditures as percentage of its GDP and the highest healthy life expectancy at birth.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 261460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, the average life expectancy at birth for males was 71.6 years and for females was 78.3 years, with the average at 75.0 years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After a setback during 1986–1996, mostly due to the Spitak earthquake, and the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, Armenia regained its position and was consistently among the top three former Soviet republics during 1997–2016, topping the list in 2007.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 1352291, 4020775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 69 ], [ 79, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Soviet period, life expectancy was traditionally high in Armenia and topped all other republics of the USSR, and most other countries in Eastern Europe between 1978–1980.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 380353, 26779, 37403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 24 ], [ 114, 118 ], [ 148, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Source: UN", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, natural increase of population comprised 12,366 persons and the crude rate of natural increase reached 4.1%, per 1000 population, decreasing by 0.4% compared to the previous year.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After double-digit crude natural increase rates between 1982–1992, rates did not exceed 5.5 after 1998. At a regional level, slightly better rates were recorded in the capital Yerevan, where the value of 5.5 is consistently being surpassed since 2009. Particularly weak is natural increase in Tavush and Syunik provinces, not much better off are Lori and Vayots Dzor provinces.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 34352, 470516, 470515, 470506, 470518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 183 ], [ 293, 299 ], [ 304, 310 ], [ 346, 350 ], [ 355, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and CBR (Crude Birth Rate):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia's Total Fertility Rate at 1.6 was lowest in the Caucasus region in 2017. TFR is expected to stay at 1.6 between 2015–2020, less from 1.7 in years 2010–2015.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 39282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mean age of mothers at birth was 26.8 years and at first birth it was 24.7 years in 2016. Adolescent birth rate, as well as, share of women married at age of 18 was lowest in Armenia compared to its neighboring countries.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, infant mortality rate (in the first year of their life) was 8.6%, per 1,000 live births.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A study revealed that population growth rate changes were more favorable in Armenia than in its surrounding countries between 2005–2015.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The mean age in 2016 was 36.2 years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "36.3% of women who gave birth in 2016 had higher education.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Structure of the population (12.10.2011, census):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2019): ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, households with up to four members prevailed in urban areas throughout Armenia, with the share of such households coming to 70.2% in urban communities compared to 60.1% in rural communities.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since the 1960s, Armenia has the highest share of urban population among South Caucasus countries.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 353358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1 The numbers of life births and deaths until 1959 were calculated from the birth rate and death rate, respectively", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2 The high number of deaths in 1988 is related to the Spitak earthquake, while in the rest of the 20th century the death rate was equal to the rate of other European countries (excluding England). ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 1352291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "3 The population estimate for 2012 has been recalculated on the basis of the 2011 Census.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2002, ethnic minorities included Russians, Assyrians, Ukrainians, Yazidis, Kurds, Iranians, Greeks, Georgians, and Belarusians. There were also smaller communities of Vlachs, Mordvins, Ossetians, Udis, and Tats. Minorities of Poles and Caucasus Germans also exist, though they are heavily Russified.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ethnic groups", "target_page_ids": [ 12536716, 59510, 266350, 145144, 20557247, 17068, 24607, 42056, 448609, 37976, 321954, 599042, 307675, 6465780, 536663, 275297, 4162073, 511201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 26 ], [ 36, 44 ], [ 46, 55 ], [ 57, 67 ], [ 69, 75 ], [ 78, 83 ], [ 85, 93 ], [ 95, 101 ], [ 103, 112 ], [ 118, 129 ], [ 170, 176 ], [ 178, 186 ], [ 188, 197 ], [ 199, 203 ], [ 209, 213 ], [ 229, 234 ], [ 239, 255 ], [ 292, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenian is the sole official language.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Languages", "target_page_ids": [ 2217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As per 2001 census data, Armenian is most widely spoken at 97.7%, Kurdish at 1%, Russian at 0.9%, among others at 0.4%.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Languages", "target_page_ids": [ 2217, 40316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 33 ], [ 66, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As per 2011 census data, native languages were reported as follows: Armenian – 2,956,615, Yezidian – 30,973, Russian – 23,484, Assyrian – 2,402, Kurdish – 2,030.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Languages", "target_page_ids": [ 2217, 1618414, 1352105, 40316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 76 ], [ 90, 98 ], [ 128, 136 ], [ 146, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia is a member of La Francophonie, and hosted its annual summit in 2018.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Languages", "target_page_ids": [ 93941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The largest communities of the Armenian diaspora, are fluent in Russian and English.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Languages", "target_page_ids": [ 214413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most Armenians are Christians, primarily of the Apostolic Church rite. Armenia is considered the first nation to officially adopt Christianity, which was first preached in Armenia by two Apostles of Jesus, St. Bartholomew and St. Thaddeus in the 1st century. The Armenian Apostolic Church can trace its roots back to the 3rd and 4th centuries. The country formally adopted the Christian faith in 301 A.D. Over 90% of Armenians belong to the Armenian Apostolic Church. Armenia also has a population of Catholics and Evangelical Protestants.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Religions", "target_page_ids": [ 18337522, 229447, 64935, 842854, 229447, 523385, 10370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 28 ], [ 48, 64 ], [ 206, 221 ], [ 226, 238 ], [ 263, 288 ], [ 501, 510 ], [ 515, 526 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the census of 2011, the primary religions in Armenia is the following: Christianity 2,862,366 (94.8%) of whom 2,797,187 Armenian Apostolic (92.5%), 29,280 Evangelical, 13,996 Armenian and Roman (Latin) Catholic, 8,695 Jehovah's Witness, 8,587 Eastern Orthodox (Russian, Ukrainian, Georgian, Greek), 2,874 Molokan (non-Orthodox Russians), 1,733 Assyrian Church of the East (Nestorian), 733 Protestant, 241 Mormon, Yazidism (0.8%), Paganism (0.2%), 812 Islam, 5,299 Other Religion (0.2%), 121,587 No Response (4%).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Religions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Compared to its neighbouring countries, Armenia has the highest share of immigrants (6.5% of total population, 2017 data).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Migration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The estimated number of population net migration is −24.8 thousand persons, according to the Integrated living conditions survey of households of 2016; for urban population −13.8 thousand and for rural population −11.0 thousand persons.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Migration", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "24.9% of households were involved in external and internal migration processes over the period of 2013– 2016. Migration directions were distributed as follows: 12% – internal, 10.5% – Republic of Artsakh, rest (76.4%) – international (of which 89.8% – Russia). Among household members of age 15 and above, who left their permanent residence in 2013–2016 for 3 months and longer and had not returned as of 2016, 11.9% were in Armenia, 13.0% in Artsakh, and 75.1% in other countries, predominantly in Russia. More than 54% of migrant household members of the age 15 years and above sent money and/ or goods to their families/relatives/friends within 12 months preceding the survey.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Migration", "target_page_ids": [ 1000530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to 2019 UN data, the emigration rate averaged annually around 1.7 per 1000 inhabitants in years 2015–2020 and is expected to remain the same until year 2045. These are below average emigration rate of 11.5 per 1000 in years 2000–2010 and even below the emigration rate of 3.2 per 1000 in years 1980–1985.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Migration", "target_page_ids": [ 31769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Out of 41 emerging economies, Armenia was among only four, which recorded rising inequality (measured by Gini coefficient) in years 2007–2015.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Wealth and poverty", "target_page_ids": [ 1321361, 12883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ], [ 105, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Global Wealth Report, prepared by Credit Suisse, mean wealth per adult in Armenia in 2019 is estimated at $19,517 (rising 9 times from estimated $2,177 in year 2000). Mean wealth per adult in Armenia surpasses corresponding values for neighboring countries Georgia and Azerbaijan by over 50%, all CIS countries except Russia and Kazakhstan, and neighboring Iran. Growth rate of mean wealth per adult between 2000 and 2019 with the value of 9 times beats all neighboring countries, most of CIS countries as well as Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Wealth and poverty", "target_page_ids": [ 40103183, 36870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 83 ], [ 310, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Median wealth per adult is reported at $8,309 in 2019, above the world average, rising 9.6 times from $862 in year 2000.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Wealth and poverty", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Between 2000 and 2019, average debts per adult grew 28.7 times to $1,261, or 6.5% of wealth per adult (below the 11.9% world average).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Wealth and poverty", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "55% of adults own less than $10,000, 42.7% — $10,000–$100,000, 2.2% — $100,000–$1million and 0.1% — over $1million. The share of adults owning less than $10,000 with the value of 55% is less than corresponding value in each of CIS countries, neighboring Iran and Turkey, as well as the world average. Gini coefficient for wealth is reported at 66.3%, less than 82.4% the European average and 88.5% the world average.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Wealth and poverty", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As much as 53.5 % of the country’s population was officially considered poor in 2004. Poverty fell significantly in the following years amid double-digit economic growth that came to an end with the onset of the global financial crisis in late 2008. It soared to almost 36% in 2010, one year after Armenia’s Gross Domestic Product shrunk by over 14%. Afterwards, there was a decreasing trend throughout the last years reaching 23.5% in 2018, down from 25.7% in 2017.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Wealth and poverty", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The poverty indicators in Shirak, Lori, Kotayk, Tavush and Armavir provinces are higher than the country average. The highest poverty rate in the country has been recorded in Shirak province, where 46% of the population is below the poverty line. To overcome poverty, Armenia would need AMD 63.2billion, or an amount equal to 1.2% of GDP, in addition to the resources already allocated for social assistance, assuming that such assistance would be efficiently targeted to the poor.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Wealth and poverty", "target_page_ids": [ 470511, 470506, 470504, 470516, 470500, 470511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 32 ], [ 34, 38 ], [ 40, 46 ], [ 48, 54 ], [ 59, 66 ], [ 175, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In terms of the international poverty line corresponding to US$1.25 in 2005 PPP, poverty in Armenia went down from 19.3% in the year 2001 to 1.5% in the year 2008 and remained nearly unchanged until the year 2015 moving in the range of 1.5% – 2.7%.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Wealth and poverty", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Assyrians in Armenia", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7126020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Censuses of Armenia", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4361444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Demographics of the Republic of Artsakh", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19726934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ethnic minorities in Armenia", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12536716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Greeks in Armenia", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7636896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Health in Armenia", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 35325706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of European countries by population", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28393374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lom people", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2340409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peoples of the Caucasus", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3631006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Russians in Armenia", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17978860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Social protection in Armenia", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45321575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yazidis in Armenia", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6878423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Population cartogram of Armenia", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Khachatryan, Anush; Karapetyan, Arsen: \"Public Green Space in Armenian Cities: A Legal Analysis\" in the Ccaucasus Analytical Digest No. 23", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "__FORCETOC__", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Demographics_of_Armenia" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The politics of Armenia take place in the framework of the parliamentary representative democratic republic of Armenia, whereby the President of Armenia is the head of state and the Prime Minister of Armenia the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the President and the Government. Legislative power is vested in both the Government and Parliament.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 182113, 52318, 25536, 10918072, 38581687, 13456, 483914, 37570, 233475, 10263, 44421, 4014302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 72 ], [ 73, 98 ], [ 99, 107 ], [ 111, 118 ], [ 132, 152 ], [ 160, 173 ], [ 182, 207 ], [ 212, 230 ], [ 241, 259 ], [ 261, 276 ], [ 327, 344 ], [ 382, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia became independent from the Russian Empire on 28 May 1918 as the Republic of Armenia, later referred as First Republic of Armenia. About a month before its independence Armenia was part of short lived Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. Suffering heavy losses during the Turkish invasion of Armenia and after the Soviet invasion of Armenia, the government of the First Republic resigned on 2 December 1920. Soviet Russia reinstalled its control over the country, which later became part of the Transcaucasian SFSR. The TSFSR was dissolved in 1936 and Armenia became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union known as the Armenian SSR, later also referred as the Second Republic of Armenia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 20611504, 3073150, 1191349, 3909266, 55289023, 24795561, 376751, 380353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 50 ], [ 112, 137 ], [ 209, 254 ], [ 290, 317 ], [ 332, 358 ], [ 426, 439 ], [ 513, 532 ], [ 641, 653 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the dissolution of the Soviet Union the population of Armenia voted overwhelmingly for independence following the 1991 Armenian independence referendum. It was followed by a presidential election in October 1991 that gave 83% of the votes to Levon Ter-Petrosyan. Earlier in 1990, when the National Democratic Union party defeated the Armenian Communist Party, he was elected Chairman of the Supreme Council of Armenia. Ter-Petrosyan was re-elected in 1996. Following public discontent and demonstrations against his policies on Nagorno-Karabakh, the President resigned in January 1998 and was replaced by Prime Minister Robert Kocharyan, who was elected as second President in March 1998. Following the assassination of Prime Minister Vazgen Sargsyan, parliament Speaker Karen Demirchyan and six other officials during parliament seating on 27 October 1999, a period of political instability ensued during which an opposition headed by elements of the former Armenian National Movement government attempted unsuccessfully to force Kocharyan to resign. In May 2000, Andranik Margaryan replaced Aram Sargsyan (a brother of assassinated Vazgen Sargsyan) as Prime Minister.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40494892, 10918072, 31007872, 863091, 8508339, 1697330, 1000530, 313188, 8596329, 313184, 2707637, 380384, 6672794, 313184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 42 ], [ 61, 68 ], [ 121, 158 ], [ 249, 268 ], [ 296, 327 ], [ 341, 365 ], [ 535, 551 ], [ 627, 643 ], [ 710, 723 ], [ 742, 757 ], [ 778, 794 ], [ 1072, 1090 ], [ 1100, 1113 ], [ 1141, 1156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kocharyan's re-election as president in 2003 was followed by widespread allegations of ballot-rigging. He went on to propose controversial constitutional amendments on the role of parliament. These were rejected in a referendum the following May. Concurrent parliamentary elections left Kocharyan's party in a very powerful position in the parliament. There were mounting calls for the President's resignation in early 2004 with thousands of demonstrators taking to the streets in support of demands for a referendum of confidence in him.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4014302, 4014302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 190 ], [ 340, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Government of Armenia's stated aim is to build a Western-style parliamentary democracy. However, international observers have questioned the fairness of Armenia's parliamentary and presidential elections and constitutional referendum between 1995 and 2018, citing polling deficiencies, lack of cooperation by the Electoral Commission, and poor maintenance of electoral lists and polling places. Armenia is considered one of the most democratic nations of the Commonwealth of Independent States.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21208200, 182113, 36870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 66 ], [ 67, 90 ], [ 463, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The observance of human rights in Armenia is uneven and is marked by shortcomings. Police brutality allegedly still goes largely unreported, while observers note that defendants are often beaten to extract confessions and are denied visits from relatives and lawyers. Public demonstrations usually take place without government interference, though one rally in November 2000 by an opposition party was followed by the arrest and imprisonment for a month of its organizer. Freedom of religion is not always protected under existing law. Nontraditional churches, especially the Jehovah's Witnesses, have been subjected to harassment, sometimes violently. All churches apart from the Armenian Apostolic Church must register with the government, and proselytizing was forbidden by law, though since 1997 the government has pursued more moderate policies. The government's policy toward conscientious objection is in transition, as part of Armenia's accession to the Council of Europe.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13831, 166029, 52547, 229447, 5865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 30 ], [ 83, 99 ], [ 577, 596 ], [ 682, 707 ], [ 963, 980 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia boasts a good record on the protection of national minorities, for whose representatives (Assyrians, Kurds, Russians and Yazidis) four seats are reserved in the National Assembly. The government does not restrict internal or international travel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 437868, 7126020, 17068, 17978860, 6878423, 4014302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 69 ], [ 98, 107 ], [ 109, 114 ], [ 116, 124 ], [ 129, 136 ], [ 169, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2015, the country held a referendum which approved transformation of Armenia from a semi-presidential to a parliamentary republic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 48061875, 210282, 6741484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 47 ], [ 96, 113 ], [ 119, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a result, the president was stripped of his veto faculty and the presidency was downgraded to a figurehead position elected by parliament every seven years. The president is not allowed to be a member of any political party and re-election is forbidden.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 74661, 364022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 59 ], [ 231, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Skeptics saw the constitutional reform as an attempt of third president Serzh Sargsyan to remain in control by becoming Prime Minister after fulfilling his second presidential term in 2018.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4829258, 483914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 86 ], [ 120, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2018, Armenian parliament elected Armen Sarksyan as the new President of Armenia. The controversial constitutional reform to reduce presidential power was implemented, while the authority of the prime minister was strengthened. In May 2018, parliament elected opposition leader Nikol Pashinyan as the new prime minister. His predecessor Serzh Sargsyan resigned two weeks earlier following widespread anti-government demonstrations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8386163, 17897961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 57 ], [ 287, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2021, early parliamentary elections were held. Nikol Pashinyan's Civil Contract party won 71 seats, while 29 went to a bloc headed by former President Robert Kocharyan. A different bloc that formed around another former president, Serzh Sargsyan, won seven seats. After the election, Armenia's acting Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan was officially appointed to the post of prime minister by the country's president Armen Sarkissian. In January 2022, Armenian President Armen Sarkissian resigned from office, stating that the constitution does no longer give the president sufficient powers or influence. On 3 March 2022, Vahagn Khachaturyan was elected as the fifth president of Armenia in the second round of parliamentary vote.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 58634272, 43200633, 38911794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 43 ], [ 73, 87 ], [ 629, 648 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|President", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 38581687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|Vahagn Khachaturyan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 38911794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|Independent", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 2172378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|13 March 2022", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|Prime Minister", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 483914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|Nikol Pashinyan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 17897961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|Civil Contract", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 43200633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "|8 May 2018", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The unicameral National Assembly of Armenia (Azgayin Zhoghov) is the legislative branch of the government of Armenia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative branch", "target_page_ids": [ 204304, 4014302, 44421, 10918072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 15, 43 ], [ 69, 87 ], [ 109, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the 2015 Armenian constitutional referendum, it was initially made of 131 members, elected for five-year terms: 41 members in single-seat constituencies and 90 by proportional representation. The proportional-representation seats in the National Assembly are assigned on a party-list basis among those parties that receive at least 5% of the total of the number of the votes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative branch", "target_page_ids": [ 48061875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the 2015 referendum, the number of MPs was reduced from the original 131 members to 101 and single-seat constituencies were removed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislative branch", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The electoral threshold is currently set at 5% for single parties and 7% for blocs.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Political parties and elections", "target_page_ids": [ 34603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independent of three traditional branches are the following independent agencies, each with separate powers and responsibilities:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Independent agencies", "target_page_ids": [ 2782814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the Constitutional Court of Armenia", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Independent agencies", "target_page_ids": [ 37490962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the Central Electoral Commission of Armenia", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Independent agencies", "target_page_ids": [ 45546839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the Human Rights Defender of Armenia", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Independent agencies", "target_page_ids": [ 45546312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the Central Bank of Armenia", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Independent agencies", "target_page_ids": [ 5489671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " the General Prosecutor's Office", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Independent agencies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the Audit Chamber of Armenia", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Independent agencies", "target_page_ids": [ 53292890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Transparency International's 2021 Corruption Perceptions Index ranked Armenia 58th out of 180 in the world with 49 points (the same amount of points as 2020), this has pushed the country up from being ranked at 60th in 2020. According to Transparency International, Armenia has improved significantly on the Corruption Perception Index since 2012 especially since the 2018 revolution, the country has taken steps to counter corruption. Further mentioning that \"Armenia has taken a gradual approach to reform, resulting in steady and positive improvements in anti-corruption. However, safeguarding judicial independence and ensuring checks and balances remain critical first steps in its anti-corruption efforts. The effectiveness of those efforts is additionally challenged by the current political and economic crisis as a result of the recent Nagorno Karabakh conflict and the subsequent protests against Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan over a ceasefire deal\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Corruption", "target_page_ids": [ 3174020, 57126322, 65431221, 17897961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 308, 335 ], [ 368, 383 ], [ 845, 870 ], [ 922, 937 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2008, Transparency International reduced its Corruption Perceptions Index for Armenia from 3.0 in 2007 to 2.9 out of 10 (a lower score means more perceived corruption); Armenia slipped from 99th place in 2007 to 109th out of 180 countries surveyed (on a par with Argentina, Belize, Moldova, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Corruption", "target_page_ids": [ 66241, 3174020, 41582495, 3458, 42295474, 265083, 33057270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 35 ], [ 48, 76 ], [ 266, 275 ], [ 277, 283 ], [ 285, 292 ], [ 294, 309 ], [ 315, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Constitution of Armenia", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9555528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Constitutional economics", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28240525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elections in Armenia", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1351111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Foreign relations of Armenia", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of political parties in Armenia", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 408396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Politics of Artsakh", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3178710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Programs of political parties in Armenia", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45564188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rule according to higher law", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28648059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Global Integrity Report: Armenia has information on anti-corruption efforts", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Petrosyan, David: \"The Political System of Armenia: Form and Content\" in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 17", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Control Chamber of The Republic of Armenia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Armenian language document", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia | Official Web Site | parliament.am", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Politics_of_Armenia" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Armenian economy contracted sharply in 2020, by 5.7%, mainly due to the 2020 Armenia-Azerbaijan war. In contrast it grew by 7.6 per cent in 2019, the largest recorded growth since 2007, while between 2012 and 2018 GDP grew 40.7%, and key banking indicators like assets and credit exposures almost doubled.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 65431221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until independence, Armenia's economy was based largely on industry—chemicals, electronic products, machinery, processed food, synthetic rubber and textiles; it was highly dependent on outside resources. Armenian mines produce copper, zinc, gold and lead. The vast majority of energy is produced with imported fuel from Russia, including gas and nuclear fuel for Armenia's Metsamor nuclear power plant. The main domestic energy source is hydroelectric. Small amounts of coal, gas and petroleum have not yet been developed.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10918072, 39388, 9722260, 9663, 51462, 382599, 1738731, 51892, 125293, 34420, 12240, 17747, 8003578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 27 ], [ 59, 67 ], [ 68, 77 ], [ 79, 98 ], [ 100, 109 ], [ 111, 125 ], [ 127, 143 ], [ 148, 156 ], [ 227, 233 ], [ 235, 239 ], [ 241, 245 ], [ 250, 254 ], [ 373, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia's severe trade imbalance has been offset somewhat by international aid, remittances from Armenians working abroad, and foreign direct investment. Economic ties with Russia remain close, especially in the energy sector.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2941963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The former government had made some improvements in tax and customs administration in recent years, but anti-corruption measures had been more difficult to implement in the period when Republican Party of Armenia was in power. This is expected to change after the 2018 Armenian revolution.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 404767, 57126322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 212 ], [ 264, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under the old Soviet central planning system, Armenia had developed a modern industrial sector, supplying machine tools, textiles, and other manufactured goods to sister republics in exchange for raw materials and energy. Since the implosion of the USSR in December 1991, Armenia has switched to small-scale agriculture away from the large agroindustrial complexes of the Soviet era. The agricultural sector has long-term needs for more investment and updated technology. Armenia began borrowing soon after declaring independence. In 2000, Armenian governmental debt reached its greatest level relative to GDP (49.3 percent of GDP).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia is a food importer, and its mineral deposits (gold and bauxite) are small. The ongoing conflict with Azerbaijan over the ethnic Armenian-dominated region of Nagorno-Karabakh (which was part of Soviet Azerbaijan) and the breakup of the centrally directed economic system of the former Soviet Union contributed to a severe economic decline in the early 1990s. Because of political instability and war threat, the Armenian Economy did not have a chance to develop. The problem reached its peak during the second war in Nagorno-Karabakh. The war lasted 44 days, starting from September 27 until November 10, and the result was the worst condition for Armenian Economy. After the war the public debt of Armenia reached to 70% of GDP, making the economy more fragile.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 19053, 12240, 3760, 692262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 43 ], [ 54, 58 ], [ 63, 70 ], [ 262, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2020 report of Index of Economic Freedom by Heritage Foundation, Armenia is classified as \"mostly free\" and ranks 34th, improving by 13 positions and ahead of all other Eurasian Economic Union countries and many EU countries including Cyprus, Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, Belgium, Spain, France, Portugal and Italy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Global competitiveness", "target_page_ids": [ 345414, 316176, 27290106, 9317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 47 ], [ 51, 70 ], [ 176, 199 ], [ 219, 221 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2019 report (data for 2017) of Economic Freedom of the World published by Fraser Institute Armenia ranks 27th (classified most free) out of 162 economies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Global competitiveness", "target_page_ids": [ 6801189, 554033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 67 ], [ 81, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2019 report of Global Competitiveness Index Armenia ranks 69th out of 141 economies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Global competitiveness", "target_page_ids": [ 7172060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2020 report (data for 2019) of Doing Business Index Armenia ranks 47th with 10th rank on \"starting business\" sub-index.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Global competitiveness", "target_page_ids": [ 6866136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2019 report (data for 2018) of Human Development Index by UNDP Armenia ranked 81st and is classified into \"high human development\" group.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Global competitiveness", "target_page_ids": [ 261460, 82256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 61 ], [ 65, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2021 report (data for 2020) of Corruption Perceptions Index by Transparency International Armenia ranked 60 of 179 countries.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Global competitiveness", "target_page_ids": [ 3174020, 66241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 66 ], [ 70, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the beginning of the 20th century, the territory of present-day Armenia was an agricultural region with some copper mining and cognac production. From 1914 through 1921, Caucasian Armenia suffered from genocide of about 1.5 million Armenian inhabitants ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [ 125293, 84487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 118 ], [ 130, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "on their own homeland which obviously caused total property and financial collapse when all their assets and belongings were forcibly taken away by the Turks the consequences of which after 105 years to this day remain incalculable, revolution, the influx of refugees from Turkish Armenia, disease, hunger and economic misery. About 200,000 people died in 1919 alone. At that point, only American relief efforts saved Armenia from total collapse. Thus, Armenians went from being one of the wealthiest ethnic groups in the region to suffer from poverty and famine. Armenians were the second richest ethnic group in Anatolia after the Greeks, and they were heavily involved in very high productive sectors such as banking, architecture, and trade. However, after the mass killings of Armenian intellectuals in April 1915 and the genocide targeted towards the whole Armenian population left the people and the country in ruins. The genocide and then communism were responsible for the loss of many high-quality skills that the Armenians possessed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first Soviet Armenian government regulated economic activity stringently, nationalizing all economic enterprises, requisitioning grain from peasants, and suppressing most private market activity. This first experiment of state control ended with the advent of Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP) of 1921–1927. This policy continued state control of the large enterprises and banks, but peasants could market much of their grain, and small businesses could function. In Armenia, the NEP years brought partial recovery from the economic disaster of the post-World War I period. By 1926 agricultural production in Armenia had reached nearly three-quarters of its prewar level.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [ 27988307, 11015252, 40229586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 138 ], [ 278, 292 ], [ 295, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the end of the 1920s, Stalin's regime had revoked the NEP and reestablished the state monopoly on all economic activity. Once this occurred, the main goal of the Soviet economic policy in Armenia was to turn a predominantly agrarian and rural republic into an industrial and urban one. Among other restrictions, peasants now were forced to sell nearly all of their output to state procurement agencies rather than at the market. From the 1930s through the 1960s, an industrial infrastructure has been constructed. Besides hydroelectric plants and canals, roads were built and gas pipelines were laid to bring fuel and food from Azerbaijan and Russia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Stalinist command economy, in which market forces were suppressed and all orders for production and distribution came from the state authorities, survived in all its essential features until the fall of the Soviet regime in 1991. In the early stages of the communist economic revolution, Armenia underwent a fundamental transformation into a \"proletarian\" society. Between 1929 and 1939, the percentage of Armenia's work force categorised as industrial workers grew from 13% to 31%. By 1935 industry supplied 62% of Armenia's economic production. Highly integrated and sheltered within artificial barter economy of the Soviet system from the 1930s until the end of the communist era, the Armenian economy showed few signs of self-sufficiency at any time during that period. In 1988, Armenia produced only 0.9% of the net material product of the Soviet Union (1.2% of industry, 0.7% of agriculture). The republic retained 1.4% of total state budget revenue, delivered 63.7% of its NMP to other republics, and exported only 1.4% of what it produced to markets outside the Soviet Union.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [ 19188931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 821, 841 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Agriculture accounted for only 20% of net material product and 10% of employment before the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [ 627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia's industry was especially dependent on the Soviet military-industrial complex. About 40% of all enterprises in the republic were devoted to defense, and some factories lost 60% to 80% of their business in the last years of the Soviet Union, when massive cuts were made in the national defense expenditures. As the republic's economy faced the prospects of competing in world markets in the mid 1990s, the great liabilities of Armenia's industry were its outdated equipment and infrastructure and the pollution emitted by many of the country's heavy industrial plants.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The economic downturn that began in 1989 worsened dramatically in 1992. According to statistics, the GDP declined by 37.5 percent in 1991 compared to 1990, and all sectors contributing to the GDP decreased in production. The collapse of industry in favor of agriculture, whose products were mostly imported throughout the Soviet period, changed the structure of sectoral contributions to GDP.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1991, Armenia's last year as a Soviet republic, national income fell 12% from the previous year, while per capita gross national product was 4,920 rubles, only 68% of the Soviet average. In large part due to the earthquake of 1988, the Azerbaijani blockade that began in 1989 and the collapse of the international trading system of the Soviet Union, the Armenian economy of the early 1990s remained far below its 1980 production levels. In the first years of independence (1992–93), inflation was extremely high, productivity and national income dropped dramatically, and the national budget ran large deficits.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A period of chronic shortages, was the first stage of price deregulation, which allowed goods to stay in Armenia as opposed to being exported for better prices; the inflation rates were 10 percent in 1990, 100 percent in 1991, and 642.5 percent during the first four months of 1992, compared with the first four months of 1991. Thus, there were two opposing dynamics: price increases in response to shortages and falling incomes due to the recession and unemployment.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia introduced elements of the free market and privatisation into their economic system in the late 1980s, when Mikhail Gorbachev began advocating economic reform. To supply the country's basic needs, the first decision was land reform and the privatization of land. This allowed for the emergence of small-parcel agriculture supplying markets and supporting self-sustenance during the period of shortages. Cooperatives were set up in the service sector, particularly in restaurants, although substantial resistance came from the Communist Party of Armenia (CPA) and other groups that had enjoyed privileged position in the old economy. In the late 1980s, much of Armenia's economy already was opening either semi-officially or illegally, with widespread corruption and bribery. The so-called mafia, made up of interconnected groups of powerful officials and their relatives and friends, sabotaged the efforts of reformers to create a lawful market system. When the December 1988 earthquake brought millions of dollars of foreign aid to the devastated regions of Armenia, much of the money went to corrupt and criminal elements.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [ 20979, 25472377, 3608404, 260979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 133 ], [ 534, 560 ], [ 759, 769 ], [ 774, 781 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beginning in 1991, the democratically elected government pushed vigorously for privatisation and market relations, although its efforts were frustrated by the old ways of doing business in Armenia, the Azerbaijani blockade, and the costs of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. In 1992, the Law on the Programme of Privatisation and Decentralisation of Incompletely Constructed Facilities established a state privatisation committee, with members from all political parties. In middle 1993, the committee announced a two-year privatisation programme, whose first stage would be privatisation of 30% of state enterprises, mostly services and light industries. The remaining 70%, including many bankrupt, nonfunctional enterprises, were to be privatised in a later stage with a minimum of government restriction, to encourage private initiative. For all enterprises, the workers would receive 20% of their firm's property free of charge; 30% would be distributed to all citizens by means of vouchers; and the remaining 50% was to be distributed by the government, with preference given to members of the labour organisations. A major problem of this system, however, was the lack of supporting legislation covering foreign investment protection, bankruptcy, monopoly policy, and consumer protection.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [ 4020775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the first post-communist years, efforts to interest foreign investors in joint enterprises were only moderately successful because of the blockade and the energy shortage. Only in late 1993 was a department of foreign investment established in the Ministry of Economy, to spread information about Armenia's investment opportunities and improve the legal infrastructure for investment activity. A specific goal of this agency was creating a market for scientific and technical intellectual property.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [ 52596067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A few Armenians living abroad made large-scale investments. Besides a toy factory and construction projects, diaspora Armenians built a cold storage plant (which in its first years had little produce to store) and established the American University of Armenia in Yerevan to teach the techniques necessary to run a market economy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [ 3301328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 230, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia was admitted to the International Monetary Fund in May 1992 and to the World Bank in September. A year later, the government complained that those organisations were holding back financial assistance and announced its intention to move toward fuller price liberalisation, and the removal of all tariffs, quotas, and restrictions of foreign trade. Although privatisation had slowed because of catastrophic collapse of the economy, Prime Minister Hrant Bagratyan informed the United States officials in the fall of 1993 that plans had been made to embark on a renewed privatisation programme by the end of the year.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [ 15251, 45358446, 55551, 8508078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 55 ], [ 79, 89 ], [ 303, 309 ], [ 453, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like other former states, Armenia's economy suffers from the legacy of a centrally planned economy and the breakdown of former Soviet trading patterns. Soviet investment in and support of Armenian industry has virtually disappeared, so that few major enterprises are still able to function. In addition, the effects of the 1988 earthquake, which killed more than 25,000 people and made 500,000 homeless, are still being felt. Although a cease-fire has held since 1994, the conflict with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh has not been resolved. The consequent blockade along both the Azerbaijani and Turkish borders has devastated the economy, because of Armenia's dependence on outside supplies of energy and most raw materials. Land routes through Azerbaijan and Turkey are closed; routes through Georgia and Iran are adequate and reliable. In 1992–93, the GDP had fallen nearly 60% from its 1989 level. The national currency, the dram, suffered hyperinflation for the first few years after its introduction in 1993.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [ 7843, 1352291, 746, 65220, 700635, 13681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 98 ], [ 323, 338 ], [ 487, 497 ], [ 503, 519 ], [ 931, 935 ], [ 946, 960 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia has registered strong economic growth since 1995 and inflation has been negligible for the past several years. New sectors, such as precious stone processing and jewelry making and communication technology (primarily Armentel, which is left from the USSR era and is owned by external investors). This steady economic progress has earned Armenia increasing support from international institutions. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, EBRD, as well as other international financial institutions (IFIs) and foreign countries are extending considerable grants and loans. Total loans extended to Armenia since 1993 exceed $800 million. These loans are targeted at reducing the budget deficit, stabilizing the local currency; developing private businesses; energy; the agriculture, food processing, transportation, and health and education sectors; and ongoing rehabilitation work in the earthquake zone.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [ 12800222, 15251, 45358446, 18717338, 57557247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 233 ], [ 409, 436 ], [ 444, 454 ], [ 640, 641 ], [ 905, 920 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1994, however, the Armenian government had launched an ambitious IMF-sponsored economic liberalization program that resulted in positive growth rates in 1995–2005. The economic growth of Armenia expressed in GDP per capita was one of strongest in the CIS. GDP went from $350 to more than $800 on average between 1995 and 2003. Three principal factors explain this result: the credibility of the macroeconomic policies of stabilization, the correction effect following the depression, and the importance of external transfers, in particular since 2000. Armenia joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in January 2003. Armenia also has managed to slash inflation, stabilize its currency, and privatize most small- and medium-sized enterprises. Armenia's unemployment rate, however, remains high, despite strong economic growth.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [ 33873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 574, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The chronic energy shortages Armenia suffered in the early and mid-1990s have been offset by the energy supplied by one of its nuclear power plants at Metsamor. Armenia is now a net energy exporter, although it does not have sufficient generating capacity to replace Metsamor, which is under international pressure to close. The electricity distribution system was privatized in 2002.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History of the modern Armenian economy", "target_page_ids": [ 5489785, 8003578, 24661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 159 ], [ 267, 275 ], [ 365, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to official preliminary data GDP grew by 7.6 per cent in 2019, largest recording growth since 2008.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Outperforming GDP growth", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "GDP per capita was approximately $4,280 in 2018 and is expected to reach $4604 in 2019. In terms of GDP per capita IMF expects Armenia to surpass neighboring Georgia in 2019 and neighboring Azerbaijan in 2020.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Outperforming GDP growth", "target_page_ids": [ 15251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With 8.3% Armenia recorded highest degree of GDP growth among Eurasian Economic Union countries in 2018 January–June against the same period of 2017.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Outperforming GDP growth", "target_page_ids": [ 27290106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Earlier, the economy of Armenia grew by 7.5% in 2017 and reached a nominal GDP of $11.5 billion per annum, while per capita figure grew by 10.1% and reached $3880. With 7.29% Armenia was second best in GDP per capita growth terms in Europe and Central Asia in 2017.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Outperforming GDP growth", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenian GDP PPP (measured in current international dollar) grew total of 316% per capita in the years 2000-2017 becoming 6th best worldwide in these terms.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Outperforming GDP growth", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "GDP grew 40.7% between 2012 and 2018, and key banking indicators like assets and credit exposures almost doubled.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Outperforming GDP growth", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Armenian economy performed poorly in 2020, and contracted after years of consecutive growth. This downturn was due to a combination of different causes. The two biggest contributing factors were the Coronavirus pandemic and the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War. In the first half of 2020, the Armenian economy was negatively impacted by the economic restrictions that were implemented in order to combat the Coronavirus pandemic. These restrictions included a stay at home order, an indoor social distancing requirement, and a mask mandate. These restrictions impacted businesses negatively. According to the World Bank, individual consumption dropped by 9% in the first six months of 2020. This drop in consumer consumption was due to the stay at home order that was intended to combat the spread of COVID-19. However, without significant government support to offset lost wages, inflation climbed to over 4% during the 2020 calendar year.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economic Downturn of 2020", "target_page_ids": [ 65431221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 232, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The economy was further impacted by the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War. Early in the war, the central government mobilized the country by converting private businesses into public ones, producing masks and military equipment. During this time, many factories were converted from private-use to public, which further negatively impacted the economic output of the nation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economic Downturn of 2020", "target_page_ids": [ 65431221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GDP growth is projected to recoup halfway in 2021 up to 3.4 percent and will increase up to 4.3 percent in 2022. The recovery will be moderate, as the economy is probably not going to get back to pre-COVID yield levels until 2023. Specialists won't authorize extra lockdowns and limitations in 2021. Albeit the speed of vaccinations progressively increases, specialists don't anticipate immunizing the majority of the population until 2022.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economic Downturn of 2020", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia produced in 2018:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 415 thousand tons of potato;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 23501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 199 thousand tons of vegetable;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 5791492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 187 thousand tons of wheat;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 36858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 179 thousand tons of grape;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 12436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 138 thousand tons of tomato;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 9940234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 126 thousand tons of watermelon;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 20596557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 124 thousand tons of barley;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 19541428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 109 thousand tons of apple;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 18978754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 104 thousand tons of apricot (12th largest world producer);;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 56668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 89 thousand tons of cabbage;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 55115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 54 thousand tons of sugar beet;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 50245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 52 thousand tons of peach;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 51257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 50 thousand tons of cucumber;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 164491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 39 thousand tons of onion;", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 51258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2010, the agricultural production comprises on average 25 percent of Armenia's GDP. In 2006, the agricultural sector accounted for about 20 percent of Armenia's GDP.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 14552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia's agricultural output dropped by 17.9 percent in the period of January–September 2010. This was owing to bad weather, a lack of a government stimulus package, and the continuing effects of decreased agricultural subsidies by the Armenian government (per WTO requirements). In addition, the share of agriculture in Armenia's GDP hovered around 17.9% until 2012 according to the World Bank. Then already in 2013 the share of it was a bit higher comprising 18.43%. Afterwards a declining trend was registered in the period of 2013-2017 reaching to around 14.90% in 2017. By comparing the share of agriculture as a component of GDP with the neighboring countries (Georgia, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Iran) one can notice that the percentage is highest for Armenia. As of 2017 the contribution of agriculture to the GDP for the neighboring countries was 6.88, 5.63, 6.08 and 9.05 respectively.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 171866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, mining industry output with grew by 14.2% to 172 billion AMD at current prices and run at 3.1% of Armenia's GDP.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, mineral product (without precious metals and stones) exports grew by 46.9% and run at US$692 million, which comprised 30.1% of all exports.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Real estate transactions count grew by 36% in September 2019 compared to September 2018. Also, the average market value of one square meter of housing in apartment buildings in Yerevan in September 2019 grew by 10.8% from September 2018.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, construction output increased by 2.2% reaching 416 billion AMD.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia experienced a construction boom during the latter part of the 2000s. According to the National Statistical Service, Armenia's booming construction sector generated about 20 percent of Armenia's GDP during the first eight months of 2007. According to a World Bank official, 30 percent of Armenia's economy in 2009 came from the construction sector.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, during the January to September 2010 period, the sector experienced a 5.2 percent year-on-year decrease, which according to the Civilitas Foundation is an indication of the unsustainability of a sector based on an elite market, with few products for the median or low budgets. This decrease comes despite the fact that an important component of the government stimulus package was to support the completion of ongoing construction projects.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 26346473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, electricity generation increased by 6.1% reaching 7.8 billion KWh.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 180234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The digital economy is a branch of the economy based on digital computing technologies. The digital economy is sometimes referred to as the Internet economy or the web economy. The digital economy is often intertwined with the traditional economy, making it difficult to distinguish between them. Aimed at the sector's development on November 15, 2021, the Silicon Mountains Summit dedicated to introducing intelligent solutions in the economy was held in Yerevan. The main topic of the summit was the prospect of digitalization of the economy in Armenia. The main driving force of this sphere in Armenia is the banks. Digital transformation is a necessity for banks and financial institutions. At the moment, ACBA Bank is the leader․", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, industrial output increased by 12.6% annually reaching 1661 billion AMD.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Industrial output was relatively positive throughout 2010, with year-on-year average growth of 10.9 percent in the period January to September 2010, due largely to the mining sector where higher global demand for commodities led to higher prices. According to the National Statistical Service, during the January–August 2007 period, Armenia's industrial sector was the single largest contributor to the country's GDP, but remained largely stagnant with industrial output increasing only by 1.7 percent per year. In 2005, Armenia's industrial output (including electricity) made up about 30 percent of GDP.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 14553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 343, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2000s, along with the construction sector, the services sector was the driving force behind Armenia's recent high economic growth rate.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 14551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 2017 and 2019, Armenia's economy increased fast, with annual rate of GDP growth averaging 6.8 percent. Following the political realignment of 2018, prudent macroeconomic policy helped develop a track record of macroeconomic stability and an enhanced business environment. In Armenia, the service sector in 2020 reduced volumes by 14.7%, against 15% growth a year earlier, amounting to 1.7 trillion drams ($3.5 billion). According to the RA Statistical Committee, a negative trend was recorded in all service segments except for the finance, as well as information and communication. A similar trend is due to the coronavirus pandemic, the outbreak of which in Armenia in March 2020 led to restrictions on a number of economic activities that were in effect until September of last year.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, retail trade turnover was largely unaltered compared to 2009. The existing monopolies throughout the retail sector have made the sector non-responsive to the crisis and resulted in near zero growth. The aftermath of the crisis has started to shift the structure in the retail sector in favor of food products.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nowadays(2019), Armenia has improved standards of living and growing income, which brought to the improvement of retail sector in Armenia. retail sector has the highest employment level. While the sector improves, currently the major sector is still in Yerevan, and not in the other cities of Armenia. The development that happened in this sector was the opening of Dalma Garden Mall, and later Yerevan mall, Rio mall and Rossia mall, which dramatically increased the quality of retail in Yerevan. Currently there is a new development, as in Gyumri there is a new mall opened called Shirak Mall. Another reason for the development of the retail is the development that happened in the banking industry. Today people can easily get financial assistance from the banks right to their credit cards, without visiting the bank.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 1529357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 543, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of February 2019 nearly 23 thousand employees were counted in ICT sector. With 404 thousand AMD they enjoyed highest pay rate among surveyed sectors of economy. Average salaries in pure IT sector (excluding communications sub-sector) stood at 582 thousand AMD.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2019 there were 20.5 thousand employees registered in the financial sector.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Moody's, robust economic growth will benefit banks with GDP growth remaining robust at around 4.5% in 2019–20.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Industry report on banking sector prepared by AmRating presents slightly varying figures for some of above data.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tourism in Armenia has been a key sector to the Armenian economy since the 1990s when tourist numbers exceeded half a million people visiting the country every year (mostly ethnic Armenians from the Diaspora). The Armenian Ministry of Economy reports that most international tourists come from Russia, EU states, the United States and Iran. Though relatively small in size, Armenia has four UNESCO world heritage sites.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 1094, 387816, 214413, 25391, 9317, 3434750, 14653, 34736358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 64 ], [ 180, 189 ], [ 199, 207 ], [ 294, 300 ], [ 302, 304 ], [ 317, 330 ], [ 335, 339 ], [ 391, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite internal and external problems, the number of incoming tourists has been continually increasing. 2018 saw a record high of over 1.6 million inbound tourists.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, receipts from international tourism amounted to $1.2 billion, nearly twice the value for 2010. In per capita terms these stood at $413, ahead of Turkey and Azerbaijan, but behind Georgia.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [ 50701310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2019, the largest growth at 27.2% was shown by accommodation and catering sector, which came as a result of the growth of tourist flows.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Main sectors of economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The amount of interest paid on the public debt rose significantly (from AMD 11 billion in 2008 to AMD 46.5 billion in 2013), as did the amount of principle repayments (from annual repayments of US$15–16 million in 2005-2008 exceeding US$150 million in 2013). This is a significant financial load on the state budget. Because of additional borrowings and lower concessionality of new loans, the burden might rise in the future years.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2019, the Armenian government planned to obtain about $490 million in fresh loans rising public debt to about $7.5 billion. Just over $6.9 billion of that would be the government's debt.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After reaching nearly 60.0 per cent of GDP, the public debt to GDP ratio decreased by approximately three percentage points in 2018 compared with a year before and stood at 55.7 per cent at the end of 2018.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The government's public debt at the end of 2019 stood at $6.94 billion, making 50.3% of its GDP.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2019, sovereign debt comprised $5488 million, $86.5 million (about 2%) less than a year ago.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other sources quote Armenia's debt at $10.8 billion in September 2018, possibly including non-public debt too.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, debt-to-GDP ratio stood at 55.7% down from 58.7% in 2017.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia revised the country's fiscal rules in 2018, setting a permissible threshold for public debt in the amount of 40, 50 and 60% of GDP. At the same time, it established that in case of force majeure situations such as natural disasters, wars, the government will be allowed to exceed this threshold.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The debt rose by $863.5 million in 2016 and by another $832.5 million in 2017. It totalled just $1.9 billion before the 2008-2009 (13.5% of GDP) global financial crisis that plunged the county into a severe recession.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "National Statistics Office publishes official reference exchange rates for each year.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For 2019, IMF forecasts inflation at 1.7%, which is below all neighbouring countries.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Armenian government projects inflation at 2.7% in 2019.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The inflation rate in Armenia in 2020 was 1.21 percent, a 0.23 percent decrease over 2019, in 2019 was 1.44 percent, a 1.08 percent decrease over 2018, in 2018 was 2.52 percent, up 1.55 percent from 2017 and in 2017 was 0.97 percent, a 2.37 percent rise from 2016.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cash remittances sent back home from Armenians working abroad — mostly in Russia and the United States — contribute significantly to Armenia's Gross Domestic Product making up 14% of GDP in 2018. They help Armenia sustain double-digit economic growth and finance its massive trade deficit.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [ 2941963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2008, transfers reached record high of $2.3 billion. In 2015, they reached 10-year low at $1.6 billion. In 2018, they run at round $1.8 billion. $0.8 billion were transferred in first half of 2019. According to CBA their impact on economy is decreasing, as GDP grows at outperforming rate.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [ 5489671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 215, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Net private transfers decreased in 2009, but saw a continuous increase during the first six months of 2010. Since private transfers from the Diaspora tend to be mostly injected into consumption of imports and not in high value-added sectors, the transfers have not resulted in sizeable increases in productivity.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Central Bank of Armenia, during the first half of 2008, cash remittances sent back to Armenia by Armenians working abroad rose by 57.5 percent and totaled US$668.6 million, equivalent to 15 percent of the country's first-half Gross Domestic Product. However, the latter figures only represent cash remittances processed through Armenian commercial banks. According to RFE/RL, comparable sums are believed to be transferred through non-bank systems, implying that cash remittances make up approximately 30 percent of Armenia's GDP in the first half of 2008.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [ 5489671, 184408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 40 ], [ 385, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, cash remittances through bank transfers rose by 37 percent to a record-high level of US$1.32 billion. According to the Central Bank of Armenia, in 2005, cash remittances from Armenians working abroad reached a record-high level of $1 billion, which is worth more than one fifth of the country's 2005 GDP.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The central bank has set additional capital buffers in the banking sector. In force since April 2019, the regulator set three buffers exceeding the current capital adequacy requirement compliant with the Basel III regulation: a capital conservation buffer, a counter-cyclical capital buffer and a systemic risk buffer. Full implementation of the buffers over the course of the next few years will strengthen the financial sector's resistance to economic shocks and help increase the efficiency of macroprudential policies.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenian banks' lending grew by 10 percent in 2019.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Financial system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In August 2019 Moody's Investors Service upgraded Armenia to Ba3 rating with stable outlook.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government revenues and taxation", "target_page_ids": [ 1705862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the National Statistical Service, Armenia's government debt stood at AMD 3.1 trillion (about $6,4 billion, including $5,1 billion of external debt) as of November 30, 2017. Armenia's debt-to-GDP ratio will drop by 1% in 2018 according to finance minister.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government revenues and taxation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Armenia's external debt ($5.5 billion as of January 1, 2018), the arrears for multi-country credit programs dominate - 66.2% or $3.6 billion, followed by debt on bilateral loan programs - 17.5% or $958.9 million and investments of non-residents in Armenian Eurobonds - 15,4% or $844.9 million.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government revenues and taxation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For the whole Armenian economy and international commerce, 2020 was a year of decline. In a variety of areas, Armenian commodities are being exported and imported at a lower rate. According to the Armenian Statistical Committee, Armenia exported goods worth $2.544 billion in 2020, a fall of 3.9 percent from 2019. Armenia imported items worth 4.559 billion dollars in 2020, down 17.7% from the previous year.The volume of Armenia's international trade has varied throughout the previous 10 years.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government revenues and taxation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From January 1, 2020, Armenia will switch to a flat income taxation system, which, regardless of the amount will tax wages at 23%. Moreover, until 2023 the taxation rate will gradually decrease from 23% to 20%.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government revenues and taxation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The reform adopted in June 2019, aims to boost medium-term economic activity and to increase tax compliance. Among other measures, the corporate income tax was reduced by two percentage points to 18.0 per cent and the tax on dividends for non-resident organisations halved to 5.0 per cent.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government revenues and taxation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From January 1, 2020, the republic will abandon two alternative tax systems - self-employed and family entrepreneurship. They will be replaced by micro-entrepreneurship with a non-taxable threshold of up to 24 million drams. Business entities that carry out specialized activities, in particular, accounting, advocacy, and consulting will not be considered as micro-business entities. Micro business will be exempted from all types of taxes other than income tax, which will be 5 thousand drams per employee.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government revenues and taxation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Over half of the tax revenues in the January–August 2008 time period were generated from value-added taxes (VAT) of 20%. By comparison, corporate profit tax generated less than 16 percent of the revenues. This suggests that tax collection in Armenia is improving at the expense of ordinary citizens, rather than wealthy citizens (who have been the main beneficiaries of Armenia's double-digit economic growth in recent years).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government revenues and taxation", "target_page_ids": [ 52177473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "VAT (Value Added Tax): In Armenia, VAT-paying individuals subtract the VAT paid on their inputs from the VAT levied on their sales and account to the tax authorities for the difference. The standard rate of VAT on domestic sales of goods and services, as well as imports importation, is 20%. Exports of products and services are not taxed.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government revenues and taxation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the National Statistical Committee, in 2018, exports amounted to $2.411.9 billion, having grown by 7.8% from the previous year.IMF expects exports to grow at a rate of 5-8% p.a. in years 2019–2024.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The goods export structure changed considerably in 2018 as the export of the traditional mining sector decreased while the share of textiles, agriculture and precious metals increased.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Geographical location of the country and relatively low electricity costs are comparative advantages supporting to boost the production of the textile and leather products in Armenia. Proximity to Europe in comparison with manufacturers in East Asia creates opportunity to strengthen Armenia's position as contract manufacturing destination for European brands. Foreign companies that put orders to Armenian companies are mainly famous European brands, particularly, from Italy (La Perla, SARTIS, VERSACE etc.) and Germany (LEBEK International Fashion, KUBLER Bekliedungswerk). With the Armenia's entry into Eurasian Economic Commission, the opportunity to increase its presence with textile and leather production raised also in the countries of Eurasian Economic Commission as no customs duty applies to Armenian products in the export markets within the customs union.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the study REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE OF ARMENIA: PERSPECTIVES AND POTENTIALS authors investigated the trade potential of Armenia for different product groups by employing a gravity model of trade approach. The study explored Armenia's trade flows to 139 countries for the period of 2003 to 2007. According to the results of the paper, the authors concluded that \"Armenia has exceeded its export potential almost with all the CIS countries\". In addition, the authors concluded that the most perspective product groups of Armenian export tend to be \"Industrial products\", \"Food and beverages\" and \"Consumer goods\". On the other hand, the paper “The effects of exchange rate volatility on exports: evidence from Armenia” analyzes the effect of Armenian floating exchange rate regime and exchange rate volatility on Armenian exports to Russia. According to the paper exchange rate volatility has long-run and short-run negative effects on exports. Moreover, authors stated that high exchange rate risk resulted in decreasing exports to Russia.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [ 10918072, 3458326, 36870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 147 ], [ 192, 214 ], [ 444, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to most recent (2019 Jan-Feb compared to 2018 Jan-Feb) ArmStat calculations, biggest growth in export quantities was measured towards Turkmenistan by 23.6 times (from $37K to $912K), Estonia by 15 times (from $8.4K to $136.5K) and Canada by 11.5 times (from $623K to $7.8 mln). Meanwhile, exports to Russia, Germany, USA and UAE dropped.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, Armenia imported $3.96B, making it the 133rd largest importer in the world. During the last five years the imports of Armenia have decreased at an annualized rate of -1.2%, from $3.82B in 2012 to $3.96B in 2017. The most recent imports are led by Petroleum Gas which represent 8.21% of the total imports of Armenia, followed by Refined Petroleum, which account for 5.46%. Armenia's main imports are oil, natural gas, cereals, rubber manufactures, cork and wood, and electrical machinery. Armenia's main imports partners are Russia, China, Ukraine, Iran, Germany, Italy, Turkey, France and Japan.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The European Union (28.7% of total exports), Russia (26.9%), Switzerland (14.1%), and Iraq (14.1%) are Armenia's largest export partners (6.3 percent ). The Russian Federation is the most important import partner (26.2%), followed by the EU (22.6%), China (13.8%), and Iran (13.8%). (5.6 percent ). After the 2008 Russian-Georgian conflict, which briefly halted the nation's hydrocarbon supply and exposed the country's energy vulnerabilities, the country has been looking for other energy sources. Tensions with a few of its neighbors, notably as Azerbaijan and Turkey, continue to exist, affecting commerce. Armenia's ties to Russia, as well as its membership in the Eurasian Economic Union, constrain the country's potential to integrate further with the EU.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Imports in 2017 amounted to $4.183 billion, up 27.8% from 2016.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "IMF expects exports to grow at a rate of 4-5% p.a. in years 2019–2024.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, the country's structural trade imbalance was predicted to be 15.7 percent of GDP (World Bank). According to World Trade Organization data, Armenia exported commodities worth US$2.4 billion in 2018, up 7% from the previous year, and imported goods worth US$4.9 billion, up 18%. In terms of services, the country exported US$2 billion in 2018 and imported US$2.1 billion.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The global economic crisis has had less impact on imports because the sector is more diversified than exports. In the first nine months of 2010, imports grew about 19 percent, just about equal to the decline of the same sector in 2009.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the National Statistical Service foreign trade deficit amounted to US$1.94 billion in 2017.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The current account deficit represented 2.4 percent of GDP in 2017 and increased up to 8.1 percent of GDP during the first three quarters of 2018. This was a result of about 8 percent increase in goods export and 21 percent increase on goods import in nominal terms year on year in 2018.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia's foreign trade turnover increased by 11.6 percent in January–May 2021, compared to an 11.2 percent decline a year earlier, owing to a reversal of the y-o-y dynamics of exports and imports from 8.1 to 12.8 percent decline to 20.8-6.7 percent growth, according to preliminary data from the RA Statistical Committee. As a consequence, Armenia's foreign trade turnover reached 1.5 trillion drams ($2.9 billion), with exports totaling 567.4 billion drams ($1.1 billion) and imports being 931.8 billion drams ($1.8 billion), resulting in a 364.4 billion drams ($695 million) international trade deficit. Foreign trade turnover climbed by 3.9 percent in May 2021,resulting to a 7.9% increase in exports and a minimal 1.5 percent increase in imports. As a consequence, Armenia's international trade deficit in May 2021 was 83.4 billion drams ($160 million), decreasing 7.4% from the same month in 2020. (by 21.1 percent ). Foreign trade turnover increased by 13% year over year in May 2020, due to a 30.7 percent increase in exports and a moderate 4.3 percent increase in imports.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "EU-Armenia trade increased by 15% in 2018 reaching a total value of €1.1 billion.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, EU countries accounted for 24.3 percent of Armenia's foreign trade. Whereby exports to EU countries grew by 32,2% to $633 million.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, EU countries accounted for 32.1 percent of Armenia's foreign trade. Germany is Armenia's largest trading partner among EU member states, accounting for 7.2 percent of trade; this is due largely to mining exports. Armenian exports to EU countries have skyrocketed by 65.9 percent, making up more than half of all 2010 January to September exports. Imports from EU countries increased by 17.1 percent, constituting 22.5 percent of all imports.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During January–February 2007, Armenia's trade with the European Union totaled $200 million. During the first 11 months of 2006, the European Union remained Armenia's largest trading partner, accounting for 34.4 percent of its $2.85 billion commercial exchange during the 11-month period.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [ 9317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the first quarter of 2019, share of Russia in foreign trade turnover fell to 11% from 29% from the previous year.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2017 CIS countries accounted for 30 percent of Armenia's foreign trade. Exports to CIS countries rose by 40,3% to $579,5 million.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bilateral trade with Russia stood at more than $700 million for the first nine months of 2010 – on track to rebound to $1 billion mark first reached in 2008 prior to the global economic crisis.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During January–February 2007, Armenia's trade with Russia and other former Soviet republics was $205.6 million (double the amount from the same period the previous year), making them the country's number one trading partner. During the first 11 months of 2006, the volume of Armenia's trade with Russia was $376.8 million or 13.2 percent of the total commercial exchange.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [ 1609192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, trade with China grew by 33.3 percent.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As of early 2011, trade with China is dominated by imports of Chinese goods and accounts for about 10 percent of Armenia's foreign trade. The volume of Chinese-Armenian trade soared by 55 percent to $390 million in January–November 2010. Armenian exports to China, though still modest in absolute terms, nearly doubled in that period.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia's trade with Iran grew significantly from 2015 and 2020. Because Armenia's land borders to the east and west have been closed by the governments of Turkey and Azerbaijan, domestic firms have looked to Iran as a key economic partner. In 2020, trade between the countries exceeded $300 million. The number of Iranian tourists has risen in recent years, with an estimated 80,000 Iranian tourists in 2010. In January 2021, Iran's finance minister Farhad Dejpasand said that trade between the two countries could reach $1 billion annually as Iran looks to become a regional economic force.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From January–September 2010, bilateral trade with the United States measured approximately $150 million, on track for about a 30 percent increase over 2009. An increase in Armenia's exports to the US in 2009 and 2010 has been due to shipments of aluminum foil.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the first 11 months of 2006, U.S.-Armenian trade totaled $152.6 million.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The volume of Georgian-Armenian trade remains modest in both relative and absolute terms. According to official Armenian statistics, it rose by 11 percent to $91.6 million in January–November 2010. The figure was equivalent to just over 2 percent of Armenia's overall foreign trade.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2019, the volume of bilateral trade with Turkey was about $255 million, with trade taking place across Georgian territory. This figure is not expected to increase significantly so long as the land border between the Armenia and Turkey remains closed.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) into Armenia decreased by US$2.7 million in December 2020, compared to a reduction of US$10.3 million the previous quarter.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia Foreign Direct Investment: USD mn Net Flows data is available from March 1993 through December 2020, and is updated quarterly.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The statistics ranged from a high of US$425.9 million in December 2008 to a low of -67.6 USD mn in December 2014.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia's current account surplus is US$51.7 million in December 2020, according to the most recent statistics.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "-In June 2021, Armenian Direct Investment Abroad increased by 12.8 million dollars.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "-In June 2021, it boosted its Foreign Portfolio Investment by $14.6 million.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "-In December 2020, the country's nominal GDP was reported to be 3.8 billion dollars.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite robust economic growth foreign direct investment (FDI) in Armenia remain low as of 2018.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [ 541795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "in January–September 2019, the net flow of direct foreign investment in the real sector of the Armenian economy stood at about $267 million. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jersey was the main source of FDI in 2017. Moreover, combined net FDI from all other sources was negative, indicating capital outflow. The tax haven Jersey is home to an Anglo-American company, Lydian International, which is currently building a controversial massive gold mine in the southeastern Vayots Dzor province. Lydian has pledged to invest a total of $370 million in the Amulsar gold mine.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [ 15693, 15693, 61762515, 470518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 149, 155 ], [ 194, 214 ], [ 298, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Negative values indicate investments of Armenian corporations to foreign country exceeding investments from that country in Armenia.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "FDI stock to GDP ratio grew continuously during 2014-2016 and reached 44.1% in 2016, surpassing average figures for Commonwealth of Independent States countries, transition economies and the world.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [ 36870, 1489819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 150 ], [ 162, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the end of 2017 stock net FDI (for the period 1988–2017) reached 1824 billion AMD, while gross flow of FDI for the same period reached 3869 billion AMD.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As of February 2019, the European Investment Bank (EIB) has invested about 380 million euros in the various projects implemented in Armenia.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [ 57038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the sector consolidation process in 2014-2017 the share of foreign capital in the authorized capital of the Armenian commercial banks decreased from 74,6% to 61,8%.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Net FDI in founding capital of financial institutions accumulated by end of September 2017 is presented in pie chart below.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Armenian government receives foreign aid from the government of the United States through the United States Agency for International Development and the Millennium Challenge Corporation.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [ 1093, 1908551, 140416, 4772086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 33, 44 ], [ 98, 148 ], [ 157, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On March 27, 2006, the Millennium Challenge Corporation signed a five-year, $235.65 million compact with the Government of Armenia. The single stated goal of the \"Armenian Compact\" is \"the reduction of rural poverty through a sustainable increase in the economic performance of the agricultural sector.\" The compact includes a $67 million to rehabilitate up to 943 kilometers of rural roads, more than a third of Armenia's proposed \"Lifeline road network\". The Compact also includes a $146 million project to increase the productivity of approximately 250,000 farm households through improved water supply, higher yields, higher-value crops, and a more competitive agricultural sector.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, the volume of US assistance to Armenia remained near 2009 levels; however, longer-term decline continued. The original Millennium Challenge Account commitment for $235 million had been reduced to about $175 million due to Armenia's poor governance record. Thus, the MCC would not complete road construction. Instead, the irrigated agriculture project was headed for completion with apparently no prospects for extension beyond 2011.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On May 8, 2019, conditioned with the political events in Armenia since April 2018, United States Agency for International Development signed an extension of U.S.-Armenia bilateral agreement in the area of governance and public administration, which would add additional US$8.5 million to the agreement. By signing another document on the same day, USAID increased the aid by additional US$7.5 million in support for more competitive and diversified private sector in Armenia. The financial allocations will be directed to the financing of the USAID-funded project in infrastructures, agriculture, tourism․ After the signing of the new bilateral agreements, the total amount of the U.S. grants to Armenia amounted to around US$81 million.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the agreement signed in 2020 EU will provide Armenia with 65 million euros for implementation of three programs in such areas as energy efficiency, environment and community development and formation of tools for implementation of the Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With curtailment of the MCC funding, the European Union may replace the US as Armenia's chief source of foreign aid for the first time since independence. From 2011 to 2013, the European Union is expected to advance at least €157.3 million ($208 million) in aid to Armenia.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Foreign trade, direct investments and aid", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since transition of power to new leadership in 2018 Armenian government works on improving domestic business environment. Numerous formerly privileged business are now required to pay taxes and officially register all workers. Mainly due to this there were 9.7% more payroll employees registered in January 2019 as compared to January 2018.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In April 2019 Armenian parliament approved reforms of management of joint stock companies effectively enacting a blocking minority shareholders stake of 25% to cope with shareholder oppression.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 27599929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the advice of economic advisers who cautioned Armenia's leadership against the consolidation of economic power in the hands of a few, in January 2001, the Government of Armenia established the State Commission for the Protection of Economic Competition. Its members cannot be dismissed by the government.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2011, Armenia adopted a Law on Free Economic Zones (FEZ), and developed several key regulations at the end of 2011 to attract foreign investments into FEZs: exemptions from VAT (value added tax), profit tax, customs duties, and property tax.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The “Alliance” FEZ was opened in August 2013, and currently has nine businesses taking advantage of its facilities. The focus of “Alliance” FEZ is on high-tech industries which include information and communication technologies, electronics, pharmaceuticals and biotechnology, architecture and engineering, industrial design and alternative energy. In 2014, the government expanded operations in the Alliance FEZ to include industrial production as long as there is no similar production already occurring in Armenia.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, another “Meridian” FEZ, focused on jewelry production, watch-making, and diamond-cutting opened in Yerevan, with six businesses operating in it. The investment programs for these companies must still be approved by government.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Armenian Government approved the program to construct the Meghri free economic zone at the border with Iran, which is expected to open in 2017.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Major monopolies in Armenia include:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Natural gas import and distribution, held by Gazprom Armenia, formerly named ArmRosGazprom (controlled by Russian monopoly Gazprom)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 22131, 7909480, 320489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 45, 60 ], [ 123, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Armenia's railway, South Caucasus Railway, owned by Russian Railways (RZD)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 47485118, 5630920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 42 ], [ 71, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Electricity transmission and distribution (see Electricity sector in Armenia)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 52434172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Newspaper distribution, held by Haymamul", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Former notable monopolies in Armenia :", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wireless (mobile) telephony, held by Armentel until 2004", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Internet access, held by Armentel until September 2006", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fixed-line telephony, held by Armentel until August 2007", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Assumed (unofficial) monopolies until 2018 velvet revolution:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 57126322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Oil import and distribution (claimed by Armenian opposition parties to belonging to a handful of government-linked individuals, one of which - \"Mika Limited\" - is owned by Mikhail Baghdasarian, while the other - \"Flash\" - is owned by Barsegh Beglarian, a \"prominent representative of the Karabakh clan\")", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aviation kerosene (supplying to Zvartnots airport), held by Mika Limited", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 16992, 736493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 18 ], [ 33, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Various basic foodstuffs such as rice, sugar, wheat, cooking oil and butter (the Salex Group enjoys a de facto monopoly on imports of wheat, sugar, flour, butter and cooking oil. Its owner was a parliament deputy Samvel Aleksanian (a.k.a. \"Lfik Samo\") and close to the country's leadership.).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to one analyst, Armenia's economic system in 2008 was anticompetitive due to the structure of the economy being a type of \"monopoly or oligopoly\". \"The result is the prices with us do not drop even if they do on international market, or they do quite belated and not to the size of the international market.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 350992, 18878, 22204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 79 ], [ 133, 141 ], [ 145, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to 2008 estimate of a former prime minister, Hrant Bagratian, 55 percent of Armenia's GDP is controlled by 44 families.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 483914, 12594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 53 ], [ 96, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early 2008, the State Commission for the Protection of Economic Competition named 60 companies having \"dominant positions\" in Armenia.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2009, when visiting Yerevan, the World Bank’s managing director, Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, warned that Armenia will not reach a higher level of development unless its leadership changes the \"oligopolistic\" structure of the national economy, bolsters the rule of law and shows \"zero tolerance\" towards corruption. \"I think you can only go so far with this economic model,\" Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala told a news conference in Yerevan. \"Armenia is a lower middle-income country. If it wants to become a high-income or upper middle-income country, it can not do so with this kind of economic structure. That is clear.\" She also called for a sweeping reform of tax and customs administration, the creation of a \"strong and independent judicial system\" as well as a tough fight against government corruption. The warning was echoed by the International Monetary Fund.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 34352, 45358446, 3134632, 15251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 38 ], [ 44, 54 ], [ 76, 95 ], [ 833, 860 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 2000, the Russian state has acquired several key assets in the energy sector and Soviet-era industrial plants. Property-for-debt or equity-for-debt swaps (acquiring ownership by simply writing off the Armenian government's debts to Russia) are usually the method of acquiring assets. The failure of market reforms, clan-based economics, and official corruption in Armenia have allowed the success of this process.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 18292504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 356, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 2002, the Armenian government sold an 80 percent stake in the Armenian Electricity Network (AEN) to Midland Resources, a British offshore-registered firm which is said to have close Russian connections.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2002, the Armenian government handed over Armenia's largest cement factory to the Russian ITERA gas exporter in payment for its $10 million debt for past gas deliveries.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 2884773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On November 5, 2002, Armenia transferred control of 5 state enterprises to Russia in an assets-for-debts transaction which settled $100 million of Armenian state debts to Russia. The document was signed for Russia by Prime Minister Mikhail Kasyanov and Industry Minister Ilya Klebanov, while Prime Minister Andranik Markarian and National Security Council Secretary Serge Sarkisian signed for Armenia. The five enterprises which passed to 100 percent Russian state ownership are:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 254273, 3181670, 380384, 4829258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 232, 248 ], [ 271, 284 ], [ 307, 325 ], [ 366, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Armenia's largest thermal gas-burning power plant, which is in the town of Hrazdan", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 1368894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Mars\" — electronics and robotics plant in Yerevan, a Soviet-era flagship for both civilian and military production", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " three research-and-production enterprises — for mathematical machines, for the study of materials, and for automated control equipment — these being Soviet-era military-industrial plants", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2003, the Armenian government and United Company RUSAL signed an investment cooperation agreement, under which United Company RUSAL (which already owned a 76% stake) acquired the Armenian government's remaining 26% share of RUSAL ARMENAL aluminum foil mill, giving RUSAL 100% ownership of RUSAL ARMENAL.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 7739854, 18273195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 65 ], [ 235, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On November 1, 2006, the Armenian government handed de facto control of the Iran-Armenia gas pipeline to Russian company Gazprom and increased Gazprom's stake in the Russian-Armenian company ArmRosGazprom from 45% to 58% by approving an additional issue of shares worth $119 million. This left the Armenian government with a 32% stake in ArmRosGazprom. The transaction will also help finance ArmRosGazprom's acquisition of the Hrazdan electricity generating plant’s fifth power bloc (Hrazdan-5), the leading unit in the country.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 320489, 7909480, 48639280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 128 ], [ 191, 204 ], [ 427, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2008 the Russian bank Gazprombank, the banking arm of Gazprom, acquired 100 percent of Armenian bank Areximbank after previously buying 80 percent of said bank in November 2007 and 94.15 percent in July of the same year.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 8872220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2017 government transferred natural gas distribution networks in cities Meghri and Agarak to Gazprom Armenia for cost-free use. Construction of these was funded by foreign aid and costed about 1.3 billion AMD.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 5000346, 5096058, 7909480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 90 ], [ 95, 101 ], [ 105, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Critics of the Robert Kocharyan government (in office until 2008) say that the Armenian administration never considered alternative ways of settling the Russian debts. According to economist Eduard Aghajanov, Armenia could have repaid them with low-interest loans from other, presumably Western sources, or with some of its hard currency reserves which then totaled about $450 million. Furthermore, Aghajanov points to the Armenian government's failure to eliminate widespread corruption and mismanagement in the energy sector – abuses that cost Armenia at least $50 million in losses each year, according to one estimate.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 313188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Political observers say that Armenia's economic cooperation with Russia has been one of the least transparent areas of the Armenian government's work. The debt arrangements have been personally negotiated by (then) Defense Minister (and later President) Serge Sarkisian, initially Kocharyan's closest political associate. Other top government officials, including former Prime Minister Andranik Markarian, had little say on the issue. Furthermore, all of the controversial agreements have been announced after Sarkisian's frequent trips to Moscow, without prior public discussion.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 4829258, 380384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 269 ], [ 386, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finally, while Armenia is not the only ex-Soviet state that has incurred multi-million-dollar debts to Russia over the past decades, it is the only state to have so far given up such a large share of its economic infrastructure to Russia. For example, pro-Western Ukraine and Georgia (both of which owe Russia more than Armenia) have managed to reschedule repayment of their debts.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Domestic business environment", "target_page_ids": [ 31750, 48768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 271 ], [ 276, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since early 2008, Armenia's entire rail network is managed by the Russian state railway under brand South Caucasus Railways.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation routes and energy lines", "target_page_ids": [ 47485118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yerevan Metro was launched in 1981. It serves 11 active stations.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation routes and energy lines", "target_page_ids": [ 4151149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yerevan Central Bus Station, also known as Kilikia Bus Station, is Yerevan's primary bus terminal, linking buses to both domestic and foreign destinations.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation routes and energy lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Total length:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation routes and energy lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "8,140km, World ranking: 112 (7,700km paved including 1561km of expressways).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation routes and energy lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Russian natural gas reaches Armenia via a pipeline through Georgia.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation routes and energy lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The only operational rail link into Armenia is from Georgia. During Soviet times, Armenia's rail network connected to Russia's via Georgia through Abkhazia along the Black Sea. However, the rail link between Abkhazia and other Georgian regions has been closed for a number of years, forcing Armenia to receive rail cars laden with cargo only through the relatively expensive rail-ferry services operating between Georgian and other Black Sea ports.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation routes and energy lines", "target_page_ids": [ 48768, 18933375, 3386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 59 ], [ 147, 155 ], [ 166, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Georgian Black Sea ports of Batumi and Poti process more than 90 percent of freight shipped to and from landlocked Armenia. The Georgian railway, which runs through the town of Gori in central Georgia, is the main transport link between Armenia and the aforementioned Georgian seaports. Fuel, wheat and other basic commodities are transported to Armenia by rail.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation routes and energy lines", "target_page_ids": [ 44293, 219975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 38 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia's main rail and road border-crossing with Georgia (at ) is at the Debed river near the Armenian town of Bagratashen and the Georgian town of Sadakhlo.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation routes and energy lines", "target_page_ids": [ 8638010, 18256193, 20081516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 85 ], [ 112, 123 ], [ 149, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Upper Lars border crossing (at Darial Gorge) between Georgia and Russia across the Caucasus Mountains serves as Armenia's sole overland route to the former Soviet Union and Europe. It was controversially shut down by the Russian authorities in June 2006, at the height of a Russian-Georgian spy scandal. Upper Lars is the only land border crossing that does not go through Georgia's Russian-backed breakaway regions of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. The other two roads linking Georgia and Russia run through South Ossetia and Abkhazia, effectively barring them to international traffic.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation routes and energy lines", "target_page_ids": [ 267584, 230497, 318381, 18933375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 47 ], [ 87, 105 ], [ 423, 436 ], [ 441, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A new gas pipeline to Iran has been completed, and a road to Iran through the southern city of Meghri allows trade with that country. An oil pipeline to pump Iranian oil products is also in the planning stages.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation routes and energy lines", "target_page_ids": [ 7506034, 5000346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 26 ], [ 95, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of October 2008, the Armenian government was considering implementing an ambitious project to build a railway to Iran. The 400 kilometer railway would pass through Armenia's mountainous southern province of Syunik, which borders Iran. Economic analysts say that the project would cost at least $1 billion (equivalent to about 40 percent of Armenia's 2008 state budget). As of 2010, the project has been continuously delayed, with the rail link estimated to cost as much as $4 billion and stretch . In June 2010, Transport Minister Manuk Vartanian revealed that Yerevan is seeking as much as $1 billion in loans from China to finance the railway's construction.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation routes and energy lines", "target_page_ids": [ 470515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The closing of the border by Turkey has cut Armenia's rail link between Gyumri and Kars to Turkey; the rail link with Iran through the Azeri exclave of Nakhichevan; and a natural gas and oil pipeline line with Azerbaijan. Also non-functioning are roads with Turkey and Azerbaijan. Despite the economic blockade of Turkey on Armenia, every day dozens of Turkish trucks laden with goods enter Armenia through Georgia.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation routes and energy lines", "target_page_ids": [ 12963313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, it was confirmed that Turkey will keep the border closed for the foreseeable future after the Turkey-Armenia normalization process collapsed.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation routes and energy lines", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to 2018 HDI statistical update compared to its transcaucasian neighbouring countries Armenia had highest share of employed in services (49.7% of all employed) and lowest share of employed in agriculture (34.4% of all employed) .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Labor Market", "target_page_ids": [ 261460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, about 30% of wage workers were organized in unions. At the same time rate of unionization was dropping at average rate of 1% since 1993.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Labor Market", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to preliminary figures from Statistical Committee of Armenia monthly wages averaged to 172 thousand AMD in February 2019.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Labor Market", "target_page_ids": [ 24984172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is estimated that wages rise at 0.8% for each additional year of experience and \"the ability to solve problems and learn new skills yields a wage premium of nearly 20 percent\".", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Labor Market", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is reported that in 2020 there was a drop in the unemployment rate in Armenia from 16.99% in 2019 to 16.63% in 2020. The Statistical Committee of Armenia reported that In 2020, the unemployment rate has been volatile reaching to 19.8% during the first quarter of the year and then decreasing to 16% during the fourth quarter. According to the latest reports on population of Armenia, in December 2020 the population consisted of 2.96million people and the average monthly earning during February 2021 was US$366.05.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Labor Market", "target_page_ids": [ 24984172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Central Bank of Armenia reported the expected unemployment rate in Armenia to be 20.4% in 2020. This will be the direct effect of the coronavirus pandemic and the economic downturn of the country. The increase in unemployment rate mainly includes people who were left without work during the pandemic.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Labor Market", "target_page_ids": [ 5489671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to prime minister Nikol Pashinyan in January 2019 562,043 payroll jobs were recorded, against of 511,902 in January 2018, an increase of 9.7%.Statistical Committee of Armenia publication based on data retrieved from employers and national income service cites 560,586 payroll positions in January 2019, an increase of 9.9% against previous year. This however does not match survey data published by the Statistical Committee of Armenia, according to which in 4th quarter of 2018 there were 870.1 thousand persons employed against 896.7 thousand employed persons in 4th quarter of 2017. The mismatch was highlighted by former PM Hrant Bagratyan. For the whole year of 2018 Statistical Committee of Armenia survey counted 915.5 thousand employed persons, an increase of 1.4% against previous year. In the same period unemployment rate of economically active population dropped from 20.8% to 20.4%.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Labor Market", "target_page_ids": [ 17897961, 24984172, 24984172, 8508078, 24984172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 43 ], [ 152, 184 ], [ 413, 445 ], [ 639, 654 ], [ 683, 715 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to World Bank data unemployment ratio in 2017 reached 18.19%, and was nearly unchanged since 2009. In 2018, the ratio increased to 18.97% and slowly dropped to 18.81% in 2019. 2020 reported dramatic increase inn the unemployment rate reaching 20.21%, which resulted from the world pandemic leaving a number of workers without jobs. At the same time it estimates in 2019 that 60% of workers are employed in informal economy.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Labor Market", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "World Bank research also reveals that employment rate fell in years 2000–2015 in middle- and low-skill occupations, while it grew high-skill occupations.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Labor Market", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "See also Statistical Committee of Armenia publication (in English) \"Labour market in the Republic of Armenia, 2018\".", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Labor Market", "target_page_ids": [ 24984172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Worldwide, women's unemployment rate is higher than men's by approximately 0.8% and equals 6%. According to International Labor Organization, Armenia has the highest women's unemployment rate in post-Soviet countries, equaling 17.3% for women above 25. If we compare this rate to those of the neighboring countries (Latvia- 8.6%, Georgia- 7.7%, Azerbaijan- 4.8%), we can see that it is very high. In 2017, the National Statistical Service of Armenia stated that more than 60% of officially registered unemployed people in Armenia are women. One of the lecturers of Yerevan State University, Ani Kojoyan, mentioned that even though there is no issue in the legislation that becomes a reason for women's unemployment; however, there are some issues that are not mentioned in the legislation. Some of those issues are the fact that potential employers consider women's marital status, how many children they have, or if they are planning to get pregnant any time soon. Moreover, some women are not allowed to work by their husbands after graduating from higher educational institutions. She mentions that the most crucial problem affecting this phenomenon is the fact women do not stand up for their rights. It is also mentioned that according to various sources, there is an inequality in men's and women's monthly wages. In all the sectors, the average monthly salary of men is much higher than women even with the same years of education. It is stated that eliminating the discrimination between two genders would positively impact the country's economy. Ani Kojoyan mentions that this is a crucial problem for the economy except for being a women's rights violation. Thus, the Armenian government should take care that unemployed women can find jobs and become taxpayers.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Labor Market", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since gaining independence in 1991, hundreds of thousands of Armenia's residents have gone abroad, mainly to Russia, in search of work. Unemployment has been the major cause of this massive labor emigration. OSCE experts estimate that between 116,000 and 147,000 people left Armenia for economic reasons between 2002 and 2004, with two-thirds of them returning home by February 2005. According to estimates by the National Statistical Survey, the rate of labor emigration was twice as higher in 2001 and 2002.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Labor Market", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to an OSCE survey, a typical Armenian migrant worker is a married man aged between 41 and 50 years who \"began looking for work abroad at the age of 32-33.\"", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Labor Market", "target_page_ids": [ 1981818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For Armenians, another feature of migration was an increase in a variety of threats. The journey itself was extremely dangerous. To pay their way, may departing migrants took out loans failed, the whole family's future was put at a risk. As a consequence, the practice of delaying or refusing to pay part or all of a migrant workers wages has become common. The risks were also heightened by many emigrants failure. This type of migration inherited almost all of the negative characteristics that described pre-transition labor migration.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Labor Market", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the workshop, participants addressed the increasing importance of migration as a growth factor, as well as the significance of SDG Target 10.7 on anticipated and well-managed migration policies for Armenia.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Labor Market", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Armenia carbon dioxide emissions amounted to 1.9 tonnes per capita in 2014, less than in its neighbouring countries.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Natural environment protection", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia's greenhouse gas emissions decreased 62% from 1990 to 2013, averaging -1.3% annually.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Natural environment protection", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia is working on addressing its environmental problems. Ministry of Environment has introduced a pollution fee system by which taxes are levied on air and water emissions and solid waste disposal.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Natural environment protection", "target_page_ids": [ 8623805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenian Stock Exchange", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10717221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Diamond industry in Armenia", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37657141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eurasian Economic Union", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27290106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Geographical Issues in Armenia", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of banks in Armenia", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16335792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of companies of Armenia", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6302182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ministry of Economic Development and Investments", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fund for Rural Economic Development", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Armenia Securities Exchange", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Economy_of_Armenia", "World_Trade_Organization_member_economies", "Economies_of_Europe_by_country" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "This article considers transport in Armenia.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10918072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " in common carrier service; does not include industrial lines", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Railways", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "825km of gauge (825km electrified) (1995)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Railways", "target_page_ids": [ 4466138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is no service south of Yerevan.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Railways", "target_page_ids": [ 34352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "City with metro system: Yerevan", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Railways", "target_page_ids": [ 18361733, 4151149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 15 ], [ 24, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Azerbaijan - closed - same gauge", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Railways", "target_page_ids": [ 23407061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Georgia - yes - same gauge", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Railways", "target_page_ids": [ 19009181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iran - via Azerbaijan - closed - break of gauge - /", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Railways", "target_page_ids": [ 4008048, 23407061, 1607270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 12, 22 ], [ 34, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Turkey - closed - break of gauge -/", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Railways", "target_page_ids": [ 10476420, 1607270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 19, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of the cross-border lines are currently closed due to political problems. However, there are daily inbound and outbound trains connecting Tbilisi and Yerevan. Departing from Yerevan railway station trains connect to both Tbilisi and Batumi. From neighboring Georgia, trains depart to Yerevan from Tbilisi railway station. Within Armenia, new electric trains connect passengers from Yerevan to Armenia's second largest city of Gyumri. The new trains run four times a day and the journey takes approximately two hours.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Railways", "target_page_ids": [ 47561592, 44293, 26035947, 10918072, 1529357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 202 ], [ 238, 244 ], [ 302, 325 ], [ 334, 341 ], [ 431, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is also discussion to establish a rail link between Yerevan and Tehran. Armenia is pursuing funding from the Asian Development Bank to launch construction of this infrastructure project. The completion of the project could establish a major commodities transit corridor and would serve as the shortest transportation route between Europe and the Persian Gulf. In June 2019, Iranian president Hassan Rouhani backed this project and stated that “we want the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to be connected to the Black Sea, and one of the ways to make this happen is through Iran, Armenia and Georgia.”", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Railways", "target_page_ids": [ 9239, 24761, 38481813, 12896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 337, 343 ], [ 352, 364 ], [ 398, 412 ], [ 483, 495 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The capital city of Armenia, Yerevan, is serviced by the Yerevan Metro. The system was launched in 1981 and like most former Soviet Metros, its stations are very deep (20–70 meters underground) and intricately decorated with national motifs. The metro runs on a 13.4 kilometres (8.3mi) line and currently serves 10 active stations. Trains run every five minutes from 6:30a.m. until 11 p.m. local AMT time. As of 2017, the annual ridership of the metro is 16.2 million passengers. Free Wi-Fi is available at all stations and some trains.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Railways", "target_page_ids": [ 34352, 4151149, 21155103, 63973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 36 ], [ 57, 70 ], [ 396, 399 ], [ 486, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Land borders are open with both Georgia and Iran. Yerevan Central Bus Station, also known as Kilikia Bus Station is the main bus terminal in Yerevan with buses connecting to both internal and international destinations. There are daily bus connections between Yerevan and Tbilisi and Yerevan and Tehran. Approximately three times daily, buses depart from Yerevan Central Bus Station to Stepanakert, the capital of the partially recognized state of Artsakh. There are also scheduled bus routes which connect Yerevan with Kyiv, Moscow, Saint Petersburg as well as several other cities across Russia. It is also possible to connect to Chișinău Moldova, Minsk Belarus and other cities in Eastern Europe from Yerevan through connecting bus routes via Georgia and Ukraine. In addition, there is a once a week bus service to Istanbul via Georgia. In June 2019, a new bus route from Baghdad to Yerevan via Iran began.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Buses", "target_page_ids": [ 42298, 57654, 914180, 1000530, 585629, 19004, 24320051, 25391, 56635, 51593, 37403, 3391396, 4492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 279 ], [ 296, 302 ], [ 386, 397 ], [ 448, 455 ], [ 520, 524 ], [ 526, 532 ], [ 534, 550 ], [ 590, 596 ], [ 632, 640 ], [ 650, 655 ], [ 684, 698 ], [ 818, 826 ], [ 875, 882 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Armenian bus network connects all major cities and towns and many villages throughout the country. In larger cities and towns such as Yerevan, Gyumri, Vanadzor and Armavir, bus stations are equipped with a waiting room and a ticket office, in other towns bus stations may not have shelters. Most of the routes are operated by GAZelle minivans with a capacity of 15 passengers, some routes are operated by soviet bus producer LiAZ (Russia). Yerevan itself has a large integrated bus network, with a newly acquired bus fleet, passengers are able to connect from one end of the city to the other. Wi-Fi is available on most city buses. Despite this, buses often have difficulty meeting the demand for capacity, mainly in Yerevan, where vehicles are typically overcrowded. There are no night services between 11 p.m. and 6 a.m. There is no ticket system in the country, passengers pay in cash to drivers. Passengers on the national bus network pay before boarding, passengers on the Yerevan bus network pay after the ride, while leaving the vehicle. Timetables and fares are published on Transport for Armenia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Buses", "target_page_ids": [ 34352, 1529357, 2090978, 2449112, 965472, 7782322, 63973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 145 ], [ 147, 153 ], [ 155, 163 ], [ 168, 175 ], [ 330, 337 ], [ 429, 442 ], [ 598, 603 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From Yeritasardakan metro station in downtown Yerevan, travelers can take the 201 airport shuttle which goes directly to Zvartnots International Airport, which takes approximately 20 minutes from the city center.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Buses", "target_page_ids": [ 38659882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since independence, Armenia has been developing its internal highway network. The \"North-South Road Corridor Investment Program\" is a major infrastructure project which aims at connecting the southern border of Armenia with its northern by means of a 556km-long Meghri-Yerevan-Bavra highway. It is a major US$1.5 billion infrastructure project funded by the Asian Development Bank, European Investment Bank and the Eurasian Development Bank. When completed, the highway will provide access to European countries via the Black Sea. It could also eventually interconnect the Black Sea ports of Georgia with the major ports of Iran, thus positioning Armenia in a strategic transport corridor between Europe and Asia. Armenia is pursuing further loans from China as part of the Belt and Road Initiative to complete the north–south highway.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Roadways", "target_page_ids": [ 2512, 57038, 24616325, 3386, 5405, 46258109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 358, 380 ], [ 382, 406 ], [ 415, 440 ], [ 520, 529 ], [ 753, 758 ], [ 774, 798 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia connects to European road networks via the International E-road network through various routes such as; European route E117, European route E691, European route E001 and European route E60. Armenia also connects to the Asian Highway Network through routes AH81, AH82 and AH83.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Roadways", "target_page_ids": [ 49022, 18814299, 25980964, 25980456, 892269, 624166, 42215198, 42126086, 42208303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 79 ], [ 112, 131 ], [ 133, 152 ], [ 154, 173 ], [ 178, 196 ], [ 227, 248 ], [ 264, 268 ], [ 270, 274 ], [ 279, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The number of insured registered cars in Armenia has grown from 390,457 in 2011 to 457,878 in 2015.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Roadways", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "8,140km", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Roadways", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "World Ranking: 112", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Roadways", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "7,700km (including 1,561km of expressways)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Roadways", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "0km (2006 est.)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Roadways", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Natural gas 3,838km (2017)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Pipelines", "target_page_ids": [ 22131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cargo shipments to landlocked Armenia are routed through ports in Georgia and Turkey.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ports and harbors", "target_page_ids": [ 297503, 48768, 11125639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 27 ], [ 66, 73 ], [ 78, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Air transportation in Armenia is the most convenient and comfortable means of getting into the country. There are large international airports that accept both external and domestic flights throughout the Republic. As of 2020, 11 airports operate in Armenia, however, only Yerevan's Zvartnots International Airport and Gyumri's Shirak Airport are in use for commercial aviation. There are three additional civil airports currently under reconstruction in Armenia, including Syunik Airport, Stepanavan Airport and Goris Airport. The main Armenian airlines in operation are Armenia Aircompany and Armenia Airways.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Airports", "target_page_ids": [ 34352, 736493, 1529357, 7388293, 55601085, 17726043, 29323724, 49721183, 51233020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 282 ], [ 283, 314 ], [ 319, 327 ], [ 328, 342 ], [ 474, 488 ], [ 490, 508 ], [ 513, 526 ], [ 572, 590 ], [ 595, 610 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are plenty of air connections between Yerevan and other regional cities, including Athens, Barcelona, Beirut, Berlin, Bucharest, Brussels, Damascus, Doha, Dubai, Istanbul, Kyiv, Kuwait City, London, Milan, Minsk, Moscow, Paris, Prague, Riga, Rome, Tehran, Tel-Aviv, Tbilisi, Vienna, Venice and Warsaw, as well as daily connections to most major cities within the CIS region. Statistics show that the number of tourists arriving in the country by air transportation increases yearly. In 2018, passenger flow at the two main airports of Armenia reached a record high of 2,856,673 million people. In December 2019, yearly passenger flow exceeded 3,000,000 million people for the first time in Armenia's history.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Airports", "target_page_ids": [ 36870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 369, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 2019, the creation of a Free Route Airspace (FRA) between Armenia and Georgia was announced. The process has been carried out through the joint efforts of the General Department of Civil Aviation of Armenia, the Georgian Civil Aviation Administration and Eurocontrol. The Free Route Airspace between the two South Caucasus countries will increase flights to around 40,000 annually.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Airports", "target_page_ids": [ 25941509, 41216987, 1894380, 353358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 218 ], [ 224, 262 ], [ 267, 278 ], [ 320, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Country comparison to the world: 153", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Airports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Total: 10", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Airports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Over 3,047 m (9,900 feet): 2", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Airports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1,524 to 2,437 m (7,920 feet): 2", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Airports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "914 to 1,523 m (4,950 feet): 4", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Airports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Under 914 m: 2 (as of 2008)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Airports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Total: 1", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Airports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1,524 to 2,437 m: 0", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Airports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "914 to 1,523 m: 1", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Airports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "under 914 m: 0 (as of 2008)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Airports", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia maintains a number of both military and civilian heliports. The main military heliport is located on the premises of Erebuni Airport in Yerevan. Meanwhile, the company Armenian Helicopters, based at Zvartnots Airport in Yerevan, offers charter flights within Armenia and to certain neighboring countries, including Georgia, Russia and Turkey. Helicopter services are delivered with the US-made Robinson R66 and the European AIRBUS EC130T2 choppers. Flights can be carried out as scheduled or individual routes.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Heliports", "target_page_ids": [ 249182, 9273594, 8286923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 66 ], [ 125, 140 ], [ 351, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Wings of Tatev is currently the world's longest reversible aerial tramway which holds the record for longest non-stop double track cable car and is located in the town of Halidzor.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Aerial tramways", "target_page_ids": [ 30240805, 105709, 18256919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 63, 77 ], [ 176, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2019, it was announced that investors were interested in the creation of an aerial tramway in the capital, Yerevan.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Aerial tramways", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia cooperates in various international transport related organizations and agreements including the following:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "International transport agreements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Eurocontrol", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "International transport agreements", "target_page_ids": [ 1894380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "European Aviation Safety Agency (Pan-European Partner)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "International transport agreements", "target_page_ids": [ 909111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "European Civil Aviation Conference", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "International transport agreements", "target_page_ids": [ 6143269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "European Common Aviation Area", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "International transport agreements", "target_page_ids": [ 4955499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Civil Aviation Organization", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "International transport agreements", "target_page_ids": [ 14985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Road Transport Union", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "International transport agreements", "target_page_ids": [ 12201309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Transport Forum", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "International transport agreements", "target_page_ids": [ 23980396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Union of Railways (Associate member)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "International transport agreements", "target_page_ids": [ 579744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Montreal Convention", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "International transport agreements", "target_page_ids": [ 549443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "TIR Convention", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "International transport agreements", "target_page_ids": [ 2285480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "TRACECA", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "International transport agreements", "target_page_ids": [ 9215849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trans-European Transport Networks", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "International transport agreements", "target_page_ids": [ 628721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Economy of Armenia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " General Department of Civil Aviation of Armenia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25941509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ministry of Transport and Communication (Armenia)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32006086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tourism in Armenia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24488725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Transport in Europe", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 205583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Transport in Georgia (country)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Transport in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1000530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Transport in the Soviet Union", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29236242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] } ]

[ "Transport_in_Armenia", "Transport_in_Europe" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Armed Forces of Armenia (), sometimes referred to as the Armenian Army (), is the national military of Armenia. It consists of personnel branches under the General Staff of the Armenian Armed Forces, which can be divided into two general branches: the Ground Forces, and the Air Force and Air Defense Forces. Though it was partially formed out of the former Soviet Army forces stationed in the Armenian SSR (mostly units of the 7th Guards Army of the Transcaucasian Military District), the military of Armenia can be traced back to the founding of the First Republic of Armenia in 1918. Being a landlocked country, Armenia has no navy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10918072, 66982576, 7158430, 8427779, 13824438, 380353, 11288692, 10384389, 3073150, 297503, 21533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 114 ], [ 160, 202 ], [ 256, 269 ], [ 279, 311 ], [ 362, 373 ], [ 398, 410 ], [ 432, 447 ], [ 455, 487 ], [ 556, 581 ], [ 600, 618 ], [ 635, 639 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Commander-in-Chief of the military is the Prime Minister of Armenia, Nikol Pashinyan. The Ministry of Defence is in charge of political leadership, headed by Vagharshak Harutiunyan, while military command remains in the hands of the general staff, headed by the Chief of Staff, who is Lieutenant-General Artak Davtyan. Border guards subject to the Ministry of Defence until 2001, patrol Armenia's borders with Georgia and Azerbaijan, while Russian troops continue to monitor its borders with Iran and Turkey. Since 2002, Armenia has been a member of the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Armenia signed a military cooperation plan with Lebanon on 27 November 2015.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 254428, 483914, 17897961, 10526480, 66982576, 201916, 58460325, 48768, 746, 25391, 14653, 11125639, 2530445, 17771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ], [ 46, 71 ], [ 73, 88 ], [ 162, 184 ], [ 237, 250 ], [ 289, 307 ], [ 308, 321 ], [ 414, 421 ], [ 426, 436 ], [ 444, 450 ], [ 496, 500 ], [ 505, 511 ], [ 559, 598 ], [ 648, 655 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An Armenian military corps was established to fight against the Ottomans during the Turkish–Armenian War in early 1918. In accordance with the Treaty of Batum of 4 June 1918 the Ottoman Empire demobilized most of the Armenian army. Ethnic Armenian conscripts and volunteers in the Imperial Russian Army would later become the core of the military of the First Armenian Republic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3909266, 5524212, 17918596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 104 ], [ 143, 158 ], [ 281, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 7th Guards Army was based in Yerevan from 1946 to 1992. In the late 1980s the Army consisted of:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11288692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Directorate – Yerevan", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "15th Motor Rifle Division – Kirovakan (now Vanadzor)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2090978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 75th Motor Rifle Division – Nakhichevan", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1492960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 127th Motor Rifle Division – Leninakan (now Gyumri) ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7213041, 1529357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 30, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 164th Motor Rifle Division – Yerevan", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 1 June 1992, ITAR-TASS reported that General Fyodor Reut said that some units of the 7th Guards Army would begin leaving Armenia in 10–15 days. The army was disbanded later that summer. The former Soviet Air Defense Forces in Armenia were drawn from the 14th Air Defense Corps of the 19th Separate Air Defense Army.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 434852, 40815623, 873945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 25 ], [ 48, 59 ], [ 200, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The modern Armenian military entered its first stage at the beginning of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, when Armenian militias were formed to combat Azerbaijani units in Artsakh. On 20 September 1990, the first military unit was created, the Yerevan Special Regiment, with the first oath being held in the Republican Assembly Point and was attended by the first President of Armenia Levon Ter-Petrosyan, Prime Minister Vazgen Manukyan, and defence minister Vazgen Sargsyan. Five battalions were also formed in Ararat, Goris, Vardenis, Ijan and Meghri. In 1991, by the decision of the government, the State Committee of Defense under the Council of Ministers, which facilitated the task of coordinating the defense operations of Armenia, becoming the basis on which the Ministry of Defense was to be established later on.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4695860, 746, 863091, 8504269, 313184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 102 ], [ 149, 159 ], [ 383, 402 ], [ 419, 434 ], [ 457, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia established a Ministry of Defence on 28 January 1992. The first military unit of the defence ministry to be formed was the 1st Airborne Regiment, where the first Armenian soldier took the oath to the nation that March. Since a significant part of the officers of the Armed Forces were fighters of the self-defense volunteer detachments, a center for raising the qualification of officers was established for their qualification and training, which during its activity it provided about 1,500 officer-graduates. The School of Non-Commissioned Officers produced about 1,000 graduates.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10918072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe was ratified by the Armenian parliament in July 1992. The treaty establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of military equipment, such as tanks, artillery, armored combat vehicles, combat aircraft, and combat helicopters, and provides for the destruction of weaponry in excess of those limits. Armenian officials have consistently expressed determination to comply with its provisions and thus Armenia has provided data on armaments as required under the CFE Treaty. Despite this, Azerbaijan accuses Armenia of diverting a large part of its military forces to Nagorno-Karabakh and thus circumventing these international regulations. In March 1993, Armenia signed the multilateral Chemical Weapons Convention, which calls for the eventual elimination of chemical weapons. Armenia acceded to the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapons state in July 1993.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1300375, 10918072, 1000530, 51836, 22107, 21785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 49 ], [ 353, 360 ], [ 619, 635 ], [ 739, 766 ], [ 861, 885 ], [ 895, 909 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the branches of services listed above, Armenia established its own Internal Troops from the former Soviet Interior Troops after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Up until December 2002, Armenia maintained a Ministry of Internal Affairs, but along with the Ministry of National Security, it was reorganized as a non-ministerial institution. The two organizations became the Police of Armenia and the National Security Service.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3495672, 11223741, 29943652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 97 ], [ 391, 408 ], [ 417, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Armenian Armed Forces are Headquartered in Yerevan, where most of the general staff is based. The general staff is responsible for operational command of the Armenian Military and its two major branches. The armed forces also has the following personnel branches:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [ 34352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Department of Military Preparedness", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Department of Military Apparatus", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Department of Aviation", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Department of Missile Troops", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Department of Air Defence", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Department of Rear Services", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Department of Signal Troops", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Department of the Engineer Troops", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Department of Armaments", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Department of the RNBC Defence Troops", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Medical Department", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Personnel Department", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Intelligence Department", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Strategic Planning Department", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mobilization Department", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Operative Department", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Department of Military Service Security", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Department of Military Commissars", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Financial Department", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Human Resources Department", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to IISS 2010, Armenia has 20 T-80 tanks, 137 T-72 tanks, 8 T-54/55 tanks and 80 BMP-1's, 7 BMP-1K, 55 BMP-2 and 12 BRM-1K. Wheeled APCs reported included 11 BTR-60s, 21 BTR-70s, 4 BTR-80s, 145 MT-LBs, 5 BMD-1S, and 120 BRDM-2 scout vehicles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [ 197706, 186191, 195694, 222944, 222946, 14804096, 1433988, 2293322, 2464359, 623227, 623478, 1133927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 43 ], [ 55, 59 ], [ 69, 76 ], [ 90, 95 ], [ 112, 117 ], [ 125, 131 ], [ 167, 173 ], [ 179, 185 ], [ 190, 196 ], [ 203, 208 ], [ 213, 218 ], [ 229, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the Russians have supplied newer equipment to Armenia over the years, the numbers have never been sufficient to upgrade all ground force formations and many of the lower readiness units still have older, Soviet-legacy systems that have not been upgraded or in many cases effectively maintained. These older systems are placing great demands on the logistics system for service, maintenance, replacement parts and necessary upgrades, costing the army both financially and in overall readiness. The ground force is engaged in an effort of reassessment, reorganisation and restructuring, as the future of Armenia's defence needs a revised force structure and unit mix. The army sees the need to maintain much of its traditional mechanised formations, but is looking to lighten and make more mobile and self-sustainable a small number of other formations. It must develop these newer formations to support its international requirements and effectively operate in mountainous and other rugged terrain, but it must do this without affecting the mechanised capability that is needed to confront Azerbaijan's conventional forces.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since the fall of the Soviet Union, Armenia has followed a policy of developing its armed forces into a professional, well trained, and mobile military. In 2000, the Centre for International Studies and Research reported that at that time the Armenian Army had the strongest combat capability of the three South Caucasus countries' armies (the other two being Georgia and Azerbaijan). CSTO Secretary, Nikolay Bordyuzha, came to a similar conclusion after collective military drills in 2007 when he stated that, \"the Armenian Army is the most efficient one in the post-Soviet space\". This was echoed more recently by Igor Korotchenko, a member of the Public Council, Russian Ministry of Defense, in a March 2011 interview with Voice of Russia radio.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [ 26779, 353358, 48768, 746, 2530445, 8574602, 7875884, 530965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 34 ], [ 306, 320 ], [ 360, 367 ], [ 372, 382 ], [ 385, 389 ], [ 401, 418 ], [ 667, 694 ], [ 727, 742 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Army is functionally divided into Active and Reserve Forces. Their main functions include deterrence, defense, peace support and crisis management, humanitarian and rescue missions, as well as social functions within Armenian society.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [ 24702, 348268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 120 ], [ 133, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Active Forces mainly have peacekeeping and defensive duties, and are further divided into Deployment Forces, Immediate Reaction, and Main Defense Forces. The Reserve Forces consists of Enhancement Forces, Territorial Defense Forces, and Training Grounds. They deal with planning and reservist preparation, armaments and equipment storage, training of formations for active forces rotation or increase in personnel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During peacetime the Army maintains permanent combat and mobilization readiness. They become part of multinational military formations in compliance with international treaties Armenia is a signatory to, participate in the preparation of the population, the national economy and the maintenance of wartime reserves and the infrastructure of the country for defense.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [ 23210314, 451461, 30432, 174521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 52 ], [ 57, 69 ], [ 154, 176 ], [ 323, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In times of crisis the Army's main tasks relate to participation in operations countering terrorist activities and defense of strategic facilities (such as nuclear power plants and major industrial facilities), assisting the security forces in proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, illegal armaments traffic and international terrorism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [ 30636, 22153, 53136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 110 ], [ 156, 169 ], [ 261, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In case of low- and medium-intensity military conflict the Active Forces that are part of the Army participate in carrying out the initial tasks for the defense of the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country. In case of a high intensity conflict the Land Forces, together with the Air Force, Air Defense and Border Guards, form the defense group of the Armenian Armed Forces aiming at countering aggression and protect the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [ 31335, 28791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 189 ], [ 194, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Experiments in developing small arms have been undertaken in Armenia, producing the K-3 assault rifle, but Jane's Infantry Weapons estimates that the program has ceased, and the rifle is not in widespread service with the army. The AK-74 is the standard issue rifle of the Armenian Army with older AKMs in reserve use. Beside AK rifles Armenian forces use mostly Russian small arms like the Makarov pistol, SVD sniper rifle, and the PKM General Purpose machine Gun.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [ 25591306, 94217, 14888094, 565883, 337494, 1149436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 87 ], [ 232, 237 ], [ 298, 301 ], [ 391, 405 ], [ 407, 410 ], [ 433, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Armenian Air Force consists of 15 Su-25 ground attack planes, 18 Su-30 jet fighters, 1 Mig 25, 16 Mil Mi-24 helicopter gunships, 6 L-39 trainer and attack aircraft, 16 Yak-52 trainer aircraft, 3 Il-76 cargo planes, 18 Mil Mi-8 transport helicopters, and 10 Mil Mi-2 light utility helicopters. There are an additional 18 MiG-29 fighter jets of the Russian 102nd Military Base stationed in Gyumri.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [ 8427779, 366696, 552808, 247960, 384591, 493727, 616123, 229943, 957233, 958954, 185653, 7213041, 1529357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ], [ 38, 43 ], [ 69, 74 ], [ 91, 97 ], [ 102, 111 ], [ 135, 139 ], [ 172, 178 ], [ 199, 204 ], [ 222, 230 ], [ 261, 269 ], [ 324, 330 ], [ 351, 378 ], [ 392, 398 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Armenian anti-aircraft branch was equipped and organized as part of the military reform program of Lieutenant-General Norat Ter-Grigoryants. It consists of an anti-aircraft missile brigade and two regiments armed with 100 anti-aircraft complexes of various models and modifications, including the SA-8, Krug, S-75, S-125, SA-7, SA-10, SA-13, SA-16 and SA-18. Russia has SA-6 and S-300 long range surface-to-air missiles at the Russian 102nd Military Base. There are also 24 Scud ballistic missiles with eight launchers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [ 34123432, 1385900, 1377994, 3047625, 1377417, 199452, 546105, 1395187, 1389828, 1389828, 1376694, 546105, 23014654, 38025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 143 ], [ 301, 305 ], [ 307, 311 ], [ 313, 317 ], [ 319, 324 ], [ 326, 330 ], [ 332, 337 ], [ 339, 344 ], [ 346, 351 ], [ 356, 361 ], [ 374, 378 ], [ 383, 388 ], [ 478, 482 ], [ 483, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Numerical strength is estimated at 3,000 servicemen, with plans for further expansion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In late December 2010, the Armenian Defense Minister, Seyran Ohanyan, officially acknowledged that the army are equipped with the Russian-made S-300 surface-to-air missiles. The statement was made while the Minister was inspecting a new air-defense command point that maintains \"state-of-the-art equipment\" built specifically for the operation of the S-300's. Russian specialist started to train Armenian teams on sophisticated Missiles and Defensive Systems. The S-300 was paraded for the first time in the 2011 Parade and the only S-300 missile system (SA10 Grumble) which likes mobility. The S-300 is the main Air Defensive system that protects Armenia's air security. In the 2016 Armenian Parade celebrating the Armenian Independence BUK-M2 Air Defense Systems were shown. These systems were not part of the 200million dollar contract agreement between Yerevan and Moscow but an agreement between CSTO partners. Other devices such as stem of electronic warfare (EW) \"Infauna\" and P-325U consist in the Armenian Armed Forces.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization and service branches", "target_page_ids": [ 546105, 546105, 546105, 546105, 546105, 1393021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 148 ], [ 465, 470 ], [ 534, 554 ], [ 556, 568 ], [ 596, 601 ], [ 739, 745 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to forces mentioned above, there are around 20,000 active soldiers defending Nagorno-Karabakh, a disputed territory which seceded from Azerbaijan in 1991 and is now a de facto independent state. They are well trained and well equipped with the latest in military software and hardware. The Karabakh army's heavy military hardware includes: 316 tanks, 324 armored vehicles, 322 artillery pieces of calibers over 122mm, 44 multiple rocket launchers, and a new anti-aircraft defense system. In addition, the NKR Defence Army maintains a small air-force of 2 Su-25s, 5 Mi-24s and 5 other helicopters.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Military of Artsakh", "target_page_ids": [ 1000530, 43594, 366696, 384591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 105 ], [ 179, 187 ], [ 568, 573 ], [ 578, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Armed Forces of Armenia is constitutionally a conscript force, but there is also a growing number of professional officers. There were roughly 19,000 conscripts and 23,000 professionals serving in 2017. Enlistment, which is performed twice a year, is handled by military commissariats. Male draftees between the ages of 18-27 are obliged to present themselves in the commissariats for registration. People who have changed their citizenship or have dual citizenship are also subject to conscription, unless they have already served in the armed forces of another country. Since 2003, conscientious objectors can apply for alternative service. Draft evaders can not be appointed to public service positions. Citizens who have completed military service are registered in the reserve and are divided into rank and file, non-commissioned and commissioned staff of the reserve. Reservists can be called up to training musters and exercises in peacetime. Reserve obligation lasts up to the age of 50.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 83003, 472220, 10549810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 588, 610 ], [ 647, 660 ], [ 918, 925 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National Defense Research University", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 64207189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vazgen Sargsyan Military University", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 55333927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Monte Melkonian Military Academy", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 57604577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Armenak Khanperyants Military Aviation University", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 64057126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yerevan State Medical University Military Faculty", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 4143327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Foreign institutions for Armenian soldiers", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Military Academy of Modena", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 19652285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 441764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hellenic Military Academy", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 9855862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military University of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation - College of Military Finance", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 56980838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Higher military education is provided by the National Defense Research University in Yerevan. It was established in 2016, on the basis of the Institute for National Strategic Studies.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The I Have the Honour State Program is an educational program of the ministry of defence that serves conscripts in the army. Participants of the program are given the right to defer conscription in favor of education in post-secondary institutions with full reimbursement of tuition fees, after which the conscript is awarded the rank of lieutenant and is appointed to the service for a period of 2 years and 3 months.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A contractual military service is a service last for 3–12 months, or for a term of three or five years. Males under 36 who have not previously served as contract servicemen and are registered in the reserve, can be enrolled in contractual military service as privates. Felons and those not fit for service are ineligible for contract service. Since 2008, sergeant training courses for contract servicemen have operated in the Armed Forces and since 2013, the duration of the courses has three months. The courses are open to reservist privates under the age of 25.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Military service in Armenia is obligatory. Citizens aged 27 to 50 are registered in the reserve and may be drafted if a national mobilization was declared. The enlistment process is handled by the military commissariats in January and May. Dual citizens are not be exempt from the draft. If one fails to follow through with their obligations, a criminal case is then instituted, which could lead to 3 years in jail.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following military commissariats operate in Armenia:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Yerevan", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 34352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Conscription and Mobilization Service", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " No.1 territorial subdivision", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " No.2 Territorial Subdivision", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " No.3 Territorial Subdivision", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " No.4 Territorial Subdivision", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ashtarak", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 1067111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aragatsotn Regional Subdivision", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Artashat", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 1325554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ararat Regional Subdivision", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Armavir", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 470500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Armavir Regional Subdivision", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Martuni", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 9097815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gegharkunik Regional Subdivision", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 470502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abovyan", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 6783033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kotayk Regional Subdivision", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 470504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vanadzor", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 2090978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lori Regional Subdivision", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 470506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gyumri", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 1529357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shirak Regional Subdivision", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 470511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Goris", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 3308803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Syunik Regional Subdivision", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 470515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ijevan", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 581506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tavush Regional Subdivision", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 470516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yeghegnadzor", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 581602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vayots Dzor Province Regional Subdivision", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 470518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The armed forces also sport the following volunteer units:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sisakan Regiment", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Erato Detachment", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 66158727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vanadzor Volunteer Detachment", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Homeland Detachment", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 64368189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ARF Battalion", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tigran the Great International Military Regiment", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 182966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the First Nagorno-Karabakh War in the early 90s, at least 115 Armenian women were known to have taken part in combat operations. Many women from the diaspora arrived to serve in non-combat missions. The first woman to have been given a significant position in the military was Zhanna Galstyan, who was appointed deputy commander of the Central District Defensive Unit after the formation of the Artsakh Defense Army.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 4020775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More than 2,000 women currently serve in the army, with most working in administrative positions or in liaison and medical units. In October 2016, a program, approved by the National Assembly, committed the military to \"creating additional opportunities\" for women serving in the army or seeking military service. Defense Minister Vigen Sargsyan at the time told the MPs that \"It would be wrong not to let them (women) reach their full potential.\" The Erato Detachment was the first all-women military unit in the Armenian Armed Forces, being created after of clashes between the Azerbaijani Army and Armenia occurred in July 2020. Anna Hakobyan, the wife of the current Prime Minister of Armenia, Nikol Pashinyan, underwent a week long combat readiness program with women from the Republic of Artsakh who joined the unit.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 4014302, 53667493, 66158727, 1088, 10918072, 57826515, 483914, 10918072, 17897961, 1000530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 191 ], [ 331, 345 ], [ 452, 468 ], [ 580, 596 ], [ 601, 608 ], [ 632, 645 ], [ 671, 685 ], [ 689, 696 ], [ 698, 713 ], [ 782, 801 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 2020 war, a group of Yazidi reservists formed a reserve military unit that joined the frontline in Karabakh. The unit was led by Rzgan Sarhangyan and is composed of 50 soldiers aged between 18 and 55.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 20557247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Armenian Army operates a wide variety of older equipment, mostly of Soviet origin. There is also some newer equipment from Russia. In 2015, a US$200m loan was ratified by Russia for the purchase of modern weapons between 2015 and 2017. Armenia produces its own combat helmets and body armors thought the works of a joint Armenian-Polish company. Some personal equipment used by special units (Future Assault Shell Technology helmets, plate carriers and special pouches) is imported. Armenia also produces most of its small arms, with only specialised units being imported.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 26779, 25391, 58294223, 10918072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 78 ], [ 127, 133 ], [ 397, 435 ], [ 487, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes, the Helsinki Citizens’ Assembly released a report, which detailed the circumstances of death of Armenian servicemen. Among the contributing factors were stated to be malfunctioning equipment and lack of necessary materiel, especially ammunition. This was followed by plans to increase Armenian defense spending to purchase more weapons and ammunition.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 50021902, 696878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 43 ], [ 49, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia is not a significant exporter of conventional weapons, but it has provided support, including material, to the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh during the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 387816, 4695860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 128 ], [ 160, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Russia is Armenia's closest ally. The Russian 102nd Military Base, the former 127th Motor Rifle Division, is stationed in Gyumri. The military alliance of the two nations and, in particular, the presence of Russian troops on Armenian soil has been a key element of Armenia's national security doctrine since Armenia gained independence in 1991. Russia stations an estimated 5,000 soldiers of all types in Armenia, including 3,000 officially reported to be based at the 102nd Military Base. In 1997, the two countries signed a far-reaching friendship treaty, which calls for mutual assistance in the event of a military threat to either party and allows Russian border guards to patrol Armenia's frontiers with Turkey and Iran. In early 2005, the 102nd Military Base had 74 tanks, 17 battle infantry vehicles, 148 armored personnel carriers, 84 artillery pieces, 18 MiG-29 fighters, one battery of SA-6 and two batteries of S-300 anti-aircraft missiles. However, in 2005–2007, following an agreement on the withdrawal of two Russian military bases from Georgia, a great deal of military hardware was moved to the 102nd Base from the Russian 12th Military Base in Batumi and the 62nd Military Base at Akhalkalaki, Georgia. Russia also supplies weapons at the relatively lower prices of the Russian domestic market as part of a collective security agreement since January 2004.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 7213041, 1529357, 30432, 6835176, 11125639, 14653, 185653, 1376694, 546105, 4527153, 44293, 1005686, 48768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 65 ], [ 122, 128 ], [ 553, 559 ], [ 656, 676 ], [ 713, 719 ], [ 724, 728 ], [ 868, 874 ], [ 900, 904 ], [ 926, 931 ], [ 1143, 1161 ], [ 1165, 1171 ], [ 1202, 1213 ], [ 1215, 1222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to unconfirmed reports by the Azeri media, Russia has supplied $1billion worth of arms and ammunitions to Armenia in 1996; and handed over an additional $800million worth of arms to Armenia in 2008–2009. According to AzerNews, the weapons in this latest transfer include 21 tanks, 12 armored vehicles, five other battle machines, a great number of rocket launchers, over 1,050 cases of grenades, nearly 7,900 types of ammunition, 120 grenade launchers, over 4,000 sub-machine guns, TNT fuses, mines of various types, 14 mine-launchers, 9 Grad launchers, five cannons, and other weapons.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Officer training is another sphere of Russian-Armenian military cooperation. In the first years of sovereignty when Armenia lacked a military educational establishment of its own, officers of its army were trained in Russia. Even now when Armenia has a military college on its own territory, the Armenian officer corps honors the tradition and is trained at Russian military educational establishments. In 1997, 600 Armenian servicemen were being trained at Russian Military Academies: the training was conducted by the Marshal Bagramyan Training Brigade.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 36301328, 1022936, 28791, 25391, 5689, 166674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 8, 16 ], [ 99, 110 ], [ 217, 223 ], [ 262, 269 ], [ 313, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the first meeting of the joint Russian-Armenian government panel for military-technical cooperation that took place during autumn 2005, Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov reported that, Russian factories will participate in the Armenian program of military modernization, and that Russia is prepared to supply the necessary spare parts and equipment. In accordance with this agreement, Armenia and Russia agreed to work together in exporting weapons and other military equipment to third countries in December 2009. The export agreement was signed by Defense Minister Seyran Ohanyan and a visiting senior Russian official, Konstantin Biryulin, during a meeting of a Russian-Armenian inter-governmental commission on bilateral military-technical cooperation. The agreement envisages the two countries' interaction in exporting military production to third countries, which will help to strengthen the armed forces of the two states, and further cement the already close Russian-Armenian military cooperation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 497533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Russian-Armenian defense agreement signed in August 2010 extends Russia's military presence in Armenia till 2044 and commits Russia to supplying Armenia with modern and compatible weaponry and special military hardware at reduced prices.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the beginning of 2009, Azerbaijani media published allegations that Russia had made extensive weapons transfers to Armenia throughout 2008 costing about $800million. On 12 January 2009, the Russian ambassador was invited to the Azerbaijani Ministry of Foreign Affairs and asked about this information. On 21 January 2009, Russian ministry of foreign relations officially denied the transfers. According to the materials published by WikiLeaks in December 2010, Azerbaijani defence minister Safar Abiyev claimed that in January 2009 during his visit to Moscow, his Russian counterpart Anatoly Serdyukov unofficially had admitted to weapons transfers \"after the second bottle of vodka\" that evening, although officially it was denied.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 11712667, 8877168, 12975707, 9523344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 270 ], [ 436, 445 ], [ 493, 505 ], [ 587, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2013 it was revealed that Russia has deployed in Armenia several Iskander-M ballistic missiles systems, which are stationed at undisclosed locations in the country.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 5607520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 7 October 2002, the Presidents of Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan, signed a charter in Tashkent, founding the Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO) (Russian: Организация Договора о Коллективной Безопасности (ОДКБ~ODKB)) or simply Ташкентский договор (The Tashkent Treaty). Nikolai Bordyuzha was appointed secretary general of the new organisation. On 23 June 2006, Uzbekistan became a full participant in the CSTO and its membership was formally ratified by its parliament on 28 March 2008. Furthermore, the CSTO is an observer organisation at the United Nations General Assembly.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 10918072, 3457, 16642, 170131, 25391, 30108, 57533, 2530445, 2530445, 8574602, 31853, 1595329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 44 ], [ 46, 53 ], [ 55, 65 ], [ 67, 77 ], [ 79, 85 ], [ 90, 100 ], [ 122, 130 ], [ 145, 184 ], [ 299, 314 ], [ 317, 334 ], [ 410, 420 ], [ 593, 624 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The charter reaffirmed the desire of all participating states to abstain from the use or threat of force. Signatories would not be able to join other military alliances or other groups of states, while aggression against one signatory would be perceived as an aggression against all. To this end, the CSTO holds yearly military command exercises for the CSTO nations to have an opportunity to improve inter-organisation cooperation. The largest-scale CSTO military exercise held, to date, were the \"Rubezh 2008\" exercises hosted in Armenia where a combined total of 4,000 troops from all 7 constituent CSTO member countries conducted operative, strategic, and tactical training with an emphasis towards furthering the efficiency of the collective security element of the CSTO partnership.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 10918072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 532, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ministry of Defense of Armenia has repeatedly stated that it would expect direct military assistance from the CSTO in case war with Azerbaijan resumes, as recently as December 2009, Defense Minister Ohanyan made the same statement. In August 2009, Nikolay Bordyuzha, the CSTO's secretary-general, confirmed that official Yerevan can count on such support.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 34352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 325, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 4 February 2009, an agreement to create the Collective Rapid Reaction Force (KSOR) was reached by five of the seven CSTO members, with plans finalized on 14 June 2009. Armenia is one of the five member states. The force is intended to be used to repulse military aggression, conduct anti-terrorist operations, fight transnational crime and drug trafficking, and neutralize the effects of natural disasters.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 83392, 6760775, 218449, 58921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 286, 300 ], [ 319, 338 ], [ 343, 359 ], [ 391, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace (PiP) program and it is in a NATO organization called Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC). Armenia is in the process of implementation of Individual Partnership Action Plans (IPAPs), which is a program for those countries that have the political will and ability to deepen their relationship with NATO. Cooperative Best Effort exercise (the first where Russia was represented) was run on Armenian territory in 2003.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 21133, 368530, 54022, 7877570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 28 ], [ 31, 52 ], [ 107, 140 ], [ 196, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Greece is Armenia's closest ally in NATO and the two cooperate on multiple issues. A number of Armenian officers are trained in Greece every year, and military aid/material assistance has been provided to Armenia. In 2003, the two countries signed a military cooperation accord, under which Greece will increase the number of Armenian servicemen trained at the military and military-medical academies in Athens.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 12108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2003, Armenia sent 34 peacekeepers to Kosovo where they became part of the Greek contingent. Officials in Yerevan have said the Armenian military plans to substantially increase the size of its peacekeeping detachment and counts on Greek assistance to the effort. In June 2008, Armenia sent 72 peacekeepers to Kosovo for a total of 106 peacekeepers.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 10918072, 17391, 12108, 34352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 25 ], [ 50, 56 ], [ 87, 92 ], [ 118, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lithuania has been sharing experience and providing consultations to the Armenian Defense Ministry in the field of democratic control of armed forces, military and defense concepts and public relations since 2002. Since 2004, Armenian officers have been invited to study at the Lithuanian War Academy and the Baltic Defence College in Tartu, Estonia. Lithuania covers all study expenditures. In early 2007, two Armenian officers for the first time took part in a Baltic lead international exercise, Amber Hope, which was held in Lithuania.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 17675, 17178741, 450323, 31627, 28222445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 278, 300 ], [ 309, 331 ], [ 335, 340 ], [ 342, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The United States has been steadily upping its military clout in the region. In early 2003, United States Department of Defense announced several major military programs in the Caucasus. Washington's military aid to Armenia in 2005 amounted to $5million, and in April 2004, the two sides signed a military-technical cooperation accord. In late 2004, Armenia deployed a unit of 46 soldiers, which included bomb-disposal experts, doctors, and transport specialists, to Iraq as part of the American-led Multi-National Force Iraq. In 2005, the United States allocated $7million to modernize the military communications of the Armenian Armed Forces.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 3434750, 7279897, 39282, 195149, 23315, 5215751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 92, 127 ], [ 177, 185 ], [ 187, 199 ], [ 428, 434 ], [ 500, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 2003, Armenia and the Kansas National Guard have exchanged military delegations as part of a National Guard Bureau program to promote better relations between the United States and developing nations. The program has largely consisted of mutual visits to each other's countries in an effort to share \"ideas and [the] best practices for military and emergency management.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "International military cooperation", "target_page_ids": [ 4556428, 1429367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 49 ], [ 99, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2022, Armenia is involved in peacekeeping operations in Kosovo, Afghanistan, Lebanon, Mali and Kazakhstan", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Peacekeeping operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are 70 Armenian soldiers serving in Kosovo as peacekeepers.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Peacekeeping operations", "target_page_ids": [ 17391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia joined the Kosovo Force in Kosovo in 2004. Armenian \"blue helmets\" serve within the Greek Army battalion. The relevant memorandum was signed on 3 September 2003, in Yerevan and ratified by the Armenian Parliament on 13 December 2003. The sixth deployment of Armenian peacekeepers departed for Kosovo on 14 November 2006. In 2008, the Armenian National Assembly voted unanimously to double the peacekeeping force in Kosovo by sending an extra 34 peacekeepers to the region, increasing the total number of peacekeepers in the region to 68.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Peacekeeping operations", "target_page_ids": [ 533197, 425895, 34352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 31 ], [ 92, 102 ], [ 173, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia temporarily withdrew its peacekeepers from Kosovo in February 2012 as a result of the reduction of the Greek sundivisions. Armenia redeployed them in July to serve alongside American soldiers in Kosovo.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Peacekeeping operations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the end of the invasion of Iraq, Armenia deployed a unit of 46 peacekeepers under Polish command. Armenian peacekeepers were based in Al-Kut, from the capital of Baghdad. On 23 July 2006, the fourth shift of Armenian peacekeepers departed for Iraq. The shift included 3 staff commanders, 2 medical officers, 10 combat engineers and 31 drivers. Throughout the length of the deployment, there was one Armenian wounded and no deaths. The Armenian government extended the small troop presence in Iraq by one year at the end of 2005 and 2006. On 7 October 2008, Armenia withdrew its contingent of 46 peacekeepers. This coincided with the withdrawal of the Polish contingent in Iraq.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Peacekeeping operations", "target_page_ids": [ 201936, 22936, 202778, 4492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 37 ], [ 88, 94 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 169, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia deployed 130 soldiers in Afghanistan as part of the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). They were serving under German command protecting an airport in Kunduz. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Peacekeeping operations", "target_page_ids": [ 737, 11867, 37575, 221211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 44 ], [ 141, 147 ], [ 170, 177 ], [ 181, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, Armenia deployed 33 peacekeepers to Lebanon as part of UNIFIL. They currently serve under the Italian contingent and fulfill headquarter security functions.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Peacekeeping operations", "target_page_ids": [ 17771, 787766, 1392092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 52 ], [ 64, 70 ], [ 103, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, one peacekeeper was dispatched to Mali on a monitoring-peacekeeping mission.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Peacekeeping operations", "target_page_ids": [ 19127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2022, Armenia sent around 100 servicemen to Kazakhstan as part of the Collective Security Treaty Organization peacekeeping forces. Nikol Pashinyan, who serves as the CSTO chairman, confirmed that the alliance will send ‘peacekeepers’ to Kazakhstan for a limited period given the threat to national security and the sovereignty of Kazakhstan, due to the 2022 Kazakh protests.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Peacekeeping operations", "target_page_ids": [ 2530445, 17897961, 2530445, 69671185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 112 ], [ 134, 149 ], [ 169, 173 ], [ 356, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Armenian Ministry of Defense", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Military_of_Armenia" ]

[ "armed forces of Armenia", "military of Armenia", "mil Armenia", "Armed Forces of the Republic of Armenia" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Since its independence, Armenia has maintained a policy of complementarism by trying to have positive and friendly relations with Iran, Russia, and the West, including the United States and the European Union. It has full membership status in a number of international organizations and observer status, etc. in some others. However, the dispute over the Armenian genocide of 1915 and the ongoing Nagorno-Karabakh conflict have created tense relations with two of its immediate neighbors, Azerbaijan and Turkey.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10918072, 21208200, 9317, 140376, 4695860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 31 ], [ 148, 156 ], [ 194, 208 ], [ 355, 372 ], [ 397, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ministry of Foreign Affairs implements the foreign policy agenda of the Government of Armenia and organizes and manages diplomatic services abroad. Since August 2021, Ararat Mirzoyan serves as the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Armenia.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18387270, 233404, 67350, 57310301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 47, 61 ], [ 76, 97 ], [ 171, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia is a member of more than 70 different international organizations, including the following:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Asian Development Bank\t", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 2512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Commonwealth of Independent States and the Collective Security Treaty Organization", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 36870, 2530445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ], [ 44, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Council of Europe ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 5865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The EU's Eastern Partnership and the Euronest Parliamentary Assembly ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 9317, 17578576, 24688561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 7 ], [ 10, 29 ], [ 38, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The UN's Eastern European Group", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 26106628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eurocontrol", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1894380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " European Bank for Reconstruction and Development", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 37963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eurasian Union\t", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 27290106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eurasian Development Bank and the Eurasian Customs Union\t", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 24616325, 27927947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 35, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Federation of Euro-Asian Stock Exchanges\t", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 7014924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " International Bank for Reconstruction and Development", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 36751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " International Monetary Fund", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 15251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Interpol", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 14338129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " La Francophonie\t", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 93941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NATO's Partnership for Peace, Individual Partnership Action Plan and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 21133, 368530, 7877570, 54022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 8, 29 ], [ 31, 65 ], [ 74, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 22796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation\t", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1373429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " United Nations\t\t", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 31769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " TRACECA", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 9215849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " World Trade Organization, the World Bank and the World Customs Organization\t", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 33873, 45358446, 140594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 31, 41 ], [ 50, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia is also an observer member of the Community of Democratic Choice, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organization of American States, the Pacific Alliance, the Arab League, the Community of Democracies, a dialogue partner in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, and a regional member of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Foreign relations", "target_page_ids": [ 4356669, 68702564, 22788, 36066637, 52625, 4969042, 152422, 43140311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 72 ], [ 78, 98 ], [ 104, 135 ], [ 141, 157 ], [ 163, 174 ], [ 180, 204 ], [ 232, 265 ], [ 296, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2022, 33 states have officially recognized the historical events as genocide. Parliaments of countries that recognize the Armenian genocide include Argentina, Armenia, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, Cyprus, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Lebanon, Libya, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Paraguay, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, United States, Uruguay, Vatican City and Venezuela. Additionally, some regional governments of countries recognize the Armenian genocide too, such as New South Wales and South Australia in Australia as well as Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales in the United Kingdom. US House Resolution 106 was introduced on 30 January 2007, and later referred to the House Committee on Foreign Affairs. The bill has 225 co-sponsors. The bill called for former President George W. Bush to recognize and use the word genocide in his annual 24 April speech which he never used. His successor President Barack Obama expressed his desire to recognize the Armenian genocide during the electoral campaigns, but after being elected, did not use the word \"genocide\" to describe the events that occurred in 1915. The US House of Representatives formally recognized the Armenian genocide with House Resolution 296 on 29 October 2019. The United States Senate unanimously recognized the genocide with Senate Resolution 150 on 12 December 2019. In 2021, President Joe Biden became the first U.S. president to formally recognize the Armenian genocide. As of 2022, all 50 U.S. states have also recognized the events as genocide.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Armenian genocide recognition", "target_page_ids": [ 21654, 26716, 13762789, 3414021, 534366, 19468510, 24909346, 145422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 578, 593 ], [ 598, 613 ], [ 698, 721 ], [ 886, 900 ], [ 1015, 1027 ], [ 1226, 1250 ], [ 1343, 1363 ], [ 1467, 1476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia provides political, material and military support to the Republic of Artsakh in the longstanding Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 1000530, 4695860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 84 ], [ 105, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh began in 1988 when Armenian demonstrations against Azerbaijani rule broke out in Nagorno–Karabakh and later in Armenia. The Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast voted to secede from Azerbaijan and join Armenia. Soon, violence broke out against Armenians in Azerbaijan and Azeris in Armenia. In 1990, after violent episodes in Nagorno–Karabakh and Azerbaijani cities like Baku, Sumgait and Kirovabad, Moscow declared a state of emergency in Karabakh, sending troops to the region, and forcibly occupied Baku, killing over a hundred civilians. In April 1991, Azerbaijani militia and Soviet forces targeted Armenian populations in Karabakh, known as Operation Ring. Moscow also deployed troops to Yerevan. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, conflict escalated into a full-scale war between the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (supported by Armenia), and Azerbaijan. Military action was influenced by the Russian military, which manipulated the rivalry between the two neighbouring sides in order to keep both under control.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 65220, 39074677, 5605323, 4566, 710842, 661551, 1322733, 7118299, 34352, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 42 ], [ 71, 85 ], [ 167, 201 ], [ 412, 416 ], [ 418, 425 ], [ 430, 439 ], [ 525, 547 ], [ 688, 702 ], [ 735, 742 ], [ 774, 786 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More than 30,000 people were killed in the fighting during the period of 1988 to 1994. In May 1992, Armenian forces seized Shusha and Lachin (thereby linking Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia). By October 1993, Armenian forces succeeded in taking almost all of former NKAO, Lachin and large areas in southwestern Azerbaijan. In 1993, the UN Security Council adopted four resolutions calling for the cessation of hostilities, unimpeded access for international humanitarian relief efforts, and the eventual deployment of a peacekeeping force in the region. Fighting continued, however, until May 1994 at which time Russia brokered a cease-fire between the three sides.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 1492790, 7116696, 31956, 15691392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 129 ], [ 134, 140 ], [ 332, 351 ], [ 360, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Negotiations to resolve the conflict peacefully have been ongoing since 1992 under the Minsk Group of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. The Minsk Group is co-chaired by Russia, France, and the United States and has representation from Turkey, the U.S., several European nations, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Despite the 1994 cease-fire, sporadic violations, sniper-fire and land mine incidents continue to claim over 100 lives each year.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 4237609, 22796, 28123, 18172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 98 ], [ 106, 158 ], [ 377, 383 ], [ 393, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1997, the Minsk Group co-chairs have presented three proposals to serve as a framework for resolving the conflict. Each proposal was rejected. Beginning in 1999, the presidents of Azerbaijan and Armenia initiated a direct dialogue through a series of face-to-face meetings, often facilitated by the Minsk Group Co-Chairs. The OSCE sponsored a round of negotiations between the presidents in Key West, Florida. U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell launched the talks on 3 April 2001, and the negotiations continued with mediation by the U.S., Russia and France until 6 April 2001. The Co-Chairs are still continuing to work with the two presidents in the hope of finding lasting peace.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 109495, 6984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 397, 405 ], [ 440, 452 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The two countries are still at war. Citizens of Armenia, as well as citizens of any other country who are of Armenian descent, are forbidden entry to Azerbaijan. If a person's passport shows evidence of travel to Nagorno–Karabakh, they are forbidden entry to Azerbaijan.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 214413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2008, in what became known as the 2008 Mardakert Skirmishes, Armenian forces and Azerbaijan clashed over Nagorno-Karabakh. The fighting between the sides was brief, with few casualties on either side.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 16101018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war was the latest escalation of the unresolved conflict.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Disputes", "target_page_ids": [ 65431221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia does not have diplomatic relations with the following countries (organized by continent):", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Countries without diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Botswana, Lesotho, São Tomé and Príncipe, South Sudan", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Countries without diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 3464, 17781, 20026306, 32350676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 18 ], [ 20, 41 ], [ 43, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Countries without diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 3455, 3565457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Azerbaijan, Pakistan (Pakistan is the only country in the world that does not recognize Armenia), Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Yemen", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Countries without diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 746, 23235, 349303, 11125639, 350939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 13, 21 ], [ 99, 111 ], [ 113, 119 ], [ 121, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hungary (suspended by Armenia since 31 August 2012 due to Ramil Safarov's extradition to Azerbaijan) ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Countries without diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 13275, 523182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 59, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marshall Islands, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Countries without diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 19147, 22943, 27238, 265083, 30158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 19, 35 ], [ 37, 42 ], [ 44, 59 ], [ 61, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia also has no diplomatic relations with states with limited recognition except for the Republic of Artsakh.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Countries without diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 523670, 1000530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 77 ], [ 93, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia has diplomatic relations with 178 separate entities (including the African Union, Arab League, European Union, the Order of Malta, and Vatican City). These include: Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Andorra, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belarus, Belgium, Belize, Benin, Bhutan, Bolivia, Brazil, Brunei Darussalam, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Canada, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Chile, the People's Republic of China, Colombia, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Croatia, Cuba, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, DR Congo, East Timor, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Estonia, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Fiji, Finland, France, Gabon, The Gambia, Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Grenada, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Holy See (Vatican City), Honduras, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kiribati, North Korea, South Korea, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Latvia, Lebanon, Liberia, Libya, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali, Malta, Mauritania, Mexico, Micronesia, Moldova, Monaco, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Nauru, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, North Macedonia, Norway, Oman, Palau, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Russia, Rwanda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, San Marino, Senegal, Serbia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Somalia, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uganda, Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Uruguay, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Zambia and Zimbabwe.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Countries with diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [ 76835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notes on some of these relations follow (organized by continent):", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Countries with diplomatic relations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Armenia is additionally a full member, unless otherwise noted, in the following international organizations, programs and treaties:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other international organizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Armenia and the United Nations", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 48844370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Armenia in the Council of Europe", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 69941378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Armenia–NATO relations", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 70279025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Armenian diaspora", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 214413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Euronest Parliamentary Assembly", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24688561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Foreign relations of Artsakh", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5893372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Largest Armenian diaspora communities", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34428193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of ambassadors of Armenia", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 49086364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of diplomatic missions in Armenia", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12059269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of diplomatic missions of Armenia", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10132448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Ministers of Foreign Affairs of Armenia", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 48677544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Politics of Europe", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1286372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Visa policy of Armenia", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24721886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Visa requirements for Armenian citizens", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25978492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Argentina", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of Treaties ruling the relations Argentina and Armenia (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Canada", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Armenian embassy in Ottawa", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Canadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Trade about relations with Armenian", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chile", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chilean Senate: recognition of the Armenian genocide (in Spanish only) ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Czech", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Armenian embassy in London", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about relations with Armenia *British embassy in Yerevan", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Denmark", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Danish Foreign Ministry: development program with Armenia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NATO", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Iskandaryan, Alexander:\"NATO and Armenia: A Long Game of Complementarism\" in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 5", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "International", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Khachatrian, Haroutiun: \"Foreign Investments in Armenia: Influence of the Crisis and Other Peculiarities\" in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 28", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Foreign_relations_of_Armenia" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "This article is about the demographics of American Samoa, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. American Samoa is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the South Pacific Ocean.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 128608, 105004, 20611195, 509785, 23070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 86 ], [ 88, 97 ], [ 217, 231 ], [ 238, 283 ], [ 299, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Births and deaths ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Vital statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The statistics from 1900 to 1950 and every decennial census are from the U.S. Census Bureau. There was no census taken in 1910, but a special census taken in 1912. Beginning with the 1930 Census, Swain Island is included in the population count for American Samoa. The remaining statistics are from the World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 1683516, 5163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 208 ], [ 303, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Approximately 55,212, but the Factbook states 49,437 (2020 estimate). About 65% of the population are U.S. nationals, of whom at least 10% are U.S. citizens. Of the foreign-born population, 81% are from Samoa, 9% are from other parts of Oceania, and 9% are from Asia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 27238, 22621, 689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 208 ], [ 237, 244 ], [ 262, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "0–14 years: 27.76% (male 7,063/female 6,662)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "15–24 years: 18.16% (male 4,521/female 4,458)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "25–54 years: 37.49% (male 9,164/female 9,370)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "55–64 years: 9.69% (male 2,341/female 2,447)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "65 years and over: 6.9% (male 1,580/female 1,831) (2020 est.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "total: 27.2 years", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "male: 26.7 years", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "female: 27.7 years (2020 est.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "-2.1% (2021 est.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "17.19 births/1,000 population (2021 est.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "6 deaths/1,000 population (2021 est.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "-32.18 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2021 est.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Urban population: 87.2% of total population (2020)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rate of urbanization: 0.07% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At birth: 1.06 male(s)/female", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "0–14 years: 1.06 male(s)/female", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "15–24 years: 1.01 male(s)/female", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "25–54 years: 0.98 male(s)/female", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "55–64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "65 years and over: 0.86 male(s)/female", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Total population: 1 male(s)/female (2020 est.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Total: 10.25 deaths/1,000 live births", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Male: 12.39 deaths/1,000 live births", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Female: 8 deaths/1,000 live births (2021 est.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Total population: 75.06 years", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Male: 72.55 years", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Female: 77.72 years (2021 est.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2.28 children born/woman (2021 est.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Noun: American Samoan(s) (US Nationals)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Adjective: American Samoan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pacific Islander 92.6% (includes Samoan 88.9%, Tongan 2.9%, other 0.8%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 247332, 1407551, 30161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 33, 39 ], [ 47, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Asian 3.6% (includes Filipino 2.2%, other 1.4%)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 18855594, 2298105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 21, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mixed 2.7%", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other 1.2% (2010 est.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Christian 98.3%", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 5211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other 1%", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Unaffiliated 0.7% (2010 est.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Major Christian denominations on the island include the Congregational Christian Church in American Samoa, the Catholic Church, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Methodist Church of Samoa. Collectively, these churches account for the vast majority of the population. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 342411, 39001042, 606848, 5935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 28 ], [ 56, 105 ], [ 111, 126 ], [ 132, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "J. Gordon Elton in his book claims that the Methodists, Congregationalists with the London Missionary Society, and Catholics led the first Christian missions to the islands. Other denominations arrived later, beginning in 1895 with the Seventh-day Adventists, various Pentecostals (including the Assemblies of God), Church of the Nazarene, Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 827204, 20119, 251986, 2466386, 28632, 23555, 382257, 261726, 52547, 5935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 44, 54 ], [ 56, 74 ], [ 84, 109 ], [ 236, 258 ], [ 268, 280 ], [ 296, 313 ], [ 316, 338 ], [ 340, 359 ], [ 369, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The World Factbook 2010 estimate shows the religious affiliations of American Samoa as 98.3% Christian, other 1%, unaffiliated 0.7%. World Christian Database 2010 estimate shows the religious affiliations of American Samoa as 98.3% Christian, 0.7% agnostic, 0.4% Chinese Universalist, 0.3% Buddhist and 0.3% Baháʼí.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 18337522, 894, 1491156, 3267529, 4251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 102 ], [ 248, 256 ], [ 263, 283 ], [ 290, 298 ], [ 308, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Pew Research Center, 98.3% of the total population is Christian. Among Christians, 59.5% are Protestant, 19.7% are Catholic and 19.2% are other Christians. A major Protestant church on the island, gathering a substantial part of the local Protestant population, is the Congregational Christian Church in American Samoa, a Reformed denomination in the Congregationalist tradition. , The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints website claims membership of 16,180 or one-quarter of the whole population, with 41 congregations, and 4 family history centers in American Samoa. The Jehovah's Witnesses claim 210 \"ministers of the word\" and 3 congregations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 3091083, 25814008, 211143, 39001042, 6024, 251986, 5935, 52547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 32 ], [ 106, 116 ], [ 151, 167 ], [ 282, 331 ], [ 335, 343 ], [ 364, 391 ], [ 395, 442 ], [ 594, 613 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Samoan 88.6% ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 341858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "English 3.9%,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tongan 2.7%, ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 371446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other Pacific islander 3%", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other 1.8% (2010 est.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Demographics_of_American_Samoa", "Economy_of_American_Samoa", "Geography_of_American_Samoa", "Society_of_American_Samoa", "Demographics_of_insular_areas_of_the_United_States" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Politics of American Samoa takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic dependency, whereby the Governor is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. American Samoa is an unincorporated and unorganized territory of the United States, administered by the Office of Insular Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior. Its constitution was ratified 1966 and came into effect 1967. Executive power is discharged by the governor and the lieutenant governor. Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the legislature. The party system is based on the United States party system. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 206578, 52318, 214529, 252790, 233475, 20611195, 509785, 3434750, 706076, 70904, 10263, 44421, 59564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 71 ], [ 72, 97 ], [ 98, 108 ], [ 122, 130 ], [ 177, 195 ], [ 197, 211 ], [ 237, 258 ], [ 266, 279 ], [ 301, 326 ], [ 328, 359 ], [ 423, 438 ], [ 498, 515 ], [ 631, 640 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is also the traditional village politics of the Samoa Islands, the ‘faʻamatai’ and the ‘faʻasamoa’, which continues in American Samoa and in independent Samoa, and which interacts across these current boundaries. The Fa'asamoa is the language and customs, and the Fa'amatai the protocols of the \"fono\" (council) and the chiefly system. The Fa'amatai and the Fono take place at all levels of the Samoan body politic, from the family, to the village, to the region, to national matters. The \"matai\" (chiefs) are elected by consensus within the fono of the extended family and village(s) concerned. The matai and the fono (which is itself made of matai) decide on distribution of family exchanges and tenancy of communal lands. The majority of lands in American Samoa and independent Samoa are communal. A matai can represent a small family group or a great extended family that reaches across islands, and to both American Samoa and independent Samoa.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18761261, 1343603, 4493493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 83 ], [ 94, 103 ], [ 302, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The government of American Samoa is defined under the Constitution of American Samoa. As an unincorporated territory, the Ratification Act of 1929 vested all civil, judicial, and military powers in the President, who in turn delegated authority to the Secretary of the Interior in . The Secretary promulgated the Constitution of American Samoa which was approved by a Constitutional Convention of the people of American Samoa and a majority of the voters of American Samoa voting at the 1966 election, and came into effect in 1967.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 17991381, 9682469, 509785, 34007056, 44004, 9682469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 32 ], [ 54, 84 ], [ 92, 116 ], [ 122, 146 ], [ 252, 277 ], [ 313, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Governor of American Samoa is the head of government and along with the lieutenant governor of American Samoa is elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 252790, 19191787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 30 ], [ 76, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The legislative power is vested in the American Samoa Fono, which has two chambers. The House of Representatives has 21 members serving two-year terms, being 20 representatives popularly elected from various districts and one non-voting delegate from Swains Island elected in a public meeting. The Senate has 18 members, elected for four-year terms by and from the chiefs of the islands.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 4504211, 204299, 4504216, 1683516, 4504225, 18761261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 58 ], [ 70, 82 ], [ 88, 112 ], [ 251, 264 ], [ 298, 304 ], [ 365, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The judiciary of American Samoa is composed of the High Court of American Samoa, a District Court, and village courts. The High Court is led by a Chief Justice and an Associate Justice, appointed by the Secretary of the Interior. Other judges are appointed by the governor upon the recommendation of the Chief Justice and confirmed by the Senate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 36441771, 9723041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 51, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ESCAP (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, SPC", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "International organization participation", "target_page_ids": [ 998194, 14338129, 15147, 260843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 19, 27 ], [ 41, 44 ], [ 46, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Political party strength in American Samoa", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17997726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American Samoa's at-large congressional district", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4738483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 48 ] ] } ]

[ "Politics_of_American_Samoa" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The economy of American Samoa is a traditional Polynesian economy in which more than 90% of the land is communally owned. Economic activity is strongly linked to the United States, with which American Samoa conducts the great bulk of its foreign trade. Tuna fishing and processing plants are the backbone of the private sector, with canned tuna being the primary export. Transfers from the U.S. federal government add substantially to American Samoa's economic well-being. Attempts by the government to develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by Samoa's remote location, its limited transportation, and its devastating hurricanes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20611385, 20611195, 14567, 46211, 1028691, 11967708, 195149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 56 ], [ 192, 206 ], [ 238, 251 ], [ 253, 257 ], [ 258, 265 ], [ 270, 280 ], [ 390, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GDP: purchasing power parity – $537 million (2007 est.)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 12594, 64489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ], [ 5, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 210", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "GDP (official exchange rate): $462.2 million (2005)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "GDP – real growth rate: 3% (2003)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 139", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "GDP – per capita: purchasing power parity – $7,874 (2008)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 120", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "GDP – composition by sector:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "agriculture:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NA%", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "industry:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NA%", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "services:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NA% (2002)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Labor Force: 17,630 (2005)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 203", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Labor force – by occupation: government 33%, tuna canneries 34%, other 33% (1990)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Unemployment rate: 23.8% (2010)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 175", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Population below poverty line:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NA% (2002 est.)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Household income or consumption by percentage share:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "lowest 10%:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NA%", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "highest 10%:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NA%", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Inflation rate (consumer prices):", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NA% (2003 est.)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Budget:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "revenues: $155.4 million (37% in local revenue and 63% in US grants)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "expenditures: $183.6 million (FY07)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Agriculture – products: bananas, coconuts, vegetables, taro, breadfruit, yams, copra, pineapples, papayas; dairy products, livestock", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Industries: tuna canneries (largely dependent on foreign fishing vessels), handicrafts", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Industrial production growth rate: NA%", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Electricity – production: 180 GWh (2006)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 179", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Electricity – production by source:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "fossil fuel:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "100%", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "hydro:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "0%", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "nuclear:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "0%", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "other:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "0% (2001)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Electricity – consumption: 167.4 GWh (2006)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country 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}, { "plaintext": "Oil – exports: (2005)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 142", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Oil – imports: (2005)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 166", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Natural gas – production: 0 cu m (2007)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 208", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Natural gas – consumption: 0 cu m (2007)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 207", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Natural gas – exports: 0 cu m (2007)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 202", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Natural gas – imports: 0 cu m (2007)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 201", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Natural gas – proved reserves: 0 cu m (2006)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 205", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Exports: $445.6 million (2004)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 167", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Exports – commodities:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "canned tuna 93% (2004)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Exports – partners:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Indonesia 70%, Australia 6.7%, Japan 6.7%, Samoa 6.7% (2002)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 14579, 27238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 43, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Imports: $308.8 million (2004)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "country comparison to the world: 195", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Imports – commodities:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "materials for canneries 56%, food 8%, petroleum products 7%, machinery and parts 6% (2004)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Imports – partners:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Australia 36.6%, New Zealand 20.3%, South Korea 16.3%, Mauritius 4.9% (2002)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 27019, 19201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 47 ], [ 55, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Debt – external:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "$NA (2002 est.)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Economic aid – recipient:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "$NA; note – important financial support from the US, more than $40 million in 1994", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Currency:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "US dollar (USD)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Currency code:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "USD", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Exchange rates:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "US dollar is used", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fiscal year:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1 October – 30 September", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Economy_of_American_Samoa" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "29 BC Octavian holds the first of three consecutive triumphs in Rome to celebrate the victory over the Dalmatian tribes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 59285, 1273, 38012, 521555, 2426478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 7, 15 ], [ 53, 61 ], [ 65, 69 ], [ 104, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 523 John I becomes the new Pope after the death of Pope Hormisdas.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35692, 63012, 23056, 63010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 12 ], [ 29, 33 ], [ 53, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 554 Emperor Justinian I rewards Liberius for his service in the Pragmatic Sanction, granting him extensive estates in Italy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35710, 16209, 11712293, 353654, 757840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 14, 25 ], [ 34, 42 ], [ 66, 84 ], [ 109, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 582 Maurice becomes Emperor of the Byzantine Empire.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 57071, 64683, 219117, 16972981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ], [ 22, 29 ], [ 37, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 900 Count Reginar I of Hainault rises against Zwentibold of Lotharingia and slays him near present-day Susteren.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 42382, 11769675, 750722, 183853, 118551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 12, 33 ], [ 48, 58 ], [ 62, 73 ], [ 105, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1099 Raniero is elected as Pope Paschal II, who would become deeply entangled in the Investiture Controversy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35159, 45340, 235106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 28, 43 ], [ 86, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1516 The Treaty of Noyon between France and Spain is signed. Francis I of France recognizes Charles's claim to Naples, and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, recognizes Francis's claim to Milan.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 38692, 892876, 50012, 55880, 70716, 36511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 62, 81 ], [ 112, 118 ], [ 124, 153 ], [ 185, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1521 After an extended siege, forces led by Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés capture Tlatoani Cuauhtémoc and conquer the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35225, 1890743, 303159, 14013, 1475346, 7478, 53198, 29988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 12, 29 ], [ 53, 65 ], [ 66, 79 ], [ 88, 96 ], [ 97, 107 ], [ 124, 129 ], [ 141, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1532 Union of Brittany and France: The Duchy of Brittany is absorbed into the Kingdom of France.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 38682, 21176841, 286865, 2687967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 34 ], [ 40, 57 ], [ 79, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1536 Buddhist monks from Kyoto, Japan's Enryaku-ji temple set fire to 21 Nichiren temples throughout Kyoto in what will be known as the Tenbun Hokke Disturbance. (Traditional Japanese date: Twenty-seventh day of the seventh month of the fifth year of the Tenbun (天文) era).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36117, 37652, 384114, 22137, 174995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 26, 31 ], [ 41, 51 ], [ 74, 82 ], [ 176, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1553 Michael Servetus is arrested by John Calvin in Geneva, Switzerland as a heretic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 38667, 191400, 15930, 12521, 9425435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 38, 49 ], [ 53, 59 ], [ 78, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1624 The French king Louis XIII appoints Cardinal Richelieu as prime minister.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34585, 77062, 85254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 22, 32 ], [ 42, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1645 Sweden and Denmark sign Peace of Brömsebro.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 38607, 408067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 30, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1650 Colonel George Monck of the English Army forms Monck's Regiment of Foot, which will later become the Coldstream Guards.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34974, 185176, 13788043, 205360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 14, 26 ], [ 34, 46 ], [ 107, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1704 War of the Spanish Succession: Battle of Blenheim: English and Imperial forces are victorious over French and Bavarian troops.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 38640, 33604, 4049, 407950, 13277, 2687967, 8984250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 35 ], [ 37, 55 ], [ 57, 64 ], [ 69, 77 ], [ 105, 111 ], [ 116, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1779 American Revolutionary War: The Royal Navy defeats the Penobscot Expedition with the most significant loss of United States naval forces prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35738, 771, 26061, 977501, 60098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 32 ], [ 38, 48 ], [ 61, 81 ], [ 156, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1792 King Louis XVI of France is formally arrested by the National Tribunal, and declared an enemy of the people.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34914, 51271, 523179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 11, 30 ], [ 94, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1806 Battle of Mišar during the Serbian Revolution begins. The battle ends two days later with a Serbian victory over the Ottomans.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34978, 17867215, 16511284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 33, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1814 The Convention of London, a treaty between the United Kingdom and the United Netherlands, is signed in London, England.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34948, 181234, 41031286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 30 ], [ 76, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1868 The 8.5–9.0 Arica earthquake struck southern Peru with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme), causing 25,000+ deaths and a destructive basin wide tsunami that affected Hawaii and New Zealand.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34788, 26372127, 170691, 20663, 31161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 19, 35 ], [ 52, 56 ], [ 72, 90 ], [ 160, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1889 William Gray of Hartford, Connecticut is granted United States Patent Number 408,709 for \"Coin-controlled apparatus for telephones.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34711, 53678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 22, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1898 Spanish–American War: Spanish and American forces engage in a mock battle for Manila, after which the Spanish commander surrendered in order to keep the city out of Filipino rebel hands.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34791, 28265, 1507822, 184334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 68, 79 ], [ 84, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1898 Carl Gustav Witt discovers 433 Eros, the first near-Earth asteroid to be found.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 617687, 37526, 21626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ], [ 37, 45 ], [ 57, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1900 The steamer Deutschland of Hamburg America Lines set a new record for the eastward passage when it docked on Plymouth, England, five days, 11 hours and 45 minutes after sailing from New York, breaking by three hours, six minutes its previous mark in its maiden voyage in July.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34653, 4796566, 1906375, 23508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 18, 29 ], [ 33, 53 ], [ 115, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1905 Norwegians vote to end the union with Sweden.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34637, 3786401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 17, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1906 The all black infantrymen of the U.S. Army's 25th Infantry Regiment are accused of killing a white bartender and wounding a white police officer in Brownsville, Texas, despite exculpatory evidence; all are later dishonorably discharged. (Their records were later restored to reflect honorable discharges but there were no financial settlements.)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34650, 6263464, 4706969, 135600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 51, 73 ], [ 74, 85 ], [ 154, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1913 First production in the UK of stainless steel by Harry Brearley.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34617, 27059, 1680165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 36, 51 ], [ 55, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1918 Women enlist in the United States Marine Corps for the first time. Opha May Johnson is the first woman to enlist.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34594, 17349325, 1673716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 26, 52 ], [ 73, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1918 Bayerische Motoren Werke AG (BMW) established as a public company in Germany.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 3772, 12708734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 42 ], [ 44, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1920 Polish–Soviet War: The Battle of Warsaw begins and will last till August 25. 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von Brühl, Polish-German politician (d. 1763)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38642, 586017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1717 Louis François, Prince of Conti (d. 1776)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38629, 658315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1756 James Gillray, English caricaturist and printmaker (d.1815)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34589, 279657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1764 Louis Baraguey d'Hilliers, French general (d. 1813)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34720, 3481945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1790 William Wentworth, Australian journalist, explorer, and politician (d. 1872)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34916, 297951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { 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(d. 1945)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34667, 5194932, 19553302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 53, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1867 George Luks, American painter and illustrator (d. 1933)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34787, 756037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1872 Richard Willstätter, German-Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize Laureate (d. 1942)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34768, 7577160, 25416893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ], [ 62, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1879 John Ireland, English composer and educator (d. 1962)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34968, 256733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1884 Harry Dean, English cricketer and coach (d. 1957)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34844, 2921817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1888 John Logie Baird, Scottish engineer, invented the television (d. 1946)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34712, 39570, 3636075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 56, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1888 Gleb W. Derujinsky, Russian-American sculptor (d. 1975)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6039819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1889 Camillien Houde, Canadian lawyer and politician, 34th Mayor of Montreal (d. 1958)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34711, 517013, 663598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 60, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1895 István Barta, Hungarian water polo player (d. 1948)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34679, 12814479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1895 Bert Lahr, American actor (d. 1967)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 412193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1898 Jean Borotra, French tennis player (d. 1994)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34791, 775562 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1898 Regis Toomey, American actor (d. 1991)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2875499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1899 Alfred Hitchcock, English-American director and producer (d. 1980)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34790, 808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1899 José Ramón Guizado, Panamanian politician, 17th President of Panama (d. 1964)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2167970, 489614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ], [ 58, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1902 Felix Wankel, German engineer (d. 1988)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34652, 11358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1904 Buddy Rogers, American actor and musician (d. 1999)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34651, 1555606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1904 Margaret Tafoya, Native American Pueblo potter (d. 2001)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7953722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1906 Chuck Carroll, American football player and lawyer (d. 2003)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34650, 1981099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1906 Art Shires, American baseball player and boxer (d. 1967)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 30133875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1907 Basil Spence, Scottish architect, designed Coventry Cathedral (d. 1976)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34649, 417761, 204088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 49, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1908 Gene Raymond, American actor and pilot (d. 1998)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34600, 3645445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1911 William Bernbach, American advertiser, co-founded DDB Worldwide (d. 1982)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34605, 3140750, 929882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 56, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1912 Claire Cribbs, American basketball player and coach (d. 1985)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34616, 29216413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1912 Ben Hogan, American golfer and sportscaster (d. 1997)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 262383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1912 Salvador Luria, Italian-American microbiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 256313, 52502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 72, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1913 Makarios III, Greek archbishop and politician, 1st President of Cyprus (d. 1977)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34617, 358396, 1671074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 57, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1913 Fred Davis, English snooker player (d. 1998)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11516049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1914 Grace Bates, American mathematician and academic (d. 1996)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283920, 40802690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1917 Sid Gordon, American baseball player (d. 1975)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34595, 2763306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1918 Noor Hassanali, Trinidadian lawyer and politician, 2nd President of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2006)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34594, 701574, 516111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 61, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1918 Frederick Sanger, English biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 63349, 25416893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ], [ 61, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1919 Rex Humbard, American evangelist and television host (d. 2007)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34665, 3275272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1919 George Shearing, English jazz pianist and bandleader (d. 2011)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 704076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1920 Neville Brand, American actor (d. 1992)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34676, 84474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1921 Louis Frémaux, French conductor (d. 2017)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34724, 764673 ], "anchor_spans": 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], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1955 Paul Greengrass, English director and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1998361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1956 Rohinton Fali Nariman, Judge of the Supreme Court of India", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34672, 35408606, 395852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ], [ 42, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1958 David Feherty, Northern Irish golfer and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34953, 2244199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1958 Feargal Sharkey, Northern Irish singer-songwriter ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1105762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1958 Randy Shughart, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1993)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 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[ 10, 23 ], [ 34, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1963 Sridevi, Indian actress (d. 2018)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1938728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1964 Jay Buhner, American baseball player and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34550, 385914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1964 Debi Mazar, American actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 90685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1964 Tom Prince, American baseball player and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2984511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1965 Mark Lemke, American baseball player, coach, and radio host", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34750, 1594183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1965 Hayato Matsuo, Japanese composer and conductor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6727049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1966 Scooter Barry, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34691, 633958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1966 Shayne Corson, Canadian ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1892783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1967 Dave Jamerson, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34749, 5564873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1967 Digna Ketelaar, Dutch tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36796134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1968 Tal Bachman, Canadian singer-songwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34655, 1800862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 Todd Hendricks, American football player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 25348883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 Tony Jarrett, English sprinter and hurdler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 795714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1969 Midori Ito, Japanese figure skater", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34610, 657068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1970 Will Clarke, American author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34726, 3905695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1970 Elvis Grbac, American football player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2091417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1970 Alan Shearer, 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2007)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10165106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1974 Scott MacRae, American baseball player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34654, 28016174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1974 Joe Perry, English snooker player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 621568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1974 Niklas Sundin, Swedish musician and artist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2865056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1974 Jarrod Washburn, American baseball player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2533437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1975 Shoaib Akhtar, Pakistani cricketer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34752, 533467 ], 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Dwight Smith, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34753, 2932703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 Román Colón, Dominican baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 5645001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1979 Corey Patterson, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 966752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1979 Taizō Sugimura, Japanese politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2932898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 Murtz Jaffer, Canadian journalist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 13976436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1982 Christopher Raeburn, English fashion designer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34756, 33061557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1982 Sarah Huckabee Sanders, American political consultant and press secretary", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 53079097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1982 Sebastian Stan, Romanian-American actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9110929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1983 Dallas Braden, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34755, 10076365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Aleš Hemský, Czech ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2009771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Ľubomír Michalík, Slovak footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9123379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Christian Müller, German footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 21221940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 Alona Bondarenko, Ukrainian tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34578, 1498593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1984 Niko Kranjčar, Croatian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1955370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1984 Boone Logan, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4950795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1984 James Morrison, English singer-songwriter and guitarist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4683946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1985 Gerrit van Look, German rugby player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34846, 26393989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Jose Lorenzo Diokno, Filipino director, producer, and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34760, 5490780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Devin McCourty, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 25819003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Jason McCourty, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22577582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Jamie Reed, Welsh footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11729753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 Keith Benson, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34670, 26771200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Brandon Workman, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35924052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Greg Draper, New Zealand footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 13382687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Justin Greene, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 33133639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Israel Jiménez, Mexican footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 31898632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 DeMarcus Cousins, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 22556240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 Benjamin Stambouli, French footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 29587018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Dave Days, American singer-songwriter and guitarist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 30847655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Lesley Doig, Scottish lawn bowler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 52445322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Lucas Moura, Brazilian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 28780752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1992 Katrina Gorry, Australian football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 24594211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1992 Alicja Tchórz, Polish swimmer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36579536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1993 Moses Mbye, Australian rugby league player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34598, 42589176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Filip Forsberg, Swedish ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 32764467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1996 Antonia Lottner, German tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34636, 36582415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 Dalma Gálfi, Hungarian tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34647, 39894218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2000 Na Jaemin, South Korean rapper, singer, dancer and actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34548, 61650704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 587 Radegund, Frankish princess and saint (b. 520)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35722, 1183661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 604 Wen, emperor of the Sui Dynasty (b. 541)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35091, 1491686, 43456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 9 ], [ 26, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 612 Fabia Eudokia, Byzantine empress (b. 580)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36314, 8433469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 662 Maximus the Confessor, Byzantine theologian", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35662, 137473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 696 Takechi, Japanese prince", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36389, 9947631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 900 Zwentibold, king of Lotharingia (b. 870)", 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theologian (b. 1540)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34892, 1402509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1667 Jeremy Taylor, Irish bishop and saint (b. 1613)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38623, 173996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1686 Louis Maimbourg, French priest and historian (b. 1610)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38649, 397815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1721 Jacques Lelong, French priest and author (b. 1665)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35859, 396519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1744 John Cruger, Danish-American businessman and politician, 39th Mayor of New York City (b. 1678)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35843, 1421271, 206327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 68, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1749 Johann Elias Schlegel, German poet and critic (b. 1719)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35838, 1269115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1766 Margaret Fownes-Luttrell, English painter (b. 1726)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35821, 45658979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1795 Ahilyabai Holkar, Queen of Indore (b. 1725)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35799, 2278442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1826 René Laennec, French physician, invented the stethoscope (b. 1781)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34597, 26169, 28714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 51, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1863 Eugène Delacroix, French painter and lithographer (b. 1798)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34641, 169832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1865 Ignaz Semmelweis, Hungarian physician and obstetrician (b. 1818)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38275275, 75319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1910 Florence Nightingale, Italian-English nurse and theologian (b. 1820)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34690, 100127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1912 Jules Massenet, French composer (b. 1842)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34616, 355236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1917 Eduard Buchner, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1860)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34595, 363938, 25416893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 38, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1934 Mary Hunter Austin, American author and playwright (b. 1868) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34981, 949727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1937 Sigizmund Levanevsky, Soviet aircraft pilot of Polish origin (b. 1902)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34684, 401220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1946 H. G. Wells, English novelist, historian, and critic (b. 1866)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34631, 13459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1954 Demetrius Constantine Dounis, Greek violinist and mandolin player (b. 1886)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34982, 12885226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1958 Francis J. McCormick, American football, basketball player, and coach (b. 1903)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34953, 20041977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1963 Louis Bastien, French cyclist and fencer (b. 1881)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34648, 7126434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1965 Hayato Ikeda, Japanese lawyer and politician, 58th Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1899)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34750, 174180, 24833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 57, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1971 W. O. Bentley, English race car driver and engineer, founded Bentley Motors Limited (b. 1888)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34748, 846862, 5052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 67, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1975 Murilo Mendes, Brazilian poet and telegrapher (b. 1901)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34752, 3748191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1978 Lonnie Mayne, American wrestler (b. 1944)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34753, 10867436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 Andrew Dasburg, American painter and sculptor (b. 1887)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 13997672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 Tigran Petrosian, Georgian-Armenian chess player (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34578, 149168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Helen Mack, American actress (b. 1913)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 3820523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Tim Richmond, American race car driver (b. 1955)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 1178520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Larkin I. Smith, American police officer and politician (b. 1944)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2624316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 James Roosevelt, American general and politician (b. 1907)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 1738051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 Alison Hargreaves, English mountaineer (b. 1963)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34658, 2003316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1995 Jan Křesadlo, Czech-English psychologist and author (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1651837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1995 Mickey Mantle, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1931)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 63665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1996 António de Spínola, Portuguese general and politician, 14th President of Portugal (b. 1910)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34636, 1396069, 516093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 66, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 Nino Ferrer, Italian-French singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34647, 42675873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1998 Edward Ginzton, Ukrainian-American physicist and academic (b. 1915)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3033206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1998 Julien Green, American author (b. 1900)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2594275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1998 Rafael Robles, Dominican-American baseball player (b. 1947)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5117345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 Ignatz Bubis, German Jewish religious leader (b. 1927)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34553, 612566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1999 Jaime Garzón, Colombian journalist and lawyer (b. 1960)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1496801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2000 Nazia Hassan, Pakistani singer-songwriter (b. 1965)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34548, 5986762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2001 Otto Stuppacher, Austrian race car driver (b. 1947)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34551, 1353912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2001 Jim Hughes, American baseball player and manager (b. 1923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11442061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2001 Betty Cavanna, American author (b. 1909)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 61661015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2003 Ed Townsend, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36163, 475859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2004 Julia Child, American chef, author, and television host (b. 1912)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35524, 16441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2005 Miguel Arraes, Brazilian lawyer and politician (b. 1916)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35984, 42690029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2005 David Lange, New Zealand lawyer and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1942)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 308825, 106321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ], [ 63, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2006 Tony Jay, English actor and singer (b. 1933)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36164, 651507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2006 Jon Nödtveidt, Swedish musician (b. 1975)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1861034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2007 Brian Adams, American wrestler (b. 1964)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36165, 1815577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2007 Brooke Astor, American philanthropist and socialite (b. 1902)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 326578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2007 Phil Rizzuto, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1917)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 508844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2008 Henri Cartan, French mathematician and academic (b. 1904)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35825, 362536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2008 Bill Gwatney, American politician (b. 1959)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18846842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2008 Jack Weil, American businessman (b. 1901)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 9537660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2009 Lavelle Felton, American basketball player (b. 1980)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35983, 24172089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2010 Panagiotis Bachramis, Greek footballer (b. 1976)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 43226, 26730896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2010 Lance Cade, American wrestler (b. 1981)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 652410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2010 Edwin Newman, American journalist and author (b. 1919)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 705056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011 Tareque Masud, Bangladeshi director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1957)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36225, 2421989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2011 Mishuk Munier, Bangladeshi journalist and cinematographer (b. 1959)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 33157305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 Hugo Adam Bedau, American philosopher and academic (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47374, 17658565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Helen Gurley Brown, American journalist and author (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 334263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Ray Jordon, Australian cricketer and coach (b. 1937)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20692203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Johnny Pesky, American baseball player and manager (b. 1919)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 827711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Joan Roberts, American actress and singer (b. 1917)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 911501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2013 Lothar Bisky, German politician (b. 1941)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 46945, 358365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Aaron Selber, Jr., American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1927)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40245934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Jean Vincent, French footballer and manager (b. 1930)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6627174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2014 Frans Brüggen, Dutch flute player and conductor (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 48630, 1180629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Eduardo Campos, Brazilian politician, 14th Brazilian Minister of Science and Technology (b. 1965)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35035207, 20373610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 53, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Martino Finotto, Italian race car driver (b. 1933)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 45008835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Süleyman Seba, Turkish footballer and manager (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3735525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2015 Watban Ibrahim al-Tikriti, Iraqi politician, Iraqi Minister of Interior (b. 1952)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49708, 216566, 9579609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ], [ 51, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Bob Fillion, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (b. 1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6050321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Om Prakash Munjal, Indian businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Hero Cycles (b. 1928)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39938638, 3044610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 79, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2016 Kenny Baker, English actor and musician (b. 1934) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51387, 144201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2016 Pramukh Swami Maharaj, Indian Hindu leader (b. 1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2760249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2018 Jim Neidhart, American wrestler (b. 1955)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51390, 888715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2021 Nanci Griffith, American singer-songwriter (b. 1953)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51397, 408285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christian feast day:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 180283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benedetto Sinigardi", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 47170625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Benildus Romançon", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6272071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Centola and Helen", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 22596809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cassian of Imola", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1402235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clara Maass (Lutheran Church)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 3166420, 4629503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 13, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fachtna of Rosscarbery", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6393194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Florence Nightingale, Octavia Hill (Lutheran Church)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 100127, 1001880, 4629503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 22, 34 ], [ 37, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Herulph", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 14229085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hippolytus of Rome", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 73313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jeremy Taylor (Anglican Communion)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 173996, 909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 15, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Berchmans", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1141676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Junian of Mairé", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 22718863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Blessed Marco d'Aviano", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2406891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maximus the Confessor", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 137473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nerses Glaietsi (Catholic Church)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 5193616, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 17, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pope Pontian", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 51301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Radegunde", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1183661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wigbert", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1530471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2522654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Central African Republic from France in 1960.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 945296, 5478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 49, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Lefthanders Day (International)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2970178, 15757659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ], [ 31, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Women's Day, commemorates the enaction of Tunisian Code of Personal Status in 1956. (Tunisia)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 31497530, 17249050, 30188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 51, 74 ], [ 85, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "World Organ Donation Day", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 43846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] } ]

[ "Days_of_the_year", "August" ]

[ "August 13th", "13th of August", "13 August", "Aug 13" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Ibn Sina (; 980– June 1037 CE), commonly known in the West as Avicenna (), was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, philosophers, and writers of the Islamic Golden Age, and the father of early modern medicine. Sajjad H. Rizvi has called Avicenna \"arguably the most influential philosopher of the pre-modern era\". He was a Muslim Peripatetic philosopher influenced by Greek Aristotelian philosophy. Of the 450 works he is believed to have written, around 240 have survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24607, 25121, 23315, 580, 37477763, 68756494, 529396, 309909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 88 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 145, 155 ], [ 157, 168 ], [ 203, 221 ], [ 264, 279 ], [ 383, 394 ], [ 427, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His most famous works are The Book of Healing, a philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and The Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopedia which became a standard medical text at many medieval universities and remained in use as late as 1650. Besides philosophy and medicine, Avicenna's corpus includes writings on astronomy, alchemy, geography and geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics, and works of poetry.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 145227, 145242, 21903992, 19725260, 3304608, 27280889, 12868203, 15233821, 42199619, 1978133, 3304216, 17944118, 3885852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 45 ], [ 96, 117 ], [ 121, 141 ], [ 196, 208 ], [ 318, 327 ], [ 329, 336 ], [ 338, 359 ], [ 361, 371 ], [ 373, 389 ], [ 391, 396 ], [ 398, 409 ], [ 411, 418 ], [ 433, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " is a Latin corruption of the Arabic patronym Ibn Sīnā (), meaning \"Son of Sina\". However, Avicenna was not the son but the great-great-grandson of a man named Sina. His formal Arabic name was Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn bin ʿAbdullāh ibn al-Ḥasan bin ʿAlī bin Sīnā al-Balkhi al-Bukhari ().", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 14763066, 164101, 164101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 22 ], [ 30, 45 ], [ 177, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna created an extensive corpus of works during what is commonly known as the Islamic Golden Age, in which the translations of Byzantine Greco-Roman, Persian and Indian texts were studied extensively. Greco-Roman (Mid- and Neo-Platonic, and Aristotelian) texts translated by the Kindi school were commented, redacted and developed substantially by Islamic intellectuals, who also built upon Persian and Indian mathematical systems, astronomy, algebra, trigonometry and medicine.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Circumstances", "target_page_ids": [ 37477763, 16972981, 10532933, 14653, 14533, 1841767, 23385833, 309909, 272065, 1848052, 2781944, 18716923, 18717261, 13956265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 101 ], [ 132, 141 ], [ 142, 153 ], [ 155, 161 ], [ 167, 172 ], [ 219, 223 ], [ 228, 240 ], [ 246, 258 ], [ 284, 289 ], [ 408, 427 ], [ 437, 446 ], [ 448, 455 ], [ 457, 469 ], [ 474, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Samanid dynasty in the eastern part of Persia, Greater Khorasan and Central Asia as well as the Buyid dynasty in the western part of Persia and Iraq provided a thriving atmosphere for scholarly and cultural development. Under the Samanids, Bukhara rivaled Baghdad as a cultural capital of the Islamic world. There, Avicenna had access to the great libraries of Balkh, Khwarezm, Gorgan, Rey, Isfahan and Hamadan.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Circumstances", "target_page_ids": [ 841140, 14653, 1379246, 577287, 7515928, 86807, 4492, 191429, 332847, 317992, 84622, 202702, 223149, 43610555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 43, 49 ], [ 51, 67 ], [ 100, 113 ], [ 148, 152 ], [ 244, 251 ], [ 260, 267 ], [ 297, 310 ], [ 365, 370 ], [ 372, 380 ], [ 382, 388 ], [ 390, 393 ], [ 395, 402 ], [ 407, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Various texts (such as the 'Ahd with Bahmanyar) show that Avicenna debated philosophical points with the greatest scholars of the time. Aruzi Samarqandi describes how before Avicenna left Khwarezm he had met Al-Biruni (a famous scientist and astronomer), Abu Nasr Iraqi (a renowned mathematician), Abu Sahl Masihi (a respected philosopher) and Abu al-Khayr Khammar (a great physician). The study of the Quran and the Hadith also thrived, and Islamic philosophy, fiqh and theology (kalaam) were all further developed by Avicenna and his opponents at this time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Circumstances", "target_page_ids": [ 3882781, 317992, 271975, 439770, 1766976, 36922, 13749, 11114, 30503, 236828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 152 ], [ 188, 196 ], [ 208, 217 ], [ 255, 269 ], [ 298, 313 ], [ 403, 408 ], [ 417, 423 ], [ 462, 466 ], [ 471, 479 ], [ 481, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna was born in in the village of Afshana in Transoxiana to a family of Persian stock. The village was near the Samanid capital of Bukhara, which was his mother's hometown. His father Abd Allah was a native of the city of Balkh in Tukharistan. An official of the Samanid bureaucracy, he had served as the governor of a village of the royal estate of Harmaytan (near Bukhara) during the reign of Nuh II (). Avicenna also had a younger brother. A few years later, the family settled in Bukhara, a center of learning, which attracted many scholars. It was there that Avicenna was educated, which early on was seemingly administered by his father. Although both Avicenna's father and brother had converted to Ismailism, he himself did not follow the faith. He was instead an adherent of the Sunni Hanafi school, which was also followed by the Samanids.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 33686172, 841140, 86807, 332847, 45378, 2388660, 172701, 29402, 219231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 62 ], [ 118, 125 ], [ 137, 144 ], [ 228, 233 ], [ 237, 248 ], [ 401, 407 ], [ 711, 720 ], [ 793, 798 ], [ 799, 805 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna was first schooled in the Quran and literature, and by the age of 10, he had memorized the entire Quran. He was later sent by his father to an Indian greengrocer, who taught him arithmetic. Afterwards, he was schooled in Jurisprudence by the Hanafi jurist Ismail al-Zahid. Some time later, Avicenna's father invited the physician and philosopher Abu Abdallah al-Natili to their house to educate Avicenna. Together, they studied the Isagoge of Porphyry (died 305) and possibly the Categories of Aristotle (died 322 BC) as well. After Avicenna had read the Almagest of Ptolemy (died 170) and Euclid's Elements, Natili told him to continue his research independently. By the time Avicenna was eighteen, he was well-educated in Greek sciences. Although Avicenna only mentions Natili as his teacher in his autobiography, he most likely had other teachers as well, such as the physicians Abu Mansur Qumri and Abu Sahl al-Masihi.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 36922, 204509, 3118, 16366, 51481, 17242876, 794399, 1692652, 308, 148060, 23979, 244107, 2179, 1766976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 40 ], [ 86, 112 ], [ 187, 197 ], [ 230, 243 ], [ 258, 264 ], [ 441, 448 ], [ 452, 460 ], [ 489, 499 ], [ 503, 512 ], [ 564, 572 ], [ 576, 583 ], [ 599, 616 ], [ 810, 823 ], [ 912, 930 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the age of seventeen, Avicenna was made a physician of Nuh II. By the time Avicenna was at least 21 years old, his father died. He was subsequently given an administrative post, possibly succeeding his father as the governor of Harmaytan. Avicenna later moved to Gurganj, the capital of Khwarazm, which he reports that he did due to \"necessity\". The date he went to the place is uncertain, as he reports that he served the Khwarazmshah (ruler) of the region, the Ma'munid Abu al-Hasan Ali. The latter ruled from 997 to 1009, which indicates that Avicenna moved sometime during that period. He may have moved in 999, the year which the Samanid state fell after the Turkic Qarakhanids captured Bukhara and imprisoned the Samanid ruler Abd al-Malik II. Due to his high position and strong connection with the Samanids, Avicenna may have found himself in an unfavorable position after the fall of his suzerain. It was through the minister of Gurganj, Abu'l-Husayn as-Sahi, a patron of Greek sciences, that Avicenna entered into the service of Abu al-Hasan Ali. Under the Ma'munids, Gurganj became a centre of learning, attracting many prominent figures, such as Avicenna and his former teacher Abu Sahl al-Masihi, the mathematician Abu Nasr Mansur, the physician Ibn al-Khammar, and the philologist al-Tha'alibi.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 2243390, 317992, 4453759, 20694807, 6530971, 188057, 2670554, 439770, 63970319, 23193, 2286558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 273 ], [ 290, 298 ], [ 426, 438 ], [ 466, 474 ], [ 475, 491 ], [ 674, 685 ], [ 736, 751 ], [ 1231, 1246 ], [ 1262, 1276 ], [ 1286, 1297 ], [ 1298, 1310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna later moved due to \"necessity\" once more (in 1012), this time to the west. There he travelled through the Khurasani cities of Nasa, Abivard, Tus, Samangan and Jajarm. He was planning to visit the ruler of the city of Gurgan, the Ziyarid Qabus (), a cultivated patron of writing, whose court attracted many distinguished poets and scholars. However, when Avicenna eventually arrived, he discovered that the ruler had been dead since the winter of 1013. Avicenna then left Gurgan for Dihistan, but returned after becoming ill. There he met Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani (died 1070) who became his pupil and companion. Avicenna stayed briefly in Gurgan, reportedly serving Qabus' son and successor Manuchihr () and resided in the house of a patron.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1379246, 1107530, 28790999, 518891, 36588633, 16869962, 84622, 1494883, 3161005, 3462689, 2232040, 3064139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 123 ], [ 135, 139 ], [ 141, 148 ], [ 150, 153 ], [ 155, 163 ], [ 168, 174 ], [ 226, 232 ], [ 238, 245 ], [ 246, 251 ], [ 491, 499 ], [ 547, 568 ], [ 696, 705 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In , Avicenna went to the city of Ray, where he entered into the service of the Buyid amir (ruler) Majd al-Dawla () and his mother Sayyida Shirin, the de facto ruler of the realm. There he served as the physician at the court, treating Majd al-Dawla, who was suffering from melancholia. Avicenna reportedly later served as the \"business manager\" of Sayyida Shirin in Qazvin and Hamadan, though details regarding this tenure are unclear. During his period, Avicenna finished his Canon of Medicine, and started writing his Book of Healing. In 1015, during Avicenna's stay in Hamadan, he participated in a public debate, as was custom for newly arrived scholars in western Iran at that time. The purpose of the debate was to examining one's reputation against a prominent local resident. The person whom Avicenna debated against was Abu'l-Qasim al-Kirmani, a member of the school of philosophers of Baghdad.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 202702, 577287, 178427, 2878189, 2599227, 20875, 1052555, 43610555, 145242, 145227, 4492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 37 ], [ 80, 85 ], [ 86, 90 ], [ 99, 112 ], [ 131, 145 ], [ 274, 285 ], [ 367, 373 ], [ 378, 385 ], [ 478, 495 ], [ 521, 536 ], [ 896, 903 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The debate became heated, resulting in Avicenna accusing Abu'l-Qasim of lack of basic knowledge in logic, while Abu'l-Qasim accused Avicenna of impoliteness. After the debate, Avicenna sent a letter to the Baghdad Peripatetics, asking if Abu'l-Qasim's claim that he shared the same opinion as them was true. Abu'l-Qasim later retaliated by writing a letter to an unknown person, in which he made accusations so serious, that Avicenna wrote to a deputy of Majd al-Dawla, named Abu Sa'd, to investigate the matter. The accusation made towards Avicenna may have been the same as he had received earlier, in which he was accused by the people of Hamadan of copying the stylistic structures of the Quran in his Sermons on Divine Unity. The seriousness of this charge, in the words of the historian Peter Adamson, \"cannot be underestimated in the larger Muslim culture.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 46426065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Not long afterwards, Avicenna shifted his allegiance to the rising Buyid amir Shams al-Dawla (the younger brother of Majd al-Dawla), which Adamson suggests was due to Abu'l-Qasim also working under Sayyida Shirin. Avicenna had been called upon by Shams al-Dawla to treat him, but after the latters campaign in the same year against his former ally, the Annazid ruler Abu Shawk (), he forced Avicenna to become his vizier. Although Avicenna would sometimes clash with Shams al-Dawla's troops, he remained vizier until the latter died of colic in 1021. Avicenna was asked by Shams al-Dawla's son and successor Sama' al-Dawla () stay as vizier, but instead went into hiding with his patron Abu Ghalib al-Attar, to wait for better opportunities to emerge. It was during this period that Avicenna was secretly in contact with Ala al-Dawla Muhammad (), the Kakuyid ruler of Isfahan and uncle of Sayyida Shirin.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 2827998, 3758611, 242409, 398962, 2827584, 40962416, 3017936, 223149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 92 ], [ 353, 360 ], [ 414, 420 ], [ 536, 541 ], [ 608, 622 ], [ 821, 842 ], [ 851, 858 ], [ 868, 875 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his stay at Attar's home that Avicenna completed his Book of Healing, writing fifty pages a day. The Buyid court in Hamadan, particularly the Kurdish vizier Taj al-Mulk, suspected Avicenna of correspondence with Ala al-Dawla, and as result had the house of Attar ransacked and Avicenna imprisoned in the fortress of Fardajan, outside Hamadan. Juzjani blames one of Avicenna's informers for his capture. Avicenna was imprisoned in four months, until Ala al-Dawla captured Hamadan, thus putting an end to Sama al-Dawla's reign.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 17068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna was subsequently released, and went to Isfahan, where he was well received by Ala al-Dawla. In the words of Juzjani, the Kakuyid ruler gave Avicenna \"the respect and esteem which someone like him deserved.\" Adamson also says that Avicenna's service under Ala al-Dawla \"proved to be the most stable period of his life.\" Avicenna served as the advisor, if not vizier of Ala al-Dawla, accompanying him in many of his military expeditions and travels. Avicenna dedicated two Persian works to him, a philosophical treatise named Danish-nama-yi Ala'i (\"Book of Science for Ala\"), and a medical treatise about the pulse.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 65891282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 533, 553 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the brief occupation of Isfahan by the Ghaznavids in January 1030, Avicenna and Ala al-Dawla relocated to the southwestern Iranian region of Khuzistan, where they stayed until the death of the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud (), which occurred two months later. It was seemingly when Avicenna returned to Isfahan that he started writing his Pointers and Reminders. In 1037, while Avicenna was accompanying Ala al-Dawla to a battle near Isfahan, he was hit by a severe colic, which he had been constantly suffering from throughout his life. He died shortly afterwards in Hamadan, where he was buried.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 577843, 448079, 651860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 56 ], [ 148, 157 ], [ 216, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna wrote extensively on early Islamic philosophy, especially the subjects logic, ethics and metaphysics, including treatises named Logic and Metaphysics. Most of his works were written in Arabic—then the language of science in the Middle East—and some in Persian. Of linguistic significance even to this day are a few books that he wrote in nearly pure Persian language (particularly the Danishnamah-yi 'Ala', Philosophy for Ala' ad-Dawla'). Avicenna's commentaries on Aristotle often criticized the philosopher, encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of ijtihad.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 171177, 46426065, 9258, 18895, 803, 11600, 165834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 54 ], [ 80, 85 ], [ 87, 93 ], [ 98, 109 ], [ 194, 200 ], [ 261, 268 ], [ 564, 571 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna's Neoplatonic scheme of \"emanations\" became fundamental in the Kalam (school of theological discourse) in the 12th century.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 31458937, 236828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 72, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His Book of Healing became available in Europe in partial Latin translation some fifty years after its composition, under the title Sufficientia, and some authors have identified a \"Latin Avicennism\" as flourishing for some time, paralleling the more influential Latin Averroism, but suppressed by the Parisian decrees of 1210 and 1215.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 196242, 1001325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 269, 278 ], [ 302, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna's psychology and theory of knowledge influenced William of Auvergne, Bishop of Paris and Albertus Magnus, while his metaphysics influenced the thought of Thomas Aquinas.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 6844954, 1573, 21490957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 93 ], [ 98, 113 ], [ 163, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early Islamic philosophy and Islamic metaphysics, imbued as it is with Islamic theology, distinguishes more clearly than Aristotelianism between essence and existence. Whereas existence is the domain of the contingent and the accidental, essence endures within a being beyond the accidental. The philosophy of Avicenna, particularly that part relating to metaphysics, owes much to al-Farabi. The search for a definitive Islamic philosophy separate from Occasionalism can be seen in what is left of his work.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 166162, 236828, 340238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 48 ], [ 71, 87 ], [ 453, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following al-Farabi's lead, Avicenna initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence (Mahiat) and existence (Wujud). He argued that the fact of existence cannot be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things, and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Existence must, therefore, be due to an agent-cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence. To do so, the cause must be an existing thing and coexist with its effect.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 37196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 476, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna's consideration of the essence-attributes question may be elucidated in terms of his ontological analysis of the modalities of being; namely impossibility, contingency and necessity. Avicenna argued that the impossible being is that which cannot exist, while the contingent in itself (mumkin bi-dhatihi) has the potentiality to be or not to be without entailing a contradiction. When actualized, the contingent becomes a 'necessary existent due to what is other than itself' (wajib al-wujud bi-ghayrihi). Thus, contingency-in-itself is potential beingness that could eventually be actualized by an external cause other than itself. The metaphysical structures of necessity and contingency are different. Necessary being due to itself (wajib al-wujud bi-dhatihi) is true in itself, while the contingent being is 'false in itself' and 'true due to something else other than itself'. The necessary is the source of its own being without borrowed existence. It is what always exists.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Necessary exists 'due-to-Its-Self', and has no quiddity/essence (mahiyya) other than existence (wujud). Furthermore, It is 'One' (wahid ahad) since there cannot be more than one 'Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself' without differentia (fasl) to distinguish them from each other. Yet, to require differentia entails that they exist 'due-to-themselves' as well as 'due to what is other than themselves'; and this is contradictory. However, if no differentia distinguishes them from each other, then there is no sense in which these 'Existents' are not one and the same. Avicenna adds that the 'Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself' has no genus (jins), nor a definition (hadd), nor a counterpart (nadd), nor an opposite (did), and is detached (bari) from matter (madda), quality (kayf), quantity (kam), place (ayn), situation (wad) and time (waqt).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna's theology on metaphysical issues (ilāhiyyāt) has been criticized by some Islamic scholars, among them al-Ghazali, Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim. While discussing the views of the theists among the Greek philosophers, namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in Al-Munqidh min ad-Dalal (\"Deliverance from Error\"), al-Ghazali noted that the Greek philosophers \"must be taxed with unbelief, as must their partisans among the Muslim philosophers, such as Avicenna and al-Farabi and their likes.\" He added that \"None, however, of the Muslim philosophers engaged so much in transmitting Aristotle's lore as did the two men just mentioned. [...] The sum of what we regard as the authentic philosophy of Aristotle, as transmitted by al-Farabi and Avicenna, can be reduced to three parts: a part which must be branded as unbelief; a part which must be stigmatized as innovation; and a part which need not be repudiated at all.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 165511, 146607, 272074, 1810438, 25664190, 22954, 308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 99 ], [ 112, 122 ], [ 124, 136 ], [ 141, 154 ], [ 235, 243 ], [ 245, 250 ], [ 255, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna made an argument for the existence of God which would be known as the \"Proof of the Truthful\" (Arabic: burhan al-siddiqin). Avicenna argued that there must be a \"necessary existent\" (Arabic: wajib al-wujud), an entity that cannot not exist and through a series of arguments, he identified it with the Islamic conception of God. Present-day historian of philosophy Peter Adamson called this argument one of the most influential medieval arguments for God's existence, and Avicenna's biggest contribution to the history of philosophy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 13018310, 621169, 53162405, 803, 7515857, 13692155, 53241381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 25 ], [ 34, 50 ], [ 80, 101 ], [ 104, 110 ], [ 306, 335 ], [ 349, 372 ], [ 373, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Correspondence between Avicenna (with his student Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Ma'sumi) and Al-Biruni has survived in which they debated Aristotelian natural philosophy and the Peripatetic school. Abu Rayhan began by asking Avicenna eighteen questions, ten of which were criticisms of Aristotle's On the Heavens.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 271975, 309909, 382251, 529396, 1692748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 90 ], [ 126, 138 ], [ 139, 157 ], [ 166, 184 ], [ 286, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna was a devout Muslim and sought to reconcile rational philosophy with Islamic theology. His aim was to prove the existence of God and His creation of the world scientifically and through reason and logic. Avicenna's views on Islamic theology (and philosophy) were enormously influential, forming part of the core of the curriculum at Islamic religious schools until the 19th century. Avicenna wrote a number of short treatises dealing with Islamic theology. These included treatises on the prophets (whom he viewed as \"inspired philosophers\"), and also on various scientific and philosophical interpretations of the Quran, such as how Quranic cosmology corresponds to his own philosophical system. In general these treatises linked his philosophical writings to Islamic religious ideas; for example, the body's afterlife.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 42446, 46426065, 30933488, 1864889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 201 ], [ 206, 211 ], [ 498, 506 ], [ 651, 660 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are occasional brief hints and allusions in his longer works, however, that Avicenna considered philosophy as the only sensible way to distinguish real prophecy from illusion. He did not state this more clearly because of the political implications of such a theory, if prophecy could be questioned, and also because most of the time he was writing shorter works which concentrated on explaining his theories on philosophy and theology clearly, without digressing to consider epistemological matters which could only be properly considered by other philosophers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 9247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 482, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later interpretations of Avicenna's philosophy split into three different schools; those (such as al-Tusi) who continued to apply his philosophy as a system to interpret later political events and scientific advances; those (such as al-Razi) who considered Avicenna's theological works in isolation from his wider philosophical concerns; and those (such as al-Ghazali) who selectively used parts of his philosophy to support their own attempts to gain greater spiritual insights through a variety of mystical means. It was the theological interpretation championed by those such as al-Razi which eventually came to predominate in the madrasahs.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 33642424, 326595, 146607, 209717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 105 ], [ 233, 240 ], [ 357, 367 ], [ 634, 643 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna memorized the Quran by the age of ten, and as an adult, he wrote five treatises commenting on suras from the Quran. One of these texts included the Proof of Prophecies, in which he comments on several Quranic verses and holds the Quran in high esteem. Avicenna argued that the Islamic prophets should be considered higher than philosophers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 204509, 420116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 28 ], [ 103, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna is generally understood to have been aligned with the Sunni Hanafi school of thought. Avicenna studied Hanafi law, many of his notable teachers were Hanafi jurists, and he served under the Hanafi court of Ali ibn Mamun. Avicenna said at an early age that he remained \"unconvinced\" by Ismaili missionary attempts to convert him. Medieval historian Ẓahīr al-dīn al-Bayhaqī (d. 1169) also believed Avicenna to be a follower of the Brethren of Purity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 29402, 219231, 219231, 219231, 4849167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 68 ], [ 69, 75 ], [ 112, 118 ], [ 158, 164 ], [ 437, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While he was imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan near Hamadhan, Avicenna wrote his famous \"floating man\"—literally falling man—a thought experiment to demonstrate human self-awareness and the substantiality and immateriality of the soul. Avicenna believed his \"Floating Man\" thought experiment demonstrated that the soul is a substance, and claimed humans cannot doubt their own consciousness, even in a situation that prevents all sensory data input. The thought experiment told its readers to imagine themselves created all at once while suspended in the air, isolated from all sensations, which includes no sensory contact with even their own bodies. He argued that, in this scenario, one would still have self-consciousness. Because it is conceivable that a person, suspended in air while cut off from sense experience, would still be capable of determining his own existence, the thought experiment points to the conclusions that the soul is a perfection, independent of the body, and an immaterial substance. The conceivability of this \"Floating Man\" indicates that the soul is perceived intellectually, which entails the soul's separateness from the body. Avicenna referred to the living human intelligence, particularly the active intellect, which he believed to be the hypostasis by which God communicates truth to the human mind and imparts order and intelligibility to nature. Following is an English translation of the argument:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 47731390, 49535, 422247, 2772118, 307139, 3657390, 5683590, 3667142, 29920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 104 ], [ 130, 148 ], [ 170, 184 ], [ 710, 728 ], [ 807, 823 ], [ 1202, 1214 ], [ 1233, 1249 ], [ 1279, 1289 ], [ 1316, 1321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, Avicenna posited the brain as the place where reason interacts with sensation. Sensation prepares the soul to receive rational concepts from the universal Agent Intellect. The first knowledge of the flying person would be \"I am,\" affirming his or her essence. That essence could not be the body, obviously, as the flying person has no sensation. Thus, the knowledge that \"I am\" is the core of a human being: the soul exists and is self-aware. Avicenna thus concluded that the idea of the self is not logically dependent on any physical thing, and that the soul should not be seen in relative terms, but as a primary given, a substance. The body is unnecessary; in relation to it, the soul is its perfection. In itself, the soul is an immaterial substance.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 20492361, 47353, 3733963, 27568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 497, 501 ], [ 545, 550 ], [ 592, 605 ], [ 634, 643 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna authored a five-volume medical encyclopedia: The Canon of Medicine (Al-Qanun fi't-Tibb). It was used as the standard medical textbook in the Islamic world and Europe up to the 18th century. The Canon still plays an important role in Unani medicine.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Principal works", "target_page_ids": [ 1043701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 242, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna considered whether events like rare diseases or disorders have natural causes. He used the example of polydactyly to explain his perception that causal reasons exist for all medical events. This view of medical phenomena anticipated developments in the Enlightenment by seven centuries.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Principal works", "target_page_ids": [ 192413, 30758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 122 ], [ 262, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna wrote on Earth sciences such as geology in The Book of Healing. While discussing the formation of mountains, he explained:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Principal works", "target_page_ids": [ 20653168, 12207, 37754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 31 ], [ 41, 48 ], [ 107, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Al-Burhan (On Demonstration) section of The Book of Healing, Avicenna discussed the philosophy of science and described an early scientific method of inquiry. He discussed Aristotle's Posterior Analytics and significantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of \"How does one acquire the first principles of a science?\" He asked how a scientist would arrive at \"the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?\" He explained that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a \"relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty\". Avicenna then added two further methods for arriving at the first principles: the ancient Aristotelian method of induction (istiqra), and the method of examination and experimentation (tajriba). Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that \"it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide.\" In its place, he developed a \"method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Principal works", "target_page_ids": [ 37010, 26833, 3657365, 1692809, 928, 21073209, 61093, 928779, 393736, 21073209, 59861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 112 ], [ 136, 153 ], [ 157, 164 ], [ 191, 210 ], [ 473, 478 ], [ 483, 493 ], [ 499, 508 ], [ 785, 800 ], [ 838, 847 ], [ 877, 888 ], [ 893, 903 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An early formal system of temporal logic was studied by Avicenna. Although he did not develop a real theory of temporal propositions, he did study the relationship between temporalis and the implication. Avicenna's work was further developed by Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī and became the dominant system of Islamic logic until modern times. Avicennian logic also influenced several early European logicians such as Albertus Magnus and William of Ockham. Avicenna endorsed the law of non-contradiction proposed by Aristotle, that a fact could not be both true and false at the same time and in the same sense of the terminology used. He stated, \"Anyone who denies the law of non-contradiction should be beaten and burned until he admits that to be beaten is not the same as not to be beaten, and to be burned is not the same as not to be burned.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Principal works", "target_page_ids": [ 321481, 26588920, 1978133, 1573, 33617, 17636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 40 ], [ 245, 277 ], [ 312, 325 ], [ 420, 435 ], [ 440, 457 ], [ 481, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In mechanics, Avicenna, in The Book of Healing, developed a theory of motion, in which he made a distinction between the inclination (tendency to motion) and force of a projectile, and concluded that motion was a result of an inclination (mayl) transferred to the projectile by the thrower, and that projectile motion in a vacuum would not cease. He viewed inclination as a permanent force whose effect is dissipated by external forces such as air resistance.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Principal works", "target_page_ids": [ 19559, 20580, 10902, 144553, 862717, 2137292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 70, 76 ], [ 158, 163 ], [ 169, 179 ], [ 300, 317 ], [ 444, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The theory of motion presented by Avicenna was probably influenced by the 6th-century Alexandrian scholar John Philoponus. Avicenna's is a less sophisticated variant of the theory of impetus developed by Buridan in the 14th century. It is unclear if Buridan was influenced by Avicenna, or by Philoponus directly.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Principal works", "target_page_ids": [ 2673476, 12320384, 172466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 121 ], [ 173, 190 ], [ 204, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In optics, Avicenna was among those who argued that light had a speed, observing that \"if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite.\" He also provided a wrong explanation of the rainbow phenomenon. Carl Benjamin Boyer described Avicenna's (\"Ibn Sīnā\") theory on the rainbow as follows:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Principal works", "target_page_ids": [ 22483, 17939, 212490, 3871014, 6694636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 108, 113 ], [ 153, 162 ], [ 265, 272 ], [ 285, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1253, a Latin text entitled Speculum Tripartitum stated the following regarding Avicenna's theory on heat:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Principal works", "target_page_ids": [ 19593167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna's legacy in classical psychology is primarily embodied in the Kitab al-nafs parts of his Kitab al-shifa (The Book of Healing) and Kitab al-najat (The Book of Deliverance). These were known in Latin under the title De Anima (treatises \"on the soul\"). Notably, Avicenna develops what is called the Flying Man argument in the Psychology of The Cure I.1.7 as defence of the argument that the soul is without quantitative extension, which has an affinity with Descartes's cogito argument (or what phenomenology designates as a form of an \"epoche\").", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Principal works", "target_page_ids": [ 1692791, 47731390, 25525, 76939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 231 ], [ 305, 315 ], [ 464, 473 ], [ 501, 514 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna's psychology requires that connection between the body and soul be strong enough to ensure the soul's individuation, but weak enough to allow for its immortality. Avicenna grounds his psychology on physiology, which means his account of the soul is one that deals almost entirely with the natural science of the body and its abilities of perception. Thus, the philosopher's connection between the soul and body is explained almost entirely by his understanding of perception; in this way, bodily perception interrelates with the immaterial human intellect. In sense perception, the perceiver senses the form of the object; first, by perceiving features of the object by our external senses. This sensory information is supplied to the internal senses, which merge all the pieces into a whole, unified conscious experience. This process of perception and abstraction is the nexus of the soul and body, for the material body may only perceive material objects, while the immaterial soul may only receive the immaterial, universal forms. The way the soul and body interact in the final abstraction of the universal from the concrete particular is the key to their relationship and interaction, which takes place in the physical body.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Principal works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The soul completes the action of intellection by accepting forms that have been abstracted from matter. This process requires a concrete particular (material) to be abstracted into the universal intelligible (immaterial). The material and immaterial interact through the Active Intellect, which is a \"divine light\" containing the intelligible forms. The Active Intellect reveals the universals concealed in material objects much like the sun makes colour available to our eyes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Principal works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna wrote an attack on astrology titled Resāla fī ebṭāl aḥkām al-nojūm, in which he cited passages from the Quran to dispute the power of astrology to foretell the future. He believed that each planet had some influence on the earth, but argued against astrologers being able to determine the exact effects.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other contributions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna's astronomical writings had some influence on later writers, although in general his work could be considered less developed than Alhazen or Al-Biruni. One important feature of his writing is that he considers mathematical astronomy as a separate discipline to astrology. He criticized Aristotle's view of the stars receiving their light from the Sun, stating that the stars are self-luminous, and believed that the planets are also self-luminous. He claimed to have observed Venus as a spot on the Sun. This is possible, as there was a transit on 24 May 1032, but Avicenna did not give the date of his observation, and modern scholars have questioned whether he could have observed the transit from his location at that time; he may have mistaken a sunspot for Venus. He used his transit observation to help establish that Venus was, at least sometimes, below the Sun in Ptolemaic cosmology, i.e. the sphere of Venus comes before the sphere of the Sun when moving out from the Earth in the prevailing geocentric model.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 1645, 271975, 26808, 26751, 22915, 632331, 83754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 146 ], [ 150, 159 ], [ 319, 323 ], [ 356, 359 ], [ 425, 431 ], [ 485, 511 ], [ 1011, 1021 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He also wrote the Summary of the Almagest, (based on Ptolemy's Almagest), with an appended treatise \"to bring that which is stated in the Almagest and what is understood from Natural Science into conformity\". For example, Avicenna considers the motion of the solar apogee, which Ptolemy had taken to be fixed.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 23979, 148060, 88213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 60 ], [ 63, 71 ], [ 265, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna was first to derive the attar of flowers from distillation and used steam distillation to produce essential oils such as rose essence, which he used as aromatherapeutic treatments for heart conditions.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 1285827, 25611728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 95 ], [ 161, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike al-Razi, Avicenna explicitly disputed the theory of the transmutation of substances commonly believed by alchemists:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 152176, 573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 90 ], [ 112, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four works on alchemy attributed to Avicenna were translated into Latin as:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " was the most influential, having influenced later medieval chemists and alchemists such as Vincent of Beauvais. However, Anawati argues (following Ruska) that the de Anima is a fake by a Spanish author. Similarly the Declaratio is believed not to be actually by Avicenna. The third work (The Book of Minerals) is agreed to be Avicenna's writing, adapted from the Kitab al-Shifa (Book of the Remedy). Avicenna classified minerals into stones, fusible substances, sulfurs and salts, building on the ideas of Aristotle and Jabir. The epistola de Re recta is somewhat less sceptical of alchemy; Anawati argues that it is by Avicenna, but written earlier in his career when he had not yet firmly decided that transmutation was impossible.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 18836, 382501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 59 ], [ 92, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Almost half of Avicenna's works are versified. His poems appear in both Arabic and Persian. As an example, Edward Granville Browne claims that the following Persian verses are incorrectly attributed to Omar Khayyám, and were originally written by Ibn Sīnā:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 1494046, 92550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 130 ], [ 202, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robert Wisnovsky, a scholar of Avicenna attached to McGill University, says that \"Avicenna was the central figure in the long history of the rational sciences in Islam, particularly in the fields of metaphysics, logic and medicine\" but that his works didn't only have an influence in these \"secular\" fields of knowledge alone, as \"these works, or portions of them, were read, taught, copied, commented upon, quoted, paraphrased and cited by thousands of post-Avicennian scholars—not only philosophers, logicians, physicians and specialists in the mathematical or exact sciences, but also by those who specialized in the disciplines of ʿilm al-kalām (rational theology, but understood to include natural philosophy, epistemology and philosophy of mind) and usūl al-fiqh (jurisprudence, but understood to include philosophy of law, dialectic, and philosophy of language).\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 7954643, 236828, 382251, 9247, 6880483, 1311096, 6880370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 69 ], [ 635, 648 ], [ 695, 713 ], [ 715, 727 ], [ 732, 750 ], [ 756, 768 ], [ 845, 867 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As early as the 14th century when Dante Alighieri depicted him in Limbo alongside the virtuous non-Christian thinkers in his Divine Comedy such as Virgil, Averroes, Homer, Horace, Ovid, Lucan, Socrates, Plato and Saladin. Avicenna has been recognized by both East and West as one of the great figures in intellectual history. Johannes Kepler cites Avicenna's opinion when discussing the causes of planetary motions in Chapter 2 of Astronomia Nova.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 8169, 31140, 32359, 47836, 13633, 13693, 37802, 53926, 25664190, 22954, 26983, 15736, 2218355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 49 ], [ 125, 138 ], [ 147, 153 ], [ 155, 163 ], [ 165, 170 ], [ 172, 178 ], [ 180, 184 ], [ 186, 191 ], [ 193, 201 ], [ 203, 208 ], [ 213, 220 ], [ 327, 342 ], [ 432, 447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George Sarton, the author of The History of Science, described Avicenna as \"one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history\" and called him \"the most famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times\". He was one of the Islamic world's leading writers in the field of medicine.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1097627, 267542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 170, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Along with Rhazes, Abulcasis, Ibn al-Nafis and al-Ibadi, Avicenna is considered an important compiler of early Muslim medicine. He is remembered in the Western history of medicine as a major historical figure who made important contributions to medicine and the European Renaissance. His medical texts were unusual in that where controversy existed between Galen and Aristotle's views on medical matters (such as anatomy), he preferred to side with Aristotle, where necessary updating Aristotle's position to take into account post-Aristotelian advances in anatomical knowledge. Aristotle's dominant intellectual influence among medieval European scholars meant that Avicenna's linking of Galen's medical writings with Aristotle's philosophical writings in the Canon of Medicine (along with its comprehensive and logical organisation of knowledge) significantly increased Avicenna's importance in medieval Europe in comparison to other Islamic writers on medicine. His influence following translation of the Canon was such that from the early fourteenth to the mid-sixteenth centuries he was ranked with Hippocrates and Galen as one of the acknowledged authorities, (\"prince of physicians\").", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 78209, 353215, 2426527, 1101492, 14194, 25532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 19, 28 ], [ 30, 42 ], [ 47, 55 ], [ 160, 179 ], [ 271, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In present-day Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan, he is considered a national icon, and is often regarded as among the greatest Persians. A monument was erected outside the Bukhara museum. The Avicenna Mausoleum and Museum in Hamadan was built in 1952. Bu-Ali Sina University in Hamadan (Iran), the biotechnology Avicenna Research Institute in Tehran (Iran), the ibn Sīnā Tajik State Medical University in Dushanbe, Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences at Aligarh, India, Avicenna School in Karachi and Avicenna Medical College in Lahore, Pakistan, Ibn Sina Balkh Medical School in his native province of Balkh in Afghanistan, Ibni Sina Faculty Of Medicine of Ankara University Ankara, Turkey, the main classroom building (the Avicenna Building) of the Sharif University of Technology, and Ibn Sina Integrated School in Marawi City (Philippines) are all named in his honour. His portrait hangs in the Hall of the Avicenna Faculty of Medicine in the University of Paris. There is a crater on the Moon named Avicenna and a mangrove genus.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 30108, 45455021, 43610555, 5873747, 28260560, 56658, 26634144, 461294, 17123, 38407596, 125315, 332847, 737, 802, 11125639, 453155, 84692, 1053899, 73448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 47 ], [ 192, 221 ], [ 225, 232 ], [ 252, 274 ], [ 312, 339 ], [ 405, 413 ], [ 415, 465 ], [ 469, 476 ], [ 504, 511 ], [ 516, 540 ], [ 544, 550 ], [ 618, 623 ], [ 627, 638 ], [ 691, 697 ], [ 699, 705 ], [ 766, 797 ], [ 962, 981 ], [ 1019, 1027 ], [ 1034, 1042 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1980, the Soviet Union, which then ruled his birthplace Bukhara, celebrated the thousandth anniversary of Avicenna's birth by circulating various commemorative stamps with artistic illustrations, and by erecting a bust of Avicenna based on anthropological research by Soviet scholars. Near his birthplace in Qishlak Afshona, some north of Bukhara, a training college for medical staff has been named for him. On the grounds is a museum dedicated to his life, times and work.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 26779, 318418, 1389981, 569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ], [ 149, 168 ], [ 217, 221 ], [ 243, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Avicenna Prize, established in 2003, is awarded every two years by UNESCO and rewards individuals and groups for their achievements in the field of ethics in science. The aim of the award is to promote ethical reflection on issues raised by advances in science and technology, and to raise global awareness of the importance of ethics in science.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 15366309, 21786641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 71, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Avicenna Directories (2008–15; now the World Directory of Medical Schools) list universities and schools where doctors, public health practitioners, pharmacists and others, are educated. The original project team stated \"Why Avicenna? Avicenna... was... noted for his synthesis of knowledge from both east and west. He has had a lasting influence on the development of medicine and health sciences. The use of Avicenna's name symbolises the worldwide partnership that is needed for the promotion of health services of high quality.\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 17033652, 44286728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 24 ], [ 43, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2009, Iran donated a \"Persian Scholars Pavilion\" to United Nations Office in Vienna which is placed in the central Memorial Plaza of the Vienna International Center. The \"Persian Scholars Pavilion\" at United Nations in Vienna, Austria is featuring the statues of four prominent Iranian figures. Highlighting the Iranian architectural features, the pavilion is adorned with Persian art forms and includes the statues of renowned Iranian scientists Avicenna, Al-Biruni, Zakariya Razi (Rhazes) and Omar Khayyam.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 52424291, 8459430, 2962881, 55866, 271975, 78209, 92550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 55 ], [ 60, 91 ], [ 145, 172 ], [ 227, 233 ], [ 465, 474 ], [ 476, 489 ], [ 503, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1982 Soviet film Youth of Genius () by recounts Avicenna's younger years. The film is set in Bukhara at the turn of the millennium.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Louis L'Amour's 1985 historical novel The Walking Drum, Kerbouchard studies and discusses Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 311198, 4098609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 16 ], [ 41, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his book The Physician (1988) Noah Gordon tells the story of a young English medical apprentice who disguises himself as a Jew to travel from England to Persia and learn from Avicenna, the great master of his time. The novel was adapted into a feature film, The Physician, in 2013. Avicenna was played by Ben Kingsley.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 13464538, 1295736, 39393677, 168480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 25 ], [ 33, 44 ], [ 261, 274 ], [ 308, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The treatises of Avicenna influenced later Muslim thinkers in many areas including theology, philology, mathematics, astronomy, physics and music. His works numbered almost 450 volumes on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 volumes of his surviving works concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "His most famous works are The Book of Healing, and The Canon of Medicine.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna wrote at least one treatise on alchemy, but several others have been falsely attributed to him. His Logic, Metaphysics, Physics, and De Caelo, are treatises giving a synoptic view of Aristotelian doctrine, though Metaphysics demonstrates a significant departure from the brand of Neoplatonism known as Aristotelianism in Avicenna's world; Arabic philosophers have hinted at the idea that Avicenna was attempting to \"re-Aristotelianise\" Muslim philosophy in its entirety, unlike his predecessors, who accepted the conflation of Platonic, Aristotelian, Neo- and Middle-Platonic works transmitted into the Muslim world.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of works", "target_page_ids": [ 309909, 23385833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 213 ], [ 289, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Logic and Metaphysics have been extensively reprinted, the latter, e.g., at Venice in 1493, 1495 and 1546. Some of his shorter essays on medicine, logic, etc., take a poetical form (the poem on logic was published by Schmoelders in 1836). Two encyclopedic treatises, dealing with philosophy, are often mentioned. The larger, Al-Shifa' (Sanatio), exists nearly complete in manuscript in the Bodleian Library and elsewhere; part of it on the De Anima appeared at Pavia (1490) as the Liber Sextus Naturalium, and the long account of Avicenna's philosophy given by Muhammad al-Shahrastani seems to be mainly an analysis, and in many places a reproduction, of the Al-Shifa'. A shorter form of the work is known as the An-najat (Liberatio). The Latin editions of part of these works have been modified by the corrections which the monastic editors confess that they applied. There is also a (hikmat-al-mashriqqiyya, in Latin Philosophia Orientalis), mentioned by Roger Bacon, the majority of which is lost in antiquity, which according to Averroes was pantheistic in tone.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of works", "target_page_ids": [ 145227, 86728, 7790479, 25879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 329, 338 ], [ 394, 410 ], [ 565, 588 ], [ 962, 973 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna's works further include:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sirat al-shaykh al-ra'is (The Life of Avicenna), ed. and trans. WE. Gohlman, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1974. (The only critical edition of Avicenna's autobiography, supplemented with material from a biography by his student Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani. A more recent translation of the Autobiography appears in D. Gutas, Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works, Leiden: Brill, 1988; second edition 2014.)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Al-isharat wa al-tanbihat (Remarks and Admonitions), ed. S. Dunya, Cairo, 1960; parts translated by S.C. Inati, Remarks and Admonitions, Part One: Logic, Toronto, Ont.: Pontifical Institute for Mediaeval Studies, 1984, and Ibn Sina and Mysticism, Remarks and Admonitions: Part 4, London: Kegan Paul International, 1996.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of works", "target_page_ids": [ 47167089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qanun fi'l-tibb (The Canon of Medicine), ed. I. a-Qashsh, Cairo, 1987. (Encyclopedia of medicine.) manuscript, Latin translation, Flores Avicenne, Michael de Capella, 1508, Modern text. Ahmed Shawkat Al-Shatti, Jibran Jabbur.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Risalah fi sirr al-qadar (Essay on the Secret of Destiny), trans. G. Hourani in Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Danishnama-i 'ala'i (The Book of Scientific Knowledge), ed. and trans. P. Morewedge, The Metaphysics of Avicenna, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of works", "target_page_ids": [ 65891282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kitab al-Shifa''' (The Book of Healing). (Avicenna's major work on philosophy. He probably began to compose al-Shifa' in 1014, and completed it in 1020.) Critical editions of the Arabic text have been published in Cairo, 1952–83, originally under the supervision of I. Madkour.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of works", "target_page_ids": [ 145227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kitab al-Najat (The Book of Salvation), trans. F. Rahman, Avicenna's Psychology: An English Translation of Kitab al-Najat, Book II, Chapter VI with Historical-philosophical Notes and Textual Improvements on the Cairo Edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1952. (The psychology of al-Shifa'.) (Digital version of the Arabic text)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Risala fi'l-Ishq (A Treatise on Love). Translated by Emil L. Fackenheim.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Avicenna's most important Persian work is the Danishnama-i 'Alai (, \"the Book of Knowledge for [Prince] 'Ala ad-Daulah\"). Avicenna created new scientific vocabulary that had not previously existed in Persian. The Danishnama covers such topics as logic, metaphysics, music theory and other sciences of his time. It has been translated into English by Parwiz Morewedge in 1977. The book is also important in respect to Persian scientific works.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of works", "target_page_ids": [ 11600, 65891282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 33 ], [ 46, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andar Danesh-e Rag (, \"On the Science of the Pulse\") contains nine chapters on the science of the pulse and is a condensed synopsis.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Persian poetry from Avicenna is recorded in various manuscripts and later anthologies such as Nozhat al-Majales.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "List of works", "target_page_ids": [ 462477, 23946198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 94, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qumri (possibly Avicenna's teacher)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2042430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abdol Hamid Khosro Shahi (Iranian theologian)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 49583275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mummia (Persian medicine)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11888310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eastern philosophy", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 151419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iranian philosophy", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2816803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Islamic philosophy", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 166162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Contemporary Islamic philosophy", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2695116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Science in the medieval Islamic world", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 267542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of scientists in medieval Islamic world", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2933164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sufi philosophy", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3144227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Science and technology in Iran", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26656516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ancient Iranian medicine", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13956265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1057456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences in Aligarh", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26634144, 461294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 51 ], [ 55, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Avicenna Bay in Antarctica", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16487479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Avicenna (crater) on the far side of the Moon", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1053899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Avicenna Cultural and Scientific Foundation", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 50395050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Avicenne Hospital in Paris, France", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 51790686, 22989, 5843419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 22, 27 ], [ 29, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Avicenna International College in Budapest, Hungary", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32828787, 36787, 13275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ], [ 35, 43 ], [ 45, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Avicenna Mausoleum (complex dedicated to Avicenna) in Hamadan, Iran", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45455021, 43610555, 14653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 55, 62 ], [ 64, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Avicenna Research Institute in Tehran, Iran", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28260560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Avicenna Tajik State Medical University in Dushanbe, Tajikistan", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21210183, 56658, 30108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ], [ 44, 52 ], [ 54, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bu-Ali Sina University in Hamedan, Iran", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5873747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ibn Sina Peak – named after the Scientist, on the Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan border", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 53043, 170131, 30108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 51, 61 ], [ 62, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ibn Sina Foundation in Houston, Texas", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ibn Sina Hospital, Baghdad, Iraq", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5932610, 4492, 7515928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 20, 27 ], [ 29, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ibn Sina Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ibn Sina Medical College Hospital, Dhaka, Bangladesh", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41315630, 56656, 3454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 37, 42 ], [ 44, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ibn Sina University Hospital of Rabat-Salé at Mohammed V University in Rabat, Morocco", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7245277, 57400, 19291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 68 ], [ 72, 77 ], [ 79, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ibne Sina Hospital, Multan, Punjab, Pakistan", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " International Ibn Sina Clinic, Dushanbe, Tajikistan", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 56658, 30108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 40 ], [ 42, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (PDF version)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Avicenna entry by Sajjad H. Rizvi in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1967949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For an old list of other extant works, C. Brockelmann's Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Weimar 1898), vol. i. pp.452–458. (XV. W.; G. W. T.)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 3430980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " For a current list of his works see A. Bertolacci (2006) and D. Gutas (2014) in the section \"Philosophy\".", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Avicenne: Réfutation de l'astrologie. Edition et traduction du texte arabe, introduction, notes et lexique par Yahya Michot. Préface d'Elizabeth Teissier (Beirut-Paris: Albouraq, 2006) .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " William E. Gohlam (ed.), The Life of Ibn Sina. A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation, Albany, State of New York University Press, 1974.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " For Ibn Sina's life, see Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, translated by de Slane (1842); F. Wüstenfeld's Geschichte der arabischen Aerzte und Naturforscher (Göttingen, 1840).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1316107, 4296879, 4226103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 39 ], [ 81, 89 ], [ 98, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Madelung, Wilferd and Toby Mayer (ed. and tr.), Struggling with the Philosopher: A Refutation of Avicenna's Metaphysics. A New Arabic Edition and English Translation of Shahrastani's Kitab al-Musara'a.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 7790479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " This is, on the whole, an informed and good account of the life and accomplishments of one of the greatest influences on the development of thought both Eastern and Western.... It is not as philosophically thorough as the works of D. Saliba, A.M. Goichon, or L. Gardet, but it is probably the best essay in English on this important thinker of the Middle Ages. (Julius R. Weinberg, The Philosophical Review, Vol. 69, No. 2, Apr. 1960, pp.255–259)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " This is a distinguished work which stands out from, and above, many of the books and articles which have been written in this century on Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) (980–1037). It has two main features on which its distinction as a major contribution to Avicennan studies may be said to rest: the first is its clarity and readability; the second is the comparative approach adopted by the author.... (Ian Richard Netton, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Third Series, Vol. 4, No. 2, July 1994, pp.263–264)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Y.T. Langermann (ed.), Avicenna and his Legacy. A Golden Age of Science and Philosophy, Brepols Publishers, 2010, ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " For a new understanding of his early career, based on a newly discovered text, see also: Michot, Yahya, Ibn Sînâ: Lettre au vizir Abû Sa'd. Editio princeps d'après le manuscrit de Bursa, traduction de l'arabe, introduction, notes et lexique (Beirut-Paris: Albouraq, 2000) .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " This German publication is both one of the most comprehensive general introductions to the life and works of the philosopher and physician Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā, d. 1037) and an extensive and careful survey of his contribution to the history of science. Its author is a renowned expert in Greek and Arabic medicine who has paid considerable attention to Avicenna in his recent studies.... (Amos Bertolacci, Isis, Vol. 96, No. 4, December 2005, p.649)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shaikh al Rais Ibn Sina (Special number) 1958–59, Ed. Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Tibbia College Magazine, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 14533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Browne, Edward G. Islamic Medicine. Fitzpatrick Lectures Delivered at the Royal College of Physicians in 1919–1920, reprint: New Delhi: Goodword Books, 2001. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1494046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pormann, Peter & Savage-Smith, Emilie. Medieval Islamic Medicine, Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2007.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 66619800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prioreschi, Plinio. Byzantine and Islamic Medicine, A History of Medicine, Vol. 4, Omaha: Horatius Press, 2001.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Syed Ziaur Rahman. Pharmacology of Avicennian Cardiac Drugs (Metaanalysis of researches and studies in Avicennian Cardiac Drugs along with English translation of Risalah al Adwiya al Qalbiyah), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences, Aligarh, India, 2020 ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 26692101, 26634144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 195, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amos Bertolacci, The Reception of Aristotle's Metaphysics in Avicenna's Kitab al-Sifa'. A Milestone of Western Metaphysical Thought, Leiden: Brill 2006, (Appendix C contains an Overview of the Main Works by Avicenna on Metaphysics in Chronological Order).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dimitri Gutas, Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works, Leiden, Brill 2014, second revised and expanded edition (first edition: 1988), including an inventory of Avicenna' Authentic Works.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 36124359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Andreas Lammer: The Elements of Avicenna's Physics. Greek Sources and Arabic Innovations. Scientia graeco-arabica 20. Berlin / Boston: Walter de Gruyter, 2018.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jon McGinnis and David C. Reisman (eds.) Interpreting Avicenna: Science and Philosophy in Medieval Islam: Proceedings of the Second Conference of the Avicenna Study Group, Leiden: Brill, 2004.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Michot, Jean R., La destinée de l'homme selon Avicenne, Louvain: Aedibus Peeters, 1986, .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger, Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000 (reprinted by SUNY Press in 2014 with a new Preface).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 16593123, 37304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 65, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nader El-Bizri, \"Avicenna and Essentialism,\" Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 54 (June 2001), pp.753–778.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nader El-Bizri, \"Avicenna's De Anima between Aristotle and Husserl,\" in The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2003, pp.67–89.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nader El-Bizri, \"Being and Necessity: A Phenomenological Investigation of Avicenna's Metaphysics and Cosmology,\" in Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology on the Perennial Issue of Microcosm and Macrocosm, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2006, pp.243–261.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nader El-Bizri, 'Ibn Sīnā's Ontology and the Question of Being', Ishrāq: Islamic Philosophy Yearbook 2 (2011), 222–237", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nader El-Bizri, 'Philosophising at the Margins of 'Sh'i Studies': Reflections on Ibn Sīnā's Ontology', in The Study of Sh'i Islam. History, Theology and Law, eds. F. Daftary and G. Miskinzoda (London: I.B. Tauris, 2014), pp.585–597.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Reisman, David C. (ed.), Before and After Avicenna: Proceedings of the First Conference of the Avicenna Study Group'', Leiden: Brill, 2003.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Avicenna (Ibn-Sina) on the Subject and the Object of Metaphysics with a list of translations of the logical and philosophical works and an annotated bibliography", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Avicenna", "980s_births", "1037_deaths", "11th-century_astronomers", "11th-century_Persian-language_poets", "11th-century_philosophers", "Alchemists_of_medieval_Islam", "Aristotelian_philosophers", "Burials_in_Iran", "Buyid_viziers", "Classical_humanists", "Critics_of_atheism", "Cultural_critics", "Epistemologists", "Founders_of_philosophical_traditions", "Iranian_music_theorists", "Islamic_philosophers", "Transoxanian_Islamic_scholars", "Logicians", "People_from_Bukhara_Region", "Pharmacologists_of_medieval_Iran", "Metaphysicians", "Moral_philosophers", "Musical_theorists_of_medieval_Islam", "Ontologists", "People_from_Khorasan", "Persian_physicists", "Philosophers_of_ethics_and_morality", "Philosophers_of_logic", "Philosophers_of_mind", "Philosophers_of_psychology", "Philosophers_of_religion", "Philosophers_of_science", "Physicians_of_medieval_Islam", "Samanid_scholars", "Unani_medicine", "Iranian_logicians", "Iranian_ethicists", "Samanid_officials", "Philosophers_of_mathematics" ]

[ "Pūr-i Sīnā", "Aboû Alî al-Hosain ibn Abdallâh ibn Sînâ,", "Abitianus", "Ibn Sīnā" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Ashes is a Test cricket series played between England and Australia. The term originated in a satirical obituary published in a British newspaper, The Sporting Times, immediately after Australia's 1882 victory at The Oval, its first Test win on English soil. The obituary stated that English cricket had died, and \"the body will be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia\". The mythical ashes immediately became associated with the 1882–83 series played in Australia, before which the English captain Ivo Bligh had vowed to \"regain those ashes\". The English media therefore dubbed the tour the quest to regain the Ashes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30863, 759125, 374833, 18246727, 1355042, 387687, 1355042, 1294927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ], [ 50, 57 ], [ 62, 71 ], [ 151, 169 ], [ 201, 213 ], [ 217, 225 ], [ 438, 472 ], [ 507, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After England had won two of the three Tests on the tour, a small urn was presented to Bligh by a group of Melbourne women including Florence Morphy, whom Bligh married within a year. The contents of the urn are reputed to be the ashes of a wooden bail, and were humorously described as \"the ashes of Australian cricket\". It is not clear whether that \"tiny silver urn\" is the same as the small terracotta urn given to the MCC by Bligh's widow after his death in 1927.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17306237, 10389579, 345115, 307442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 116 ], [ 133, 148 ], [ 248, 252 ], [ 422, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The urn has never been the official trophy of the Ashes series, having been a personal gift to Bligh. However, replicas of the urn are often held aloft by victorious teams as a symbol of their victory in an Ashes series. Since the 1998–99 Ashes series, a Waterford Crystal representation of the Ashes urn (called the Ashes Trophy) has been presented to the winners of an Ashes series as the official trophy of that series. Irrespective of which side holds the tournament, the urn remains in the MCC Museum at Lord's; it has however been taken to Australia to be put on touring display on two occasions: as part of the Australian Bicentenary celebrations in 1988 and to accompany the Ashes series in 2006–07.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 34331701, 2237442, 6067653, 668869, 381880, 3262837, 6943764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 111, 118 ], [ 231, 251 ], [ 255, 272 ], [ 509, 515 ], [ 618, 640 ], [ 683, 706 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An Ashes series traditionally consists of five Tests, hosted in turn by England and Australia at least once every two years. The Ashes are regarded as being held by the team that most recently won the series. If the series is drawn, the team that currently holds the Ashes retains the trophy. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There have been 72 Ashes series: Australia have won 34, England have won 32 and six series have been drawn.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first Test match between England and Australia was played in Melbourne, Australia, in 1877, though the Ashes legend started later, after the ninth Test, played in 1882. On their tour of England that year the Australians played just one Test, at the Oval in London. It was a low-scoring affair on a difficult wicket. Australia made a mere 63 runs in their first innings, and England, led by A. N. Hornby, took a 38-run lead with a total of 101. In their second innings, Australia, boosted by a spectacular 55 runs off 60 deliveries from Hugh Massie, managed 122, which left England only 85 runs to win. The Australians were greatly demoralised by the manner of their second-innings collapse, but fast bowler Fred Spofforth, spurred on by the gamesmanship of his opponents, in particular W. G. Grace, refused to give in. \"This thing can be done,\" he declared. Spofforth went on to devastate the English batting, taking his final four wickets for only two runs to leave England just eight runs short of victory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "1882 origins", "target_page_ids": [ 30863, 17306237, 9306964, 8678899, 387687, 463644, 463032, 1291676, 1866753, 1410781, 731791, 34119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ], [ 65, 74 ], [ 87, 94 ], [ 182, 197 ], [ 249, 257 ], [ 312, 318 ], [ 365, 372 ], [ 394, 406 ], [ 540, 551 ], [ 711, 725 ], [ 745, 757 ], [ 790, 801 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Ted Peate, England's last batsman, came to the crease, his side needed just ten runs to win, but Peate managed only two before he was bowled by Harry Boyle. An astonished Oval crowd fell silent, struggling to believe that England could possibly have lost on home soil. When it finally sank in, the crowd swarmed onto the field, cheering loudly and chairing Boyle and Spofforth to the pavilion.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "1882 origins", "target_page_ids": [ 2450239, 2512766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 14 ], [ 149, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Peate returned to the pavilion he was reprimanded by his captain for not allowing his partner, Charles Studd (one of the best batsmen in England, having already hit two centuries that season against the colonists), to get the runs. Peate humorously replied, \"I had no confidence in Mr Studd, sir, so thought I had better do my best.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "1882 origins", "target_page_ids": [ 2134761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The momentous defeat was widely recorded in the British press, which praised the Australians for their plentiful \"pluck\" and berated the Englishmen for their lack thereof. A celebrated poem appeared in Punch on Saturday, 9 September. The first verse, quoted most frequently, reads:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "1882 origins", "target_page_ids": [ 23069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 31 August, in the Charles Alcock-edited magazine Cricket: A Weekly Record of The Game, there appeared a mock obituary:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "1882 origins", "target_page_ids": [ 2627460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 2 September a more celebrated mock obituary, written by Reginald Shirley Brooks, appeared in The Sporting Times. It read:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "1882 origins", "target_page_ids": [ 47176185, 18246727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 82 ], [ 96, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ivo Bligh promised that on 1882–83 tour of Australia, he would, as England's captain, \"recover those Ashes\". He spoke of them several times over the course of the tour, and the Australian media quickly caught on. The three-match series resulted in a two-one win to England, notwithstanding a fourth match, won by the Australians, whose status remains a matter of ardent dispute.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "1882 origins", "target_page_ids": [ 1294927, 12376655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 27, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 20 years following Bligh's campaign the term \"the Ashes\" largely disappeared from public use. There is no indication that this was the accepted name for the series, at least not in England. The term became popular again in Australia first, when George Giffen, in his memoirs (With Bat and Ball, 1899), used the term as if it were well known.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "1882 origins", "target_page_ids": [ 1866693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 252, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The true and global revitalisation of interest in the concept dates from 1903, when Pelham Warner took a team to Australia with the promise that he would regain \"the ashes\". As had been the case on Bligh's tour 20 years before, the Australian media latched fervently onto the term and, this time, it stuck. Having fulfilled his promise, Warner published a book entitled How We Recovered the Ashes. Although the origins of the term are not referred to in the text, the title served (along with the general hype created in Australia) to revive public interest in the legend. The first mention of \"the Ashes\" in Wisden Cricketers' Almanack occurs in 1905, while Wisden'''s first account of the legend is in the 1922 edition.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "1882 origins", "target_page_ids": [ 1336632, 1582694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 97 ], [ 609, 636 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It took many years before the contests between England and Australia were consistently called \"The Ashes\", and so there was no concept of either a trophy or a physical representation of the ashes. As late as 1925, the following verse appeared in The Cricketers Annual:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Urn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nevertheless, several attempts had been made to embody the Ashes in a physical memorial. Examples include one presented to Warner in 1904, another to Australian captain M. A. Noble in 1909, and another to Australian captain W. M. Woodfull in 1934.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Urn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The oldest, and the one to enjoy enduring fame, was the one presented to Bligh, later Lord Darnley, during the 1882–83 tour. The precise nature of the origin of this urn is matter of dispute. Based on a statement by Darnley in 1894, it was believed that a group of Victorian ladies, including Darnley's later wife Florence Morphy, made the presentation after the victory in the Third Test in 1883. More recent researchers, in particular Ronald Willis and Joy Munns have studied the tour in detail and concluded that the presentation was made after a private cricket match played over Christmas 1882 when the English team were guests of Sir William Clarke, at his property \"Rupertswood\", in Sunbury, Victoria. This was before the matches had started. The prime evidence for this theory was provided by a descendant of Clarke.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Urn", "target_page_ids": [ 34331701, 4689460, 10389579, 13324004, 3534564, 613752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 169 ], [ 265, 274 ], [ 314, 329 ], [ 636, 654 ], [ 673, 684 ], [ 690, 707 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 1926 Ivo Bligh (now Lord Darnley) displayed the Ashes urn at the Morning Post Decorative Art Exhibition held in the Central Hall, Westminster. He made the following statement about how he was given the ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Urn", "target_page_ids": [ 1266215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A more detailed account of how the Ashes were given to Ivo Bligh was outlined by his wife, the Countess of Darnley, in 1930 during a speech at a cricket luncheon. Her speech was reported by the Times as follows:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Urn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is another statement which is not totally clear made by Lord Darnley in 1921 about the timing of the presentation of the urn. He was interviewed in his home at Cobham Hall by Montague Grover and the report of this interview was as follows:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Urn", "target_page_ids": [ 69275149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He made a similar statement in 1926. The report of this statement in the Brisbane Courier was as follows:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Urn", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The contents of the urn are also problematic; they were variously reported to be the remains of a stump, bail or the outer casing of a ball, but in 1998 Darnley's 82-year-old daughter-in-law said they were the remains of her mother-in-law's veil, casting a further layer of doubt on the matter. However, during the tour of Australia in 2006/7, the MCC official accompanying the urn said the veil legend had been discounted, and it was now \"95% certain\" that the urn contains the ashes of a cricket bail. Speaking on Channel Nine TV on 25 November 2006, he said x-rays of the urn had shown the pedestal and handles were cracked, and repair work had to be carried out. The urn is made of terracotta and is about tall and may originally have been a perfume jar.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Urn", "target_page_ids": [ 174241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 686, 696 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A label containing a six-line verse is pasted on the urn. This is the fourth verse of a song-lyric published in the Melbourne Punch on 1 February 1883:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Urn", "target_page_ids": [ 26832757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 1883, just before the disputed Fourth Test, a velvet bag made by Mrs Ann Fletcher, the daughter of Joseph Hines Clarke and Marion Wright, both of Dublin, was given to Bligh to contain the urn. During Darnley's lifetime there was little public knowledge of the urn, and no record of a published photograph exists before 1921. The Illustrated London News published this photo in January 1921 (shown above). When Darnley died in 1927 his widow presented the urn to the Marylebone Cricket Club and that was the key event in establishing the urn as the physical embodiment of the legendary ashes. MCC first displayed the urn in the Long Room at Lord's and since 1953 in the MCC Cricket Museum at the ground. MCC's wish for it to be seen by as wide a range of cricket enthusiasts as possible has led to its being mistaken for an official trophy. It is in fact a private memento, and for this reason it is never awarded to either England or Australia, but is kept permanently in the MCC Cricket Museum where it can be seen together with the specially made red and gold velvet bag and the scorecard of the 1882 match.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Urn", "target_page_ids": [ 8504, 1197159, 307442, 381880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 164 ], [ 337, 364 ], [ 478, 501 ], [ 652, 658 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because the urn itself is so delicate, it has been allowed to travel to Australia only twice. The first occasion was in 1988 for a museum tour as part of the Australian Bicentenary celebrations; the second was for the 2006/7 Ashes series. The urn arrived on 17 October 2006, going on display at the Museum of Sydney. It then toured to other states, with the final appearance at the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery on 21 January 2007.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Urn", "target_page_ids": [ 3262837, 5527873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 180 ], [ 299, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1990s, given Australia's long dominance of the Ashes and the popular acceptance of the Darnley urn as \"the Ashes\", the idea was mooted that the victorious team should be awarded the urn as a trophy and allowed to retain it until the next series. As its condition is fragile and it is a prized exhibit at the MCC Cricket Museum, the MCC would not agree. Furthermore, in 2002, Bligh's great-great-grandson Lord Clifton, the heir-apparent to the Earldom of Darnley, argued that the Ashes urn should not be returned to Australia because it belonged to his family and was given to the MCC only for safe keeping.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Urn", "target_page_ids": [ 466507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 450, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a compromise, the MCC commissioned a larger replica of the urn in Waterford Crystal, known as the Ashes Trophy, to award to the winning team of each series starting with the 1998–99 Ashes. This did little to diminish the status of the Darnley urn as the most important icon in cricket, the symbol of this old and keenly fought contest.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Urn", "target_page_ids": [ 668869, 6067653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 86 ], [ 177, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later in 1882, following the famous Australian victory at The Oval, Bligh led an England team to Australia, as he said, to \"recover those ashes\". Publicity surrounding the series was intense, and it was at some time during this series that the Ashes urn was crafted. Australia won the First Test by nine wickets, but in the next two England were victorious. At the end of the Third Test, England were generally considered to have \"won back the Ashes\" 2–1. A fourth match was played, against a \"United Australian XI\", which was arguably stronger than the Australian sides that had competed in the previous three matches; this game, however, is not generally considered part of the 1882–83 series. It is counted as a Test, but as a standalone. This match ended in a victory for Australia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 1294927, 1092645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 73 ], [ 299, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Bligh's victory, there was an extended period of English dominance. The tours generally had fewer Tests in the 1880s and 1890s than people have grown accustomed to in more recent years, the first five-Test series taking place only in 1894–95. England lost only four Ashes Tests in the 1880s out of 23 played, and they won all the seven series contested.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There was more chopping and changing in the teams, given that there was no official board of selectors for each country (in 1887–88, two separate English teams were on tour in Australia) and popularity with the fans varied. The 1890s games were more closely fought, Australia taking its first series win since 1882 with a 2–1 victory in 1891–92. But England dominated, winning the next three series to 1896 despite continuing player disputes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 1894–95 series began in sensational fashion when England won the First Test at Sydney by just 10 runs having followed on. Australia had scored a massive 586 (Syd Gregory 201, George Giffen 161) and then dismissed England for 325. But England responded with 437 and then dramatically dismissed Australia for 166 with Bobby Peel taking 6 for 67. At the close of the second last day's play, Australia were 113–2, needing only 64 more runs. But heavy rain fell overnight and next morning the two slow left-arm bowlers, Peel and Johnny Briggs, were all but unplayable. England went on to win the series 3–2 after it had been all square before the Final Test, which England won by 6 wickets. The English heroes were Peel, with 27 wickets in the series at an average of 26.70, and Tom Richardson, with 32 at 26.53.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 12378500, 1866619, 1866693, 1604694, 1668707, 1613833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 162, 173 ], [ 179, 192 ], [ 320, 330 ], [ 528, 541 ], [ 778, 792 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1896, England under the captaincy of W. G. Grace won the series 2–1, and this marked the end of England's longest period of Ashes dominance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 34119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia resoundingly won the 1897–98 series by 4–1 under the captaincy of Harry Trott. His successor Joe Darling won the next three series in 1899, 1901–02, and the classic 1902 series, which became one of the most famous in the history of Test cricket.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 1866679, 1866664, 8607653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 87 ], [ 103, 114 ], [ 167, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Five matches were played in 1902 but the first two were drawn after being hit by bad weather. In the First Test (the first played at Edgbaston), after scoring 376 England bowled out Australia for 36 (Wilfred Rhodes 7/17) and reduced them to 46–2 when they followed on. Australia won the Third and Fourth Tests at Bramall Lane and Old Trafford respectively. At Old Trafford, Australia won by just 3 runs after Victor Trumper had scored 104 on a \"bad wicket\", reaching his hundred before lunch on the first day. England won the last Test at The Oval by one wicket. Chasing 263 to win, they slumped to 48–5 before Gilbert Jessop's 104 gave them a chance. He reached his hundred in just 75 minutes. The last-wicket pair of George Hirst and Rhodes were required to score 15 runs for victory. When Rhodes joined him, Hirst reportedly said: \"We'll get them in singles, Wilfred.\" In fact, they scored thirteen singles and a two.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 2641030, 1711397, 780018, 660597, 30265677, 387687, 2052173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 142 ], [ 200, 214 ], [ 313, 325 ], [ 330, 342 ], [ 409, 423 ], [ 539, 547 ], [ 719, 731 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The period of Darling's captaincy saw the emergence of outstanding Australian players such as Trumper, Warwick Armstrong, James Kelly, Monty Noble, Clem Hill, Hugh Trumble and Ernie Jones.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 1500490, 2385137, 1866648, 1866627, 1866658, 3539553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 120 ], [ 122, 133 ], [ 135, 146 ], [ 148, 157 ], [ 159, 171 ], [ 176, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After what the MCC saw as the problems of the earlier professional and amateur series they decided to take control of organising tours themselves, and this led to the first MCC tour of Australia in 1903–04. England won it against the odds, and Plum Warner, the England captain, wrote up his version of the tour in his book How We Recovered The Ashes. The title of this book revived the Ashes legend and it was after this that England v Australia series were customarily referred to as \"The Ashes\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 307442, 1336632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 18 ], [ 244, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "England and Australia were evenly matched until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. Five more series took place between 1905 and 1912. In 1905, England's captain Stanley Jackson not only won the series 2–0, but also won the toss in all five matches and headed both the batting and the bowling averages. Monty Noble led Australia to victory in both 1907–08 and 1909. Then England won in 1911–12 by four matches to one. Jack Hobbs establishing himself as England's first-choice opening batsman with three centuries, while Frank Foster (32 wickets at 21.62) and Sydney Barnes (34 wickets at 22.88) formed a formidable bowling partnership.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 1337061, 302759, 1578800, 1175870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 186 ], [ 427, 437 ], [ 529, 541 ], [ 568, 581 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "England retained the Ashes when it won the 1912 Triangular Tournament, which also featured South Africa. The Australian touring party had been severely weakened by a dispute between the board and players that caused Clem Hill, Victor Trumper, Warwick Armstrong, Tibby Cotter, Sammy Carter and Vernon Ransford to be omitted.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 2597828, 759263, 15462345, 1866627, 30265677, 6876246, 2384998, 2873595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 69 ], [ 91, 103 ], [ 166, 173 ], [ 216, 225 ], [ 227, 241 ], [ 262, 274 ], [ 276, 288 ], [ 293, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the war, Australia took firm control of both the Ashes and world cricket. For the first time, the tactic of using two express bowlers in tandem paid off as Jack Gregory and Ted McDonald crippled the English batting on a regular basis. Australia recorded overwhelming victories both in England and on home soil. It won the first eight matches in succession including a 5–0 whitewash in 1920–1921 at the hands of Warwick Armstrong's team.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 2551097, 3586962, 8830995, 6040569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 174 ], [ 179, 191 ], [ 378, 387 ], [ 391, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ruthless and belligerent Armstrong led his team back to England in 1921 where his men lost only two games late in the tour to narrowly miss out of being the first team to complete a tour of England without defeat.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "England won only one Test out of 15 from the end of the war until 1925.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a rain-hit series in 1926, England managed to eke out a 1–0 victory with a win in the final Test at The Oval. Because the series was at stake, the match was to be \"timeless\", i.e., played to a finish. Australia had a narrow first innings lead of 22. Jack Hobbs and Herbert Sutcliffe took the score to 49–0 at the end of the second day, a lead of 27. Heavy rain fell overnight, and next day the pitch soon developed into a traditional sticky wicket. England seemed doomed to be bowled out cheaply and to lose the match. In spite of the very difficult batting conditions, however, Hobbs and Sutcliffe took their partnership to 172 before Hobbs was out for exactly 100. Sutcliffe went on to make 161 and England won the game comfortably. Australian captain Herbie Collins was stripped of all captaincy positions down to club level, and some accused him of throwing the match.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 1761928, 1866590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 268, 285 ], [ 757, 771 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia's ageing post-war team broke up after 1926, with Collins, Charlie Macartney and Warren Bardsley all departing, and Gregory breaking down at the start of the 1928–29 series.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 2581850, 1866601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 85 ], [ 90, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the debut of Donald Bradman, the inexperienced Australians, led by Jack Ryder, were heavily defeated, losing 4–1. England had a very strong batting side, with Wally Hammond contributing 905 runs at an average of 113.12, and Hobbs, Sutcliffe and Patsy Hendren all scoring heavily; the bowling was more than adequate, without being outstanding.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 87021, 1866582, 585705, 2051470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 35 ], [ 75, 85 ], [ 167, 180 ], [ 253, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1930, Bill Woodfull led an extremely inexperienced team to England.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 820126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bradman fulfilled his promise in the 1930 series when he scored 974 runs at 139.14, which remains a world record Test series aggregate. A modest Bradman can be heard in a 1930 recording saying \"I have always endeavoured to do my best for the side, and the few centuries that have come my way have been achieved in the hope of winning matches. My one idea when going into bat was to make runs for Australia.\" In the Headingley Test, he made 334, reaching 309* at the end of the first day, including a century before lunch. Bradman himself thought that his 254 in the preceding match, at Lord's, was a better innings. England managed to stay in contention until the deciding final Test at The Oval, but yet another double hundred by Bradman, and 7/92 by Percy Hornibrook in England's second innings, enabled Australia to win by an innings and take the series 2–1. Clarrie Grimmett's 29 wickets at 31.89 for Australia in this high-scoring series were also important.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 47409850, 381880, 3593882, 1091375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 415, 425 ], [ 586, 592 ], [ 752, 768 ], [ 862, 878 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia had one of the strongest batting line-ups ever in the early 1930s, with Bradman, Archie Jackson, Stan McCabe, Bill Woodfull and Bill Ponsford. It was the prospect of bowling at this line-up that caused England's 1932–33 captain Douglas Jardine to adopt the tactic of fast leg theory, better known as Bodyline.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 2706807, 2270643, 820126, 2264036, 739672, 4109, 18053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 105 ], [ 107, 118 ], [ 120, 133 ], [ 138, 151 ], [ 238, 253 ], [ 282, 292 ], [ 310, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jardine instructed his fast bowlers, most notably Harold Larwood and Bill Voce, to bowl at the bodies of the Australian batsmen, with the goal of forcing them to defend their bodies with their bats, thus providing easy catches to a stacked leg-side field. Jardine insisted that the tactic was legitimate and called it \"leg theory\" but it was widely disparaged by its opponents, who dubbed it \"Bodyline\" (from \"on the line of the body\"). Although England decisively won the Ashes 4–1, Bodyline caused such a furore in Australia that diplomats had to intervene to prevent serious harm to Anglo-Australian relations, and the MCC eventually changed the Laws of cricket to curtail the number of leg side fielders.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 678695, 171681, 777734, 650752, 307442, 463210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 35 ], [ 50, 64 ], [ 69, 78 ], [ 240, 248 ], [ 622, 625 ], [ 649, 664 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jardine's comment was: \"I've not travelled 6,000 miles to make friends. I'm here to win the Ashes\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some of the Australians wanted to use Bodyline in retaliation, but Woodfull flatly refused. He famously told England manager Pelham Warner, \"There are two teams out there. One is playing cricket; the other is making no attempt to do so\" after the latter had come into the Australian rooms to express sympathy after a Larwood bouncer had struck the Australian skipper in the heart and felled him.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 1336632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the batting-friendly wickets that prevailed in the late 1930s, most Tests up to the Second World War still gave results. It should be borne in mind that Tests in Australia prior to the war were all played to a finish, with many batting records set during this period. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 463644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1934 Ashes series began with the notable absence of Larwood, Voce and Jardine. The MCC had made it clear, in light of the revelations of the bodyline series, that these players would not face Australia. The MCC, although it had earlier condoned and encouraged bodyline tactics in the 1932–33 series, laid the blame on Larwood when relations turned sour. Larwood was forced by the MCC to either apologise or be removed from the Test side. He went for the latter.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Australia recovered the Ashes in 1934 and held them until 1953, though no Test cricket was played during the Second World War.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As in 1930, the 1934 series was decided in the final Test at The Oval. Australia, batting first, posted a massive 701 in the first innings. Bradman (244) and Ponsford (266) were in record-breaking form with a partnership of 451 for the second wicket. England eventually faced a massive 707-run target for victory and failed, Australia winning the series 2–1. This made Woodfull the only captain to regain the Ashes and he retired upon his return to Australia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1936–37 Bradman succeeded Woodfull as Australian captain. He started badly, losing the first two Tests heavily after Australia were caught on sticky wickets. However, the Australians fought back and Bradman won his first series in charge 3–2.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 11521294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1938 series was a high-scoring affair with two high-scoring draws, resulting in a 1–1 result, Australia retaining the Ashes. After the first two matches ended in stalemate and the Third Test at Old Trafford never started due to rain, Australia then scraped home by five wickets inside three days in a low-scoring match at Headingley to retain the urn. In the timeless Fifth Test at The Oval, the highlight was Len Hutton's then world-record score of 364 as England made 903-7 declared. Bradman and Jack Fingleton injured themselves during Hutton's marathon effort, and with only nine men, Australia fell to defeat by an innings and 579 runs, the heaviest in Test history.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 541433, 1671163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 414, 424 ], [ 502, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ashes resumed after the war when England toured in 1946–47 and, as in 1920–21, found that Australia had made the better post-war recovery. Still captained by Bradman and now featuring the potent new-ball partnership of Ray Lindwall and Keith Miller, Australia were convincing 3–0 winners.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 1856347, 1061737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 235 ], [ 240, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aged 38 and having been unwell during the war, Bradman had been reluctant to play. He batted unconvincingly and reached 28 when he hit a ball to Jack Ikin; England believed it was a catch, but Bradman stood his ground, believing it to be a bump ball. The umpire ruled in the Australian captain's favour and he appeared to regain his fluency of yesteryear, scoring 187. Australia promptly seized the initiative, won the First Test convincingly and inaugurated a dominant post-war era. The controversy over the Ikin catch was one of the biggest disputes of the era.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 3695238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1948, Australia set new standards, completely outplaying its hosts to win 4–0 with one draw. This Australian team, led by Bradman, who turned 40 during his final tour of England, has gone down in history as The Invincibles. Playing 34 matches on tour—three of which were not first-class—and including the five Tests, they remained unbeaten, winning 27 and drawing 7.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 1858255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bradman's men were greeted by packed crowds across the country, and records for Test attendances in England were set in the Second and Fourth Tests at Lord's and Headingley respectively. Before a record attendance of spectators at Headingley, Australia set a world record by chasing down 404 on the last day for a seven-wicket victory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 21001557, 21001281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 130 ], [ 135, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1948 series ended with one of the most poignant moments in cricket history, as Bradman played his final innings for Australia in the Fifth Test at The Oval, needing to score only four runs to end with a career batting average of exactly 100. However, Bradman made a second-ball duck, bowled by an Eric Hollies googly that sent him into retirement with a career average of 99.94.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 20206108, 32432826, 611473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 147 ], [ 214, 229 ], [ 301, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bradman was succeeded as Australian captain by Lindsay Hassett, who led the team to a 4–1 series victory in 1950–51. The series was not as one-sided as the number of wins suggest, with several tight matches.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 1866482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The tide finally turned in 1953 when England won the final Test at The Oval to take the series 1–0, having narrowly avoided defeat in the preceding Test at Headingley. This was the beginning of one of the greatest periods in English cricket history with players such as captain Len Hutton, batsmen Denis Compton, Peter May, Tom Graveney, Colin Cowdrey, bowlers Fred Trueman, Brian Statham, Alec Bedser, Jim Laker, Tony Lock, wicket-keeper Godfrey Evans and all-rounder Trevor Bailey.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 539457, 1351617, 1351433, 165713, 413202, 1738398, 1919263, 263478, 2027529, 2380488, 2125282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 298, 311 ], [ 313, 322 ], [ 324, 336 ], [ 338, 351 ], [ 361, 373 ], [ 375, 388 ], [ 390, 401 ], [ 403, 412 ], [ 414, 423 ], [ 439, 452 ], [ 469, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1954–55, Australia's batsmen had no answer to the pace of Frank Tyson and Statham. After winning the First Test by an innings after being controversially sent in by Hutton, Australia lost its way and England took a hat-trick of victories to win the series 3–1.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 6041225, 2444764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ], [ 61, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A dramatic series in 1956 saw a record that will probably never be beaten: off-spinner Jim Laker's monumental effort at Old Trafford when he bowled 68 of 191 overs to take 19 out of 20 possible Australian wickets in the Fourth Test. It was Australia's second consecutive innings defeat in a wet summer, and the hosts were in strong positions in the two drawn Tests, in which half the playing time was washed out. Bradman rated the team that won the series 2–1 as England's best ever.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 263478, 660597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 96 ], [ 120, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "England's dominance was not to last. Australia won 4–0 in 1958–59, having found a high-quality spinner of their own in new skipper Richie Benaud, who took 31 wickets in the five-Test series, and paceman Alan Davidson, who took 24 wickets at 19.00. The series was overshadowed by the furore over various Australian bowlers, most notably Ian Meckiff, whom the English management and media accused of illegally throwing Australia to victory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 26479, 2086470, 2853227, 4009326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 144 ], [ 203, 216 ], [ 336, 347 ], [ 398, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1961, Australia won a hard-fought series 2–1, their first Ashes series win in England for 13 years. After narrowly winning the Second Test at Lord's, dubbed \"The Battle of the Ridge\" because of a protrusion on the pitch that caused erratic bounce, Australia mounted a comeback on the final day of the Fourth Test at Old Trafford and sealed the series with Richie Benaud taking 6-70 during the English runchase.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 26479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 360, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The tempo of the play changed over the next four series in the 1960s, held in 1962–63, 1964, 1965–66 and 1968. The powerful array of bowlers that both countries boasted in the preceding decade moved into retirement, and their replacements were of lesser quality, making it more difficult to force a result. England failed to win any series during the 1960s, a period dominated by draws as teams found it more prudent to save face than risk losing. Of the 20 Tests played during the four series, Australia won four and England three. As they held the Ashes, Australia's captains Bob Simpson and Bill Lawry were happy to adopt safety-first tactics and their strategy of sedate batting saw many draws. During this period, spectator attendances dropped and media condemnation increased, but Simpson and Lawry flatly disregarded the public dissatisfaction.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 1512683, 968847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 578, 589 ], [ 594, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was in the 1960s that the bipolar dominance of England and Australia in world cricket was seriously challenged for the first time. West Indies defeated England twice in the mid-1960s and South Africa, in two series before they were banned for apartheid, completely outplayed Australia 3–1 and 4–0. Australia had lost 2–1 during a tour of the West Indies in 1964–65, the first time it had lost a series to any team other than England.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 2200527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1970–71, Ray Illingworth led England to a 2–0 win in Australia, mainly due to John Snow's fast bowling, and the prolific batting of Geoffrey Boycott and John Edrich. It was not until the last session of what was the 7th Test (one match having been abandoned without a ball bowled) that England's success was secured. Lawry was sacked after the Sixth Test after the selectors finally lost patience with Australia's lack of success and dour strategy. Lawry was not informed of the decision privately and heard his fate over the radio.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 1354466, 223246, 413130, 1348916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 27 ], [ 81, 90 ], [ 135, 151 ], [ 156, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1972 series finished 2–2, with England under Illingworth retaining the Ashes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1974–75 series, with the England team breaking up and their best batsman Geoff Boycott refusing to play, Australian pace bowlers Jeff Thomson and Dennis Lillee wreaked havoc. A 4–1 result was a fair reflection as England were left shell shocked. England then lost the 1975 series 0–1, but at least restored some pride under new captain Tony Greig.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 1622944, 894415, 965359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 148 ], [ 153, 166 ], [ 343, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia won the 1977 Centenary Test which was not an Ashes contest, but then a storm broke as Kerry Packer announced his intention to form World Series Cricket. WSC affected all Test-playing nations but it weakened Australia especially as the bulk of its players had signed up with Packer; the Australian Cricket Board (ACB) would not select WSC-contracted players and an almost completely new Test team had to be formed. WSC came after an era during which the duopoly of Australian and English dominance dissipated; the Ashes had long been seen as a cricket world championship but the rise of the West Indies in the late 1970s challenged that view. The West Indies would go on to record resounding Test series wins over Australia and England and dominated world cricket until the 1990s.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 173686, 185047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 108 ], [ 141, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With Greig having joined WSC, England appointed Mike Brearley as its captain and he enjoyed great success against Australia. Largely assisted by the return of Boycott, Brearley's men won the 1977 series 3–0 and then completed an overwhelming 5–1 series win against an Australian side missing its WSC players in 1978–79. Allan Border made his Test debut for Australia in 1978–79.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 860973, 451428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 61 ], [ 320, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brearley retired from Test cricket in 1980 and was succeeded by Ian Botham, who started the 1981 series as England captain, by which time the WSC split had ended. After Australia took a 1–0 lead in the first two Tests, Botham was forced to resign or was sacked (depending on the source). Brearley surprisingly agreed to be reappointed before the Third Test at Headingley. This was a remarkable match in which Australia looked certain to take a 2–0 series lead after it had forced England to follow-on 227 runs behind. England, despite being 135 for 7, produced a second innings total of 356, Botham scoring 149*. Chasing just 130, Australia were sensationally dismissed for 111, Bob Willis taking 8–43. It was the first time since 1894–95 that a team following on had won a Test match. Under Brearley's leadership, England went on to win the next two matches before a drawn final match at The Oval.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 15524, 2444190, 1351354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 74 ], [ 92, 103 ], [ 679, 689 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1982–83 Australia had Greg Chappell back from WSC as captain, while the England team was weakened by the enforced omission of their South African tour rebels, particularly Graham Gooch and John Emburey. Australia went 2–0 up after three Tests, but England won the Fourth Test by 3 runs (after a 70-run last wicket stand) to set up the final decider, which was drawn.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 413137, 3172826, 413176, 1350956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 38 ], [ 135, 160 ], [ 175, 187 ], [ 192, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1985, David Gower's England team was strengthened by the return of Gooch and Emburey as well as the emergence at international level of Tim Robinson and Mike Gatting. Australia, now captained by Allan Border, had itself been weakened by a rebel South African tour, the loss of Terry Alderman being a particular factor. England won 3–1.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 151395, 3740664, 413174, 451428, 2020929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 20 ], [ 139, 151 ], [ 156, 168 ], [ 198, 210 ], [ 280, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite suffering heavy defeats against the West Indies during the 1980s, England continued to do well in the Ashes. Mike Gatting was the captain in 1986–87 but his team started badly and attracted some criticism. Then Chris Broad scored three hundreds in successive Tests and bowling successes from Graham Dilley and Gladstone Small meant England won the series 2–1.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 1420080, 2004030, 2744282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 230 ], [ 300, 313 ], [ 318, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian team of 1989 was comparable to the great Australian teams of the past, and resoundingly defeated England 4–0. Well led by Allan Border, the team included the young cricketers Mark Taylor, Merv Hughes, David Boon, Ian Healy and Steve Waugh, who were all to prove long-serving and successful Ashes competitors. England, now led once again by David Gower, suffered from injuries and poor form. During the Fourth Test news broke that prominent England players had agreed to take part in a \"rebel tour\" of South Africa the following winter; three of them (Tim Robinson, Neil Foster and John Emburey) were playing in the match, and were subsequently dropped from the England side.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 451428, 87018, 897223, 610312, 928267, 156123, 151395, 3740664, 3728140, 1350956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 149 ], [ 190, 201 ], [ 203, 214 ], [ 216, 226 ], [ 228, 237 ], [ 242, 253 ], [ 355, 366 ], [ 566, 578 ], [ 580, 591 ], [ 596, 608 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia reached a cricketing peak in the 1990s and early 2000s, coupled with a general decline in England's fortunes. After re-establishing its credibility in 1989, Australia underlined its superiority with victories in the 1990–91, 1993, 1994–95, 1997, 1998–99, 2001 and 2002–03 series, all by convincing margins.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Great Australian players in the early years included batsmen Border, Boon, Taylor and Steve Waugh. The captaincy passed from Border to Taylor in the mid-1990s and then to Steve Waugh before the 2001 series. In the latter part of the 1990s Waugh himself, along with his twin brother Mark, scored heavily for Australia and fast bowlers Glenn McGrath and Jason Gillespie made a serious impact, especially the former. The wicketkeeper-batsman position was held by Ian Healy for most of the 1990s and by Adam Gilchrist from 2001 to 2006–07. In the 2000s, batsmen Justin Langer, Damien Martyn and Matthew Hayden became noted players for Australia. But the most dominant Australian player was leg-spinner Shane Warne, whose first delivery in Ashes cricket in 1993, to dismiss Mike Gatting, became known as the Ball of the Century.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 151606, 423488, 409561, 928267, 896430, 894406, 894417, 442756, 22590160, 2429435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 286 ], [ 334, 347 ], [ 352, 367 ], [ 460, 469 ], [ 499, 513 ], [ 558, 571 ], [ 573, 586 ], [ 591, 605 ], [ 698, 709 ], [ 803, 822 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia's record between 1989 and 2005 had a significant impact on the statistics between the two sides. Before the 1989 series began, the win–loss ratio was almost even, with 87 test wins for Australia to England's 86, 74 tests having been drawn. By the 2005 series Australia's test wins had increased to 115 whereas England's had increased to only 93 (with 82 draws). In the period between 1989 and the beginning of the 2005 series, the two sides had played 43 times; Australia winning 28 times, England 7 times, with 8 draws. Only a single England victory had come in a match in which the Ashes were still at stake, namely the First Test of the 1997 series. All others were consolation victories when the Ashes had been secured by Australia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "England were undefeated in Test matches through the 2004 calendar year. This elevated them to second in the ICC Test Championship. Hopes that the 2005 Ashes series would be closely fought proved well-founded, the series remaining undecided as the closing session of the final Test began. Experienced journalists including Richie Benaud rated the series as the most exciting in living memory. It has been compared with the great series of the distant past, such as 1894–95 and 1902.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 769692, 2178283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 129 ], [ 146, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The First Test at Lord's was convincingly won by Australia, but in the remaining four matches the teams were evenly matched and England fought back to win the Second Test by 2 runs, the smallest winning margin in Ashes history, and the second-smallest in all Tests. The rain-affected Third Test ended with the last two Australian batsmen holding out for a draw; and England won the Fourth Test by three wickets after forcing Australia to follow-on for the first time in 191 Tests. A draw in the final Test gave England victory in an Ashes series for the first time in 18 years and their first Ashes victory at home since 1985.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 381880, 1061842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 438, 447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia regained the Ashes on its home turf in the 2006–07 series with a convincing 5–0 victory, only the second time an Ashes series had been won by that margin. Glenn McGrath, Shane Warne and Justin Langer retired from Test cricket after that series, while Damien Martyn retired during the series.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 6154350, 423488, 22590160, 894406, 894417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 67 ], [ 165, 178 ], [ 180, 191 ], [ 196, 209 ], [ 261, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2009 series began with a tense draw in the First Test at SWALEC Stadium in Cardiff, with England's last-wicket batsmen James Anderson and Monty Panesar surviving 69 balls. England then achieved its first Ashes win at Lord's since 1934 to go 1–0 up. After a rain-affected draw at Edgbaston, the fourth match at Headingley was convincingly won by Australia by an innings and 80 runs to level the series. Finally, England won the Fifth Test at The Oval by a margin of 197 runs to regain the Ashes. Andrew Flintoff retired from Test cricket soon afterwards.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 8708994, 2334547, 5882, 1944587, 3312190, 387687, 849886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 61, 75 ], [ 79, 86 ], [ 123, 137 ], [ 142, 155 ], [ 445, 453 ], [ 499, 514 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2010–11 series was played in Australia. The First Test at Brisbane ended in a draw, but England won the Second Test, at Adelaide, by an innings and 71 runs. Australia came back with a victory at Perth in the Third Test. In the Fourth Test at Melbourne Cricket Ground, England batting second scored 513 to defeat Australia (98 and 258) by an innings and 157 runs. This gave England an unbeatable 2–1 lead in the series and so it retained the Ashes. England went on to win the series 3–1, beating Australia by an innings and 83 runs at Sydney in the Fifth Test, including their highest innings total since 1938 (644). England's series victory was its first on Australian soil for 24 years. The 2010–11 Ashes series was the only one in which a team had won three Tests by innings margins and it was the first time England had scored 500 or more four times in a single series.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 25289835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia's build-up to the 2013 Ashes series was far from ideal. Darren Lehmann took over as coach from Mickey Arthur following a string of poor results. A batting line-up weakened by the previous year's retirements of former captain Ricky Ponting and Mike Hussey was also shorn of opener David Warner, who was suspended for the start of the series following an off-field incident. England won a closely fought First Test by 14 runs, despite 19-year-old debutant Ashton Agar making a world-record 98 for a number 11 in the first innings. England then won a very one-sided Second Test by 347 runs while the rain-affected Third Test, held at a newly refurbished Old Trafford, was drawn, ensuring that England retained the Ashes. England won the Fourth Test by 74 runs after Australia lost their last eight second-innings wickets for only 86 runs. The final Test was drawn, giving England a 3–0 series win.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 26016593, 994713, 9189501, 462001, 2218913, 9360757, 38315911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 45 ], [ 66, 80 ], [ 105, 118 ], [ 235, 248 ], [ 253, 264 ], [ 290, 302 ], [ 464, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the second of two Ashes series held in 2013 (the series ended in 2014), this time hosted by Australia, the home team won the series five test matches to nil. This was the third time Australia has completed a clean sweep (or \"whitewash\") in Ashes history, a feat never matched by England. All six Australian specialist batsmen scored more runs than any Englishman with 10 centuries among them, with only debutant Ben Stokes scoring a century for England. Mitchell Johnson took 37 English wickets at 13.97 and Ryan Harris 22 wickets at 19.31 in the 5-Test series. Only Stuart Broad and all-rounder Stokes bowled effectively for England, with their spinner Graeme Swann retiring due to a chronic elbow injury after the decisive Third Test.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 37722536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia came into the 2015 Ashes series in England as favourites to retain the Ashes. Although England won the first Test in Cardiff, Australia won comfortably in the second Test at Lords. In the next two Tests, the Australian batsmen struggled, being bowled out for 136 in the first innings at Edgbaston, with England proceeding to win by eight wickets. This was followed by Australia being bowled out for 60 as Stuart Broad took five wickets and finished the spell with 8 for 15 in the first innings at Trent Bridge, the quickest – in terms of balls faced – a team has been bowled out in the first innings of a Test match. With victory by an innings and 78 runs on the morning of the third day of the Fourth Test, England regained the Ashes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 36018432, 541838, 3937805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 41 ], [ 297, 306 ], [ 415, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the buildup, the 2017–18 Ashes series was regarded as a turning point for both sides. Australia were criticised for being too reliant on captain Steve Smith and vice-captain David Warner, while England was said to have a shoddy middle to lower order. Off the field, England all-rounder Ben Stokes was ruled out of the side indefinitely due to a police investigation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 47211113, 27345124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 44 ], [ 293, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia won the first Test match in Brisbane by 10 wickets and the second Test at Adelaide by 120 runs in the first ever day-night Ashes test match. Australia regained The Ashes with an innings and 41 run win in the third Test at Perth; the final Ashes Test at the WACA Ground.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to the 2019 Ashes series, both teams were considered to have very strong bowling attacks but struggling batting orders. Australia had its top-order batsmen David Warner, Steve Smith and Cameron Bancroft available for international selection after being banned from international cricket for 9–12 months following the ball-tampering scandal in South Africa, during which time India had won its first ever Test series in Australia. However, Australia recovered to win the Test series against Sri Lanka 2–0.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 57718315, 9360757, 15155749, 33425123, 56966947, 407754, 56022409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 30 ], [ 162, 174 ], [ 176, 187 ], [ 192, 208 ], [ 323, 345 ], [ 381, 386 ], [ 476, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite winning the Cricket World Cup in July 2019 for the first time, England had also been criticised for its fragile top-order in Tests. The retirement of opener Alastair Cook in August 2018 ensured potential top-order batsmen Rory Burns, Joe Denly and Jason Roy were able to secure a place in the side. Despite losing a Test series 2–1 in their tour of the West Indies, England then improved to win the one-off Test against Ireland, by 143 runs. The 2019 series was eventually drawn 2–2, with Australia retaining the Ashes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 57253320, 2156458, 28931437, 3536439, 18875950, 56611548, 57579501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 37 ], [ 165, 178 ], [ 230, 240 ], [ 242, 251 ], [ 256, 265 ], [ 349, 372 ], [ 407, 435 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2021 Ashes series was played from December 2021 through January 2022, and featured the first Ashes test match to be played in Tasmania, at Hobart's Bellerive Oval. Australia retained the Ashes in the 2021-22 Ashes series, after Scott Boland achieved the third best bowling figures in the history of Australian cricket at 6-7 (4 overs). ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Series and matches", "target_page_ids": [ 67705351, 13699, 613019, 44777416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 143, 149 ], [ 152, 166 ], [ 232, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 138 years since 1883, Australia have held the Ashes for approximately 82.5 years, and England for 55.5 years:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Summary of results and statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Test results, up to and including the 2021-22 Ashes series in Australia:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Summary of results and statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Series results, up to and including the 2021-22 Ashes series:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Summary of results and statistics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A team must win a series to gain the right to hold the Ashes. A drawn series results in the previous holders retaining the Ashes. Ashes series have generally been played over five Test matches, although there have been four-match series (1938; 1975) and six-match series (1970–71; 1974–75; 1978–79; 1981; 1985; 1989; 1993 and 1997). Australians have made 264 centuries in Ashes Tests, of which 23 have been scores over 200, while Englishmen have scored 212 centuries, of which 10 have been over 200. Australians have taken 10 wickets in a match on 41 occasions, Englishmen 38 times.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Summary of results and statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 1671458, 69557313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 359, 368 ], [ 523, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The series alternates between England (and Wales) and Australia, and each match of a series is held at a different ground. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Match venues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Australia, the grounds currently used are The Gabba in Brisbane (first staged an England–Australia Test in the 1932–33 season), Adelaide Oval (1884–85), the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) (1876–77), and the Sydney Cricket Ground (SCG) (1881–82). A single Test was held at the Brisbane Exhibition Ground in 1928–29. Traditionally, Melbourne hosts the Boxing Day Test and Sydney hosts the New Year's Day Test. Additionally the WACA in Perth (1970–71) hosted its final Ashes Test in 2017–18 and was due to be replaced by Perth Stadium for the 2021–22 series. However, Western Australian border restrictions and quarantine requirements during the COVID-19 pandemic led to a change in venue for the final Ashes Test to Bellerive Oval in Hobart. This was the first Ashes Test match to be held in Tasmania.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Match venues", "target_page_ids": [ 4689264, 1327312, 660231, 19765, 773497, 2572563, 3538630, 1257944, 47211113, 17322361, 67705351, 33613, 62750956, 613019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 45, 54 ], [ 131, 144 ], [ 160, 184 ], [ 210, 231 ], [ 279, 305 ], [ 353, 368 ], [ 424, 432 ], [ 463, 479 ], [ 521, 534 ], [ 543, 557 ], [ 568, 585 ], [ 646, 663 ], [ 717, 731 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cricket Australia proposed that the 2010–11 series consist of six Tests, with the additional game to be played at Bellerive Oval in Hobart. The England and Wales Cricket Board declined and the series was played over five Tests.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Match venues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In England and Wales, the grounds currently used are: Old Trafford in Manchester (1884), The Oval in Kennington, South London (1884); Lord's in St John's Wood, North London (1884); Headingley in Leeds (1899) and Edgbaston in Birmingham (1902). Additionally Sophia Gardens in Cardiff, Wales (2009); the Riverside Ground in Chester-le-Street, County Durham (2013) and Trent Bridge at West Bridgford (1899), have been used and one Test was also held at Bramall Lane in Sheffield in 1902. Traditionally the final Test of the series is played at the Oval. Sophia Gardens and the Riverside were excluded as Test grounds between the years of 2020 and 2024 and therefore will not host an Ashes Test until at least 2027. Trent Bridge is also not due to host an Ashes Test until 2027.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Match venues", "target_page_ids": [ 9316, 69894, 660597, 387687, 94128, 373622, 381880, 94270, 380308, 47409850, 8262427, 2641030, 13882056, 16589549, 5882, 69894, 2311656, 293089, 400297, 849500, 771806, 780018, 88885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ], [ 15, 20 ], [ 54, 66 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 101, 111 ], [ 113, 125 ], [ 134, 140 ], [ 144, 158 ], [ 160, 172 ], [ 181, 191 ], [ 195, 200 ], [ 212, 221 ], [ 225, 235 ], [ 257, 271 ], [ 275, 282 ], [ 284, 289 ], [ 302, 318 ], [ 322, 339 ], [ 341, 354 ], [ 366, 378 ], [ 382, 396 ], [ 450, 462 ], [ 466, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "*Including abandoned tests", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Match venues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "†County cricket clubs who play at the grounds", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Match venues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "‡Former grounds which no longer host Test Matches", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Match venues", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The popularity and reputation of the cricket series has led to other sports and games using the name \"Ashes\" for contests between England and Australia. The best-known and longest-running of these events is the rugby league rivalry between Great Britain and Australia (see rugby league \"Ashes\"). Use of the name \"Ashes\" was suggested by the Australian team when rugby league matches between the two countries commenced in 1908. Other examples included the television game shows Gladiators and Sale of the Century, both of which broadcast special editions containing contestants from the Australian and English versions of the shows competing against each other.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 25735, 951941, 951978, 701471, 13275850, 5857381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 223 ], [ 240, 253 ], [ 258, 267 ], [ 273, 293 ], [ 478, 488 ], [ 493, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term became further genericised in Australia in the first half of the twentieth century, and was used to describe many sports rivalries or competitions outside the context of Australia vs England. The Australian rules football interstate carnival, and the small silver casket which served as its trophy, were symbolically known as \"the Ashes\" of Australian football, and was spoken of as such until at least the 1940s. The soccer rivalry between Australia and New Zealand was described as \"the soccer ashes of Australasia\" until as late as the 1950s; ashes from cigars smoked by the two countries' captains were put into a casket in 1923 to make the trophy literal. The interstate rugby league rivalry between Queensland and New South Wales was known for a time as Australia's rugby league ashes, and bowls competitions between the two states also regularly used the term. Even some local rivalries, such as southern Western Australia's annual Great Southern Football Carnival, were locally described as \"the ashes\". This genericised usage is no longer common, and \"the Ashes\" would today be assumed only to apply to a contest between Australia and England.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 2403, 2768270, 25735, 1954843, 4248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 230 ], [ 231, 250 ], [ 685, 697 ], [ 698, 744 ], [ 805, 810 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ashes featured in the film The Final Test, released in 1953, based on a television play by Terence Rattigan. It stars Jack Warner as an England cricketer playing the last Test of his career, which is the last of an Ashes series; the film includes cameo appearances of English captain Len Hutton and other players who were part of England's 1953 triumph.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 21456144, 164659, 189641, 541433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 45 ], [ 95, 111 ], [ 122, 133 ], [ 288, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Douglas Adams's 1982 science fiction comedy novel Life, the Universe and Everything – the third part of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy series – features the urn containing the Ashes as a significant element of its plot. The urn is stolen by alien robots, as the burnt stump inside is part of a key needed to unlock the \"Wikkit Gate\" and release an imprisoned world called Krikkit.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 8091, 191173, 31353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 50, 83 ], [ 104, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bodyline, a fictionalised television miniseries based on the \"Bodyline\" Ashes series of 1932–33, was screened in Australia in 1984. The cast included Gary Sweet as Donald Bradman and Hugo Weaving as England captain Douglas Jardine.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 11809088, 350712, 18053, 1399112, 87021, 170977, 739672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 37, 47 ], [ 62, 70 ], [ 150, 160 ], [ 164, 178 ], [ 183, 195 ], [ 215, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1938 film The Lady Vanishes, Charters and Caldicott, played by Basil Radford and Naunton Wayne are two cricket fans who are desperate to get home from Europe in order to see the last day's play in the 3rd Test at Manchester. It is not until they see a newsboy's poster near the end of the film that they discover that the match had been abandoned, due to floods.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 9404578, 12545828, 2033250, 162417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 34 ], [ 36, 58 ], [ 70, 83 ], [ 88, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Test cricket from 1877 to 1883", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1355042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Test cricket from 1884 to 1889", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1469873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Test cricket from 1890 to 1900", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1451705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Willis, R. Cricket's Biggest Mystery: The Ashes , The Lutterworth Press (1987), .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wisden's Cricketers Almanack'' (various editions)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ashes to Ashes An audio history of the first hundred years of the Ashes, narrated by John Arlott", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 640532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cricinfo's Ashes website", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Origin of the Ashes – Rex Harcourt", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Listen to a young Don Bradman speaking after the 1930 Ashes tour", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "The_Ashes", "Australia_in_international_cricket", "Cricket_awards_and_rankings", "Cricket_rivalries", "England_in_international_cricket", "Recurring_events_established_in_1882", "Recurring_sporting_events_established_in_1882", "Test_cricket_competitions" ]

[ "Ashes" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Analysis is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts in order to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7363, 27568, 18831, 46426065, 308, 1400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 51 ], [ 55, 64 ], [ 178, 189 ], [ 194, 199 ], [ 213, 222 ], [ 232, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The word comes from the Ancient Greek ἀνάλυσις (analysis, \"a breaking-up\" or \"an untying;\" from ana- \"up, throughout\" and lysis \"a loosening\"). From it also comes the word's plural, analyses.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 148363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a formal concept, the method has variously been ascribed to Alhazen, René Descartes (Discourse on the Method), and Galileo Galilei. It has also been ascribed to Isaac Newton, in the form of a practical method of physical discovery (which he did not name).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1645, 25525, 177081, 29688374, 14627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 70 ], [ 72, 86 ], [ 88, 111 ], [ 118, 133 ], [ 164, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The converse of analysis is synthesis: putting the pieces back together again in new or different whole. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The field of chemistry uses analysis in three ways: to identify the components of a particular chemical compound (qualitative analysis), to identify the proportions of components in a mixture (quantitative analysis), and to break down chemical processes and examine chemical reactions between elements of matter. For an example of its use, analysis of the concentration of elements is important in managing a nuclear reactor, so nuclear scientists will analyze neutron activation to develop discrete measurements within vast samples. A matrix can have a considerable effect on the way a chemical analysis is conducted and the quality of its results. Analysis can be done manually or with a device.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 5180, 21347411, 286069, 3320853, 6271, 5659, 19673093, 22151, 21285, 21933, 15585516, 4216735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 22 ], [ 95, 112 ], [ 184, 191 ], [ 235, 251 ], [ 266, 283 ], [ 293, 301 ], [ 305, 311 ], [ 409, 424 ], [ 429, 446 ], [ 461, 479 ], [ 536, 542 ], [ 690, 696 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A) Qualitative Analysis: It is concerned with which components are in a given sample or compound.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Example: Precipitation reaction", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "B) Quantitative Analysis: It is to determine the quantity of individual component present in a given sample or compound.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Example: To find concentration by uv-spectrophotometer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chemists can use isotope analysis to assist analysts with issues in anthropology, archeology, food chemistry, forensics, geology, and a host of other questions of physical science. Analysts can discern the origins of natural and man-made isotopes in the study of environmental radioactivity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 174238, 569, 18951655, 7888444, 45710, 12207, 23638, 5234576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 33 ], [ 68, 80 ], [ 82, 92 ], [ 94, 108 ], [ 110, 119 ], [ 121, 128 ], [ 163, 179 ], [ 263, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Financial statement analysis– the analysis of the accounts and the economic prospects of a firm", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 6184541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fundamental analysis– a stock valuation method that uses financial analysis", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 11684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gap analysis – involves the comparison of actual performance with potential or desired performance of an organization ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 2835766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Business analysis – involves identifying the needs and determining the solutions to business problems", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 2371482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Price analysis – involves the breakdown of a price to a unit figure", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 9810420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Market analysis – consists of suppliers and customers, and price is determined by the interaction of supply and demand", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 8837930, 29664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 102, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Technical analysis – the study of price action in securities markets in order to forecast future prices", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 112577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Opportunity analysis – consists of customers trends within the industry, customer demand and experience determine purchasing behavior", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Requirements analysis – encompasses those tasks that go into determining the needs or conditions to meet for a new or altered product, taking account of the possibly conflicting requirements of the various stakeholders, such as beneficiaries or users.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 522449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Competitive analysis (online algorithm) – shows how online algorithms perform and demonstrates the power of randomization in algorithms", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 8198743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lexical analysis – the process of processing an input sequence of characters and producing as output a sequence of symbols", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 81251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Object-oriented analysis and design– à la Booch", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 2613984, 4603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ], [ 43, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Program analysis (computer science)– the process of automatically analysing the behavior of computer programs", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 161905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Semantic analysis (computer science)– a pass by a compiler that adds semantical information to the parse tree and performs certain checks", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 5739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Static code analysis– the analysis of computer software that is performed without actually executing programs built from that", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 28811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Structured systems analysis and design methodology– à la Yourdon", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 604658, 1250279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 51 ], [ 58, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Syntax analysis– a process in compilers that recognizes the structure of programming languages, also known as parsing", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 310015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Worst-case execution time– determines the longest time that a piece of software can take to run", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 1029051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Agroecosystem analysis", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 13561260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Input–output model if applied to a region, is called Regional Impact Multiplier System", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 1036651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Analysts in the field of engineering look at requirements, structures, mechanisms, systems and dimensions. Electrical engineers analyse systems in electronics. Life cycles and system failures are broken down and studied by engineers. It is also looking at different factors incorporated within the design.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 9251, 522449, 306543, 45002, 8267, 9531, 91182, 9663, 17104801, 7161451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ], [ 45, 57 ], [ 59, 69 ], [ 83, 90 ], [ 95, 105 ], [ 107, 127 ], [ 136, 143 ], [ 147, 158 ], [ 160, 171 ], [ 176, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The field of intelligence employs analysts to break down and understand a wide array of questions. Intelligence agencies may use heuristics, inductive and deductive reasoning, social network analysis, dynamic network analysis, link analysis, and brainstorming to sort through problems they face. Military intelligence may explore issues through the use of game theory, Red Teaming, and wargaming. Signals intelligence applies cryptanalysis and frequency analysis to break codes and ciphers. Business intelligence applies theories of competitive intelligence analysis and competitor analysis to resolve questions in the marketplace. Law enforcement intelligence applies a number of theories in crime analysis.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 519276, 81014, 63452, 393736, 61093, 325726, 5162898, 34327569, 399081, 146678, 11924, 3923141, 10280894, 29122, 5715, 157934, 838989, 5244, 168387, 1706589, 251378, 3736784, 23627, 3491552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ], [ 99, 120 ], [ 129, 139 ], [ 141, 150 ], [ 155, 174 ], [ 176, 199 ], [ 201, 225 ], [ 227, 240 ], [ 246, 259 ], [ 296, 317 ], [ 356, 367 ], [ 369, 377 ], [ 386, 395 ], [ 397, 417 ], [ 426, 439 ], [ 444, 462 ], [ 472, 477 ], [ 482, 488 ], [ 491, 512 ], [ 533, 566 ], [ 571, 590 ], [ 619, 630 ], [ 632, 647 ], [ 693, 707 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linguistics explores individual languages and language in general. It breaks language down and analyses its component parts: theory, sounds and their meaning, utterance usage, word origins, the history of words, the meaning of words and word combinations, sentence construction, basic construction beyond the sentence level, stylistics, and conversation. It examines the above using statistics and modeling, and semantics. It analyses language in context of anthropology, biology, evolution, geography, history, neurology, psychology, and sociology. It also takes the applied approach, looking at individual language development and clinical issues.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 22760983, 17524, 55422, 23247, 44816, 20646, 888207, 205466, 2264429, 26860, 989128, 302445, 379874, 5561, 3404049, 320063, 9568471, 9281, 7464454, 63630, 179092, 160538, 89842, 406551, 10042066, 7476274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 46, 54 ], [ 125, 131 ], [ 133, 157 ], [ 159, 174 ], [ 176, 188 ], [ 194, 210 ], [ 227, 232 ], [ 237, 254 ], [ 256, 277 ], [ 279, 323 ], [ 325, 335 ], [ 341, 353 ], [ 383, 406 ], [ 412, 421 ], [ 458, 470 ], [ 472, 479 ], [ 481, 490 ], [ 492, 501 ], [ 503, 510 ], [ 512, 521 ], [ 523, 533 ], [ 539, 548 ], [ 568, 575 ], [ 597, 628 ], [ 633, 641 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Literary criticism is the analysis of literature. The focus can be as diverse as the analysis of Homer or Freud. While not all literary-critical methods are primarily analytical in nature, the main approach to the teaching of literature in the west since the mid-twentieth century, literary formal analysis or close reading, is. This method, rooted in the academic movement labelled The New Criticism, approaches texts – chiefly short poems such as sonnets, which by virtue of their small size and significant complexity lend themselves well to this type of analysis – as units of discourse that can be understood in themselves, without reference to biographical or historical frameworks. This method of analysis breaks up the text linguistically in a study of prosody (the formal analysis of meter) and phonic effects such as alliteration and rhyme, and cognitively in examination of the interplay of syntactic structures, figurative language, and other elements of the poem that work to produce its larger effects.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 51123, 18963870, 4076302, 51053, 438005, 28260, 1411106, 58533, 26226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 38, 48 ], [ 97, 102 ], [ 106, 111 ], [ 383, 400 ], [ 449, 456 ], [ 761, 768 ], [ 827, 839 ], [ 844, 849 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern mathematical analysis is the study of infinite processes. It is the branch of mathematics that includes calculus. It can be applied in the study of classical concepts of mathematics, such as real numbers, complex variables, trigonometric functions, and algorithms, or of non-classical concepts like constructivism, harmonics, infinity, and vectors.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 1178398, 26478, 5759, 11659, 21506, 48396, 239851, 14147, 21708, 11180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 165 ], [ 199, 211 ], [ 213, 230 ], [ 232, 255 ], [ 261, 271 ], [ 279, 292 ], [ 307, 321 ], [ 323, 332 ], [ 334, 342 ], [ 348, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Florian Cajori explains in A History of Mathematics (1893) the difference between modern and ancient mathematical analysis, as distinct from logical analysis, as follows:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 542738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The terms synthesis and analysis are used in mathematics in a more special sense than in logic. In ancient mathematics they had a different meaning from what they now have. The oldest definition of mathematical analysis as opposed to synthesis is that given in [appended to] Euclid, XIII. 5, which in all probability was framed by Eudoxus: \"Analysis is the obtaining of the thing sought by assuming it and so reasoning up to an admitted truth; synthesis is the obtaining of the thing sought by reasoning up to the inference and proof of it.\" ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 244107, 48388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 275, 281 ], [ 331, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The analytic method is not conclusive, unless all operations involved in it are known to be reversible. To remove all doubt, the Greeks, as a rule, added to the analytic process a synthetic one, consisting of a reversion of all operations occurring in the analysis. Thus the aim of analysis was to aid in the discovery of synthetic proofs or solutions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "James Gow uses a similar argument as Cajori, with the following clarification, in his A Short History of Greek Mathematics (1884):", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The synthetic proof proceeds by shewing that the proposed new truth involves certain admitted truths. An analytic proof begins by an assumption, upon which a synthetic reasoning is founded. The Greeks distinguished theoretic from problematic analysis. A theoretic analysis is of the following kind. To prove that A is B, assume first that A is B. If so, then, since B is C and C is D and D is E, therefore A is E. If this be known a falsity, A is not B. But if this be a known truth and all the intermediate propositions be convertible, then the reverse process, A is E, E is D, D is C, C is B, therefore A is B, constitutes a synthetic proof of the original theorem. Problematic analysis is applied in all cases where it is proposed to construct a figure which is assumed to satisfy a given condition. The problem is then converted into some theorem which is involved in the condition and which is proved synthetically, and the steps of this synthetic proof taken backwards are a synthetic solution of the problem.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Musical analysis– a process attempting to answer the question \"How does this music work?\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 209919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Musical Analysis is a study of how the composers use the notes together to compose music. Those studying music will find differences with each composer's musical analysis, which differs depending on the culture and history of music studied. An analysis of music is meant to simplify the music for you. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Schenkerian analysis", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 211261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schenkerian analysis is a collection of music analysis that focuses on the production of the graphic representation. This includes both analytical procedure as well as the notational style. Simply put, it analyzes tonal music which includes all chords and tones within a composition.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Philosophical analysis– a general term for the techniques used by philosophers", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 48398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Philosophical analysis refers to the clarification and composition of words put together and the entailed meaning behind them. Philosophical analysis dives deeper into the meaning of words and seeks to clarify that meaning by contrasting the various definitions. It is the study of reality, justification of claims, and the analysis of various concepts. Branches of philosophy include logic, justification, metaphysics, values and ethics. If questions can be answered empirically, meaning it can be answered by using the senses, then it is not considered philosophical. Non-philosophical questions also include events that happened in the past, or questions science or mathematics can answer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Analysis is the name of a prominent journal in philosophy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 7579257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Psychoanalysis– seeks to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients' mental processes", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 23585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Transactional analysis", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 59182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Transactional analysis is used by therapists to try to gain a better understanding of the unconscious. It focuses on understanding and intervening human behavior.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Policy analysis– The use of statistical data to predict the effects of policy decisions made by governments and agencies", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 639389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Policy analysis includes a systematic process to find the most efficient and effective option to address the current situation. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Qualitative analysis – The use of anecdotal evidence to predict the effects of policy decisions or, more generally, influence policy decisions", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 371299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Finite element analysis– a computer simulation technique used in engineering analysis", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 18233581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Independent component analysis", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 598031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Link quality analysis– the analysis of signal quality", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 41321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Path quality analysis", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 41494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fourier analysis", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 11659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In statistics, the term analysis may refer to any method used", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 26685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "for data analysis. Among the many such methods, some are:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 2720954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Analysis of variance (ANOVA)– a collection of statistical models and their associated procedures which compare means by splitting the overall observed variance into different parts", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boolean analysis– a method to find deterministic dependencies between variables in a sample, mostly used in exploratory data analysis", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 16807880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cluster analysis– techniques for finding groups (called clusters), based on some measure of proximity or similarity", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 669675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Factor analysis– a method to construct models describing a data set of observed variables in terms of a smaller set of unobserved variables (called factors)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 253492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Meta-analysis– combines the results of several studies that address a set of related research hypotheses", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 62329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Multivariate analysis– analysis of data involving several variables, such as by factor analysis, regression analysis, or principal component analysis", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 19384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Principal component analysis– transformation of a sample of correlated variables into uncorrelated variables (called principal components), mostly used in exploratory data analysis", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 76340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Regression analysis– techniques for analysing the relationships between several predictive variables and one or more outcomes in the data", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 826997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Scale analysis (statistics)– methods to analyse survey data by scoring responses on a numeric scale", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 6055749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sensitivity analysis– the study of how the variation in the output of a model depends on variations in the inputs", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 620083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sequential analysis– evaluation of sampled data as it is collected, until the criterion of a stopping rule is met", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 3509530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Spatial analysis– the study of entities using geometric or geographic properties", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 3190431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Time-series analysis– methods that attempt to understand a sequence of data points spaced apart at uniform time intervals", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 406624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aura analysis– a technique in which supporters of the method claim that the body's aura, or energy field is analysed", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 2555800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bowling analysis– Analysis of the performance of cricket players", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 2047389, 25675557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 50, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lithic analysis– the analysis of stone tools using basic scientific techniques", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 147620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lithic analysis is most often used by archeologists in determining which types of tools were used at a given time period pertaining to current artifacts discovered.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Protocol analysis – a means for extracting persons' thoughts while they are performing a task", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 9423838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Formal analysis", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 773685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Metabolism in biology", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Methodology", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 620667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Scientific method", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] } ]

[ "Analysis", "Abstraction", "Critical_thinking_skills", "Emergence", "Empiricism", "Epistemological_theories", "Intelligence", "Mathematical_modeling", "Metaphysics_of_mind", "Methodology", "Ontology", "Philosophy_of_logic", "Rationalism", "Reasoning", "Research_methods", "Scientific_method", "Theory_of_mind" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Abner Doubleday (June 26, 1819– January 26, 1893) was a career United States Army officer and Union major general in the American Civil War. He fired the first shot in defense of Fort Sumter, the opening battle of the war, and had a pivotal role in the early fighting at the Battle of Gettysburg. Gettysburg was his finest hour, but his relief by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade caused lasting enmity between the two men. In San Francisco, after the war, he obtained a patent on the cable car railway that still runs there. In his final years in New Jersey, he was a prominent member and later president of the Theosophical Society.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32087, 360126, 36301471, 863, 339819, 4849, 11080919, 146580, 7674, 21648, 200264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 81 ], [ 94, 99 ], [ 100, 113 ], [ 121, 139 ], [ 179, 190 ], [ 275, 295 ], [ 347, 356 ], [ 357, 372 ], [ 477, 486 ], [ 540, 550 ], [ 605, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1908, 15 years after his death, Doubleday was declared by the Mills Commission to have invented the game of baseball (a claim never made by Doubleday during his lifetime). This claim has been thoroughly debunked by baseball historians.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7383794, 37459196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 81 ], [ 90, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Doubleday, the son of Ulysses F. Doubleday and Hester Donnelly, was born in Ballston Spa, New York, in a small house on the corner of Washington and Fenwick streets. As a child, Abner was very short. The family all slept in the attic loft of the one-room house. His paternal grandfather, also named Abner, had fought in the American Revolutionary War. His maternal grandfather Thomas Donnelly had joined the army at 14 and was a mounted messenger for George Washington. His great grandfather Peter Donnelly was a Minuteman. His father, Ulysses F., fought in the War of 1812, published newspapers and books, and represented Auburn, New York, for four years in the United States Congress. Abner spent his childhood in Auburn and later was sent to Cooperstown to live with his uncle and attend a private preparatory high school. He practiced as a surveyor and civil engineer for two years before entering the United States Military Academy in 1838. He graduated in 1842, 24th in a class of 56 cadets, and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 3rd U.S. Artillery. In 1852, he married Mary Hewitt of Baltimore, the daughter of a local lawyer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 11594497, 127108, 771, 37820318, 11968, 34059, 126182, 31756, 127009, 32173, 1854625, 201930, 26997138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 42 ], [ 76, 98 ], [ 324, 350 ], [ 377, 392 ], [ 451, 468 ], [ 562, 573 ], [ 623, 639 ], [ 663, 685 ], [ 745, 756 ], [ 906, 936 ], [ 1021, 1027 ], [ 1028, 1045 ], [ 1108, 1117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Doubleday initially served in coastal garrisons and then in the Mexican–American War from 1846 to 1848 and the Seminole Wars from 1856 to 1858. In 1858, he was transferred to Fort Moultrie in Charleston Harbor serving under Colonel John L. Gardner. By the start of the Civil War, he was a captain and second in command in the garrison at Fort Sumter, under Major Robert Anderson. He aimed the cannon that fired the first return shot in answer to the Confederate bombardment on April 12, 1861. He subsequently referred to himself as the \"hero of Sumter\" for this role.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 21073732, 90449, 1065537, 7758259, 40765865, 38410565, 81464, 3412697, 380082, 293722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 84 ], [ 111, 124 ], [ 176, 189 ], [ 193, 210 ], [ 233, 248 ], [ 290, 297 ], [ 339, 350 ], [ 358, 363 ], [ 364, 379 ], [ 451, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Doubleday was promoted to major on May 14, 1861, and commanded the Artillery Department in the Shenandoah Valley from June to August, and then the artillery for Major General Nathaniel Banks's division of the Army of the Potomac. He was appointed brigadier general of volunteers on February 3, 1862, and was assigned to duty in northern Virginia while the Army of the Potomac conducted the Peninsula Campaign. His first combat assignment was to lead the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, III Corps of the Army of Virginia during the Northern Virginia Campaign. In the actions at Brawner's farm, just before the Second Battle of Bull Run, he took the initiative to send two of his regiments to reinforce Brigadier General John Gibbon's brigade against a larger Confederate force, fighting it to a standstill. (Personal initiative was required since his division commander, Brig. Gen. Rufus King, was incapacitated by an epileptic seizure at the time. He was replaced by Brigadier General John P. Hatch.) His men were routed when they encountered Major General James Longstreet's corps, but by the following day, August 30, he took command of the division when Hatch was wounded, and he led his men to cover the retreat of the Union Army.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 176248, 11080919, 149932, 222590, 11035076, 264756, 1620231, 1375163, 1665706, 54492, 1523281, 2006232, 10511, 14643153, 49588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 112 ], [ 161, 174 ], [ 175, 190 ], [ 209, 228 ], [ 247, 264 ], [ 390, 408 ], [ 481, 490 ], [ 498, 514 ], [ 526, 552 ], [ 604, 629 ], [ 714, 725 ], [ 876, 886 ], [ 912, 921 ], [ 980, 993 ], [ 1052, 1068 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Doubleday again led the division, now assigned to the I Corps of the Army of the Potomac, after South Mountain, where Hatch was wounded again. At Antietam, he led his men into the deadly fighting in the Cornfield and the West Woods, and one colonel described him as a \"gallant officer ... remarkably cool and at the very front of battle.\" He was wounded when an artillery shell exploded near his horse, throwing him to the ground in a violent fall. He received a brevet promotion to lieutenant colonel in the regular army for his actions at Antietam and was promoted in March 1863 to major general of volunteers, to rank from November 29, 1862. At Fredericksburg in December 1862, his division mostly sat idle. During the winter, the I Corps was reorganized and Doubleday assumed command of the 3rd Division. At Chancellorsville in May 1863, the division was kept in reserve.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 1620463, 540026, 84849, 3412836, 2187390, 36301471, 48833, 48780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 61 ], [ 96, 110 ], [ 146, 154 ], [ 483, 501 ], [ 509, 521 ], [ 584, 597 ], [ 648, 662 ], [ 812, 828 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the start of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1, 1863, Doubleday's division was the second infantry division on the field to reinforce the cavalry division of Brigadier General John Buford. When his corps commander, Major General John F. Reynolds, was killed very early in the fighting, Doubleday found himself in command of the corps at 10:50 am. His men fought well in the morning, putting up a stout resistance, but as overwhelming Confederate forces massed against them, their line eventually broke and they retreated back through the town of Gettysburg to the relative safety of Cemetery Hill south of town. It was Doubleday's finest performance during the war, five hours leading 9,500 men against ten Confederate brigades that numbered more than 16,000. Seven of those brigades sustained casualties that ranged from 35 to 50 percent, indicating the ferocity of the Union defense. On Cemetery Hill, however, the I Corps could muster only a third of its men as effective for duty, and the corps was essentially destroyed as a combat force for the rest of the battle; it would be decommissioned in March 1864, its surviving units consolidated into other corps.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 4849, 607034, 370783, 53270, 528933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 40 ], [ 178, 189 ], [ 231, 247 ], [ 548, 558 ], [ 585, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On July 2, 1863, Army of the Potomac commander Maj. Gen. George G. Meade replaced Doubleday with Major General John Newton, a more junior officer from another corps. The ostensible reason was a false report by XI Corps commander Major General Oliver O. Howard that Doubleday's corps broke first, causing the entire Union line to collapse, but Meade also had a long history of disdain for Doubleday's combat effectiveness, dating back to South Mountain. Doubleday was humiliated by this snub and held a lasting grudge against Meade, but he returned to division command and fought well for the remainder of the battle. He was wounded in the neck on the second day of Gettysburg and received a brevet promotion to colonel in the regular army for his service. He formally requested reinstatement as I Corps commander, but Meade refused, and Doubleday left Gettysburg on July 7 for Washington.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 146580, 1760450, 1513571, 275797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 72 ], [ 111, 122 ], [ 210, 218 ], [ 243, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Doubleday's staff nicknamed him \"Forty-Eight Hours\" as a compliment to recognize his tendency to avoid reckless or impulsive actions and his thoughtfulness and deliberateness in considering circumstances and possible responses. In recent years, biographers have turned the nickname into an insult, incorrectly claiming \"Forty-Eight Hours\" was coined to highlight Doubleday's supposed incompetence and slowness to act.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Doubleday assumed administrative duties in the defenses of Washington, D.C., where he was in charge of courts martial, which gave him legal experience that he used after the war. His only return to combat was directing a portion of the defenses against the attack by Confederate Lieutenant General Jubal A. Early in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Also while in Washington, Doubleday testified against George Meade at the United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, criticizing him harshly over his conduct of the Battle of Gettysburg. While in Washington, Doubleday remained a loyal Republican and staunch supporter of President Abraham Lincoln. Doubleday rode with Lincoln on the train to Gettysburg for the Gettysburg Address and Col. and Mrs. Doubleday attended events with Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln in Washington.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 17867087, 22441617, 1539020, 1357721, 4157940, 307, 12384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 279, 297 ], [ 298, 312 ], [ 320, 344 ], [ 420, 484 ], [ 604, 614 ], [ 650, 665 ], [ 730, 748 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Civil War, Doubleday mustered out of the volunteer service on August 24, 1865, reverted to the rank of lieutenant colonel, and became the colonel of the 35th U.S. Infantry in September 1867. He was stationed in San Francisco from 1869 through 1871 and he took out a patent for the cable car railway that still runs there, receiving a charter for its operation, but signing away his rights when he was reassigned. In 1871, he commanded the 24th U.S. Infantry, an all African-American regiment with headquarters at Fort McKavett, Texas. He retired in 1873.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Postbellum career", "target_page_ids": [ 7674, 3418972, 10411487, 29810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 291, 300 ], [ 449, 467 ], [ 523, 536 ], [ 538, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1870s, he was listed in the New York business directory as lawyer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Postbellum career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Doubleday spent much of his time writing. He published two important works on the Civil War: Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie (1876), and Chancellorsville and Gettysburg (1882), the latter being a volume of the series Campaigns of the Civil War.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Postbellum career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the summer of 1878, Doubleday lived in Mendham Township, New Jersey, and became a prominent member of the Theosophical Society. When two of the founders of that society, Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott, moved to India at the end of that year, he was constituted as the president of the American body.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Theosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 125556, 200264, 168171, 200262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 70 ], [ 109, 129 ], [ 173, 189 ], [ 194, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Doubleday died of heart disease in Mendham Township on January 26, 1893. Doubleday's body was laid in state in New York's City Hall and then was taken to Washington by train from Mendham, and was buried in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia. He was survived by his wife.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 83390, 91363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 233 ], [ 237, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Doubleday achieved minor fame as a competent combat general with experience in many important Civil War battles, he is more widely known as the supposed inventor of the game of baseball, in Elihu Phinney's cow pasture in Cooperstown, New York, in 1839.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Baseball", "target_page_ids": [ 3191456, 127009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 212 ], [ 230, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mills Commission, chaired by Abraham G. Mills, the fourth president of the National League, was appointed in 1905 to determine the origin of baseball. The committee's final report, on December 30, 1907, stated, in part, that \"the first scheme for playing baseball, according to the best evidence obtainable to date, was devised by Abner Doubleday at Cooperstown, New York, in 1839.\" It concluded by saying, \"in the years to come, in the view of the hundreds of thousands of people who are devoted to baseball, and the millions who will be, Abner Doubleday's fame will rest evenly, if not quite as much, upon the fact that he was its inventor ... as upon his brilliant and distinguished career as an officer in the Federal Army.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Baseball", "target_page_ids": [ 7383794, 7383794, 64290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 33, 49 ], [ 79, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, there is considerable evidence to dispute this claim. Baseball historian George B. Kirsch has described the results of the Mills Commission as a \"myth\". He wrote, \"Robert Henderson, Harold Seymour, and other scholars have since debunked the Doubleday-Cooperstown myth, which nonetheless remains powerful in the American imagination because of the efforts of Major League Baseball and the Hall of Fame in Cooperstown.\" At his death, Doubleday left many letters and papers, none of which describe baseball or give any suggestion that he considered himself a prominent person in the evolution of the game, and his New York Times obituary did not mention the game at all. Chairman Mills himself, who had been a Civil War colleague of Doubleday and a member of the honor guard for Doubleday's body as it lay in state in New York City, never recalled hearing Doubleday describe his role as the inventor. Doubleday was a cadet at West Point in the year of the alleged invention and his family had moved away from Cooperstown the prior year. Furthermore, the primary testimony to the commission that connected baseball to Doubleday was that of Abner Graves, whose credibility is questionable; a few years later, he shot his wife to death and was committed to an institution for the criminally insane for the rest of his life. Part of the confusion could stem from there being another man by the same name in Cooperstown in 1839.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Baseball", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the lack of solid evidence linking Doubleday to the origins of baseball, Cooperstown, New York, became the new home of what is today the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in 1937.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Baseball", "target_page_ids": [ 4078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There may have been some relationship to baseball as a national sport and Abner Doubleday. While the modern rules of baseball were formulated in New York during the 1840s, it was the scattering of New Yorkers exposed to these rules throughout the country, that spread not only baseball, but also the \"New York Rules\", thereby harmonizing the rules, and being a catalyst for its growth. Doubleday was a high-ranking officer, whose duties included seeing to provisions for the US Army fighting throughout the south and border states. For the morale of the men, he is said to have provisioned balls and bats for the men.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Baseball", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is a monument to Doubleday at Gettysburg erected by his men, admirers, and the state of New York. There is a obelisk monument at Arlington National Cemetery where he is buried.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Namesakes and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 83390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Doubleday Field is a 9,791-seat baseball stadium named for Abner Doubleday, located in Cooperstown, New York, near the Baseball Hall of Fame. It hosted the annual Hall of Fame Game, an exhibition game between two major league teams that was played from 1940 until 2008. It has hosted the Hall of Fame Classic since 2009.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Namesakes and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 1961575, 127009, 4078, 977090, 38776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 87, 108 ], [ 119, 140 ], [ 185, 200 ], [ 213, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Auburn Doubledays are a collegiate summer baseball team based in Doubleday's hometown of Auburn, New York.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Namesakes and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 1655010, 2288899, 126182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 28, 54 ], [ 93, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Doubleday Field at the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, where the Army Black Knights play at Johnson Stadium, is named in Doubleday's honor.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Namesakes and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 13784207, 22194589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 107 ], [ 116, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Abner Doubleday Little League and Babe Ruth Fields in Ballston Spa, New York, the town of his birth. The house of his birth still stands in the middle of town and there is a monument to him on Front Street.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Namesakes and honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A sign at the Doubleday Hill Monument, erected in Williamsport, Maryland, to commemorate Doubleday's occupation of a hill there during the Civil War, claims he invented the game in 1835.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Namesakes and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 27147408, 116620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 37 ], [ 50, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mendham Borough and Mendham Township, New Jersey has held a municipal holiday known as \"Abner Doubleday Day\" for numerous years in the General's honor and commissioned a plaque near the site of his home in the borough in 1998, even though the borough was known as Mendham Township back then.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Namesakes and honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2004, the Abner Doubleday Society erected a monument to Doubleday in Iron Spring Park, Ballston Spa, near his birthplace.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Namesakes and honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the movie The Ridiculous 6, Doubleday is portrayed by John Turturro. The character organizes the first game of baseball between the six main characters and a group of Chinese immigrants, creating the rules as he goes, primarily to allow him to win.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 45640705, 308577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 29 ], [ 57, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 23rd episode of the anime Samurai Champloo, titled \"Baseball Blues\", Doubleday and Alexander Cartwright are featured as American naval officers who engage the main characters and local Japanese people into a baseball game, which the Americans lose.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 677689, 61416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 49 ], [ 90, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the mini-series North and South, George Hazzard is seen watching a primitive form of baseball with a wounded Orry Main, while referring to the game being invented by Doubleday, a fellow West Point cadet.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 4969625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of American Civil War generals (Union)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29009123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Webb Ellis, sometimes apocryphally credited with inventing rugby football", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 186965, 25402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 68, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gomes, Michael. \"Abner Doubleday and Theosophy in America: 1879–1884\". Sunrise, April/May 1991.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Doubleday, Abner\" in The Handbook of Texas.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Silkenat, David. Raising the White Flag: How Surrender Defined the American Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019. .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Defense of Madame Blavatsky", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Baseball Hall of Fame", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Photo of Abner Doubleday and wife Mary, taken by Mathew Brady, owned by University of Michigan Museum of Art", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 440855, 5721292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ], [ 73, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ulysses Freeman Doubleday – McLean County Museum of History", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 38948531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 60 ] ] } ]

[ "1819_births", "1893_deaths", "American_military_personnel_of_the_Mexican–American_War", "American_people_of_English_descent", "Burials_at_Arlington_National_Cemetery", "History_of_baseball", "People_from_Auburn,_New_York", "People_from_Ballston_Spa,_New_York", "People_of_New_York_(state)_in_the_American_Civil_War", "Union_Army_generals", "United_States_Military_Academy_alumni", "Writers_from_New_York_(state)", "New_York_(state)_Republicans", "American_Theosophists", "People_from_Mendham_Township,_New_Jersey" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "America's National Game is a book by Albert Spalding, published in 1911, that details the early history of the sport of baseball. It is one of the defining books in the early formative years of modern baseball.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1893, 3850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 52 ], [ 120, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Much of the story is told first-hand; since the 1850s, Spalding had been involved in the game, first as a pitcher and later a manager and club owner. Later he branched out to become a leading manufacturer of sporting goods.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to his personal recollections, he had access to the records of Henry Chadwick, the game's first statistician and archivist. Much of his early history of the game is considered to be reliable. Spalding was, however, said to aggrandize his role in the major moments in baseball's history. Early editions of the book include quality full-page photo-plates of important players.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14421, 3797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 89 ], [ 108, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of baseball", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 602667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] } ]

[ "1911_non-fiction_books", "Baseball_books" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Amplitude modulation (AM) is a modulation technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting messages with a radio wave. In amplitude modulation, the amplitude (signal strength) of the wave is varied in proportion to that of the message signal, such as an audio signal. This technique contrasts with angle modulation, in which either the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, as in frequency modulation, or its phase, as in phase modulation.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20637, 98132, 37649, 12812363, 154907, 10779, 10835, 24047, 24772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 42 ], [ 134, 144 ], [ 175, 184 ], [ 281, 293 ], [ 325, 341 ], [ 363, 372 ], [ 410, 430 ], [ 439, 444 ], [ 452, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AM was the earliest modulation method used for transmitting audio in radio broadcasting. It was developed during the first quarter of the 20th century beginning with Roberto Landell de Moura and Reginald Fessenden's radiotelephone experiments in 1900. This original form of AM is sometimes called double-sideband amplitude modulation (DSBAM), because the standard method produces sidebands on either side of the carrier frequency. Single-sideband modulation uses bandpass filters to eliminate one of the sidebands and possibly the carrier signal, which improves the ratio of message power to total transmission power, reduces power handling requirements of line repeaters, and permits better bandwidth utilization of the transmission medium.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5322144, 96883, 234083, 29048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 190 ], [ 195, 213 ], [ 216, 230 ], [ 431, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AM remains in use in many forms of communication in addition to AM broadcasting: shortwave radio, amateur radio, two-way radios, VHF aircraft radio, citizens band radio, and in computer modems in the form of QAM.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 113509, 57980, 23275402, 804074, 1416009, 84705, 20647197, 25316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 79 ], [ 81, 96 ], [ 98, 111 ], [ 113, 126 ], [ 129, 147 ], [ 149, 168 ], [ 186, 191 ], [ 208, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In electronics, telecommunications and mechanics, modulation means varying some aspect of a continuous wave carrier signal with an information-bearing modulation waveform, such as an audio signal which represents sound, or a video signal which represents images. In this sense, the carrier wave, which has a much higher frequency than the message signal, carries the information. At the receiving station, the message signal is extracted from the modulated carrier by demodulation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 9663, 33094374, 840391, 20637, 291706, 153217, 12812363, 32441, 66926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 16, 33 ], [ 39, 47 ], [ 50, 60 ], [ 92, 107 ], [ 108, 122 ], [ 183, 195 ], [ 225, 237 ], [ 469, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In amplitude modulation, the amplitude or strength of the radio frequency oscillations is varied. For example, in AM radio communication, a continuous wave radio-frequency signal has its amplitude modulated by an audio waveform before transmission. The audio waveform modifies the amplitude of the radio wave and determines the envelope of the waveform. In the frequency domain, amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the carrier frequency and two adjacent sidebands. Each sideband is equal in bandwidth to that of the modulating signal, and is a mirror image of the other. Standard AM is thus sometimes called \"double-sideband amplitude modulation\" (DSBAM).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 37649, 27367275, 370346, 153217, 41701, 3967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 38 ], [ 328, 336 ], [ 361, 377 ], [ 449, 466 ], [ 484, 492 ], [ 521, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A disadvantage of all amplitude modulation techniques, not only standard AM, is that the receiver amplifies and detects noise and electromagnetic interference in equal proportion to the signal. Increasing the received signal-to-noise ratio, say, by a factor of 10 (a 10 decibel improvement), thus would require increasing the transmitter power by a factor of 10. This is in contrast to frequency modulation (FM) and digital radio where the effect of such noise following demodulation is strongly reduced so long as the received signal is well above the threshold for reception. For this reason AM broadcast is not favored for music and high fidelity broadcasting, but rather for voice communications and broadcasts (sports, news, talk radio etc.).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 3339042, 1072324, 41706, 8410, 10835, 275724, 13624, 30077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 125 ], [ 130, 158 ], [ 218, 239 ], [ 270, 277 ], [ 386, 406 ], [ 416, 429 ], [ 636, 649 ], [ 730, 740 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AM is also inefficient in power usage; at least two-thirds of the power is concentrated in the carrier signal. The carrier signal contains none of the original information being transmitted (voice, video, data, etc.). However its presence provides a simple means of demodulation using envelope detection, providing a frequency and phase reference to extract the modulation from the sidebands. In some modulation systems based on AM, a lower transmitter power is required through partial or total elimination of the carrier component, however receivers for these signals are more complex because they must provide a precise carrier frequency reference signal (usually as shifted to the intermediate frequency) from a greatly reduced \"pilot\" carrier (in reduced-carrier transmission or DSB-RC) to use in the demodulation process. Even with the carrier totally eliminated in double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission, carrier regeneration is possible using a Costas phase-locked loop. This does not work for single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (SSB-SC), leading to the characteristic \"Donald Duck\" sound from such receivers when slightly detuned. Single-sideband AM is nevertheless used widely in amateur radio and other voice communications because it has power and bandwidth efficiency (cutting the RF bandwidth in half compared to standard AM). On the other hand, in medium wave and short wave broadcasting, standard AM with the full carrier allows for reception using inexpensive receivers. The broadcaster absorbs the extra power cost to greatly increase potential audience.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 345675, 83139, 41762, 41064, 40970, 29048, 23275402, 110381, 57980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 286, 304 ], [ 686, 708 ], [ 753, 781 ], [ 873, 920 ], [ 963, 987 ], [ 1012, 1059 ], [ 1213, 1226 ], [ 1386, 1397 ], [ 1402, 1412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An additional function provided by the carrier in standard AM, but which is lost in either single or double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission, is that it provides an amplitude reference. In the receiver, the automatic gain control (AGC) responds to the carrier so that the reproduced audio level stays in a fixed proportion to the original modulation. On the other hand, with suppressed-carrier transmissions there is no transmitted power during pauses in the modulation, so the AGC must respond to peaks of the transmitted power during peaks in the modulation. This typically involves a so-called fast attack, slow decay circuit which holds the AGC level for a second or more following such peaks, in between syllables or short pauses in the program. This is very acceptable for communications radios, where compression of the audio aids intelligibility. However it is absolutely undesired for music or normal broadcast programming, where a faithful reproduction of the original program, including its varying modulation levels, is expected.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 234062, 262733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 215, 237 ], [ 816, 827 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A simple form of amplitude modulation is the transmission of speech signals from the traditional analog telephone set using a common battery local loop. The direct current provided by the central office battery is a carrier with a frequency of 0 Hz, that is modulated by a microphone (transmitter) in the telephone set according to the acoustic signal from the mouth of the speaker. The result is a varying amplitude direct current, whose AC-component is the speech signal extracted at the central office for transmission to another subscriber.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A simple form of digital amplitude modulation which can be used for transmitting binary data is on-off keying, the simplest form of amplitude-shift keying, in which ones and zeros are represented by the presence or absence of a carrier. On-off keying is likewise used by radio amateurs to transmit Morse code where it is known as continuous wave (CW) operation, even though the transmission is not strictly \"continuous.\" A more complex form of AM, quadrature amplitude modulation is now more commonly used with digital data, while making more efficient use of the available bandwidth.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 8276, 1408014, 946426, 238686, 18935, 25316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 92 ], [ 96, 109 ], [ 132, 154 ], [ 165, 179 ], [ 298, 308 ], [ 449, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1982, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) designated the types of amplitude modulation:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Forms", "target_page_ids": [ 14836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although AM was used in a few crude experiments in multiplex telegraph and telephone transmission in the late 1800s, the practical development of amplitude modulation is synonymous with the development between 1900 and 1920 of \"radiotelephone\" transmission, that is, the effort to send sound (audio) by radio waves. The first radio transmitters, called spark gap transmitters, transmitted information by wireless telegraphy, using different length pulses of carrier wave to spell out text messages in Morse code. They couldn't transmit audio because the carrier consisted of strings of damped waves, pulses of radio waves that declined to zero, that sounded like a buzz in receivers. In effect they were already amplitude modulated.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 234083, 1105907, 33131, 18935, 1744868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 242 ], [ 354, 375 ], [ 405, 424 ], [ 502, 512 ], [ 587, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first AM transmission was made by Canadian researcher Reginald Fessenden on 23 December 1900 using a spark gap transmitter with a specially designed high frequency 10kHz interrupter, over a distance of 1 mile (1.6km) at Cobb Island, Maryland, US. His first transmitted words were, \"Hello. One, two, three, four. Is it snowing where you are, Mr. Thiessen?\". The words were barely intelligible above the background buzz of the spark.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 96883, 1105907, 250708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 76 ], [ 105, 126 ], [ 174, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fessenden was a significant figure in the development of AM radio. He was one of the first researchers to realize, from experiments like the above, that the existing technology for producing radio waves, the spark transmitter, was not usable for amplitude modulation, and that a new kind of transmitter, one that produced sinusoidal continuous waves, was needed. This was a radical idea at the time, because experts believed the impulsive spark was necessary to produce radio frequency waves, and Fessenden was ridiculed. He invented and helped develop one of the first continuous wave transmitters - the Alexanderson alternator, with which he made what is considered the first AM public entertainment broadcast on Christmas Eve, 1906. He also discovered the principle on which AM is based, heterodyning, and invented one of the first detectors able to rectify and receive AM, the electrolytic detector or \"liquid baretter\", in 1902. Other radio detectors invented for wireless telegraphy, such as the Fleming valve (1904) and the crystal detector (1906) also proved able to rectify AM signals, so the technological hurdle was generating AM waves; receiving them was not a problem.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 324749, 291706, 1280825, 41234, 4529151, 60569, 9861384, 3678714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 322, 332 ], [ 333, 348 ], [ 606, 629 ], [ 793, 805 ], [ 837, 845 ], [ 855, 862 ], [ 1005, 1018 ], [ 1034, 1050 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early experiments in AM radio transmission, conducted by Fessenden, Valdemar Poulsen, Ernst Ruhmer, Quirino Majorana, Charles Herrold, and Lee de Forest, were hampered by the lack of a technology for amplification. The first practical continuous wave AM transmitters were based on either the huge, expensive Alexanderson alternator, developed 1906–1910, or versions of the Poulsen arc transmitter (arc converter), invented in 1903. The modifications necessary to transmit AM were clumsy and resulted in very low quality audio. Modulation was usually accomplished by a carbon microphone inserted directly in the antenna or ground wire; its varying resistance varied the current to the antenna. The limited power handling ability of the microphone severely limited the power of the first radiotelephones; many of the microphones were water-cooled.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 546414, 56453934, 16126849, 1434367, 256764, 9931, 61164, 1280825, 4196082, 65886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 84 ], [ 86, 98 ], [ 100, 116 ], [ 118, 133 ], [ 139, 152 ], [ 200, 213 ], [ 255, 266 ], [ 309, 332 ], [ 374, 385 ], [ 578, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1912 discovery of the amplifying ability of the Audion tube, invented in 1906 by Lee de Forest, solved these problems. The vacuum tube feedback oscillator, invented in 1912 by Edwin Armstrong and Alexander Meissner, was a cheap source of continuous waves and could be easily modulated to make an AM transmitter. Modulation did not have to be done at the output but could be applied to the signal before the final amplifier tube, so the microphone or other audio source didn't have to modulate a high-power radio signal. Wartime research greatly advanced the art of AM modulation, and after the war the availability of cheap tubes sparked a great increase in the number of radio stations experimenting with AM transmission of news or music. The vacuum tube was responsible for the rise of AM broadcasting around 1920, the first electronic mass communication medium. Amplitude modulation was virtually the only type used for radio broadcasting until FM broadcasting began after World War II.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 298975, 256764, 9920, 10315, 8702972, 291706, 20637, 113509, 1605735, 173088, 1607203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 63 ], [ 85, 98 ], [ 140, 159 ], [ 181, 196 ], [ 201, 219 ], [ 243, 258 ], [ 280, 289 ], [ 795, 810 ], [ 845, 863 ], [ 931, 949 ], [ 956, 971 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the same time as AM radio began, telephone companies such as AT&T were developing the other large application for AM: sending multiple telephone calls through a single wire by modulating them on separate carrier frequencies, called frequency division multiplexing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 47005, 17555269, 153217, 86376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 55 ], [ 64, 68 ], [ 207, 214 ], [ 235, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Renshaw Carson in 1915 did the first mathematical analysis of amplitude modulation, showing that a signal and carrier frequency combined in a nonlinear device would create two sidebands on either side of the carrier frequency, and passing the modulated signal through another nonlinear device would extract the original baseband signal. His analysis also showed only one sideband was necessary to transmit the audio signal, and Carson patented single-sideband modulation (SSB) on 1 December 1915. This more advanced variant of amplitude modulation was adopted by AT&T for longwave transatlantic telephone service beginning 7 January 1927. After WW2 it was developed by the military for aircraft communication.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 29048, 168741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 449, 475 ], [ 577, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The carrier wave (sine wave) of frequency fc and amplitude A is expressed by", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 324749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Analysis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The message signal, such as an audio signal that is used for modulating the carrier, is m(t), and has a frequency fm, much lower than fc:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Analysis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ",", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Analysis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where m is the amplitude sensitivity, M is the amplitude of modulation. If m < 1, (1 + m(t)/A) is always positive for undermodulation. If m > 1 then overmodulation occurs and reconstruction of message signal from the transmitted signal would lead in loss of original signal. Amplitude modulation results when the carrier c(t) is multiplied by the positive quantity (1 + m(t)/A):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Analysis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In this simple case m is identical to the Modulation index, discussed below. With m = 0.5 the amplitude modulated signal y(t) thus corresponds to the top graph (labelled \"50% Modulation\") in figure 4.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Analysis", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Using prosthaphaeresis identities, y(t) can be shown to be the sum of three sine waves:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 1842477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Therefore, the modulated signal has three components: the carrier wave c(t) which is unchanged in frequency, and two sidebands with frequencies slightly above and below the carrier frequency fc.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Analysis", "target_page_ids": [ 41701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A useful modulation signal m(t) is usually more complex than a single sine wave, as treated above. However, by the principle of Fourier decomposition, m(t) can be expressed as the sum of a set of sine waves of various frequencies, amplitudes, and phases. Carrying out the multiplication of 1 + m(t) with c(t) as above, the result consists of a sum of sine waves. Again, the carrier c(t) is present unchanged, but each frequency component of m at fi has two sidebands at frequencies fc + fi and fc - fi. The collection of the former frequencies above the carrier frequency is known as the upper sideband, and those below constitute the lower sideband. The modulation m(t) may be considered to consist of an equal mix of positive and negative frequency components, as shown in the top of figure 2. One can view the sidebands as that modulation m(t) having simply been shifted in frequency by fc as depicted at the bottom right of figure 2.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Spectrum", "target_page_ids": [ 59038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The short-term spectrum of modulation, changing as it would for a human voice for instance, the frequency content (horizontal axis) may be plotted as a function of time (vertical axis), as in figure 3. It can again be seen that as the modulation frequency content varies, an upper sideband is generated according to those frequencies shifted above the carrier frequency, and the same content mirror-imaged in the lower sideband below the carrier frequency. At all times, the carrier itself remains constant, and of greater power than the total sideband power.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Spectrum", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The RF bandwidth of an AM transmission (refer to figure 2, but only considering positive frequencies) is twice the bandwidth of the modulating (or \"baseband\") signal, since the upper and lower sidebands around the carrier frequency each have a bandwidth as wide as the highest modulating frequency. Although the bandwidth of an AM signal is narrower than one using frequency modulation (FM), it is twice as wide as single-sideband techniques; it thus may be viewed as spectrally inefficient. Within a frequency band, only half as many transmissions (or \"channels\") can thus be accommodated. For this reason analog television employs a variant of single-sideband (known as vestigial sideband, somewhat of a compromise in terms of bandwidth) in order to reduce the required channel spacing.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Power and spectrum efficiency", "target_page_ids": [ 40773, 10835, 29048, 29048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 156 ], [ 365, 385 ], [ 415, 430 ], [ 672, 690 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another improvement over standard AM is obtained through reduction or suppression of the carrier component of the modulated spectrum. In figure 2 this is the spike in between the sidebands; even with full (100%) sine wave modulation, the power in the carrier component is twice that in the sidebands, yet it carries no unique information. Thus there is a great advantage in efficiency in reducing or totally suppressing the carrier, either in conjunction with elimination of one sideband (single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission) or with both sidebands remaining (double sideband suppressed carrier). While these suppressed carrier transmissions are efficient in terms of transmitter power, they require more sophisticated receivers employing synchronous detection and regeneration of the carrier frequency. For that reason, standard AM continues to be widely used, especially in broadcast transmission, to allow for the use of inexpensive receivers using envelope detection. Even (analog) television, with a (largely) suppressed lower sideband, includes sufficient carrier power for use of envelope detection. But for communications systems where both transmitters and receivers can be optimized, suppression of both one sideband and the carrier represent a net advantage and are frequently employed.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Power and spectrum efficiency", "target_page_ids": [ 29048, 41064, 345141, 345675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 489, 536 ], [ 572, 606 ], [ 751, 772 ], [ 964, 982 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A technique used widely in broadcast AM transmitters is an application of the Hapburg carrier, first proposed in the 1930s but impractical with the technology then available. During periods of low modulation the carrier power would be reduced and would return to full power during periods of high modulation levels. This has the effect of reducing the overall power demand of the transmitter and is most effective on speech type programmes. Various trade names are used for its implementation by the transmitter manufacturers from the late 80's onwards.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Power and spectrum efficiency", "target_page_ids": [ 8028205 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 235, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The AM modulation index is a measure based on the ratio of the modulation excursions of the RF signal to the level of the unmodulated carrier. It is thus defined as:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Modulation index", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where and are the modulation amplitude and carrier amplitude, respectively; the modulation amplitude is the peak (positive or negative) change in the RF amplitude from its unmodulated value. Modulation index is normally expressed as a percentage, and may be displayed on a meter connected to an AM transmitter.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Modulation index", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "So if , carrier amplitude varies by 50% above (and below) its unmodulated level, as is shown in the first waveform, below. For , it varies by 100% as shown in the illustration below it. With 100% modulation the wave amplitude sometimes reaches zero, and this represents full modulation using standard AM and is often a target (in order to obtain the highest possible signal-to-noise ratio) but mustn't be exceeded. Increasing the modulating signal beyond that point, known as overmodulation, causes a standard AM modulator (see below) to fail, as the negative excursions of the wave envelope cannot become less than zero, resulting in distortion (\"clipping\") of the received modulation. Transmitters typically incorporate a limiter circuit to avoid overmodulation, and/or a compressor circuit (especially for voice communications) in order to still approach 100% modulation for maximum intelligibility above the noise. Such circuits are sometimes referred to as a vogad.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Modulation index", "target_page_ids": [ 41706, 41477, 41052, 495387, 262733, 234062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 367, 388 ], [ 476, 490 ], [ 635, 645 ], [ 724, 731 ], [ 774, 784 ], [ 964, 969 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However it is possible to talk about a modulation index exceeding 100%, without introducing distortion, in the case of double-sideband reduced-carrier transmission. In that case, negative excursions beyond zero entail a reversal of the carrier phase, as shown in the third waveform below. This cannot be produced using the efficient high-level (output stage) modulation techniques (see below) which are widely used especially in high power broadcast transmitters. Rather, a special modulator produces such a waveform at a low level followed by a linear amplifier. What's more, a standard AM receiver using an envelope detector is incapable of properly demodulating such a signal. Rather, synchronous detection is required. Thus double-sideband transmission is generally not referred to as \"AM\" even though it generates an identical RF waveform as standard AM as long as the modulation index is below 100%. Such systems more often attempt a radical reduction of the carrier level compared to the sidebands (where the useful information is present) to the point of double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission where the carrier is (ideally) reduced to zero. In all such cases the term \"modulation index\" loses its value as it refers to the ratio of the modulation amplitude to a rather small (or zero) remaining carrier amplitude.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Modulation index", "target_page_ids": [ 41063, 113604, 2217163, 345675, 41064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 163 ], [ 440, 449 ], [ 546, 562 ], [ 609, 626 ], [ 1063, 1110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modulation circuit designs may be classified as low- or high-level (depending on whether they modulate in a low-power domain—followed by amplification for transmission—or in the high-power domain of the transmitted signal).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modulation methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In modern radio systems, modulated signals are generated via digital signal processing (DSP). With DSP many types of AM are possible with software control (including DSB with carrier, SSB suppressed-carrier and independent sideband, or ISB). Calculated digital samples are converted to voltages with a digital-to-analog converter, typically at a frequency less than the desired RF-output frequency. The analog signal must then be shifted in frequency and linearly amplified to the desired frequency and power level (linear amplification must be used to prevent modulation distortion).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modulation methods", "target_page_ids": [ 8525, 92943, 2217163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 86 ], [ 302, 329 ], [ 455, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This low-level method for AM is used in many Amateur Radio transceivers.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modulation methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AM may also be generated at a low level, using analog methods described in the next section.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modulation methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "High-power AM transmitters (such as those used for AM broadcasting) are based on high-efficiency class-D and class-E power amplifier stages, modulated by varying the supply voltage.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modulation methods", "target_page_ids": [ 61164, 113509, 2166803, 9931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 25 ], [ 51, 66 ], [ 97, 104 ], [ 117, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Older designs (for broadcast and amateur radio) also generate AM by controlling the gain of the transmitter's final amplifier (generally class-C, for efficiency). The following types are for vacuum tube transmitters (but similar options are available with transistors):", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modulation methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Plate modulation In plate modulation, the plate voltage of the RF amplifier is modulated with the audio signal. The audio power requirement is 50 percent of the RF-carrier power.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modulation methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Heising (constant-current) modulation RF amplifier plate voltage is fed through a choke (high-value inductor). The AM modulation tube plate is fed through the same inductor, so the modulator tube diverts current from the RF amplifier. The choke acts as a constant current source in the audio range. This system has a low power efficiency.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modulation methods", "target_page_ids": [ 3382576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Control grid modulation The operating bias and gain of the final RF amplifier can be controlled by varying the voltage of the control grid. This method requires little audio power, but care must be taken to reduce distortion.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modulation methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Clamp tube (screen grid) modulation The screen-grid bias may be controlled through a clamp tube, which reduces voltage according to the modulation signal. It is difficult to approach 100-percent modulation while maintaining low distortion with this system.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modulation methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Doherty modulation One tube provides the power under carrier conditions and another operates only for positive modulation peaks. Overall efficiency is good, and distortion is low.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modulation methods", "target_page_ids": [ 23718712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Outphasing modulation Two tubes are operated in parallel, but partially out of phase with each other. As they are differentially phase modulated their combined amplitude is greater or smaller. Efficiency is good and distortion low when properly adjusted.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modulation methods", "target_page_ids": [ 4894221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pulse-width modulation (PWM) or pulse-duration modulation (PDM) A highly efficient high voltage power supply is applied to the tube plate. The output voltage of this supply is varied at an audio rate to follow the program. This system was pioneered by Hilmer Swanson and has a number of variations, all of which achieve high efficiency and sound quality.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modulation methods", "target_page_ids": [ 81242, 35555446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 64 ], [ 254, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Digital methods The Harris Corporation obtained a patent for synthesizing a modulated high-power carrier wave from a set of digitally selected low-power amplifiers, running in phase at the same carrier frequency. The input signal is sampled by a conventional audio analog-to-digital converter (ADC), and fed to a digital exciter, which modulates overall transmitter output power by switching a series of low-power solid-state RF amplifiers on and off. The combined output drives the antenna system.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modulation methods", "target_page_ids": [ 1674637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The simplest form of AM demodulator consists of a diode which is configured to act as envelope detector. Another type of demodulator, the product detector, can provide better-quality demodulation with additional circuit complexity.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Demodulation methods", "target_page_ids": [ 345675, 345141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 103 ], [ 138, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AM stereo", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 653312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shortwave radio", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 57980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amplitude modulation signalling system (AMSS)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3874702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Modulation sphere", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8921792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Types of radio emissions", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 382167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Airband", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1416009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " DSB-SC", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Newkirk, David and Karlquist, Rick (2004). Mixers, modulators and demodulators. In D. G. Reed (ed.), The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications (81st ed.), pp.15.1–15.36. Newington: ARRL. .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Amplitude Modulation by Jakub Serych, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 13989702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amplitude Modulation, by S Sastry.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Amplitude Modulation, an introduction by Federation of American Scientists.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 158172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amplitude Modulation tutorial including related topics of modulators, demodulators, etc...", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Analog Modulation online interactive demonstration using Python in Google Colab Platform, by C Foh.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Radio_modulation_modes" ]

[ "AM" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel ( ; ; or ; ; 10 May 1788– 14 July 1827) was a French civil engineer and physicist whose research in optics led to the almost unanimous acceptance of the wave theory of light, excluding any remnant of Newton's corpuscular theory, from the late 1830s until the end of the 19th century. He is perhaps better known for inventing the catadioptric (reflective/refractive) Fresnel lens and for pioneering the use of \"stepped\" lenses to extend the visibility of lighthouses, saving countless lives at sea. The simpler dioptric (purely refractive) stepped lens, first proposed by Count Buffon and independently reinvented by Fresnel, is used in screen magnifiers and in condenser lenses for overhead projectors.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23269, 22483, 2460242, 14627, 2783196, 1586249, 63978, 17725, 1221884, 360039, 658084, 308056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 105 ], [ 124, 130 ], [ 177, 197 ], [ 224, 230 ], [ 233, 251 ], [ 353, 365 ], [ 390, 402 ], [ 478, 488 ], [ 534, 542 ], [ 595, 607 ], [ 667, 677 ], [ 706, 724 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By expressing Huygens's principle of secondary waves and Young's principle of interference in quantitative terms, and supposing that simple colors consist of sinusoidal waves, Fresnel gave the first satisfactory explanation of diffraction by straight edges, including the first satisfactory wave-based explanation of rectilinear propagation. Part of his argument was a proof that the addition of sinusoidal functions of the same frequency but different phases is analogous to the addition of forces with different directions. By further supposing that light waves are purely transverse, Fresnel explained the nature of polarization, the mechanism of chromatic polarization, and the transmission and reflection coefficients at the interface between two transparent isotropic media. Then, by generalizing the direction-speed-polarization relation for calcite, he accounted for the directions and polarizations of the refracted rays in doubly-refractive crystals of the biaxial class (those for which Huygens's secondary wavefronts are not axisymmetric). The period between the first publication of his pure-transverse-wave hypothesis, and the submission of his first correct solution to the biaxial problem, was less than a year.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 42127, 51624, 15112, 324749, 8603, 24047, 76408, 41564, 5318198, 41641, 14865, 44603, 174412, 1484541, 6025673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 21 ], [ 57, 62 ], [ 78, 90 ], [ 158, 168 ], [ 227, 238 ], [ 453, 459 ], [ 575, 585 ], [ 619, 631 ], [ 682, 694 ], [ 699, 721 ], [ 764, 773 ], [ 849, 856 ], [ 933, 950 ], [ 1018, 1027 ], [ 1037, 1049 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later, he coined the terms linear polarization, circular polarization, and elliptical polarization, explained how optical rotation could be understood as a difference in propagation speeds for the two directions of circular polarization, and (by allowing the reflection coefficient to be complex) accounted for the change in polarization due to total internal reflection, as exploited in the Fresnel rhomb. Defenders of the established corpuscular theory could not match his quantitative explanations of so many phenomena on so few assumptions.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 41316, 40875, 41106, 39774, 5826, 30426, 8323351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 46 ], [ 48, 69 ], [ 75, 98 ], [ 114, 130 ], [ 288, 295 ], [ 345, 370 ], [ 392, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel had a lifelong battle with tuberculosis, to which he succumbed at the age of 39. Although he did not become a public celebrity in his lifetime, he lived just long enough to receive due recognition from his peers, including (on his deathbed) the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society of London, and his name is ubiquitous in the modern terminology of optics and waves. After the wave theory of light was subsumed by Maxwell's electromagnetic theory in the 1860s, some attention was diverted from the magnitude of Fresnel's contribution. In the period between Fresnel's unification of physical optics and Maxwell's wider unification, a contemporary authority, Humphrey Lloyd, described Fresnel's transverse-wave theory as \"the noblest fabric which has ever adorned the domain of physical science, Newton's system of the universe alone excepted.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30653, 846150, 496064, 28989696, 9532, 28195640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 47 ], [ 254, 267 ], [ 275, 298 ], [ 421, 428 ], [ 431, 446 ], [ 664, 678 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustin-Jean Fresnel (also called Augustin Jean or simply Augustin), born in Broglie, Normandy, on 10 May 1788, was the second of four sons of the architect Jacques Fresnel (1755–1805) and his wife Augustine, née Mérimée (1755–1833). In 1790, following the Revolution, Broglie became part of the département of Eure. The family moved twice – in 1789/90 to Cherbourg, and in 1794 to Jacques's home town of Mathieu, where Madame Fresnel would spend 25 years as a widow, outliving two of her sons.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 15613629, 21724, 11188, 38523, 90564, 51715226, 15932588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 85 ], [ 87, 95 ], [ 258, 268 ], [ 297, 308 ], [ 312, 316 ], [ 357, 366 ], [ 406, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first son, Louis (1786–1809), was admitted to the École Polytechnique, became a lieutenant in the artillery, and was killed in action at Jaca, Spain, the day before his 23rd birthday. The third, Léonor (1790–1869), followed Augustin into civil engineering, succeeded him as secretary of the Lighthouse Commission, and helped to edit his collected works. The fourth, Fulgence Fresnel (1795–1855), became a noted linguist, diplomat, and orientalist, and occasionally assisted Augustin with negotiations. Fulgence died in Bagdad in 1855 having led a mission to explore Babylon. Léonor apparently was the only one of the four who married.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 317443, 947512, 26667, 38223, 20437811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 73 ], [ 141, 145 ], [ 147, 152 ], [ 248, 256 ], [ 370, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Their mother's younger brother, Jean François \"Léonor\" Mérimée (1757–1836), father of the writer Prosper Mérimée (1803–1870), was a paint artist who turned his attention to the chemistry of painting. He became the Permanent Secretary of the École des Beaux-Arts and (until 1814) a professor at the École Polytechnique, and was the initial point of contact between Augustin and the leading optical physicists of the day .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 61397325, 161240, 18622193, 5180, 18976459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 62 ], [ 97, 112 ], [ 132, 144 ], [ 177, 186 ], [ 241, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Fresnel brothers were initially home-schooled by their mother. The sickly Augustin was considered the slow one, not inclined to memorization; but the popular story that he hardly began to read until the age of eight is disputed. At the age of nine or ten he was undistinguished except for his ability to turn tree-branches into toy bows and guns that worked far too well, earning himself the title l'homme de génie (the man of genius) from his accomplices, and a united crackdown from their elders.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1801, Augustin was sent to the École Centrale at Caen, as company for Louis. But Augustin lifted his performance: in late 1804 he was accepted into the École Polytechnique, being placed 17th in the entrance examination. As the detailed records of the École Polytechnique begin in 1808, we know little of Augustin's time there, except that he made few if any friends and – in spite of continuing poor health – excelled in drawing and geometry: in his first year he took a prize for his solution to a geometry problem posed by Adrien-Marie Legendre. Graduating in 1806, he then enrolled at the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées (National School of Bridges and Roads, also known as \"ENPC\" or \"École des Ponts\"), from which he graduated in 1809, entering the service of the Corps des Ponts et Chaussées as an ingénieur ordinaire aspirant (ordinary engineer in training). Directly or indirectly, he was to remain in the employment of the \"Corps des Ponts\" for the rest of his life.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 92443, 49695, 89836, 574395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 56 ], [ 528, 549 ], [ 595, 633 ], [ 778, 806 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel's parents were Roman Catholics of the Jansenist sect, characterized by an extreme Augustinian view of original sin. Religion took first place in the boys' home-schooling. In1802, his mother said:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 52277, 2030, 22735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 38 ], [ 46, 55 ], [ 90, 101 ], [ 110, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustin remained a Jansenist. He regarded his intellectual talents as gifts from God, and considered it his duty to use them for the benefit of others. According to his fellow engineer Alphonse Duleau, who helped to nurse him through his final illness, Fresnel saw the study of nature as part of the study of the power and goodness of God. He placed virtue above science and genius. In his last days he prayed for \"strength of soul,\" not against death alone, but against \"the interruption of discoveries… of which he hoped to derive useful applications.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jansenism is considered heretical by the Roman Catholic Church, and Grattan-Guinness suggests this is why Fresnel never gained a permanent academic teaching post; his only teaching appointment was at the Athénée in the winter of 1819–20. The article on Fresnel in the Catholic Encyclopedia does not mention his Jansenism, but describes him as \"a deeply religious man and remarkable for his keen sense of duty.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 20611083, 12778884, 468280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 33 ], [ 204, 211 ], [ 268, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel was initially posted to the western département of Vendée. There, in 1811, he anticipated what became known as the Solvay process for producing soda ash, except that recycling of the ammonia was not considered. That difference may explain why leading chemists, who learned of his discovery through his uncle Léonor, eventually thought it uneconomic.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Engineering assignments", "target_page_ids": [ 88951, 614297, 155726, 1365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 65 ], [ 123, 137 ], [ 152, 160 ], [ 191, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "About 1812, Fresnel was sent to Nyons, in the southern département of Drôme, to assist with the imperial highway that was to connect Spain and Italy. It is from Nyons that we have the first evidence of his interest in optics. On 15 May 1814, while work was slack due to Napoleon's defeat, Fresnel wrote a \"P.S.\" to his brother Léonor, saying in part:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Engineering assignments", "target_page_ids": [ 1830248, 84325, 69880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 37 ], [ 70, 75 ], [ 270, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As late as 28 December he was still waiting for information, but he had received Biot's memoir by 10 February 1815. (The Institut de France had taken over the functions of the French Académie des Sciences and other académies in 1795. In1816 the Académie des Sciences regained its name and autonomy, but remained part of the institute.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Engineering assignments", "target_page_ids": [ 732266, 395934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 139 ], [ 183, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 1815, perceiving Napoleon's return from Elba as \"an attack on civilization\", Fresnel departed without leave, hastened to Toulouse and offered his services to the royalist resistance, but soon found himself on the sick list. Returning to Nyons in defeat, he was threatened and had his windows broken. During the Hundred Days he was placed on suspension, which he was eventually allowed to spend at his mother's house in Mathieu. There he used his enforced leisure to begin his optical experiments.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Engineering assignments", "target_page_ids": [ 10479, 45371, 215994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 53 ], [ 130, 138 ], [ 320, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The appreciation of Fresnel's reconstruction of physical optics might be assisted by an overview of the fragmented state in which he found the subject. In this subsection, optical phenomena that were unexplained or whose explanations were disputed are named in bold type.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 219805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 261, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The corpuscular theory of light, favored by Isaac Newton and accepted by nearly all of Fresnel's seniors, easily explained rectilinear propagation: the corpuscles obviously moved very fast, so that their paths were very nearly straight. The wave theory, as developed by Christiaan Huygens in his Treatise on Light (1690), explained rectilinear propagation on the assumption that each point crossed by a traveling wavefront becomes the source of a secondary wavefront. Given the initial position of a traveling wavefront, any later position (according to Huygens) was the common tangent surface (envelope) of the secondary wavefronts emitted from the earlier position. As the extent of the common tangent was limited by the extent of the initial wavefront, the repeated application of Huygens's construction to a plane wavefront of limited extent (in a uniform medium) gave a straight, parallel beam. While this construction indeed predicted rectilinear propagation, it was difficult to reconcile with the common observation that wavefronts on the surface of water can bend around obstructions, and with the similar behavior of sound waves – causing Newton to maintain, to the end of his life, that if light consisted of waves it would \"bend and spread every way\" into the shadows.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 2783196, 14627, 1397700, 2460242, 42127, 46527701, 31482, 880235, 18994087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 44, 56 ], [ 123, 146 ], [ 241, 252 ], [ 270, 288 ], [ 296, 313 ], [ 578, 585 ], [ 595, 603 ], [ 1127, 1132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Huygens's theory neatly explained the law of ordinary reflection and the law of ordinary refraction (\"Snell's law\"), provided that the secondary waves traveled slower in denser media (those of higher refractive index). The corpuscular theory, with the hypothesis that the corpuscles were subject to forces acting perpendicular to surfaces, explained the same laws equally well, albeit with the implication that light traveled faster in denser media; that implication was wrong, but could not be directly disproven with the technology of Newton's time or even Fresnel's time .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 679297, 42964, 25880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 64 ], [ 80, 99 ], [ 200, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly inconclusive was stellar aberration—that is, the apparent change in the position of a star due to the velocity of the earth across the line of sight (not to be confused with stellar parallax, which is due to the displacement of the earth across the line of sight). Identified by James Bradley in 1728, stellar aberration was widely taken as confirmation of the corpuscular theory. But it was equally compatible with the wave theory, as Euler noted in 1746 – tacitly assuming that the aether (the supposed wave-bearing medium) near the earth was not disturbed by the motion of the earth.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 2703, 202661, 170095, 17902, 18406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 45 ], [ 184, 200 ], [ 289, 302 ], [ 446, 451 ], [ 494, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The outstanding strength of Huygens's theory was his explanation of the birefringence (double refraction) of \"Iceland crystal\" (transparent calcite), on the assumption that the secondary waves are spherical for the ordinary refraction (which satisfies Snell's law) and spheroidal for the extraordinary refraction (which does not). In general, Huygens's common-tangent construction implies that rays are paths of least time between successive positions of the wavefront, in accordance with Fermat's principle. In the special case of isotropic media, the secondary wavefronts must be spherical, and Huygens's construction then implies that the rays are perpendicular to the wavefront; indeed, the law of ordinary refraction can be separately derived from that premise, as Ignace-Gaston Pardies did before Huygens.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 174412, 318869, 44603, 82365, 37232, 14865, 15326316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 85 ], [ 110, 125 ], [ 140, 147 ], [ 269, 277 ], [ 489, 507 ], [ 532, 541 ], [ 770, 791 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Newton rejected the wave theory, he noticed its potential to explain colors, including the colors of \"thin plates\" (e.g., \"Newton's rings\", and the colors of skylight reflected in soap bubbles), on the assumption that light consists of periodic waves, with the lowest frequencies (longest wavelengths) at the red end of the spectrum, and the highest frequencies (shortest wavelengths) at the violet end. In1672 he published a heavy hint to that effect, but contemporary supporters of the wave theory failed to act on it: Robert Hooke treated light as a periodic sequence of pulses but did not use frequency as the criterion of color, while Huygens treated the waves as individual pulses without any periodicity; and Pardies died young in 1673. Newton himself tried to explain colors of thin plates using the corpuscular theory, by supposing that his corpuscles had the wavelike property of alternating between \"fits of easy transmission\" and \"fits of easy reflection\", the distance between like \"fits\" depending on the color and the medium and, awkwardly, on the angle of refraction or reflection into that medium. More awkwardly still, this theory required thin plates to reflect only at the back surface, although thick plates manifestly reflected also at the front surface. It was not until 1801 that Thomas Young, in the Bakerian Lecture for that year, cited Newton's hint, and accounted for the colors of a thin plate as the combined effect of the front and back reflections, which reinforce or cancel each other according to the wavelength and the thickness. Young similarly explained the colors of \"striated surfaces\" (e.g., gratings) as the wavelength-dependent reinforcement or cancellation of reflections from adjacent lines. He described this reinforcement or cancellation as interference.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 27301235, 1060624, 10779, 33125, 49720, 51624, 2219220, 41031, 15112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 122 ], [ 132, 146 ], [ 277, 288 ], [ 298, 308 ], [ 530, 542 ], [ 1313, 1325 ], [ 1334, 1350 ], [ 1641, 1649 ], [ 1796, 1808 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Neither Newton nor Huygens satisfactorily explained diffraction—the blurring and fringing of shadows where, according to rectilinear propagation, they ought to be sharp. Newton, who called diffraction \"inflexion\", supposed that rays of light passing close to obstacles were bent (\"inflected\"); but his explanation was only qualitative. Huygens's common-tangent construction, without modifications, could not accommodate diffraction at all. Two such modifications were proposed by Young in the same 1801 Bakerian Lecture: first, that the secondary waves near the edge of an obstacle could diverge into the shadow, but only weakly, due to limited reinforcement from other secondary waves; and second, that diffraction by an edge was caused by interference between two rays: one reflected off the edge, and the other inflected while passing near the edge. The latter ray would be undeviated if sufficiently far from the edge, but Young did not elaborate on that case. These were the earliest suggestions that the degree of diffraction depends on wavelength. Later, in the 1803 Bakerian Lecture, Young ceased to regard inflection as a separate phenomenon, and produced evidence that diffraction fringes inside the shadow of a narrow obstacle were due to interference: when the light from one side was blocked, the internal fringes disappeared. But Young was alone in such efforts until Fresnel entered the field.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 8603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Huygens, in his investigation of double refraction, noticed something that he could not explain: when light passes through two similarly oriented calcite crystals at normal incidence, the ordinary ray emerging from the first crystal suffers only the ordinary refraction in the second, while the extraordinary ray emerging from the first suffers only the extraordinary refraction in the second; but when the second crystal is rotated 90° about the incident rays, the roles are interchanged, so that the ordinary ray emerging from the first crystal suffers only the extraordinary refraction in the second, and vice versa. This discovery gave Newton another reason to reject the wave theory: rays of light evidently had \"sides\". Corpuscles could have sides (or poles, as they would later be called); but waves of light could not, because (so it seemed) any such waves would need to be longitudinal (with vibrations in the direction of propagation). Newton offered an alternative \"Rule\" for the extraordinary refraction, which rode on his authority through the 18th century, although he made \"no known attempt to deduce it from any principles of optics, corpuscular or otherwise.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 144940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 882, 894 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1808, the extraordinary refraction of calcite was investigated experimentally, with unprecedented accuracy, by Étienne-Louis Malus, and found to be consistent with Huygens's spheroid construction, not Newton's \"Rule\". Malus, encouraged by Pierre-Simon Laplace, then sought to explain this law in corpuscular terms: from the known relation between the incident and refracted ray directions, Malus derived the corpuscular velocity (as a function of direction) that would satisfy Maupertuis's \"least action\" principle. But, as Young pointed out, the existence of such a velocity law was guaranteed by Huygens's spheroid, because Huygens's construction leads to Fermat's principle, which becomes Maupertuis's principle if the ray speed is replaced by the reciprocal of the particle speed! The corpuscularists had not found a force law that would yield the alleged velocity law, except by a circular argument in which a force acting at the surface of the crystal inexplicably depended on the direction of the (possibly subsequent) velocity within the crystal. Worse, it was doubtful that any such force would satisfy the conditions of Maupertuis's principle. In contrast, Young proceeded to show that \"amedium more easily compressible in one direction than in any direction perpendicular to it, as if it consisted of an infinite number of parallel plates connected by a substance somewhat less elastic\" admits spheroidal longitudinal wavefronts, as Huygens supposed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 168115, 344783, 196221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 133 ], [ 242, 262 ], [ 480, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "But Malus, in the midst of his experiments on double refraction, noticed something else: when a ray of light is reflected off a non-metallic surface at the appropriate angle, it behaves like one of the two rays emerging from a calcite crystal. It was Malus who coined the term polarization to describe this behavior, although the polarizing angle became known as Brewster's angle after its dependence on the refractive index was determined experimentally by David Brewster in 1815. Malus also introduced the term plane of polarization. In the case of polarization by reflection, his \"plane of polarization\" was the plane of the incident and reflected rays; in modern terms, this is the plane normal to the electric vibration. In1809, Malus further discovered that the intensity of light passing through two polarizers is proportional to the squared cosine of the angle between their planes of polarization (Malus's law), whether the polarizers work by reflection or double refraction, and that all birefringent crystals produce both extraordinary refraction and polarization. As the corpuscularists started trying to explain these things in terms of polar \"molecules\" of light, the wave-theorists had no working hypothesis on the nature of polarization, prompting Young to remark that Malus's observations \"present greater difficulties to the advocates of the undulatory theory than any other facts with which we are acquainted.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 2722105, 40815, 8487, 55054778, 2722105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 277, 289 ], [ 363, 379 ], [ 458, 472 ], [ 513, 534 ], [ 907, 918 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Malus died in February 1812, at the age of 36, shortly after receiving the Rumford Medal for his work on polarization.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 846150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 1811, François Arago reported that if a thin plate of mica was viewed against a white polarized backlight through a calcite crystal, the two images of the mica were of complementary colors (the overlap having the same color as the background). The light emerging from the mica was \"depolarized\" in the sense that there was no orientation of the calcite that made one image disappear; yet it was not ordinary (\"unpolarized\") light, for which the two images would be of the same color. Rotating the calcite around the line of sight changed the colors, though they remained complementary. Rotating the mica changed the saturation (not the hue) of the colors. This phenomenon became known as chromatic polarization. Replacing the mica with a much thicker plate of quartz, with its faces perpendicular to the optic axis (the axis of Huygens's spheroid or Malus's velocity function), produced a similar effect, except that rotating the quartz made no difference. Arago tried to explain his observations in corpuscular terms.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 44669, 21061, 405803, 25233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 30 ], [ 64, 68 ], [ 178, 198 ], [ 770, 776 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1812, as Arago pursued further qualitative experiments and other commitments, Jean-Baptiste Biot reworked the same ground using a gypsum lamina in place of the mica, and found empirical formulae for the intensities of the ordinary and extraordinary images. The formulae contained two coefficients, supposedly representing colors of rays \"affected\" and \"unaffected\" by the plate – the \"affected\" rays being of the same color mix as those reflected by amorphous thin plates of proportional, but lesser, thickness.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 75109, 13040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 99 ], [ 133, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arago protested, declaring that he had made some of the same discoveries but had not had time to write them up. In fact the overlap between Arago's work and Biot's was minimal, Arago's being only qualitative and wider in scope (attempting to include polarization by reflection). But the dispute triggered a notorious falling-out between the two men.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Later that year, Biot tried to explain the observations as an oscillation of the alignment of the \"affected\" corpuscles at a frequency proportional to that of Newton's \"fits\", due to forces depending on the alignment. This theory became known as mobile polarization. To reconcile his results with a sinusoidal oscillation, Biot had to suppose that the corpuscles emerged with one of two permitted orientations, namely the extremes of the oscillation, with probabilities depending on the phase of the oscillation. Corpuscular optics was becoming expensive on assumptions. But in 1813, Biot reported that the case of quartz was simpler: the observable phenomenon (now called optical rotation or optical activity or sometimes rotary polarization) was a gradual rotation of the polarization direction with distance, and could be explained by a corresponding rotation (not oscillation) of the corpuscles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 24047, 39774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 487, 492 ], [ 673, 689 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early in 1814, reviewing Biot's work on chromatic polarization, Young noted that the periodicity of the color as a function of the plate thickness – including the factor by which the period exceeded that for a reflective thin plate, and even the effect of obliquity of the plate (but not the role of polarization)—could be explained by the wave theory in terms of the different propagation times of the ordinary and extraordinary waves through the plate. But Young was then the only public defender of the wave theory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In summary, in the spring of 1814, as Fresnel tried in vain to guess what polarization was, the corpuscularists thought that they knew, while the wave-theorists (if we may use the plural) literally had no idea. Both theories claimed to explain rectilinear propagation, but the wave explanation was overwhelmingly regarded as unconvincing. The corpuscular theory could not rigorously link double refraction to surface forces; the wave theory could not yet link it to polarization. The corpuscular theory was weak on thin plates and silent on gratings; the wave theory was strong on both, but under-appreciated. Concerning diffraction, the corpuscular theory did not yield quantitative predictions, while the wave theory had begun to do so by considering diffraction as a manifestation of interference, but had only considered two rays at a time. Only the corpuscular theory gave even a vague insight into Brewster's angle, Malus's law, or optical rotation. Concerning chromatic polarization, the wave theory explained the periodicity far better than the corpuscular theory, but had nothing to say about the role of polarization; and its explanation of the periodicity was largely ignored. And Arago had founded the study of chromatic polarization, only to lose the lead, controversially, to Biot. Such were the circumstances in which Arago first heard of Fresnel's interest in optics.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel's letters from later in 1814 reveal his interest in the wave theory, including his awareness that it explained the constancy of the speed of light and was at least compatible with stellar aberration. Eventually he compiled what he called his rêveries (musings) into an essay and submitted it via Léonor Mérimée to André-Marie Ampère, who did not respond directly. But on 19 December, Mérimée dined with Ampère and Arago, with whom he was acquainted through the École Polytechnique; and Arago promised to look at Fresnel's essay.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 1363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 322, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In mid 1815, on his way home to Mathieu to serve his suspension, Fresnel met Arago in Paris and spoke of the wave theory and stellar aberration. He was informed that he was trying to break down open doors (\"il enfonçait des portes ouvertes\"), and directed to classical works on optics.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 22989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 12 July 1815, as Fresnel was about to leave Paris, Arago left him a note on a new topic:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel would not have ready access to these works outside Paris, and could not read English. But, in Mathieu – with a point-source of light made by focusing sunlight with a drop of honey, a crude micrometer of his own construction, and supporting apparatus made by a local locksmith – he began his own experiments. His technique was novel: whereas earlier investigators had projected the fringes onto a screen, Fresnel soon abandoned the screen and observed the fringes in space, through a lens with the micrometer at its focus, allowing more accurate measurements while requiring less light.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 12979470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later in July, after Napoleon's final defeat, Fresnel was reinstated with the advantage of having backed the winning side. He requested a two-month leave of absence, which was readily granted because roadworks were in abeyance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 23 September he wrote to Arago, beginning \"Ithink Ihave found the explanation and the law of colored fringes which one notices in the shadows of bodies illuminated by a luminous point.\" In the same paragraph, however, Fresnel implicitly acknowledged doubt about the novelty of his work: noting that he would need to incur some expense in order to improve his measurements, he wanted to know \"whether this is not useless, and whether the law of diffraction has not already been established by sufficiently exact experiments.\" He explained that he had not yet had a chance to acquire the items on his reading lists, with the apparent exception of \"Young's book\", which he could not understand without his brother's help. Not surprisingly, he had retraced many of Young's steps.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a memoir sent to the institute on 15 October 1815, Fresnel mapped the external and internal fringes in the shadow of a wire. He noticed, like Young before him, that the internal fringes disappeared when the light from one side was blocked, and concluded that \"the vibrations of two rays that cross each other under a very small angle can contradict each other…\" But, whereas Young took the disappearance of the internal fringes as confirmation of the principle of interference, Fresnel reported that it was the internal fringes that first drew his attention to the principle. To explain the diffraction pattern, Fresnel constructed the internal fringes by considering the intersections of circular wavefronts emitted from the two edges of the obstruction, and the external fringes by considering the intersections between direct waves and waves reflected off the nearer edge. For the external fringes, to obtain tolerable agreement with observation, he had to suppose that the reflected wave was inverted; and he noted that the predicted paths of the fringes were hyperbolic. In the part of the memoir that most clearly surpassed Young, Fresnel explained the ordinary laws of reflection and refraction in terms of interference, noting that if two parallel rays were reflected or refracted at other than the prescribed angle, they would no longer have the same phase in a common perpendicular plane, and every vibration would be cancelled by a nearby vibration. He noted that his explanation was valid provided that the surface irregularities were much smaller than the wavelength.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 24047, 24047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 999, 1007 ], [ 1363, 1368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 10 November, Fresnel sent a supplementary note dealing with Newton's rings and with gratings, including, for the first time, transmission gratings – although in that case the interfering rays were still assumed to be \"inflected\", and the experimental verification was inadequate because it used only two threads.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As Fresnel was not a member of the institute, the fate of his memoir depended heavily on the report of a single member. The reporter for Fresnel's memoir turned out to be Arago (with Poinsot as the other reviewer). On 8 November, Arago wrote to Fresnel:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 764639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel was troubled, wanting to know more precisely where he had collided with Young. Concerning the curved paths of the \"colored bands\", Young had noted the hyperbolic paths of the fringes in the two-source interference pattern, corresponding roughly to Fresnel's internal fringes, and had described the hyperbolic fringes that appear on the screen within rectangular shadows. He had not mentioned the curved paths of the external fringes of a shadow; but, as he later explained, that was because Newton had already done so. Newton evidently thought the fringes were caustics. Thus Arago erred in his belief that the curved paths of the fringes were fundamentally incompatible with the corpuscular theory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 31999898, 3498698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 221 ], [ 569, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arago's letter went on to request more data on the external fringes. Fresnel complied, until he exhausted his leave and was assigned to Rennes in the département of Ille-et-Vilaine. At this point Arago interceded with Gaspard de Prony, head of the École des Ponts, who wrote to Louis-Mathieu Molé, head of the Corps des Ponts, suggesting that the progress of science and the prestige of the Corps would be enhanced if Fresnel could come to Paris for a time. He arrived in March 1816, and his leave was subsequently extended through the middle of the year.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 46132, 90575, 332556, 349531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 142 ], [ 165, 180 ], [ 218, 234 ], [ 278, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, in an experiment reported on 26 February 1816, Arago verified Fresnel's prediction that the internal fringes were shifted if the rays on one side of the obstacle passed through a thin glass lamina. Fresnel correctly attributed this phenomenon to the lower wave velocity in the glass. Arago later used a similar argument to explain the colors in the scintillation of stars.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel's updated memoir was eventually published in the March 1816 issue of Annales de Chimie et de Physique, of which Arago had recently become co-editor. That issue did not actually appear until May. InMarch, Fresnel already had competition: Biot read a memoir on diffraction by himself and his student Claude Pouillet, containing copious data and arguing that the regularity of diffraction fringes, like the regularity of Newton's rings, must be linked to Newton's \"fits\". But the new link was not rigorous, and Pouillet himself would become a distinguished early adopter of the wave theory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 20899811, 176236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 109 ], [ 306, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 24 May 1816, Fresnel wrote to Young (in French), acknowledging how little of his own memoir was new. But in a \"supplement\" signed on 14 July and read the next day, Fresnel noted that the internal fringes were more accurately predicted by supposing that the two interfering rays came from some distance outside the edges of the obstacle. To explain this, he divided the incident wavefront at the obstacle into what we now call Fresnel zones, such that the secondary waves from each zone were spread over half a cycle when they arrived at the observation point. The zones on one side of the obstacle largely canceled out in pairs, except the first zone, which was represented by an \"efficacious ray\". This approach worked for the internal fringes, but the superposition of the efficacious ray and the direct ray did not work for the external fringes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 41196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 429, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The contribution from the \"efficacious ray\" was thought to be only partly canceled, for reasons involving the dynamics of the medium: where the wavefront was continuous, symmetry forbade oblique vibrations; but near the obstacle that truncated the wavefront, the asymmetry allowed some sideways vibration towards the geometric shadow. This argument showed that Fresnel had not (yet) fully accepted Huygens's principle, which would have permitted oblique radiation from all portions of the front.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the same supplement, Fresnel described his well-known double mirror, comprising two flat mirrors joined at an angle of slightly less than 180°, with which he produced a two-slit interference pattern from two virtual images of the same slit. A conventional double-slit experiment required a preliminary single slit to ensure that the light falling on the double slit was coherent (synchronized). In Fresnel's version, the preliminary single slit was retained, and the double slit was replaced by the double mirror – which bore no physical resemblance to the double slit and yet performed the same function. This result (which had been announced by Arago in the March issue of the Annales) made it hard to believe that the two-slit pattern had anything to do with corpuscles being deflected as they passed near the edges of the slits.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 240011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 373, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "But 1816 was the \"Year Without a Summer\": crops failed; hungry farming families lined the streets of Rennes; the central government organized \"charity workhouses\" for the needy; and in October, Fresnel was sent back to Ille-et-Vilaine to supervise charity workers in addition to his regular road crew. According to Arago,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 95812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel's letters from December 1816 reveal his consequent anxiety. To Arago he complained of being \"tormented by the worries of surveillance, and the need to reprimand…\" And to Mérimée he wrote: \"Ifind nothing more tiresome than having to manage other men, and Iadmit that Ihave no idea what I'm doing.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 17 March 1817, the Académie des Sciences announced that diffraction would be the topic for the biannual physics Grand Prix to be awarded in 1819. The deadline for entries was set at 1 August 1818 to allow time for replication of experiments. Although the wording of the problem referred to rays and inflection and did not invite wave-based solutions, Arago and Ampère encouraged Fresnel to enter.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the fall of 1817, Fresnel, supported by deProny, obtained a leave of absence from the new head of the Corp des Ponts, Louis Becquey, and returned to Paris. He resumed his engineering duties in the spring of 1818; but from then on he was based in Paris, first on the Canal de l'Ourcq, and then (from May 1819) with the cadastre of the pavements.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 34286964, 19427896, 2377056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 134 ], [ 269, 285 ], [ 321, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 15 January 1818, in a different context (revisited below), Fresnel showed that the addition of sinusoidal functions of the same frequency but different phases is analogous to the addition of forces with different directions. His method was similar to the phasor representation, except that the \"forces\" were plane vectors rather than complex numbers; they could be added, and multiplied by scalars, but not (yet) multiplied and divided by each other. The explanation was algebraic rather than geometric.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 1256073, 32533, 5826, 3588425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 258, 264 ], [ 317, 324 ], [ 337, 351 ], [ 393, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Knowledge of this method was assumed in a preliminary note on diffraction, dated 19 April 1818 and deposited on 20 April, in which Fresnel outlined the elementary theory of diffraction as found in modern textbooks. He restated Huygens's principle in combination with the superposition principle, saying that the vibration at each point on a wavefront is the sum of the vibrations that would be sent to it at that moment by all the elements of the wavefront in any of its previous positions, all elements acting separately . For a wavefront partly obstructed in a previous position, the summation was to be carried out over the unobstructed portion. In directions other than the normal to the primary wavefront, the secondary waves were weakened due to obliquity, but weakened much more by destructive interference, so that the effect of obliquity alone could be ignored. For diffraction by a straight edge, the intensity as a function of distance from the geometric shadow could then be expressed with sufficient accuracy in terms of what are now called the normalized Fresnel integrals:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 1201321, 271143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 271, 294 ], [ 1069, 1086 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The same note included a table of the integrals, for an upper limit ranging from 0 to 5.1 in steps of 0.1, computed with a mean error of 0.0003, plus a smaller table of maxima and minima of the resulting intensity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In his final \"Memoir on the diffraction of light\", deposited on 29 July and bearing the Latin epigraph \"Natura simplex et fecunda\" (\"Nature simple and fertile\"), Fresnel slightly expanded the two tables without changing the existing figures, except for a correction to the first minimum of intensity. For completeness, he repeated his solution to \"the problem of interference\", whereby sinusoidal functions are added like vectors. He acknowledged the directionality of the secondary sources and the variation in their distances from the observation point, chiefly to explain why these things make negligible difference in the context, provided of course that the secondary sources do not radiate in the retrograde direction. Then, applying his theory of interference to the secondary waves, he expressed the intensity of light diffracted by a single straight edge (half-plane) in terms of integrals which involved the dimensions of the problem, but which could be converted to the normalized forms above. With reference to the integrals, he explained the calculation of the maxima and minima of the intensity (external fringes), and noted that the calculated intensity falls very rapidly as one moves into the geometric shadow. The last result, as Olivier Darrigol says, \"amounts to a proof of the rectilinear propagation of light in the wave theory, indeed the first proof that a modern physicist would still accept.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For the experimental testing of his calculations, Fresnel used red light with a wavelength of 638nm, which he deduced from the diffraction pattern in the simple case in which light incident on a single slit was focused by a cylindrical lens. For a variety of distances from the source to the obstacle and from the obstacle to the field point, he compared the calculated and observed positions of the fringes for diffraction by a half-plane, a slit, and a narrow strip – concentrating on the minima, which were visually sharper than the maxima. For the slit and the strip, he could not use the previously computed table of maxima and minima; for each combination of dimensions, the intensity had to be expressed in terms of sums or differences of Fresnel integrals and calculated from the table of integrals, and the extrema had to be calculated anew. The agreement between calculation and measurement was better than 1.5% in almost every case.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Near the end of the memoir, Fresnel summed up the difference between Huygens's use of secondary waves and his own: whereas Huygens says there is light only where the secondary waves exactly agree, Fresnel says there is complete darkness only where the secondary waves exactly cancel out.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The judging committee comprised Laplace, Biot, and Poisson (all corpuscularists), Gay-Lussac (uncommitted), and Arago, who eventually wrote the committee's report. Although entries in the competition were supposed to be anonymous to the judges, Fresnel's must have been recognizable by the content. There was only one other entry, of which neither the manuscript nor any record of the author has survived. That entry (identified as \"no.1\") was mentioned only in the last paragraph of the judges' report, noting that the author had shown ignorance of the relevant earlier works of Young and Fresnel, used insufficiently precise methods of observation, overlooked known phenomena, and made obvious errors. In the words of John Worrall, \"The competition facing Fresnel could hardly have been less stiff.\" We may infer that the committee had only two options: award the prize to Fresnel(\"no.2\"), or withhold it.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 44670, 52051, 11410399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 58 ], [ 82, 92 ], [ 720, 732 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The committee deliberated into the new year. Then Poisson, exploiting a case in which Fresnel's theory gave easy integrals, predicted that if a circular obstacle were illuminated by a point-source, there should be (according to the theory) a bright spot in the center of the shadow, illuminated as brightly as the exterior. This seems to have been intended as a reductio ad absurdum. Arago, undeterred, assembled an experiment with an obstacle 2mm in diameter – and there, in the center of the shadow, was Poisson's spot.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 22456146, 44665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 362, 382 ], [ 506, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The unanimous report of the committee, read at the meeting of the Académie on 15 March 1819, awarded the prize to \"the memoir marked no.2, and bearing as epigraph: Natura simplex et fecunda.\" At the same meeting, after the judgment was delivered, the president of the Académie opened a sealed note accompanying the memoir, revealing the author as Fresnel. The award was announced at the public meeting of the Académie a week later, on 22 March.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arago's verification of Poisson's counter-intuitive prediction passed into folklore as if it had decided the prize. That view, however, is not supported by the judges' report, which gave the matter only two sentences in the penultimate paragraph. Neither did Fresnel's triumph immediately convert Laplace, Biot, and Poisson to the wave theory, for at least four reasons. First, although the professionalization of science in France had established common standards, it was one thing to acknowledge a piece of research as meeting those standards, and another thing to regard it as conclusive. Second, it was possible to interpret Fresnel's integrals as rules for combining rays. Arago even encouraged that interpretation, presumably in order to minimize resistance to Fresnel's ideas. Even Biot began teaching the Huygens-Fresnel principle without committing himself to a wave basis. Third, Fresnel's theory did not adequately explain the mechanism of generation of secondary waves or why they had any significant angular spread; this issue particularly bothered Poisson. Fourth, the question that most exercised optical physicists at that time was not diffraction, but polarization – on which Fresnel had been working, but was yet to make his critical breakthrough.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An emission theory of light was one that regarded the propagation of light as the transport of some kind of matter. While the corpuscular theory was obviously an emission theory, the converse did not follow: in principle, one could be an emissionist without being a corpuscularist. This was convenient because, beyond the ordinary laws of reflection and refraction, emissionists never managed to make testable quantitative predictions from a theory of forces acting on corpuscles of light. But they did make quantitative predictions from the premises that rays were countable objects, which were conserved in their interactions with matter (except absorbent media), and which had particular orientations with respect to their directions of propagation. According to this framework, polarization and the related phenomena of double refraction and partial reflection involved altering the orientations of the rays and/or selecting them according to orientation, and the state of polarization of a beam (abundle of rays) was a question of how many rays were in what orientations: in a fully polarized beam, the orientations were all the same. This approach, which Jed Buchwald has called selectionism, was pioneered by Malus and diligently pursued by Biot.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 8079256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1161, 1173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel, in contrast, decided to introduce polarization into interference experiments.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In July or August 1816, Fresnel discovered that when a birefringent crystal produced two images of a single slit, he could not obtain the usual two-slit interference pattern, even if he compensated for the different propagation times. A more general experiment, suggested by Arago, found that if the two beams of a double-slit device were separately polarized, the interference pattern appeared and disappeared as the polarization of one beam was rotated, giving full interference for parallel polarizations, but no interference for perpendicular polarizations . These experiments, among others, were eventually reported in a brief memoir published in 1819 and later translated into English.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a memoir drafted on 30 August 1816 and revised on 6 October, Fresnel reported an experiment in which he placed two matching thin laminae in a double-slit apparatus – one over each slit, with their optic axes perpendicular – and obtained two interference patterns offset in opposite directions, with perpendicular polarizations. This, in combination with the previous findings, meant that each lamina split the incident light into perpendicularly polarized components with different velocities – just like a normal (thick) birefringent crystal, and contrary to Biot's \"mobile polarization\" hypothesis.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Accordingly, in the same memoir, Fresnel offered his first attempt at a wave theory of chromatic polarization. When polarized light passed through a crystal lamina, it was split into ordinary and extraordinary waves (with intensities described by Malus's law), and these were perpendicularly polarized and therefore did not interfere, so that no colors were produced (yet). But if they then passed through an analyzer (second polarizer), their polarizations were brought into alignment (with intensities again modified according to Malus's law), and they would interfere. This explanation, by itself, predicts that if the analyzer is rotated 90°, the ordinary and extraordinary waves simply switch roles, so that if the analyzer takes the form of a calcite crystal, the two images of the lamina should be of the same hue (this issue is revisited below). But in fact, as Arago and Biot had found, they are of complementary colors. To correct the prediction, Fresnel proposed a phase-inversion rule whereby one of the constituent waves of one of the two images suffered an additional 180° phase shift on its way through the lamina. This inversion was a weakness in the theory relative to Biot's, as Fresnel acknowledged, although the rule specified which of the two images had the inverted wave. Moreover, Fresnel could deal only with special cases, because he had not yet solved the problem of superposing sinusoidal functions with arbitrary phase differences due to propagation at different velocities through the lamina.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He solved that problem in a \"supplement\" signed on 15 January 1818 (mentioned above). In the same document, he accommodated Malus's law by proposing an underlying law: that if polarized light is incident on a birefringent crystal with its optic axis at an angle θ to the \"plane of polarization\", the ordinary and extraordinary vibrations (as functions of time) are scaled by the factors cosθ and sinθ, respectively. Although modern readers easily interpret these factors in terms of perpendicular components of a transverse oscillation, Fresnel did not (yet) explain them that way. Hence he still needed the phase-inversion rule. He applied all these principles to a case of chromatic polarization not covered by Biot's formulae, involving two successive laminae with axes separated by 45°, and obtained predictions that disagreed with Biot's experiments (except in special cases) but agreed with his own.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel applied the same principles to the standard case of chromatic polarization, in which one birefringent lamina was sliced parallel to its axis and placed between a polarizer and an analyzer. If the analyzer took the form of a thick calcite crystal with its axis in the plane of polarization, Fresnel predicted that the intensities of the ordinary and extraordinary images of the lamina were respectively proportional to", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the angle from the initial plane of polarization to the optic axis of the lamina, is the angle from the initial plane of polarization to the plane of polarization of the final ordinary image, and is the phase lag of the extraordinary wave relative to the ordinary wave due to the difference in propagation times through the lamina. The terms in are the frequency-dependent terms and explain why the lamina must be thin in order to produce discernible colors: if the lamina is too thick, will pass through too many cycles as the frequency varies through the visible range, and the eye (which divides the visible spectrum into only three bands) will not be able to resolve the cycles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 534710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 644, 655 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From these equations it is easily verified that for all so that the colors are complementary. Without the phase-inversion rule, there would be a plus sign in front of the last term in the second equation, so that the -dependent term would be the same in both equations, implying (incorrectly) that the colors were of the same hue.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These equations were included in an undated note that Fresnel gave to Biot, to which Biot added a few lines of his own. If we substitute", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " and ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "then Fresnel's formulae can be rewritten as", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which are none other than Biot's empirical formulae of 1812, except that Biot interpreted and as the \"unaffected\" and \"affected\" selections of the rays incident on the lamina. If Biot's substitutions were accurate, they would imply that his experimental results were more fully explained by Fresnel's theory than by his own.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arago delayed reporting on Fresnel's works on chromatic polarization until June 1821, when he used them in a broad attack on Biot's theory. In his written response, Biot protested that Arago's attack went beyond the proper scope of a report on the nominated works of Fresnel. But Biot also claimed that the substitutions for and and therefore Fresnel's expressions for and were empirically wrong because when Fresnel's intensities of spectral colors were mixed according to Newton's rules, the squared cosine and sine functions varied too smoothly to account for the observed sequence of colors. That claim drew a written reply from Fresnel, who disputed whether the colors changed as abruptly as Biot claimed, and whether the human eye could judge color with sufficient objectivity for the purpose. On the latter question, Fresnel pointed out that different observers may give different names to the same color. Furthermore, he said, a single observer can only compare colors side by side; and even if they are judged to be the same, the identity is of sensation, not necessarily of composition. Fresnel's oldest and strongest point – that thin crystals were subject to the same laws as thick ones and did not need or allow a separate theory – Biot left unanswered. Arago and Fresnel were seen to have won the debate.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Moreover, by this time Fresnel had a new, simpler explanation of his equations on chromatic polarization.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the draft memoir of 30 August 1816, Fresnel mentioned two hypotheses – one of which he attributed to Ampère – by which the non-interference of orthogonally-polarized beams could be explained if polarized light waves were partly transverse. But Fresnel could not develop either of these ideas into a comprehensive theory. As early as September 1816, according to his later account, he realized that the non-interference of orthogonally-polarized beams, together with the phase-inversion rule in chromatic polarization, would be most easily explained if the waves were purely transverse, and Ampère \"had the same thought\" on the phase-inversion rule. But that would raise a new difficulty: as natural light seemed to be unpolarized and its waves were therefore presumed to be longitudinal, one would need to explain how the longitudinal component of vibration disappeared on polarization, and why it did not reappear when polarized light was reflected or refracted obliquely by a glass plate.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 76408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Independently, on 12 January 1817, Young wrote to Arago (inEnglish) noting that a transverse vibration would constitute a polarization, and that if two longitudinal waves crossed at a significant angle, they could not cancel without leaving a residual transverse vibration. Young repeated this idea in an article published in a supplement to the Encyclopædia Britannica in February 1818, in which he added that Malus's law would be explained if polarization consisted in a transverse motion.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thus Fresnel, by his own testimony, may not have been the first person to suspect that light waves could have a transverse component, or that polarized waves were exclusively transverse. And it was Young, not Fresnel, who first published the idea that polarization depends on the orientation of a transverse vibration. But these incomplete theories had not reconciled the nature of polarization with the apparent existence of unpolarized light; that achievement was to be Fresnel's alone.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a note that Buchwald dates in the summer of 1818, Fresnel entertained the idea that unpolarized waves could have vibrations of the same energy and obliquity, with their orientations distributed uniformly about the wave-normal, and that the degree of polarization was the degree of non-uniformity in the distribution. Two pages later he noted, apparently for the first time in writing, that his phase-inversion rule and the non-interference of orthogonally-polarized beams would be easily explained if the vibrations of fully polarized waves were \"perpendicular to the normal to the wave\"—that is, purely transverse.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "But if he could account for lack of polarization by averaging out the transverse component, he did not also need to assume a longitudinal component. It was enough to suppose that light waves are purely transverse, hence always polarized in the sense of having a particular transverse orientation, and that the \"unpolarized\" state of natural or \"direct\" light is due to rapid and random variations in that orientation, in which case two coherent portions of \"unpolarized\" light will still interfere because their orientations will be synchronized.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is not known exactly when Fresnel made this last step, because there is no relevant documentation from 1820 or early 1821 (perhaps because he was too busy working on lighthouse-lens prototypes; see Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens). But he first published the idea in a paper on \"Calcul des teintes…\" (\"calculation of the tints…\"), serialized in Arago's Annales for May, June, and July 1821. In the first installment, Fresnel described \"direct\" (unpolarized) light as \"the rapid succession of systems of waves polarized in all directions\", and gave what is essentially the modern explanation of chromatic polarization, albeit in terms of the analogy between polarization and the resolution of forces in a plane, mentioning transverse waves only in a footnote. The introduction of transverse waves into the main argument was delayed to the second installment, in which he revealed the suspicion that he and Ampère had harbored since 1816, and the difficulty it raised. He continued:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to this new view, he wrote, \"the act of polarization consists not in creating these transverse movements, but in decomposing them into two fixed perpendicular directions and in separating the two components\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While selectionists could insist on interpreting Fresnel's diffraction integrals in terms of discrete, countable rays, they could not do the same with his theory of polarization. For a selectionist, the state of polarization of a beam concerned the distribution of orientations over the population of rays, and that distribution was presumed to be static. For Fresnel, the state of polarization of a beam concerned the variation of a displacement over time. That displacement might be constrained but was not static, and rays were geometric constructions, not countable objects. The conceptual gap between the wave theory and selectionism had become unbridgeable.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The other difficulty posed by pure transverse waves, of course, was the apparent implication that the aether was an elastic solid, except that, unlike other elastic solids, it was incapable of transmitting longitudinal waves. The wave theory was cheap on assumptions, but its latest assumption was expensive on credulity. If that assumption was to be widely entertained, its explanatory power would need to be impressive.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the second installment of \"Calcul des teintes\" (June 1821), Fresnel supposed, by analogy with sound waves, that the density of the aether in a refractive medium was inversely proportional to the square of the wave velocity, and therefore directly proportional to the square of the refractive index. For reflection and refraction at the surface between two isotropic media of different indices, Fresnel decomposed the transverse vibrations into two perpendicular components, now known as the s and p components, which are parallel to the surface and the plane of incidence, respectively; in other words, the s and p components are respectively square and parallel to the plane of incidence. For the s component, Fresnel supposed that the interaction between the two media was analogous to an elastic collision, and obtained a formula for what we now call the reflectivity: the ratio of the reflected intensity to the incident intensity. The predicted reflectivity was non-zero at all angles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 18994087, 65907, 41644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 102 ], [ 794, 811 ], [ 861, 873 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The third installment (July 1821) was a short \"postscript\" in which Fresnel announced that he had found, by a \"mechanical solution\", a formula for the reflectivity of the p component, which predicted that the reflectivity was zero at the Brewster angle. So polarization by reflection had been accounted for – but with the proviso that the direction of vibration in Fresnel's model was perpendicular to the plane of polarization as defined by Malus. (On the ensuing controversy, see Plane of polarization.) The technology of the time did not allow the s and p reflectivities to be measured accurately enough to test Fresnel's formulae at arbitrary angles of incidence. But the formulae could be rewritten in terms of what we now call the reflection coefficient: the signed ratio of the reflected amplitude to the incident amplitude. Then, if the plane of polarization of the incident ray was at 45° to the plane of incidence, the tangent of the corresponding angle for the reflected ray was obtainable from the ratio of the two reflection coefficients, and this angle could be measured. Fresnel had measured it for a range of angles of incidence, for glass and water, and the agreement between the calculated and measured angles was better than 1.5° in all cases.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 55054778, 41641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 482, 503 ], [ 737, 759 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel gave details of the \"mechanical solution\" in a memoir read to the Académie des Sciences on 7 January 1823. Conservation of energy was combined with continuity of the tangential vibration at the interface. The resulting formulae for the reflection coefficients and reflectivities became known as the Fresnel equations. The reflection coefficients for the s and p polarizations are most succinctly expressed as", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 11149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 307, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where and are the angles of incidence and refraction; these equations are known respectively as Fresnel's sine law and Fresnel's tangent law. By allowing the coefficients to be complex, Fresnel even accounted for the different phase shifts of the s and p components due to total internal reflection.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 5826, 30426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 186 ], [ 275, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This success inspired James MacCullagh and Augustin-Louis Cauchy, beginning in 1836, to analyze reflection from metals by using the Fresnel equations with a complex refractive index. The same technique is applicable to non-metallic opaque media. With these generalizations, the Fresnel equations can predict the appearance of a wide variety of objects under illumination – for example, in computer graphics .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 1253734, 1842, 25880, 18567210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 38 ], [ 43, 64 ], [ 157, 181 ], [ 389, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a memoir dated 9 December 1822, Fresnel coined the terms linear polarization (French: polarisation rectiligne) for the simple case in which the perpendicular components of vibration are in phase or 180° out of phase, circular polarization for the case in which they are of equal magnitude and a quarter-cycle (±90°) out of phase, and elliptical polarization for other cases in which the two components have a fixed amplitude ratio and a fixed phase difference. He then explained how optical rotation could be understood as a species of birefringence. Linearly-polarized light could be resolved into two circularly-polarized components rotating in opposite directions. If these components propagated at slightly different speeds, the phase difference between them – and therefore the direction of their linearly-polarized resultant – would vary continuously with distance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 41316, 40875, 41106, 39774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 79 ], [ 220, 241 ], [ 337, 360 ], [ 486, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These concepts called for a redefinition of the distinction between polarized and unpolarized light. Before Fresnel, it was thought that polarization could vary in direction, and in degree (e.g., due to variation in the angle of reflection off a transparent body), and that it could be a function of color (chromatic polarization), but not that it could vary in kind. Hence it was thought that the degree of polarization was the degree to which the light could be suppressed by an analyzer with the appropriate orientation. Light that had been converted from linear to elliptical or circular polarization (e.g., by passage through a crystal lamina, or by total internal reflection) was described as partly or fully \"depolarized\" because of its behavior in an analyzer. After Fresnel, the defining feature of polarized light was that the perpendicular components of vibration had a fixed ratio of amplitudes and a fixed difference in phase. By that definition, elliptically or circularly polarized light is fully polarized although it cannot be fully suppressed by an analyzer alone. The conceptual gap between the wave theory and selectionism had widened again.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By 1817 it had been discovered by Brewster, but not adequately reported, that plane-polarized light was partly depolarized by total internal reflection if initially polarized at an acute angle to the plane of incidence. Fresnel rediscovered this effect and investigated it by including total internal reflection in a chromatic-polarization experiment. With the aid of his first theory of chromatic polarization, he found that the apparently depolarized light was a mixture of components polarized parallel and perpendicular to the plane of incidence, and that the total reflection introduced a phase difference between them. Choosing an appropriate angle of incidence (not yet exactly specified) gave a phase difference of 1/8 of a cycle (45°). Two such reflections from the \"parallel faces\" of \"two coupled prisms\" gave a phase difference of 1/4 of a cycle (90°). These findings were contained in a memoir submitted to the Académie on 10 November 1817 and read a fortnight later. An undated marginal note indicates that the two coupled prisms were later replaced by a single \"parallelepiped in glass\"—now known as a Fresnel rhomb.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 282998, 8323351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 808, 813 ], [ 1117, 1130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This was the memoir whose \"supplement\", dated January 1818, contained the method of superposing sinusoidal functions and the restatement of Malus's law in terms of amplitudes. In the same supplement, Fresnel reported his discovery that optical rotation could be emulated by passing the polarized light through a Fresnel rhomb (still in the form of \"coupled prisms\"), followed by an ordinary birefringent lamina sliced parallel to its axis, with the axis at 45° to the plane of reflection of the Fresnel rhomb, followed by a second Fresnel rhomb at 90° to the first. In a further memoir read on 30 March, Fresnel reported that if polarized light was fully \"depolarized\" by a Fresnel rhomb – now described as a parallelepiped – its properties were not further modified by a subsequent passage through an optically rotating medium or device.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The connection between optical rotation and birefringence was further explained in 1822, in the memoir on elliptical and circular polarization. This was followed by the memoir on reflection, read in January 1823, in which Fresnel quantified the phase shifts in total internal reflection, and thence calculated the precise angle at which a Fresnel rhomb should be cut in order to convert linear polarization to circular polarization. For a refractive index of 1.51, there were two solutions: about 48.6° and 54.6°.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When light passes through a slice of calcite cut perpendicular to its optic axis, the difference between the propagation times of the ordinary and extraordinary waves has a second-order dependence on the angle of incidence. If the slice is observed in a highly convergent cone of light, that dependence becomes significant, so that a chromatic-polarization experiment will show a pattern of concentric rings. But most minerals, when observed in this manner, show a more complicated pattern of rings involving two foci and a lemniscate curve, as if they had two optic axes. The two classes of minerals naturally become known as uniaxal and biaxal—or, in later literature, uniaxial and biaxial.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 5210590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 524, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1813, Brewster observed the simple concentric pattern in \"beryl, emerald, ruby &c.\" The same pattern was later observed in calcite by Wollaston, Biot, and Seebeck. Biot, assuming that the concentric pattern was the general case, tried to calculate the colors with his theory of chromatic polarization, and succeeded better for some minerals than for others. In1818, Brewster belatedly explained why: seven of the twelve minerals employed by Biot had the lemniscate pattern, which Brewster had observed as early as 1812; and the minerals with the more complicated rings also had a more complicated law of refraction.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 4910, 10045, 43551, 157164, 88254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 66 ], [ 68, 75 ], [ 77, 81 ], [ 137, 146 ], [ 158, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a uniform crystal, according to Huygens's theory, the secondary wavefront that expands from the origin in unit time is the ray-velocity surface—that is, the surface whose \"distance\" from the origin in any direction is the ray velocity in that direction. In calcite, this surface is two-sheeted, consisting of a sphere (for the ordinary wave) and an oblate spheroid (for the extraordinary wave) touching each other at opposite points of a common axis—touching at the north and south poles, if we may use a geographic analogy. But according to Malus's corpuscular theory of double refraction, the ray velocity was proportional to the reciprocal of that given by Huygens's theory, in which case the velocity law was of the form", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where and were the ordinary and extraordinary ray velocities according to the corpuscular theory, and was the angle between the ray and the optic axis. By Malus's definition, the plane of polarization of a ray was the plane of the ray and the optic axis if the ray was ordinary, or the perpendicular plane (containing the ray) if the ray was extraordinary. In Fresnel's model, the direction of vibration was normal to the plane of polarization. Hence, for the sphere (the ordinary wave), the vibration was along the lines of latitude (continuing the geographic analogy); and for the spheroid (the extraordinary wave), the vibration was along the lines of longitude.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 29 March 1819, Biot presented a memoir in which he proposed simple generalizations of Malus's rules for a crystal with two axes, and reported that both generalizations seemed to be confirmed by experiment. For the velocity law, the squared sine was replaced by the product of the sines of the angles from the ray to the two axes (Biot's sine law). And for the polarization of the ordinary ray, the plane of the ray and the axis was replaced by the plane bisecting the dihedral angle between the two planes each of which contained the ray and one axis (Biot's dihedral law). Biot's laws meant that a biaxial crystal with axes at a small angle, cleaved in the plane of those axes, behaved nearly like a uniaxial crystal at near-normal incidence; this was fortunate because gypsum, which had been used in chromatic-polarization experiments, is biaxial.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 338046, 13040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 471, 485 ], [ 774, 780 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until Fresnel turned his attention to biaxial birefringence, it was assumed that one of the two refractions was ordinary, even in biaxial crystals. But, in a memoir submitted on 19 November 1821, Fresnel reported two experiments on topaz showing that neither refraction was ordinary in the sense of satisfying Snell's law; that is, neither ray was the product of spherical secondary waves.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 31415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 232, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The same memoir contained Fresnel's first attempt at the biaxial velocity law. For calcite, if we interchange the equatorial and polar radii of Huygens's oblate spheroid while preserving the polar direction, we obtain a prolate spheroid touching the sphere at the equator. Aplane through the center/origin cuts this prolate spheroid in an ellipse whose major and minor semi-axes give the magnitudes of the extraordinary and ordinary ray velocities in the direction normal to the plane, and (said Fresnel) the directions of their respective vibrations. The direction of the optic axis is the normal to the plane for which the ellipse of intersection reduces to a circle. So, for the biaxial case, Fresnel simply replaced the prolate spheroid with a triaxial ellipsoid, which was to be sectioned by a plane in the same way. In general there would be two planes passing through the center of the ellipsoid and cutting it in a circle, and the normals to these planes would give two optic axes. From the geometry, Fresnel deduced Biot's sine law (with the ray velocities replaced by their reciprocals).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 145381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 757, 766 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ellipsoid indeed gave the correct ray velocities (although the initial experimental verification was only approximate). But it did not give the correct directions of vibration, for the biaxial case or even for the uniaxial case, because the vibrations in Fresnel's model were tangential to the wavefront—which, for an extraordinary ray, is not generally normal to the ray. This error (which is small if, as in most cases, the birefringence is weak) was corrected in an \"extract\" that Fresnel read to the Académie a week later, on 26 November. Starting with Huygens's spheroid, Fresnel obtained a 4th-degree surface which, when sectioned by a plane as above, would yield the wave-normal velocities for a wavefront in that plane, together with their vibration directions. For the biaxial case, he generalized the equation to obtain a surface with three unequal principal dimensions; this he subsequently called the \"surface of elasticity\". But he retained the earlier ellipsoid as an approximation, from which he deduced Biot's dihedral law.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel's initial derivation of the surface of elasticity had been purely geometric, and not deductively rigorous. His first attempt at a mechanical derivation, contained in a \"supplement\" dated 13 January 1822, assumed that (i)there were three mutually perpendicular directions in which a displacement produced a reaction in the same direction, (ii)the reaction was otherwise a linear function of the displacement, and (iii)the radius of the surface in any direction was the square root of the component, in that direction, of the reaction to a unit displacement in that direction. The last assumption recognized the requirement that if a wave was to maintain a fixed direction of propagation and a fixed direction of vibration, the reaction must not be outside the plane of those two directions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the same supplement, Fresnel considered how he might find, for the biaxial case, the secondary wavefront that expands from the origin in unit time—that is, the surface that reduces to Huygens's sphere and spheroid in the uniaxial case. He noted that this \"wave surface\" (surface de l'onde) is tangential to all possible plane wavefronts that could have crossed the origin one unit of time ago, and he listed the mathematical conditions that it must satisfy. But he doubted the feasibility of deriving the surface from those conditions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a \"second supplement\", Fresnel eventually exploited two related facts: (i)the \"wave surface\" was also the ray-velocity surface, which could be obtained by sectioning the ellipsoid that he had initially mistaken for the surface of elasticity, and (ii)the \"wave surface\" intersected each plane of symmetry of the ellipsoid in two curves: a circle and an ellipse. Thus he found that the \"wave surface\" is described by the 4th-degree equation", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where and are the propagation speeds in directions normal to the coordinate axes for vibrations along the axes (the ray and wave-normal speeds being the same in those special cases). Later commentators put the equation in the more compact and memorable form", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Earlier in the \"second supplement\", Fresnel modeled the medium as an array of point-masses and found that the force-displacement relation was described by a symmetric matrix, confirming the existence of three mutually perpendicular axes on which the displacement produced a parallel force. Later in the document, he noted that in a biaxial crystal, unlike a uniaxial crystal, the directions in which there is only one wave-normal velocity are not the same as those in which there is only one ray velocity. Nowadays we refer to the former directions as the optic axes or binormal axes, and the latter as the ray axes or biradial axes .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 126474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel's \"second supplement\" was signed on 31 March 1822 and submitted the next day – less than a year after the publication of his pure-transverse-wave hypothesis, and just less than a year after the demonstration of his prototype eight-panel lighthouse lens .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Having presented the pieces of his theory in roughly the order of discovery, Fresnel needed to rearrange the material so as to emphasize the mechanical foundations; and he still needed a rigorous treatment of Biot's dihedral law. He attended to these matters in his \"second memoir\" on double refraction, published in the Recueils of the Académie des Sciences for 1824; this was not actually printed until late 1827, a few months after his death. In this work, having established the three perpendicular axes on which a displacement produces a parallel reaction, and thence constructed the surface of elasticity, he showed that Biot's dihedral law is exact provided that the binormals are taken as the optic axes, and the wave-normal direction as the direction of propagation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As early as 1822, Fresnel discussed his perpendicular axes with Cauchy. Acknowledging Fresnel's influence, Cauchy went on to develop the first rigorous theory of elasticity of non-isotropic solids (1827), hence the first rigorous theory of transverse waves therein (1830) — which he promptly tried to apply to optics. The ensuing difficulties drove a long competitive effort to find an accurate mechanical model of the aether. Fresnel's own model was not dynamically rigorous; for example, it deduced the reaction to a shear strain by considering the displacement of one particle while all others were fixed, and it assumed that the stiffness determined the wave velocity as in a stretched string, whatever the direction of the wave-normal. But it was enough to enable the wave theory to do what selectionist theory could not: generate testable formulae covering a comprehensive range of optical phenomena, from mechanical assumptions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 1842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1815, Brewster reported that colors appear when a slice of isotropic material, placed between crossed polarizers, is mechanically stressed. Brewster himself immediately and correctly attributed this phenomenon to stress-induced birefringence — now known as photoelasticity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 1533196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 260, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a memoir read in September 1822, Fresnel announced that he had verified Brewster's diagnosis more directly, by compressing a combination of glass prisms so severely that one could actually see a double image through it. In his experiment, Fresnel lined up seven 45°-90°-45° prisms, short side to short side, with their 90°angles pointing in alternating directions. Two half-prisms were added at the ends to make the whole assembly rectangular. The prisms were separated by thin films of turpentine (térébenthine) to suppress internal reflections, allowing a clear line of sight along the row. When the four prisms with similar orientations were compressed in a vise across the line of sight, an object viewed through the assembly produced two images with perpendicular polarizations, with an apparent spacing of 1.5mm at one metre.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 531592, 151183, 2301837, 2536205 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 265, 283 ], [ 490, 500 ], [ 502, 514 ], [ 664, 668 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the end of that memoir, Fresnel predicted that if the compressed prisms were replaced by (unstressed) monocrystalline quartz prisms with matching directions of optical rotation, and with their optic axes aligned along the row, an object seen by looking along the common optic axis would give two images, which would seem unpolarized when viewed through an analyzer but, when viewed through a Fresnel rhomb, would be polarized at ±45° to the plane of reflection of the rhomb (indicating that they were initially circularly polarized in opposite directions). This would show directly that optical rotation is a form of birefringence. In the memoir of December 1822, in which he introduced the term circular polarization, he reported that he had confirmed this prediction using only one 14°-152°-14° prism and two glass half-prisms. But he obtained a wider separation of the images by replacing the glass half-prism with quartz half-prisms whose rotation was opposite to that of the 14°-152°-14° prism. He added in passing that one could further increase the separation by increasing the number of prisms.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For the supplement to Riffault's translation of Thomson's System of Chemistry, Fresnel was chosen to contribute the article on light. The resulting 137-page essay, titled De la Lumière (On Light), was apparently finished in June 1821 and published by February 1822. With sections covering the nature of light, diffraction, thin-film interference, reflection and refraction, double refraction and polarization, chromatic polarization, and modification of polarization by reflection, it made a comprehensive case for the wave theory to a readership that was not restricted to physicists.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 2239257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To examine Fresnel's first memoir and supplements on double refraction, the Académie des Sciences appointed Ampère, Arago, Fourier, and Poisson. Their report, of which Arago was clearly the main author, was delivered at the meeting of 19 August 1822. Then, in the words of Émile Verdet, as translated by Ivor Grattan-Guinness:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 25767401, 5591609, 2010784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 130 ], [ 273, 285 ], [ 304, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whether Laplace was announcing his conversion to the wave theory – at the age of 73 – is uncertain. Grattan-Guinness entertained the idea. Buchwald, noting that Arago failed to explain that the \"ellipsoid of elasticity\" did not give the correct planes of polarization, suggests that Laplace may have merely regarded Fresnel's theory as a successful generalization of Malus's ray-velocity law, embracing Biot's laws.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the following year, Poisson, who did not sign Arago's report, disputed the possibility of transverse waves in the aether. Starting from assumed equations of motion of a fluid medium, he noted that they did not give the correct results for partial reflection and double refraction – as if that were Fresnel's problem rather than his own – and that the predicted waves, even if they were initially transverse, became more longitudinal as they propagated. In reply Fresnel noted, inter alia, that the equations in which Poisson put so much faith did not even predict viscosity. The implication was clear: given that the behavior of light had not been satisfactorily explained except by transverse waves, it was not the responsibility of the wave-theorists to abandon transverse waves in deference to pre-conceived notions about the aether; rather, it was the responsibility of the aether modelers to produce a model that accommodated transverse waves. According to Robert H.Silliman, Poisson eventually accepted the wave theory shortly before his death in 1840.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 18963754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 567, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among the French, Poisson's reluctance was an exception. According to Eugene Frankel, \"in Paris no debate on the issue seems to have taken place after 1825. Indeed, almost the entire generation of physicists and mathematicians who came to maturity in the 1820s – Pouillet, Savart, Lamé, Navier, Liouville, Cauchy – seem to have adopted the theory immediately.\" Fresnel's other prominent French opponent, Biot, appeared to take a neutral position in 1830, and eventually accepted the wave theory – possibly by 1846 and certainly by 1858.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 2748975, 52145, 900573, 341810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 279 ], [ 281, 285 ], [ 287, 293 ], [ 295, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1826, the British astronomer John Herschel, who was working on a book-length article on light for the Encyclopædia Metropolitana, addressed three questions to Fresnel concerning double refraction, partial reflection, and their relation to polarization. The resulting article, titled simply \"Light\", was highly sympathetic to the wave theory, although not entirely free of selectionist language. It was circulating privately by 1828 and was published in 1830. Meanwhile, Young's translation of Fresnel's De la Lumière was published in installments from 1827 to 1829. George Biddell Airy, the former Lucasian Professor at Cambridge and future Astronomer Royal, unreservedly accepted the wave theory by 1831. In 1834, he famously calculated the diffraction pattern of a circular aperture from the wave theory, thereby explaining the limited angular resolution of a perfect telescope . By the end of the 1830s, the only prominent British physicist who held out against the wave theory was Brewster, whose objections included the difficulty of explaining photochemical effects and (in his opinion) dispersion.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 43592, 780081, 205497, 147921, 25978572, 1940, 230428, 7070301, 8487, 363430, 172333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 45 ], [ 105, 131 ], [ 569, 588 ], [ 601, 619 ], [ 623, 632 ], [ 644, 660 ], [ 841, 859 ], [ 873, 882 ], [ 988, 996 ], [ 1053, 1066 ], [ 1096, 1106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A German translation of De la Lumière was published in installments in 1825 and 1828. The wave theory was adopted by Fraunhofer in the early 1820s and by Franz Ernst Neumann in the 1830s, and then began to find favor in German textbooks.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 64659, 940553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 127 ], [ 154, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The economy of assumptions under the wave theory was emphasized by William Whewell in his History of the Inductive Sciences, first published in 1837. In the corpuscular system, \"every new class of facts requires a new supposition,\" whereas in the wave system, a hypothesis devised in order to explain one phenomenon is then found to explain or predict others. In the corpuscular system there is \"no unexpected success, no happy coincidence, no convergence of principles from remote quarters\"; but in the wave system, \"all tends to unity and simplicity.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 205488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hence, in 1850, when Foucault and Fizeau found by experiment that light travels more slowly in water than in air, in accordance with the wave explanation of refraction and contrary to the corpuscular explanation, the result came as no surprise.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Contributions to physical optics", "target_page_ids": [ 213874, 213877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 29 ], [ 34, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel was not the first person to focus a lighthouse beam using a lens. That distinction apparently belongs to the London glass-cutter Thomas Rogers, whose first lenses, 53cm in diameter and 14cm thick at the center, were installed at the Old Lower Lighthouse at Portland Bill in 1789. Further samples were installed in about half a dozen other locations by 1804. But much of the light was wasted by absorption in the glass.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens", "target_page_ids": [ 37662737, 723124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 241, 261 ], [ 265, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nor was Fresnel the first to suggest replacing a convex lens with a series of concentric annular prisms, to reduce weight and absorption. In1748, Count Buffon proposed grinding such prisms as steps in a single piece of glass. In 1790, the Marquis de Condorcet suggested that it would be easier to make the annular sections separately and assemble them on a frame; but even that was impractical at the time. These designs were intended not for lighthouses, but for burning glasses. Brewster, however, proposed a system similar to Condorcet's in 1811, and by 1820 was advocating its use in British lighthouses.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens", "target_page_ids": [ 356158, 360039, 37749, 3729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 96 ], [ 146, 158 ], [ 239, 259 ], [ 464, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, on 21 June 1819, Fresnel was \"temporarily\" seconded by the Commission des Phares (Commission of Lighthouses) on the recommendation of Arago (a member of the Commission since 1813), to review possible improvements in lighthouse illumination. The commission had been established by Napoleon in 1811 and placed under the Corps des Ponts – Fresnel's employer.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By the end of August 1819, unaware of the Buffon-Condorcet-Brewster proposal, Fresnel made his first presentation to the commission, recommending what he called lentilles à échelons (lenses by steps) to replace the reflectors then in use, which reflected only about half of the incident light. One of the assembled commissioners, Jacques Charles, recalled Buffon's suggestion, leaving Fresnel embarrassed for having again \"broken through an open door\". But, whereas Buffon's version was biconvex and in one piece, Fresnel's was plano-convex and made of multiple prisms for easier construction. With an official budget of 500 francs, Fresnel approached three manufacturers. The third, François Soleil, produced the prototype. Finished in March 1820, it had a square lens panel 55cm on a side, containing 97 polygonal (not annular) prisms – and so impressed the Commission that Fresnel was asked for a full eight-panel version. This model, completed a year later in spite of insufficient funding, had panels 76cm square. In a public spectacle on the evening of 13 April 1821, it was demonstrated by comparison with the most recent reflectors, which it suddenly rendered obsolete.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens", "target_page_ids": [ 169132, 18320, 18320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 330, 345 ], [ 487, 495 ], [ 528, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel's next lens was a rotating apparatus with eight \"bull's-eye\" panels, made in annular arcs by Saint-Gobain, giving eight rotating beams – to be seen by mariners as a periodic flash. Above and behind each main panel was a smaller, sloping bull's-eye panel of trapezoidal outline with trapezoidal elements. This refracted the light to a sloping plane mirror, which then reflected it horizontally, 7degrees ahead of the main beam, increasing the duration of the flash. Below the main panels were 128 small mirrors arranged in four rings, stacked like the slats of a louver or Venetian blind. Each ring, shaped as a frustum of a cone, reflected the light to the horizon, giving a fainter steady light between the flashes. The official test, conducted on the unfinished Arc de Triomphe on 20 August 1822, was witnessed by the commission – and by Louis and his entourage – from 32km away. The apparatus was stored at Bordeaux for the winter, and then reassembled at Cordouan Lighthouse under Fresnel's supervision. On 25 July 1823, the world's first lighthouse Fresnel lens was lit. Soon afterwards, Fresnel started coughing up blood.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens", "target_page_ids": [ 872341, 1804871, 668552, 89405, 782427, 2482, 62114, 4097, 2844073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 113 ], [ 570, 576 ], [ 580, 594 ], [ 619, 626 ], [ 632, 636 ], [ 772, 787 ], [ 848, 853 ], [ 918, 926 ], [ 967, 986 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1824, Fresnel was promoted to secretary of the Commission des Phares, becoming the first member of that body to draw a salary, albeit in the concurrent role of Engineer-in-Chief. He was also an examiner (not a teacher) at the École Polytechnique since 1821; but poor health, long hours during the examination season, and anxiety about judging others induced him to resign that post in late 1824, to save his energy for his lighthouse work.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the same year he designed the first fixed lens – for spreading light evenly around the horizon while minimizing waste above or below. Ideally the curved refracting surfaces would be segments of toroids about a common vertical axis, so that the dioptric panel would look like a cylindrical drum. If this was supplemented by reflecting (catoptric) rings above and below the refracting (dioptric) parts, the entire apparatus would look like a beehive. The second Fresnel lens to enter service was indeed a fixed lens, of third order, installed at Dunkirk by 1 February 1825. However, due to the difficulty of fabricating large toroidal prisms, this apparatus had a 16-sided polygonal plan.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens", "target_page_ids": [ 14973218, 2227778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 203 ], [ 338, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1825, Fresnel extended his fixed-lens design by adding a rotating array outside the fixed array. Each panel of the rotating array was to refract part of the fixed light from a horizontal fan into a narrow beam.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Also in 1825, Fresnel unveiled the Carte des Phares (Lighthouse Map), calling for a system of 51 lighthouses plus smaller harbor lights, in a hierarchy of lens sizes (called orders, the first order being the largest), with different characteristics to facilitate recognition: a constant light (from a fixed lens), one flash per minute (from a rotating lens with eight panels), and two per minute (sixteen panels).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In late 1825, to reduce the loss of light in the reflecting elements, Fresnel proposed to replace each mirror with a catadioptric prism, through which the light would travel by refraction through the first surface, then total internal reflection off the second surface, then refraction through the third surface. The result was the lighthouse lens as we now know it. In1826 he assembled a small model for use on the Canal Saint-Martin, but he did not live to see a full-sized version.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens", "target_page_ids": [ 30426, 922895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 245 ], [ 416, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first fixed lens with toroidal prisms was a first-order apparatus designed by the Scottish engineer Alan Stevenson under the guidance of Léonor Fresnel, and fabricated by Isaac Cookson & Co. from French glass; it entered service at the Isle of May in 1836. The first large catadioptric lenses were fixed third-order lenses made in 1842 for the lighthouses at Gravelines and Île Vierge. The first fully catadioptric first-order lens, installed at Ailly in 1852, gave eight rotating beams assisted by eight catadioptric panels at the top (to lengthen the flashes), plus a fixed light from below. The first fully catadioptric lens with purely revolving beams – also of first order – was installed at Saint-Clément-des-Baleines in 1854, and marked the completion of Augustin Fresnel's original Carte des Phares.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens", "target_page_ids": [ 862150, 1565780, 25496193, 15503010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 118 ], [ 240, 251 ], [ 378, 388 ], [ 701, 727 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Production of one-piece stepped dioptric lenses—roughly as envisaged by Buffon—became practical in 1852, when John L. Gilliland of the Brooklyn Flint-Glass Company patented a method of making such lenses from press-molded glass. By the 1950s, the substitution of plastic for glass made it economic to use fine-stepped Fresnel lenses as condensers in overhead projectors. Still finer steps can be found in low-cost plastic \"sheet\" magnifiers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens", "target_page_ids": [ 342837, 308056, 658084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 163 ], [ 350, 368 ], [ 430, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel was elected to the Société Philomathique de Paris in April 1819, and in 1822 became one of the editors of the Société's Bulletin des Sciences. As early as May 1817, at Arago's suggestion, Fresnel applied for membership of the Académie des Sciences, but received only one vote. The successful candidate on that occasion was Joseph Fourier. In November 1822, Fourier's elevation to Permanent Secretary of the Académie created a vacancy in the physics section, which was filled in February 1823 by Pierre Louis Dulong, with 36 votes to Fresnel's 20. But in May 1823, after another vacancy was left by the death of Jacques Charles, Fresnel's election was unanimous. In 1824, Fresnel was made a chevalier de la Légion d'honneur (Knight of the Legion of Honour).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Honors", "target_page_ids": [ 3920266, 25767401, 144230, 169132, 160188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 57 ], [ 331, 345 ], [ 503, 522 ], [ 619, 634 ], [ 746, 762 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, in Britain, the wave theory was yet to take hold; Fresnel wrote to Thomas Young in November 1824, saying in part:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "But \"the praise of English scholars\" soon followed. On 9 June 1825, Fresnel was made a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London. In 1827 he was awarded the society's Rumford Medal for the year 1824, \"Forhis Development of the Undulatory Theory as applied to the Phenomena of Polarized Light, and for his various important discoveries in Physical Optics.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Honors", "target_page_ids": [ 496064, 846150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 132 ], [ 171, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A monument to Fresnel at his birthplace was dedicated on 14 September 1884 with a speech by , Permanent Secretary of the Académie des Sciences. \"\" is among the 72 names embossed on the Eiffel Tower (on the south-east side, fourth from the left). In the 19th century, as every lighthouse in France acquired a Fresnel lens, every one acquired a bust of Fresnel, seemingly watching over the coastline that he had made safer. The lunar features Promontorium Fresnel and Rimae Fresnel were later named after him.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Honors", "target_page_ids": [ 1278990, 54926879, 8096643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 198 ], [ 442, 462 ], [ 467, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel's health, which had always been poor, deteriorated in the winter of 1822–1823, increasing the urgency of his original research, and (inpart) preventing him from contributing an article on polarization and double refraction for the Encyclopædia Britannica. The memoirs on circular and elliptical polarization and optical rotation, and on the detailed derivation of the Fresnel equations and their application to total internal reflection, date from this period. In the spring he recovered enough, in his own view, to supervise the lens installation at Cordouan. Soon afterwards, it became clear that his condition was tuberculosis.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Decline and death", "target_page_ids": [ 9508, 30653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 239, 262 ], [ 625, 637 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1824, he was advised that if he wanted to live longer, he needed to scale back his activities. Perceiving his lighthouse work to be his most important duty, he resigned as an examiner at the École Polytechnique, and closed his scientific notebooks. His last note to the Académie, read on 13 June 1825, described the first radiometer and attributed the observed repulsive force to a temperature difference. Although his fundamental research ceased, his advocacy did not; as late as August or September 1826, he found the time to answer Herschel's queries on the wave theory. It was Herschel who recommended Fresnel for the Royal Society's Rumford Medal.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Decline and death", "target_page_ids": [ 839718, 43592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 325, 335 ], [ 538, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel's cough worsened in the winter of 1826–1827, leaving him too ill to return to Mathieu in the spring. The Académie meeting of 30 April 1827 was the last that he attended. In early June he was carried to Ville-d'Avray, west of Paris. There his mother joined him. On 6 July, Arago arrived to deliver the Rumford Medal. Sensing Arago's distress, Fresnel whispered that \"the most beautiful crown means little, when it is laid on the grave of a friend.\" Fresnel did not have the strength to reply to the Royal Society. He died eight days later, on Bastille Day.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Decline and death", "target_page_ids": [ 2681884, 3936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 223 ], [ 551, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He is buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris. The inscription on his headstone is partly eroded away; the legible part says, when translated, \"To the memory of Augustin Jean Fresnel, member of the Institute of France\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Decline and death", "target_page_ids": [ 23550558, 732266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 38 ], [ 198, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel's \"second memoir\" on double refraction was not printed until late 1827, a few months after his death. Until then, the best published source on his work on double refraction was an extract of that memoir, printed in 1822. His final treatment of partial reflection and total internal reflection, read to the Académie in January 1823, was thought to be lost until it was rediscovered among the papers of the deceased Joseph Fourier (1768–1830), and was printed in 1831. Until then, it was known chiefly through an extract printed in 1823 and 1825. The memoir introducing the parallelepiped form of the Fresnel rhomb, read in March 1818, was mislaid until 1846, and then attracted such interest that it was soon republished in English. Most of Fresnel's writings on polarized light before 1821 – including his first theory of chromatic polarization (submitted 7 October 1816) and the crucial \"supplement\" of January 1818 — were not published in full until his Oeuvres complètes (\"complete works\") began to appear in 1866. The \"supplement\" of July 1816, proposing the \"efficacious ray\" and reporting the famous double-mirror experiment, met the same fate, as did the \"first memoir\" on double refraction.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Posthumous publications", "target_page_ids": [ 25767401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 422, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Publication of Fresnel's collected works was itself delayed by the deaths of successive editors. The task was initially entrusted to Félix Savary, who died in 1841. It was restarted twenty years later by the Ministry of Public Instruction. Of the three editors eventually named in the Oeuvres, Sénarmont died in 1862, Verdet in 1866, and Léonor Fresnel in 1869, by which time only two of the three volumes had appeared. At the beginning of vol.3 (1870), the completion of the project is described in a long footnote by \"J. Lissajous.\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Posthumous publications", "target_page_ids": [ 19181595, 939587, 5591609, 801835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 145 ], [ 294, 303 ], [ 318, 324 ], [ 520, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Not included in the Oeuvres are two short notes by Fresnel on magnetism, which were discovered among Ampère's manuscripts. In response to Ørsted's discovery of electromagnetism in 1820, Ampère initially supposed that the field of a permanent magnet was due to a macroscopic circulating current. Fresnel suggested instead that there was a microscopic current circulating around each particle of the magnet. In his first note, he argued that microscopic currents, unlike macroscopic currents, would explain why a hollow cylindrical magnet does not lose its magnetism when cut longitudinally. In his second note, dated 5 July 1821, he further argued that a macroscopic current had the counterfactual implication that a permanent magnet should be hot, whereas microscopic currents circulating around the molecules might avoid the heating mechanism. He was not to know that the fundamental units of permanent magnetism are even smaller than molecules . The two notes, together with Ampère's acknowledgment, were eventually published in 1885.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Posthumous publications", "target_page_ids": [ 7575091, 9532, 51079, 6207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 144 ], [ 160, 176 ], [ 242, 248 ], [ 286, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fresnel's essay Rêveries of 1814 has not survived. While its content would have been interesting to historians, its quality may perhaps be gauged from the fact that Fresnel himself never referred to it in his maturity.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Lost works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "More disturbing is the fate of the late article \"Sur les Différents Systèmes relatifs à la Théorie de la Lumière\" (\"On the Different Systems relating to the Theory of Light\"), which Fresnel wrote for the newly launched English journal European Review. This work seems to have been similar in scope to the essay De la Lumière of 1821/22, except that Fresnel's views on double refraction, circular and elliptical polarization, optical rotation, and total internal reflection had developed since then. The manuscript was received by the publisher's agent in Paris in early September 1824, and promptly forwarded to London. But the journal failed before Fresnel's contribution could be published. Fresnel tried unsuccessfully to recover the manuscript. The editors of his collected works were also unable to find it, and admitted that it was probably lost.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Lost works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1810, Arago found experimentally that the degree of refraction of starlight does not depend on the direction of the earth's motion relative to the line of sight. In1818, Fresnel showed that this result could be explained by the wave theory, on the hypothesis that if an object with refractive index moved at velocity relative to the external aether (taken as stationary), then the velocity of light inside the object gained the additional component . He supported that hypothesis by supposing that if the density of the external aether was taken as unity, the density of the internal aether was , of which the excess, namely , was dragged along at velocity , whence the average velocity of the internal aether was . The factor in parentheses, which Fresnel originally expressed in terms of wavelengths, became known as the Fresnel drag coefficient. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Unfinished business", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In his analysis of double refraction, Fresnel supposed that the different refractive indices in different directions within the same medium were due to a directional variation in elasticity, not density (because the concept of mass per unit volume is not directional). But in his treatment of partial reflection, he supposed that the different refractive indices of different media were due to different aether densities, not different elasticities. The latter decision, although puzzling in the context of double refraction, was consistent with the earlier treatment of aether drag.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Unfinished business", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1846, George Gabriel Stokes pointed out that there was no need to divide the aether inside a moving object into two portions; all of it could be considered as moving at a common velocity. Then, if the aether was conserved while its density changed in proportion to , the resulting velocity of the aether inside the object was equal to Fresnel's additional velocity component.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Unfinished business", "target_page_ids": [ 212838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The analogy between light waves and transverse waves in elastic solids does not predict dispersion — that is, the frequency-dependence of the speed of propagation, which enables prisms to produce spectra and causes lenses to suffer from chromatic aberration. Fresnel, in De la Lumière and in the second supplement to his first memoir on double refraction, suggested that dispersion could be accounted for if the particles of the medium exerted forces on each other over distances that were significant fractions of a wavelength. Later, more than once, Fresnel referred to the demonstration of this result as being contained in a note appended to his \"second memoir\" on double refraction. No such note appeared in print, and the relevant manuscripts found after his death showed only that, around 1824, he was comparing refractive indices (measured by Fraunhofer) with a theoretical formula, the meaning of which was not fully explained.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Unfinished business", "target_page_ids": [ 172333, 8178295, 54749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 98 ], [ 178, 184 ], [ 237, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1830s, Fresnel's suggestion was taken up by Cauchy, Baden Powell, and Philip Kelland, and it was found to be tolerably consistent with the variation of refractive indices with wavelength over the visible spectrum for a variety of transparent media . These investigations were enough to show that the wave theory was at least compatible with dispersion; if the model of dispersion was to be accurate over a wider range of frequencies, it needed to be modified so as to take account of resonances within the medium .", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Unfinished business", "target_page_ids": [ 1033633, 17318580, 41464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 71 ], [ 77, 91 ], [ 203, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The analytical complexity of Fresnel's derivation of the ray-velocity surface was an implicit challenge to find a shorter path to the result. This was answered by MacCullagh in 1830, and by William Rowan Hamilton in 1832.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Unfinished business", "target_page_ids": [ 39817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hamilton went further, establishing two properties of the surface that Fresnel, in the short time given to him, had overlooked: (i)at each of the four points where the inner and outer sheets of the surface make contact, the surface has a tangent cone (tangential to both sheets), hence a cone of normals, indicating that a cone of wave-normal directions corresponds to a single ray-velocity vector; and (ii)around each of these points, the outer sheet has a circle of contact with a tangent plane, indicating that a cone of ray directions corresponds to a single wave-normal velocity vector. As Hamilton noted, these properties respectively imply that (i)anarrow beam propagating inside the crystal in the direction of the single ray velocity will, on exiting the crystal through a flat surface, break into a hollow cone (external conical refraction), and (ii)anarrow beam striking a flat surface of the crystal in the appropriate direction (corresponding to that of the single internal wave-normal velocity) will, on entering the crystal, break into a hollow cone (internal conical refraction).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Unfinished business", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thus a new pair of phenomena, qualitatively different from anything previously observed or suspected, had been predicted by mathematics as consequences of Fresnel's theory. The prompt experimental confirmation of those predictions by Humphrey Lloyd brought Hamilton a prize that had never come to Fresnel: immediate fame.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Unfinished business", "target_page_ids": [ 28195640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 234, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Within a century of Fresnel's initial stepped-lens proposal, more than 10,000 lights with Fresnel lenses were protecting lives and property around the world. Concerning the other benefits, the science historian Theresa H. Levitt has remarked:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the history of physical optics, Fresnel's successful revival of the wave theory nominates him as the pivotal figure between Newton, who held that light consisted of corpuscles, and James Clerk Maxwell, who established that light waves are electromagnetic. Whereas Albert Einstein described Maxwell's work as \"the most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton,\" commentators of the era between Fresnel and Maxwell made similarly strong statements about Fresnel:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 28989696, 736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 203 ], [ 267, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MacCullagh, as early as 1830, wrote that Fresnel's mechanical theory of double refraction \"would do honour to the sagacity of Newton\".", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lloyd, in his Report on the progress and present state of physical optics (1834) for the British Association for the Advancement of Science, surveyed previous knowledge of double refraction and declared:The theory of Fresnel to which I now proceed,— and which not only embraces all the known phenomena, but has even outstripped observation, and predicted consequences which were afterwards fully verified,— will, I am persuaded, be regarded as the finest generalization in physical science which has been made since the discovery of universal gravitation.In 1841, Lloyd published his Lectures on the Wave-theory of Light, in which he described Fresnel's transverse-wave theory as \"the noblest fabric which has ever adorned the domain of physical science, Newton's system of the universe alone excepted.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 373118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Whewell, in all three editions of his History of the Inductive Sciences (1837, 1847, and 1857), at the end of Book, compared the histories of physical astronomy and physical optics and concluded:It would, perhaps, be too fanciful to attempt to establish a parallelism between the prominent persons who figure in these two histories. If we were to do this, we must consider Huyghens and Hooke as standing in the place of Copernicus, since, like him, they announced the true theory, but left it to a future age to give it development and mechanical confirmation; Malus and Brewster, grouping them together, correspond to Tycho Brahe and Kepler, laborious in accumulating observations, inventive and happy in discovering laws of phenomena; and Young and Fresnel combined, make up the Newton of optical science.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 205488, 42127, 49720, 323592, 168115, 8487, 30027, 15736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 382, 390 ], [ 395, 400 ], [ 429, 439 ], [ 570, 575 ], [ 580, 588 ], [ 628, 639 ], [ 644, 650 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "What Whewell called the \"true theory\" has since undergone two major revisions. The first, by Maxwell, specified the physical fields whose variations constitute the waves of light. Without the benefit of this knowledge, Fresnel managed to construct the world's first coherent theory of light, showing in retrospect that his methods are applicable to multiple types of waves. The second revision, initiated by Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect, supposed that the energy of light waves was divided into quanta, which were eventually identified with particles called photons. But photons did not exactly correspond to Newton's corpuscles; for example, Newton's explanation of ordinary refraction required the corpuscles to travel faster in media of higher refractive index, which photons do not. Neither did photons displace waves; rather, they led to the paradox of wave–particle duality. Moreover, the phenomena studied by Fresnel, which included nearly all the optical phenomena known at his time, are still most easily explained in terms of the wave nature of light. So it was that, as late as 1927, the astronomer Eugène Michel Antoniadi declared Fresnel to be \"the dominant figure in optics.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 23579, 20646064, 23535, 33426, 618347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 438, 458 ], [ 517, 523 ], [ 580, 586 ], [ 880, 901 ], [ 1132, 1155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " D.F.J. Arago (tr. B.Powell), 1857, \"Fresnel\" (elegy read at the Public Meeting of the Academy of Sciences, 26 July 1830), in D.F.J.Arago (tr.W.H.Smyth, B.Powell, and R.Grant), Biographies of Distinguished Scientific Men (single-volume edition), London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, & Roberts, 1857, pp. 399–471. (On the translator's identity, see pp.425n,452n.) Erratum: In the translator's note on p.413, a plane tangent to the outer sphere at point t should intersect the refractive surface (assumed flat); then, through that intersection, tangent planes should be drawn to the inner sphere and spheroid (cf.Mach, 1926, p.263).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " D.F.J. Arago and A. Fresnel, 1819, \"Mémoire sur l'action que les rayons de lumière polarisée exercent les uns sur les autres\", Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Ser.2, vol.10, pp.288–305, March 1819; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.1, pp. 509–22; translated as \"On the action of rays of polarized light upon each other\", in Crew, 1900, pp.145–55.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " G.-A. Boutry, 1948, \"Augustin Fresnel: His time, life and work, 1788–1827\", Science Progress, vol.36, no.144 (October 1948), pp.587–604; jstor.org/stable/43413515.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " J.Z. Buchwald, 1989, The Rise of the Wave Theory of Light: Optical Theory and Experiment in the Early Nineteenth Century, University of Chicago Press, .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " J.Z. Buchwald, 2013, \"Optics in the Nineteenth Century\", in J.Z.Buchwald and R.Fox (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the History of Physics, Oxford, , pp.445–72.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " H. Crew (ed.), 1900, The Wave Theory of Light: Memoirs by Huygens, Young and Fresnel, American Book Company.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " O. Darrigol, 2012, A History of Optics: From Greek Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century, Oxford, .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " J. Elton, 2009, \"A Light to Lighten our Darkness: Lighthouse Optics and the Later Development of Fresnel's Revolutionary Refracting Lens 1780–1900\", International Journal for the History of Engineering & Technology, vol.79, no.2 (July 2009), pp.183–244; .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " E. Frankel, 1974, \"The search for a corpuscular theory of double refraction: Malus, Laplace and the competition of 1808\", Centaurus, vol.18, no.3 (September 1974), pp.223–245.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " E. Frankel, 1976, \"Corpuscular optics and the wave theory of light: The science and politics of a revolution in physics\", Social Studies of Science, vol.6, no.2 (May 1976), pp.141–84; jstor.org/stable/284930.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A. Fresnel, 1815a, Letter to Jean François \"Léonor\" Mérimée, 10February 1815 (Smithsonian Dibner Library, MSS546A), printed in G.Magalhães, \"Remarks on a new autograph letter from Augustin Fresnel: Light aberration and wave theory\", Science in Context, vol.19, no.2 (June2006), pp.295–307, , at p.306 (original French) and p.307 (English translation).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A. Fresnel, 1816, \"Mémoire sur la diffraction de la lumière\" (\"Memoir on the diffraction of light\"), Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Ser.2, vol.1, pp.239–81 (March 1816); reprinted as \"Deuxième Mémoire…\" (\"Second Memoir…\") in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.1, pp.89–122. Not to be confused with the later \"prize memoir\" (Fresnel, 1818b).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A. Fresnel, 1818a, \"Mémoire sur les couleurs développées dans les fluides homogènes par la lumière polarisée\", read 30 March 1818 (according to Kipnis, 1991, p.217), published 1846; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.1, pp. 655–83; translated by E.Ronalds & H.Lloyd as \"Memoir upon the colours produced in homogeneous fluids by polarized light\", in Taylor, 1852, pp.44–65. (Cited page numbers refer to the translation.)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A. Fresnel, 1818b, \"Mémoire sur la diffraction de la lumière\" (\"Memoir on the diffraction of light\"), deposited 29 July 1818, \"crowned\" 15 March 1819, published (with appended notes) in Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de France, vol. (for 1821 & 1822, printed 1826), pp. 339–475; reprinted (with notes) in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.1, pp. 247–383; partly translated as \"Fresnel's prize memoir on the diffraction of light\", in Crew, 1900, pp.81–144. Not to be confused with the earlier memoir with the same French title (Fresnel, 1816).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A. Fresnel, 1818c, \"Lettre de M.Fresnel à M.Arago sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique\", Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Ser.2, vol.9, pp.57–66 & plate after p.111 (Sep.1818), & p.286–7 (Nov.1818); reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.2, pp. 627–36; translated as \"Letter from Augustin Fresnel to François Arago, on the influence of the movement of the earth on some phenomena of optics\" in K.F.Schaffner, Nineteenth-Century Aether Theories, Pergamon, 1972 (), pp.125–35; also translated (with several errors) by R.R.Traill as \"Letter from Augustin Fresnel to François Arago concerning the influence of terrestrial movement on several optical phenomena\", General Science Journal, 23January 2006 (PDF, 8pp.).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A. Fresnel, 1821a, \"Note sur le calcul des teintes que la polarisation développe dans les lames cristallisées\" etseq., Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Ser.2, vol.17, pp.102–11 (May 1821), 167–96 (June 1821), 312–15 (\"Postscript\", July 1821); reprinted (with added section nos.) in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.1, pp.609–48; translated as \"On the calculation of the tints that polarization develops in crystalline plates, postscript\", / , 2021.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A. Fresnel, 1821b, \"Note sur les remarques de M.Biot...\", Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Ser.2, vol.17, pp.393–403 (August 1821); reprinted (with added section nos.) in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.1, pp.601–608; translated as \"Note on the remarks of Mr.Biot relating to colors of thin plates\", / , 2021.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A. Fresnel, 1821c, Letter to D.F.J.Arago, 21September 1821, in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.2, pp.257–9; translated as \"Letter to Arago on biaxial birefringence\", Wikisource, April2021.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A. Fresnel, 1822a, De la Lumière (On Light), in J.Riffault(ed.), Supplément à la traduction française de la cinquième édition du \"Système de Chimie\" par Th.Thomson, Paris: Chez Méquignon-Marvis, 1822, pp.1–137,535–9; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.2, pp.3–146; translated by T.Young as \"Elementary view of the undulatory theory of light\", Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature, and Art, vol.22 (Jan.–Jun.1827), pp.127–41, 441–54; vol.23 (Jul.–Dec.1827), pp.113–35, 431–48; vol.24 (Jan.–Jun.1828), pp.198–215; vol.25 (Jul.–Dec.1828), pp.168–91, 389–407; vol.26 (Jan.–Jun.1829), pp.159–65.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A. Fresnel, 1822b, \"Mémoire sur un nouveau système d'éclairage des phares\", read 29 July 1822; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.3, pp. 97–126; translated by T.Tag as \"Memoir upon a new system of lighthouse illumination\", U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 26 August 2017; archived 19 August 2016. (Cited page numbers refer to the translation.)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A. Fresnel, 1827, \"Mémoire sur la double réfraction\", Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de France, vol. (for 1824, printed 1827), pp. 45–176; reprinted as \"Second mémoire…\" in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.2, pp. 479–596; translated by A.W.Hobson as \"Memoir on double refraction\", in Taylor, 1852, pp.238–333. (Cited page numbers refer to the translation. For notable errata in the original edition, and consequently in the translation, see Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.2, p.596n.)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A. Fresnel (ed. H. de Sénarmont, E.Verdet, and L.Fresnel), 1866–70, Oeuvres complètes d'Augustin Fresnel (3volumes), Paris: Imprimerie Impériale; vol. 1 (1866), vol. 2 (1868), vol. 3 (1870).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " I. Grattan-Guinness, 1990, Convolutions in French Mathematics, 1800–1840, Basel: Birkhäuser, vol.2, , chapter13 (pp.852–915, \"The entry of Fresnel: Physical optics, 1815–1824\") and chapter15 (pp.968–1045, \"The entry of Navier and the triumph of Cauchy: Elasticity theory, 1819–1830\").", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " C. Huygens, 1690, Traité de la Lumière (Leiden: Van der Aa), translated by S.P. Thompson as Treatise on Light, University of Chicago Press, 1912; Project Gutenberg, 2005. (Cited page numbers match the 1912 edition and the Gutenberg HTML edition.)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " F.A. Jenkins and H.E. White, 1976, Fundamentals of Optics, 4th Ed., NewYork: McGraw-Hill, .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " N. Kipnis, 1991, History of the Principle of Interference of Light, Basel: Birkhäuser, , chapters .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " K.A. Kneller (tr. T.M. Kettle), 1911, Christianity and the Leaders of Modern Science: A contribution to the history of culture in the nineteenth century, Freiburg im Breisgau: B.Herder, pp. 146–9.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " T.H. Levitt, 2009, The Shadow of Enlightenment: Optical and Political Transparency in France, 1789–1848, Oxford, .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " T.H. Levitt, 2013, A Short Bright Flash: Augustin Fresnel and the Birth of the Modern Lighthouse, New York: W.W.Norton, .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " H. Lloyd, 1834, \"Report on the progress and present state of physical optics\", Report of the Fourth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (held at Edinburgh in 1834), London: J.Murray, 1835, pp.295–413.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " E. Mach (tr. J.S.Anderson & A.F.A.Young), The Principles of Physical Optics: An Historical and Philosophical Treatment, London: Methuen & Co., 1926.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " I. Newton, 1730, Opticks: or, a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections, and Colours of Light, 4th Ed. (London: William Innys, 1730; Project Gutenberg, 2010); republished with Foreword by A.Einstein and Introduction by E.T.Whittaker (London: George Bell Sons, 1931); reprinted with additional Preface by I.B.Cohen and Analytical Table of Contents by D.H.D.Roller, Mineola, NY: Dover, 1952, 1979 (with revised preface), 2012. (Cited page numbers match the Gutenberg HTML edition and the Dover editions.)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " R.H. Silliman, 1967, Augustin Fresnel (1788–1827) and the Establishment of the Wave Theory of Light (PhDdissertation, ), Princeton University, submitted 1967, accepted 1968; available from ProQuest (missing the first page of the preface).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " R.H. Silliman, 2008, \"Fresnel, Augustin Jean\", Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, vol.5, pp.165–71. (The version at encyclopedia.com lacks the diagram and equations.)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " R. Taylor (ed.), 1852, Scientific Memoirs, selected from the Transactions of Foreign Academies of Science and Learned Societies, and from Foreign Journals (in English), vol., London: Taylor & Francis.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " W. Whewell, 1857, History of the Inductive Sciences: From the Earliest to the Present Time, 3rd Ed., London: J.W.Parker Son, vol. 2, book, chapters.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " E. T. Whittaker, 1910, From the age of Descartes to the close of the nineteenth century, London: Longmans, Green, Co., chapters .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1077330, 65293114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 24, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " J. Worrall, 1989, \"Fresnel, Poisson and the white spot: The role of successful predictions in the acceptance of scientific theories\", in D.Gooding, T.Pinch, and S.Schaffer (eds.), The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences, Cambridge University Press, , pp.135–57.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " T. Young, 1807, A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts (2volumes), London: J.Johnson; vol. 1, vol. 2.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " T. Young (ed. G.Peacock), 1855, Miscellaneous Works of the late Thomas Young, London: J.Murray, vol. 1.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some English translations of works by Fresnel are included in the above Bibliography. For a more comprehensive list, see \"External links\" below.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most detailed secondary source on Fresnel in English is apparently Buchwald 1989 —in which Fresnel, although not named in the title, is clearly the central character.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On lighthouse lenses, this article heavily cites Levitt 2013, Elton 2009, and Thomas Tag at the U.S. Lighthouse Society (see \"External links\" below). All three authors deal not only with Fresnel's contributions but also with later innovations that are not mentioned here (see History).", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 63978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 276, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By comparison with the volume and impact of his scientific and technical writings, biographical information on Fresnel is remarkably scarce. There is no book-length critical biography of him, and anyone who proposes to write one must confront the fact that the letters published in his Oeuvres complètes—contrary to the title—are heavily redacted. In the words of Robert H. Silliman (1967, p.6n): \"By an unhappy judgment of the editors, dictated in part, one suspects, by political expediency, the letters appear in fragmentary form, preserving almost nothing beyond the technical discussions of Fresnel and his correspondents.\" It is not clear from the secondary sources whether the manuscripts of those letters are still extant (cf.Grattan-Guinness, 1990, p.854n).", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of English translations of works by Augustin Fresnel at Zenodo.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 48323528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " United States Lighthouse Society, especially \"Fresnel Lenses\".", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1788_births", "1827_deaths", "19th-century_deaths_from_tuberculosis", "19th-century_French_physicists", "Burials_at_Père_Lachaise_Cemetery", "Corps_des_ponts", "École_des_Ponts_ParisTech_alumni", "École_Polytechnique_alumni", "Foreign_Members_of_the_Royal_Society", "French_civil_engineers", "French_humanitarians", "French_Roman_Catholics", "History_of_physics", "Tuberculosis_deaths_in_France", "Jansenists", "Light", "Lighthouses", "Members_of_the_French_Academy_of_Sciences", "Optical_physicists", "People_from_Eure", "Physical_optics" ]

[ "Frenel Ogyusten Jan", "Fresnel", "Augustin Fresnel" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Abbot is an ecclesiastical title given to the male head of a monastery in various Western religious traditions, including Christianity. The office may also be given as an honorary title to a clergyman who is not the head of a monastery. The female equivalent is abbess.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 651997, 226160, 1822282, 45856, 5211, 382507, 1301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 24 ], [ 27, 32 ], [ 46, 50 ], [ 61, 70 ], [ 122, 134 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 262, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The title had its origin in the monasteries of Egypt and Syria, spread through the eastern Mediterranean, and soon became accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the head of a monastery. The word is derived from the Aramaic meaning \"father\" or , meaning \"my father\" (it still has this meaning in contemporary Hebrew: אבא and Aramaic: ܐܒܐ) In the Septuagint, it was written as \"abbas\". At first it was employed as a respectful title for any monk, but it was soon restricted by canon law to certain priestly superiors. At times it was applied to various priests, e.g. at the court of the Frankish monarchy the (\"of the palace\"') and (\"of the camp\") were chaplains to the Merovingian and Carolingian sovereigns’ court and army respectively. The title of abbot came into fairly general use in western monastic orders whose members include priests.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 45856, 8087628, 7515849, 2454408, 2303, 27915, 6469, 721873, 140445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 43 ], [ 47, 52 ], [ 57, 62 ], [ 91, 104 ], [ 234, 241 ], [ 365, 375 ], [ 495, 504 ], [ 818, 826 ], [ 827, 833 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An abbot (from , , from (\"father\"), from (), from / (, \"father\"); compare ; ) is the head and chief governor of a community of monks, called also in the East hegumen or archimandrite. The English version for a female monastic head is abbess.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Monastic history", "target_page_ids": [ 1334538, 1338332, 1301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 167 ], [ 171, 184 ], [ 236, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Egypt, the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction of the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined. Sometimes he ruled over only one community, sometimes over several, each of which had its own abbot as well. Saint John Cassian speaks of an abbot of the Thebaid who had 500 monks under him. By the Rule of St Benedict, which, until the Cluniac reforms, was the norm in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one community. The rule, as was inevitable, was subject to frequent violations; but it was not until the foundation of the Cluniac Order that the idea of a supreme abbot, exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order, was definitely recognised.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Monastic history", "target_page_ids": [ 8087628, 1617112, 1421666, 25874, 2871111, 2418110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ], [ 230, 242 ], [ 269, 276 ], [ 313, 332 ], [ 351, 366 ], [ 554, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the abbot any exception. For the reception of the sacraments, and for other religious offices, the abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest church. This rule proved inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city, and necessity compelled the ordination of some monks. This innovation was not introduced without a struggle, ecclesiastical dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher spiritual life, but, before the close of the 5th century, at least in the East, abbots seem almost universally to have become deacons, if not priests. The change spread more slowly in the West, where the office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the 7th century. The ecclesiastical leadership exercised by abbots despite their frequent lay status is proved by their attendance and votes at ecclesiastical councils. Thus at the first Council of Constantinople, AD 448, 23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Monastic history", "target_page_ids": [ 30139998, 217115, 651997, 28387, 55314, 11643, 1338332, 4092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 112 ], [ 347, 357 ], [ 428, 442 ], [ 498, 507 ], [ 624, 630 ], [ 945, 976 ], [ 989, 1002 ], [ 1028, 1034 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second Council of Nicaea, AD 787, recognized the right of abbots to ordain their monks to the inferior orders below the diaconate, a power usually reserved to bishops.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Monastic history", "target_page_ids": [ 29250, 55314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 28 ], [ 124, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abbots used to be subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the 11th century. The Code of Justinian (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. xl.) expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight. The first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, at the council of Arles, AD 456; but the exorbitant claims and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible to the pope alone, received an impulse from Pope Gregory the Great. These exceptions, introduced with a good object, had grown into a widespread evil by the 12th century, virtually creating an imperium in imperio, and depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his diocese.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Monastic history", "target_page_ids": [ 4092, 41617292, 36768, 50549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 38 ], [ 129, 146 ], [ 771, 793 ], [ 1026, 1033 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 12th century, the abbots of Fulda claimed precedence of the archbishop of Cologne. Abbots more and more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre, ring, gloves and sandals.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Monastic history", "target_page_ids": [ 23923021, 14780436, 497082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 40 ], [ 67, 88 ], [ 273, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It has been maintained that the right to wear mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 11th century, but the documents on which this claim is based are not genuine (J. Braun, Liturgische Gewandung, p.453). The first undoubted instance is the bull by which Alexander II in 1063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of the monastery of St Augustine at Canterbury. The mitred abbots in England were those of Abingdon, St Alban's, Bardney, Battle, Bury St Edmunds, St Augustine's Canterbury, Colchester, Croyland, Evesham, Glastonbury, Gloucester, St Benet's Hulme, Hyde, Malmesbury, Peterborough, Ramsey, Reading, Selby, Shrewsbury, Tavistock, Thorney, Westminster, Winchcombe, and St Mary's York. Of these the precedence was yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in AD 1154 Adrian IV (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the abbot of St Alban's, in which monastery he had been brought up. Next after the abbot of St Alban's ranked the abbot of Westminster and then Ramsey. Elsewhere, the mitred abbots that sat in the Estates of Scotland were of Arbroath, Cambuskenneth, Coupar Angus, Dunfermline, Holyrood, Iona, Kelso, Kilwinning, Kinloss, Lindores, Paisley, Melrose, Scone, St Andrews Priory and Sweetheart. To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained that their mitre should be made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their pastoral staff (the crosier) should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Monastic history", "target_page_ids": [ 23792, 2690012, 73070, 8954847, 70087, 1662874, 40223698, 9129103, 4333747, 254915, 454752, 14676677, 99837, 10103496, 106527, 98640, 151256, 64116, 143688, 241207, 7438500, 5759953, 43245, 1649157, 1166496, 23828, 2012548, 2583, 299796, 7607977, 57110, 73240, 2578715, 1114332, 7616560, 3500081, 3222594, 2568315, 1355176, 3907135, 7605043, 2307900, 159153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 290 ], [ 439, 447 ], [ 449, 459 ], [ 461, 468 ], [ 470, 476 ], [ 478, 493 ], [ 495, 520 ], [ 522, 532 ], [ 534, 542 ], [ 544, 551 ], [ 553, 564 ], [ 566, 576 ], [ 578, 594 ], [ 596, 600 ], [ 602, 612 ], [ 614, 626 ], [ 628, 634 ], [ 636, 643 ], [ 645, 650 ], [ 652, 662 ], [ 664, 673 ], [ 675, 682 ], [ 684, 695 ], [ 697, 707 ], [ 713, 727 ], [ 811, 820 ], [ 1054, 1073 ], [ 1082, 1090 ], [ 1092, 1105 ], [ 1107, 1119 ], [ 1121, 1132 ], [ 1134, 1142 ], [ 1144, 1148 ], [ 1150, 1155 ], [ 1157, 1167 ], [ 1169, 1176 ], [ 1178, 1186 ], [ 1188, 1195 ], [ 1197, 1204 ], [ 1206, 1211 ], [ 1213, 1230 ], [ 1235, 1245 ], [ 1469, 1483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The adoption of certain episcopal insignia (pontificalia) by abbots was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the Lateran council, AD 1123. In the East abbots, if in priests' orders and with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted by the second Nicene council, AD 787, to confer the tonsure and admit to the order of reader; but gradually abbots, in the West also, advanced higher claims, until we find them in AD 1489 permitted by Innocent IV to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate. Of course, they always and everywhere had the power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Monastic history", "target_page_ids": [ 15061726, 11391, 29250, 146203, 24430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 56 ], [ 191, 206 ], [ 335, 356 ], [ 380, 387 ], [ 529, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited, however, by the canon law. One of the main goals of monasticism was the purgation of self and selfishness, and obedience was seen as a path to that perfection. It was sacred duty to execute the abbot's orders, and even to act without his orders was sometimes considered a transgression. Examples among the Egyptian monks of this submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will as a goal, are detailed by Cassian and others, e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or endeavoring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his powers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Monastic history", "target_page_ids": [ 6469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose the abbot out of the monks of the monastery, but the right of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the benediction of the new abbot. In abbeys exempt from the archbishop's diocesan jurisdiction, the confirmation and benediction had to be conferred by the pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot's journey to Rome. It was necessary that an abbot should be at least 30 years of age, of legitimate birth, a monk of the house for at least 10 years, unless it furnished no suitable candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another monastery, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others, one also who had learned how to command by having practised obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an abbot in Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example in the case of St Bruno. Popes and sovereigns gradually encroached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in France, with the exception of Cluny, Premontré and other houses, chiefs of their order. The election was for life, unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or when he was directly subject to them, by the pope or the bishop, and also in England it was for a term of 8–12 years.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Monastic history", "target_page_ids": [ 1315, 1315, 288622, 25458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 100 ], [ 283, 288 ], [ 363, 374 ], [ 488, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ceremony of the formal admission of a Benedictine abbot in medieval times is thus prescribed by the consuetudinary of Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at the door of the church, and proceed barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a procession. After proceeding up the nave, he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir, into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his commissary, and placed in his stall. The monks, then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his staff of office. He then put on his shoes in the vestry, and a chapter was held, and the bishop or his delegate preached a suitable sermon.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Monastic history", "target_page_ids": [ 4240, 2957876, 297040, 1253037, 184735, 1872984, 2110090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 53 ], [ 104, 118 ], [ 315, 319 ], [ 452, 462 ], [ 604, 619 ], [ 654, 660 ], [ 668, 675 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the late modern era, the abbot was treated with the utmost reverence by the brethren of his house. When he appeared either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed. His letters were received kneeling, as were those of the pope and the king. No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without his permission, reflecting the hierarchical etiquette of families and society. The highest place was assigned to him, both in church and at table. In the East he was commanded to eat with the other monks. In the West the Rule of St Benedict appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain guests and strangers. Because this permission opened the door to luxurious living, Synods of Aachen (816–819), decreed that the abbot should dine in the refectory, and be content with the ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest. These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots. When the abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his chaplains waited upon him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them. When abbots dined in their own private hall, the Rule of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General information", "target_page_ids": [ 25874, 41614688, 9345461, 183232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 537, 556 ], [ 701, 727 ], [ 771, 780 ], [ 1160, 1168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the same as that of the monks. But by the 10th century the rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire. Some even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and assumed a secular dress. With the increase of wealth and power, abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by celibacy. Thus we hear of abbots going out to hunt, with their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of Leicester, c. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare hunting. In magnificence of equipage and retinue the abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm. They rode on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, carrying hawks on their wrist, followed by an immense train of attendants. The bells of the churches were rung as they passed. They associated on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and pursuits. This rank and power was, however, often used most beneficially. For instance, we read of Richard Whiting, the last abbot of Glastonbury, judicially murdered by Henry VIII, that his house was a kind of well-ordered court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent to him for virtuous education, had been brought up, besides others of a lesser rank, whom he fitted for the universities. His table, attendance and officers were an honour to the nation. He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a week. He had his country houses and fisheries, and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to upwards of 100 persons. The abbots of Cluny and Vendôme were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of the Roman church.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General information", "target_page_ids": [ 304064, 51155, 416186, 13427061, 454752, 14187, 5302110, 5969679, 6221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 484, 492 ], [ 656, 665 ], [ 771, 778 ], [ 1235, 1250 ], [ 1270, 1281 ], [ 1306, 1316 ], [ 1882, 1897 ], [ 1902, 1909 ], [ 1943, 1951 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the process of time, the title abbot was extended to clerics who had no connection with the monastic system, as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and under the Carolingians to the chief chaplain of the king, , or military chaplain of the emperor, It even came to be adopted by purely secular officials. Thus the chief magistrate of the republic at Genoa was called .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General information", "target_page_ids": [ 50405, 5314, 47332321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 63 ], [ 177, 189 ], [ 367, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lay abbots (M. Lat. , , , , or , , or sometimes simply ) were the outcome of the growth of the feudal system from the 8th century onwards. The practice of commendation, by which—to meet a contemporary emergency—the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay lord, in return for his protection,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General information", "target_page_ids": [ 1141036, 11298, 874986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 96, 102 ], [ 157, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "early suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held in commendam.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General information", "target_page_ids": [ 2540366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Carolingian epoch, the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable fiefs or benefices, and by the 10th century, before the great Cluniac reform, the system was firmly established. Even the abbey of St Denis was held in commendam by Hugh Capet. The example of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles, sometimes by making a temporary concession permanent, sometimes without any form of commendation whatever. In England the abuse was rife in the 8th century, as may be gathered from the acts of the council of Cloveshoe. These lay abbacies were not merely a question of overlordship, but implied the concentration in lay hands of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of spiritual institutions. The lay abbot took his recognized rank in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of his fief as in the case of any other. The enfeoffment of abbeys differed in form and degree. Sometimes the monks were directly subject to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a substitute to perform the spiritual functions, known usually as dean (), but also as abbot (, , ).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General information", "target_page_ids": [ 145893, 1038380, 2871111, 66437, 75185, 6328553, 1835106, 1961924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 93 ], [ 97, 105 ], [ 150, 157 ], [ 210, 227 ], [ 253, 263 ], [ 523, 543 ], [ 927, 938 ], [ 1128, 1132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the great reform of the 11th century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by certain of the great feudal families, as late as the 13th century and later, with the head of the community retaining the title of dean. The connection of the lesser lay abbots with the abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer; and certain feudal families retained the title of () for centuries, together with certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues. The abuse was not confined to the West. John, patriarch of Antioch at the beginning of the 12th century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been handed over to laymen, , for life, or for part of their lives, by the emperors.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General information", "target_page_ids": [ 273241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 578, 598 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Giraldus Cambrensis reported (Itinerary, ii.iv) the common customs of lay abbots in the late 12th-century Church of Wales:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General information", "target_page_ids": [ 56354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General information", "target_page_ids": [ 5114012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Roman Catholic Church, abbots continue to be elected by the monks of an abbey to lead them as their religious superior in those orders and monasteries that make use of the term (some orders of monks, as the Carthusians for instance, have no abbots, only priors). A monastery must have been granted the status of an abbey by the pope, and such monasteries are normally raised to this level after showing a degree of stability—a certain number of monks in vows, a certain number of years of establishment, a certain firmness to the foundation in economic, vocational and legal aspects. Prior to this, the monastery would be a mere priory, headed by a prior who acts as superior but without the same degree of legal authority that an abbot has.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern practices", "target_page_ids": [ 49120, 5114012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 214, 225 ], [ 261, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The abbot is chosen by the monks from among the fully professed monks. Once chosen, he must request blessing: the blessing of an abbot is celebrated by the bishop in whose diocese the monastery is or, with his permission, another abbot or bishop. The ceremony of such a blessing is similar in some aspects to the consecration of a bishop, with the new abbot being presented with the mitre, the ring, and the crosier as symbols of office and receiving the laying on of hands and blessing from the celebrant. Though the ceremony installs the new abbot into a position of legal authority, it does not confer further sacramental authority- it is not a further degree of Holy Orders (although some abbots have been ordained to the episcopacy).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern practices", "target_page_ids": [ 497082, 159153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 383, 388 ], [ 408, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once he has received this blessing, the abbot not only becomes father of his monks in a spiritual sense, but their major superior under canon law, and has the additional authority to confer the ministries of acolyte and lector (formerly, he could confer the minor orders, which are not sacraments, that these ministries have replaced). The abbey is a species of \"exempt religious\" in that it is, for the most part, answerable to the pope, or to the abbot primate, rather than to the local bishop.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern practices", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The abbot wears the same habit as his fellow monks, though by tradition he adds to it a pectoral cross.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern practices", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Territorial abbots follow all of the above, but in addition must receive a mandate of authority from the pope over the territory around the monastery for which they are responsible.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Modern practices", "target_page_ids": [ 4022596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some monastic families, there is a hierarchy of precedence or authority among abbots. In some cases, this is the result of an abbey being considered the \"mother\" of several \"daughter\" abbeys founded as dependent priories of the \"mother.\" In other cases, abbeys have affiliated in networks known as \"congregations.\" Some monastic families recognize one abbey as the motherhouse of the entire order.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Abbatial hierarchy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The abbot of Sant'Anselmo di Aventino, in Rome, is styled the \"abbot primate,\" and is acknowledged the senior abbot for the Order of St. Benedict (O.S.B.)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Abbatial hierarchy", "target_page_ids": [ 8069263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " An abbot president is the head of a congregation (federation) of abbeys within the Order of St. Benedict (for instance, the English Congregation, The American Cassinese Congregation, etc.), or of the Cistercians (O. Cist.)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Abbatial hierarchy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An archabbot is the head of some monasteries which are the motherhouses of other monasteries (for instance, Saint Vincent Archabbey, Latrobe, Pennsylvania)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Abbatial hierarchy", "target_page_ids": [ 3163914, 81686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 132 ], [ 134, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mauro-Giuseppe Lepori O. Cist. is the current Abbot General of the Cistercians of the Common Observance.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Abbatial hierarchy", "target_page_ids": [ 53664285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The title abbé (French; Ital. abate), as commonly used in the Catholic Church on the European continent, is the equivalent of the English \"Father\" (parallel etymology), being loosely applied to all who have received the tonsure. This use of the title is said to have originated in the right conceded to the king of France, by the concordat between Pope Leo X and Francis I (1516), to appoint commendatory abbots () to most of the abbeys in France. The expectation of obtaining these sinecures drew young men towards the church in considerable numbers, and the class of abbés so formed - they were sometimes called, and sometimes (ironically) (\"abbés of holy hope; or in a jeu de mots, \"of St. Hope\") - came to hold a recognized position. The connection many of them had with the church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting the title of abbé, after a remarkably moderate course of theological study, practising celibacy and wearing distinctive dress, a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar. Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abbé. The class did not survive the Revolution; but the courtesy title of abbé, having long lost all connection in people's minds with any special ecclesiastical function, remained as a convenient general term applicable to any clergyman.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Modern abbots not as superior", "target_page_ids": [ 1091684, 146203, 411434, 37870, 50012, 1141025, 248322, 6035, 11188, 17454727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 14 ], [ 220, 227 ], [ 331, 340 ], [ 349, 359 ], [ 364, 373 ], [ 393, 411 ], [ 485, 493 ], [ 936, 944 ], [ 1240, 1250 ], [ 1260, 1274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, the abbot is referred to as the hegumen. The Superior of a monastery of nuns is called the Hēguménē. The title of archimandrite (literally the head of the enclosure) used to mean something similar.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Eastern Christian", "target_page_ids": [ 10186, 214903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 23 ], [ 28, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the East, the principle set forth in the Corpus Juris Civilis still applies, whereby most abbots are immediately subject to the local bishop. Those monasteries which enjoy the status of being stauropegic will be subject only to a primate or his Synod of Bishops and not the local bishop.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Eastern Christian", "target_page_ids": [ 48727, 6153745, 24672, 75792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 64 ], [ 195, 206 ], [ 233, 240 ], [ 248, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although currently in the Western Church the title \"abbot\" is given only abbots of monasteries, the title archimandrite is given to \"monastics\" (i.e., celibate) priests in the East, even when not attached to a monastery, as an honor for service, similar to the title of monsignor in the Western/Latin Rite of the Catholic Church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, only monastics are permitted to be elevated to the rank of archimandrite. Married priests are elevated to the parallel rank of Archpriest or Protopresbyter. Normally there are no celibate priests who are not monastics in the Orthodox Church, with the exception of married priests who have been widowed. Since the time of Catherine II the ranks of Abbot and Archimandrite have been given as honorary titles in the Russian Church, and may be given to any monastic, even if he does not in fact serve as the superior of a monastery. In Greek practice the title or function of Abbot corresponds to a person who serves as the head of a monastery, although the title of the Archimandrite may be given to any celibate priest who could serve as the head of a monastery.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honorary and other uses of the title", "target_page_ids": [ 1338332, 707122, 10186, 1692649, 22907920, 254879, 44240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 119 ], [ 270, 279 ], [ 337, 360 ], [ 489, 499 ], [ 503, 517 ], [ 656, 661 ], [ 683, 695 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the German Evangelical Church, the German title of Abt (abbot) is sometimes bestowed, like the French abbé, as an honorary distinction, and survives to designate the heads of some monasteries converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honorary and other uses of the title", "target_page_ids": [ 213018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of these the most noteworthy is Loccum Abbey in Hanover, founded as a Cistercian house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of Hallermund, and reformed in 1593. The abbot of Loccum, who still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence over all the clergy of Hanover, and was ex officio a member of the consistory of the kingdom. The governing body of the abbey consists of the abbot, prior and the \"convent\", or community, of Stiftsherren (canons).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honorary and other uses of the title", "target_page_ids": [ 4699303, 14197, 50409, 1067968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 44 ], [ 48, 55 ], [ 70, 80 ], [ 416, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Church of England, the Bishop of Norwich, by royal decree given by Henry VIII, also holds the honorary title of \"Abbot of St. Benet.\" This title hails back to England's separation from the See of Rome, when King Henry, as supreme head of the newly independent church, took over all of the monasteries, mainly for their possessions, except for St. Benet, which he spared because the abbot and his monks possessed no wealth, and lived like simple beggars, deposing the incumbent Bishop of Norwich and seating the abbot in his place, thus the dual title still held to this day.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honorary and other uses of the title", "target_page_ids": [ 5955, 1095462, 14187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 24 ], [ 30, 47 ], [ 74, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additionally, at the enthronement of the Archbishop of Canterbury, there is a threefold enthronement, once in the throne the chancel as the diocesan bishop of Canterbury, once in the Chair of St. Augustine as the Primate of All England, and then once in the chapter-house as Titular Abbot of Canterbury.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honorary and other uses of the title", "target_page_ids": [ 1807200, 2345, 3653974, 48274, 12043545, 2345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 33 ], [ 41, 65 ], [ 140, 155 ], [ 159, 169 ], [ 183, 205 ], [ 213, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are several Benedictine abbeys throughout the Anglican Communion. Most of them have mitred abbots.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Honorary and other uses of the title", "target_page_ids": [ 909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"The Abbot\" is one of the archetypes traditionally illustrated in scenes of Danse Macabre.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Abbots in art and literature", "target_page_ids": [ 8884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lives of numerous abbots make up a significant contribution to Christian hagiography, one of the most well-known being the Life of St. Benedict of Nursia by St. Gregory the Great.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Abbots in art and literature", "target_page_ids": [ 162789, 4001, 36768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 88 ], [ 139, 157 ], [ 165, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the years 1106–1107 AD, Daniel, a Russian Orthodox abbot, made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and recorded his experiences. His diary was much-read throughout Russia, and at least seventy-five manuscript copies survive. Saint Joseph, Abbot of Volokolamsk, Russia (1439–1515), wrote a number of influential works against heresy, and about monastic and liturgical discipline, and Christian philanthropy.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Abbots in art and literature", "target_page_ids": [ 23763, 148545, 25391, 3012146, 1337838, 20611083, 220050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 82 ], [ 90, 99 ], [ 165, 171 ], [ 226, 238 ], [ 249, 260 ], [ 326, 332 ], [ 394, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Tales of Redwall series, the creatures of Redwall are led by an abbot or abbess. These \"abbots\" are appointed by the brothers and sisters of Redwall to serve as a superior and provide paternal care, much like real abbots.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Abbots in art and literature", "target_page_ids": [ 315185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"The Abbot\" was a nickname of RZA from the Wu-Tang Clan.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Abbots in art and literature", "target_page_ids": [ 39177668, 33135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 33 ], [ 43, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abbé", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1091684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abbé Pierre", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 302102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abbot (Buddhism)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45249666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abthain", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2715447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commendatory abbot", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1141025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Russian Orthodox Abbot of Valaam Monastery", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 219621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Pilgrimage of the Russian Abbot Daniel in the Holy Land", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Abbots", "Religious_terminology", "Ecclesiastical_titles", "Monasticism", "Organisation_of_Catholic_religious_orders", "Religious_leadership_roles", "Catholic_ecclesiastical_titles", "Christian_religious_occupations" ]

[ "Abbess" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Ardipithecus is a genus of an extinct hominine that lived during the Late Miocene and Early Pliocene epochs in the Afar Depression, Ethiopia. Originally described as one of the earliest ancestors of humans after they diverged from the chimpanzees, the relation of this genus to human ancestors and whether it is a hominin is now a matter of debate. Two fossil species are described in the literature: A. ramidus, which lived about 4.4 million years ago during the early Pliocene, and A. kadabba, dated to approximately 5.6 million years ago (late Miocene). Initial behavioral analysis indicated that Ardipithecus could be very similar to chimpanzees, however more recent analysis based on canine size and lack of canine sexual dimorphism indicates that Ardipithecus was characterised by reduced aggression, and that they more closely resemble bonobos.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14347, 9869128, 1889532, 2058852, 187749, 38493, 2556665, 21780446, 23291, 19011, 7844, 45286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 46 ], [ 69, 81 ], [ 86, 100 ], [ 115, 130 ], [ 132, 140 ], [ 269, 274 ], [ 314, 321 ], [ 360, 367 ], [ 470, 478 ], [ 547, 554 ], [ 638, 649 ], [ 843, 850 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some analyses describe Australopithecus as being sister to Ardipithecus ramidus specifically. This means that Australopithecus is distinctly closer related to Ardipithecus ramidus than Ardipithecus kadabba. Cladistically, then, Australopithecus (and eventually Homo sapiens) indeed emerged within the Ardipithecus lineage, and this lineage is not literally extinct.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 61534, 5376, 682482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 126 ], [ 207, 220 ], [ 261, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A. ramidus was named in September 1994. The first fossil found was dated to 4.4 million years ago on the basis of its stratigraphic position between two volcanic strata: the basal Gaala Tuff Complex (G.A.T.C.) and the Daam Aatu Basaltic Tuff (D.A.B.T.). The name Ardipithecus ramidus stems mostly from the Afar language, in which Ardi means \"ground/floor\" and ramid means \"root\". The pithecus portion of the name is from the Greek word for \"ape\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ardipithecus ramidus", "target_page_ids": [ 554469, 44481, 43534, 371306, 11887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 168 ], [ 180, 198 ], [ 218, 241 ], [ 306, 319 ], [ 425, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like most hominids, but unlike all previously recognized hominins, it had a grasping hallux or big toe adapted for locomotion in the trees. It is not confirmed how many other features of its skeleton reflect adaptation to bipedalism on the ground as well. Like later hominins, Ardipithecus had reduced canine teeth and reduced canine sexual dimorphism.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ardipithecus ramidus", "target_page_ids": [ 211397, 4210, 203106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 91 ], [ 222, 232 ], [ 302, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1992–1993 a research team headed by Tim White discovered the first A. ramidus fossils—seventeen fragments including skull, mandible, teeth and arm bones—from the Afar Depression in the Middle Awash river valley of Ethiopia. More fragments were recovered in 1994, amounting to 45% of the total skeleton. This fossil was originally described as a species of Australopithecus, but White and his colleagues later published a note in the same journal renaming the fossil under a new genus, Ardipithecus. Between 1999 and 2003, a multidisciplinary team led by Sileshi Semaw discovered bones and teeth of nine A. ramidus individuals at As Duma in the Gona area of Ethiopia's Afar Region. The fossils were dated to between 4.35 and 4.45 million years old.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ardipithecus ramidus", "target_page_ids": [ 3423456, 2058852, 4725686, 187749, 61534, 64070975, 2483633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 48 ], [ 165, 180 ], [ 188, 200 ], [ 217, 225 ], [ 359, 375 ], [ 647, 656 ], [ 671, 682 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ardipithecus ramidus had a small brain, measuring between 300 and 350cm3. This is slightly smaller than a modern bonobo or female common chimpanzee brain, but much smaller than the brain of australopithecines like Lucy (~400 to 550cm3) and roughly 20% the size of the modern Homo sapiens brain. Like common chimpanzees, A. ramidus was much more prognathic than modern humans.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ardipithecus ramidus", "target_page_ids": [ 45286, 7844, 61534, 2026665 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 119 ], [ 130, 147 ], [ 190, 208 ], [ 345, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The teeth of A. ramidus lacked the specialization of other apes, and suggest that it was a generalized omnivore and frugivore (fruit eater) with a diet that did not depend heavily on foliage, fibrous plant material (roots, tubers, etc.), or hard and or abrasive food. The size of the upper canine tooth in A. ramidus males was not distinctly different from that of females. Their upper canines were less sharp than those of modern common chimpanzees in part because of this decreased upper canine size, as larger upper canines can be honed through wear against teeth in the lower mouth. The features of the upper canine in A. ramidus contrast with the sexual dimorphism observed in common chimpanzees, where males have significantly larger and sharper upper canine teeth than females. Of the living apes, bonobos have the smallest canine sexual dimorphism, although still greater than that displayed by A. ramidus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ardipithecus ramidus", "target_page_ids": [ 23974535, 605107, 203106, 197179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 111 ], [ 116, 125 ], [ 290, 302 ], [ 652, 669 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The less pronounced nature of the upper canine teeth in A. ramidus has been used to infer aspects of the social behavior of the species and more ancestral hominids. In particular, it has been used to suggest that the last common ancestor of hominids and African apes was characterized by relatively little aggression between males and between groups. This is markedly different from social patterns in common chimpanzees, among which intermale and intergroup aggression are typically high. Researchers in a 2009 study said that this condition \"compromises the living chimpanzee as a behavioral model for the ancestral hominid condition.\" Bonobo canine size and canine sexual dimorphism more closely resembles that of A. ramidus, and as a result, bonobos are now suggested as a behavioural model.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ardipithecus ramidus", "target_page_ids": [ 160313, 1034339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 120 ], [ 217, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A. ramidus existed more recently than the most recent common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees (CLCA or Pan-Homo LCA) and thus is not fully representative of that common ancestor. Nevertheless, it is in some ways unlike chimpanzees, suggesting that the common ancestor differs from the modern chimpanzee. After the chimpanzee and human lineages diverged, both underwent substantial evolutionary change. Chimp feet are specialized for grasping trees; A. ramidus feet are better suited for walking. The canine teeth of A. ramidus are smaller, and equal in size between males and females, which suggests reduced male-to-male conflict, increased pair-bonding, and increased parental investment. \"Thus, fundamental reproductive and social behavioral changes probably occurred in hominids long before they had enlarged brains and began to use stone tools,\" the research team concluded.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ardipithecus ramidus", "target_page_ids": [ 1034339, 24755810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 69 ], [ 97, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On October 1, 2009, paleontologists formally announced the discovery of the relatively complete A. ramidus fossil skeleton first unearthed in 1994. The fossil is the remains of a small-brained 50-kilogram (110lb) female, nicknamed \"Ardi\", and includes most of the skull and teeth, as well as the pelvis, hands, and feet. It was discovered in Ethiopia's harsh Afar desert at a site called Aramis in the Middle Awash region. Radiometric dating of the layers of volcanic ash encasing the deposits suggest that Ardi lived about 4.3-4.5 million years ago. This date, however, has been questioned by others. Fleagle and Kappelman suggest that the region in which Ardi was found is difficult to date radiometrically, and they argue that Ardi should be dated at 3.9 million years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ardipithecus ramidus", "target_page_ids": [ 7581313, 2483633, 5317680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 18 ], [ 359, 370 ], [ 388, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fossil is regarded by its describers as shedding light on a stage of human evolution about which little was known, more than a million years before Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis), the iconic early human ancestor candidate who lived 3.2 million years ago, and was discovered in 1974 just away from Ardi's discovery site. However, because the \"Ardi\" skeleton is no more than 200,000 years older than the earliest fossils of Australopithecus, and may in fact be younger than they are, some researchers doubt that it can represent a direct ancestor of Australopithecus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ardipithecus ramidus", "target_page_ids": [ 6595512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some researchers infer from the form of her pelvis and limbs and the presence of her abductable hallux, that \"Ardi\" was a facultative biped: bipedal when moving on the ground, but quadrupedal when moving about in tree branches. A. ramidus had a more primitive walking ability than later hominids, and could not walk or run for long distances. The teeth suggest omnivory, and are more generalised than those of modern apes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Ardipithecus ramidus", "target_page_ids": [ 4057221, 211397, 5157838, 4210, 25236, 23974535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 95 ], [ 96, 102 ], [ 122, 139 ], [ 141, 146 ], [ 180, 189 ], [ 361, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ardipithecus kadabba is \"known only from teeth and bits and pieces of skeletal bones\", and is dated to approximately 5.6 million years ago. It has been described as a \"probable chronospecies\" (i.e. ancestor) of A. ramidus. Although originally considered a subspecies of A. ramidus, in 2004 anthropologists Yohannes Haile-Selassie, Gen Suwa, and Tim D. White published an article elevating A. kadabba to species level on the basis of newly discovered teeth from Ethiopia. These teeth show \"primitive morphology and wear pattern\" which demonstrate that A. kadabba is a distinct species from A. ramidus.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ardipithecus kadabba", "target_page_ids": [ 1322877, 5417679, 52189684, 3423456, 187749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 177, 190 ], [ 306, 329 ], [ 331, 339 ], [ 345, 357 ], [ 461, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The specific name comes from the Afar word for \"basal family ancestor\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ardipithecus kadabba", "target_page_ids": [ 371306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to several shared characteristics with chimpanzees, its closeness to ape divergence period, and due to its fossil incompleteness, the exact position of Ardipithecus in the fossil record is a subject of controversy. Primatologist Esteban Sarmiento had systematically compared and concluded that there is not sufficient anatomical evidence to support an exclusively human lineage. Sarmiento noted that Ardipithecus does not share any characteristics exclusive to humans, and some of its characteristics (those in the wrist and basicranium) suggest it diverged from humans prior to the human–gorilla last common ancestor. His comparative (narrow allometry) study in 2011 on the molar and body segment lengths (which included living primates of similar body size) noted that some dimensions including short upper limbs, and metacarpals are reminiscent of humans, but other dimensions such as long toes and relative molar surface area are great ape-like. Sarmiento concluded that such length measures can change back and forth during evolution and are not very good indicators of relatedness (homoplasy).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 3892407, 14347, 1663537, 324697, 56750304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 233, 250 ], [ 587, 621 ], [ 647, 656 ], [ 824, 835 ], [ 1092, 1101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, some later studies still argue for its classification in the human lineage. In 2014, it was reported that the hand bones of Ardipithecus, Australopithecus sediba and A. afarensis have the third metacarpal styloid process, which is absent in other apes. Unique brain organisations (such as lateral shift of the carotid foramina, mediolateral abbreviation of the lateral tympanic, and a shortened, trapezoidal basioccipital element) in Ardipithecus are also found only in the Australopithecus and Homo. Comparison of the tooth root morphology with those of the earlier Sahelanthropus also indicated strong resemblance, also pointing to inclusion to the human line.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 26878593, 443293, 6164958, 2704176, 472212, 61700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 170 ], [ 175, 187 ], [ 214, 229 ], [ 378, 386 ], [ 417, 430 ], [ 576, 590 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Evolutionary tree according to a 2019 study:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [ 149326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ardipithecus length measures are good indicators of function and together with dental isotope data and the fauna and flora from the fossil site indicate Ardipithecus was mainly a terrestrial quadruped collecting a large portion of its food on the ground. Its arboreal behaviors would have been limited and suspension from branches solely from the upper limbs rare. A comparative study in 2013 on carbon and oxygen stable isotopes within modern and fossil tooth enamel revealed that Ardipithecus fed both arboreally (on trees) and on the ground in a more open habitat, unlike chimpanzees.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Paleobiology", "target_page_ids": [ 314628, 12773567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 459, 471 ], [ 508, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, Australian anthropologists Gary Clark and Maciej Henneberg said that Ardipithecus adults have a facial anatomy more similar to chimpanzee subadults than adults, with a less-projecting face and smaller canines (large canines in primate males are used to compete within mating hierarchies), and attributed this to a decrease in craniofacial growth in favour of brain growth. This is only seen in humans, so they argued that the species may show the first trend towards human social, parenting and sexual psychology. Previously, it was assumed that such ancient human ancestors behaved much like chimps, but this is no longer considered to be a viable comparison. This view has yet to be corroborated by more detailed studies of the growth of A.ramidus. The study also provides support for Stephen Jay Gould's theory in Ontogeny and Phylogeny that the paedomorphic (childlike) form of early hominin craniofacial morphology results from dissociation of growth trajectories.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Paleobiology", "target_page_ids": [ 7608175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 826, 848 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clark and Henneberg also argued that such shortening of the skull—which may have caused a descension of the larynx—as well as lordosis—allowing better movement of the larynx—increased vocal ability, significantly pushing back the origin of language to well before the evolution of Homo. They argued that self domestication was aided by the development of vocalization, living in a pro-social society. They conceded that chimps and A. ramidus likely had the same vocal capabilities, but said that A. ramidus made use of more complex vocalizations, and vocalized at the same level as a human infant due to selective pressure to become more social. This would have allowed their society to become more complex. They also noted that the base of the skull stopped growing with the brain by the end of juvenility, whereas in chimps it continues growing with the rest of the body into adulthood; and considered this evidence of a switch from a gross skeletal anatomy trajectory to a neurological development trajectory due to selective pressure for sociability. Nonetheless, their conclusions are highly speculative.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Paleobiology", "target_page_ids": [ 49375, 620396, 5745363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 114 ], [ 230, 248 ], [ 604, 622 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Scott Simpson, the Gona Project's physical anthropologist, the fossil evidence from the Middle Awash indicates that both A. kadabba and A. ramidus lived in \"a mosaic of woodland and grasslands with lakes, swamps and springs nearby,\" but further research is needed to determine which habitat Ardipithecus at Gona preferred.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Paleobiology", "target_page_ids": [ 24232, 4725686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 70 ], [ 101, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anatomically, Ardi is closer to the orangutan than to the chimpanzee, bonobo or gorilla. All three are adapted for knuckle walking on the forest floor and climbling trees. The orangutan spends virtually its entire life in the forest canopy. Its anatomy allows for maximum reach by its upper limbs for overhead branches while its lower limbs have a narrow stance that enables it to balance while walking \"foot over foot\" on lower branches and vines. Although not as closely related genetically as the knuckle walking apes, this would indicate that Ardi was behaviourly more similar to the orangutan than to the other three great apes. In nature, the orangutan is widely dispersed. There is one dominant male in a territory with wide cheek flaps who maintains contact with others in his territory by vocalizations. The female raises offspring one at a time with a maturation period of about eight years. This is the longest maturation period of any of the apes. During this period, the offspring learns the intricate task of weaving a sleeping platform. Rescue centers are now raising young orangutans that have lost their mother typically from deforestation. They are raised in age cohorts by these centers to learn the necessary skills to be able to be released into the forest. While in these cohorts, they show social behavior reminiscent of age appropriate behavior of human children. This suggests that Ardi was physically preadapted for bipedal locomotion as well as social behavior.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Paleobiology", "target_page_ids": [ 22433, 7844, 12546, 229914, 682482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 45 ], [ 58, 68 ], [ 80, 87 ], [ 516, 519 ], [ 1372, 1377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Australopithecus", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 61534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paranthropus", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Graecopithecus", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34360942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of human evolution fossils", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6771226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Orrorin", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sahelanthropus", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 61700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Science Magazine: Ardipithecus special (requires free registration)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ardipithecus kadabba", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ardipithecus ramidus", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ardipithecus ramidus at Archaeology info", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Explore Ardipithecus at NationalGeographic.com", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 229466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ardipithecus ramidus - Science Journal Article", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Discovering Ardi - Discovery Channel", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 65828, 700610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 43 ], [ 45, 79 ] ] } ]

[ "Hominini", "Prehistoric_primate_genera", "Pliocene_primates", "Transitional_fossils", "Fossil_taxa_described_in_1995", "Prehistoric_Ethiopia", "Miocene_genus_first_appearances", "Zanclean_extinctions" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "An assembly line is a manufacturing process (often called a progressive assembly) in which parts (usually interchangeable parts) are added as the semi-finished assembly moves from workstation to workstation where the parts are added in sequence until the final assembly is produced. By mechanically moving the parts to the assembly work and moving the semi-finished assembly from work station to work station, a finished product can be assembled faster and with less labor than by having workers carry parts to a stationary piece for assembly.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39388, 908518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ], [ 106, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Assembly lines are common methods of assembling complex items such as automobiles and other transportation equipment, household appliances and electronic goods.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13673345, 18580879, 725893, 189768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 80 ], [ 92, 106 ], [ 118, 127 ], [ 143, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Workers in charge of the works of assembly line are called assemblers.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Assembly lines are designed for the sequential organization of workers, tools or machines, and parts. The motion of workers is minimized to the extent possible. All parts or assemblies are handled either by conveyors or motorized vehicles such as fork lifts, or gravity, with no manual trucking. Heavy lifting is done by machines such as overhead cranes or forklifts. Each worker typically performs one simple operation unless job rotation strategies are applied.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Concepts", "target_page_ids": [ 857255, 30677, 13215001, 237199, 38579, 4809015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 69 ], [ 72, 76 ], [ 207, 215 ], [ 247, 257 ], [ 262, 269 ], [ 338, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Henry Ford:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Concepts", "target_page_ids": [ 13371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Designing assembly lines is a well-established mathematical challenge, referred to as an assembly line balancing problem. In the simple assembly line balancing problem the aim is to assign a set of tasks that need to be performed on the workpiece to a sequence of workstations. Each task requires a given task duration for completion. The assignment of tasks to stations is typically limited by two constraints: (1) a precedence graph which indicates what other tasks need to be completed before a particular task can be initiated (e.g. not putting in a screw before drilling the hole) and (2) a cycle time which restricts the sum of task processing times which can be completed at each workstation before the work-piece is moved to the next station by the conveyor belt. Major planning problems for operating assembly lines include supply chain integration, inventory control and production scheduling.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Concepts", "target_page_ids": [ 186493, 2759248, 3225534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 833, 857 ], [ 859, 876 ], [ 881, 902 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Consider the assembly of a car: assume that certain steps in the assembly line are to install the engine, install the hood, and install the wheels (in that order, with arbitrary interstitial steps); only one of these steps can be done at a time. In traditional production, only one car would be assembled at a time. If engine installation takes 20 minutes, hood installation takes five minutes, and wheels installation takes 10 minutes, then a car can be produced every 35 minutes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Simple example", "target_page_ids": [ 13673345, 9640, 470575, 33555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 30 ], [ 319, 325 ], [ 357, 361 ], [ 399, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In an assembly line, car assembly is split between several stations, all working simultaneously. When a station is finished with a car, it passes it on to the next. By having three stations, three cars can be operated on at the same time, each at a different stage of assembly.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Simple example", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After finishing its work on the first car, the engine installation crew can begin working on the second car. While the engine installation crew works on the second car, the first car can be moved to the hood station and fitted with a hood, then to the wheels station and be fitted with wheels. After the engine has been installed on the second car, the second car moves to the hood assembly. At the same time, the third car moves to the engine assembly. When the third car's engine has been mounted, it then can be moved to the hood station; meanwhile, subsequent cars (if any) can be moved to the engine installation station.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Simple example", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Assuming no loss of time when moving a car from one station to another, the longest stage on the assembly line determines the throughput (20 minutes for the engine installation) so a car can be produced every 20 minutes, once the first car taking 35 minutes has been produced.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Simple example", "target_page_ids": [ 2995108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufactured products were made individually by hand. A single craftsman or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product. They would use their skills and tools such as files and knives to create the individual parts. They would then assemble them into the final product, making cut-and-try changes in the parts until they fit and could work together (craft production).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14914, 426433, 549613, 17160, 2183909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 32 ], [ 102, 111 ], [ 216, 221 ], [ 226, 232 ], [ 399, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Division of labor was practiced in China, where state-run monopolies mass-produced metal agricultural implements, china, armor, and weapons centuries before mass production appeared in Europe on the eve of the Industrial Revolution. Adam Smith discussed the division of labour in the manufacture of pins at length in his book The Wealth of Nations (published in 1776).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8824, 63137, 1814, 8824, 1696028, 725991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 69, 82 ], [ 233, 243 ], [ 258, 276 ], [ 299, 303 ], [ 326, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Venetian Arsenal, dating to about 1104, operated similar to a production line. Ships moved down a canal and were fitted by the various shops they passed. At the peak of its efficiency in the early 16th century, the Arsenal employed some 16,000 people who could apparently produce nearly one ship each day and could fit out, arm, and provision a newly built galley with standardized parts on an assembly-line basis. Although the Arsenal lasted until the early Industrial Revolution, production line methods did not become common even then.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 963385, 819847, 268344, 1918188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 66, 81 ], [ 177, 187 ], [ 361, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Industrial Revolution led to a proliferation of manufacturing and invention. Many industries, notably textiles, firearms, clocks and watches, horse-drawn vehicles, railway locomotives, sewing machines, and bicycles, saw expeditious improvement in materials handling, machining, and assembly during the 19th century, although modern concepts such as industrial engineering and logistics had not yet been named.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14914, 51892, 11966, 480750, 3932408, 17717, 85012, 3973, 23535218, 77547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 106, 113 ], [ 116, 123 ], [ 126, 144 ], [ 146, 165 ], [ 168, 187 ], [ 189, 203 ], [ 210, 217 ], [ 353, 375 ], [ 380, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The automatic flour mill built by Oliver Evans in 1785 was called the beginning of modern bulk material handling by Roe (1916). Evans's mill used a leather belt bucket elevator, screw conveyors, canvas belt conveyors, and other mechanical devices to completely automate the process of making flour. The innovation spread to other mills and breweries.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 56232, 1095698, 389929, 1542741, 7529770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 19 ], [ 20, 24 ], [ 34, 46 ], [ 90, 112 ], [ 178, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Probably the earliest industrial example of a linear and continuous assembly process is the Portsmouth Block Mills, built between 1801 and 1803. Marc Isambard Brunel (father of Isambard Kingdom Brunel), with the help of Henry Maudslay and others, designed 22 types of machine tools to make the parts for the rigging blocks used by the Royal Navy. This factory was so successful that it remained in use until the 1960s, with the workshop still visible at HM Dockyard in Portsmouth, and still containing some of the original machinery.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 867800, 93964, 4482809, 158639, 1162721, 26061, 1706895, 24207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 114 ], [ 145, 165 ], [ 177, 200 ], [ 220, 234 ], [ 316, 322 ], [ 335, 345 ], [ 454, 465 ], [ 469, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the earliest examples of an almost modern factory layout, designed for easy material handling, was the Bridgewater Foundry. The factory grounds were bordered by the Bridgewater Canal and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The buildings were arranged in a line with a railway for carrying the work going through the buildings. Cranes were used for lifting the heavy work, which sometimes weighed in the tens of tons. The work passed sequentially through to erection of framework and final assembly.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4277649, 313656, 186950, 318378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 129 ], [ 172, 189 ], [ 198, 230 ], [ 336, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first flow assembly line was initiated at the factory of Richard Garrett & Sons, Leiston Works in Leiston in the English county of Suffolk for the manufacture of portable steam engines. The assembly line area was called 'The Long Shop' on account of its length and was fully operational by early 1853. The boiler was brought up from the foundry and put at the start of the line, and as it progressed through the building it would stop at various stages where new parts would be added. From the upper level, where other parts were made, the lighter parts would be lowered over a balcony and then fixed onto the machine on the ground level. When the machine reached the end of the shop, it would be completed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7742705, 113608, 356740, 27886, 6758231, 8943864, 175722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 83 ], [ 102, 109 ], [ 117, 131 ], [ 135, 142 ], [ 166, 187 ], [ 225, 238 ], [ 310, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the early 19th century, the development of machine tools such as the screw-cutting lathe, metal planer, and milling machine, and of toolpath control via jigs and fixtures, provided the prerequisites for the modern assembly line by making interchangeable parts a practical reality.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 191490, 13361616, 6086634, 38360943, 11786725, 5633026, 908518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 62 ], [ 76, 95 ], [ 97, 109 ], [ 115, 130 ], [ 160, 164 ], [ 169, 177 ], [ 245, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Steam-powered conveyor lifts began being used for loading and unloading ships some time in the last quarter of the 19th century. Hounshell (1984) shows a sketch of an electric-powered conveyor moving cans through a filling line in a canning factory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7907848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The meatpacking industry of Chicago is believed to be one of the first industrial assembly lines (or disassembly lines) to be utilized in the United States starting in 1867. Workers would stand at fixed stations and a pulley system would bring the meat to each worker and they would complete one task. Henry Ford and others have written about the influence of this slaughterhouse practice on the later developments at Ford Motor Company.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1138195, 6886, 55076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 28, 35 ], [ 365, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Domm, the implementation of mass production of an automobile via an assembly line may be credited to Ransom Olds, who used it to build the first mass-produced automobile, the Oldsmobile Curved Dash. Olds patented the assembly line concept, which he put to work in his Olds Motor Vehicle Company factory in 1901.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 489791, 858887, 23273, 52040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 125 ], [ 188, 210 ], [ 217, 225 ], [ 281, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At Ford Motor Company, the assembly line was introduced by William \"Pa\" Klann upon his return from visiting Swift & Company's slaughterhouse in Chicago and viewing what was referred to as the \"disassembly line\", where carcasses were butchered as they moved along a conveyor. The efficiency of one person removing the same piece over and over without himself moving caught his attention. He reported the idea to Peter E. Martin, soon to be head of Ford production, who was doubtful at the time but encouraged him to proceed. Others at Ford have claimed to have put the idea forth to Henry Ford, but Pa Klann's slaughterhouse revelation is well documented in the archives at the Henry Ford Museum and elsewhere, making him an important contributor to the modern automated assembly line concept. Ford was appreciative, having visited the highly automated 40-acre Sears mail order handling facility around 1906. At Ford, the process was an evolution by trial and error of a team consisting primarily of Peter E. Martin, the factory superintendent; Charles E. Sorensen, Martin's assistant; Clarence W. Avery; C. Harold Wills, draftsman and toolmaker; Charles Ebender; and József Galamb. Some of the groundwork for such development had recently been laid by the intelligent layout of machine tool placement that Walter Flanders had been doing at Ford up to 1908.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30433662, 1345148, 1713613, 13371, 277858, 1783942, 1713613, 1188556, 14630304, 13086856, 4357407, 191490, 841313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 21 ], [ 108, 140 ], [ 411, 426 ], [ 582, 592 ], [ 860, 865 ], [ 866, 876 ], [ 999, 1014 ], [ 1044, 1063 ], [ 1085, 1102 ], [ 1104, 1119 ], [ 1167, 1180 ], [ 1278, 1290 ], [ 1306, 1321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The moving assembly line was developed for the Ford Model T and began operation on October 7, 1913, at the Highland Park Ford Plant, and continued to evolve after that, using time and motion study. The assembly line, driven by conveyor belts, reduced production time for a Model T to just 93 minutes by dividing the process into 45 steps. Producing cars quicker than paint of the day could dry, it had an immense influence on the world.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 156891, 933603, 1682021, 51734, 156891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 59 ], [ 107, 131 ], [ 175, 196 ], [ 227, 241 ], [ 273, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1922, Ford (through his ghostwriter Crowther) said of his 1913 assembly line:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Charles E. Sorensen, in his 1956 memoir My Forty Years with Ford, presented a different version of development that was not so much about individual \"inventors\" as a gradual, logical development of industrial engineering:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1188556, 23535218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 198, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a result of these developments in method, Ford's cars came off the line in three-minute intervals or six feet per minute. This was much faster than previous methods, increasing production by eight to one (requiring 12.5 man-hours before, 1 hour 33 minutes after), while using less manpower. It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colours available before 1914, until fast-drying Duco lacquer was developed in 1926.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23776, 1513212, 1502825, 216140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 316, 321 ], [ 348, 359 ], [ 475, 479 ], [ 480, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The assembly line technique was an integral part of the diffusion of the automobile into American society. Decreased costs of production allowed the cost of the Model T to fall within the budget of the American middle class. In 1908, the price of a Model T was around $825, and by 1912 it had decreased to around $575. This price reduction is comparable to a reduction from $15,000 to $10,000 in dollar terms from the year 2000. In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ford's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury. The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called \"Fordism\", and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the take-off of the United States. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 515534, 387109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 167 ], [ 230, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide. Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany and Ford Japan 1925; in 1919, Vulcan (Southport, Lancashire) was the first native European manufacturer to adopt it. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke by not being able to compete; by 1930, 250 companies which did not had disappeared.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 163778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The massive demand for military hardware in World War II prompted assembly-line techniques in shipbuilding and aircraft production. Thousands of Liberty ships were built making extensive use of prefabrication, enabling ship assembly to be completed in weeks or even days. After having produced fewer than 3,000 planes for the United States Military in 1939, American aircraft manufacturers built over 300,000 planes in World War II. Vultee pioneered the use of the powered assembly line for aircraft manufacturing. Other companies quickly followed. As William S. Knudsen (having worked at Ford, GM and the National Defense Advisory Commission) observed, \"We won because we smothered the enemy in an avalanche of production, the like of which he had never seen, nor dreamed possible.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 198201, 2657495, 2239658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 158 ], [ 433, 439 ], [ 552, 570 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his 1922 autobiography, Henry Ford mentions several benefits of the assembly line including:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Improved working conditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Workers do not do any heavy lifting.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Improved working conditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " No stooping or bending over.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Improved working conditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " No special training was required.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Improved working conditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " There are jobs that almost anyone can do.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Improved working conditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Provided employment to immigrants.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Improved working conditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The gains in productivity allowed Ford to increase worker pay from $1.50 per day to $5.00 per day once employees reached three years of service on the assembly line. Ford continued on to reduce the hourly work week while continuously lowering the Model T price. These goals appear altruistic; however, it has been argued that they were implemented by Ford in order to reduce high employee turnover: when the assembly line was introduced in 1913, it was discovered that \"every time the company wanted to add 100 men to its factory personnel, it was necessary to hire 963\" in order to counteract the natural distaste the assembly line seems to have inspired.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Improved working conditions", "target_page_ids": [ 424899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sociological work has explored the social alienation and boredom that many workers feel because of the repetition of doing the same specialized task all day long.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Sociological problems", "target_page_ids": [ 18717981, 2943008, 235534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 35, 52 ], [ 57, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of capitalism's most famous critics, Karl Marx, expressed in his Entfremdung theory the belief that, in order to achieve job satisfaction, workers need to see themselves in the objects they have created, that products should be \"mirrors in which workers see their reflected essential nature\". Marx viewed labour as a chance for us to externalize facets of our personality. Marxists argue that specialization makes it very difficult for any worker to feel they may be contributing to the real needs of humanity. The repetitive nature of specialized tasks causes, they say, a feeling of disconnection between what a worker does all day, who they really are, and what they would ideally be able to contribute to society. Marx also argued that specialised jobs are insecure, since the worker is expendable as soon as costs rise and technology can replace more expensive human labour.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Sociological problems", "target_page_ids": [ 16743, 177102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 50 ], [ 69, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since workers have to stand in the same place for hours and repeat the same motion hundreds of times per day repetitive stress injuries are a possible pathology of occupational safety. Industrial noise also proved dangerous. When it was not too high, workers were often prohibited from talking. Charles Piaget, a skilled worker at the LIP factory, recalled that besides being prohibited from speaking, the semi-skilled workers had only 25 centimeters in which to move. Industrial ergonomics later tried to minimize physical trauma.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Sociological problems", "target_page_ids": [ 25756, 35319154, 763780, 1554529, 10793837, 36479878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 135 ], [ 164, 183 ], [ 185, 201 ], [ 313, 327 ], [ 335, 346 ], [ 480, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Modern Times (film)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 74962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Final Offer a documentary film about the 1984 UAW/CAW contract negotiations shows working life on the floor of the GM Oshawa Ontario Car Assembly Plant (Watch Online)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12415417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reconfigurable manufacturing system + Flexible manufacturing system (A Post-Fordism / Lean Manufacturing based improvement/evolution on the Assembly Line model)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2361092, 5167489, 440125, 218445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ], [ 38, 67 ], [ 71, 83 ], [ 86, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Homepage for assembly line optimization research", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Assembly line optimization problems", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " History of the assembly line and its widespread effects", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cars Assembly Line", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Producció en cadena", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Industrial_processes", "Mass_production", "Manufacturing_buildings_and_structures", "American_inventions", "Culture_of_Detroit", "History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_United_States", "Articles_containing_video_clips", "Types_of_production" ]

[ "conveyor system" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Adelaide ( ) is the capital city of South Australia, the state's largest city and the fifth-most populous city of Australia. \"Adelaide\" may refer to either Greater Adelaide (including the Adelaide Hills) or the Adelaide city centre. The demonym Adelaidean is used to denote the city and the residents of Adelaide. The Traditional Owners of the Adelaide region are the Kaurna people. The area of the city centre is called in the Kaurna language.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3326582, 26716, 4363493, 1476672, 7897553, 277226, 1007645, 605783, 2959891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 32 ], [ 36, 51 ], [ 86, 123 ], [ 188, 202 ], [ 211, 231 ], [ 237, 244 ], [ 318, 336 ], [ 368, 381 ], [ 429, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide is situated on the Adelaide Plains north of the Fleurieu Peninsula, between the Gulf St Vincent in the west and the Mount Lofty Ranges in the east. Its metropolitan area extends from the coast to the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges, and stretches from Gawler in the north to Sellicks Beach in the south.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1971670, 848828, 1251836, 1971261, 1476672, 1971261, 605886, 8564000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 43 ], [ 57, 75 ], [ 89, 104 ], [ 125, 143 ], [ 210, 219 ], [ 227, 245 ], [ 267, 273 ], [ 290, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Named in honour of Queen Adelaide, the city was founded in 1836 as the planned capital for the only freely-settled British province in Australia. Colonel William Light, one of Adelaide's founding fathers, designed the city centre and chose its location close to the River Torrens. Light's design, now listed as national heritage, set out the city centre in a grid layout known as \"Light's Vision\", interspaced by wide boulevards and large public squares, and entirely surrounded by parklands.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 208952, 194841, 303629, 799382, 5164452, 129332, 303629, 1814423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 33 ], [ 71, 86 ], [ 146, 167 ], [ 266, 279 ], [ 301, 328 ], [ 359, 370 ], [ 381, 395 ], [ 482, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early colonial Adelaide was shaped by the diversity and wealth of its free settlers, in contrast to the convict history of other Australian cities. Until the post-war era, it was Australia's third most populated city. It has been noted for its leading examples of religious freedom and progressive political reforms, and became known as the \"City of Churches\" due to its diversity of faiths. Today, Adelaide is known by its many festivals and sporting events, its food and wine, its coastline and hills, and its large defence and manufacturing sectors. Adelaide's quality of life has ranked consistently highly in various measures through the 21st century, at one stage being named Australia's most liveable city.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4008941, 14219204, 47789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 166 ], [ 464, 477 ], [ 564, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As South Australia's government and commercial centre, Adelaide is the site of many governmental and financial institutions. Most of these are concentrated in the city centre along the cultural boulevards of North Terrace and King William Street.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7897553, 1625812, 2008821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 174 ], [ 208, 221 ], [ 226, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before its proclamation as a British settlement in 1836, the area around Adelaide was inhabited by the Indigenous Kaurna people, one of many Aboriginal nations in South Australia. The city and parklands area was known as Tarntanya, Tandanya (now the short name of Tandanya National Aboriginal Cultural Institute), Tarndanya, or Tarndanyangga (now the dual name for Victoria Square) in the Kaurna language. The surrounding area was an open grassy plain with patches of trees and shrub which had been managed by hundreds of generations. Kaurna country encompassed the plains which stretched north and south of Tarntanya as well as the wooded foothills of the Mt Lofty Ranges. The River Torrens was known as the Karrawirra Pari (Red Gum forest river). About 300 Kaurna populated the Adelaide area, and were referred to by the settlers as the Cowandilla. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 605783, 2912594, 1814423, 14777878, 1196174, 2959891, 1971261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 120 ], [ 141, 151 ], [ 193, 202 ], [ 264, 311 ], [ 328, 341 ], [ 389, 404 ], [ 657, 672 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were more than 20 local clans across the plain who lived semi-nomadic lives, with extensive mound settlements where huts were built repeatedly over centuries and a complex social structure including a class of sorcerers separated from regular society.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2417700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Within a few decades of European settlement of South Australia, Kaurna culture was almost completely destroyed; the last speaker of Kaurna language died in 1929. Extensive documentation by early missionaries and other researchers has enabled a modern revival of both, which has included a commitment by local and state governments to rename or include Kaurna names for many local places.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2959891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "South Australia was officially established as a British Province in England in February 1836. The first governor ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26716, 315712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 104, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "proclaimed the commencement of colonial government in South Australia on 28 December 1836, near The Old Gum Tree in what is now the suburb of Glenelg North. The event is commemorated in South Australia as Proclamation Day. The site of the colony's capital was surveyed and laid out by Colonel William Light, the first Surveyor-General of South Australia, with his own original, unique, topographically sensitive design.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1046178, 7056711, 534671, 303629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 112 ], [ 142, 155 ], [ 205, 221 ], [ 293, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Claims of the design being by the architect George Strickland Kingston have been thoroughly debunked. The city was named after Queen Adelaide.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1990022, 208952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 70 ], [ 127, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide was established as a planned colony of free immigrants, promising civil liberties and freedom from religious persecution, based upon the ideas of Edward Gibbon Wakefield. Wakefield had read accounts of Australian settlement while in prison in London for attempting to abduct an heiress, and realised that the eastern colonies suffered from a lack of available labour, due to the practice of giving land grants to all arrivals. Wakefield's idea was for the Government to survey and sell the land at a rate that would maintain land values high enough to be unaffordable for labourers and journeymen. Funds raised from the sale of land were to be used to bring out working-class emigrants, who would have to work hard for the monied settlers to ever afford their own land. As a result of this policy, Adelaide does not share the convict settlement history of other Australian cities like Sydney, Brisbane and Hobart.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 317365, 3808294, 192093, 13699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 178 ], [ 831, 861 ], [ 902, 910 ], [ 915, 921 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As it was believed that in a colony of free settlers there would be little crime, no provision was made for a gaol in Colonel Light's 1837 plan. But by mid-1837 the South Australian Register was warning of escaped convicts from New South Wales and tenders for a temporary gaol were sought. Following a burglary, a murder, and two attempted murders in Adelaide during March 1838, Governor Hindmarsh created the South Australian Police Force (now the South Australia Police) in April 1838 under 21-year-old Henry Inman. The first sheriff, Samuel Smart, was wounded during a robbery, and on 2 May 1838 one of the offenders, Michael Magee, became the first person to be hanged in South Australia. William Baker Ashton was appointed governor of the temporary gaol in 1839, and in 1840 George Strickland Kingston was commissioned to design Adelaide's new gaol. Construction of Adelaide Gaol commenced in 1841.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19008450, 8002506, 1128030, 27278757, 1221199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 114 ], [ 165, 190 ], [ 449, 471 ], [ 505, 516 ], [ 871, 884 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide's early history was marked by economic uncertainty and questionable leadership. The first governor of South Australia, John Hindmarsh, clashed frequently with others, in particular the Resident Commissioner, James Hurtle Fisher. The rural area surrounding Adelaide was surveyed by Light in preparation to sell a total of over of land. Adelaide's early economy started to get on its feet in 1838 with the arrival of livestock from Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania. Wool production provided an early basis for the South Australian economy. By 1860, wheat farms had been established from Encounter Bay in the south to Clare in the north.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1904813, 8043468, 4689460, 21654, 29944, 1593666, 4179227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 142 ], [ 217, 236 ], [ 440, 448 ], [ 450, 465 ], [ 470, 478 ], [ 601, 614 ], [ 631, 636 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George Gawler took over from Hindmarsh in late 1838 and, despite being under orders from the Select Committee on South Australia in Britain not to undertake any public works, promptly oversaw construction of a governor's house, the Adelaide Gaol, police barracks, a hospital, a customs house and a wharf at Port Adelaide. Gawler was recalled and replaced by George Edward Grey in 1841. Grey slashed public expenditure against heavy opposition, although its impact was negligible at this point: silver was discovered in Glen Osmond that year, agriculture was well underway, and other mines sprung up all over the state, aiding Adelaide's commercial development. The city exported meat, wool, wine, fruit and wheat by the time Grey left in 1845, contrasting with a low point in 1842 when one-third of Adelaide houses were abandoned.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1958828, 1221199, 1963141, 272495, 3024290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 232, 245 ], [ 307, 320 ], [ 358, 376 ], [ 519, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trade links with the rest of the Australian states were established after the Murray River was successfully navigated in 1853 by Francis Cadell, an Adelaide resident. South Australia became a self-governing colony in 1856 with the ratification of a new constitution by the British parliament. Secret ballots were introduced, and a bicameral parliament was elected on 9 March 1857, by which time 109,917 people lived in the province.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19811, 1477026, 510828, 479210, 204299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 90 ], [ 129, 143 ], [ 192, 213 ], [ 293, 306 ], [ 331, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1860, the Thorndon Park reservoir was opened, finally providing an alternative water source to the now turbid River Torrens. Gas street lighting was implemented in 1867, the University of Adelaide was founded in 1874, the South Australian Art Gallery opened in 1881 and the Happy Valley Reservoir opened in 1896. In the 1890s Australia was affected by a severe economic depression, ending a hectic era of land booms and tumultuous expansionism. Financial institutions in Melbourne and banks in Sydney closed. The national fertility rate fell and immigration was reduced to a trickle. The value of South Australia's exports nearly halved. Drought and poor harvests from 1884 compounded the problems, with some families leaving for Western Australia. Adelaide was not as badly hit as the larger gold-rush cities of Sydney and Melbourne, and silver and lead discoveries at Broken Hill provided some relief. Only one year of deficit was recorded, but the price paid was retrenchments and lean public spending. Wine and copper were the only industries not to suffer a downturn.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 51267972, 206748, 3926684, 2739209, 150204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 26 ], [ 177, 199 ], [ 225, 253 ], [ 277, 299 ], [ 873, 884 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide was Australia's third largest city for most of the 20th century. Electric street lighting was introduced in 1900 and electric trams were transporting passengers in 1909. 28,000 men were sent to fight in World War I. Historian F. W. Crowley examined the reports of visitors in the early 20th century, noting that \"many visitors to Adelaide admired the foresighted planning of its founders\", as well as pondering the riches of the young city. Adelaide enjoyed a postwar boom, entering a time of relative prosperity. Its population grew, and it became the third most populous metropolitan area in the country, after Sydney and Melbourne. Its prosperity was short-lived, with the return of droughts and the Great Depression of the 1930s. It later returned to fortune under strong government leadership. Secondary industries helped reduce the state's dependence on primary industries. World War II brought industrial stimulus and diversification to Adelaide under the Playford Government, which advocated Adelaide as a safe place for manufacturing due to its less vulnerable location. Shipbuilding was expanded at the nearby port of Whyalla.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 303629, 19283335, 14553, 14552, 8096037, 264545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 360, 380 ], [ 712, 728 ], [ 808, 828 ], [ 869, 887 ], [ 972, 980 ], [ 1137, 1144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The South Australian Government in this period built on former wartime manufacturing industries but neglected cultural facilities which meant South Australia's economy lagged behind. International manufacturers like General Motors Holden and Chrysler made use of these factories around the Adelaide area in suburbs like Elizabeth, completing its transformation from an agricultural service centre to a 20th-century motor city. The Mannum–Adelaide pipeline brought River Murray water to Adelaide in 1955 and an airport opened at West Beach in 1955. Flinders University and the Flinders Medical Centre were established in the 1960s at Bedford Park, south of the city. Today, Flinders Medical Centre is one of the largest teaching hospitals in South Australia. In the post-war years around the early 1960s, Adelaide was surpassed by Brisbane as Australia's third largest city.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13625, 4520381, 1426867, 57848091, 19811, 140465, 2533351, 172537, 3872279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 237 ], [ 242, 250 ], [ 320, 329 ], [ 431, 455 ], [ 464, 476 ], [ 507, 517 ], [ 528, 538 ], [ 548, 567 ], [ 576, 599 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dunstan Governments of the 1970s saw something of an Adelaide 'cultural revival', establishing a wide array of social reforms. The city became noted for its progressivism as South Australia became the first Australian state or territory to decriminalise homosexuality between consenting adults in 1975. It also became a centre for the arts, building upon the biennial \"Adelaide Festival of Arts\" that commenced in 1960. Adelaide hosted the Formula One Australian Grand Prix between 1985 and 1995 on a street circuit in the city's east parklands; it moved to Melbourne in 1996. The State Bank collapsed in 1991 during an economic recession; the effects lasted until 2004, when Standard & Poor's reinstated South Australia's AAA credit rating. From 1999 until 2020, the Adelaide 500 Supercars race has made use of sections of the former Formula One circuit. Adelaide's tallest building, completed in 2020, is called the Adelaidean and is located at 11 Frome Street.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 543848, 24932527, 486351, 10854, 291626, 1596262, 164386, 21231568, 63177190, 2029911, 54162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 244, 271 ], [ 373, 398 ], [ 444, 455 ], [ 456, 477 ], [ 585, 595 ], [ 680, 697 ], [ 751, 755 ], [ 762, 766 ], [ 772, 784 ], [ 785, 794 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early years of the 21st century, a significant increase in the state government's spending on Adelaide's infrastructure occurred. The Rann government invested A$535million in a major upgrade of the Adelaide Oval to enable Australian Football League to be played in the city centre and more than A$2 billion to build a new Royal Adelaide Hospital on land adjacent to the Adelaide Railway Station. The Glenelg tramline was extended through the city to Hindmarsh down to East Terrace and the suburban railway line extended south to Seaford.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 335453, 4732785, 47182594, 1367435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 156 ], [ 229, 255 ], [ 306, 313 ], [ 329, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following a period of stagnation in the 1990s and 2000s, Adelaide began several major developments and redevelopments. The Adelaide Convention Centre was redeveloped and expanded at a cost of A$350million beginning in 2012. Three historic buildings were adapted for modern use: the Torrens Building in Victoria Square as the Adelaide campus for Carnegie Mellon University, University College London, and Torrens University; the Stock Exchange building as the Science Exchange of the Royal Institution Australia; and the Glenside Psychiatric Hospital as the Adelaide Studios of the SA Film Corporation. The government also invested more than A$2billion to build a desalination plant, powered by renewable energy, as an 'insurance policy' against droughts affecting Adelaide's water supply. The Adelaide Festival, Fringe, and Womadelaide became annual events.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 46507982, 11449159, 156787, 684928, 486351, 486345, 2019695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 298 ], [ 581, 600 ], [ 663, 675 ], [ 775, 787 ], [ 793, 810 ], [ 812, 818 ], [ 824, 835 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The COVID-19 Pandemic had an impact the economy and resident life of the city. Comparing to other major cities in Australia, Adelaide is less affected. The city only went to fully lockdown twice since the beginning of the pandemic, once in November 2020 (4 days) and another once in July 2021 (7 days), despite being the nearest city to Melbourne (262 days of lockdown) with 1 million or more population.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 67974926, 67974710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 348, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide is north of the Fleurieu Peninsula, on the Adelaide Plains between the Gulf St Vincent and the low-lying Mount Lofty Ranges. The city stretches from the coast to the foothills, and from Gawler at its northern extent to Sellicks Beach in the south. According to the Regional Development Australia, an Australian government planning initiative, the \"Adelaide Metropolitan Region\" has a total land area of , while a more expansive definition by the Australian Bureau of Statistics defines a \"Greater Adelaide\" statistical area totalling . The city sits at an average elevation of above sea level. Mount Lofty, east of the Adelaide metropolitan region in the Adelaide Hills at an elevation of , is the tallest point of the city and in the state south of Burra.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 605886, 8564000, 1939117, 1528298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 203 ], [ 230, 244 ], [ 606, 617 ], [ 762, 767 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Much of Adelaide was bushland before British settlement, with some variation – sandhills, swamps and marshlands were prevalent around the coast. The loss of the sandhills to urban development had a particularly destructive effect on the coastline due to erosion. Where practical, the government has implemented programs to rebuild and vegetate sandhills at several of Adelaide's beachside suburbs. Much of the original vegetation has been cleared with what is left to be found in reserves such as the Cleland National Park and Belair National Park. A number of creeks and rivers flow through the Adelaide region. The largest are the Torrens and Onkaparinga catchments. Adelaide relies on its many reservoirs for water supply with the Happy Valley Reservoir supplying around 40% and the much larger Mount Bold Reservoir 10% of Adelaide's domestic requirements respectively.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 2000521, 101765, 101786, 2739209, 2738940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 501, 522 ], [ 527, 547 ], [ 645, 656 ], [ 734, 756 ], [ 798, 818 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide and its surrounding area is one of the most seismically active regions in Australia. On 1 March 1954 at 3:40 am Adelaide experienced its largest recorded earthquake to date, with the epicentre 12km from the city centre at Darlington, and a reported magnitude of 5.6. There have been smaller earthquakes in 2010, 2011, 2014, 2017, and 2018.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 3222746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The uplands of the Adelaide Hills, part of the southern Mount Lofty Ranges to the east of Adelaide, are defined on their western side by a number of arcuate faults (the Para, Eden, Clarendon and Willunga Faults), and consist of rocks such as siltstone, dolomite and quartzite, dating from the Neoproterozoic to the middle Cambrian, laid down in the Adelaide Rift Complex, the oldest part of the Adelaide Superbasin.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 1476672, 1971261, 496360, 1020491, 450636, 21938, 5367, 4800463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 33 ], [ 56, 74 ], [ 242, 251 ], [ 253, 261 ], [ 266, 275 ], [ 293, 307 ], [ 322, 330 ], [ 395, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of the Adelaide metropolitan area lies in the downthrown St Vincent Basin and its embayments, including the Adelaide Plains Sub-basin, and the Golden Grove, Noarlunga and Willunga Embayments. These basins contain deposits of Tertiary marine and non-marine sands and limestones, which form important aquifers. These deposits are overlain by Quaternary alluvial fans and piedmont slope deposits, derived from erosion of the uplands, consisting of sands, clays and gravels, interfingering to the west with transgressive Pleistocene to Holocene marine sands and coastal sediments of the shoreline of Gulf St Vincent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 1971670, 30253, 25198, 246018, 3308878, 2811075, 23310, 13471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 128 ], [ 230, 238 ], [ 345, 355 ], [ 356, 368 ], [ 374, 382 ], [ 508, 521 ], [ 522, 533 ], [ 537, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide is a planned city, designed by the first Surveyor-General of South Australia, Colonel William Light. His plan, sometimes referred to as \"Light's Vision\" (also the name of a statue of him on Montefiore Hill), arranged Adelaide in a grid, with five squares in the Adelaide city centre and a ring of parks, known as the Adelaide Parklands, surrounding it. Light's selection of the location for the city was initially unpopular with the early settlers, as well as South Australia's first governor, John Hindmarsh, due to its distance from the harbour at Port Adelaide, and the lack of fresh water there. Light successfully persisted with his choice of location against this initial opposition. Recent evidence suggests that Light worked closely with George Kingston as well as a team of men to set out Adelaide, using various templates for city plans going back to Ancient Greece, including Italian Renaissance designs and the similar layouts of the American cities Philadelphia and Savannah–which, like Adelaide, follow the same layout of a central city square, four complementing city squares surrounding it and a parklands area that surrounds the city centre.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 303629, 4386115, 129332, 7897553, 1814423, 66540, 322915, 50585, 84493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 108 ], [ 199, 214 ], [ 240, 244 ], [ 271, 291 ], [ 326, 344 ], [ 870, 884 ], [ 896, 915 ], [ 971, 983 ], [ 988, 996 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The benefits of Light's design are numerous: Adelaide has had wide multi-lane roads from its beginning, an easily navigable cardinal direction grid layout and an expansive green ring around the city centre. There are two sets of ring roads in Adelaide that have resulted from the original design. The inner ring route (A21) borders the parklands, and the outer route (A3/A13/A16/A17) completely bypasses the inner city via (in clockwise order) Grand Junction Road, Hampstead Road, Ascot Avenue, Portrush Road, Cross Road and South Road.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 200085, 51922, 22157187, 22157187, 4728857, 3058447, 4876406, 3061733, 4876406, 3061733, 4728857, 3058447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 142 ], [ 229, 238 ], [ 301, 317 ], [ 319, 322 ], [ 368, 370 ], [ 371, 374 ], [ 375, 378 ], [ 379, 382 ], [ 444, 463 ], [ 495, 508 ], [ 510, 520 ], [ 525, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Suburban expansion has to some extent outgrown Light's original plan. Numerous former outlying villages and \"country towns\", as well as the satellite city of Elizabeth, have been enveloped by its suburban sprawl. Expanding developments in the Adelaide Hills region led to the construction of the South Eastern Freeway to cope with growth, which has subsequently led to new developments and further improvements to that transport corridor. Similarly, the booming development in Adelaide's South led to the construction of the Southern Expressway.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 1426867, 655311, 1107632, 2084180, 1144321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 167 ], [ 196, 211 ], [ 296, 317 ], [ 488, 493 ], [ 525, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New roads are not the only transport infrastructure developed to cope with the urban growth. The O-Bahn Busway is an example of a unique solution to Tea Tree Gully's transport woes in the 1980s. The development of the nearby suburb of Golden Grove in the late 1980s is an example of well-thought-out urban planning.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 1143433, 509669, 30862768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 110 ], [ 149, 165 ], [ 235, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1960s, a Metropolitan Adelaide Transport Study Plan was proposed to cater for the future growth of the city. The plan involved the construction of freeways, expressways and the upgrade of certain aspects of the public transport system. The then premier Steele Hall approved many parts of the plan and the government went as far as purchasing land for the project. The later Labor government elected under Don Dunstan shelved the plan, but allowed the purchased land to remain vacant, should the future need for freeways arise. In 1980, the Liberal party won government and premier David Tonkin committed his government to selling off the land acquired for the MATS plan, ensuring that even when needs changed, the construction of most MATS-proposed freeways would be impractical. Some parts of this land have been used for transport, (e.g. the O-Bahn Busway and Southern Expressway), while most has been progressively subdivided for residential use.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 4116448, 2411002, 1117087, 1495, 543848, 18453, 737673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 53 ], [ 164, 175 ], [ 260, 271 ], [ 381, 386 ], [ 412, 423 ], [ 547, 560 ], [ 588, 600 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2008, the SA Government announced plans for a network of transport-oriented developments across the Adelaide metropolitan area and purchased a 10 hectare industrial site at Bowden for $52.5 million as the first of these developments. The site covers 102,478 square metres, or about 10 hectares, and is bounded by Park Terrace to the south, the Adelaide to Outer Harbour railway line to the west, Drayton Street to the north and Sixth and Seventh Streets to the east.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 1211423, 1118718, 20288128, 5932639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 26 ], [ 60, 90 ], [ 146, 172 ], [ 176, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historically, Adelaide's suburban residential areas have been characterised by single-storey detached houses built on blocks. A relative lack of suitable, locally-available timber for construction purposes led to the early development of a brick-making industry, as well as the use of stone, for houses and other buildings. By 1891, 68% of houses were built of stone, 15% of timber, and 10% of brick, with brick also being widely used in stone houses for quoins, door and window surrounds, and chimneys and fireplaces.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is a wide variety in the styles of these houses. Until the 1960s, most of the more substantial houses were built of red brick, though many front walls were of ornamental stone. Then cream bricks became fashionable, and in the 1970s, deep red and brown bricks became popular. Until the 1970s, roofs tended to be clad with (painted) corrugated iron or tiles (cement or clay, usually red \"terracotta\"). Since then, Colorbond corrugated steel has dominated. Most roofs are pitched; flat roofs are not common. Up to the 1970s, most houses were of \"double brick\" construction on concrete footings, with timber floors laid on joists supported by \"dwarf walls\". Later houses have mainly been of \"brick veneer\" construction – structural timber or, more recently, lightweight steel frame on a concrete slab foundation, lined with Gyprock, and with an outer skin of brickwork, to cope with Adelaide's reactive soils, particularly Keswick Clay, black earth and some red-brown earth soils. The use of precast concrete panels for floor and wall construction has also increased. In addition to this, a significant factor in Adelaide's suburban history is the role of the South Australian Housing Trust.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 875035, 234290, 12219883, 2071443, 2276409, 2076709, 693334, 331784, 18309403, 3804759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 337, 352 ], [ 418, 427 ], [ 694, 706 ], [ 734, 740 ], [ 760, 777 ], [ 789, 802 ], [ 803, 813 ], [ 826, 833 ], [ 896, 910 ], [ 1162, 1192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa). The city has hot, dry summers and cool winters with moderate rainfall. Most precipitation falls in the winter months, leading to the suggestion that the climate be classified as a \"cold monsoon\". Rainfall is unreliable, light and infrequent throughout summer, although heavy falls can occur. In contrast, the winter has fairly reliable rainfall with June being the wettest month of the year, averaging around 80mm. Frosts are occasional, with the most notable occurrences in 1908 and 1982. Hail is also common in winter. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 349628, 484254, 286260, 11763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 36 ], [ 38, 67 ], [ 151, 164 ], [ 490, 495 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide is a windy city with significant wind chill in winter, which makes the temperature seem colder than it actually is. Snowfall in the metropolitan area is extremely uncommon, although light and sporadic falls in the nearby hills and at Mount Lofty occur during winter. Dewpoints in the summer typically range from . There are usually several days in summer where the temperature reaches or above; the frequency of these temperatures has been increasing in recent years. Temperature extremes range from -0.4°C (31.4°F), 8 June 1982 to 47.7°C (117.9°F), 24 January 2019. The city features 90.6 clear days annually.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 154910, 6003086, 1939117, 3149218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 52 ], [ 92, 123 ], [ 243, 254 ], [ 450, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The average sea temperature ranges from in August to in February.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide was consistently ranked in the world's 10 most liveable cities through the 2010s by The Economist Intelligence Unit. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 48461477, 15303116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 71 ], [ 93, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2021, The Economist ranked Adelaide the third most liveable city in the world, behind Auckland and Osaka.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 18660332, 52230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 102 ], [ 107, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2021, Adelaide was named the world's second National Park City, after the state government had lobbied for this title.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It was ranked the most liveable city in Australia by the Property Council of Australia, based on surveys of residents’ views of their own city, between 2010 and 2013, dropping to second place in 2014.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 1664254, 62746527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ], [ 57, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide, as the capital of South Australia, is the seat of the Government of South Australia as well as the bicameral Parliament of South Australia, which consists of the lower house known as the House of Assembly and the upper house known as the Legislative Council. General elections are held every four years, the last being the 2022 South Australian state election. As Adelaide is South Australia's capital and most populous city, the State Government co-operates extensively with the City of Adelaide. In 2006, the Ministry for the City of Adelaide was created to facilitate the State Government's collaboration with the Adelaide City Council and the Lord Mayor to improve Adelaide's image. The State Parliament's Capital City Committee is also involved in the governance of the City of Adelaide, being primarily concerned with the planning of Adelaide's urban development and growth.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governance", "target_page_ids": [ 1211423, 204299, 1262565, 550187, 579453, 538644, 579450, 5733434, 56944176, 1211423, 3841955, 3841955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 93 ], [ 109, 118 ], [ 119, 148 ], [ 172, 183 ], [ 197, 214 ], [ 223, 234 ], [ 248, 267 ], [ 269, 286 ], [ 333, 369 ], [ 440, 456 ], [ 490, 506 ], [ 627, 648 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reflecting South Australia's status as Australia's most centralised state, Adelaide elects a substantial majority of the South Australian House of Assembly. Of the 47 seats in the chamber, 34 seats (three-quarters of the legislature) are based in Adelaide, and two rural seats include Adelaide suburbs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Adelaide metropolitan area is divided between nineteen local government areas. At its centre, the City of Adelaide administers the Adelaide city centre, North Adelaide, and the surrounding Adelaide Parklands. It is the oldest municipal authority in Australia and was established in 1840, when Adelaide and Australia's first mayor, James Hurtle Fisher, was elected. From 1919 onwards, the city has had a Lord Mayor, the current being Lord Mayor The Right Honourable Sandy Verschoor.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Governance", "target_page_ids": [ 140288, 3841955, 7897553, 30862891, 1814423, 8043468, 1621572, 59016748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 81 ], [ 102, 118 ], [ 135, 155 ], [ 157, 171 ], [ 193, 211 ], [ 335, 354 ], [ 407, 417 ], [ 469, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide's inhabitants are known as Adelaideans.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Compared with Australia's other state capitals, Adelaide is growing at a rate similar to Sydney, Canberra, and Hobart (see List of cities in Australia by population). In 2020, it had a metropolitan population (including suburbs) of more than 1,376,601, making it Australia's fifth-largest city. Some 77% of the population of South Australia are residents of the Adelaide metropolitan area, making South Australia one of the most centralised states.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [ 4363493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Major areas of population growth in recent years have been in outer suburbs such as Mawson Lakes and Golden Grove. Adelaide's inhabitants occupy 366,912 houses, 57,695 semi-detached, row terrace or town houses and 49,413 flats, units or apartments.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [ 2670534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "About one sixth (17.1%) of the population had university qualifications. The number of Adelaideans with vocational qualifications (such as tradespersons) fell from 62.1% of the labour force in the 1991 census to 52.4% in the 2001 census.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide is ageing more rapidly than other Australian capital cities. More than a quarter (27.5%) of Adelaide's population is aged 55years or older, in comparison to the national average of 25.6%. Adelaide has the lowest number of children (under-15-year-olds), who comprised 17.7% of the population, compared to the national average of 19.3%.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Overseas-born Adelaideans composed 31.3% of the total population at the 2021 census. The five largest groups of overseas-born were from England (5.7%), India (3.1%), Mainland China (1.8%), Vietnam (1.2%) and Italy (1.1%).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [ 55079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Suburbs including Newton, Payneham and Campbelltown in the east and Torrensville, West Lakes and Fulham to the west, have large Greek and Italian communities. The Italian consulate is located in the eastern suburb of Payneham. Large Vietnamese populations are settled in the north-western suburbs of Woodville, Kilkenny, Pennington, Mansfield Park and Athol Park and also Parafield Gardens and Pooraka in Adelaide's north. Migrants from India and Sri Lanka have settled into inner suburban areas of Adelaide including the inner northern suburbs of Blair Athol, Kilburn and Enfield and the inner southern suburbs of Plympton, Park Holme and Kurralta Park.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [ 4138808, 3059739, 4837919, 3003593, 4964833, 7056640, 1957829, 3141986, 3059739, 3002350, 2950843, 8915895, 3620744, 7041742, 3613775, 10214382, 22759494, 14903617, 3348564, 2692787, 2836243, 2830058, 3207050, 3222431, 4809237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ], [ 26, 34 ], [ 39, 51 ], [ 68, 80 ], [ 82, 92 ], [ 97, 103 ], [ 128, 133 ], [ 138, 145 ], [ 217, 225 ], [ 233, 243 ], [ 300, 309 ], [ 311, 319 ], [ 321, 331 ], [ 333, 347 ], [ 352, 362 ], [ 372, 389 ], [ 394, 401 ], [ 437, 442 ], [ 447, 456 ], [ 548, 559 ], [ 561, 568 ], [ 573, 580 ], [ 615, 623 ], [ 625, 635 ], [ 640, 653 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Suburbs such as Para Hills, Salisbury, Ingle Farm and Blair Athol in the north and Findon, West Croydon and Seaton and other Western suburbs have sizeable Afghan communities. Chinese migrants favour settling in the eastern and north eastern suburbs including Kensington Gardens, Greenacres, Modbury and Golden Grove. Mawson Lakes has a large international student population, due to its proximity to the University of South Australia campus.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [ 2111921, 26419320, 5045352, 2692787, 12476797, 3017946, 10150119, 17727692, 1858942, 3024376, 13107826, 5580894, 30862768, 2670534, 335415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 26 ], [ 28, 37 ], [ 39, 49 ], [ 54, 65 ], [ 83, 89 ], [ 91, 103 ], [ 108, 114 ], [ 155, 161 ], [ 175, 191 ], [ 259, 277 ], [ 279, 289 ], [ 291, 298 ], [ 303, 315 ], [ 317, 329 ], [ 404, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 2021 census, 1.7% of Adelaide's population identified as being Indigenous — Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [ 12598742, 2912594, 595809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 80 ], [ 83, 105 ], [ 110, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 2016 census, 75.4% of the population spoke English at home. The other languages most commonly spoken at home were Italian (2.1%), Standard Mandarin (2.1%), Greek (1.7%) Vietnamese (1.4%), and Cantonese (0.7%).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [ 1897, 24657, 1092292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 57 ], [ 137, 154 ], [ 199, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adelaide was founded on a vision of religious tolerance that attracted a wide variety of religious practitioners. This led to it being known as The City of Churches. But approximately 28% of the population expressed no religious affiliation in the 2011 Census, compared with the national average of 22.3%, making Adelaide one of Australia's least religious cities. Over half of the population of Adelaide identifies as Christian, with the largest denominations being Catholic (21.3%), Anglican (12.6%), Uniting Church (7.6%) and Eastern Orthodox (3.5%).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [ 615316, 556494, 253813, 10186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 468, 476 ], [ 486, 494 ], [ 504, 518 ], [ 530, 546 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Jewish community of the city dates back to 1840. Eight years later, 58 Jews lived in the city. A synagogue was built in 1871, when 435 Jews lived in the city. Many took part in the city councils, such as Judah Moss Solomon (1852–66) and others after him. Three Jews have been elected to the position of city mayor. In 1968, the Jewish population of Adelaide numbered about 1,200; in 2001, according to the Australian census, 979 persons declared themselves to be Jewish by religion. In 2011, over 1,000 Jews were living in the city, operating an Orthodox and a Reform school, in addition to a virtual Jewish museum.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [ 22518, 26036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 550, 558 ], [ 565, 571 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"Afghan\" community in Australia first became established in the 1860s when camels and their Pathan, Punjabi, Baluchi and Sindhi handlers began to be used to open up settlement in the continent's arid interior. Until eventually superseded by the advent of the railways and motor vehicles, camels played an invaluable economic and social role in transporting heavy loads of goods to and from isolated settlements and mines. This is acknowledged by the name of The Ghan, the passenger train operating between Adelaide, Alice Springs, and Darwin. The Central Adelaide Mosque is regarded as Australia's oldest permanent mosque; an earlier mosque at Marree in northern South Australia, dating from 1861 to 1862 and subsequently abandoned or demolished, has now been rebuilt.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demography", "target_page_ids": [ 15589320, 434308, 18522598, 36388158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 11 ], [ 462, 470 ], [ 551, 574 ], [ 638, 654 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "South Australia's largest employment sectors are health care and social assistance, surpassing manufacturing in SA as the largest employer since 2006–07. In 2009–10, manufacturing in SA had average annual employment of 83,700 persons compared with 103,300 for health care and social assistance. Health care and social assistance represented nearly 13% of the state average annual employment. The Adelaide Hills wine region is an iconic and viable economic region for both the state and country in terms of wine production and sale. The 2014 vintage is reported as consisting of red grapes crushed valued at A$8,196,142 and white grapes crushed valued at $14,777,631.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 44353744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 396, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The retail trade is the second largest employer in SA (2009–10), with 91,900 jobs, and 12 per cent of the state workforce.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Manufacturing, defence technology, high-tech electronic systems and research, commodity export and corresponding service industries all play a role in the SA economy. Almost half of all cars produced in Australia were made in Adelaide at the General Motors Holden plant in Elizabeth. The site ceased operating in November 2017.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 13625, 1426867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 242, 263 ], [ 273, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The collapse of the State Bank in 1992 resulted in large levels of state public debt (as much as A$4billion). The collapse meant that successive governments enacted lean budgets, cutting spending, which was a setback to the further economic development of the city and state. The debt has more recently been reduced with the State Government once again receiving a AAA+ Credit Rating.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 1596262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The global media conglomerate News Corporation was founded in, and until 2004 incorporated in, Adelaide and it is still considered its \"spiritual\" home by its founder, Rupert Murdoch. Australia's largest oil company, Santos, prominent South Australian brewery, Coopers, and national retailer Harris Scarfe also call Adelaide their home.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 113422, 26091, 1140903, 760867, 3299049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 46 ], [ 168, 182 ], [ 217, 223 ], [ 261, 268 ], [ 292, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, at which time more than 80 organisations employed 800 people in the space sector in South Australia, Adelaide was chosen for the headquarters of a new Australian Space Agency. The agency opened its in 2020. It is working to triple the size of the Australian space industry and create 20,000 new jobs by 2030.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 57412860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide is home to a large proportion of Australia's defence industries, which contribute over A$1billion to South Australia's Gross State Product. The principal government military research institution, the Defence Science and Technology Organisation, and other defence technology organisations such as BAE Systems Australia and Lockheed Martin Australia, are north of Salisbury and west of Elizabeth in an area now called \"Edinburgh Parks\", adjacent to RAAF Base Edinburgh.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 1167766, 6020583, 3826804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 252 ], [ 305, 326 ], [ 456, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Others, such as Saab Systems and Raytheon, are in or near Technology Park. ASC Pty Ltd, is based in the industrial suburb of Osborne and is also a part of Technology Park. South Australia was charged with constructing Australia's s and more recently the A$6billion contract to construct the Royal Australian Navy's new air-warfare destroyers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 2670534, 3826841, 1647176, 2670534, 26327, 2155044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 73 ], [ 75, 86 ], [ 125, 132 ], [ 155, 170 ], [ 291, 312 ], [ 319, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", Greater Adelaide had an unemployment rate of 7.4% with a youth unemployment rate of 15%.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The median weekly individual income for people aged 15years and over was $447 per week in 2006, compared with $466 nationally. The median family income was $1,137 per week, compared with $1,171 nationally. Adelaide's housing and living costs are substantially lower than that of other Australian cities, with housing being notably cheaper. The median Adelaide house price is half that of Sydney and two-thirds that of Melbourne. The three-month trend unemployment rate to March 2007 was 6.2%. The Northern suburbs' unemployment rate is disproportionately higher than the other regions of Adelaide at 8.3%, while the East and South are lower than the Adelaide average at 4.9% and 5.0% respectively.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Over the decade March 2001 – March 2010, Metropolitan Adelaide median house prices approximately tripled. (approx. 285% – approx. 11%p.a. compounding)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the five years March 2007 – March 2012, prices increased by approx. 27% – approx. 5%p.a. compounding. March 2012 – March 2017 saw a further increase of 19% – approx. 3.5%p.a. compounding.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In summary:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Each quarter, The Alternative and Direct Investment Securities Association (ADISA) publishes a list of median house sale prices by suburb and Local Government Area. (Previously, this was done by REISA) Due to the small sizes of many of Adelaide's suburbs, the low volumes of sales in these suburbs, and (over time) the huge variations in the numbers of sales in a suburb in a quarter, statistical analysis of \"the most expensive suburb\" is unreliable; the suburbs appearing in the \"top 10 most expensive suburbs this quarter\" list is constantly varying. Quarterly Reports for the last two years can be found on the REISA website.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 761173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Education forms an increasingly important part of the city's economy, with the South Australian Government and educational institutions attempting to position Adelaide as \"Australia's education hub\" and marketing it as a \"Learning City.\" The number of international students studying in Adelaide has increased rapidly in recent years to 30,726 in 2015, of which 1,824 were secondary school students. In addition to the city's existing institutions, foreign institutions have been attracted to set up campuses to increase its attractiveness as an education hub. Adelaide is the birthplace of three Nobel laureates, more than any other Australian city: physicist William Lawrence Bragg and pathologists Howard Florey and Robin Warren, all of whom completed secondary and tertiary education at St Peter's College and the University of Adelaide.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education and research", "target_page_ids": [ 1211423, 30418159, 303544, 40494, 1012234, 2120259, 206748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 106 ], [ 614, 649 ], [ 661, 683 ], [ 701, 714 ], [ 719, 731 ], [ 791, 809 ], [ 818, 840 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the level of primary and secondary education, there are two systems of school education. There is a public system operated by the South Australian Government and a private system of independent and Catholic schools. All schools provide education under the South Australian Certificate of Education (SACE) or, to a lesser extent, the International Baccalaureate (IB), with Adelaide having the highest number of IB schools in Australia.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education and research", "target_page_ids": [ 2631535, 954381, 504546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 230 ], [ 259, 300 ], [ 336, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are three public universities local to Adelaide, as well as one private university and three constituent colleges of foreign universities. Flinders University of South Australia, the University of Adelaide, the University of South Australia and Torrens University Australia—part of the Laureate International Universities are based in Adelaide. The University of Adelaide was ranked in the top 150 universities worldwide. Flinders ranked in the top 250 and Uni SA in the top 300. Torrens University Australia is part of an international network of over 70 higher education institutions in more than 30 countries worldwide. The historic Torrens Building in Victoria Square houses Carnegie Mellon University's Heinz College Australia, and University College London's School of Energy and Resources (Australia), and constitute the city's international university precinct.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education and research", "target_page_ids": [ 172537, 206748, 335415, 37925077, 25584586, 1196174, 48093, 5543122, 52029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 183 ], [ 189, 211 ], [ 217, 246 ], [ 251, 279 ], [ 292, 327 ], [ 662, 677 ], [ 685, 711 ], [ 714, 737 ], [ 743, 768 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The University of Adelaide, with 25,000 students, is Australia's third-oldest university and a member of the leading \"Group of Eight\". It has five campuses throughout the state, including two in the city-centre, and a campus in Singapore. The University of South Australia, with 37,000 students, has two North Terrace campuses, three other campuses in the metropolitan area and campuses in the regional cities of Whyalla and Mount Gambier. Flinders University, with 25,184 students, is based in the southern suburb of Bedford Park, alongside the Flinders Medical Centre, with additional campuses in neighbouring Tonsley and in Victoria Square in the city centre. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education and research", "target_page_ids": [ 206748, 440861, 335415, 264545, 799214, 172537, 3125146, 3872279, 53110643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 118, 132 ], [ 243, 272 ], [ 413, 420 ], [ 425, 438 ], [ 440, 459 ], [ 518, 530 ], [ 546, 569 ], [ 612, 619 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Adelaide College of Divinity is at Brooklyn Park.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education and research", "target_page_ids": [ 1857916, 5932473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 32 ], [ 39, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are several South Australian TAFE (Technical and Further Education) campuses in the metropolitan area that provide a range of vocational education and training. The Adelaide College of the Arts, as a school of TAFE SA, provides nationally recognised training in visual and performing arts.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education and research", "target_page_ids": [ 1918682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the universities, Adelaide is home to research institutes, including the Royal Institution of Australia, established in 2009 as a counterpart to the two-hundred-year-old Royal Institution of Great Britain. Many of the organisations involved in research tend to be geographically clustered throughout the Adelaide metropolitan area:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education and research", "target_page_ids": [ 28340159, 332823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 118 ], [ 185, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The east end of North Terrace: SA Pathology; Hanson Institute; National Wine Centre.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education and research", "target_page_ids": [ 1625812, 3642832, 3642832, 853641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 30 ], [ 32, 44 ], [ 46, 62 ], [ 64, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The west end of North Terrace: South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), located next to the Royal Adelaide Hospital.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education and research", "target_page_ids": [ 48627959, 1367435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 86 ], [ 117, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Waite Research Precinct: SARDI Head Office and Plant Research Centre; AWRI; ACPFG; CSIRO research laboratories. SARDI also has establishments at Glenside and West Beach.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education and research", "target_page_ids": [ 4838092, 21332004, 4450891, 5163773, 288262, 2481245, 2533351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 28 ], [ 30, 35 ], [ 75, 79 ], [ 81, 86 ], [ 88, 93 ], [ 150, 158 ], [ 163, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Edinburgh, South Australia: DSTO; BAE Systems (Australia); Lockheed Martin Australia Electronic Systems.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education and research", "target_page_ids": [ 4112393, 1167766, 200128, 66527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 29, 33 ], [ 35, 46 ], [ 60, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Technology Park (Mawson Lakes): BAE Systems; Optus; Raytheon; Topcon; Lockheed Martin Australia Electronic Systems.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education and research", "target_page_ids": [ 2670534, 2670534, 358933, 63554945, 3438088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 18, 30 ], [ 46, 51 ], [ 53, 61 ], [ 63, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Research Park at Thebarton: businesses involved in materials engineering, biotechnology, environmental services, information technology, industrial design, laser/optics technology, health products, engineering services, radar systems, telecommunications and petroleum services.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education and research", "target_page_ids": [ 3208049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Science Park (adjacent to Flinders University): Playford Capital.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education and research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Basil Hetzel Institute for Translational Health Research in Woodville the research arm of the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Adelaide", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education and research", "target_page_ids": [ 2172663, 2950843, 10549149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ], [ 65, 74 ], [ 99, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Joanna Briggs Institute, a global research collaboration for evidence-based healthcare with its headquarters in North Adelaide.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Education and research", "target_page_ids": [ 22247525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While established as a British province, and very much English in terms of its culture, Adelaide attracted immigrants from other parts of Europe early on, including German and other European non-conformists escaping religious persecution. The first German Lutherans arrived in 1838, bringing with them the vine cuttings that they used to found the acclaimed wineries of the Barossa Valley.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 3180833, 3265305, 41145205, 176243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 39 ], [ 249, 281 ], [ 306, 319 ], [ 374, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Royal Adelaide Show is an annual agricultural show and state fair, established in 1839 and now a huge event held in the Adelaide Showground annually.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 2399061, 1139577, 60156, 4702949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 37, 54 ], [ 59, 69 ], [ 124, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide's arts scene flourished in the 1960s and 1970s with the support of successive premiers from both major political parties. The renowned Adelaide Festival of Arts was established in 1960 under Thomas Playford, which in the same year spawned an unofficial uncurated series of performances and exhibits which grew into the Adelaide Fringe. Construction of the Adelaide Festival Centre began under Steele Hall in 1970 and was completed under the subsequent government of Don Dunstan, who also established the South Australian Film Corporation in 1972 and the State Opera of South Australia in 1976.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 486351, 486345, 5679689, 543848, 11449159, 32872317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 169 ], [ 328, 343 ], [ 365, 389 ], [ 475, 486 ], [ 513, 546 ], [ 563, 593 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over time, the Adelaide Festival expanded to include Adelaide Writers' Week and WOMADelaide, and other separate festivals were established, such as the Adelaide Cabaret Festival (2002), the Adelaide Festival of Ideas (1999), the Adelaide Film Festival (2013), FEAST (1999, a queer culture), Tasting Australia (1997, a food and wine affair), and Illuminate Adelaide (2021). With the Festival, the Fringe, WOMADelaide, Writers' Week and the Adelaide 500 street motor racing event (along with evening music concerts) all happening in early March, the period became known colloquially as \"Mad March\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 2029835, 2019695, 7467702, 2198739, 2019629, 7349561, 1457022, 6549094, 70614411, 2029911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 75 ], [ 80, 91 ], [ 152, 177 ], [ 190, 216 ], [ 229, 251 ], [ 260, 265 ], [ 275, 288 ], [ 291, 308 ], [ 345, 364 ], [ 439, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, Ghil'ad Zuckermann founded the Adelaide Language Festival.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 30713780, 55188734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 27 ], [ 40, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are many international cultural fairs, most notably the German Schützenfest and Greek Glendi. Adelaide holds an annual Christmas pageant, the world's largest Christmas parade.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 5757882, 6878371, 7525803, 373969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 81 ], [ 92, 98 ], [ 125, 142 ], [ 164, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the state capital, Adelaide has a great number of cultural institutions, many of them along the boulevard of North Terrace. The Art Gallery of South Australia, with about 35,000 works, holds Australia's second largest state-based collection. Adjacent are the South Australian Museum and State Library of South Australia. The Adelaide Botanic Garden, National Wine Centre and Tandanya National Aboriginal Cultural Institute are nearby in the East End of the city. In the back of the State Library lies the Migration Museum, Australia's oldest museum of its kind.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 1625812, 3926684, 2446264, 2653425, 2050237, 853641, 14777878, 3719695, 31325123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 125 ], [ 131, 161 ], [ 262, 285 ], [ 290, 322 ], [ 328, 351 ], [ 353, 373 ], [ 378, 425 ], [ 444, 452 ], [ 508, 524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Further west, the Lion Arts Centre is home to ACE Open, which showcases contemporary art; Dance Hub SA; and other studios and arts industry spaces. The Mercury Cinema and the JamFactory ceramics and design gallery are just around the corner.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 61437315, 55782127, 5586988, 37949931, 60589684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 34 ], [ 46, 54 ], [ 90, 102 ], [ 152, 166 ], [ 175, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Adelaide Festival Centre (which includes the Dunstan Playhouse, Festival Theatre and Space Theatre), on the banks of the Torrens, is the focal point for much of the cultural activity in the city and home to the State Theatre Company of South Australia. Other live music and theatre venues include the Adelaide Entertainment Centre; Adelaide Oval; Memorial Drive Park; Thebarton Theatre; Adelaide Town Hall; Her Majesty's Theatre; Queen's Theatre; Holden Theatres and the Hopgood Theatre.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 15904693, 4230973, 660231, 10236568, 5222214, 8592835, 1068282, 36642961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 215, 255 ], [ 305, 334 ], [ 336, 349 ], [ 351, 370 ], [ 372, 389 ], [ 391, 409 ], [ 411, 432 ], [ 434, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Lion Arts Factory, within the Lion Arts Centre, hosts contemporary music in a wide range of genres, as does \"The Gov\" in Hindmarsh. The city also has numerous smaller theatres, pubs and cabaret bars which host performances.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 61437315, 11399530, 11399530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 113, 120 ], [ 125, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, it was said that there were now more live music venues per capita in Adelaide than any other capital city in the southern hemisphere, Lonely Planet labelled Adelaide \"Australia's live music city\", and the city was recognised as a \"City of Music\" by the UNESCO Creative Cities Network.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 458290, 58040472, 52974142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 156 ], [ 240, 253 ], [ 262, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to its own WOMADelaide, Adelaide attracts several touring music festivals, including Creamfields, Laneway and Groovin'.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 2570856, 14172091, 30723502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 108 ], [ 110, 117 ], [ 122, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide has produced musical groups and individuals who have achieved national and international fame. These include the Adelaide Symphony Orchestra, the Adelaide Youth Orchestra, rock bands The Angels, Atlas Genius, Cold Chisel, The Superjesus, Wolf & Cub, roots/blues group The Audreys, internationally acclaimed metal acts I Killed The Prom Queen and Double Dragon, popular Australian hip-hop outfit Hilltop Hoods, pop acts like Sia, Orianthi, Guy Sebastian, and Wes Carr, as well as internationally successful tribute act, The Australian Pink Floyd Show.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 2398495, 2398527, 1147217, 34651867, 7022, 492034, 3062104, 8043789, 1792456, 20986747, 1041319, 875477, 23484826, 383626, 19450421, 477639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 149 ], [ 155, 179 ], [ 192, 202 ], [ 204, 216 ], [ 218, 229 ], [ 231, 245 ], [ 247, 257 ], [ 277, 288 ], [ 327, 350 ], [ 355, 368 ], [ 404, 417 ], [ 433, 436 ], [ 438, 446 ], [ 448, 461 ], [ 467, 475 ], [ 532, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Noted rocker Jimmy Barnes (formerly lead vocalist with Cold Chisel) spent most of his youth in the northern suburb of Elizabeth. Paul Kelly grew up in Adelaide and was head prefect at Rostrevor College. The first Australian Idol winner, Guy Sebastian, hails from the north-eastern suburb of Golden Grove.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 1138164, 1426867, 7662164, 372646, 30862768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ], [ 118, 127 ], [ 184, 201 ], [ 213, 228 ], [ 291, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide is served by numerous digital free-to-air television channels:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 776556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ABC", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 8320589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ABC (ABC broadcast in HD)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 20252942, 16315657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 23, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ABC TV Plus", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 1603790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ABC Me", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 13396352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ABC News", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 27125568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SBS", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 7613564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SBS HD (SBS broadcast in HD)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 7613564, 16315657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 26, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SBS World Movies HD", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 1384690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SBS Viceland HD", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 48450022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SBS Food", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 48329592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NITV", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 12231331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Seven", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 2665756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 7HD (Seven broadcast in HD)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 13399960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 7Two", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 24791219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 7mate", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 28420669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 7flix", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 49350301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Racing.com", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 47662935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nine", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 1298716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 9HD (Nine broadcast in HD)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 13455407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 9Gem", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 28805459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 9Go!", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 22544414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 9Life", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 48392896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 9Rush", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 63504918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ten", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 2542904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ten HD (Ten broadcast in HD)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 13261080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 10 Bold", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 19969891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 10 Peach", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 28553833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 10 Shake", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 64554104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " TVSN", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 8178687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Spree TV", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 47027070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " C44 Adelaide (Adelaide's community TV station)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 3301291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All of the five Australian national television networks broadcast both high-definition digital and standard-definition digital television services in Adelaide. They share three transmission towers on the ridge near the summit of Mount Lofty. There are two other transmission sites at 25 Grenfell Street, Adelaide and Elizabeth Downs. The two government-funded stations are run by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC South Australia) and the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS). The Seven Network and Network Ten both own their Adelaide stations (SAS-7 and ADS-10 respectively). Adelaide's NWS-9 is part of the Nine Network. Adelaide also has a community television station, Channel 44.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 16315657, 27767, 1939117, 25021730, 32291973, 3079, 8320589, 162469, 494657, 342308, 2665756, 2542904, 1298716, 176014, 2382556, 3301291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 94 ], [ 99, 137 ], [ 229, 240 ], [ 287, 302 ], [ 317, 332 ], [ 384, 419 ], [ 421, 440 ], [ 450, 478 ], [ 490, 503 ], [ 508, 519 ], [ 554, 559 ], [ 564, 570 ], [ 597, 602 ], [ 618, 630 ], [ 652, 672 ], [ 682, 692 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As part of a nationwide phase-out of analogue television in Australia, Adelaide's analogue television service was shut down on 2 April 2013.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 2393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Foxtel pay TV service is also available via cable or satellite to the entire metropolitan area.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 494665, 661989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 11, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All the major broadcasting networks also operate online on-demand television services, alongside internet-only services such as Stan, Fetch TV, Netflix, YouTube, Disney+, and Kayo Sports.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 44633233, 29469429, 175537, 57014419, 59550833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 132 ], [ 134, 142 ], [ 144, 151 ], [ 162, 169 ], [ 175, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are 20 radio stations that serve the metropolitan area, as well as four stations that serve only parts of the metropolitan area; six commercial stations, six community stations, six national stations and two narrowcast stations.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "DAB+ digital radio has been broadcasting in metropolitan Adelaide since 20 May 2009, and currently offers a choice of 41 stations all operated by the existing licensed radio broadcasters, which includes high-quality simulcast of all AM and FM stations.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cultural life", "target_page_ids": [ 49257, 571993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 216, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main sports played professionally in Adelaide are Australian Rules football, association football (soccer), cricket, netball, and basketball. Adelaide is the home of two Australian Football League teams: the Adelaide Football Club and Port Adelaide Football Club, and one A-League soccer team, Adelaide United. A local Australian rules football league, the SANFL, is made up of 10 teams from around Adelaide. The SANFL has been in operation since 1877 when it began as the South Australian Football Association (SAFL) before changing its name to the SANFL in 1927. The SANFL is the oldest surviving football league of any code played in Australia.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 2403, 25675557, 21592, 3921, 4732785, 100978, 24602, 1301373, 1257184, 2403, 344696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 79 ], [ 112, 119 ], [ 121, 128 ], [ 134, 144 ], [ 174, 200 ], [ 212, 234 ], [ 239, 266 ], [ 276, 284 ], [ 298, 313 ], [ 323, 348 ], [ 361, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide has developed a strong culture of attracting crowds to major sporting events. Until the completion of the 2012–14 renovation and upgrade of the Adelaide Oval, most large sporting events took place at either AAMI Stadium (the then home base of the Adelaide Crows, and the then Port Adelaide home game venue), or the historic Adelaide Oval, home of the Southern Redbacks and the Adelaide Strikers cricket teams. Since completion of the upgrade, home games for Adelaide Crows and Port Adelaide now take place at Adelaide Oval.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 660231, 463136, 100978, 24602, 660231, 1327390, 31565966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 166 ], [ 216, 228 ], [ 256, 270 ], [ 285, 298 ], [ 333, 346 ], [ 360, 377 ], [ 386, 403 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1884, Adelaide Oval has also hosted an international cricket test every summer, along with a number of One Day International cricket matches. Memorial Drive Park, adjacent to the Adelaide Oval, used to host Davis Cup and other major tennis events, including the Australian Open and the Adelaide International. Adelaide's professional association football team, Adelaide United, play in the A-League. Founded in 2003, their home ground is Hindmarsh Stadium, which has a capacity of 17,000 and is one of the few purpose-built soccer stadia in Australia. Prior to United's foundation, Adelaide City and West Adelaide represented the city in the National Soccer League. The two sides, which contest the Adelaide derby against one another, now play in the National Premier Leagues South Australia.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 660231, 381447, 10236568, 1257184, 2859226, 1034291, 2616350, 7865506, 529785, 56935409, 5160443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 25 ], [ 109, 130 ], [ 148, 167 ], [ 367, 382 ], [ 444, 461 ], [ 516, 543 ], [ 588, 601 ], [ 606, 619 ], [ 648, 670 ], [ 705, 719 ], [ 757, 797 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For two years, 1997 and 1998, Adelaide was represented in Australia's top level rugby league, after the New South Wales Rugby League had played a single game per season at the Adelaide Oval for five years starting in 1991. The Adelaide Rams were formed and played in the breakaway Super League (SL) competition in 1997 before moving to the new National Rugby League in 1998. Initially playing at the Adelaide Oval, the club moved to the more suitable Hindmarsh Stadium late in the 1998 season. As part of a peace deal with the Australian Rugby League to end the Super League war, the club's owners News Limited (who were also owners of the SL) suddenly closed the club only weeks before the start of the 1999 season.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 25735, 521015, 2013810, 649677, 7157974, 255709, 4001980, 34676206, 30865063, 1489006, 4001693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 92 ], [ 104, 132 ], [ 227, 240 ], [ 281, 293 ], [ 314, 318 ], [ 344, 365 ], [ 369, 373 ], [ 527, 550 ], [ 562, 578 ], [ 598, 610 ], [ 704, 715 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide has two professional basketball teams, the men's team being the Adelaide 36ers which plays in the National Basketball League (NBL) and the women's team, the Adelaide Lightning which plays in the Women's National Basketball League (WNBL). Both teams play their home games at the Titanium Security Arena. Adelaide has a professional netball team, the Adelaide Thunderbirds, which plays in the national netball competition, the Suncorp Super Netball championship, with home games played at Priceline Stadium. The Thunderbirds occasionally play games or finals at the Titanium Security Arena, while international netball matches are usually played at the 10,500 seat Adelaide Entertainment Centre. The Titanium Security Arena has a capacity of 8,000 and is the largest purpose-built basketball stadium in Australia.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 2888022, 283203, 4214915, 2525308, 4772187, 21592, 3149340, 2665599, 3158087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 87 ], [ 107, 133 ], [ 166, 184 ], [ 204, 238 ], [ 287, 310 ], [ 340, 347 ], [ 358, 379 ], [ 434, 455 ], [ 496, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1999 Adelaide and its surrounding areas have hosted the Tour Down Under bicycle race, organised and directed by Adelaide-based Michael Turtur. Turtur won an Olympic gold medal for Australia in the 4000 m team pursuit at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics. The Tour Down Under is the largest cycling event outside Europe and was the first event outside Europe to be granted UCI ProTour status. Adelaide maintains a franchise in the Australian Baseball League, the Adelaide Bite. They have been playing since 2009, and their home stadium (until 2016) was Norwood Oval. From 2016 the team moved to the Diamond Sports Stadium located near the Adelaide International Airport due to renovations at Norwood. Its name stems from the local Great Australian Bight, and from the abundance of local great white sharks. Adelaide also has an ice hockey team, Adelaide Adrenaline in the Australian Ice Hockey League (AIHL). It was national champions in 2009 and plays its games at the IceArenA.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 928448, 857311, 21306890, 27566, 526488, 44972168, 82762, 1546121, 23547547, 28266192, 9305704, 52705742, 140465, 241323, 43619, 5288132, 2210161, 8046402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 77 ], [ 78, 90 ], [ 133, 147 ], [ 163, 170 ], [ 171, 181 ], [ 203, 222 ], [ 230, 255 ], [ 374, 385 ], [ 432, 458 ], [ 464, 477 ], [ 554, 566 ], [ 600, 622 ], [ 640, 670 ], [ 732, 754 ], [ 788, 805 ], [ 846, 865 ], [ 873, 901 ], [ 971, 979 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian Grand Prix for World Championship Formula One racing was hosted by Adelaide from 1985 to 1995 on the Adelaide Street Circuit which was laid out in the city's East End as well as the eastern parklands including the Victoria Park Racecourse. The Grand Prix became a source of pride, and losing the event to Melbourne in a surprise announcement in mid-1993 left a void that has since been filled with the highly successful Clipsal 500 for V8 Supercar racing, held on a modified version of the same street circuit. The Classic Adelaide, a rally of classic sporting vehicles, is also held in the city and its surrounds.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 291626, 10854, 1885482, 5893315, 2029911, 54162, 52245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 49, 60 ], [ 116, 139 ], [ 229, 253 ], [ 435, 446 ], [ 451, 462 ], [ 550, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide formerly had three horse racing venues. Victoria Park, Cheltenham Park Racecourse, both of which have now closed, and Morphettville Racecourse that remains the home of the South Australian Jockey Club. It also has Globe Derby Park for Harness racing that opened in 1969, and by 1973 had become Adelaide's premier harness racing venue taking over from the Wayville Showgrounds, as well as Greyhound Park for greyhound racing that opened in 1972.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 5893315, 7740000, 3004840, 6025340, 30556779, 189221, 4702949, 22408733, 38871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 62 ], [ 64, 90 ], [ 127, 151 ], [ 181, 209 ], [ 223, 239 ], [ 244, 258 ], [ 364, 384 ], [ 397, 411 ], [ 416, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The World Solar Challenge race attracts teams from around the world, most of which are fielded by universities or corporations, although some are fielded by high schools. The race has a 20-years' history spanning nine races, with the inaugural event taking place in 1987. Adelaide hosted the 2012 World Bowls Championships at Lockleys Bowling Club, becoming the third city in the world to have held the championships twice, having previously hosted the event in 1996.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 344413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dirt track speedway is also popular in Adelaide with three operating speedways. Adelaide Motorsport Park, located adjacent to the Adelaide International Raceway road racing circuit at Virginia ( north of the city centre) has been in continuous operation since 1979 after the closure of the popular Rowley Park Speedway. Gillman Speedway located in the semi-industrial suburb of Gillman, has been in operation since 1998 and caters to Motorcycle speedway and Sidecars, while the Sidewinders Speedway located in Wingfield is also a motorcycle speedway dedicated to Under-16 riders and has been in operation since 1978. In 2016, backed my South Australia's Peregrine Group owners of OTR (On the run service stations and 24/7-hour convenient stores) opened up a multi-purpose facility; a state-of-the-art motorsporting park and a hotel alongside its newer OTR service station outside a small township of Tailem Bend currently named The Bend Motorsport Park. Design for thrill seekers and rev-heads the facility currently host South Australia's second V8 Supercars motoring event during a round in August and hopes to bring in other major international motoring events such as SBK Superbikes and other well established FIA motoring events.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 1337315, 31843550, 17575391, 27906113, 28899967, 31782504, 13107724, 230182, 14704933, 41876028, 4360177, 717005, 47512322, 248019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 80, 104 ], [ 130, 160 ], [ 184, 192 ], [ 298, 318 ], [ 320, 336 ], [ 378, 385 ], [ 434, 453 ], [ 458, 466 ], [ 478, 498 ], [ 510, 519 ], [ 900, 911 ], [ 928, 952 ], [ 1214, 1217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide is home to the Great Southern Slam, the world's largest roller derby tournament. The tournament has been held biennially over Australia's Queen's Birthday holiday weekend since 2010. In 2014, and 2016 the tournament featured 45 teams playing in two divisions. In 2018, the tournament has expanded to 48 teams competing in three divisions.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 36097571, 809210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 43 ], [ 65, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Being centrally located on the Australian mainland, Adelaide forms a strategic transport hub for east–west and north–south routes. The city itself has a metropolitan public transport system managed by and known as the Adelaide Metro. The Adelaide Metro consists of a contracted bus system including the O-Bahn Busway, 6 commuter rail lines (diesel and electric), and a small tram network operating between inner suburb Hindmarsh, the city centre, and seaside Glenelg. Tramways were largely dismantled in the 1950s, but saw a revival in the 2010s with upgrades and extensions.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 763512, 1143433, 1311441, 11399530, 1694414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 232 ], [ 303, 316 ], [ 318, 339 ], [ 419, 428 ], [ 459, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Road transport in Adelaide has historically been easier than many of the other Australian cities, with a well-defined city layout and wide multiple-lane roads from the beginning of its development. Adelaide was known as a \"twenty-minute city\", with commuters having been able to travel from metropolitan outskirts to the city proper in roughly twenty minutes. However, such arterial roads often experience traffic congestion as the city grows.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Adelaide metropolitan area has one freeway and four expressways. In order of construction, they are:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The South Eastern Freeway (M1), connects the south-east corner of the Adelaide Plain to the Adelaide Hills and beyond to Murray Bridge and Tailem Bend, where it then continues as National Highway 1 south-east to Melbourne.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 1107632, 1381141, 717005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 26 ], [ 122, 135 ], [ 140, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Southern Expressway (M2), connecting the outer southern suburbs with the inner southern suburbs and the city centre. It duplicates the route of South Road.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 1144321, 3058447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 24 ], [ 149, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The North-South Motorway (M2), is an ongoing major project that will become the major north–south corridor, replacing most of what is now South Road, connecting the Southern Expressway and the Northern Expressway via a motorway with no traffic lights. As of 2020 the motorway's northern half is complete (save for a small link under construction at Croydon Park), connecting the Northern Expressway to Adelaide's inner north-west; the section running through Adelaide's inner west and inner south-west is awaiting funding.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 27886527, 3058447, 1144321, 5822679, 4211864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 25 ], [ 139, 149 ], [ 166, 185 ], [ 194, 213 ], [ 350, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Port River Expressway (A9), connects Port Adelaide and Outer Harbor to Port Wakefield Road at the northern \"entrance\" to the metropolitan area.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 4980648, 3674416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 26 ], [ 60, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Northern Expressway (Max Fatchen Expressway) (M2), is the northern suburbs bypass route connecting the Sturt Highway (National Highway 20) via the Gawler Bypass to Port Wakefield Road at a point a few kilometres north of the Port River Expressway connection.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 5822679, 18349411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 24 ], [ 152, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Northern Connector, completed in 2020, links the North South Motorway to the Northern Expressway.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 27886527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Adelaide metropolitan area has two commercial airports, Adelaide Airport and Parafield Airport. Adelaide Airport, in Adelaide's south-western suburbs, serves in excess of 8 million passengers annually. Parafield Airport, Adelaide's second airport north of the city centre, is used for small aircraft, pilot training and recreational aviation purposes. Parafield Airport served as Adelaide's main aerodrome until the opening of the Adelaide Airport in February 1955. Adelaide airport serves many international and domestic destinations including all Australian state capitals.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 140465, 5417513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 76 ], [ 81, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide is also home to a military airport, known as Edinburgh Airport, located in the northern suburbs. It was built in 1955 in a joint initiative with the UK for weapon development.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 3826804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide's two largest hospitals are the Royal Adelaide Hospital (RAH) in the city centre, a teaching hospital affiliated with the University of Adelaide (800 beds), and the Flinders Medical Centre (580 beds) in Bedford Park, affiliated with Flinders University. The RAH also operates additional campuses for specialist care throughout the suburbs including the Hampstead Rehabilitation Centre (150 beds) in Northfield and the Glenside Campus (129 beds) for acute mental health services. Other major public hospitals are the Women's and Children's Hospital (305 beds), in North Adelaide; the Queen Elizabeth Hospital (340 beds) in Woodville; Modbury Hospital (178 beds) in Modbury; and the Lyell McEwin Hospital (198 beds) in Elizabeth. Numerous private hospitals are also located throughout the city, with the largest operators being not-for-profits Adelaide Community Healthcare Alliance (3 hospitals) and Calvary Care (4 hospitals).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 1367435, 66494203, 3872279, 3210027, 50894002, 1367457, 10549149, 13790829, 9006216, 49431228, 7535093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 64 ], [ 93, 110 ], [ 174, 197 ], [ 408, 418 ], [ 427, 442 ], [ 525, 556 ], [ 592, 616 ], [ 642, 658 ], [ 690, 711 ], [ 851, 889 ], [ 908, 920 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, the RAH was relocated from the city's East End to a new AU$2.3billion facility built over former railyards in the West End. The state-of-the-art hospital forms part of a new biomedical precinct called BioMed City that collocates the South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), the University of Adelaide Health and Medical Sciences building, the University of South Australia's Health Innovation Building, and the state's Dental Hospital. SAHMRI is building a $300million second facility due to be completed by 2022 to house the Australian Bragg Centre with Australia's first proton therapy unit. There are also plans for the Women's and Children's Hospital to be relocated to the precinct adjacent the RAH by 2024.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 3719695, 48627959, 1164549, 1367457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 55 ], [ 242, 296 ], [ 606, 620 ], [ 656, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The largest provider of community health care within Adelaide is the not-for-profit Royal District Nursing Service (RDNS), which provides out of hospital care and hospital avoidance care.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 19479918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adelaide's energy requirements were originally met by the Adelaide Electric Supply Company, which was nationalised by the Playford government in 1946, becoming the Electricity Trust of South Australia (ETSA). Despite significant public opposition and the Labor party's anti-privatisation stance which left the Liberal party one vote short of the numbers needed to pass the legislation, ETSA was privatised by the Olsen Government in 1999 by way of a 200-year lease for the distribution network (ETSAUtilities, later renamed SA Power Networks) and the outright purchase of ETSA Power by the Cheung Kong Holdings for $3.5billion (11 times ETSA's annual earnings) after Labor MP Trevor Crothers resigned from the party and voted with the government.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 4632973, 8096037, 4632973, 875168, 9118761, 475121, 4634543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 90 ], [ 122, 130 ], [ 164, 200 ], [ 413, 418 ], [ 524, 541 ], [ 590, 610 ], [ 676, 691 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The electricity retail market was opened to competition in 2003 and although competition was expected to result in lower retail costs, prices increased by 23.7% in the market's first year. In 2004, the privatisation was deemed to be a failure with consumers paying 60% more for their power and with the state government estimated to lose $3billion in power generation net income in the first ten years of privatisation. In 2012, the industry came under scrutiny for allegedly reducing supply by shutting down generators during periods of peak demand to force prices up. Increased media attention also revealed that in 2009 the state government had approved a 46% increase in retail prices to cover expected increases in the costs of generation while generation costs had in fact fallen 35% by 2012. South Australia has the highest retail price for electricity in the country.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Privatisation led to competition from a variety of companies who now separately provide for the generation, transmission, distribution and retail sales of gas and electricity. Electricity generation comes from a range of technologies and operators. ElectraNet operates the high-voltage electricity transmission network. SA Power Networks distributes electricity to end users. The largest electricity and gas retailing companies are also the largest generating companies.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 36524497, 9118761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 259 ], [ 320, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The largest fossil fuel power stations are the Torrens Island Power Station gas-fired plant operated by AGL Energy and the Pelican Point Power Station operated by Engie. South Australia also has wind and solar power and connections to the national grid. Gas is supplied from the Moomba Gas Processing Plant in the Cooper Basin via the Moomba Adelaide Pipeline System and the SEAGas pipeline from Victoria.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 5677965, 9225139, 33938020, 13095207, 22131, 3995662, 13723730, 50556205, 10568867, 4689460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 75 ], [ 104, 114 ], [ 123, 150 ], [ 163, 168 ], [ 254, 257 ], [ 279, 285 ], [ 314, 326 ], [ 335, 366 ], [ 375, 390 ], [ 396, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2011, South Australia generated 18% of its electricity from wind power, and had 51% of the installed capacity of wind generators in Australia.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 277289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to almost universal blackouts within the city during September 2016, the state worked with Tesla to produce the world's largest electricity battery at Hornsdale Power Reserve which has increased that state's electrical security to the extent in which large blackouts are no longer an event.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 5533631, 54531811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 100 ], [ 155, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The provision of water services is by the government-owned SA Water. Adelaide's water is supplied from its seven reservoirs: Mount Bold, Happy Valley, Myponga, Millbrook, Hope Valley, Little Para and South Para. The yield from these reservoir catchments can be as little as 10% of the city's requirements (90GL per annum) in drought years and about 60% in average years. The remaining demand is met by the pumping of water from the River Murray.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 7540568, 2738940, 2739209, 11556382, 18339928, 25776462, 26392776, 3238881, 19811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 67 ], [ 125, 135 ], [ 137, 149 ], [ 151, 158 ], [ 160, 169 ], [ 171, 182 ], [ 184, 195 ], [ 200, 210 ], [ 432, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A sea-water desalination plant capable of supplying 100GL per annum was built during the 2001–2009 drought; however, it operated at about 8% of its capacity until 2019. In December 2018, the State and Federal Governments agreed to fund a $2m study to determine how the plant could be used to reduce reliance on river water, in an effort to help save the Murray River basin and mouth (including the Coorong) from further ecological damage.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 22830656, 24444091, 101769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 30 ], [ 89, 106 ], [ 398, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AdelaideFree WiFi is a citywide free Wi-Fi network covering most of the inner city areas of Adelaide, primarily the Adelaide CBD and Northern Adelaide precincts. It was officially launched at the Adelaide Central Markets on Tuesday 25 June 2014. It is provided by Internode, with infrastructure provided by outdoor Cisco WiFi N access points attached to the top of lighting poles, as well as inside cafes and businesses across the city.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 63973, 7897553, 828626, 51746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 42 ], [ 116, 128 ], [ 264, 273 ], [ 315, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adelaide city centre includes chart of major streets and squares, street widths, and town acres", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7897553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adelaide Hills", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1476672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " City of Adelaide", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3841955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Music of Adelaide", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3721528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Port Adelaide", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1963141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lists", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Images of Adelaide", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of Adelaide obsolete suburb names", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 34962880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Adelaide parks and gardens", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7374175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Adelaide railway stations", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 719277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Adelaide suburbs", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1189474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of films shot in Adelaide", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45470259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of people from Adelaide", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3807895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of protected areas in Adelaide", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 46585895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of public art in South Australia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32035749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of public transport routes in Adelaide", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19998926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of South Australian commercial icons", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31462837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of sporting clubs in Adelaide", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2347286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of tallest buildings in Adelaide", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3315265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sister cities of the City of Adelaide (the Local government area that governs the city centre)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3841955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tourist attractions in South Australia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (full text)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Adelaide City Council > Official City Guide", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Adelaide City Council", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kids in Adelaide Retrieved 12 May 2020.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Adelaide", "1836_establishments_in_Australia", "Australian_capital_cities", "Cities_in_South_Australia", "Coastal_cities_in_Australia", "Planned_capitals", "Populated_places_established_in_1836", "Metropolitan_areas_of_Australia" ]

[ "Adelaide, SA", "Adelaide, S. Aust.", "Adelaide, South Australia", "Adelaide, Australia" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Alan Garner (born 17 October 1934) is an English novelist best known for his children's fantasy novels and his retellings of traditional British folk tales. Much of his work is rooted in the landscape, history and folklore of his native county of Cheshire, North West England, being set in the region and making use of the native Cheshire dialect.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 175724, 7406, 53214, 5852272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 96 ], [ 248, 256 ], [ 258, 276 ], [ 331, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born in Congleton, Garner grew up around the nearby town of Alderley Edge, and spent much of his youth in the wooded area known locally as \"The Edge\", where he gained an early interest in the folklore of the region. Studying at Manchester Grammar School and then briefly at Oxford University, in 1957 he moved to the village of Blackden, where he bought and renovated an Early Modern Period (circa 1590) building known as Toad Hall. His first novel, The Weirdstone of Brisingamen, was published in 1960. A children's fantasy novel set on the Edge, it incorporated elements of local folklore in its plot and characters. Garner wrote a sequel, The Moon of Gomrath (1963), and a third book, Boneland (2012). He wrote several fantasy novels, including Elidor (1965), The Owl Service (1967) and Red Shift (1973).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 154639, 861213, 650804, 31797, 70070, 614691, 38657885, 618682, 508403, 851212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 17 ], [ 60, 73 ], [ 228, 253 ], [ 274, 291 ], [ 450, 479 ], [ 642, 661 ], [ 688, 696 ], [ 748, 754 ], [ 763, 778 ], [ 790, 799 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Turning away from fantasy as a genre, Garner produced The Stone Book Quartet (1979), a series of four short novellas detailing a day in the life of four generations of his family. He also published a series of British folk tales which he had rewritten in a series of books entitled Alan Garner's Fairy Tales of Gold (1979), Alan Garner's Book of British Fairy Tales (1984) and A Bag of Moonshine (1986). In his subsequent novels, Strandloper (1996) and Thursbitch (2003), he continued writing tales revolving around Cheshire, although without the fantasy elements which had characterised his earlier work.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 318231, 1075934, 318225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 76 ], [ 430, 441 ], [ 453, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Garner was born in the front room of his grandmother's house in Congleton, Cheshire, on 17 October 1934. He was raised in nearby Alderley Edge, a well-to-do village that had effectively become a suburb of Manchester. His \"rural working-class family\", had been connected to Alderley Edge since at least the sixteenth century and could be traced back to the death of William Garner in 1592. Garner has stated that his family had passed on \"a genuine oral tradition\" involving folk tales about The Edge, which included a description of a king and his army of knights who slept under it, guarded by a wizard. In the mid-nineteenth century Alan's great-great-grandfather Robert had carved the face of a bearded wizard onto the face of a cliff next to a well, known locally at that time as the Wizard's Well.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 154639, 861213, 20206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 73 ], [ 129, 142 ], [ 205, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robert Garner and his other relatives had all been craftsmen, and, according to Garner, each successive generation had tried to \"improve on, or do something different from, the previous generation\". Garner's grandfather, Joseph Garner, \"could read, but didn't and so was virtually unlettered\". Instead, he taught his grandson the folk tales he knew about The Edge. Garner later remarked that as a result, he was \"aware of [the Edge's] magic\" as a child, and he and his friends often played there. The story of the king and the wizard living under the hill played an important part in his life, becoming, he explained, \"deeply embedded in my psyche\" and heavily influencing his later novels.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Garner faced several life-threatening childhood illnesses, which left him bed ridden for much of the time. He attended a local village school, where he found that, despite being praised for his intelligence, he was punished for speaking in his native Cheshire dialect; for instance, when he was six his primary school teacher washed his mouth out with soapy water. Garner then won a place at Manchester Grammar School, where he received his secondary education; entry was means-tested, resulting in his school fees being waived. Rather than focusing his interest on creative writing, it was here that he excelled at sprinting. He used to go jogging along the highway, and later claimed that in doing so he was sometimes accompanied by the mathematician Alan Turing, who shared his fascination for the Disney film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Garner was then conscripted into national service, serving for a time with the Royal Artillery while posted to Woolwich in Southeast London.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 5852272, 650804, 1157905, 89276, 1208, 1303939, 76361, 211022, 83400, 94398, 36858819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 267 ], [ 392, 417 ], [ 472, 484 ], [ 616, 625 ], [ 753, 764 ], [ 801, 807 ], [ 813, 844 ], [ 879, 895 ], [ 925, 940 ], [ 957, 965 ], [ 969, 985 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At school, Garner had developed a keen interest in the work of Aeschylus and Homer, as well as the Ancient Greek language. Thus, he decided to pursue the study of Classics at Magdalen College, Oxford, passing his entrance exams in January 1953; at the time he had thoughts of becoming a professional academic. He was the first member of his family to receive anything more than a basic education, and he noted that this removed him from his \"cultural background\" and led to something of a schism with other members of his family, who \"could not cope with me, and I could not cope with\" them. Looking back, he remarked, \"I soon learned that it was not a good idea to come home excited over irregular verbs\". In 1955, he joined the university theatrical society, playing the role of Mark Antony in a performance of William Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra where he co-starred alongside Dudley Moore and where Kenneth Baker was the stage manager. In August 1956, he decided that he wished to devote himself to novel writing, and decided to abandon his university education without taking a degree; he left Oxford in late 1956. He nevertheless felt that the academic rigour which he learned during his university studies has remained \"a permanent strength through all my life\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 2023, 13633, 148363, 5178, 128099, 19960, 32897, 65169, 46208, 416695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 72 ], [ 77, 82 ], [ 99, 121 ], [ 163, 171 ], [ 175, 199 ], [ 781, 792 ], [ 813, 832 ], [ 835, 855 ], [ 886, 898 ], [ 909, 922 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aged 22, Garner was out cycling when he came across a hand-painted sign announcing that an agricultural cottage in Toad Hall a late medieval building situated in Blackden, seven miles from Alderley Edge was on sale for £510. Although he personally could not afford it, he was lent the money by the local Oddfellow lodge, enabling him to purchase and move into the cottage in June 1957. In the late nineteenth century the Hall had been divided into two agricultural labourers' cottages, but Garner was able to purchase the second for £150 about a year later; he proceeded to knock down the dividing walls and convert both halves back into a single home.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1008836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 306, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Garner had begun writing his first novel, A Tale of Alderley, in September 1956. However it was while at Toad Hall that he finished the book. Set in Alderley Edge, it revolves around two children, Susan and Colin, who are sent to live in the area with their mother's old nursemaid, Bess, and her husband, Gowther Mossock. While exploring the Edge, they encounter a race of malevolent creatures, the svart alfar, who dwell in the Edge's abandoned mines and who seem intent on capturing them. They are rescued by the wizard Cadellin, who reveals that the forces of darkness are massing at the Edge in search of a powerful magical talisman, the eponymous \"weirdstone of Brisingamen\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 70070, 31259058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 61 ], [ 400, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whilst writing in his spare time Garner attempted to gain employment as a teacher, but soon gave that up, believing that \"I couldn't write and teach; the energies were too similar.\" Instead, he worked off and on as a general labourer for four years, remaining unemployed for much of that time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Garner sent his debut novel to the publishing company Collins, where it was picked up by the company's head, Sir William Collins, who was on the lookout for new fantasy novels following the recent commercial and critical success of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings (1954–55). Garner, who went on to become a personal friend of Collins, would later relate that \"Billy Collins saw a title with funny-looking words in it on the stockpile, and he decided to publish it.\" On its release in 1960, The Weirdstone of Brisingamen proved to be a critical and commercial success, later being described as \"a tour de force of the imagination, a novel that showed almost every writer who came afterwards what it was possible to achieve in novels ostensibly published for children.\" Garner himself however would later denounce his first novel as \"a fairly bad book\" in 1968.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 29596741, 15872, 29798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 61 ], [ 232, 248 ], [ 251, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With his first book published, Garner abandoned his work as a labourer and gained a job as a freelance television reporter, living a \"hand to mouth\" lifestyle on a \"shoestring\" budget. He also began a sequel to The Weirdstone of Brisingamen, which would be known as The Moon of Gomrath. The Moon of Gomrath also revolves around the adventures of Colin and Susan, with the latter being possessed by a malevolent creature called the Brollachan who has recently entered the world. With the help of the wizard Cadellin, the Brollachan is exorcised, but Susan's soul also leaves her body, being sent to another dimension, leaving Colin to find a way to bring it back. Critic Neil Philip characterised it as \"an artistic advance\" but \"a less satisfying story\". In a 1989 interview, Garner stated that he had left scope for a third book following the adventures of Colin and Susan, envisioning a trilogy, but that he had intentionally decided not to write it, instead moving on to write something different. However Boneland, the conclusion to the sequence, was belatedly published in August 2012.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 614691, 2381969, 38657885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 285 ], [ 431, 441 ], [ 1009, 1017 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1962, Garner began work on a radio play entitled Elidor, which eventually became a novel of the same name. Set in contemporary Manchester, Elidor tells the story of four children who enter a derelict Victorian church and find a portal to the magical realm of Elidor. In Elidor, they are entrusted by King Malebron to help rescue four treasures which have been stolen by the forces of evil, who are attempting to take control of the kingdom. The children succeed and return to Manchester with the treasures, but are pursued by the malevolent forces who need the items to seal their victory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 54954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before writing Elidor, Garner had seen a dinner service set which could be arranged to make pictures of either flowers or owls. Inspired by this design, he produced his fourth novel, The Owl Service. The story, which was heavily influenced by the Medieval Welsh tale of Math fab Mathonwy from the Mabinogion, was critically acclaimed, winning both the Carnegie Medal and Guardian Children's Fiction Prize. It also sparked discussions among critics as to whether Garner should properly be considered a children's writer, given that this book in particular was deemed equally suitable for an adult readership.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 508403, 85957, 113620, 70116, 569267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 198 ], [ 270, 287 ], [ 297, 307 ], [ 352, 366 ], [ 371, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It took Garner six years to write his next novel, Red Shift. The book centres on three intertwined love stories, one set in the present, another during the English Civil War, and the third in the second century CE. Philip referred to it as \"a complex book but not a complicated one: the bare lines of story and emotion stand clear\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 851212, 9709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 59 ], [ 156, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Academic specialist in children's literature Maria Nikolajeva characterised Red Shift as \"a difficult book\" for an unprepared reader, identifying its main themes as those of \"loneliness and failure to communicate\". Ultimately, she thought that repeated re-readings of the novel bring about the realisation that \"it is a perfectly realistic story with much more depth and psychologically more credible than the most so-called \"realistic\" juvenile novels.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 58929904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1976 to 1978, Garner published a series of four novellas, which have come to be collectively known as The Stone Book quartet: The Stone Book, Granny Reardun, The Aimer Gate, and Tom Fobble's Day. Each focused on a day in the life of a child in the Garner family, each from a different generation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 318231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a 1989 interview, Garner noted that although writing The Stone Book Quartet had been \"exhausting\", it had been \"the most rewarding of everything\" he'd done to date. Philip described the quartet as \"a complete command of the material he had been working and reworking since the start of his career\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Garner pays particular attention to language, and strives to render the cadence of the Cheshire tongue in modern English. This he explains by the sense of anger he felt on reading Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: the footnotes would not have been needed by his father.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 28833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1981, the literary critic Neil Philip published an analysis of Garner's novels as A Fine Anger, which was based on his doctoral thesis, produced for the University of London in 1980. In this study he noted that \"The Stone Book quartet marks a watershed in Garner's writing career, and provides a suitable moment for an evaluation of his work thus far.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 60919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1996, Garner's novel Strandloper was published. His collection of essays and public talks, The Voice That Thunders, contains much autobiographical material (including an account of his life with bipolar disorder), as well as critical reflection upon folklore and language, literature and education, the nature of myth and time. In The Voice That Thunders he reveals the commercial pressure placed upon him during the decade-long drought which preceded Strandloper to 'forsake \"literature\", and become instead a \"popular\" writer, cashing in on my established name by producing sequels to, and making series of, the earlier books'. Garner feared that \"making series ... would render sterile the existing work, the life that produced it, and bring about my artistic and spiritual death\" and felt unable to comply.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1075934, 4531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 35 ], [ 198, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Garner's novel Thursbitch was published in 2003. Garner's novel, Boneland, was published in 2012, nominally completing a trilogy begun some 50 years earlier with The Weirdstone of Brisingamen.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 318225, 38657885, 70070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 25 ], [ 65, 73 ], [ 162, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The novel Treacle Walker was published in October 2021. On 26 July 2022, it was named on the longlist of the 2022 Booker Prize.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 71392269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 2018, Garner published his only set of memoirs, Where Shall We Run To?, which describes his childhood during the Second World War.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With his first wife Ann Cook he had three children. In 1972, he married for a second time, this time to Griselda Greaves, a teacher and critic with whom he had two children. In a 2014 interview conducted with Mike Pitts for British Archaeology magazine, Garner stated that \"I don't have anything to do with the literary world. I avoid writers. I don't like them. Most of my close personal friends are professional archaeologists.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 33440355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Garner's early work is often labelled as \"children's literature\", Garner himself rejects such a description, informing one interviewer that \"I certainly have never written for children\" but that instead, he has always written purely for himself. Neil Philip, in his critical study of Garner's work (1981), commented that up till that point, \"Everything Alan Garner has published has been published for children\", although he went on to relate that \"It may be that Garner's is a case\" where the division between children's and adult's literature is \"meaningless\" and that his fiction is instead \"enjoyed by a type of person, no matter what their age.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Literary style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Philip offered the opinion that the \"essence of his work\" was \"the struggle to render the complex in simple, bare terms; to couch the abstract in the concrete and communicate it directly to the reader\". He added that Garner's work is \"intensely autobiographical, in both obvious and subtle ways\". Highlighting Garner's use of mythological and folkloric sources, Philip stated that his work explores \"the disjointed and troubled psychological and emotional landscape of the twentieth century through the symbolism of myth and folklore.\" He also expressed the opinion that \"Time is Garner's most consistent theme\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Literary style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The English author and academic Catherine Butler noted that Garner was attentive to the \"geological, archaeological and cultural history of his settings, and careful to integrate his fiction with the physical reality beyond the page.\" As a part of this, Garner had included maps of Alderley Edge in both The Weirdstone of Brisingamen and The Moon of Gomrath. Garner has spent much time investigating the areas that he deals with in his books; writing in the Times Literary Supplement in 1968, Garner commented that in preparation for writing his book Elidor:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Literary style", "target_page_ids": [ 12516735, 192728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 48 ], [ 458, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "I had to read extensively textbooks on physics, Celtic symbolism, unicorns, medieval watermarks, megalithic archaeology; study the writings of Jung; brush up my Plato; visit Avebury, Silbury and Coventry Cathedral; spend a lot of time with demolition gangs on slum clearance sites; and listen to the whole of Britten's War Requiem nearly every day.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Literary style", "target_page_ids": [ 42031, 22954, 351613, 175822, 204088, 63785888, 64437, 82244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 147 ], [ 161, 166 ], [ 174, 181 ], [ 183, 190 ], [ 195, 213 ], [ 260, 274 ], [ 309, 316 ], [ 319, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a paper published in the Children's Literature Association Quarterly, Maria Nikolajeva characterised Garner as \"one of the most controversial\" authors of modern children's literature.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Recognition and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 5840962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the fiftieth anniversary edition of The Weirdstone of Brisingamen, published by HarperCollins in 2010, several notable British fantasy novelists praised Garner and his work. Susan Cooper related that \"The power and range of Alan Garner's astounding talent has grown with every book he's written\", whilst David Almond called him one of Britain's \"greatest writers\" whose works \"really matter\". Philip Pullman, the author of the His Dark Materials trilogy, went further when he remarked that:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Recognition and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 253375, 49617, 2327686, 37222, 37223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 96 ], [ 177, 189 ], [ 307, 319 ], [ 396, 410 ], [ 430, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Garner is indisputably the great originator, the most important British writer of fantasy since Tolkien, and in many respects better than Tolkien, because deeper and more truthful... Any country except Britain would have long ago recognised his importance, and celebrated it with postage stamps and statues and street-names. But that's the way with us: our greatest prophets go unnoticed by the politicians and the owners of media empires. I salute him with the most heartfelt respect and admiration.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Recognition and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 15872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another British fantasy writer, Neil Gaiman, claimed that \"Garner's fiction is something special\" in that it was \"smart and challenging, based in the here and the now, in which real English places emerged from the shadows of folklore, and in which people found themselves walking, living and battling their way through the dreams and patterns of myth.\" Praise also came from Nick Lake, the editorial director of HarperCollins Children's Books, who proclaimed that \"Garner is, quite simply, one of the greatest and most influential writers this country has ever produced.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Recognition and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 22055, 253375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 43 ], [ 412, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The biennial Hans Christian Andersen Award conferred by the International Board on Books for Young People is the highest recognition available to a writer or illustrator of children's books. Garner was the sole runner-up for the writing award in 1978.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Recognition and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 575318, 5853045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 42 ], [ 60, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Garner was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for services to literature in the 2001 New Year's Honours list. He received the British Fantasy Society's occasional Karl Edward Wagner Award in 2003 and the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement in 2012. In January 2011, the University of Warwick awarded the degree of Doctor of Letters (honoris causa). On that occasion he gave a half-hour interview about his work. He has also been awarded honorary doctorates from the University of Salford (2011) and the University of Huddersfield in (2012).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Recognition and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 212182, 39617, 2322703, 2575623, 1121694, 61115, 3237728, 464751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 63 ], [ 109, 132 ], [ 150, 173 ], [ 187, 211 ], [ 228, 268 ], [ 299, 320 ], [ 343, 360 ], [ 362, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He has been recognised several times for particular works.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Recognition and legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Owl Service (1967) won both the Carnegie Medal and the Guardian Children's Fiction Prize, For the 70th anniversary of the Carnegie in 2007 it was named one of the top ten Medal-winning works, selected by a panel to compose the ballot for a public election of the all-time favourite.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Recognition and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 508403, 70116, 569267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 37, 51 ], [ 60, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Weirdstone of Brisingamen (1960) was named to the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award list by the University of Wisconsin–Madison School of Education in 1970, denoting that it \"belongs on the same shelf\" with the 1865 classic Alice in Wonderland and its sequel.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Recognition and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 70070, 7069292, 6798538, 52853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ], [ 55, 80 ], [ 93, 144 ], [ 221, 240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Stone Book (1976), first in the Stone Book series, won the 1996 Phoenix Award as the best English-language children's book that did not win a major award when it was originally published twenty years earlier.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Recognition and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 318231, 318232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 69, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 1981 film Images won First Prize at the Chicago International Film Festival", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Recognition and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 5984444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elidor was read in instalments by John Stride for the BBC's Jackanory programme in June 1968.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, radio, and other adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 7208673, 244350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 46 ], [ 61, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Owl Service (1969), a British TV series transmitted by Granada Television based on Garner's novel of the same name.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, radio, and other adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 19214047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A second adaptation of Elidor was read on a BBC Radio 4 in July 1972.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, radio, and other adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 72758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Red Shift (BBC, transmitted 17 January 1978); directed by John Mackenzie; part of the BBC's Play for Today series.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, radio, and other adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 904622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " To Kill a King (1980), part of the BBC series of plays on supernatural themes, Leap in the Dark: an atmospheric story about a writer overcoming depression and writer's block. The hero's home appears to be Garner's own house.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, radio, and other adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 22752813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Keeper (ITV, transmitted 13 June 1983), an episode of the ITV children's series Dramarama: Spooky series", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, radio, and other adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 2578324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Garner and Don Webb adapted Elidor as a BBC children's television series shown in 1995, comprising six half-hour episodes, starring Damian Zuk as Roland and Suzanne Shaw as Helen.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, radio, and other adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 11967172, 2666963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 20 ], [ 158, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Owl Service was adapted for the stage in 2004 by The Drum Theatre in Plymouth.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, radio, and other adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 23508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elidor was dramatised as a radio play in four-parts by Don Webb, broadcast on BBC Radio 4 Extra in 2011.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Television, radio, and other adaptations", "target_page_ids": [ 11967172, 207265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 64 ], [ 79, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Weirdstone of Brisingamen, 1960", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 70070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Moon of Gomrath, 1963", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 614691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elidor, 1965", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 618682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Owl Service, 1967", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 508403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Red Shift, 1973", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 851212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Strandloper, 1996", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 1075934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thursbitch, 2003", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 318225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boneland, 2012", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 38657885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Treacle Walker, 2021", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Hamish Hamilton Book of Goblins, 1969", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Book of Fools, 1975", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Stone Book Quartet, 1979", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 318231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Lad of the Gad, 1980", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fairytales of Gold, 1980, (Illustrated by Michael Foreman).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 5786079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Book of British Fairy Tales, 1984, (Illustrated by Derek Collard).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Bag of Moonshine, 1986, (Illustrated by P. J. Lynch).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 18841886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Once Upon a Time, 1993", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collected Folk Tales, 2011", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Nativity Play, 1966", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Old Man of Mow, 1967", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Breadhorse, 1975", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jack and the Beanstalk, 1992, (Illustrated by Julek Heller).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Little Red Hen, 1997", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Well of the Wind, 1998", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Grey Wolf, Prince Jack and the Firebird, 1998", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Voice That Thunders, 1997", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Where Shall We Run To?, 2018", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alan Garner coverage by The Guardian''", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 19344515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 37 ] ] } ]

[ "English_short_story_writers", "English_children's_writers", "English_fantasy_writers", "Carnegie_Medal_in_Literature_winners", "Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Literature", "Guardian_Children's_Fiction_Prize_winners", "Officers_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire", "Alumni_of_Magdalen_College,_Oxford", "People_educated_at_Manchester_Grammar_School", "People_from_Alderley_Edge", "People_from_Congleton", "People_with_bipolar_disorder", "World_Fantasy_Award-winning_writers", "1934_births", "Living_people", "English_male_novelists" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "338 BC A Macedonian army led by Philip II defeated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes in the Battle of Chaeronea, securing Macedonian hegemony in Greece and the Aegean.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 62609, 2529634, 54204, 1216, 65806, 745994, 42012, 53451, 2624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 10, 25 ], [ 33, 42 ], [ 75, 81 ], [ 86, 92 ], [ 100, 119 ], [ 130, 140 ], [ 141, 149 ], [ 168, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "216 BC The Carthaginian army led by Hannibal defeats a numerically superior Roman army at the Battle of Cannae.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 60716, 6555, 13959, 25816, 157814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 12, 24 ], [ 37, 45 ], [ 77, 82 ], [ 95, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "49 BC Caesar, who marched to Spain earlier in the year leaving Marcus Antonius in charge of Italy, defeats Pompey's general Afranius and Petreius in Ilerda (Lerida) north of the Ebro river.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35812, 15924, 19960, 23867, 82474, 18736803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 7, 13 ], [ 64, 79 ], [ 108, 114 ], [ 125, 133 ], [ 138, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 461 Majorian is arrested near Tortona (northern Italy) and deposed by the Suebian general Ricimer as puppet emperor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35884, 75155, 2170997, 28487, 72206, 2423519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ], [ 32, 39 ], [ 76, 81 ], [ 92, 99 ], [ 103, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 932 After a two-year siege, the city of Toledo, in Spain, surrenders to the forces of the Caliph of Córdoba Abd al-Rahman III, assuming an important victory in his campaign to subjugate the Central March.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 49388, 31360, 26667, 30870683, 53669, 2678, 66208539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 42, 48 ], [ 53, 58 ], [ 92, 98 ], [ 102, 109 ], [ 110, 127 ], [ 192, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1274 Edward I of England returns from the Ninth Crusade and is crowned King seventeen days later.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 39986, 46373, 635111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ], [ 43, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1343 After the execution of her husband, Jeanne de Clisson sells her estates and raises a force of men with which to attack French shipping and ports.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 39515, 41656573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 42, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1377 Russian troops are defeated by forces of the Blue Horde Khan Arapsha in the Battle on Pyana River.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 39540, 25763160, 185015, 25657814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 51, 61 ], [ 62, 66 ], [ 82, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1415 Thomas Grey is executed for participating in the Southampton Plot.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36126, 3598524, 3597913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 55, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1610 During Henry Hudson's search for the Northwest Passage, he sails into what is now known as Hudson Bay.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35097, 44014, 21215, 58635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 13, 25 ], [ 43, 60 ], [ 97, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1776 The signing of the United States Declaration of Independence took place.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 8380114, 31874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 25, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1790 The first United States Census is conducted.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34916, 447689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 16, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1798 French Revolutionary Wars: The Battle of the Nile concludes in a British victory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35798, 233039, 4606 ], "anchor_spans": 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] ] }, { "plaintext": "1672 Johann Jakob Scheuchzer, Swiss paleontologist and scholar (d. 1733)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38660, 103188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1674 Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (d. 1723)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38658, 80362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1696 Mahmud I, Ottoman sultan (d. 1754)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38645, 208623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1702 Dietrich of Anhalt-Dessau (d. 1769)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38639, 19464128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1703 Lorenzo Ricci, Italian religious leader, 18th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (d. 1775)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34897, 2444770, 1856592 ], 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Arulanandan, Ceylon-American engineer and academic (d. 2004)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34867, 34257302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1925 John Dexter, English director and producer (d. 1990)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7005914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1925 John McCormack, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2017)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10647863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1925 Jorge Rafael Videla, Argentinian general and politician, 43rd President of Argentina (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 310344, 229473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ], [ 72, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1927 Peter Swinnerton-Dyer, English mathematician and academic (d. 2018)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34939, 2105540 ], 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Wes Craven, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2015)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 153147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1939 John W. 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playwright and screenwriter (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4458695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1949 James Fallows, American journalist and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34604, 257169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1949 Bertalan Farkas, Hungarian general and astronaut", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 701569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1950 Jussi Adler-Olsen, Danish author and publisher", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283873, 27204494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1950 Ted Turner, British guitarist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20404002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1951 Andrew Gold, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2011)", "section_idx": 2, 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"section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34865, 1281546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1953 Butch Patrick, American actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1342832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1953 Anthony Seldon, English historian and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3631136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1954 Sammy McIlroy, Northern Irish footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34982, 1699550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1955 Caleb Carr, American historian and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34851, 581028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1955 Tony Godden, English footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11241606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1955 Butch Vig, American drummer, songwriter, and record producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 273182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1956 Fulvio Melia, Italian-American physicist, astrophysicist, and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34672, 8177100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1957 Jacky Rosen, United States senator ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34606, 50814115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1959 Victoria Jackson, American actress and singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34662, 627511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1959 Johnny Kemp, Bahamian singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2015)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2177720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1959 Apollonia Kotero, American singer and actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 339744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1960 Linda Fratianne, American figure skater", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34664, 2446016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1960 Neal Morse, American singer and keyboard player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 397334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1960 David Yow, American singer-songwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1652891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1961 Pete de Freitas, Trinidadian-British drummer and producer (d. 1989)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34659, 724788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1962 Lee Mavers, English singer, songwriter and guitarist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34717, 1377258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1962 Cynthia Stevenson, American actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2340226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1963 Laura Bennett, American architect and fashion designer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34648, 7379384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1963 Uğur Tütüneker, Turkish footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3643216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1964 Frank Biela, German race car driver", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34550, 2725864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1964 Mary-Louise Parker, American actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 659310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1965 Joe Hockey, Australian lawyer and politician, 38th Treasurer of Australia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34750, 566185, 579169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 57, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1965 Hisanobu Watanabe, Japanese baseball player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14103834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1966 Takashi Iizuka, Japanese wrestler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34691, 9973917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1966 Grainne Leahy, Irish cricketer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 52786940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1966 Tim Wakefield, American baseball player and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 331205 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1967 Aaron Krickstein, American tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34749, 871746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1967 Aline Brosh McKenna, American screenwriter and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8517370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1968 Stefan Effenberg, German footballer and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34655, 1290115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1969 Cedric Ceballos, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34610, 2413612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1969 Fernando Couto, Portuguese footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 772771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1970 Tony Amonte, American ice hockey player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34726, 391075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1970 Kevin Smith, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 60296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1970 Philo Wallace, Barbadian cricketer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2885443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1971 Jason Bell, Australian rugby league player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34748, 20872424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1971 Michael Hughes, Irish footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1790392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1972 Mohamed Al-Deayea, Saudi Arabian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34671, 2557489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Muriel Bowser, American politician, Mayor of Washington, D.C.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15475697, 253326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 46, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1973 Danie Keulder, Namibian cricketer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34751, 5863007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1973 Miguel Mendonca, Zimbabwean journalist and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 29846088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1973 Susie O'Neill, Australian swimmer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 957199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1974 Phil Williams, English journalist and radio host", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34654, 14338395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1975 Mineiro, Brazilian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34752, 5819041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1975 Xu Huaiwen, Chinese-German badminton player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6875137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1975 Tamás Molnár, Hungarian water polo player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3252887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976 Reyes Estévez, Spanish runner", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34661, 3508764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Jay Heaps, American soccer player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1046525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Michael Weiss, American figure skater", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2884613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Sam Worthington, English-Australian actor and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2964059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Mohammad Zahid, Pakistani cricketer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3098613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1977 Edward Furlong, American actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34549, 538605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1978 Goran Gavrančić, Serbian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34753, 3675415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Matt Guerrier, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2441259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Deividas Šemberas, Lithuanian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2812241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Dragan Vukmir, Serbian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11654016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 Marco Bonura, Italian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 26774648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1979 Reuben Kosgei, Kenyan runner", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 859286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 Ivica Banović, Croatian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 5759101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 Alexander Emelianenko, Russian mixed martial artist and boxer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 3040943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Tim Murtagh, Irish-English cricketer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3546455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1982 Hélder Postiga, Portuguese footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34756, 751273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1982 Kerry Rhodes, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3150086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1982 Grady Sizemore, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1567070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1983 Michel Bastos, Brazilian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34755, 8337516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 Giampaolo Pazzini, Italian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34578, 1870859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1985 Stephen Ferris, Irish rugby player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34846, 7693022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1985 David Hart Smith, Canadian wrestler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1999844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1985 Britt Nicole, American Christian pop artist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10272052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Mathieu Razanakolona, Canadian skier", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 4130144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 Rob Kwiet, Canadian ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34670, 30999995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Nacer Chadli, Belgian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 19476171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 Ima Bohush, Belarusian tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 42176899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 Skylar Diggins-Smith, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 23804578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Charli XCX, English singer-songwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 34953684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1993 Gael Bussa, Congolese politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34598, 68128379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Laura Pigossi, Brazilian tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 38530201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1994 Laremy Tunsil, American football player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38214376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 Kristaps Porziņģis, Latvian basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34658, 42616154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1996 Keston Hiura, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34636, 53798524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1996 Simone Manuel, American swimmer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 40093192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 Mark Lee, Korean-Canadian singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34553, 53700355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "216 BC Gnaeus Servilius Geminus, Roman consul", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 60716, 6154197, 2390810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 8, 32 ], [ 34, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 216 BC Lucius Aemilius Paullus, Roman consul and general", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 221594, 2390810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 33 ], [ 35, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 216 BC Marcus Minucius Rufus, Roman consul", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 13813559, 2390810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 31 ], [ 33, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 257 Pope Stephen I", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35871, 24312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 575 Ahudemmeh, Syriac Orthodox Grand Metropolitan of the East.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47783, 43577806, 1762911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 33, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 640 Pope Severinus", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36304, 63030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 686 Pope John V", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36240, 243550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 855 Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Arab theologian and jurist (b. 780)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35331, 419084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 924 Ælfweard of Wessex (b. 904)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49378, 209918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1075 Patriarch John VIII of Constantinople", 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Fontane and Sant'Agnese in Agone (b. 1599)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38623, 11125, 2833111, 2846382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ], [ 53, 83 ], [ 88, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1696 Robert Campbell of Glenlyon (b. 1630)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38645, 1615305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1769 Daniel Finch, 8th Earl of Winchilsea, English politician, Lord President of the Council (b. 1689)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35819, 1546094, 201871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 42 ], [ 64, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1788 Thomas Gainsborough, English painter (b. 1727)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34627, 31126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1799 Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier, French inventor, co-invented the hot air balloon (b. 1745)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35496, 51621, 38173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 33 ], [ 68, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1815 Guillaume Brune, French general and politician (b. 1763)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34931, 161131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1823 Lazare Carnot, French mathematician, general, and politician, president of the National Convention (b. 1753)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34905, 26532764, 26106152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 68, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1834 Harriet Arbuthnot, English diarist (b. 1793)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35517, 6300132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1849 Muhammad Ali of Egypt, Ottoman Albanian commander (b. 1769)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35243, 38094479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1854 Heinrich Clauren, German author (b. 1771)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34781, 38226699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1859 Horace Mann, American educator and politician (b. 1796)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34646, 177530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1876 \"Wild Bill\" Hickok, American sheriff (b. 1837)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34725, 377029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1889 Eduardo Gutiérrez, Argentinian author (b. 1851)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34711, 7929302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1890 Louise-Victorine Ackermann, French poet and author (b. 1813)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34707, 1503832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1903 Eduard Magnus Jakobson, Estonian missionary and engraver (b. 1847)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34639, 9573519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1903 Edmond Nocard, French veterinarian and microbiologist (b. 1850)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1382371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1913 Ferenc Pfaff, Hungarian architect and academic, designed Zagreb Central Station (b. 1851)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34617, 12414793, 23688954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 63, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1915 John Downer, Australian politician, 16th premier of South Australia (b. 1843)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34689, 1848923, 24678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 47, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1917 Jaan Mahlapuu, Estonian military pilot (b. 1894)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34595, 34566124 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1921 Enrico Caruso, Italian tenor and actor (b. 1873)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34724, 67892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1922 Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish-Canadian engineer, invented the telephone (b. 1847)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34866, 852, 30003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ], [ 70, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1923 Warren G. Harding, American journalist and politician, 29th president of the United States (b. 1865)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34863, 33060, 24113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 66, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1923 Joseph Whitty, Irish Hunger Striker (b. 1904)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34863, 67452685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1934 Paul von Hindenburg, German field marshal and politician, 2nd president of Germany (b. 1847)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34981, 40548, 60567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ], [ 68, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1937 Artur Sirk, Estonian soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1900)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34684, 14103344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1939 Harvey Spencer Lewis, American mystic and author (b. 1883)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34614, 394840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1945 Pietro Mascagni, Italian composer and educator (b. 1863)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34624, 37931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1955 Alfred Lépine, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1901)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34851, 3450917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1955 Wallace Stevens, American poet and educator (b. 1879)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 103216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1963 Oliver La Farge, American anthropologist and author (b. 1901)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34648, 2469355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1967 Walter Terence Stace, English-American epistemologist, philosopher, and academic (b. 1886)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34749, 7916544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1970 Angus MacFarlane-Grieve, English academic, mathematician, rower, and soldier (b. 1891)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34726, 47459599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1972 Brian Cole, American bass player (b. 1942)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34671, 2003753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Paul Goodman, American psychotherapist and author (b. 1911)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 41294612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Helen Hoyt, American poet and author (b. 1887)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1734683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1973 Ismail Abdul Rahman, Former Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia (b.1915)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34751, 3594294, 2218990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ], [ 34, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1973 Jean-Pierre Melville, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1917)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34751, 1422223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1974 Douglas Hawkes, English race car driver and businessman (b. 1893)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34654, 8425709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976 László Kalmár, Hungarian mathematician and academic (b. 1905)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34661, 1988240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Fritz Lang, Austrian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1890)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1978 Carlos Chávez, Mexican composer and conductor (b. 1899)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34753, 559224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Antony Noghès, French businessman, founded the Monaco Grand Prix (b. 1890)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6766646, 10946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 57, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 Thurman Munson, American baseball player (b. 1947)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 352481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 Kieran Doherty, Irish hunger striker and politician (b. 1955)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 1680619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 Stefanie Clausen, Danish diver (b. 1900)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 14369452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1983 James Jamerson, American bass player (b. 1936)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34755, 1005872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Roy Cohn, American lawyer and politician (b. 1927)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 320753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 Joe Carcione, American activist and author (b. 1914)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34670, 4872259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Raymond Carver, American short story writer and poet (b. 1938)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 194037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 Norman Maclean, American short story writer and essayist (b. 1902)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 1078683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990 Edwin Richfield, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4719700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Michel Berger, French singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1947)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 2919524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1996 Michel Debré, French lawyer and politician, 150th prime minister of France (b. 1912)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34636, 585175, 218751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 56, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1996 Obdulio Varela, Uruguayan footballer and manager (b. 1917)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3071536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1996 Mohamed Farrah Aidid, Somalian general and politician, 5th president of Somalia (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51294, 516101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ], [ 69, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1997 William S. Burroughs, American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (b. 1914)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34601, 33594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1997 Fela Kuti, Nigerian singer-songwriter and activist (b. 1938)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 316130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 Shari Lewis, American television host and puppeteer (b. 1933)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34647, 205076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 Willie Morris, American writer (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34553, 1670627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2003 Peter Safar, Austrian-American physician and academic (b. 1924)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36163, 374300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2004 Ferenc Berényi, Hungarian painter and academic (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35524, 11760221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2004 François Craenhals, Belgian illustrator (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 7620814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2004 Heinrich Mark, Estonian lawyer and politician, 5th prime minister of Estonia in exile (b. 1911)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5853278, 11604118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 61, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2005 Steven Vincent, American journalist and author (b. 1955)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35984, 2368533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2007 Chauncey Bailey, American journalist (b. 1950)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36165, 47778516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2008 Fujio Akatsuka, Japanese illustrator (b. 1935)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35825, 5678603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011 José Sanchis Grau, Spanish author and illustrator (b. 1932)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36225, 32629827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 Gabriel Horn, English biologist and academic (b. 1927)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47374, 4388863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Magnus Isacsson, Canadian director and producer (b. 1948)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 24881283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Jimmy Jones, American singer-songwriter (b. 1930)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1944005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 John Keegan, English historian and journalist (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 355632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Bernd Meier, German footballer (b. 1972)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 21399202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Marguerite Piazza, American soprano (b. 1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11176679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2013 Julius L. Chambers, American lawyer and activist (b. 1936)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 46945, 16339110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Richard E. Dauch, American businessman, co-founded American Axle (b. 1942)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 29638560, 1539445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ], [ 61, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Alla Kushnir, Russian–Israeli chess player (b. 1941)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 7921052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2014 Ed Joyce, American journalist (b. 1932)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 48630, 3277048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Billie Letts, American author and educator (b. 1938)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10922882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Barbara Prammer, Austrian social worker and politician (b. 1954)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27155416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 James Thompson, American-Finnish author (b. 1964)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39605401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2015 Forrest Bird, American pilot and engineer (b. 1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49708, 1700890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Giovanni Conso, Italian jurist and politician, Italian Minister of Justice (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 6048687, 3057694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 57, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Piet Fransen, Dutch footballer (b. 1936)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47409214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Jack Spring, American baseball player (b. 1933)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 7690514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2016 Terence Bayler, New Zealand actor (b. 1930)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51387, 2298830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2016 David Huddleston, American actor (b. 1930)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2421699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2016 Franciszek Macharski, Polish cardinal (b. 1927)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1700290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2016 Ahmed Zewail, Egyptian-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1946)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 113617, 21201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ], [ 64, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2017 Judith Jones, American literary and cookbook editor (b. 1924)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51389, 24494643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2020 Suzanne Perlman, Hungarian-Dutch visual artist (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51396, 59685206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2022 Vin Scully, American sportscaster and game show host (b. 1927)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 52412, 753617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christian feast day:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 180283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ahudemmeh (Syriac Orthodox Church).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 43577806, 219283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 11, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Basil Fool for Christ (Russian Orthodox Church)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 649407, 40157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 23, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Blessed Justin Russolillo", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 233724, 1982176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 8, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eusebius of Vercelli", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 868907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peter Faber", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 820137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peter Julian Eymard", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2669064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Plegmund", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 3413193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pope Stephen I", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 24312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Portiuncola Indulgence (\"Pardon of Assisi\"), the plenary indulgence related to St.Francis of Assisi (Catholic Church).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 5183542, 11638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 83, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Samuel David Ferguson (Episcopal Church)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6007440, 6054604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 23, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "August 2 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2283265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Day of Azerbaijani cinema (Azerbaijan)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 10254803, 746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 27, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Our Lady of the Angels Day (Costa Rica)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 17679950, 5551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 28, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paratroopers Day (Russia)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 729807, 25391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 18, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Republic Day (North Macedonia)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 23543874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Romani genocide-related observances, including:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 163824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roma Holocaust Memorial Day (Council of Europe, European Parliament)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 64684414, 5865, 9581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ], [ 29, 46 ], [ 48, 67 ] ] } ]

[ "Days_of_the_year", "August" ]

[ "August 2nd", "2nd of August", "2 August", "Aug 2" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's oceans, that separates the old world from the new world.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Atlantic may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic, Nova Scotia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 22723376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic Canada", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 71095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic, Iowa", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 112843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic, Massachusetts", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 8132922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic, North Carolina, an unincorporated community in eastern Carteret County", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 5888607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic, Pennsylvania", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 132173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic, Seattle, a neighborhood in Washington state", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 2280688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic, Virginia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 18331937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic City, New Jersey", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 106211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic County, New Jersey", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 93452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic Peak (Colorado), a mountain", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 64599273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic Books, an independent British publishing house", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 28336596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic Monthly Press, an American publishing house", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 6617226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic Entertainment Group, a defunct movie studio company", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 3386891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic FM, a radio station serving Cornwall, United Kingdom", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 6016320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic Records, a record company", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 59610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Atlantics, an Australian surf rock band formed in the early 1960s", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 409346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic (Dufresne album)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 41420516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic (Theatre album)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 31804174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Atlantic\" (song), by Keane", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 5025050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Atlantic\", a song by Björk from Vessel (DVD)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 8783428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Atlantic\", a song by Thrice from Vheissu", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 2471093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic (film), a 1929 black and white British film", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 8522084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Atlantic, an American magazine founded as The Atlantic Monthly in 1857", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 149743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic (2015 film), an Irish documentary film, awarded Best Irish Documentary at the 2016 Dublin International Film Festival", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Art, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 14481800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic (cinema), a movie theater in Warsaw, Poland", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Enterprises and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 3439747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic (company), an Italian toy manufacturer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Enterprises and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 29800729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic (supermarkets), a supermarket chain in Greece", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Enterprises and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 8484002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic Broadband, a cable company in Massachusetts", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Enterprises and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 9017132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Atlantic City Electric Company, a division of Elexon supplying electricity in New Jersey", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Enterprises and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 2661709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic LNG, a liquefied natural gas producing company based in Trinidad and Tobago", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Enterprises and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 11292006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Atlantic Petroleum, a former oil company in the United States", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Enterprises and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 5684281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic Petroleum (Faroe Islands), an oil and gas production company", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Enterprises and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 11122688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic Philanthropies, a private foundation", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Enterprises and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 2047332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic Superstore, a Canadian supermarket chain", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Enterprises and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 338384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic Technological University, north-western Ireland ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Enterprises and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 69137451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic University, Virginia Beach, Virginia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Enterprises and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 2376441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A&P (The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company), an American and Canadian supermarket chain", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Enterprises and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 744941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Groupe Atlantic, a French climate control engineering company", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Enterprises and organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 32579434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic Championship, developmental open-wheel racing series in North America", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 1886378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic League of Professional Baseball, an American professional baseball league", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 63785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic Building aka Edificio Atlantic, a condominium building in Havana, Cuba", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Structures", "target_page_ids": [ 36977930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Atlantic (Atlanta), a skyscraper in Atlanta, Georgia, United States", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Structures", "target_page_ids": [ 24160105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Air Atlantic, a Canadian airline", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 377657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic Airways, a Faroese airline company", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 1745717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Breguet Atlantic, a French long-range maritime patrol aircraft (1961)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 1782998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic (1921 automobile), a defunct automobile company", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 13434283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Austin Atlantic, a British car produced by the Austin Motor Company from 1949 to 1952", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 1640574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fisker Atlantic, a plug-in electric car", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 35308605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic (locomotive), name of an early steam-powered locomotive of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad with a 0-4-0 wheel arrangement", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 4087744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic (Los Angeles Metro station)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 25093055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic (Staten Island Railway station)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 14623676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic (train), a named passenger train operated by Canadian Pacific Railway and later Via Rail", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 1642929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic, a type of steam locomotive with a 4-4-2 wheel arrangement (UIC classification 2B1), ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 1186922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " – any one of several vessels by that name", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic (yacht), a three-masted gaff-rigged schooner", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 13396860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic 85-class lifeboats, lifeboats that serve the shores of the United Kingdom and Ireland as a part of the RNLI inshore fleet", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 3182046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic (period) of palaeoclimatology", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 4127383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic languages (formerly West Atlantic), a language family in West Africa", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 95366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic (horse)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 35217400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic Beach (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 372384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantic Bridge (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47417988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atlantik (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15498874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "An algebraic number is a number that is a root of a non-zero polynomial in one variable with integer (or, equivalently, rational) coefficients. For example, the golden ratio, , is an algebraic number, because it is a root of the polynomial . That is, it is a value for x for which the polynomial evaluates to zero. As another example, the complex number is algebraic because it is a root of .", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 264210, 23000, 14563, 19727024, 12386, 5826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 46 ], [ 61, 71 ], [ 93, 100 ], [ 120, 128 ], [ 162, 174 ], [ 341, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All integers and rational numbers are algebraic, as are all roots of integers. Real and complex numbers that are not algebraic, such as and , are called transcendental numbers.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 235029, 23601, 30325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 77 ], [ 136, 136 ], [ 154, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The set of algebraic numbers is countably infinite and has measure zero in the Lebesgue measure as a subset of the uncountable complex numbers. In that sense, almost all complex numbers are transcendental.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26691, 6026, 21520, 18198, 27631, 32248, 1309, 30325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 7 ], [ 33, 51 ], [ 60, 72 ], [ 80, 96 ], [ 102, 108 ], [ 116, 127 ], [ 160, 170 ], [ 191, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " All rational numbers are algebraic. Any rational number, expressed as the quotient of an integer and a (non-zero) natural number , satisfies the above definition, because is the root of a non-zero polynomial, namely .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 19727024, 14563, 21474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ], [ 90, 97 ], [ 116, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Quadratic irrational numbers, irrational solutions of a quadratic polynomial with integer coefficients , , and , are algebraic numbers. If the quadratic polynomial is monic (), the roots are further qualified as quadratic integers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 305331, 21834785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 214, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gaussian integers, complex numbers for which both and are integers, are also quadratic integers. This is because and are the two roots of the quadratic .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 48628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A constructible number can be constructed from a given unit length using a straightedge and compass. It includes all quadratic irrational roots, all rational numbers, and all numbers that can be formed from these using the basic arithmetic operations and the extraction of square roots. (By designating cardinal directions for 1, −1, , and , complex numbers such as are considered constructible.)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 7439, 3118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 23 ], [ 224, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Any expression formed from algebraic numbers using any combination of the basic arithmetic operations and extraction of th roots gives another algebraic number.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 235029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Polynomial roots that cannot be expressed in terms of the basic arithmetic operations and extraction of th roots (such as the roots of ). That happens with many but not all polynomials of degree 5 or higher.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 152518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Values of trigonometric functions of rational multiples of (except when undefined): for example, , , and satisfy . This polynomial is irreducible over the rationals and so the three cosines are conjugate algebraic numbers. Likewise, , , , and satisfy the irreducible polynomial , and so are conjugate algebraic integers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 30367, 188725, 98981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 34 ], [ 137, 148 ], [ 305, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Some but not all irrational numbers are algebraic:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The numbers and are algebraic since they are roots of polynomials and , respectively.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The golden ratio is algebraic since it is a root of the polynomial .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 12386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The numbers and e are not algebraic numbers (see the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 23601, 9633, 348976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 13 ], [ 18, 19 ], [ 55, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If a polynomial with rational coefficients is multiplied through by the least common denominator, the resulting polynomial with integer coefficients has the same roots. This shows that an algebraic number can be equivalently defined as a root of a polynomial with either integer or rational coefficients.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 378200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Given an algebraic number, there is a unique monic polynomial with rational coefficients of least degree that has the number as a root. This polynomial is called its minimal polynomial. If its minimal polynomial has degree , then the algebraic number is said to be of degree . For example, all rational numbers have degree 1, and an algebraic number of degree 2 is a quadratic irrational.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 314730, 5930652, 9667106, 19727024, 305331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 61 ], [ 98, 104 ], [ 166, 184 ], [ 294, 309 ], [ 367, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The algebraic numbers are dense in the reals. This follows from the fact they contain the rational numbers, which are dense in the reals themselves.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 23523594, 6320997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 31 ], [ 32, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The set of algebraic numbers is countable (enumerable), and therefore its Lebesgue measure as a subset of the complex numbers is 0 (essentially, the algebraic numbers take up no space in the complex numbers). That is to say, \"almost all\" real and complex numbers are transcendental.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 18198, 44688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 90 ], [ 225, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All algebraic numbers are computable and therefore definable and arithmetical.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 6206, 8361, 2342451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 36 ], [ 51, 60 ], [ 65, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For real numbers and , the complex number is algebraic if and only if both and are algebraic.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The sum, difference, product and quotient (if the denominator is nonzero) of two algebraic numbers is again algebraic, as can be demonstrated by using the resultant, and algebraic numbers thus form a field (sometimes denoted by , but that usually denotes the adele ring). Every root of a polynomial equation whose coefficients are algebraic numbers is again algebraic. That can be rephrased by saying that the field of algebraic numbers is algebraically closed. In fact, it is the smallest algebraically-closed field containing the rationals and so it is called the algebraic closure of the rationals.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Field", "target_page_ids": [ 2195020, 10603, 247978, 1018, 3129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 164 ], [ 200, 205 ], [ 260, 270 ], [ 441, 461 ], [ 567, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The set of real algebraic numbers itself forms a field.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Field", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Any number that can be obtained from the integers using a finite number of additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions, and taking (possibly complex) th roots where is a positive integer are algebraic. The converse, however, is not true: there are algebraic numbers that cannot be obtained in this manner. These numbers are roots of polynomials of degree5 or higher, a result of Galois theory (see Quintic equations and the Abel–Ruffini theorem). For example, the equation:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Related fields", "target_page_ids": [ 11742, 61338, 74141, 20845, 53696, 61316, 303368, 152518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 64 ], [ 75, 83 ], [ 86, 97 ], [ 100, 114 ], [ 117, 125 ], [ 388, 401 ], [ 407, 423 ], [ 433, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "has a unique real root that cannot be expressed in terms of only radicals and arithmetic operations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Related fields", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Algebraic numbers are all numbers that can be defined explicitly or implicitly in terms of polynomials, starting from the rational numbers. One may generalize this to \"closed-form numbers\", which may be defined in various ways. Most broadly, all numbers that can be defined explicitly or implicitly in terms of polynomials, exponentials, and logarithms are called \"elementary numbers\", and these include the algebraic numbers, plus some transcendental numbers. Most narrowly, one may consider numbers explicitly defined in terms of polynomials, exponentials, and logarithms – this does not include all algebraic numbers, but does include some simple transcendental numbers such as or ln 2.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Related fields", "target_page_ids": [ 585143, 4778133, 27153398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 186 ], [ 365, 382 ], [ 685, 689 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An algebraic integer is an algebraic number that is a root of a polynomial with integer coefficients with leading coefficient 1 (a monic polynomial). Examples of algebraic integers are and Therefore, the algebraic integers constitute a proper superset of the integers, as the latter are the roots of monic polynomials for all . In this sense, algebraic integers are to algebraic numbers what integers are to rational numbers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Algebraic integers", "target_page_ids": [ 314730, 27631, 14563, 14563, 19727024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 148 ], [ 247, 255 ], [ 263, 270 ], [ 397, 404 ], [ 413, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sum, difference and product of algebraic integers are again algebraic integers, which means that the algebraic integers form a ring. The name algebraic integer comes from the fact that the only rational numbers that are algebraic integers are the integers, and because the algebraic integers in any number field are in many ways analogous to the integers. If is a number field, its ring of integers is the subring of algebraic integers in , and is frequently denoted as . These are the prototypical examples of Dedekind domains.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Algebraic integers", "target_page_ids": [ 48404, 28730822, 460613, 145132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 135 ], [ 303, 315 ], [ 387, 403 ], [ 516, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Algebraic solution", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Special classes", "target_page_ids": [ 1601833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gaussian integer", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Special classes", "target_page_ids": [ 48628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eisenstein integer", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Special classes", "target_page_ids": [ 2353035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Quadratic irrational number", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Special classes", "target_page_ids": [ 305331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fundamental unit", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Special classes", "target_page_ids": [ 3995927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Root of unity", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Special classes", "target_page_ids": [ 171950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gaussian period", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Special classes", "target_page_ids": [ 456085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pisot–Vijayaraghavan number", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Special classes", "target_page_ids": [ 519303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Salem number", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Special classes", "target_page_ids": [ 1066694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hardy, G. H. and Wright, E. M. 1978, 2000 (with general index) An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers: 5th Edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford UK, ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 87599, 529941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 17, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Niven, Ivan 1956. Irrational Numbers, Carus Mathematical Monograph no. 11, Mathematical Association of America.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 859805, 198772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 75, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ore, Øystein 1948, 1988, Number Theory and Its History, Dover Publications, Inc. New York, (pbk.)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1643733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] } ]

[ "Algebraic_numbers" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In mathematics, an automorphism is an isomorphism from a mathematical object to itself. It is, in some sense, a symmetry of the object, and a way of mapping the object to itself while preserving all of its structure. The set of all automorphisms of an object forms a group, called the automorphism group. It is, loosely speaking, the symmetry group of the object.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18831, 14828, 19453961, 53741, 516931, 26691, 19447, 56661772, 28186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 38, 49 ], [ 57, 76 ], [ 112, 120 ], [ 149, 156 ], [ 221, 224 ], [ 267, 272 ], [ 285, 303 ], [ 334, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the context of abstract algebra, a mathematical object is an algebraic structure such as a group, ring, or vector space. An automorphism is simply a bijective homomorphism of an object with itself. (The definition of a homomorphism depends on the type of algebraic structure; see, for example, group homomorphism, ring homomorphism, and linear operator.)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 19616384, 106364, 19447, 48404, 32370, 3942, 13564, 12396, 26411, 18102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 34 ], [ 64, 83 ], [ 94, 99 ], [ 101, 105 ], [ 110, 122 ], [ 152, 161 ], [ 162, 174 ], [ 297, 315 ], [ 317, 334 ], [ 340, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The identity morphism (identity mapping) is called the trivial automorphism in some contexts. Respectively, other (non-identity) automorphisms are called nontrivial automorphisms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 27716891, 15069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 23, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The exact definition of an automorphism depends on the type of \"mathematical object\" in question and what, precisely, constitutes an \"isomorphism\" of that object. The most general setting in which these words have meaning is an abstract branch of mathematics called category theory. Category theory deals with abstract objects and morphisms between those objects.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 5869, 27716891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 281 ], [ 331, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In category theory, an automorphism is an endomorphism (i.e., a morphism from an object to itself) which is also an isomorphism (in the categorical sense of the word, meaning there exists a right and left inverse endomorphism).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 9569, 27716891, 14828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 54 ], [ 64, 72 ], [ 116, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is a very abstract definition since, in category theory, morphisms are not necessarily functions and objects are not necessarily sets. In most concrete settings, however, the objects will be sets with some additional structure and the morphisms will be functions preserving that structure.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 185427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the automorphisms of an object form a set (instead of a proper class), then they form a group under composition of morphisms. This group is called the automorphism group of .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Automorphism group", "target_page_ids": [ 20696, 19447, 195947, 27716891, 56661772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 72 ], [ 92, 97 ], [ 104, 115 ], [ 119, 127 ], [ 155, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Closure Composition of two automorphisms is another automorphism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Automorphism group", "target_page_ids": [ 293802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Associativity It is part of the definition of a category that composition of morphisms is associative.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Automorphism group", "target_page_ids": [ 1335, 53759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 48, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Identity The identity is the identity morphism from an object to itself, which is an automorphism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Automorphism group", "target_page_ids": [ 14962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inverses By definition every isomorphism has an inverse that is also an isomorphism, and since the inverse is also an endomorphism of the same object it is an automorphism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Automorphism group", "target_page_ids": [ 45199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The automorphism group of an object X in a category C is denoted AutC(X), or simply Aut(X) if the category is clear from context.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Automorphism group", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In set theory, an arbitrary permutation of the elements of a set X is an automorphism. The automorphism group of X is also called the symmetric group on X.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 27553, 44027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 29, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In elementary arithmetic, the set of integers, Z, considered as a group under addition, has a unique nontrivial automorphism: negation. Considered as a ring, however, it has only the trivial automorphism. Generally speaking, negation is an automorphism of any abelian group, but not of a ring or field.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 1567386, 14563, 2974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 38, 45 ], [ 261, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A group automorphism is a group isomorphism from a group to itself. Informally, it is a permutation of the group elements such that the structure remains unchanged. For every group G there is a natural group homomorphism G → Aut(G) whose image is the group Inn(G) of inner automorphisms and whose kernel is the center of G. Thus, if G has trivial center it can be embedded into its own automorphism group.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 12397, 579311, 61839, 45240, 7125, 193059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 44 ], [ 239, 244 ], [ 268, 286 ], [ 298, 304 ], [ 312, 318 ], [ 340, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In linear algebra, an endomorphism of a vector space V is a linear operator V → V. An automorphism is an invertible linear operator on V. When the vector space is finite-dimensional, the automorphism group of V is the same as the general linear group, GL(V). (The algebraic structure of all endomorphisms of V is itself an algebra over the same base field as V, whose invertible elements precisely consist of GL(V).)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 18422, 32370, 18102, 113564, 59623, 289666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 41, 53 ], [ 61, 76 ], [ 231, 251 ], [ 289, 311 ], [ 370, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A field automorphism is a bijective ring homomorphism from a field to itself. In the cases of the rational numbers (Q) and the real numbers (R) there are no nontrivial field automorphisms. Some subfields of R have nontrivial field automorphisms, which however do not extend to all of R (because they cannot preserve the property of a number having a square root in R). In the case of the complex numbers, C, there is a unique nontrivial automorphism that sends R into R: complex conjugation, but there are infinitely (uncountably) many \"wild\" automorphisms (assuming the axiom of choice). Field automorphisms are important to the theory of field extensions, in particular Galois extensions. In the case of a Galois extension L/K the subgroup of all automorphisms of L fixing K pointwise is called the Galois group of the extension.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 3942, 26411, 10603, 19727024, 20646438, 5826, 173918, 32248, 840, 11634, 457064, 28011, 12673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 36 ], [ 37, 54 ], [ 62, 67 ], [ 99, 114 ], [ 128, 139 ], [ 389, 403 ], [ 472, 491 ], [ 519, 530 ], [ 572, 587 ], [ 641, 656 ], [ 673, 689 ], [ 734, 742 ], [ 802, 814 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The automorphism group of the quaternions (H) as a ring are the inner automorphisms, by the Skolem–Noether theorem: maps of the form . This group is isomorphic to SO(3), the group of rotations in 3-dimensional space.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 51440, 693453, 186057, 173965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 41 ], [ 93, 115 ], [ 150, 160 ], [ 164, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The automorphism group of the octonions (O) is the exceptional Lie group G2.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 51436, 6573043, 292864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 40 ], [ 52, 63 ], [ 74, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In graph theory an automorphism of a graph is a permutation of the nodes that preserves edges and non-edges. In particular, if two nodes are joined by an edge, so are their images under the permutation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 12401, 15094186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 20, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In geometry, an automorphism may be called a motion of the space. Specialized terminology is also used:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 18973446, 36132944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 46, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In metric geometry an automorphism is a self-isometry. The automorphism group is also called the isometry group.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 20018, 254777, 1101694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 46, 54 ], [ 98, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the category of Riemann surfaces, an automorphism is a biholomorphic map (also called a conformal map), from a surface to itself. For example, the automorphisms of the Riemann sphere are Möbius transformations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 173181, 6077963, 50627, 30876799, 314493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 35 ], [ 59, 72 ], [ 92, 105 ], [ 172, 186 ], [ 191, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " An automorphism of a differentiable manifold M is a diffeomorphism from M to itself. The automorphism group is sometimes denoted Diff(M).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 2073470, 8564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 45 ], [ 53, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In topology, morphisms between topological spaces are called continuous maps, and an automorphism of a topological space is a homeomorphism of the space to itself, or self-homeomorphism (see homeomorphism group). In this example it is not sufficient for a morphism to be bijective to be an isomorphism.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 29954, 6122, 13660, 1531409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 62, 77 ], [ 127, 140 ], [ 192, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the earliest group automorphisms (automorphism of a group, not simply a group of automorphisms of points) was given by the Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton in 1856, in his icosian calculus, where he discovered an order two automorphism, writing:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39817, 316081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 172 ], [ 189, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "so that is a new fifth root of unity, connected with the former fifth root by relations of perfect reciprocity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In some categories—notably groups, rings, and Lie algebras—it is possible to separate automorphisms into two types, called \"inner\" and \"outer\" automorphisms.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Inner and outer automorphisms", "target_page_ids": [ 19447, 48404, 17944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 33 ], [ 35, 40 ], [ 46, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the case of groups, the inner automorphisms are the conjugations by the elements of the group itself. For each element a of a group G, conjugation by a is the operation given by (or a−1ga; usage varies). One can easily check that conjugation by a is a group automorphism. The inner automorphisms form a normal subgroup of Aut(G), denoted by Inn(G); this is called Goursat's lemma.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Inner and outer automorphisms", "target_page_ids": [ 61839, 21918, 5114212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 45 ], [ 308, 323 ], [ 369, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The other automorphisms are called outer automorphisms. The quotient group is usually denoted by Out(G); the non-trivial elements are the cosets that contain the outer automorphisms.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Inner and outer automorphisms", "target_page_ids": [ 628466, 11526, 98759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 53 ], [ 60, 74 ], [ 139, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The same definition holds in any unital ring or algebra where a is any invertible element. For Lie algebras the definition is slightly different.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Inner and outer automorphisms", "target_page_ids": [ 191788, 48404, 191788, 289666, 17944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 39 ], [ 40, 44 ], [ 48, 55 ], [ 71, 89 ], [ 95, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antiautomorphism", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 706374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Automorphism (in Sudoku puzzles)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2912292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Characteristic subgroup", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Endomorphism ring", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 59623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Frobenius automorphism", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1088270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Morphism", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27716891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order automorphism (in order theory).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23916899, 361924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 24, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Relation-preserving automorphism", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fractional Fourier transform", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1103773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Automorphism at Encyclopaedia of Mathematics", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Morphisms", "Abstract_algebra", "Symmetry" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Accordions (from 19th-century German Akkordeon, from Akkord—\"musical chord, concord of sounds\") are a family of box-shaped musical instruments of the bellows-driven free-reed aerophone type ( producing sound as air flows past a reed in a frame), colloquially referred to as a squeezebox. A person who plays the accordion is an accordionist. The concertina and bandoneón are related. The harmonium and American reed organ are in the same family, but are typically larger than an accordion and sit on a surface or the floor.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11884, 27406894, 241247, 222612, 58984, 1188297, 58908, 209519, 1848717, 1848717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 36 ], [ 123, 141 ], [ 150, 157 ], [ 165, 184 ], [ 228, 232 ], [ 276, 286 ], [ 346, 356 ], [ 361, 370 ], [ 388, 397 ], [ 402, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The accordion is played by compressing or expanding the bellows while pressing buttons or keys, causing pallets to open, which allow air to flow across strips of brass or steel, called reeds. These vibrate to produce sound inside the body. Valves on opposing reeds of each note are used to make the instrument's reeds sound louder without air leaking from each reed block. The performer normally plays the melody on buttons or keys on the right-hand side (referred to as the manual), and the accompaniment on bass or pre-set chord buttons on the left-hand side.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20816, 58984, 37735, 1599825, 412339, 3727, 224256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 94 ], [ 185, 190 ], [ 406, 412 ], [ 475, 481 ], [ 492, 505 ], [ 509, 513 ], [ 525, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The accordion is widely spread across the world because of the waves of immigration from Europe to the Americas and other regions. In some countries (for example: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, and Panama) it is used in popular music (for example: tango in Argentina; gaucho, forró, and sertanejo in Brazil; vallenato in Colombia; merengue in the Dominican Republic; and norteño in Mexico), whereas in other regions (such as Europe, North America, and other countries in South America) it tends to be more used for dance-pop and folk music.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 376118, 1601244, 7897142, 891726, 425107, 964560, 526089, 10623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 283 ], [ 306, 311 ], [ 317, 326 ], [ 338, 347 ], [ 361, 369 ], [ 401, 408 ], [ 545, 554 ], [ 559, 569 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Europe and North America, Use in popular music also make use of the instrument. Additionally, the accordion is used in cajun, zydeco, jazz, and klezmer music, and in both solo and orchestral performances of classical music. The piano accordion is the official city instrument of San Francisco, California. Many conservatories in Europe have classical accordion departments. The oldest name for this group of instruments is harmonika, from the Greek harmonikos, meaning \"harmonic, musical\". Today, native versions of the name accordion are more common. These names refer to the type of accordion History, which concerned \"automatically coupled chords on the bass side\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 246576, 171090, 15613, 172824, 6668778, 1761769, 49728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 127 ], [ 129, 135 ], [ 137, 141 ], [ 147, 154 ], [ 210, 225 ], [ 231, 246 ], [ 282, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The accordion's basic form is believed to have been invented in Berlin, in 1822, by Christian Friedrich Ludwig Buschmann, although one instrument has been recently discovered that appears to have been built earlier.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3354, 7140378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 70 ], [ 84, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest history of the accordion in Russia is poorly documented. Nevertheless, according to Russian researchers, the earliest known simple accordions were made in Tula, Russia, by Ivan Sizov and Timofey Vorontsov around 1830, after they received an early accordion from Germany. By the late 1840s, the instrument was already very widespread;<ref>[ Etnograficheskii sbornik Russkogo geograficheskogo obshchestva. Vol.2] , Saint Petersburg, 1854. p.26, 162.</ref> together the factories of the two masters were producing 10,000 instruments a year. By 1866, over 50,000 instruments were being produced yearly by Tula and neighbouring villages, and by 1874 the yearly production was over 700,000. By the 1860s, Novgorod, Vyatka and Saratov governorates also had significant accordion production. By the 1880s, the list included Oryol, Ryazan, Moscow, Tver, Vologda, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod and Simbirsk, and many of these places created their own varieties of the instrument.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 173223, 21071566, 33051219, 41261316, 41261690, 41261768, 11715845, 39936889, 27573466, 41261809, 41261878, 41261937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 180 ], [ 712, 720 ], [ 722, 728 ], [ 733, 740 ], [ 829, 834 ], [ 836, 842 ], [ 844, 850 ], [ 852, 856 ], [ 858, 865 ], [ 867, 875 ], [ 877, 892 ], [ 897, 905 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The accordion is one of several European inventions of the early 19th century that use free reeds driven by a bellows. An instrument called accordion was first patented in 1829 by Cyrill Demian, of Armenian origin, in Vienna. Demian's instrument bore little resemblance to modern instruments. It only had a left hand buttonboard, with the right hand simply operating the bellows. One key feature for which Demian sought the patent was the sounding of an entire chord by depressing one key. His instrument also could sound two different chords with the same key, one for each bellows direction (a bisonoric action). At that time in Vienna, mouth harmonicas with Kanzellen (chambers) had already been available for many years, along with bigger instruments driven by hand bellows. The diatonic key arrangement was also already in use on mouth-blown instruments. Demian's patent thus covered an accompanying instrument: an accordion played with the left hand, opposite to the way that contemporary chromatic hand harmonicas were played, small and light enough for travelers to take with them and used to accompany singing. The patent also described instruments with both bass and treble sections, although Demian preferred the bass-only instrument owing to its cost and weight advantages.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19188490, 387816, 55866, 10232935, 3727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 180, 193 ], [ 198, 206 ], [ 218, 224 ], [ 783, 791 ], [ 1168, 1172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The accordion was introduced from Germany into Britain in about the year 1828. The instrument was noted in The Times in 1831 as one new to British audiences and was not favourably reviewed, but nevertheless it soon became popular. It had also become popular with New Yorkers by the mid-1840s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After Demian's invention, other accordions appeared, some featuring only the right-handed keyboard for playing melodies. It took English inventor Charles Wheatstone to bring both chords and keyboard together in one squeezebox. His 1844 patent for what he called a concertina also featured the ability to easily tune the reeds from the outside with a simple tool.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 58908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Austrian musician Adolf Müller described a great variety of instruments in his 1854 book Schule für Accordion. At the time, Vienna and London had a close musical relationship, with musicians often performing in both cities in the same year, so it is possible that Wheatstone was aware of this type of instrument and may have used them to put his key-arrangement ideas into practice.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 64252728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jeune's flutina resembles Wheatstone's concertina in internal construction and tone colour, but it appears to complement Demian's accordion functionally. The flutina is a one-sided bisonoric melody-only instrument whose keys are operated with the right hand while the bellows is operated with the left. When the two instruments are combined, the result is quite similar to diatonic button accordions still manufactured today.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2274226, 77892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 15 ], [ 79, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Further innovations followed and continue to the present. Various buttonboard and keyboard systems have been developed, as well as voicings (the combination of multiple tones at different octaves), with mechanisms to switch between different voices during performance, and different methods of internal construction to improve tone, stability and durability. Modern accordions may incorporate electronics such as condenser microphones and tone and volume controls, so that the accordion can be plugged into a PA system or keyboard amplifier for live shows. Some 2010s-era accordions may incorporate MIDI sensors and circuitry, enabling the accordion to be plugged into a synth module and produce accordion sounds or other synthesized instrument sounds, such as piano or organ.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 504807, 39457154, 61612428, 1438563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 509, 518 ], [ 522, 540 ], [ 599, 625 ], [ 671, 683 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Accordions have many configurations and types. What may be easy to do with one type of accordion could be technically challenging or impossible with another, and proficiency with one layout may not translate to another.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most obvious difference between accordions is their right-hand sides. Piano accordions use a piano-style musical keyboard; button accordions use a buttonboard. Button accordions are furthermore differentiated by their usage of a chromatic or diatonic buttonboard for the right-hand side.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 1761769, 20816, 10232935, 10232935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 89 ], [ 109, 125 ], [ 233, 242 ], [ 246, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Accordions may be either bisonoric, producing different pitches depending on the direction of bellows movement, or unisonoric, producing the same pitch in both directions. Piano accordions are unisonoric. Chromatic button accordions also tend to be unisonoric, while diatonic button accordions tend to be bisonoric, though notable exceptions exist.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 77933, 2280901, 2280969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 61 ], [ 205, 231 ], [ 267, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Accordion size is not standardized, and may vary significantly from model to model. Accordions vary not only in their dimensions and weight, but also in number of buttons or keys present in the right- and left-hand manuals. For example, piano accordions may have as few as 8 bass buttons (two rows of four notes), or up to 120 (six rows of twenty notes) or beyond. Accordions also vary by their available registers and by their specific tuning and voicing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 19559999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 395, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite these differences, all accordions share a number of common components.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The bellows is the most recognizable part of the instrument, and the primary means of articulation. The production of sound in an accordion is in direct proportion to the motion of the bellows by the player. In a sense, the role of the bellows can be compared to the role of moving a violin's bow on bowed strings. For a more direct analogy, the bellows can be compared to the role of breathing for a singer. The bellows is located between the right- and left-hand manuals, and is made from pleated layers of cloth and cardboard, with added leather and metal. It is used to create pressure and vacuum, driving air across the internal reeds and producing sound by their vibrations, applied pressure increases the volume.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 241247, 2578527, 32427, 4438668, 58984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 86, 98 ], [ 284, 290 ], [ 491, 496 ], [ 634, 639 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The keyboard touch is not expressive and does not affect dynamics: all expression is effected through the bellows. Bellows effects include:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 1761869, 226021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 36 ], [ 57, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Volume control, including swells and fades", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Repeated short, rapid changes of direction (\"bellows shake\"), which has been popularized by musicians such as Renato Borghetti (gaucho music) and Luiz Gonzaga, and extensively used in Forró, called resfulego in Brazil", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 4262142, 386905, 833109, 1601244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 127 ], [ 129, 135 ], [ 147, 159 ], [ 185, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Constant bellows motion while applying pressure at intervals", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Constant bellows motion to produce clear tones with no resonance", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Subtly changing the intonation to mimic the expressiveness of a singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Using the bellows with the silent air button gives the sound of air moving (\"whooshing\"), which is sometimes used in contemporary compositions for this instrument", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The accordion's body consists of two wooden boxes joined by the bellows. These boxes house reed chambers for the right- and left-hand manuals. Each side has grilles in order to facilitate the transmission of air in and out of the instrument, and to allow the sound to project better. The grille for the right-hand manual is usually larger and is often shaped for decorative purposes. The right-hand manual is normally used for playing the melody and the left-hand manual for playing the accompaniment; however, skilled players can reverse these roles and play melodies with the left hand.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 41079673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The size and weight of an accordion varies depending on its type, layout and playing range, which can be as small as to have only one or two rows of basses and a single octave on the right-hand manual, to the standard 120-bass accordion and through to large and heavy 160-bass free-bass converter models.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 37726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The accordion is an aerophone. The manual mechanism of the instrument either enables the air flow, or disables it:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 142753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term accordion covers a wide range of instruments, with varying components. All instruments have reed ranks of some format, apart from reedless digital accordions. Not all have switches to change registers or ranks, as some have only one treble register and one bass register. The most typical accordion is the piano accordion, which is used for many musical genres. Another type of accordion is the button accordion, which is used in musical traditions including Cajun, Conjunto and Tejano music, Swiss and Slovenian-Austro-German Alpine music, and Argentinian tango music. The Helikon-style accordion has multiple flared horns projecting out of the left side to strengthen the bass tone. The word \"Helikon\" refers to a deep-pitched tuba.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 61612428, 151823, 20809547, 13862138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 165 ], [ 488, 500 ], [ 583, 596 ], [ 704, 711 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Different systems exist for the right-hand manual of an accordion, which is normally used for playing the melody (while it can also play chords). Some use a button layout arranged in one way or another, while others use a piano-style keyboard. Each system has different claimed benefits by those who prefer it. They are also used to define one accordion or another as a different \"type\":", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 1508243, 23034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 163 ], [ 222, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chromatic button accordions and the bayan, a Russian variant, use a buttonboard where notes are arranged chromatically. Two major systems exist, referred to as the B-system and the C-system (there are also regional variants). Rarely, some chromatic button accordions have a decorative right-hand keyboard in addition to the rows of buttons, an approach used by the virtuoso accordionist Pietro Frosini.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 2280901, 972681, 10232935, 14858232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 37, 42 ], [ 106, 115 ], [ 388, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Diatonic button accordions use a buttonboard designed around the notes of diatonic scales in a small number of keys. The keys are often arranged in one row for each key available. Chromatic scales may be available by combining notes from different rows. The adjective \"diatonic\" is also commonly used to describe bisonic or bisonoric accordions—that is, instruments whose right-hand-manual (and in some instances even bass) keys each sound two different notes depending on the direction of the bellows (for instance, producing major triad sequences while closing the bellows and dominant seventh or 7–9 while opening). Such is the case, for instance, with the Argentinian bandoneon, the Slovenian-Austro-German Steirische Harmonika, the Czech Heligonka Harmonika, the Italian organetto, the Swiss Schwyzerörgeli and the Anglo concertina.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 2280969, 8202, 209519, 20809547, 6841914, 13645314, 44034500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ], [ 75, 90 ], [ 674, 683 ], [ 713, 733 ], [ 778, 787 ], [ 799, 813 ], [ 822, 838 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Piano accordions use a musical keyboard similar to a piano, at right angles to the cabinet, the tops of the keys inward toward the bellows.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 1761769, 20816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 24, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rarely used bass accordion has only a right-hand keyboard, with ranks of 8', 16', and 32' reeds, with the lowest note being the deepest pitch on a pipe organ pedal keyboard (pedal C). It is intended for performing basslines in accordion orchestras.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 1093053, 383364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 176 ], [ 218, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rarely used piccolo accordion also has only a right-hand keyboard.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 6-plus-6 accordions use a buttonboard with three rows of buttons in a \"uniform\" or \"whole-tone\" arrangement, generally known as a Jankó keyboard. The chromatic scale consists of two rows. The third row is a repetition of the first row, so there is the same fingering in all twelve scales. These accordions are produced only in special editions e.g. the logicordion produced by Harmona.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 309189, 309189, 33590264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 131, 145 ], [ 378, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Different systems are also in use for the left-hand manual, which is normally used for playing the accompaniment. These usually use distinct bass buttons and often have buttons with concavities or studs to help the player navigate the layout despite not being able to see the buttons while playing. There are three general categories:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Stradella bass system, also called standard bass, is arranged in a circle of fifths and uses single buttons for bass notes and additional rows of single buttons for preset major, minor, dominant seventh, and diminished chords. The dominant seventh and diminished chords are three-note chord voicings that omit the fifths of the chords. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 19560161, 238190, 224256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 26 ], [ 72, 88 ], [ 224, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Belgian bass system is a variation used in Belgian chromatic accordions. It is also arranged in a circle of fifths but in reverse order. This system has three rows of basses, three rows of chord buttons allowing easier fingering for playing melodies, combined chords, better use of fingers one and five, and more space between the buttons. This system was rarely used outside of its native Belgium.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Various free-bass systems for greater access to playing melodies and complex basslines on the left-hand manual and to forming one's own chords note-by-note. These are often chosen for playing jazz and classical music. Some models can convert between free-bass and Stradella bass; this is called converter bass. The free-bass left hand notes are arranged chromatically in three rows with one additional duplicate row of buttons.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 19560335, 383364, 15613, 6668778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ], [ 78, 86 ], [ 193, 197 ], [ 202, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Luttbeg double-keyboard piano accordions have a piano keyboard layout on both the treble and bass sides. This allows pianists, most notably Duke Ellington, to double up on the accordion without difficulty. The Bercandeon is an improved version of that instrument, also making it a \"keyboard bandoneon\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 23528, 41536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 126 ], [ 141, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Inside the accordion are the reeds that generate the instrument tones. These are organized in different sounding banks, which can be further combined into registers producing differing timbres. All but the smaller accordions are equipped with switches that control which combination of reed banks operate, organized from high to low registers. Each register stop produces a separate sound timbre, many of which also differ in octaves or in how different octaves are combined. See the accordion reed ranks and switches article for further explanation and audio samples. All but the smaller accordions usually have treble switches. The larger and more expensive accordions often also have bass switches to give options for the reed bank on the bass side.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 77892, 612508, 19559999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 191 ], [ 333, 342 ], [ 484, 517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In describing or pricing an accordion, the first factor is size, expressed in number of keys on either side. For a piano type, this could for one example be 37/96, meaning 37 treble keys (three octaves plus one note) on the treble side and 96 bass keys. A second aspect of size is the width of the white keys, which means that even accordions with the same number of keys have keyboards of different lengths, ranging from for a child's accordion to for an adult-sized instrument. After size, the price and weight of an accordion is largely dependent on the number of reed ranks on either side, either on a cassotto or not, and to a lesser degree on the number of combinations available through register switches.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 19559999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 608, 616 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Price is also affected by the use of costly woods, luxury decorations, and features such as a palm switch, grille mute, and so on. Some accordion makers sell a range of different models, from a less-expensive base model to a more costly luxury model. Typically, the register switches are described as Reeds: 5 + 3, meaning five reeds on the treble side and three on the bass, and Registers: 13 + M, 7, meaning 13 register buttons on the treble side plus a special \"master\" that activates all ranks, like the \"tutti\" or \"full organ\" switch on an organ, and seven register switches on the bass side. Another factor affecting the price is the presence of electronics, such as condenser microphones, volume and tone controls, or MIDI sensors and connections.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The larger piano and chromatic button accordions are usually heavier than other smaller squeezeboxes, and are equipped with two shoulder straps to make it easier to balance the weight and increase bellows control while sitting, and avoid dropping the instrument while standing. Other accordions, such as the diatonic button accordion, have only a single shoulder strap and a right hand thumb strap. All accordions have a (mostly adjustable) leather strap on the left-hand manual to keep the player's hand in position while drawing the bellows. There are also straps above and below the bellows to keep it securely closed when the instrument is not playing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 1188297, 2280969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 98 ], [ 308, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2010s, a range of electronic and digital accordions were introduced. They have an electronic sound module which creates the accordion sound, and most use MIDI systems to encode the keypresses and transmit them to the sound module. A digital accordion can have hundreds of sounds, which can include different types of accordions and even non-accordion sounds, such as pipe organ, piano, or guitar. Sensors are used on the buttons and keys, such as magnetic reed switches. Sensors are also used on the bellows to transmit the pushing and pulling of the bellows to the sound module. Digital accordions may have features not found in acoustic instruments, such as a piano-style sustain pedal, a modulation control for changing keys, and a portamento effect.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 1438563, 19996, 1819823, 730943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 112 ], [ 161, 165 ], [ 681, 694 ], [ 742, 752 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As an electronic instrument, these types of accordions are plugged into a PA system or keyboard amplifier to produce sound. Some digital accordions have a small internal speaker and amplifier, so they can be used without a PA system or keyboard amplifier, at least for practicing and small venues like coffeehouses. One benefit of electronic accordions is that they can be practiced with headphones, making them inaudible to other people nearby. On a digital accordion, the volume of the right-hand keyboard and the left-hand buttons can be independently adjusted.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 504807, 39457154, 370815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 83 ], [ 87, 105 ], [ 302, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Acoustic-digital hybrid accordions also exist. They are acoustic accordions (with reeds, bellows, and so on), but they also contain sensors, electronics, and MIDI connections, which provides a wider range of sound options. An acoustic-digital hybrid may be manufactured in this form, or it may be an acoustic accordion which has had aftermarket electronics sensors and connections added. Several companies sell aftermarket electronics kits, but they are typically installed by professional accordion technicians, due to the complex and delicate nature of the internal parts of an accordion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Various hybrid accordions have been created between instruments of different buttonboards and actions. Many remain curiosities – only a few have remained in use:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Schrammel accordion, used in Viennese chamber music and klezmer, which has the treble buttonboard of a chromatic button accordion and a bisonoric bass buttonboard, similar to an expanded diatonic button accordion", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 3225628, 55866, 82991, 172824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 24 ], [ 34, 42 ], [ 43, 56 ], [ 61, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Steirische Harmonika, a type of bisonoric diatonic button accordion particular to the Alpine folk music of Slovenia, Austria, the Czech Republic, the German state of Bavaria, and the Italian South Tyrol", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 20809547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The schwyzerörgeli or Swiss organ, which usually has a three-row diatonic treble and 18 unisonoric bass buttons in a bass/chord arrangement – a subset of the Stradella system in reverse order like the Belgian bass – that travel parallel to the bellows motion", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 13645314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The trikitixa of the Basque people, which has a two-row diatonic, bisonoric treble and a 12-button diatonic unisonoric bass", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 1262094, 4660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 14 ], [ 22, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The British chromatic accordion, the favoured diatonic accordion in Scotland. While the right hand is bisonoric, the left hand follows the Stradella system. The elite form of this instrument is generally considered the German manufactured Shand Morino, produced by Hohner with the input of Sir Jimmy Shand", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 1279477, 898158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 272 ], [ 291, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pedal harmony, a type of accordion used sometimes in Polish folk music, which has a pair of pump organ-like bellows attached.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 1848717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Finnish composer and accordionist Veli Kujala developed a quarter tone accordion together with the Italian accordion manufacturer Pigini in 2005, and has written works for it. It deploys the same system as the concert accordion, with a scale of five octaves, each divided into 24 quarter tones. Other notable composers who have written concertos for the quarter tone accordion include Jukka Tiensuu and Sampo Haapamäki.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Construction", "target_page_ids": [ 10577, 639578, 14532, 35984, 44116, 9192660, 34283988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 12 ], [ 63, 75 ], [ 104, 111 ], [ 145, 149 ], [ 341, 349 ], [ 390, 403 ], [ 408, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most expensive accordions are typically fully hand-made, particularly the reeds; completely hand-made reeds have a better tonal quality than even the best automatically manufactured ones. Some accordions have been modified by individuals striving to bring a more pure sound out of low-end instruments, such as the ones improved by Yutaka Usui, a Japanese craftsman.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Manufacturing process", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The manufacture of an accordion is only a partly automated process. In a sense, all accordions are handmade, since there is always some hand assembly of the small parts required. The general process involves making the individual parts, assembling the subsections, assembling the entire instrument, and final decorating and packaging.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Manufacturing process", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Famous centres of production are the Italian cities of Stradella and Castelfidardo, with many small and medium size manufacturers especially at the latter. Castelfidardo honours the memory of Paolo Soprani who was one of the first large-scale producers. Maugein Freres has built accordions in the French town of Tulle since 1919, and the company is now the last complete-process manufacturer of accordions in France. German companies such as Hohner and Weltmeister made large numbers of accordions, but production diminished by the end of the 20th century. Hohner still manufactures its top-end models in Germany, and Weltmeister instruments are still handmade by HARMONA Akkordeon GmbH in Klingenthal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Manufacturing process", "target_page_ids": [ 1057089, 5904222, 477896, 1279477, 33590264, 33590264, 5932431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 65 ], [ 70, 83 ], [ 313, 318 ], [ 443, 449 ], [ 454, 465 ], [ 666, 688 ], [ 692, 703 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The accordion has traditionally been used to perform folk or ethnic music, popular music, and transcriptions from the operatic and light-classical music repertoire. It was also used by the Kikuyu tribe in Kenya and is the main instrument in the traditional Mwomboko dance. Today the instrument is sometimes heard in contemporary pop styles, such as rock and pop-rock, and occasionally even in serious classical music concerts, as well as advertisements.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 10623, 177202, 188171, 7885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 73 ], [ 189, 195 ], [ 205, 210 ], [ 266, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The accordion's popularity spread rapidly: it has mostly been associated with the common people, and was propagated by Europeans who emigrated around the world. The accordion in both button and piano forms became a favorite of folk musicians and has been integrated into traditional music styles all over the world: see the list of music styles that incorporate the accordion.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 10623, 19524512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 271, 288 ], [ 324, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early jazz accordionists include Charles Melrose, who recorded Wailing Blues/Barrel House Stomp (1930, Voc. 1503) with the Cellar Boys; Buster Moten, who played second piano and accordion in the Bennie Moten orchestra; and Jack Cornell, who did recordings with Irving Mills. Later jazz accordionists from the United States include Steve Bach, Milton DeLugg, Orlando DiGirolamo, Dominic Frontiere, Guy Klucevsek, Yuri Lemeshev, Frank Marocco, John Serry Sr., Lee Tomboulian, and Art Van Damme. French jazz accordionists include Richard Galliano, Bernard Lubat, and Vincent Peirani. Norwegian jazz accordionists include Asmund Bjørken, Stian Carstensen, Gabriel Fliflet, Frode Haltli, and Eivin One Pedersen.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 61041065, 274783, 10801309, 6997149, 614113, 8627279, 17510995, 2667812, 21913850, 7253179, 824790, 54030708, 42444474, 40349140, 7950094, 37082420, 5140321, 41036062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 331, 341 ], [ 343, 356 ], [ 358, 376 ], [ 378, 395 ], [ 397, 410 ], [ 412, 425 ], [ 427, 440 ], [ 442, 456 ], [ 458, 472 ], [ 478, 491 ], [ 527, 543 ], [ 545, 558 ], [ 564, 579 ], [ 618, 632 ], [ 634, 650 ], [ 652, 667 ], [ 669, 681 ], [ 687, 705 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the accordion's left hand preset chord buttons are limited to triads and seventh chords (for the dominant seventh chord and the diminished seventh chord), jazz accordionists expand the range of chord possibilities by using more than one chord button simultaneously, or by using combinations of a chord button and a bass note other than the typical root of the chord. An example of the former technique is used to play a minor seventh chord. To play an \"a minor\" seventh chord (with an added ninth), the \"a minor\" and \"e minor\" preset buttons are pressed simultaneously, along with an \"A\" bassnote. An example of the latter technique is used to play the half-diminished chord. To play an \"e\" half-diminished seventh chord, a \"g minor\" preset button is pressed along with an \"E\" bassnote.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 1009701, 4185310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 426, 445 ], [ 659, 680 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The accordion appeared in popular music from the 1900s to the 1960s. This half-century is often called the \"golden age of the accordion\". Five players, Pietro Frosini, the two brothers Count Guido Deiro and Pietro Deiro and Slovenian brothers Vilko Ovsenik and Slavko Avsenik, Charles Magnante were major influences at this time.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 24297671, 14858232, 10540615, 14829496, 57738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 39 ], [ 152, 166 ], [ 191, 202 ], [ 207, 219 ], [ 261, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most vaudeville theaters closed during the Great Depression, but accordionists during the 1930s–1950s taught and performed for radio. Included among this group was the concert virtuoso John Serry, Sr. During the 1950s through the 1980s the accordion received significant exposure on television with performances by Myron Floren on The Lawrence Welk Show. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the accordion declined in popularity due to the rise of rock and roll. The first accordionist to appear and perform at the Newport Jazz Festival was Angelo DiPippo. He can be seen playing his accordion in the motion picture The Godfather. He also composed and performed with his accordion on part of the soundtrack of Woody Allen's movie To Rome With Love. He was featured twice on The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 48235, 19283335, 2667812, 877691, 782808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ], [ 43, 59 ], [ 185, 200 ], [ 315, 327 ], [ 331, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Richard Galliano is an internationally known accordionist whose repertoire covers jazz, tango nuevo, Latin, and classical. Some popular bands use the instrument to create distinctive sounds. A notable example is Grammy Award-winning parodist \"Weird Al\" Yankovic, who plays the accordion on many of his musical tracks, particularly his polkas. Yankovic was trained in the accordion as a child.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 824790, 44635, 1743090, 18938265, 43397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 212, 232 ], [ 233, 241 ], [ 242, 261 ], [ 335, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The accordion has also been used in the rock genre, most notably by John Linnell of They Might Be Giants, featuring more prominently in the band's earlier works. The instrument is still frequently used during live performances, and continues to make appearances in their studio albums. Accordion is also used in the music of the Dropkick Murphys and Gogol Bordello.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 62351, 31089, 590909, 1119761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 80 ], [ 84, 104 ], [ 329, 345 ], [ 350, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Accordionists in heavy metal music make their most extensive appearances in the folk metal subgenre, and are otherwise generally rare. Full-time accordionists in folk metal seem even rarer, but they are still utilized for studio work, as flexible keyboardists are usually more accessible for live performances. The Finnish symphonic folk-metal band Turisas used to have a full-time accordionist, employing classical and polka sensibilities alongside a violinist. One of their accordionists, Netta Skog, is now a member of Ensiferum, another folk-metal band. Another Finnish metal band, Korpiklaani, invokes a type of Finnish polka called humppa, and also has a full-time accordionist. Sarah Kiener, the former hurdy-gurdy player for the Swiss melodic-death-folk metal band Eluveitie, played a Helvetic accordion known as a zugerörgeli.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 13869, 73594, 989523, 999848, 3350364, 1305674, 158996, 18583037, 492011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 34 ], [ 80, 90 ], [ 349, 356 ], [ 522, 531 ], [ 586, 597 ], [ 638, 644 ], [ 710, 721 ], [ 773, 782 ], [ 793, 801 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although best known as a folk instrument, it has grown in popularity among classical composers. The earliest surviving concert piece is , written in 1836 by Louise Reisner of Paris. Other composers, including the Russian Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, the Italian Umberto Giordano, and the American Charles Ives, wrote works for the diatonic button accordion.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 24503, 272884, 66283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 245 ], [ 259, 275 ], [ 294, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first composer to write specifically for the chromatic accordion was Paul Hindemith. In 1922, the Austrian Alban Berg included an accordion in Wozzeck, Op. 7. In 1937, the first accordion concerto was composed in Russia. Other notable composers have written for the accordion during the first half of the 20th century. Included among this group was the Italian-American John Serry Sr., whose Concerto for Free Bass Accordion was completed in 1964. In addition, the American accordionist Robert Davine composed his Divertimento for Flute, Clarinet, Bassoon and Accordion as a work for chamber orchestra. American composer William P. Perry featured the accordion in his orchestral suite Six Title Themes in Search of a Movie (2008). The experimental composer Howard Skempton began his musical career as an accordionist, and has written numerous solo works for it. In his work Drang (1999), British composer John Palmer pushed the expressive possibilities of the accordion/bayan. Luciano Berio wrote Sequenza XIII (1995) for accordionist Teodoro Anzellotti. Accordionists like Mogens Ellegaard, Joseph Macerollo, Friedrich Lips, Hugo Noth, Stefan Hussong, Teodoro Anzellotti, and Geir Draugsvoll, encouraged composers to write new music for the accordion (solo and chamber music) and also started playing baroque music on the free bass accordion.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 49234, 81469, 2406, 534416, 53324703, 2667812, 7766090, 60663075, 8989778, 1775764, 42823962, 19686116, 70940897, 66247148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 58 ], [ 73, 87 ], [ 111, 121 ], [ 147, 154 ], [ 182, 200 ], [ 374, 388 ], [ 396, 428 ], [ 491, 504 ], [ 625, 641 ], [ 761, 776 ], [ 982, 995 ], [ 1079, 1095 ], [ 1097, 1113 ], [ 1142, 1156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "French composer Henri Dutilleux used an accordion in both his late song cycles Correspondances (2003) and Le Temps l'Horloge (2009). Russian-born composer Sofia Gubaidulina has composed solos, concertos, and chamber works for accordion. Astor Piazzolla's concert tangos are performed widely. Piazzolla performed on the bandoneon, but his works are performed on either bandoneon or accordion.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 655020, 15748308, 384682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 31 ], [ 106, 124 ], [ 156, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest mention of the novel accordion instrument in Australian music occurs in the 1830s.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 67530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The accordion initially competed against cheaper and more convenient reed instruments such as mouth organ, concertina and melodeon.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Frank Fracchia was an Australian accordion composer and copies of his works \"My dear, can you come out tonight\" and \"Dancing with you\" are preserved in Australian libraries.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other Australian composers who arranged music for accordion include Reginald Stoneham.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 32575667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The popularity of the accordion peaked in the late 1930s and continued until the 1950s.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The accordion was particularly favoured by buskers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The accordion is a traditional instrument in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is the dominant instrument used in sevdalinka, a traditional genre of folk music from Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is also considered a national instrument of the country.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 3463, 952074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 67 ], [ 107, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The accordion was brought to Brazil by settlers and immigrants from Europe, especially from Italy and Germany, who mainly settled in the south (Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina and Paraná). The first instrument brought was a \"Concertina\" (a 120 button chromatic accordion). The instrument was popular in the 1950s, and it was common to find several accordions in the same house. There are many different configurations and tunes which were adapted from the cultures that came from Europe.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Accordion is the official symbol instrument of the Rio Grande do Sul state, where was voted by unanimity in the deputy chamber.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the boom of accordions there were around 65 factories in Brazil, where most of them (52) in the south, in Rio Grande do Sul state, with only 7 outside the south. One of the most famous and genuinely Brazilian brands was Acordeões Todeschini from Bento Gonçalves-RS, closed in 1973. The Todeschini accordion is very appreciated today and survives with very few maintainers. The most notable musicians of button accordions are Renato Borghetti, Adelar Bertussi, Albino Manique and Edson Dutra.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Compared to many other countries, the instrument is very popular in mainstream pop music. In some parts of the country, such as the northeast it is the most popular melodic instrument. As opposed to most European folk accordions, a very dry tuning is usually used in Brazil. Outside the south, the accordion (predominantly the piano accordion) is used in almost all styles of Forró (in particular in the subgenres of Xote and Baião) as the principal instrument, Luiz Gonzaga (the \"King of the Baião\") and Dominguinhos being among the notable musicians in this style from the northeast. In this musical style the typical combination is a trio of accordion, triangle and zabumba (a type of drum).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 1601244, 1405427, 833109, 1405427, 25646577, 159494, 14739660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 376, 381 ], [ 426, 431 ], [ 462, 474 ], [ 493, 498 ], [ 505, 517 ], [ 657, 665 ], [ 670, 677 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This style has gained popularity recently, in particular among the student population of the southeast of the country (in the Forró Universitário genre, with important exponents today being Falamansa, and trios such as Trio Dona Zefa, Trio Virgulino and Trio Alvorada). Moreover, the accordion is the principal instrument in Junina music (music of the São João Festival), with Mario Zan having been a very important exponent of this music. It is an important instrument in Sertanejo (and Caipira) music, which originated in the midwest and southeast of Brazil, and subsequently has gained popularity throughout the country.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 7897142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 473, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The accordion is also a traditional instrument in Colombia, commonly associated with the vallenato and cumbia genres. The accordion has been used by tropipop musicians such as Carlos Vives, Andrés Cabas, Fonseca (singer) and Bacilos, as well as rock musicians such as Juanes and pop musicians as Shakira. Vallenato, who emerged in the early twentieth century in a city known as Valledupar, and have come to symbolize the folk music of Colombia.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 891726, 461637, 29163577, 166747, 1902482, 3226115, 1453690, 991041, 6479315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 98 ], [ 103, 109 ], [ 149, 157 ], [ 176, 188 ], [ 190, 202 ], [ 204, 220 ], [ 225, 232 ], [ 268, 274 ], [ 296, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Every year in April, Colombia holds one of the most important musical festivals in the country: the Vallenato Legend Festival. The festival holds contests for best accordion player. Once every decade, the \"King of Kings\" accordion competition takes place, where winners of the previous festivals compete for the highest possible award for a vallenato accordion player: the Pilonera Mayor prize. This is the world's largest competitive accordion festival.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 2877473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Norteño heavily relies on the accordion; it is a genre related to polka. Ramón Ayala, known in Mexico as the \"King of the Accordion\", is a norteño musician. Cumbia, which features the accordion, is also popular with musicians such as Celso Piña, creating a more contemporary style. U.S.-born Mexican musician Julieta Venegas incorporates the sound of the instrument into rock, pop and folk. She was influenced by her fellow Chicanos Los Lobos who also use the music of the accordion.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 964560, 2210862, 461637, 26566409, 2177234, 161395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 73, 84 ], [ 157, 163 ], [ 234, 244 ], [ 309, 324 ], [ 433, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Barbara Demick in Nothing to Envy'', the accordion is known as \"the people's instrument\" and all North Korean teachers were expected to learn the accordion.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 24105397, 28796302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 27 ], [ 31, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The number of accordionists in China exceeds every other country in the world, and possibly every country combined. Introduced in 1926, the accordion has risen to popularity in China throughout the years, thanks to Russian teachers and its being a popular instrument in the People's Liberation Army, and remains popular.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Use in various music genres", "target_page_ids": [ 66890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 274, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of accordionists", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2281054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Steirische Harmonika", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20809547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] } ]

[ "Accordion", "Folk_music_instruments", "Articles_containing_video_clips", "German_inventions", "19th-century_inventions" ]

[ "musette-type" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence demonstrated by machines, as opposed to the natural intelligence displayed by animals including humans. AI research has been defined as the field of study of intelligent agents, which refers to any system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of achieving its goals.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 519280, 51462, 425938, 168191, 2711317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 44 ], [ 61, 68 ], [ 123, 130 ], [ 141, 147 ], [ 203, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term \"artificial intelligence\" had previously been used to describe machines that mimic and display \"human\" cognitive skills that are associated with the human mind, such as \"learning\" and \"problem-solving\". This definition has since been rejected by major AI researchers who now describe AI in terms of rationality and acting rationally, which does not limit how intelligence can be articulated.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19378, 61032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 168 ], [ 308, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AI applications include advanced web search engines (e.g., Google), recommendation systems (used by YouTube, Amazon and Netflix), understanding human speech (such as Siri and Alexa), self-driving cars (e.g., Tesla), automated decision-making and competing at the highest level in strategic game systems (such as chess and Go).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 15893057, 4059023, 12431, 596646, 3524766, 90451, 175537, 98778, 26086272, 51060375, 245926, 5533631, 68710620, 53680, 5134, 64971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 33, 43 ], [ 59, 65 ], [ 68, 90 ], [ 100, 107 ], [ 109, 115 ], [ 120, 127 ], [ 130, 156 ], [ 166, 170 ], [ 175, 180 ], [ 183, 199 ], [ 208, 213 ], [ 216, 241 ], [ 280, 294 ], [ 312, 317 ], [ 322, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As machines become increasingly capable, tasks considered to require \"intelligence\" are often removed from the definition of AI, a phenomenon known as the AI effect. For instance, optical character recognition is frequently excluded from things considered to be AI, having become a routine technology.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21666977, 49091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 164 ], [ 180, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Artificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956, and in the years since has experienced several waves of optimism, followed by disappointment and the loss of funding (known as an \"AI winter\"), followed by new approaches, success and renewed funding. AI research has tried and discarded many different approaches since its founding, including simulating the brain, modeling human problem solving, formal logic, large databases of knowledge and imitating animal behavior. In the first decades of the 21st century, highly mathematical-statistical machine learning has dominated the field, and this technique has proved highly successful, helping to solve many challenging problems throughout industry and academia.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3548574, 339417, 339417, 339417, 233488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 211 ], [ 386, 416 ], [ 418, 430 ], [ 432, 460 ], [ 566, 582 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The various sub-fields of AI research are centered around particular goals and the use of particular tools. The traditional goals of AI research include reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception, and the ability to move and manipulate objects. General intelligence (the ability to solve an arbitrary problem) is among the field's long-term goals. To solve these problems, AI researchers have adapted and integrated a wide range of problem-solving techniques – including search and mathematical optimization, formal logic, artificial neural networks, and methods based on statistics, probability and economics. AI also draws upon computer science, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, and many other fields.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2884728, 16920, 1505641, 233488, 21652, 11920671, 586357, 21523, 26685, 22934, 9223, 5323, 22921, 22760983, 13692155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 162 ], [ 164, 188 ], [ 190, 198 ], [ 200, 208 ], [ 210, 237 ], [ 239, 249 ], [ 299, 319 ], [ 577, 602 ], [ 626, 636 ], [ 638, 649 ], [ 654, 663 ], [ 684, 700 ], [ 702, 712 ], [ 714, 725 ], [ 727, 737 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The field was founded on the assumption that human intelligence \"can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This raised philosophical arguments about the mind and the ethical consequences of creating artificial beings endowed with human-like intelligence; these issues have previously been explored by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity. Computer scientists and philosophers have since suggested that AI may become an existential risk to humanity if its rational capacities are not steered towards beneficial goals.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2894560, 11746227, 2958015, 328784, 23276, 21221594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 198 ], [ 200, 207 ], [ 212, 222 ], [ 240, 258 ], [ 264, 275 ], [ 320, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Artificial beings with intelligence appeared as storytelling devices in antiquity,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 586357, 65761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 48, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and have been common in fiction, as in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein or Karel Čapek's R.U.R. These characters and their fates raised many of the same issues now discussed in the ethics of artificial intelligence.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 27885687, 18580673, 43469, 37386, 13659583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 51 ], [ 54, 66 ], [ 70, 81 ], [ 84, 90 ], [ 176, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The study of mechanical or \"formal\" reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity. The study of mathematical logic led directly to Alan Turing's theory of computation, which suggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as \"0\" and \"1\", could simulate any conceivable act of mathematical deduction. This insight that digital computers can simulate any process of formal reasoning is known as the Church–Turing thesis.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 42446, 23276, 1208, 30402, 6854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 45 ], [ 57, 68 ], [ 151, 162 ], [ 165, 186 ], [ 426, 446 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Church-Turing thesis, along with concurrent discoveries in neurobiology, information theory and cybernetics, led researchers to consider the possibility of building an electronic brain.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21245, 14773, 20786042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 75 ], [ 77, 95 ], [ 100, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first work that is now generally recognized as AI was McCullouch and Pitts' 1943 formal design for Turing-complete \"artificial neurons\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 44508, 302949, 30621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 68 ], [ 73, 78 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the 1950s, two visions for how to achieve machine intelligence emerged. One vision, known as Symbolic AI or GOFAI, was to use computers to create a symbolic representation of the world and systems that could reason about the world. Proponents included Allen Newell, Herbert A. Simon, and Marvin Minsky. Closely associated with this approach was the \"heuristic search\" approach, which likened intelligence to a problem of exploring a space of possibilities for answers. The second vision, known as the connectionist approach, sought to achieve intelligence through learning. Proponents of this approach, most prominently Frank Rosenblatt, sought to connect Perceptron in ways inspired by connections of neurons. James Manyika and others have compared the two approaches to the mind (Symbolic AI) and the brain (connectionist). Manyika argues that symbolic approaches dominated the push for artificial intelligence in this period, due in part to its connection to intellectual traditions of Descarte, Boole, Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, and others. Connectionist approaches based on cybernetics or artificial neural networks were pushed to the background but have gained new prominence in recent decades.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 339417, 339417, 287300, 14205, 19639, 14220429, 263636, 1945462, 172777, 67054554, 25525, 38298, 48416, 4163, 20786042, 21523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 107 ], [ 111, 116 ], [ 255, 267 ], [ 269, 285 ], [ 291, 304 ], [ 352, 370 ], [ 504, 526 ], [ 623, 639 ], [ 659, 669 ], [ 714, 727 ], [ 992, 1000 ], [ 1002, 1007 ], [ 1009, 1022 ], [ 1024, 1040 ], [ 1088, 1099 ], [ 1103, 1128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The field of AI research was born at a workshop at Dartmouth College in 1956.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1124646, 8418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 47 ], [ 51, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The attendees became the founders and leaders of AI research.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "They and their students produced programs that the press described as \"astonishing\":", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "computers were learning checkers strategies, solving word problems in algebra, proving logical theorems and speaking English.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 62459, 30977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 32 ], [ 87, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the middle of the 1960s, research in the U.S. was heavily funded by the Department of Defense", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and laboratories had been established around the world.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Researchers in the 1960s and the 1970s were convinced that symbolic approaches would eventually succeed in creating a machine with artificial general intelligence and considered this the goal of their field.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 586357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Herbert Simon predicted, \"machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14205 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marvin Minsky agreed, writing, \"within a generation... the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence' will substantially be solved\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "They failed to recognize the difficulty of some of the remaining tasks. Progress slowed and in 1974, in response to the criticism of Sir James Lighthill", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1940377, 946659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 129 ], [ 133, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and ongoing pressure from the US Congress to fund more productive projects, both the U.S. and British governments cut off exploratory research in AI. The next few years would later be called an \"AI winter\", a period when obtaining funding for AI projects was difficult.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 80183, 3548574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 74 ], [ 195, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "a form of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of human experts. By 1985, the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars. At the same time, Japan's fifth generation computer project inspired the U.S. and British governments to restore funding for academic research.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 347832, 25524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 204 ], [ 278, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, beginning with the collapse of the Lisp Machine market in 1987, AI once again fell into disrepute, and a second, longer-lasting winter began.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many researchers began to doubt that the symbolic approach would be able to imitate all the processes of human cognition, especially perception, robotics, learning and pattern recognition. A number of researchers began to look into \"sub-symbolic\" approaches to specific AI problems. Robotics researchers, such as Rodney Brooks, rejected symbolic AI and focused on the basic engineering problems that would allow robots to move, survive, and learn their environment.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 339417, 11920671, 233488, 126706, 20903754, 632498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 58 ], [ 133, 143 ], [ 155, 163 ], [ 168, 187 ], [ 283, 291 ], [ 313, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Interest in neural networks and \"connectionism\" was revived by Geoffrey Hinton, David Rumelhart and others in the middle of the 1980s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21523, 263636, 507174, 2823113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 27 ], [ 33, 46 ], [ 63, 78 ], [ 80, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soft computing tools were developed in the 1980s, such as neural networks, fuzzy systems, Grey system theory, evolutionary computation and many tools drawn from statistics or mathematical optimization.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 66887194, 21523, 48660, 20748374, 268020, 26685, 52033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 58, 73 ], [ 75, 87 ], [ 90, 108 ], [ 110, 134 ], [ 161, 171 ], [ 175, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AI gradually restored its reputation in the late 1990s and early 21st century by finding specific solutions to specific problems. The narrow focus allowed researchers to produce verifiable results, exploit more mathematical methods, and collaborate with other fields (such as statistics, economics and mathematics).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26685, 9223, 52033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 276, 286 ], [ 288, 297 ], [ 302, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 2000, solutions developed by AI researchers were being widely used, although in the 1990s they were rarely described as \"artificial intelligence\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Faster computers, algorithmic improvements, and access to large amounts of data enabled advances in machine learning and perception; data-hungry deep learning methods started to dominate accuracy benchmarks around 2012.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39418, 27051151, 233488, 32472154, 32472154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 58, 79 ], [ 100, 116 ], [ 145, 158 ], [ 207, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Bloomberg's Jack Clark, 2015 was a landmark year for artificial intelligence, with the number of software projects that use AI within Google increased from a \"sporadic usage\" in 2012 to more than 2,700 projects. He attributes this to an increase in affordable neural networks, due to a rise in cloud computing infrastructure and to an increase in research tools and datasets. In a 2017 survey, one in five companies reported they had \"incorporated AI in some offerings or processes\". The amount of research into AI (measured by total publications) increased by 50% in the years 2015–2019.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3057255, 1092923, 21523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 24 ], [ 147, 153 ], [ 273, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Numerous academic researchers became concerned that AI was no longer pursuing the original goal of creating versatile, fully intelligent machines. Much of current research involves statistical AI, which is overwhelmingly used to solve specific problems, even highly successful techniques such as deep learning. This concern has led to the subfield of artificial general intelligence (or \"AGI\"), which had several well-funded institutions by the 2010s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32472154, 586357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 296, 309 ], [ 351, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken down into sub-problems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers expect an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Early researchers developed algorithms that imitated step-by-step reasoning that humans use when they solve puzzles or make logical deductions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By the late 1980s and 1990s, AI research had developed methods for dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts from probability and economics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 63778, 22934, 9223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 89 ], [ 141, 152 ], [ 157, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of these algorithms proved to be insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experienced a \"combinatorial explosion\": they became exponentially slower as the problems grew larger.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Even humans rarely use the step-by-step deduction that early AI research could model. They solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgments.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 458499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "allow AI programs to answer questions intelligently and make deductions about real-world facts.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A representation of \"what exists\" is an ontology: the set of objects, relations, concepts, and properties formally described so that software agents can interpret them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 49681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most general ontologies are called upper ontologies, which attempt to provide a foundation for all other knowledge and act as mediators between domain ontologies that cover specific knowledge about a particular knowledge domain (field of interest or area of concern). A truly intelligent program would also need access to commonsense knowledge; the set of facts that an average person knows. The semantics of an ontology is typically represented in description logic, such as the Web Ontology Language.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 3200382, 49681, 49681, 29107, 248001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 55 ], [ 148, 165 ], [ 225, 231 ], [ 400, 409 ], [ 484, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AI research has developed tools to represent specific domains, such as objects, properties, categories and relations between objects;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "situations, events, states and time;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "causes and effects;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know);.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "default reasoning (things that humans assume are true until they are told differently and will remain true even when other facts are changing);", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 889639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "as well as other domains. Among the most difficult problems in AI are: the breadth of commonsense knowledge (the number of atomic facts that the average person knows is enormous);", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and the sub-symbolic form of most commonsense knowledge (much of what people know is not represented as \"facts\" or \"statements\" that they could express verbally).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Formal knowledge representations are used in content-based indexing and retrieval,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "scene interpretation,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "clinical decision support,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "knowledge discovery (mining \"interesting\" and actionable inferences from large databases),", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and other areas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An intelligent agent that can plan makes a representation of the state of the world, makes predictions about how their actions will change it and make choices that maximize the utility (or \"value\") of the available choices.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 1505641, 45479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 34 ], [ 177, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In classical planning problems, the agent can assume that it is the only system acting in the world, allowing the agent to be certain of the consequences of its actions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, if the agent is not the only actor, then it requires that the agent reason under uncertainty, and continuously re-assess its environment and adapt.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Multi-agent planning uses the cooperation and competition of many agents to achieve a given goal. Emergent behavior such as this is used by evolutionary algorithms and swarm intelligence.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 2627106, 511556, 37436, 190837, 762988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 30, 41 ], [ 98, 115 ], [ 140, 163 ], [ 168, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Machine learning (ML), a fundamental concept of AI research since the field's inception,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "is the study of computer algorithms that improve automatically through experience.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Unsupervised learning finds patterns in a stream of input. Supervised learning requires a human to label the input data first, and comes in two main varieties: classification and numerical regression. Classification is used to determine what category something belongs in – the program sees a number of examples of things from several categories and will learn to classify new inputs. Regression is the attempt to produce a function that describes the relationship between inputs and outputs and predicts how the outputs should change as the inputs change. Both classifiers and regression learners can be viewed as \"function approximators\" trying to learn an unknown (possibly implicit) function; for example, a spam classifier can be viewed as learning a function that maps from the text of an email to one of two categories, \"spam\" or \"not spam\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 233497, 20926, 1579244, 826997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 59, 78 ], [ 160, 174 ], [ 189, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In reinforcement learning the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. The agent classifies its responses to form a strategy for operating in its problem space.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 66294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Transfer learning is when the knowledge gained from one problem is applied to a new problem.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 3920550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Computational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity, by sample complexity (how much data is required), or by other notions of optimization.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 387537, 6511, 43269516, 52033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ], [ 53, 77 ], [ 82, 99 ], [ 152, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Natural language processing (NLP)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "allows machines to read and understand human language. A sufficiently powerful natural language processing system would enable natural-language user interfaces and the acquisition of knowledge directly from human-written sources, such as newswire texts. Some straightforward applications of NLP include information retrieval, question answering and machine translation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 98778, 18863997, 15271, 360030, 19980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 38 ], [ 127, 158 ], [ 303, 324 ], [ 326, 344 ], [ 349, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Symbolic AI used formal syntax to translate the deep structure of sentences into logic. This failed to produce useful applications, due to the intractability of logic and the breadth of commonsense knowledge. Modern statistical techniques include co-occurrence frequencies (how often one word appears near another), \"Keyword spotting\" (searching for a particular word to retrieve information), transformer-based deep learning (which finds patterns in text), and others. They have achieved acceptable accuracy at the page or paragraph level, and, by 2019, could generate coherent text.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 339417, 26860, 283746, 46426065, 7543, 61603971, 32472154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 24, 30 ], [ 48, 62 ], [ 81, 86 ], [ 143, 157 ], [ 394, 405 ], [ 412, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Machine perception", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras, microphones, wireless signals, and active lidar, sonar, radar, and tactile sensors) to deduce aspects of the world. Applications include speech recognition,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 41958, 25997913, 29468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 106 ], [ 126, 140 ], [ 196, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "facial recognition, and object recognition.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 602401, 14661466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 24, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Computer vision is the ability to analyze visual input.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AI is heavily used in robotics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Localization is how a robot knows its location and maps its environment. When given a small, static, and visible environment, this is easy; however, dynamic environments, such as (in endoscopy) the interior of a patient's breathing body, pose a greater challenge.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 14472973, 623112, 197002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 51, 55 ], [ 183, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Motion planning is the process of breaking down a movement task into \"primitives\" such as individual joint movements. Such movement often involves compliant motion, a process where movement requires maintaining physical contact with an object. Robots can learn from experience how to move efficiently despite the presence of friction and gear slippage.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 4562875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Affective computing is an interdisciplinary umbrella that comprises systems that recognize, interpret, process or simulate human feeling, emotion and mood. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 3471186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, some virtual assistants are programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously; it makes them appear more sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate human–computer interaction.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 19024298, 23534602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 35 ], [ 219, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, this tends to give naïve users an unrealistic conception of how intelligent existing computer agents actually are. Moderate successes related to affective computing include textual sentiment analysis and, more recently, multimodal sentiment analysis), wherein AI classifies the affects displayed by a videotaped subject.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 6435232, 57687371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 208 ], [ 229, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A machine with general intelligence can solve a wide variety of problems with breadth and versatility similar to human intelligence. There are several competing ideas about how to develop artificial general intelligence. Hans Moravec and Marvin Minsky argue that work in different individual domains can be incorporated into an advanced multi-agent system or cognitive architecture with general intelligence.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 298556, 19639, 938833, 1700176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 233 ], [ 238, 251 ], [ 337, 355 ], [ 359, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pedro Domingos hopes that there is a conceptually straightforward, but mathematically difficult, \"master algorithm\" that could lead to AGI.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 47790413, 47937215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 98, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Others believe that anthropomorphic features like an artificial brain", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 19009060, 1908395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 35 ], [ 53, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "or simulated child development", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 1422176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "will someday reach a critical point where general intelligence emerges.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Goals", "target_page_ids": [ 37436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many problems in AI can be solved theoretically by intelligently searching through many possible solutions: Reasoning can be reduced to performing a search. For example, logical proof can be viewed as searching for a path that leads from premises to conclusions, where each step is the application of an inference rule. Planning algorithms search through trees of goals and subgoals, attempting to find a path to a target goal, a process called means-ends analysis. Robotics algorithms for moving limbs and grasping objects use local searches in configuration space.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 15893057, 7993337, 37531624, 252311, 1505641, 6278094, 20903754, 313942, 473596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 117 ], [ 238, 245 ], [ 250, 261 ], [ 304, 318 ], [ 320, 328 ], [ 445, 464 ], [ 466, 474 ], [ 528, 542 ], [ 546, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Simple exhaustive searches", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "are rarely sufficient for most real-world problems: the search space (the number of places to search) quickly grows to astronomical numbers. The result is a search that is too slow or never completes. The solution, for many problems, is to use \"heuristics\" or \"rules of thumb\" that prioritize choices in favor of those more likely to reach a goal and to do so in a shorter number of steps. In some search methodologies, heuristics can also serve to eliminate some choices unlikely to lead to a goal (called \"pruning the search tree\"). Heuristics supply the program with a \"best guess\" for the path on which the solution lies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 28249, 187750, 405944, 63452, 5462075, 844292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 68 ], [ 119, 139 ], [ 172, 180 ], [ 245, 255 ], [ 508, 515 ], [ 520, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heuristics limit the search for solutions into a smaller sample size.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A very different kind of search came to prominence in the 1990s, based on the mathematical theory of optimization. For many problems, it is possible to begin the search with some form of a guess and then refine the guess incrementally until no more refinements can be made. These algorithms can be visualized as blind hill climbing: we begin the search at a random point on the landscape, and then, by jumps or steps, we keep moving our guess uphill, until we reach the top. Other related optimization algorithms include random optimization, beam search and metaheuristics like simulated annealing. Evolutionary computation uses a form of optimization search. For example, they may begin with a population of organisms (the guesses) and then allow them to mutate and recombine, selecting only the fittest to survive each generation (refining the guesses). Classic evolutionary algorithms include genetic algorithms, gene expression programming, and genetic programming. Alternatively, distributed search processes can coordinate via swarm intelligence algorithms. Two popular swarm algorithms used in search are particle swarm optimization (inspired by bird flocking) and ant colony optimization (inspired by ant trails).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 52033, 364002, 147864, 1686032, 774458, 172244, 268020, 200646, 190837, 40254, 1098818, 12424, 762988, 337083, 90021, 588615, 2594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 113 ], [ 318, 331 ], [ 521, 540 ], [ 542, 553 ], [ 558, 572 ], [ 578, 597 ], [ 599, 623 ], [ 778, 787 ], [ 864, 887 ], [ 896, 914 ], [ 916, 943 ], [ 949, 968 ], [ 1033, 1051 ], [ 1112, 1139 ], [ 1158, 1166 ], [ 1172, 1195 ], [ 1209, 1218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Logic", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 46426065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "is used for knowledge representation and problem-solving, but it can be applied to other problems as well. For example, the satplan algorithm uses logic for planning", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 2955843, 1505641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 131 ], [ 157, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and inductive logic programming is a method for learning.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 54069, 233488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 48, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several different forms of logic are used in AI research. Propositional logic involves truth functions such as \"or\" and \"not\". First-order logic", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 18154, 604707, 10983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 77 ], [ 87, 101 ], [ 127, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "adds quantifiers and predicates and can express facts about objects, their properties, and their relations with each other. Fuzzy logic assigns a \"degree of truth\" (between 0 and 1) to vague statements such as \"Alice is old\" (or rich, or tall, or hungry), that are too linguistically imprecise to be completely true or false.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 43507260, 285109, 49180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ], [ 21, 31 ], [ 124, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Default logics, non-monotonic logics and circumscription are forms of logic designed to help with default reasoning and the qualification problem.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 889639, 341086, 2634917, 731287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 16, 35 ], [ 41, 56 ], [ 124, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several extensions of logic have been designed to handle specific domains of knowledge, such as description logics;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 16920, 183503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 86 ], [ 96, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "situation calculus, event calculus and fluent calculus (for representing events and time);", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 2256109, 2897680, 2961091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 20, 34 ], [ 39, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "causal calculus;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 37196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "belief calculus (belief revision); and modal logics.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 1187311, 333365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ], [ 39, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Logics to model contradictory or inconsistent statements arising in multi-agent systems have also been designed, such as paraconsistent logics.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 421085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many problems in AI (including in reasoning, planning, learning, perception, and robotics) require the agent to operate with incomplete or uncertain information. AI researchers have devised a number of tools to solve these problems using methods from probability theory and economics.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 22934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bayesian networks", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 203996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "are a very general tool that can be used for various problems, including reasoning (using the Bayesian inference algorithm),", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 49571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "learning (using the expectation-maximization algorithm),", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 233488, 470752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 20, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "planning (using decision networks) and perception (using dynamic Bayesian networks).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 1505641, 1194259, 11920671, 1242713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 16, 32 ], [ 39, 49 ], [ 57, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Probabilistic algorithms can also be used for filtering, prediction, smoothing and finding explanations for streams of data, helping perception systems to analyze processes that occur over time (e.g., hidden Markov models or Kalman filters).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 11920671, 98770, 180855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 143 ], [ 201, 220 ], [ 225, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A key concept from the science of economics is \"utility\", a measure of how valuable something is to an intelligent agent. Precise mathematical tools have been developed that analyze how an agent can make choices and plan, using decision theory, decision analysis,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 45479, 446216, 1190842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 55 ], [ 228, 243 ], [ 245, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and information value theory. These tools include models such as Markov decision processes, dynamic decision networks, game theory and mechanism design.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 1125883, 1194259, 11924, 689895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 88 ], [ 100, 116 ], [ 119, 130 ], [ 135, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The simplest AI applications can be divided into two types: classifiers (\"if shiny then diamond\") and controllers (\"if diamond then pick up\"). Controllers do, however, also classify conditions before inferring actions, and therefore classification forms a central part of many AI systems. Classifiers are functions that use pattern matching to determine the closest match. They can be tuned according to examples, making them very attractive for use in AI. These examples are known as observations or patterns. In supervised learning, each pattern belongs to a certain predefined class. A class is a decision that has to be made. All the observations combined with their class labels are known as a data set. When a new observation is received, that observation is classified based on previous experience.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 1579244, 279688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 289, 300 ], [ 324, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A classifier can be trained in various ways; there are many statistical and machine learning approaches.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 233488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The decision tree is the simplest and most widely used symbolic machine learning algorithm.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 577003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "K-nearest neighbor algorithm was the most widely used analogical AI until the mid-1990s.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 1775388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kernel methods such as the support vector machine (SVM) displaced k-nearest neighbor in the 1990s.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 3424576, 65309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 27, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The naive Bayes classifier is reportedly the \"most widely used learner\" at Google, due in part to its scalability.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 87339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Neural networks are also used for classification.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 21523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Classifier performance depends greatly on the characteristics of the data to be classified, such as the dataset size, distribution of samples across classes, dimensionality, and the level of noise. Model-based classifiers perform well if the assumed model is an extremely good fit for the actual data. Otherwise, if no matching model is available, and if accuracy (rather than speed or scalability) is the sole concern, conventional wisdom is that discriminative classifiers (especially SVM) tend to be more accurate than model-based classifiers such as \"naive Bayes\" on most practical data sets.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Neural networks", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 21523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "were inspired by the architecture of neurons in the human brain. A simple \"neuron\" N accepts input from other neurons, each of which, when activated (or \"fired\"), casts a weighted \"vote\" for or against whether neuron N should itself activate. Learning requires an algorithm to adjust these weights based on the training data; one simple algorithm (dubbed \"fire together, wire together\") is to increase the weight between two connected neurons when the activation of one triggers the successful activation of another. Neurons have a continuous spectrum of activation; in addition, neurons can process inputs in a nonlinear way rather than weighing straightforward votes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 404084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 356, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern neural networks model complex relationships between inputs and outputs and find patterns in data. They can learn continuous functions and even digital logical operations. Neural networks can be viewed as a type of mathematical optimization – they perform gradient descent on a multi-dimensional topology that was created by training the network. The most common training technique is the backpropagation algorithm.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 126706, 52033, 201489, 233488, 1360091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 95 ], [ 221, 246 ], [ 262, 278 ], [ 331, 339 ], [ 395, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other learning techniques for neural networks are Hebbian learning (\"fire together, wire together\"), GMDH or competitive learning.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 233488, 404084, 13793747, 26266110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 14 ], [ 50, 66 ], [ 101, 105 ], [ 109, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main categories of networks are acyclic or feedforward neural networks (where the signal passes in only one direction) and recurrent neural networks (which allow feedback and short-term memories of previous input events). Among the most popular feedforward networks are perceptrons, multi-layer perceptrons and radial basis networks.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 1706332, 1706303, 172777, 2266644, 9651443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 73 ], [ 127, 151 ], [ 274, 284 ], [ 287, 309 ], [ 315, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Deep learning", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 32472154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "uses several layers of neurons between the network's inputs and outputs. The multiple layers can progressively extract higher-level features from the raw input. For example, in image processing, lower layers may identify edges, while higher layers may identify the concepts relevant to a human such as digits or letters or faces. Deep learning has drastically improved the performance of programs in many important subfields of artificial intelligence, including computer vision, speech recognition, image classification and others.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 97922, 6596, 29468, 6596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 177, 193 ], [ 463, 478 ], [ 480, 498 ], [ 500, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Deep learning often uses convolutional neural networks for many or all of its layers. In a convolutional layer, each neuron receives input from only a restricted area of the previous layer called the neuron's receptive field. This can substantially reduce the number of weighted connections between neurons, and creates a hierarchy similar to the organization of the animal visual cortex.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 40409788, 941909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 53 ], [ 209, 224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a recurrent neural network (RNN) the signal will propagate through a layer more than once; ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 1706303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "thus, an RNN is an example of deep learning.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "RNNs can be trained by gradient descent,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 201489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "however long-term gradients which are back-propagated can \"vanish\" (that is, they can tend to zero) or \"explode\" (that is, they can tend to infinity), known as the vanishing gradient problem.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 43502368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The long short term memory (LSTM) technique can prevent this in most cases.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 10711453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Specialized languages for artificial intelligence have been developed, such as Lisp, Prolog, TensorFlow and many others. Hardware developed for AI includes AI accelerators and neuromorphic computing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Tools", "target_page_ids": [ 18016, 23485, 48508507, 50827978, 453086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 83 ], [ 85, 91 ], [ 93, 103 ], [ 156, 170 ], [ 176, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AI is relevant to any intellectual task.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Modern artificial intelligence techniques are pervasive and are too numerous to list here.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Frequently, when a technique reaches mainstream use, it is no longer considered artificial intelligence; this phenomenon is described as the AI effect.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 21666977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2010s, AI applications were at the heart of the most commercially successful areas of computing, and have become a ubiquitous feature of daily life. AI is used in search engines (such as Google Search),", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 4059023, 12431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 184 ], [ 194, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "targeting online advertisements, recommendation systems (offered by Netflix, YouTube or Amazon),", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 16777474, 596646, 175537, 3524766, 90451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ], [ 33, 55 ], [ 68, 75 ], [ 77, 84 ], [ 88, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "driving internet traffic, targeted advertising (AdSense, Facebook),", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 856845, 35591037, 736238, 7529378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 24 ], [ 26, 46 ], [ 48, 55 ], [ 57, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "virtual assistants (such as Siri or Alexa), autonomous vehicles (including drones and self-driving cars),", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 19024298, 26086272, 51060375, 5071866, 58900, 245926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 28, 32 ], [ 36, 41 ], [ 44, 63 ], [ 75, 81 ], [ 86, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "automatic language translation (Microsoft Translator, Google Translate),", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 19980, 22608452, 3235536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ], [ 32, 52 ], [ 54, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "facial recognition (Apple's Face ID or Microsoft's DeepFace),", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 602401, 856, 55217711, 19001, 46705992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 20, 25 ], [ 28, 35 ], [ 39, 48 ], [ 51, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "image labeling (used by Facebook, Apple's iPhoto and TikTok)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 1931185, 7529378, 856, 288496, 56822861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 24, 32 ], [ 34, 39 ], [ 42, 48 ], [ 53, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and spam filtering.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 313737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are also thousands of successful AI applications used to solve problems for specific industries or institutions. A few examples are energy storage, deepfakes, medical diagnosis, military logistics, or supply chain management.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 24130, 56641018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 152 ], [ 154, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Game playing has been a test of AI's strength since the 1950s. Deep Blue became the first computer chess-playing system to beat a reigning world chess champion, Garry Kasparov, on 11 May 1997. In 2011, in a Jeopardy! quiz show exhibition match, IBM's question answering system, Watson, defeated the two greatest Jeopardy! champions, Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings, by a significant margin. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 1654769, 49387, 12810, 27748226, 13135, 40379651, 360030, 22584291, 1937560, 753973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 63, 72 ], [ 161, 175 ], [ 207, 216 ], [ 217, 226 ], [ 245, 248 ], [ 251, 276 ], [ 278, 284 ], [ 333, 344 ], [ 349, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2016, AlphaGo won 4 out of 5 games of Go in a match with Go champion Lee Sedol, becoming the first computer Go-playing system to beat a professional Go player without handicaps. Other programs handle imperfect-information games; such as for poker at a superhuman level, Pluribus and Cepheus. DeepMind in the 2010s developed a \"generalized artificial intelligence\" that could learn many diverse Atari games on its own.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 49242352, 64971, 2158460, 227021, 102370, 321438, 23014, 62440806, 45088506, 41755648, 2779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 22 ], [ 47, 49 ], [ 78, 87 ], [ 108, 119 ], [ 176, 185 ], [ 209, 230 ], [ 250, 255 ], [ 279, 287 ], [ 292, 299 ], [ 301, 309 ], [ 403, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 2020, Natural Language Processing systems such as the enormous GPT-3 (then by far the largest artificial neural network) were matching human performance on pre-existing benchmarks, albeit without the system attaining a commonsense understanding of the contents of the benchmarks.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 21652, 64695824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 36 ], [ 66, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DeepMind's AlphaFold 2 (2020) demonstrated the ability to approximate, in hours rather than months, the 3D structure of a protein.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 59766171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other applications predict the result of judicial decisions, create art (such as poetry or painting) and prove mathematical theorems.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 353880, 2546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 71 ], [ 105, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2019, WIPO reported that AI was the most prolific emerging technology in terms of number of patent applications and granted patents, the Internet of things was estimated to be the largest in terms of market size. It was followed, again in market size, by big data technologies, robotics, AI, 3D printing and the fifth generation of mobile services (5G). Since AI emerged in the 1950s, 340,000 AI-related patent applications were filed by innovators and 1.6 million scientific papers have been published by researchers, with the majority of all AI-related patent filings published since 2013. Companies represent 26 out of the top 30 AI patent applicants, with universities or public research organizations accounting for the remaining four. The ratio of scientific papers to inventions has significantly decreased from 8:1 in 2010 to 3:1 in 2016, which is attributed to be indicative of a shift from theoretical research to the use of AI technologies in commercial products and services. Machine learning is the dominant AI technique disclosed in patents and is included in more than one-third of all identified inventions (134,777 machine learning patents filed for a total of 167,038 AI patents filed in 2016), with computer vision being the most popular functional application. AI-related patents not only disclose AI techniques and applications, they often also refer to an application field or industry. Twenty application fields were identified in 2016 and included, in order of magnitude: telecommunications (15 percent), transportation (15 percent), life and medical sciences (12 percent), and personal devices, computing and human–computer interaction (11 percent). Other sectors included banking, entertainment, security, industry and manufacturing, agriculture, and networks (including social networks, smart cities and the Internet of things). IBM has the largest portfolio of AI patents with 8,290 patent applications, followed by Microsoft with 5,930 patent applications.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 33294, 3889704, 23273, 12057519, 233488, 6596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 13 ], [ 53, 72 ], [ 95, 101 ], [ 140, 158 ], [ 991, 1007 ], [ 1221, 1236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AI's decisions making abilities raises the questions of legal responsibility and copyright status of created works. This issues are being refined in various jurisdictions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alan Turing wrote in 1950 \"I propose to consider the question 'can machines think'?\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He advised changing the question from whether a machine \"thinks\", to \"whether or not it is possible for machinery to show intelligent behaviour\". ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The only thing visible is the behavior of the machine, so it does not matter if the machine is conscious, or has a mind, or whether the intelligence is merely a \"simulation\" and not \"the real thing\". He noted that we also do not know these things about other people, but that we extend a \"polite convention\" that they are actually \"thinking\". This idea forms the basis of the Turing test.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 5664, 19378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 104 ], [ 115, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AI founder John McCarthy said: \"Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence\". Russell and Norvig agree with him, and criticize the Turing test. They wrote: \"Aeronautical engineering texts do not define the goal of their field as making 'machines that fly so exactly like pigeons that they can fool other pigeons. Other researchers and analysts disagree with the exclusive adoption of a separate definition of intelligence, and have argued that AI should simulate human intelligence by studying psychology or neurobiology.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 308362, 566689, 566666, 2082, 63355, 22921, 21245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 24 ], [ 114, 121 ], [ 126, 132 ], [ 193, 217 ], [ 307, 313 ], [ 530, 540 ], [ 544, 556 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The intelligent agent paradigm", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "defines intelligent behavior in general, without reference to human beings. An intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success. Any system that has goal-directed behavior can be analyzed as an intelligent agent: something as simple as a thermostat, as complex as a human being, as well as large systems such as firms, biomes or nations. The intelligent agent paradigm became widely accepted during the 1990s, and currently serves as the definition of the field.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 4918223, 4802, 21754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 379, 383 ], [ 386, 391 ], [ 396, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The intelligent agent paradigm has other advantages for AI. It provides a reliable and scientific way to test programs; researchers can directly compare or even combine different approaches to isolated problems, by asking which agent is best at maximizing a given \"goal function\". It also gives them a common language to communicate with other fields – such as mathematical optimization (which is defined in terms of \"goals\") or economics (which uses the same definition of a \"rational agent\").", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 52033, 9223, 1187268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 361, 386 ], [ 429, 438 ], [ 477, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "No established unifying theory or paradigm has guided AI research for most of its history. The unprecedented success of statistical machine learning in the 2010s eclipsed all other approaches (so much so that some sources, especially in the business world, use the term \"artificial intelligence\" to mean \"machine learning with neural networks\"). This approach is mostly sub-symbolic, neat, soft and narrow (see below). Critics argue that these questions may have to be revisited by future generations of AI researchers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 175308, 339417, 404037, 66887194, 586357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 42 ], [ 370, 382 ], [ 384, 388 ], [ 390, 394 ], [ 399, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Symbolic AI (or \"GOFAI\") simulated the high-level conscious reasoning that people use when they solve puzzles, express legal reasoning and do mathematics. They were highly successful at \"intelligent\" tasks such as algebra or IQ tests. In the 1960s, Newell and Simon proposed the physical symbol systems hypothesis: \"A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent action.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 339417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, the symbolic approach failed dismally on many tasks that humans solve easily, such as learning, recognizing an object or commonsense reasoning. Moravec's paradox is the discovery that high-level \"intelligent\" tasks were easy for AI, but low level \"instinctive\" tasks were extremely difficult.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Philosopher Hubert Dreyfus had argued since the 1960s that human expertise depends on unconscious instinct rather than conscious symbol manipulation, and on having a \"feel\" for the situation, rather than explicit symbolic knowledge.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 952926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although his arguments had been ridiculed and ignored when they were first presented, eventually, AI research came to agree.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The issue is not resolved: sub-symbolic reasoning can make many of the same inscrutable mistakes that human intuition does, such as algorithmic bias. Critics such as Noam Chomsky argue continuing research into symbolic AI will still be necessary to attain general intelligence, in part because sub-symbolic AI is a move away from explainable AI: it can be difficult or impossible to understand why a modern statistical AI program made a particular decision.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 339417, 55817338, 21566, 54575571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 39 ], [ 132, 148 ], [ 166, 178 ], [ 330, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Neats\" hope that intelligent behavior is described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic, optimization, or neural networks). \"Scruffies\" expect that it necessarily requires solving a large number of unrelated problems. This issue was actively discussed in the 70s and 80s,", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 46426065, 52033, 1729542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 99 ], [ 101, 113 ], [ 118, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "but in the 1990s mathematical methods and solid scientific standards became the norm, a transition that Russell and Norvig termed \"the victory of the neats\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Finding a provably correct or optimal solution is intractable for many important problems. Soft computing is a set of techniques, including genetic algorithms, fuzzy logic and neural networks, that are tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth and approximation. Soft computing was introduced in the late 80s and most successful AI programs in the 21st century are examples of soft computing with neural networks.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 7543, 40254, 49180, 1729542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 61 ], [ 140, 158 ], [ 160, 171 ], [ 176, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AI researchers are divided as to whether to pursue the goals of artificial general intelligence and superintelligence (general AI) directly or to solve as many specific problems as possible (narrow AI) in hopes these solutions will lead indirectly to the field's long-term goals", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 726659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "General intelligence is difficult to define and difficult to measure, and modern AI has had more verifiable successes by focussing on specific problems with specific solutions. The experimental sub-field of artificial general intelligence studies this area exclusively.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The philosophy of mind does not know whether a machine can have a mind, consciousness and mental states, in the same sense that human beings do. This issue considers the internal experiences of the machine, rather than its external behavior. Mainstream AI research considers this issue irrelevant because it does not affect the goals of the field. Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig observe that most AI researchers \"don't care about the [philosophy of AI] – as long as the program works, they don't care whether you call it a simulation of intelligence or real intelligence.\" However, the question has become central to the philosophy of mind. It is also typically the central question at issue in artificial intelligence in fiction.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 6880483, 19378, 5664, 6880483, 566689, 566666, 11746227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ], [ 66, 70 ], [ 72, 85 ], [ 90, 103 ], [ 348, 362 ], [ 367, 379 ], [ 696, 730 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David Chalmers identified two problems in understanding the mind, which he named the \"hard\" and \"easy\" problems of consciousness. The easy problem is understanding how the brain processes signals, makes plans and controls behavior. The hard problem is explaining how this feels or why it should feel like anything at all. Human information processing is easy to explain, however, human subjective experience is difficult to explain. For example, it is easy to imagine a color-blind person who has learned to identify which objects in their field of view are red, but it is not clear what would be required for the person to know what red looks like.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 258221, 315578, 21402758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 328, 350 ], [ 386, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Computationalism is the position in the philosophy of mind that the human mind is an information processing system and that thinking is a form of computing. Computationalism argues that the relationship between mind and body is similar or identical to the relationship between software and hardware and thus may be a solution to the mind-body problem. This philosophical position was inspired by the work of AI researchers and cognitive scientists in the 1960s and was originally proposed by philosophers Jerry Fodor and Hilary Putnam.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 6880483, 11081176, 427994, 75233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 58 ], [ 333, 350 ], [ 505, 516 ], [ 521, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Philosopher John Searle characterized this position as \"strong AI\": \"The appropriately programmed computer with the right inputs and outputs would thereby have a mind in exactly the same sense human beings have minds.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 147079, 6216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 23 ], [ 55, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Searle counters this assertion with his Chinese room argument, which attempts to show that, even if a machine perfectly simulates human behavior, there is still no reason to suppose it also has a mind.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If a machine has a mind and subjective experience, then it may also have sentience (the ability to feel), and if so, then it could also suffer, and thus it would be entitled to certain rights.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 168187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Any hypothetical robot rights would lie on a spectrum with animal rights and human rights.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 7116046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This issue has been considered in fiction for centuries,", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 11746227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and is now being considered by, for example, California's Institute for the Future; however, critics argue that the discussion is premature.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 47853706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A superintelligence, hyperintelligence, or superhuman intelligence, is a hypothetical agent that would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted human mind. Superintelligence may also refer to the form or degree of intelligence possessed by such an agent.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If research into artificial general intelligence produced sufficiently intelligent software, it might be able to reprogram and improve itself. The improved software would be even better at improving itself, leading to recursive self-improvement.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 586357, 54245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 48 ], [ 218, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Its intelligence would increase exponentially in an intelligence explosion and could dramatically surpass humans. Science fiction writer Vernor Vinge named this scenario the \"singularity\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 54245, 32493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 74 ], [ 137, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because it is difficult or impossible to know the limits of intelligence or the capabilities of superintelligent machines, the technological singularity is an occurrence beyond which events are unpredictable or even unfathomable.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Robot designer Hans Moravec, cyberneticist Kevin Warwick, and inventor Ray Kurzweil have predicted that humans and machines will merge in the future into cyborgs that are more capable and powerful than either. This idea, called transhumanism, has roots in Aldous Huxley and Robert Ettinger.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 298556, 17453, 25984, 20756967, 628, 525114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ], [ 43, 56 ], [ 71, 83 ], [ 154, 160 ], [ 256, 269 ], [ 274, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward Fredkin argues that \"artificial intelligence is the next stage in evolution\", an idea first proposed by Samuel Butler's \"Darwin among the Machines\" as far back as 1863, and expanded upon by George Dyson in his book of the same name in 1998.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 405515, 937519, 15938221, 2293616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 111, 124 ], [ 128, 153 ], [ 197, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the past technology has tended to increase rather than reduce total employment, but economists acknowledge that \"we're in uncharted territory\" with AI.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A survey of economists showed disagreement about whether the increasing use of robots and AI will cause a substantial increase in long-term unemployment, but they generally agree that it could be a net benefit if productivity gains are redistributed.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 31741, 424899, 21554936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 152 ], [ 213, 225 ], [ 236, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subjective estimates of the risk vary widely; for example, Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey estimate 47% of U.S. jobs are at \"high risk\" of potential automation, while an OECD report classifies only 9% of U.S. jobs as \"high risk\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 50824743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike previous waves of automation, many middle-class jobs may be eliminated by artificial intelligence; The Economist states that \"the worry that AI could do to white-collar jobs what steam power did to blue-collar ones during the Industrial Revolution\" is \"worth taking seriously\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 50449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jobs at extreme risk range from paralegals to fast food cooks, while job demand is likely to increase for care-related professions ranging from personal healthcare to the clergy.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AI provides a number of tools that are particularly useful for authoritarian governments: smart spyware, face recognition and voice recognition allow widespread surveillance; such surveillance allows machine learning to classify potential enemies of the state and can prevent them from hiding; recommendation systems can precisely target propaganda and misinformation for maximum effect; deepfakes aid in producing misinformation; advanced AI can make centralized decision making more competitive with liberal and decentralized systems such as markets.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 21347657, 28951, 602401, 1032254, 87231, 233488, 1579244, 596646, 23203, 2203174, 56641018, 1325116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 76 ], [ 96, 103 ], [ 105, 121 ], [ 126, 143 ], [ 161, 173 ], [ 200, 216 ], [ 220, 228 ], [ 294, 316 ], [ 338, 348 ], [ 353, 367 ], [ 388, 397 ], [ 452, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Terrorists, criminals and rogue states may use other forms of weaponized AI such as advanced digital warfare and lethal autonomous weapons. By 2015, over fifty countries were reported to be researching battlefield robots.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 3369375, 36973733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 108 ], [ 113, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Machine-learning AI is also able to design tens of thousands of toxic molecules in a matter of hours.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AI programs can become biased after learning from real-world data. It is not typically introduced by the system designers but is learned by the program, and thus the programmers are often unaware that the bias exists.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bias can be inadvertently introduced by the way training data is selected.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 1514392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It can also emerge from correlations: AI is used to classify individuals into groups and then make predictions assuming that the individual will resemble other members of the group. In some cases, this assumption may be unfair.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 55817338, 157057, 1579244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 18 ], [ 24, 36 ], [ 52, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An example of this is COMPAS, a commercial program widely used by U.S. courts to assess the likelihood of a defendant becoming a recidivist. ProPublica claims that the COMPAS-assigned recidivism risk level of black defendants is far more likely to be overestimated than that of white defendants, despite the fact that the program was not told the races of the defendants. Other examples where algorithmic bias can lead to unfair outcomes are when AI is used for credit rating or hiring.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 56193369, 17878253, 8865, 1105785, 13743889, 1194146, 907866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ], [ 66, 76 ], [ 108, 117 ], [ 129, 139 ], [ 141, 151 ], [ 462, 475 ], [ 479, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At its 2022 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (ACM FAccT 2022) the Association for Computing Machinery, in Seoul, South Korea, presented and published findings recommending that until AI and robotics systems are demonstrated to be free of bias mistakes, they are unsafe and the use of self-learning neural networks trained on vast, unregulated sources of flawed internet data should be curtailed.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 2928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Superintelligent AI may be able to improve itself to the point that humans could not control it. This could, as physicist Stephen Hawking puts it, \"spell the end of the human race\". Philosopher Nick Bostrom argues that sufficiently intelligent AI if it chooses actions based on achieving some goal, will exhibit convergent behavior such as acquiring resources or protecting itself from being shut down. If this AI's goals do not fully reflect humanity's, it might need to harm humanity to acquire more resources or prevent itself from being shut down, ultimately to better achieve its goal. He concludes that AI poses a risk to mankind, however humble or \"friendly\" its stated goals might be.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 726659, 19376148, 21221594, 408292, 43591208, 351887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 122, 137 ], [ 148, 179 ], [ 194, 206 ], [ 312, 322 ], [ 656, 664 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Political scientist Charles T. Rubin argues that \"any sufficiently advanced benevolence may be indistinguishable from malevolence.\" Humans should not assume machines or robots would treat us favorably because there is no a priori reason to believe that they would share our system of morality.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 20349897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The opinion of experts and industry insiders is mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superhumanly-capable AI.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stephen Hawking, Microsoft founder Bill Gates, history professor Yuval Noah Harari, and SpaceX founder Elon Musk have all expressed serious misgivings about the future of AI.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 19376148, 19001, 3747, 36254359, 832774, 909036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 17, 26 ], [ 35, 45 ], [ 65, 82 ], [ 88, 94 ], [ 103, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prominent tech titans including Peter Thiel (Amazon Web Services) and Musk have committed more than $1billion to nonprofit companies that champion responsible AI development, such as OpenAI and the Future of Life Institute.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 610532, 1691376, 48795986, 42912557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 43 ], [ 45, 64 ], [ 183, 189 ], [ 198, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mark Zuckerberg (CEO, Facebook) has said that artificial intelligence is helpful in its current form and will continue to assist humans.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 2844938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other experts argue is that the risks are far enough in the future to not be worth researching,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "or that humans will be valuable from the perspective of a superintelligent machine.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rodney Brooks, in particular, has said that \"malevolent\" AI is still centuries away.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 632498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Friendly AI are machines that have been designed from the beginning to minimize risks and to make choices that benefit humans. Eliezer Yudkowsky, who coined the term, argues that developing friendly AI should be a higher research priority: it may require a large investment and it must be completed before AI becomes an existential risk.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 65858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Machines with intelligence have the potential to use their intelligence to make ethical decisions. The field of machine ethics provides machines with ethical principles and procedures for resolving ethical dilemmas.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Machine ethics is also called machine morality, computational ethics or computational morality,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 32237314, 32237314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 46 ], [ 48, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and was founded at an AAAI symposium in 2005.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 534794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other approaches include Wendell Wallach's \"artificial moral agents\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 66469314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and Stuart J. Russell's three principles for developing provably beneficial machines.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 566689, 63005595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 24, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The regulation of artificial intelligence is the development of public sector policies and laws for promoting and regulating artificial intelligence (AI); it is therefore related to the broader regulation of algorithms.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The regulatory and policy landscape for AI is an emerging issue in jurisdictions globally.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Between 2016 and 2020, more than 30 countries adopted dedicated strategies for AI.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most EU member states had released national AI strategies, as had Canada, China, India, Japan, Mauritius, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, US and Vietnam. Others were in the process of elaborating their own AI strategy, including Bangladesh, Malaysia and Tunisia.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence was launched in June 2020, stating a need for AI to be developed in accordance with human rights and democratic values, to ensure public confidence and trust in the technology. Henry Kissinger, Eric Schmidt, and Daniel Huttenlocher published a joint statement in November 2021 calling for a government commission to regulate AI.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Future", "target_page_ids": [ 66768301, 13765, 224584, 56135655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 49 ], [ 227, 242 ], [ 244, 256 ], [ 262, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thought-capable artificial beings have appeared as storytelling devices since antiquity,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In fiction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "and have been a persistent theme in science fiction.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 26787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A common trope in these works began with Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, where a human creation becomes a threat to its masters. This includes such works as Arthur C. Clarke's and Stanley Kubrick's A Space Odyssey (both 1968), with HAL 9000, the murderous computer in charge of the Discovery One spaceship, as well as The Terminator (1984) and The Matrix (1999). In contrast, the rare loyal robots such as Gort from The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) and Bishop from Aliens (1986) are less prominent in popular culture.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 8376406, 27885687, 18580673, 14384, 14814259, 30327, 30007, 73422, 213472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 14 ], [ 41, 53 ], [ 56, 68 ], [ 230, 238 ], [ 280, 293 ], [ 316, 330 ], [ 342, 352 ], [ 414, 443 ], [ 467, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Isaac Asimov introduced the Three Laws of Robotics in many books and stories, most notably the \"Multivac\" series about a super-intelligent computer of the same name. Asimov's laws are often brought up during lay discussions of machine ethics;", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 14573, 60136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 28, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "while almost all artificial intelligence researchers are familiar with Asimov's laws through popular culture, they generally consider the laws useless for many reasons, one of which is their ambiguity.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In fiction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Transhumanism (the merging of humans and machines) is explored in the manga Ghost in the Shell and the science-fiction series Dune.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 30299, 18985, 12914, 71416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 70, 75 ], [ 76, 94 ], [ 126, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several works use AI to force us to confront the fundamental question of what makes us human, showing us artificial beings that have the ability to feel, and thus to suffer. This appears in Karel Čapek's R.U.R., the films A.I. Artificial Intelligence and Ex Machina, as well as the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, by Philip K. Dick. Dick considers the idea that our understanding of human subjectivity is altered by technology created with artificial intelligence.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "In fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 168187, 43469, 37386, 142224, 44236932, 23284, 23005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 152 ], [ 190, 201 ], [ 204, 210 ], [ 222, 250 ], [ 255, 265 ], [ 288, 324 ], [ 329, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As technology and research evolve and the world enters the third revolution of warfare following gunpowder and nuclear weapons, the artificial intelligence arms race ensues between the United States, China, and Russia, three countries with the world's top five highest military budgets. Intentions of being a world leader in AI research by 2030 have been declared by China's leader Xi Jinping, and President Putin of Russia has stated that \"Whoever becomes the leader in this sphere will become the ruler of the world\". If Russia were to become the leader in AI research, President Putin has stated Russia's intent to share some of their research with the world so as to not monopolize the field, similar to their current sharing of nuclear technologies, maintaining science diplomacy relations.The United States, China, and Russia, are some examples of countries that have taken their stances toward military artificial intelligence since as early as 2014, having established military programs to develop cyber weapons, control lethal autonomous weapons, and drones that can be used for surveillance.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [ 56127293, 56127293, 48653319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 165 ], [ 886, 933 ], [ 1079, 1100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "President Putin announced that artificial intelligence is the future for all mankind and recognizes the power and opportunities that the development and deployment of lethal autonomous weapons AI technology can hold in warfare and homeland security, as well as its threats. President Putin's prediction that future wars will be fought using AI has started to come to fruition to an extent after Russia invaded Ukraine on 24 February 2022. The Ukrainian military is making use of the Turkish Bayraktar TB2-drones that still require human operation to deploy laser-guided bombs but can take off, land, and cruise autonomously. Ukraine has also been using Switchblade drones supplied by the US and receiving information gathering by the United States's own surveillance operations regarding battlefield intelligence and national security about Russia. Similarly, Russia can use AI to help analyze battlefield data from surveillance footage taken by drones. Reports and images show that Russia's military has deployed KUB- BLA suicide drones into Ukraine, with speculations of intentions to assassinate Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [ 70149799, 62445596, 36723648, 59210523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 396, 438 ], [ 492, 512 ], [ 654, 671 ], [ 1121, 1140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As research in the AI realm progresses, there is pushback about the use of AI from the Campaign to Stop Killer Robots and world technology leaders have sent a petition to the United Nations calling for new regulations on the development and use of AI technologies in 2017, including a ban on the use of lethal autonomous weapons due to ethical concerns for innocent civilian populations.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [ 46406101, 36973733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 117 ], [ 303, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the ever evolving cyber-attacks and generation of devices, AI can be used for threat detection and more effective response by risk prioritization. With this tool, some challenges are also presented such as privacy, informed consent, and responsible use. According to CISA, the cyberspace is difficult to secure for the following factors: the ability of malicious actors to operate from anywhere in the world, the linkages between cyberspace and physical systems, and the difficulty of reducing vulnerabilities and consequences in complex cyber networks. With the increased technological advances of the world, the risk for wide scale consequential events rises. Paradoxically, the ability to protect information and create a line of communication between the scientific and diplomatic community thrives. The role of cybersecurity in diplomacy has become increasingly relevant, creating the term of cyber diplomacy – which is not uniformly defined and not synonymous with cyber defence. Many nations have developed unique approaches to scientific diplomacy in cyberspace.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [ 59407369, 35522586, 18248534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 276 ], [ 903, 918 ], [ 976, 989 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dating back to 2011, when the Czech National Security Authority (NSA) was appointed as the national authority for the cyber agenda. The role of cyber diplomacy strengthened in 2017 when the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) detected a serious cyber campaign directed against its own computer networks. In 2016, three cyber diplomats were deployed to Washington, D.C., Brussels and Tel Aviv, with the goal of establishing active international cooperation focused on engagement with the EU and NATO. The main agenda for these scientific diplomacy efforts is to bolster research on artificial intelligence and how it can be utilized in cybersecurity research, development, and overall consumer trust. CzechInvest is a key stakeholder in scientific diplomacy and cybersecurity. For example, in September 2018, they organized a mission to Canada in September 2018 with a special focus on artificial intelligence. The main goal of this particular mission was a promotional effort on behalf of Prague, attempting to establish it as a future knowledge hub for the industry for interested Canadian firms.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [ 51171680, 19185691, 9317, 21133, 15002026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 69 ], [ 190, 223 ], [ 491, 493 ], [ 498, 502 ], [ 704, 715 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cybersecurity is recognized as a governmental task, dividing into three ministries of responsibility: the Federal Ministry of the Interior, the Federal Ministry of Defence, and the Federal Foreign Office. These distinctions promoted the creation of various institutions, such as The German National Office for Information Security, The National Cyberdefence Centre, The German National Cyber Security Council, and The Cyber and Information Domain Service. In 2018, a new strategy for artificial intelligence was established by the German government, with the creation of a German-French virtual research and innovation network, holding opportunity for research expansion into cybersecurity.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The adoption of The Cybersecurity Strategy of the European Union – An Open, Safe and Secure Cyberspace document in 2013 by the European commission pushed forth cybersecurity efforts integrated with scientific diplomacy and artificial intelligence. Efforts are strong, as the EU funds various programs and institutions in the effort to bring science to diplomacy and bring diplomacy to science. Some examples are the cyber security programme Competence Research Innovation (CONCORDIA), which brings together 14 member states, and Cybersecurity for Europe (CSE), which brings together 43 partners involving 20 member states. In addition, The European Network of Cybersecurity Centres and Competence Hub for Innovation and Operations (ECHO) gathers 30 partners with 15 member states and SPARTA gathers 44 partners involving 14 member states. These efforts reflect the overall goals of the EU, to innovate cybersecurity for defense and protection, establish a highly integrated cyberspace among many nations, and further contribute to the security of artificial intelligence.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, there has been a rise in malicious cyber activity against the United States, Ukraine, and Russia. A prominent and rare documented use of artificial intelligence in conflict is on behalf of Ukraine, using facial recognition software to uncover Russian assailants and identify Ukrainians killed in the ongoing war. Though these governmental figures are not primarily focused on scientific and cyber diplomacy, other institutions are commenting on the use of artificial intelligence in cybersecurity with that focus. For example, Georgetown University's Center for Security and Emerging Technology (CSET) has the Cyber-AI Project, with one goal being to attract policymakers' attention to the growing body of academic research, whichexposes the exploitive consequences of AI and machine-learning (ML) algorithms. This vulnerability can be a plausible explanation as to why Russia is not engaging in the use of AI in conflict per, Andrew Lohn, a senior fellow at CSET. In addition to use on the battlefield, AI is being used by the Pentagon to analyze data from the war, analyzing to strengthen cybersecurity and warfare intelligence for the United States.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As artificial intelligence grows and the overwhelming amount of news portrayed through cyberspace expands, it is becoming extremely overwhelming for a voter to know what to believe. There are many intelligent codes, referred to as bots, written to portray people on social media with the goal of spreading miss information. The 2016 US election is a victim of such actions. During the Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump campaign, artificial intelligent bots from Russia were spreading misinformation about the candidates in order to help the Trump campaign. Analysts concluded that approximately 19% of Twitter tweets centered around the 2016 election were detected to come from bots. YouTube in recent years has been used to spread political information as well. Although there is no proof that the platform attempts to manipulate its viewers opinions, Youtubes AI algorithm recommends videos of similar variety. If a person begins to research right wing political podcasts, then YouTube's algorithm will recommend more right wing videos. The uprising in a program called Deepfake, a software used to replicate someone's face and words, has also shown its potential threat. In2018 a Deepfake video of Barack Obama was released saying words he claims to have never said. While in a national election a Deepfake will quickly be debunked, the software has the capability to heavily sway a smaller local election. This tool holds a lot of potential for spreading misinformation and is monitored with great attention.Although it may be seen as a tool used for harm, AI can help enhance election campaigns as well. AI bots can be programed to target articles with known misinformation. The bots can then indicate what is being misinformed to help shine light on the truth. AI can also be used to inform a person where each parts stands on a certain topic such as healthcare or climate change. The political leaders of a nation have heavy sway on international affairs. Thus, a political leader with a lack of interest for international collaborative scientific advancement can have a negative impact in the scientific diplomacy of that nation", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [ 5043192, 4848272, 9988187, 3524766, 56522, 56641018, 534366, 261925, 5042951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 385, 400 ], [ 405, 417 ], [ 601, 608 ], [ 683, 690 ], [ 943, 953 ], [ 1071, 1079 ], [ 1200, 1212 ], [ 1856, 1866 ], [ 1870, 1884 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The use of artificial intelligence (AI) has subtly grown to become part of everyday life. It is used every day in facial recognition software. It is the first measure of security for many companies in the form of a biometric authentication. This means of authentication allows even the most official organizations such as the United States Internal Revenue Service to verify a person's identity via a database generated from machine learning. As of the year 2022, the United States IRS requires those who do not undergo a live interview with an agent to complete a biometric verification of their identity via ID.me's facial recognition tool.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [ 602401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Japan and South Korea, artificial intelligence software is used in the instruction of English language via the company Riiid. Riiid is a Korean education company working alongside Japan to give students the means to learn and use their English communication skills via engaging with artificial intelligence in a live chat. Riid is not the only company to do this. American company Duolingo is well known for their automated teaching of 41 languages. Babbel, a German language learning program, also uses artificial intelligence in its teaching automation, allowing for European students to learn vital communication skills needed in social, economic, and diplomatic settings. Artificial intelligence will also automate the routine tasks that teachers need to do such as grading, taking attendance, and handling routine student inquiries. This enables the teacher to carry on with the complexities of teaching that an automated machine cannot handle. These include creating exams, explaining complex material in a way that will benefit students individually and handling unique questions from students.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [ 32287671, 17355087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 384, 392 ], [ 453, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike the human brain, which possess generalized intelligence, the specialized intelligence of AI can serve as a means of support to physicians internationally. The medical field has a diverse and profound amount of data in which AI can employ to generate a predictive diagnosis. Researchers at an Oxford hospital have developed artificial intelligence that can diagnose heart scans for heart disease and cancer. This artificial intelligence can pick up diminutive details in the scans that doctors may miss. As such, artificial intelligence in medicine will better the industry, giving doctors the means to precisely diagnose their patients using the tools available. The artificial intelligence algorithms will also be used to further improve diagnosis over time, via an application of machine learning called precision medicine. Furthermore, the narrow application of artificial intelligence can use \"deep learning\" in order to improve medical image analysis. In radiology imaging, AI uses deep learning algorithms to identify potentially cancerous lesions which is an important process assisting in early diagnosis.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [ 32472154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 905, 918 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Data analysis is a fundamental property of artificial intelligence that enables it to be used in every facet of life from search results to the way people buy product. According to NewVantage Partners, over 90% of top businesses have ongoing investments in artificial intelligence. According to IBM, one of the world's leaders in technology, 45% of respondents from companies with over 1,000 employees have adopted AI. Recent data shows that the business market for artificial intelligence during the year 2020 was valued at $51.08 billion. The business market for artificial intelligence is projected to be over $640.3 billion by the year 2028. To prevent harm, AI-deploying organizations need to play a central role in creating and deploying trustworthy AI in line with the principles of trustworthy AI, and take accountability to mitigate the risks.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [ 2720954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the exponential surge of artificial technology and communication, the distribution of one's ideals and values has been evident in daily life. Digital information is spread via communication apps such as Whatsapp, Facebook/Meta, Snapchat, Instagram and Twitter. However, it is known that these sites relay specific information corresponding to data analysis. If a right-winged individual were to do a google search, Google's algorithms would target that individual and relay data pertinent to that target audience. US President Bill Clinton noted in 2000:\"In the new century, liberty will spread by cell phone and cable modem. [...] We know how much the Internet has changed America, and we are already an open society. However, when the private sector uses artificial intelligence to gather data, a shift in power from the state to the private sector may be seen. This shift in power, specifically in large technological corporations, could profoundly change how diplomacy functions in society. The rise in digital technology and usage of artificial technology enabled the private sector to gather immense data on the public, which is then further categorized by race, location, age, gender, etc. The New York Times calculates that \"the ten largest tech firms, which have become gatekeepers in commerce, finance, entertainment and communications, now have a combined market capitalization of more than $10 trillion. In gross domestic product terms, that would rank them as the world's third-largest economy.\" Beyond the general lobbying of congressmen/congresswomen, companies such as Facebook/Meta or Google use collected data in order to reach their intended audiences with targeted information.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Multiple nations around the globe employ artificial intelligence to assist with their foreign policy decisions. The Chinese Department of External Security Affairs – under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs – uses AI to review almost all its foreign investment projects for risk mitigation. The government of China plans to utilize artificial intelligence in its $900 billion global infrastructure development plan, called the \"Belt and Road Initiative\" for political, economic, and environmental risk alleviation.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Over 200 applications of artificial intelligence are being used by over 46 United Nations agencies, in sectors ranging from health care dealing with issues such as combating COVID-19 to smart agriculture, to assist the UN in political and diplomatic relations. One example is the use of AI by the UN Global Pulse program to model the effect of the spread of COVID-19 on internally displaced people (IDP) and refugee settlements to assist them in creating an appropriate global health policy.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Novel AI tools such as remote sensing can also be employed by diplomats for collecting and analyzing data and near-real-time tracking of objects such as troop or refugee movements along borders in violent conflict zones.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Artificial intelligence can be used to mitigate vital cross-national diplomatic talks to prevent translation errors caused by human translators. A major example is the 2021 Anchorage meetings held between US and China aimed at stabilizing foreign relations, only for it to have the opposite effect, increasing tension and aggressiveness between the two nations, due to translation errors caused by human translators. In the meeting, when United States National Security Advisor to President Joe Biden, Jacob Jeremiah Sullivan stated, \"We do not seek conflict, but we welcome stiff competition and we will always stand up for our principles, for our people, and for our friends\", it was mistranslated into Chinese as \"we will face competition between us, and will present our stance in a very clear manner\", adding an aggressive tone to the speech. AI's ability for fast and efficient natural language processing and real-time translation and transliteration makes it an important tool for foreign-policy communication between nations and prevents unintended mistranslation.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Scientific diplomacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A.I. Rising", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 60120484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AI control problem", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 50785023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Artificial intelligence arms race", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 56127293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Behavior selection algorithm", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47893974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Business process automation", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1155664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Case-based reasoning", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 170333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Emergent algorithm", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 214269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Female gendering of AI technologies", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 63326772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Glossary of artificial intelligence", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 50336055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robotic process automation", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47642826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Synthetic intelligence", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2548050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Universal basic income", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28310828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Weak AI", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1648132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Attribution", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These were the four the most widely used AI textbooks in 2008:", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Later editions.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The two most widely used textbooks in 2021.Open Syllabus: Explorer", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " was introduced by Kunihiko Fukushima in 1980.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 23594316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " |", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Presidential Address to the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 534794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Later published as", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Autor, David H., \"Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation\" (2015) 29(3) Journal of Economic Perspectives 3.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 45694194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boden, Margaret, Mind As Machine, Oxford University Press, 2006.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 3011693, 48518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 35, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cukier, Kenneth, \"Ready for Robots? How to Think about the Future of AI\", Foreign Affairs, vol. 98, no. 4 (July/August 2019), pp.192–98. George Dyson, historian of computing, writes (in what might be called \"Dyson's Law\") that \"Any system simple enough to be understandable will not be complicated enough to behave intelligently, while any system complicated enough to behave intelligently will be too complicated to understand.\" (p.197.) Computer scientist Alex Pentland writes: \"Current AI machine-learning algorithms are, at their core, dead simple stupid. They work, but they work by brute force.\" (p.198.)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 51691291, 183519, 2293616, 7451513, 233488, 775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 75, 90 ], [ 138, 150 ], [ 459, 472 ], [ 490, 509 ], [ 510, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Domingos, Pedro, \"Our Digital Doubles: AI will serve our species, not control it\", Scientific American, vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp.88–93.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 47790413, 29507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 84, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gopnik, Alison, \"Making AI More Human: Artificial intelligence has staged a revival by starting to incorporate what we know about how children learn\", Scientific American, vol. 316, no. 6 (June 2017), pp.60–65.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 20824873, 29507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 152, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Halpern, Sue, \"The Human Costs of AI\" (review of Kate Crawford, Atlas of AI: Power, Politics, and the Planetary Costs of Artificial Intelligence, Yale University Press, 2021, 327 pp.; Simon Chesterman, We, the Robots?: Regulating Artificial Intelligence and the Limits of the Law, Cambridge University Press, 2021, 289 pp.; Keven Roose, Futureproof: 9 Rules for Humans in the Age of Automation, Random House, 217 pp.; Erik J. Larson, The Myth of Artificial Intelligence: Why Computers Can't Think the Way We Do, Belknap Press / Harvard University Press, 312 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVIII, no. 16 (21 October 2021), pp.29–31. \"AI training models can replicate entrenched social and cultural biases. [...] Machines only know what they know from the data they have been given. [p. 30.] [A]rtificial general intelligence–machine-based intelligence that matches our own–is beyond the capacity of algorithmic machine learning... 'Your brain is one piece in a broader system which includes your body, your environment, other humans, and culture as a whole.' [E]ven machines that master the tasks they are trained to perform can't jump domains. AIVA, for example, can't drive a car even though it can write music (and wouldn't even be able to do that without Bach and Beethoven [and other composers on which AIVA is trained]).\" (p.31.)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 11707008, 27575873, 297129, 40786, 18985040, 775, 52642349, 9906294, 17914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 63 ], [ 185, 201 ], [ 565, 593 ], [ 709, 713 ], [ 766, 770 ], [ 910, 919 ], [ 1156, 1160 ], [ 1270, 1274 ], [ 1279, 1288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Johnston, John (2008) The Allure of Machinic Life: Cybernetics, Artificial Life, and the New AI, MIT Press.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Koch, Christof, \"Proust among the Machines\", Scientific American, vol. 321, no. 6 (December 2019), pp.46–49. Christof Koch doubts the possibility of \"intelligent\" machines attaining consciousness, because \"[e]ven the most sophisticated brain simulations are unlikely to produce conscious feelings.\" (p.48.) According to Koch, \"Whether machines can become sentient [is important] for ethical reasons. If computers experience life through their own senses, they cease to be purely a means to an end determined by their usefulness to... humans. Per GNW [the Global Neuronal Workspace theory], they turn from mere objects into subjects... with a point of view.... Once computers' cognitive abilities rival those of humanity, their impulse to push for legal and political rights will become irresistible—the right not to be deleted, not to have their memories wiped clean, not to suffer pain and degradation. The alternative, embodied by IIT [Integrated Information Theory], is that computers will remain only supersophisticated machinery, ghostlike empty shells, devoid of what we value most: the feeling of life itself.\" (p.49.)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 1041998, 29507, 1041998, 5664, 21855574, 163390, 168187, 9258, 1456765, 47678053, 24373070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 46, 65 ], [ 110, 123 ], [ 183, 196 ], [ 237, 253 ], [ 289, 297 ], [ 356, 364 ], [ 384, 391 ], [ 556, 581 ], [ 643, 656 ], [ 677, 696 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Marcus, Gary, \"Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind\", Scientific American, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp.58–63. A stumbling block to AI has been an incapacity for reliable disambiguation. An example is the \"pronoun disambiguation problem\": a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a pronoun in a sentence refers. (p.61.)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 14223848, 29507, 67065, 24985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 118, 137 ], [ 239, 253 ], [ 361, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " E McGaughey, 'Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy' (2018) SSRN, part 2(3) .", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " George Musser, \"Artificial Imagination: How machines could learn creativity and common sense, among other human qualities\", Scientific American, vol. 320, no. 5 (May 2019), pp.58–63.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 19500833, 14842794, 142910, 21478754, 29507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 17, 39 ], [ 66, 76 ], [ 81, 93 ], [ 125, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Myers, Courtney Boyd ed. (2009). \"The AI Report\" . Forbes June 2009", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Scharre, Paul, \"Killer Apps: The Real Dangers of an AI Arms Race\", Foreign Affairs, vol. 98, no. 3 (May/June 2019), pp.135–44. \"Today's AI technologies are powerful but unreliable. Rules-based systems cannot deal with circumstances their programmers did not anticipate. Learning systems are limited by the data on which they were trained. AI failures have already led to tragedy. Advanced autopilot features in cars, although they perform well in some circumstances, have driven cars without warning into trucks, concrete barriers, and parked cars. In the wrong situation, AI systems go from supersmart to superdumb in an instant. When an enemy is trying to manipulate and hack an AI system, the risks are even greater.\" (p.140.)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 183519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sun, R. & Bookman, L. (eds.), Computational Architectures: Integrating Neural and Symbolic Processes. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Needham, MA. 1994.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Taylor, Paul, \"Insanely Complicated, Hopelessly Inadequate\" (review of Brian Cantwell Smith, The Promise of Artificial Intelligence: Reckoning and Judgment, MIT, 2019, , 157 pp.; Gary Marcus and Ernest Davis, Rebooting AI: Building Artificial Intelligence We Can Trust, Ballantine, 2019, , 304 pp.; Judea Pearl and Dana Mackenzie, The Book of Why: The New Science of Cause and Effect, Penguin, 2019, , 418 pp.), London Review of Books, vol. 43, no. 2 (21 January 2021), pp.37–39. Paul Taylor writes (p.39): \"Perhaps there is a limit to what a computer can do without knowing that it is manipulating imperfect representations of an external reality.\"", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 3832898, 14223848, 699964, 422489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 92 ], [ 180, 191 ], [ 300, 311 ], [ 413, 435 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tooze, Adam, \"Democracy and Its Discontents\", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 10 (6 June 2019), pp.52–53, 56–57. \"Democracy has no clear answer for the mindless operation of bureaucratic and technological power. We may indeed be witnessing its extension in the form of artificial intelligence and robotics. Likewise, after decades of dire warning, the environmental problem remains fundamentally unaddressed.... Bureaucratic overreach and environmental catastrophe are precisely the kinds of slow-moving existential challenges that democracies deal with very badly.... Finally, there is the threat du jour: corporations and the technologies they promote.\" (pp.56–57.)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 7454229, 297129, 20949522, 29816, 1866009, 7485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 47, 75 ], [ 188, 200 ], [ 205, 224 ], [ 366, 387 ], [ 621, 632 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Artificial Intelligence. BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Agar, Alison Adam & Igor Aleksander (In Our Time, 8 December 2005).", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Artificial_intelligence", "Cybernetics", "Formal_sciences", "Computational_neuroscience", "Emerging_technologies", "Unsolved_problems_in_computer_science", "Computational_fields_of_study" ]

[ "AI", "MI", "cognitive computing", "A. I.", "A.I." ]

[ { "plaintext": " Afro Celt Sound System is a British musical group who fuse electronic music with traditional Gaelic and West African music. Afro Celt Sound System was formed in 1995 by producer-guitarist Simon Emmerson, and feature a wide range of guest artists. In 2003, they temporarily changed their name to Afrocelts before reverting to their original name.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9510, 5261, 1791457, 6432293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 76 ], [ 94, 100 ], [ 105, 117 ], [ 189, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Their albums have been released through Peter Gabriel's Real World Records, and they have frequently performed at WOMAD festivals worldwide. Their sales on the label are exceeded only by Gabriel himself. Their recording contract with Real World was for five albums, of which Volume 5: Anatomic was the last.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 55896, 1052083, 623987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 53 ], [ 56, 74 ], [ 114, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After a number of festival dates in 2007, the band went on hiatus. In 2010, they regrouped to play a number of shows (including a return to WOMAD), releasing a re-mastered retrospective titled Capture.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 20 May 2014, Afro Celt Sound System announced the release of the album Born. In January 2016, a posting to that website revealed that due to a dispute with Emmerson, who announced his departure from the band in 2015, there were two active versions of the band, a version led by Emmerson and a separate line-up headed by James McNally and Martin Russell. Emmerson's version of the band released the album The Source in 2016. The dispute ended on 21 December 2016, with an announcement on social media.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4369119, 11539255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 323, 336 ], [ 341, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The band released their eighth studio album, Flight, on 23 November 2018.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The inspiration behind the project dates back to 1991, when Simon Emmerson, a Grammy Award-nominated British producer and guitarist, collaborated with Afro-pop star Baaba Maal. While making an album with Maal in Senegal, Emmerson was struck by the similarity between one African melody and a traditional Irish air. Back in London, Irish musician Davy Spillane told Emmerson about a belief that nomadic Celts lived in Africa or India before they migrated to Western Europe. Whether or not the theory was true, Emmerson was intrigued by the two regions' musical affinities.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 44635, 53207, 532353, 1241409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 90 ], [ 109, 117 ], [ 165, 175 ], [ 346, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In an experiment that would prove successful, Emmerson brought two members of Baaba Maal's band together with traditional Irish musicians to see what kind of music the two groups would create. Adding a dash of modern sound, Emmerson also brought in English dance mixers for an electronic beat. \"People thought I was mad when I touted the idea,\" Emmerson told Jim Carroll of The Irish Times. \"At the time, I was out of favour with the London club scene. I was broke and on income support but the success was extraordinary\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 147378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 374, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jamming in the studios at Real World, musician Peter Gabriel's recording facilities in Wiltshire, England, the group of musicians recorded the basis of their first album in one week. This album, Sound Magic, was released by Real World Records in 1996, and marked the debut of the Afro Celt Sound System.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 51231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Prior to that first album being made, none of us knew if it would work,\" musician James McNally told Larry Katz of the Boston Herald. \"We were strangers who didn't even speak the same language. But we were bowled over by this communication that took place beyond language.\" McNally, who grew up second-generation Irish in London, played whistles, keyboards, piano, bodhran, and bamboo flute.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 23533975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 366, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sound Magic has now sold over 300,000 copies. The band performed at festivals, raves, and dance clubs and regularly included two African musicians, Moussa Sissokho on talking drum and djembe and N'Faly Kouyate on vocals, kora and balafon.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2360299, 16818, 185508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 209 ], [ 221, 225 ], [ 230, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Just as the second album was getting off the ground, one of the group's core musicians, 27-year-old keyboardist Jo Bruce, (son of Cream bass player Jack Bruce), died suddenly of an asthma attack. The band was devastated, and the album was put on hold. Sinéad O'Connor then collaborated with the band and helped them cope with their loss. \"[O'Connor] blew into the studio on a windy November night and blew away again leaving us something incredibly emotional and powerful,\" McNally told Katz. \"We had this track we didn't know what to do with. Sinéad scribbled a few lyrics and bang! She left us completely choked up.\" The band used the name of O'Connor's song, \"Release\", for the title of their album. Release was released in 1999, and by the spring of 2000 it had sold more than half a million copies worldwide. Release is also used as one of the GCSE music set works in the UK that students are required to study for their exam.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 56708, 53414, 178802, 44905, 144848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 111 ], [ 130, 135 ], [ 148, 158 ], [ 181, 187 ], [ 252, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2000, the group was nominated for a Grammy Award in the Best World Music category. The band, composed at the time of eight members from six countries (the UK, Senegal, Guinea, Ireland, France and Kenya), took pride in its ability to bring people together through music. \"We can communicate anywhere at any corner of the planet and feel that we're at home,\" McNally told Patrick MacDonald of The Seattle Times. \"We're breaking down categories of world music and rock music and black music. We leave a door open to communicate with each other's traditions. And it's changed our lives\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 44635, 27278, 188171, 432610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 51 ], [ 162, 169 ], [ 199, 204 ], [ 394, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2001, the group released Further in Time, which climbed to number one on Billboards Top World Music Albums chart. Featuring guest spots by Peter Gabriel and Robert Plant, the album also incorporated a heightened African sound. \"On the first two records, the pendulum swung more toward the Celtic, London club side of the equation,\" Emmerson told The Irish Times Carroll. \"For this one, we wanted to have more African vocals and input than we'd done before.\" Again the Afro Celt Sound System met with success. Chuck Taylor of Billboard praised the album as \"a cultural phenomenon that bursts past the traditional boundaries of contemporary music.\" The single \"When You're Falling\", with vocals by Gabriel, became a radio hit in the United States.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 18309966, 100405, 31780689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 86 ], [ 161, 173 ], [ 663, 682 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2003, for the Seed album, they changed their name to Afrocelts. They reverted to the longer band name for their subsequent albums, Pod, a compilation of new mixes of songs from the first four albums, Anatomic (their fifth studio album), and Capture (1995–2010).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 4368826, 4369149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 21 ], [ 134, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "They played a number of shows to promote Volume 5: Anatomic in 2006 and summer 2007, ending with a gig in Korea, before taking an extended break to work on side projects, amongst them The Imagined Village featuring Simon Emmerson and Johnny Kalsi. Starting in the summer of 2010, the band performed a series of live shows to promote Capture (1995–2010), released on 6 September 2010 on Real World Records. Further performances continue to the present day, and a new album-in-progress titled Born was announced on their website in 2014. Following the split (see below), Emmerson's version of the band released the album The Source in 2016.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 13787507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During 2015, the band had split into two formations, one of them including Simon Emmerson, N'Faly Kouyate and Johnny Kalsi, the other one James McNally and Martin Russell. The split was announced on the band's website in January 2016. The dispute officially ended with an announcement on social media on 21 December 2016. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Split", "target_page_ids": [ 6432293, 2360299, 4320626, 4369119, 11539255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 89 ], [ 91, 105 ], [ 110, 122 ], [ 138, 151 ], [ 156, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Afro Celt Sound System formed in the mid-1990s during the Real World Recording Week, the difference between a guest artist and a band member was virtually non-existent. However, over time, a combination of people became most often associated with the name Afro Celt Sound System (while Volume 5: Anatomic only lists Emmerson, McNally, Ó Lionáird and Russell as regulars). The divided grouping of the band into two versions, both operating under the name Afro Celt Sound System, began in January 2016 and was resolved in December 2016 after McNally and Russell agreed to work under a different name from Emmerson.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 1052083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Simon Emmerson", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 6432293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "N'Faly Kouyate", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 2360299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Johnny Kalsi", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 4320626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Moussa Sissokho", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Griogair Labhruidh", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 52787068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ronan Browne", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 8878965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emer Mayock", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Davy Spillane", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 1241409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Russell/McNally version", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Martin Russell", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 11539255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "James McNally", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 4369119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ian Markin", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tim Bradshaw", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Babara Bangoura", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dorothee Munyaneza", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Kadially Kouyaté", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dav Daheley", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other musicians who have performed or recorded with Afro Celt Sound System include: Jimmy Mahon, Demba Barry, Babara Bangoura, Iarla Ó Lionáird, Peter Gabriel, Robert Plant, Pete Lockett, Sinéad O'Connor, Pina Kollar, Dorothee Munyaneza, Sevara Nazarkhan, Simon Massey, Jesse Cook, Martin Hayes, Eileen Ivers, Mundy, Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh and Ciarán Tourish of Altan, Ronan Browne, Michael McGoldrick, Myrdhin, Shooglenifty, Mairead Nesbitt, Nigel Eaton, Davy Spillane, Jonas Bruce, Heather Nova, Julie Murphy and Ayub Ogada, Caroline Lavelle, Ross Ainslie.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Members", "target_page_ids": [ 2730702, 55896, 100405, 3194871, 144848, 2627976, 784481, 1856555, 5293919, 1414794, 2804412, 2374712, 904507, 8878965, 405594, 3730772, 8243935, 11989051, 1241409, 78877, 13575529, 3291523, 4116926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 143 ], [ 145, 158 ], [ 160, 172 ], [ 174, 186 ], [ 188, 203 ], [ 205, 216 ], [ 238, 254 ], [ 270, 280 ], [ 282, 294 ], [ 296, 308 ], [ 310, 315 ], [ 317, 337 ], [ 360, 365 ], [ 367, 379 ], [ 381, 399 ], [ 410, 422 ], [ 424, 439 ], [ 441, 452 ], [ 454, 467 ], [ 482, 494 ], [ 496, 508 ], [ 513, 523 ], [ 525, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pod (remix album) (2004)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [ 4369149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Capture (1995–2010) (2010) (compilation) No. 14 NZ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "They also recorded the soundtrack for the PC game Magic and Mayhem, released in 1998.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Discography", "target_page_ids": [ 15663971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Real World Records page", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Celtic_fusion_groups", "Worldbeat_groups", "Real_World_Records_artists", "British_world_music_groups", "Musical_groups_established_in_1995" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "This page lists some links to ancient philosophy, namely philosophical thought extending as far as early post-classical history ().", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13692155, 13139823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 78 ], [ 105, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Genuine philosophical thought, depending upon original individual insights, arose in many cultures roughly contemporaneously. Karl Jaspers termed the intense period of philosophical development beginning around the 7th century and concluding around the 3rd century BCE an Axial Age in human thought.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 332245, 925810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 138 ], [ 272, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Western philosophy, the spread of Christianity in the Roman Empire marked the ending of Hellenistic philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of medieval philosophy, whereas in the Middle East, the spread of Islam through the Arab Empire marked the end of Ancient Iranian philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of early Islamic philosophy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 13704154, 5211, 25507, 10649725, 26571896, 47826238, 804036, 171177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 21 ], [ 37, 49 ], [ 57, 69 ], [ 91, 113 ], [ 147, 166 ], [ 200, 215 ], [ 228, 239 ], [ 318, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chinese philosophy is the dominant philosophical thought in China and other countries within the East Asian cultural sphere that share a common language, including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 3398337, 39228831, 16749, 202354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 123 ], [ 129, 152 ], [ 171, 176 ], [ 182, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Hundred Schools of Thought were philosophers and schools that flourished from the 6th century to 221 BCE, an era of great cultural and intellectual expansion in China. Even though this period – known in its earlier part as the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period – in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely. The thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this period have profoundly influenced lifestyles and social consciousness up to the present day in East Asian countries. The intellectual society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy. This period ended with the rise of the Qin Dynasty and the subsequent purge of dissent. The Book of Han lists ten major schools, they are:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 170458, 196576, 5822, 190041, 651231, 227107, 12229, 33158, 28165911, 43461, 2726813, 1432034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 255 ], [ 264, 278 ], [ 388, 406 ], [ 579, 588 ], [ 594, 614 ], [ 666, 678 ], [ 818, 828 ], [ 830, 833 ], [ 839, 848 ], [ 889, 900 ], [ 920, 925 ], [ 942, 953 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Confucianism, which teaches that human beings are teachable, improvable and perfectible through personal and communal endeavour especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. A main idea of Confucianism is the cultivation of virtue and the development of moral perfection. Confucianism holds that one should give up one's life, if necessary, either passively or actively, for the sake of upholding the cardinal moral values of ren and yi.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 5820, 20112903, 27776545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 438, 441 ], [ 446, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Legalism. Often compared with Machiavelli, and foundational for the traditional Chinese bureaucratic empire, the Legalists examined administrative methods, emphasizing a realistic consolidation of the wealth and power of autocrat and state.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 226125, 21444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 31, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Taoism (also called Daoism), a philosophy which emphasizes the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion, moderation, and humility, while Taoist thought generally focuses on nature, the relationship between humanity and the cosmos; health and longevity; and wu wei (action through inaction). Harmony with the Universe, or the source thereof (Tao), is the intended result of many Taoist rules and practices.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 30365, 1515577, 327443, 315232, 231943, 21830, 80381, 196206, 684986, 31880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 64, 87 ], [ 89, 99 ], [ 101, 111 ], [ 117, 125 ], [ 169, 175 ], [ 227, 233 ], [ 238, 247 ], [ 253, 259 ], [ 304, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mohism, which advocated the idea of universal love: Mozi believed that \"everyone is equal before heaven\", and that people should seek to imitate heaven by engaging in the practice of collective love. His epistemology can be regarded as primitive materialist empiricism; he believed that human cognition ought to be based on one's perceptions one's sensory experiences, such as sight and hearing instead of imagination or internal logic, elements founded on the human capacity for abstraction. Mozi advocated frugality, condemning the Confucian emphasis on ritual and music, which he denounced as extravagant.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 21032, 10174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 259, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Naturalism, the School of Naturalists or the Yin-yang school, which synthesized the concepts of yin and yang and the Five Elements; Zou Yan is considered the founder of this school.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 32449181, 144804, 6459, 6877847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 38 ], [ 97, 109 ], [ 118, 131 ], [ 133, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Agrarianism, or the School of Agrarianism, which advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. The Agrarians believed that Chinese society should be modeled around that of the early sage king Shen Nong, a folk hero which was portrayed in Chinese literature as \"working in the fields, along with everyone else, and consulting with everyone else when any decision had to be reached.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 32449444, 31718, 10113, 631116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 42 ], [ 68, 75 ], [ 92, 106 ], [ 205, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Logicians or the School of Names, which focused on definition and logic. It is said to have parallels with that of the Ancient Greek sophists or dialecticians. The most notable Logician was Gongsun Longzi.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 202690, 7964, 46426065, 49646, 23276, 202693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 14 ], [ 56, 66 ], [ 71, 76 ], [ 138, 146 ], [ 150, 162 ], [ 195, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The School of Diplomacy or School of Vertical and Horizontal [Alliances], which focused on practical matters instead of any moral principle, so it stressed political and diplomatic tactics, and debate and lobbying skill. Scholars from this school were good orators, debaters and tacticians.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 25856578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Miscellaneous School, which integrated teachings from different schools; for instance, Lü Buwei found scholars from different schools to write a book called Lüshi Chunqiu cooperatively. This school tried to integrate the merits of various schools and avoid their perceived flaws.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 979371, 8257071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 100 ], [ 162, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The School of \"Minor-talks\", which was not a unique school of thought, but a philosophy constructed of all the thoughts which were discussed by and originated from normal people on the street.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Another group is the School of the Military that studied strategy and the philosophy of war; Sunzi and Sun Bin were influential leaders. However, this school was not one of the \"Ten Schools\" defined by Hanshu.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2906083, 51825, 1917769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 92 ], [ 94, 99 ], [ 104, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The founder of the Qin Dynasty, who implemented Legalism as the official philosophy, quashed Mohist and Confucianist schools. Legalism remained influential until the emperors of the Han Dynasty adopted Daoism and later Confucianism as official doctrine. These latter two became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the introduction of Buddhism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 43461, 2726813, 43460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 30 ], [ 85, 124 ], [ 182, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Confucianism was particularly strong during the Han Dynasty, whose greatest thinker was Dong Zhongshu, who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School and the theory of the Five Elements. He also was a promoter of the New Text school, which considered Confucius as a divine figure and a spiritual ruler of China, who foresaw and started the evolution of the world towards the Universal Peace. In contrast, there was an Old Text school that advocated the use of Confucian works written in ancient language (from this comes the denomination Old Text) that were so much more reliable. In particular, they refuted the assumption of Confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage, but simply a human and mortal.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 227107, 1693881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 83 ], [ 88, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 3rd and 4th centuries saw the rise of the Xuanxue (mysterious learning), also called Neo-Taoism. The most important philosophers of this movement were Wang Bi, Xiang Xiu and Guo Xiang. The main question of this school was whether Being came before Not-Being (in Chinese, ming and wuming). A peculiar feature of these Taoist thinkers, like the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, was the concept of feng liu (lit. wind and flow), a sort of romantic spirit which encouraged following the natural and instinctive impulse.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 12138139, 2971369, 4684092, 2245936, 2741936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 53 ], [ 155, 162 ], [ 164, 173 ], [ 178, 187 ], [ 347, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until the Northern and Southern, Sui and Tang Dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement. At the beginning, it was considered a sort of Taoist sect, and there was even a theory about Laozi, founder of Taoism, who went to India and taught his philosophy to Buddha. Mahayana Buddhism was far more successful in China than its rival Hinayana, and both Indian schools and local Chinese sects arose from the 5th century. Two chiefly important monk philosophers were Sengzhao and Daosheng. But probably the most influential and original of these schools was the Chan sect, which had an even stronger impact in Japan as the Zen sect.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 3267529, 74134, 43456, 43455, 65119, 3395, 27937488, 14036, 4675882, 8530811, 34044035, 30153241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 78, 99 ], [ 101, 104 ], [ 109, 113 ], [ 276, 281 ], [ 349, 355 ], [ 357, 374 ], [ 423, 431 ], [ 554, 562 ], [ 567, 575 ], [ 649, 653 ], [ 710, 713 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Taoism", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 30365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Laozi (5th–4th century BCE)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 65119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zhuangzi (4th century BCE)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 19544344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zhang Daoling", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 742791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zhang Jue (died 184 CE)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 488522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ge Hong (283 – 343 CE)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2172835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Confucianism", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 5820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Confucius", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 5823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mencius", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 197033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Xun Zi ( – 230 BCE)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 608209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Legalism", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 226125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Li Si", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 483897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Li Kui", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 5790527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Han Fei", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 608287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mi Su Yu", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shang Yang", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", 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"target_page_ids": [ 20107524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Su Qin (380 – 284 BCE)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 24190068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zhang Yi (bef. 329 – 309 BCE)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2634117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yue Yi", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2873622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Li Yiji (268 – 204 BCE)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 28948435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Military strategy", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sunzi ()", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 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[ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peripatetic School", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 529396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pyrrhonism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1345560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stoicism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 19224834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sophism", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 49646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "See also: Christian philosophy", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 192007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " School of the Sextii", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 47037942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cicero (106 – 43 BCE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 6046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lucretius (94 – 55 BCE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 37145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Seneca (4 BCE – 65 CE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 75150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Musonius Rufus (30 – 100 CE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 162058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Plutarch (45 – 120 CE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 24517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Epictetus (55 – 135 CE)", "section_idx": 3, 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"target_page_ids": [ 177582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander of Aphrodisias (3rd century CE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ammonius Saccas (3rd century CE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Plotinus (205 – 270 CE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 38422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Porphyry (232 – 304 CE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 794399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iamblichus (242 – 327 CE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 732860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Themistius (317 – 388 CE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 885771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ambrose (340 – 397 CE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430 CE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Proclus (411 – 485 CE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 24797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Damascius (462 – 540 CE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 159142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boethius (472 – 524 CE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 195684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Simplicius of Cilicia (490 – 560 CE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 80442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Philoponus (490 – 570 CE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2673476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ancient Indian philosophy is a fusion of two ancient traditions: the Vedic tradition and the śramaṇa tradition.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2906330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Indian philosophy begins with the Vedas wherein questions pertaining to laws of nature, the origin of the universe and the place of man in it are asked. 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This leads to the inquiry into the one being that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things. Cosmic order is termed rta and causal law by karma. Nature (prakriti) is taken to have three qualities (sattva, rajas, and tamas).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 201363, 2238221, 476342, 476372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 12 ], [ 331, 337 ], [ 339, 344 ], [ 350, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vedas", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1527181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Upanishads", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 80666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hindu philosophy", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 307365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jainism and Buddhism are continuation of the Sramana school of thought. The Sramanas cultivated a pessimistic worldview of the samsara as full of suffering and advocated renunciation and austerities. They laid stress on philosophical concepts like Ahimsa, Karma, Jnana, Samsara and Moksa. Cārvāka (Sanskrit: चार्वाक) (atheist) philosophy, also known as Lokāyata, it is a system of Hindu philosophy that assumes various forms of philosophical skepticism and religious indifference. It is named after its founder, Cārvāka, author of the Bārhaspatya-sūtras.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 16016, 3267529, 72080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 12, 20 ], [ 289, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In classical times, these inquiries were systematized in six schools of philosophy. Some of the questions asked were:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " What is the ontological nature of consciousness?", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " How is cognition itself experienced?", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Is mind (chit) intentional or not?", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Does cognition have its own structure?", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The six schools of Indian philosophy are:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 310169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nyaya", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 59941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vaisheshika", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 307366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Samkhya", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 307371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yoga", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 628346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 307372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 223389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Parashara – writer of Viṣṇu Purāṇa.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2278793, 3559522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 23, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rishi Narayana – seer of the Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 36692953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Seven Rishis – Atri, Bharadwaja, Gautama, Jamadagni, Kasyapa, Vasishtha, Viswamitra.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 3080505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Other Vedic Rishis – Gritsamada, Sandilya, Kanva etc.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 99774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rishaba – Rishi mentioned in Rig Veda and later in several Puranas, and believed by Jains to be the first official religious guru of Jainism, as accredited by later followers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 4251098, 99774, 36692953, 167936, 16016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 11, 16 ], [ 30, 38 ], [ 126, 130 ], [ 134, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yajnavalkya – one of the Vedic sages, greatly influenced Buddhistic thought.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 297208, 1527181, 3267529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 26, 31 ], [ 58, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lopamudra ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 7330387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gargi Vachaknavi", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 8591068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maitreyi", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 8591180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Parshvanatha", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2491839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ghosha", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 8591347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Angiras – one of the seers of the Atharva Veda and author of Mundaka Upanishad.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 100363, 975389, 2450321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 35, 47 ], [ 62, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Uddalaka Aruni – an Upanishadic sage who authored major portions of Chāndogya Upaniṣad.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 19521907, 2125857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 69, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ashvapati – a King in the Later Vedic age who authored Vaishvanara Vidya of Chāndogya Upaniṣad.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2207165, 2125857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 42 ], [ 77, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ashtavakra – an Upanishadic Sage mentioned in the Mahabharata, who authored Ashtavakra Gita.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2056574, 19643, 634153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 51, 62 ], [ 77, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gotama (), logician, author of Nyaya Sutra", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1884117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kanada (), founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika, gave theory of atomism", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 561941, 307366, 5756554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 48, 59 ], [ 76, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mahavira (599527 BCE) – heavily influenced Jainism, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 236750, 16016, 1012752, 16016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 44, 51 ], [ 62, 73 ], [ 77, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Purana Kassapa", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 10526925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ajita Kesakambali", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 4137739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Payasi", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 4138797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Makkhali Gośāla", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 8458409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 10511293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mahavira", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 236750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dandamis", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 35145687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nagasena", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 591320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lakulisha", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 5532315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pakudha Kaccayana", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 10555440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pāṇini (520–460 BCE), grammarian, author of Ashtadhyayi", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 5604422, 8734471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 45, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kapila (), proponent of the Samkhya system of philosophy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 583635, 307371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 29, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Badarayana (lived between 500 BCE and 400 BCE) – Author of Brahma Sutras.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1285223, 1102634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 60, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jaimini (), author of Purva Mimamsa Sutras.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 583672, 5696216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 23, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pingala (), author of the Chandas shastra", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1158040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gautama Buddha ( – ), founder of Buddhist school of thought", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 3395, 3267529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 34, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Śāriputra", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2319597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chanakya ( – ), author of Arthashastra, professor (acharya) of political science at the Takshashila University", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 481604, 613818, 2179718, 58707656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 27, 39 ], [ 52, 59 ], [ 89, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Patañjali (), developed the philosophy of Raja Yoga in his Yoga Sutras.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 23806, 628346, 626718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 43, 52 ], [ 60, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shvetashvatara – Author of earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 3108325, 273817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 86, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Valluvar (), wrote the Kural text, a treatise on secular ethics.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 499358, 23672622, 3406017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 24, 34 ], [ 50, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aśvaghoṣa, He is believed to have been the first Sanskrit dramatist, and is considered the greatest Indian poet prior to Kālidāsa. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 655213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vatsyana, Famous for \"Kama Sutra\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 740780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Samantabhadra, He was a proponent of the Jaina doctrine of Anekantavada.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 48778821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Isvarakrsna,", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1104612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aryadeva, Aryadeva was a student of Nagarjuna and contributed significantly to the Madhyamaka", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 4574508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dharmakirti", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1893748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Haribhadra", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2465802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pujyapada", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 13609592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Buddhaghosa", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 291214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kamandaka", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 63092610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maticandra", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 8929369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prashastapada", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 43356677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bhāviveka", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 3708020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dharmapala", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 28249798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Udyotakara", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 13033953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gaudapada", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 3434018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Siddhasena", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 12304767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dignāga (), one of the founders of Buddhist school of Indian logic.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1280290, 2015980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 55, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asanga (), exponent of the Yogacara", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 60342, 293185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 28, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bhartrihari (–510 CE), early figure in Indic linguistic theory", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 11173883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bodhidharma (–528 CE), founder of the Zen school of Buddhism", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 4285, 30153241, 3267529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 39, 42 ], [ 53, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Siddhasena Divākara (5th century CE), Jain logician and author of important works in Sanskrit and Prakrit, such as, Nyāyāvatāra (on Logic) and Sanmatisūtra (dealing with the seven Jaina standpoints, knowledge and the objects of knowledge)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 12304767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vasubandhu (), one of the main founders of the Indian Yogacara school.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 304972, 293185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 55, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kundakunda (2nd century CE), exponent of Jain mysticism and Jain nayas dealing with the nature of the soul and its contamination by matter, author of Pañcāstikāyasāra (Essence of the Five Existents), the Pravacanasāra (Essence of the Scripture) and the Samayasāra (Essence of the Doctrine)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2855421, 2974488, 14271517, 12225912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 61, 71 ], [ 151, 167 ], [ 254, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nagarjuna ( – 250 CE), the founder of the Madhyamaka (Middle Path) school of Mahāyāna Buddhism.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 22149, 545839, 27937488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 43, 53 ], [ 78, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Umāsvāti or Umasvami (2nd century CE), author of first Jain work in Sanskrit, Tattvārthasūtra, expounding the Jain philosophy in a most systematized form acceptable to all sects of Jainism.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 30857398, 3032160, 14298096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 79, 94 ], [ 111, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adi Shankara – philosopher and theologian, most renowned exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ancient Indian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 186184, 301496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 74, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "See also: Dualism, Dualism (philosophy of mind)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 13568947, 175456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ], [ 19, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While there are ancient relations between the Indian Vedas and the Iranian Avesta, the two main families of the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences in their implications for the human being's position in society and their view of man's role in the universe. The first charter of human rights by Cyrus the Great as understood in the Cyrus cylinder is often seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by Zarathustra and developed in Zoroastrian schools of thought of the Achaemenid Era of Iranian history.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1527181, 63118, 13831, 800012, 2749252, 44406, 34533, 30927438, 64213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 58 ], [ 75, 81 ], [ 327, 339 ], [ 343, 358 ], [ 380, 394 ], [ 468, 479 ], [ 497, 508 ], [ 535, 549 ], [ 553, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ideas and tenets of Zoroastrian schools of Early Persian philosophy are part of many works written in Middle Persian and of the extant scriptures of the zoroastrian religion in Avestan language. Among these are treatises such as the Shikand-gumanic Vichar by Mardan-Farrux Ohrmazddadan, selections of Denkard, Wizidagīhā-ī Zātspram (\"Selections of Zātspram\") as well as older passages of the book Avesta, the Gathas which are attributed to Zarathustra himself and regarded as his \"direct teachings\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 889882, 173578, 20370565, 1753079, 562477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 116 ], [ 177, 193 ], [ 233, 255 ], [ 301, 308 ], [ 409, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zarathustra", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 44406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jamasp", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1804241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ostanes", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2281137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mardan-Farrux Ohrmazddadan", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 20370565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adurfarnbag Farroxzadan", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1753079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adurbad Emedan", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1753079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Avesta", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 63118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gathas", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 562477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anacharsis", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bardesanes", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2192933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mani ( – 276 CE)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 633495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ammo", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 24393555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mazdak the Elder", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 948439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mazdak (died c. 524 or 528 CE)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 948439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aesthetic Zurvanism", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1546632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Materialist Zurvanism", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1546632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fatalistic Zurvanism", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1546632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Political philosophy", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tansar", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 21284442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " University of Gundishapur", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 5138499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Borzouye", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2393825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bakhtshooa Gondishapuri", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1741220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Emperor Khosrau's philosophical discourses", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 140475, 140475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 19, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paul the Persian", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 4448556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pahlavi literature", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1750031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "See also: Jewish philosophy", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 166200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Joel (9th–5th century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 745896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amos (8th century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1407041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hosea (8th century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 13966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Micah (8th century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 20284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Proto-Isaiah (8th century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 4364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ezekiel (7th century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 9911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Habbakuk (7th century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 13967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jeremiah (7th century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 75143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nahum (7th century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 21797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zephaniah (7th century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 34491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Deutero-Isaiah (6th century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 4364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Haggai (6th century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 13968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Obadiah (6th century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 22565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trito-Isaiah (6th century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 4364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zechariah (6th century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 34468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Malachi (5th century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 20285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Koheleth (5th – 2nd century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 9910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shimon ben Yeshua ben Eliezer ben Sira (2nd century BCE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 15835594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hillel the Elder ( – 10CE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 313892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Philo of Alexandria (30 BCE – 45 CE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 210191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jesus of Nazareth (c. 4 BCE - 33 CE)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1095706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rabbi Akiva ( – )", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 188624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Index of ancient philosophy articles", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13800309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wisdom literature", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1819161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Luchte, James, Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn, in series Bloomsbury Studies in Ancient Philosophy, Bloomsbury Publishing, London, 2011. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Ancient_philosophy" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Anaximander (; Anaximandros; ) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in Miletus, a city of Ionia (in modern-day Turkey). He belonged to the Milesian school and learned the teachings of his master Thales. He succeeded Thales and became the second master of that school where he counted Anaximenes and, arguably, Pythagoras amongst his pupils.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30340, 171171, 70997, 46401, 2999474, 30072, 1748, 23275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 50 ], [ 51, 68 ], [ 82, 89 ], [ 101, 106 ], [ 150, 165 ], [ 206, 212 ], [ 295, 305 ], [ 321, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Little of his life and work is known today. According to available historical documents, he is the first philosopher known to have written down his studies, although only one fragment of his work remains. Fragmentary testimonies found in documents after his death provide a portrait of the man.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anaximander was an early proponent of science and tried to observe and explain different aspects of the universe, with a particular interest in its origins, claiming that nature is ruled by laws, just like human societies, and anything that disturbs the balance of nature does not last long. Like many thinkers of his time, Anaximander's philosophy included contributions to many disciplines. In astronomy, he attempted to describe the mechanics of celestial bodies in relation to the Earth. In physics, his postulation that the indefinite (or apeiron) was the source of all things led Greek philosophy to a new level of conceptual abstraction. His knowledge of geometry allowed him to introduce the gnomon in Greece. He created a map of the world that contributed greatly to the advancement of geography. He was also involved in the politics of Miletus and was sent as a leader to one of its colonies.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26700, 42882, 13692155, 50650, 27954947, 2972, 18973446, 82424, 771916, 18963910, 22986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 45 ], [ 132, 155 ], [ 338, 348 ], [ 396, 405 ], [ 544, 551 ], [ 632, 643 ], [ 662, 670 ], [ 700, 706 ], [ 731, 747 ], [ 795, 804 ], [ 834, 842 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anaximander, son of Praxiades, was born in the third year of the 42nd Olympiad (610 BC). According to Apollodorus of Athens, Greek grammarian of the 2nd century BC, he was sixty-four years old during the second year of the 58th Olympiad (547–546BC), and died shortly afterwards.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 332902, 620653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 78 ], [ 102, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Establishing a timeline of his work is now impossible, since no document provides chronological references. Themistius, a 4th-century Byzantine rhetorician, mentions that he was the \"first of the known Greeks to publish a written document on nature.\" Therefore, his texts would be amongst the earliest written in prose, at least in the Western world. By the time of Plato, his philosophy was almost forgotten, and Aristotle, his successor Theophrastus and a few doxographers provide us with the little information that remains. However, we know from Aristotle that Thales, also from Miletus, precedes Anaximander. It is debatable whether Thales actually was the teacher of Anaximander, but there is no doubt that Anaximander was influenced by Thales' theory that everything is derived from water. One thing that is not debatable is that even the ancient Greeks considered Anaximander to be from the Monist school which began in Miletus, with Thales followed by Anaximander and which ended with Anaximenes. 3rd-century Roman rhetorician Aelian depicts Anaximander as leader of the Milesian colony to Apollonia on the Black Sea coast, and hence some have inferred that he was a prominent citizen. Indeed, Various History (III, 17) explains that philosophers sometimes also dealt with political matters. It is very likely that leaders of Miletus sent him there as a legislator to create a constitution or simply to maintain the colony's allegiance.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 885771, 16972981, 25447, 52103, 22954, 308, 98409, 1250251, 19325, 1748, 521555, 7213, 73967, 3386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 118 ], [ 134, 143 ], [ 144, 152 ], [ 313, 318 ], [ 366, 371 ], [ 414, 423 ], [ 439, 451 ], [ 462, 474 ], [ 899, 905 ], [ 994, 1004 ], [ 1019, 1024 ], [ 1037, 1043 ], [ 1100, 1109 ], [ 1117, 1126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anaximander lived the final few years of his life as a subject of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 30927438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anaximander's theories were influenced by the Greek mythical tradition, and by some ideas of Thales– the father of Western philosophy– as well as by observations made by older civilizations in the Near East, especially Babylon. All these were developed rationally. In his desire to find some universal principle, he assumed, like traditional religion, the existence of a cosmic order; and his ideas on this used the old language of myths which ascribed divine control to various spheres of reality. This was a common practice for the Greek philosophers in a society which saw gods everywhere, and therefore could fit their ideas into a tolerably elastic system.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 23416994, 30072, 13704154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 60 ], [ 93, 99 ], [ 115, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some scholars see a gap between the existing mythical and the new rational way of thought which is the main characteristic of the archaic period (8th to 6th century BC) in the Greek city-states. This has given rise to the phrase \"Greek miracle\". But if we follow carefully the course of Anaximander's ideas, we will notice that there was not such an abrupt break as initially appears. The basic elements of nature (water, air, fire, earth) which the first Greek philosophers believed made up the universe in fact represent the primordial forces imagined in earlier ways of thinking. Their collision produced what the mythical tradition had called cosmic harmony. In the old cosmogonies– Hesiod (8th– 7th centuryBC) and Pherecydes (6th century BC)– Zeus establishes his order in the world by destroying the powers which were threatening this harmony (the Titans). Anaximander claimed that the cosmic order is not monarchic but geometric, and that this causes the equilibrium of the earth, which is lying in the centre of the universe. This is the projection on nature of a new political order and a new space organized around a centre which is the static point of the system in the society as in nature. In this space there is isonomy (equal rights) and all the forces are symmetrical and transferable. The decisions are now taken by the assembly of demos in the agora which is lying in the middle of the city.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 63753, 1844767, 139176, 6316, 6315, 6314, 6317, 13700, 841452, 34398, 47401, 19013, 18973446, 3822296, 275247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 74 ], [ 130, 144 ], [ 182, 192 ], [ 415, 420 ], [ 422, 425 ], [ 427, 431 ], [ 433, 438 ], [ 689, 695 ], [ 721, 731 ], [ 750, 754 ], [ 856, 862 ], [ 914, 923 ], [ 928, 937 ], [ 1351, 1356 ], [ 1364, 1369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The same rational way of thought led him to introduce the abstract apeiron (indefinite, infinite, boundless, unlimited) as an origin of the universe, a concept that is probably influenced by the original Chaos (gaping void, abyss, formless state) from which everything else appeared in the mythical Greek cosmogony. It also takes notice of the mutual changes between the four elements. Origin, then, must be something else unlimited in its source, that could create without experiencing decay, so that genesis would never stop.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 27954947, 728004, 12108, 42882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 74 ], [ 204, 209 ], [ 299, 304 ], [ 305, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Refutation attributed to Hippolytus of Rome (I, 5), and the later 6th century Byzantine philosopher Simplicius of Cilicia, attribute to Anaximander the earliest use of the word apeiron ( \"infinite\" or \"limitless\") to designate the original principle. He was the first philosopher to employ, in a philosophical context, the term archē (), which until then had meant beginning or origin.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 73313, 80442, 1850147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 47 ], [ 104, 125 ], [ 332, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"That Anaximander called this something by the name of is the natural interpretation of what Theophrastos says; the current statement that the term was introduced by him appears to be due to a misunderstanding.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "And \"Hippolytos, however, is not an independent authority, and the only question is what Theophrastos wrote.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For him, it became no longer a mere point in time, but a source that could perpetually give birth to whatever will be. The indefiniteness is spatial in early usages as in Homer (indefinite sea) and as in Xenophanes (6th century BC) who said that the earth went down indefinitely (to apeiron) i.e. beyond the imagination or concept of men.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 13633, 223339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 176 ], [ 204, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Burnet (1930) in Early Greek Philosophy says:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Nearly all we know of Anaximander’s system is derived in the last resort from Theophrastos, who certainly knew his book. He seems once at least to have quoted Anaximander's own words, and he criticised his style. Here are the remains of what he said of him in the First Book:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Anaximander of Miletos, son of Praxiades, a fellow-citizen and associate of Thales, said that the material cause and first element of things was the Infinite, he being the first to introduce this name of the material cause. He says it is neither water nor any other of the so-called elements, but a substance different from them which is infinite\" [apeiron, or ] \"from which arise all the heavens and the worlds within them.—Phys, Op. fr. 2 (Dox. p. 476; R. P. 16).\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Burnet's quote from the \"First Book\" is his translation of Theophrastos' Physic Opinion fragment 2 as it appears in p.476 of Historia Philosophiae Graecae (1898) by Ritter and Preller and section 16 of Doxographi Graeci (1879) by Diels.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By ascribing the \"Infinite\" with a \"material cause\", Theophrastos is following the Aristotelian tradition of \"nearly always discussing the facts from the point of view of his own system\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aristotle writes (Metaphysics, I.III 3–4) that the Pre-Socratics were searching for the element that constitutes all things. While each pre-Socratic philosopher gave a different answer as to the identity of this element (water for Thales and air for Anaximenes), Anaximander understood the beginning or first principle to be an endless, unlimited primordial mass (apeiron), subject to neither old age nor decay, that perpetually yielded fresh materials from which everything we perceive is derived. He proposed the theory of the apeiron in direct response to the earlier theory of his teacher, Thales, who had claimed that the primary substance was water. The notion of temporal infinity was familiar to the Greek mind from remote antiquity in the religious concept of immortality, and Anaximander's description was in terms appropriate to this conception. This archē is called \"eternal and ageless\". (Hippolytus (?), Refutation, I,6,I;DK B2)\"Aristotle puts things in his own way regardless of historical considerations, and it is difficult to see that it is more of an anachronism to call the Boundless “ intermediate between the elements ” than to say that it is \" distinct from the elements.” Indeed, if once we introduce the elements at all, the former description is the more adequate of the two. At any rate, if we refuse to understand these passages as referring to Anaximander, we shall have to say that Aristotle paid a great deal of attention to some one whose very name has been lost, and who not only agreed with some of Anaximander’s views, but also used some of his most characteristic expressions. We may add that in one or two places Aristotle certainly seems to identify the “ intermediate ” with the something “ distinct from ” the elements.\"\"It is certain that he [Anaximander] cannot have said anything about elements, which no one thought of before Empedokles, and no one could think of before Parmenides. The question has only been mentioned because it has given rise to a lengthy controversy, and because it throws light on the historical value of Aristotle’s statements. From the point of view of his own system, these may be justified; but we shall have to remember in other cases that, when he seems to attribute an idea to some earlier thinker, we are not bound to take what he says in an historical sense.\"For Anaximander, the principle of things, the constituent of all substances, is nothing determined and not an element such as water in Thales' view. Neither is it something halfway between air and water, or between air and fire, thicker than air and fire, or more subtle than water and earth. Anaximander argues that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature — for example, water can only be wet, never dry — and therefore cannot be the one primary substance; nor could any of the other candidates. He postulated the apeiron as a substance that, although not directly perceptible to us, could explain the opposites he saw around him.\"If Thales had been right in saying that water was the fundamental reality, it would not be easy to see how anything else could ever have existed. One side of the opposition, the cold and moist, would have had its way unchecked, and the warm and dry would have been driven from the field long ago. We must, then, have something not itself one of the warring opposites, something more primitive, out of which they arise, and into which they once more pass away.\"Anaximander explains how the four elements of ancient physics (air, earth, water and fire) are formed, and how Earth and terrestrial beings are formed through their interactions. Unlike other Pre-Socratics, he never defines this principle precisely, and it has generally been understood (e.g., by Aristotle and by Saint Augustine) as a sort of primal chaos. According to him, the Universe originates in the separation of opposites in the primordial matter. It embraces the opposites of hot and cold, wet and dry, and directs the movement of things; an entire host of shapes and differences then grow that are found in \"all the worlds\" (for he believed there were many).\"Anaximander taught, then, that there was an eternal. The indestructible something out of which everything arises, and into which everything returns; a boundless stock from which the waste of existence is continually made good, “elements.”. That is only the natural development of the thought we have ascribed to Thales, and there can be no doubt that Anaximander at least formulated it distinctly. Indeed, we can still follow to some extent the reasoning which led him to do so. Thales had regarded water as the most likely thing to be that of which all others are forms; Anaximander appears to have asked how the primary substance could be one of these particular things. His argument seems to be preserved by Aristotle, who has the following passage in his discussion of the Infinite: \"Further, there cannot be a single, simple body which is infinite, either, as some hold, one distinct from the elements, which they then derive from it, or without this qualification. For there are some who make this. (i.e. a body distinct from the elements). the infinite, and not air or water, in order that the other things may not be destroyed by their infinity. They are in opposition one to another. air is cold, water moist, and fire hot. and therefore, if any one of them were infinite, the rest would have ceased to be by this time. Accordingly they say that what is infinite is something other than the elements, and from it the elements arise.'⁠—Aristotle Physics. F, 5 204 b 22 (Ritter and Preller (1898) Historia Philosophiae Graecae, section 16 b).\"Anaximander maintains that all dying things are returning to the element from which they came (apeiron). The one surviving fragment of Anaximander's writing deals with this matter. Simplicius transmitted it as a quotation, which describes the balanced and mutual changes of the elements:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 2590334, 30340, 6316, 6315, 5464396, 6313, 6315, 6317, 6316, 6314, 2030, 728004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ], [ 51, 64 ], [ 221, 226 ], [ 242, 245 ], [ 2355, 2364 ], [ 3473, 3486 ], [ 3507, 3510 ], [ 3512, 3517 ], [ 3519, 3524 ], [ 3529, 3533 ], [ 3758, 3773 ], [ 3795, 3800 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whence things have their origin,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thence also their destruction happens,", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to necessity;", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For they give to each other justice and recompense", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For their injustice", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In conformity with the ordinance of Time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Simplicius mentions that Anaximander said all these \"in poetic terms\", meaning that he used the old mythical language. The goddess Justice (Dike) keeps the cosmic order. This concept of returning to the element of origin was often revisited afterwards, notably by Aristotle, and by the Greek tragedian Euripides: \"what comes from earth must return to earth.\" Friedrich Nietzsche, in his Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, stated that Anaximander viewed \"... all coming-to-be as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being, a wrong for which destruction is the only penance.\" Physicist Max Born, in commenting upon Werner Heisenberg's arriving at the idea that the elementary particles of quantum mechanics are to be seen as different manifestations, different quantum states, of one and the same “primordial substance,”' proposed that this primordial substance be called apeiron.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 9993397, 57993, 9808, 10671, 3331852, 61866, 33130, 25202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 144 ], [ 292, 301 ], [ 302, 311 ], [ 360, 379 ], [ 388, 430 ], [ 614, 622 ], [ 643, 660 ], [ 717, 734 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anaximander's bold use of non-mythological explanatory hypotheses considerably distinguishes him from previous cosmology writers such as Hesiod. It confirms that pre-Socratic philosophers were making an early effort to demystify physical processes. His major contribution to history was writing the oldest prose document about the Universe and the origins of life; for this he is often called the \"Father of Cosmology\" and founder of astronomy. However, pseudo-Plutarch states that he still viewed celestial bodies as deities.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 23416994, 13700, 1864889, 4488551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 42 ], [ 137, 143 ], [ 408, 417 ], [ 454, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anaximander was the first to conceive a mechanical model of the world. In his model, the Earth floats very still in the centre of the infinite, not supported by anything. It remains \"in the same place because of its indifference\", a point of view that Aristotle considered ingenious, but false, in On the Heavens. Its curious shape is that of a cylinder with a height one-third of its diameter. The flat top forms the inhabited world, which is surrounded by a circular oceanic mass.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 1692748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 298, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anaximander's realization that the Earth floats free without falling and does not need to be resting on something has been indicated by many as the first cosmological revolution and the starting point of scientific thinking. Karl Popper calls this idea \"one of the boldest, most revolutionary, and most portentous ideas in the whole history of human thinking.\" Such a model allowed the concept that celestial bodies could pass under the Earth, opening the way to Greek astronomy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 16623, 206542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 236 ], [ 400, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the origin, after the separation of hot and cold, a ball of flame appeared that surrounded Earth like bark on a tree. This ball broke apart to form the rest of the Universe. It resembled a system of hollow concentric wheels, filled with fire, with the rims pierced by holes like those of a flute. Consequently, the Sun was the fire that one could see through a hole the same size as the Earth on the farthest wheel, and an eclipse corresponded with the occlusion of that hole. The diameter of the solar wheel was twenty-seven times that of the Earth (or twenty-eight, depending on the sources) and the lunar wheel, whose fire was less intense, eighteen (or nineteen) times. Its hole could change shape, thus explaining lunar phases. The stars and the planets, located closer, followed the same model.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 291234, 20424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 456, 465 ], [ 722, 733 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anaximander was the first astronomer to consider the Sun as a huge mass, and consequently, to realize how far from Earth it might be, and the first to present a system where the celestial bodies turned at different distances. Furthermore, according to Diogenes Laertius (II, 2), he built a celestial sphere. This invention undoubtedly made him the first to realize the obliquity of the Zodiac as the Roman philosopher Pliny the Elder reports in Natural History (II, 8). It is a little early to use the term ecliptic, but his knowledge and work on astronomy confirm that he must have observed the inclination of the celestial sphere in relation to the plane of the Earth to explain the seasons. The doxographer and theologian Aetius attributes to Pythagoras the exact measurement of the obliquity.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 383129, 91173, 34411, 44920, 74215, 9264, 1250251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 290, 306 ], [ 369, 378 ], [ 386, 392 ], [ 418, 433 ], [ 445, 460 ], [ 507, 515 ], [ 698, 709 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Simplicius, Anaximander already speculated on the plurality of worlds, similar to atomists Leucippus and Democritus, and later philosopher Epicurus. These thinkers supposed that worlds appeared and disappeared for a while, and that some were born when others perished. They claimed that this movement was eternal, \"for without movement, there can be no generation, no destruction\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 2582448, 5756554, 17924, 8211, 10073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 82 ], [ 95, 103 ], [ 104, 113 ], [ 118, 128 ], [ 152, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to Simplicius, Hippolytus reports Anaximander's claim that from the infinite comes the principle of beings, which themselves come from the heavens and the worlds (several doxographers use the plural when this philosopher is referring to the worlds within, which are often infinite in quantity). Cicero writes that he attributes different gods to the countless worlds.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 6046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 307, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This theory places Anaximander close to the Atomists and the Epicureans who, more than a century later, also claimed that an infinity of worlds appeared and disappeared. In the timeline of the Greek history of thought, some thinkers conceptualized a single world (Plato, Aristotle, Anaxagoras and Archelaus), while others instead speculated on the existence of a series of worlds, continuous or non-continuous (Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Empedocles and Diogenes).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 39393, 743896, 1737, 2944679, 1748, 13792, 9553, 222779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 71 ], [ 177, 217 ], [ 282, 292 ], [ 297, 306 ], [ 411, 421 ], [ 423, 433 ], [ 435, 445 ], [ 450, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anaximander attributed some phenomena, such as thunder and lightning, to the intervention of elements, rather than to divine causes. In his system, thunder results from the shock of clouds hitting each other; the loudness of the sound is proportionate with that of the shock. Thunder without lightning is the result of the wind being too weak to emit any flame, but strong enough to produce a sound. A flash of lightning without thunder is a jolt of the air that disperses and falls, allowing a less active fire to break free. Thunderbolts are the result of a thicker and more violent air flow.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He saw the sea as a remnant of the mass of humidity that once surrounded Earth. A part of that mass evaporated under the sun's action, thus causing the winds and even the rotation of the celestial bodies, which he believed were attracted to places where water is more abundant. He explained rain as a product of the humidity pumped up from Earth by the sun. For him, the Earth was slowly drying up and water only remained in the deepest regions, which someday would go dry as well. According to Aristotle's Meteorology (II, 3), Democritus also shared this opinion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 1692685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 507, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anaximander speculated about the beginnings and origin of animal life, and that humans came from other animals in waters. According to his evolutionary theory, animals sprang out of the sea long ago, born trapped in a spiny bark, but as they got older, the bark would dry up and animals would be able to break it. As the early humidity evaporated, dry land emerged and, in time, humankind had to adapt. The 3rd century Roman writer Censorinus reports:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [ 9236, 21501970, 1141509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ], [ 139, 158 ], [ 432, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anaximander put forward the idea that humans had to spend part of this transition inside the mouths of big fish to protect themselves from the Earth's climate until they could come out in open air and lose their scales. He thought that, considering humans' extended infancy, we could not have survived in the primeval world in the same manner we do presently.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theories", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both Strabo and Agathemerus (later Greek geographers) claim that, according to the geographer Eratosthenes, Anaximander was the first to publish a map of the world. The map probably inspired the Greek historian Hecataeus of Miletus to draw a more accurate version. Strabo viewed both as the first geographers after Homer.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other accomplishments", "target_page_ids": [ 52121, 9580568, 46117, 771916, 220378, 13633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 11 ], [ 16, 27 ], [ 94, 106 ], [ 147, 163 ], [ 211, 231 ], [ 315, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maps were produced in ancient times, also notably in Egypt, Lydia, the Middle East, and Babylon. Only some small examples survived until today. The unique example of a world map comes from late Babylonian tablet BM 92687 later than 9th century BC but is based probably on a much older map. These maps indicated directions, roads, towns, borders, and geological features. Anaximander's innovation was to represent the entire inhabited land known to the ancient Greeks.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other accomplishments", "target_page_ids": [ 8087628, 18039, 19323, 20609622, 23424729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 58 ], [ 60, 65 ], [ 71, 82 ], [ 88, 95 ], [ 212, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Such an accomplishment is more significant than it at first appears. Anaximander most likely drew this map for three reasons. First, it could be used to improve navigation and trade between Miletus's colonies and other colonies around the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Second, Thales would probably have found it easier to convince the Ionian city-states to join in a federation in order to push the Median threat away if he possessed such a tool. Finally, the philosophical idea of a global representation of the world simply for the sake of knowledge was reason enough to design one.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other accomplishments", "target_page_ids": [ 70997, 30072, 131855, 103030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 197 ], [ 280, 286 ], [ 346, 357 ], [ 403, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Surely aware of the sea's convexity, he may have designed his map on a slightly rounded metal surface. The centre or “navel” of the world ( omphalós gẽs) could have been Delphi, but is more likely in Anaximander's time to have been located near Miletus. The Aegean Sea was near the map's centre and enclosed by three continents, themselves located in the middle of the ocean and isolated like islands by sea and rivers. Europe was bordered on the south by the Mediterranean Sea and was separated from Asia by the Black Sea, the Lake Maeotis, and, further east, either by the Phasis River (now called the Rioni in Georgia) or the Tanais. The Nile flowed south into the ocean, separating Libya (which was the name for the part of the then-known African continent) from Asia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other accomplishments", "target_page_ids": [ 7951, 842, 9239, 19006, 689, 78019, 1030756, 1030756, 48768, 599971, 21244, 6645651, 5334607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 176 ], [ 258, 268 ], [ 420, 426 ], [ 460, 477 ], [ 501, 505 ], [ 528, 540 ], [ 575, 587 ], [ 604, 609 ], [ 613, 620 ], [ 629, 635 ], [ 641, 645 ], [ 686, 691 ], [ 743, 749 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Suda relates that Anaximander explained some basic notions of geometry. It also mentions his interest in the measurement of time and associates him with the introduction in Greece of the gnomon. In Lacedaemon, he participated in the construction, or at least in the adjustment, of sundials to indicate solstices and equinoxes. Indeed, a gnomon required adjustments from a place to another because of the difference in latitude.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other accomplishments", "target_page_ids": [ 78815, 12108, 36487, 72907, 28483, 10100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ], [ 177, 183 ], [ 202, 212 ], [ 285, 292 ], [ 306, 314 ], [ 320, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his time, the gnomon was simply a vertical pillar or rod mounted on a horizontal plane. The position of its shadow on the plane indicated the time of day. As it moves through its apparent course, the Sun draws a curve with the tip of the projected shadow, which is shortest at noon, when pointing due south. The variation in the tip's position at noon indicates the solar time and the seasons; the shadow is longest on the winter solstice and shortest on the summer solstice.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other accomplishments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The invention of the gnomon itself cannot be attributed to Anaximander because its use, as well as the division of days into twelve parts, came from the Babylonians. It is they, according to Herodotus' Histories (II, 109), who gave the Greeks the art of time measurement. It is likely that he was not the first to determine the solstices, because no calculation is necessary. On the other hand, equinoxes do not correspond to the middle point between the positions during solstices, as the Babylonians thought. As the Suda seems to suggest, it is very likely that with his knowledge of geometry, he became the first Greek to accurately determine the equinoxes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other accomplishments", "target_page_ids": [ 46883, 13574, 752522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 162 ], [ 191, 200 ], [ 202, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his philosophical work De Divinatione (I, 50, 112), Cicero states that Anaximander convinced the inhabitants of Lacedaemon to abandon their city and spend the night in the country with their weapons because an earthquake was near. The city collapsed when the top of the Taygetus split like the stern of a ship. Pliny the Elder also mentions this anecdote (II, 81), suggesting that it came from an \"admirable inspiration\", as opposed to Cicero, who did not associate the prediction with divination.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other accomplishments", "target_page_ids": [ 2310477, 36487, 663888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 40 ], [ 115, 125 ], [ 273, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bertrand Russell in the History of Western Philosophy interprets Anaximander's theories as an assertion of the necessity of an appropriate balance between earth, fire, and water, all of which may be independently seeking to aggrandize their proportions relative to the others. Anaximander seems to express his belief that a natural order ensures balance among these elements, that where there was fire, ashes (earth) now exist. His Greek peers echoed this sentiment with their belief in natural boundaries beyond which not even the gods could operate.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 4163, 2110950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 24, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Friedrich Nietzsche, in Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, claimed that Anaximander was a pessimist who asserted that the primal being of the world was a state of indefiniteness. In accordance with this, anything definite has to eventually pass back into indefiniteness. In other words, Anaximander viewed \"...all coming-to-be as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being, a wrong for which destruction is the only penance\". (Ibid., § 4) The world of individual objects, in this way of thinking, has no worth and should perish.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 10671, 3331852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 24, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Martin Heidegger lectured extensively on Anaximander, and delivered a lecture entitled \"Anaximander's Saying\" which was subsequently included in Off the Beaten Track. The lecture examines the ontological difference and the oblivion of Being or Dasein in the context of the Anaximander fragment. Heidegger's lecture is, in turn, an important influence on the French philosopher Jacques Derrida.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Interpretations", "target_page_ids": [ 37304, 606681, 53255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 244, 250 ], [ 377, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Suda:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " On Nature ( / Perì phúseôs)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 12108220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rotation of the Earth ( / Gễs períodos)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " On Fixed stars ( / Perì tỗn aplanỗn)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The [Celestial] Sphere ( / Sphaĩra)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Material monism", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 922778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Indefinite monism", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7438937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aelian: Various History (III, 17)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 7213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aëtius: De Fide (I-III; V)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 2706741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Agathemerus: A Sketch of Geography in Epitome (I, 1)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 9580568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aristotle: Meteorology (II, 3) Translated by E. W. Webster", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 308, 1692685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aristotle: On Generation and Corruption (II, 5) Translated by H. H. Joachim", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1692739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aristotle: On the Heavens (II, 13) Translated by J. L. Stocks", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1692748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (III, 5, 204 b 33–34)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Censorinus: De Die Natali (IV, 7) See original text at LacusCurtius", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1141509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (I, 50, 112)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cicero: On the Nature of the Gods (I, 10, 25)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Euripides: The Suppliants (532) Translated by E. P. Coleridge", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 9808, 3322652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eusebius of Caesarea: Preparation for the Gospel (X, 14, 11) Translated by E.H. Gifford", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 10172, 21590717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 23, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Heidel, W.A. Anaximander's Book: PAAAS, vol. 56, n.7, 1921, pp.239–288.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Herodotus: Histories (II, 109) See original text in Perseus project", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 13574, 752522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hippolytus (?): Refutation of All Heresies (I, 5) Translated by Roberts and Donaldson", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 73313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pliny the Elder: Natural History (II, 8) See original text in Perseus project", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 44920, 74215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 18, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pseudo-Plutarch: The Doctrines of the Philosophers (I, 3; I, 7; II, 20–28; III, 2–16; V, 19)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 4488551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Seneca the Younger: Natural Questions (II, 18)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 75150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Simplicius: Comments on Aristotle's Physics (24, 13–25; 1121, 5–9)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 80442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Strabo: Geography (I, 1) Books 1‑7, 15‑17 translated by H. L. Jones", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 52121, 3418102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Themistius: Oratio (36, 317)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 885771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Suda (Suda On Line)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 78815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The default source; anything not otherwise attributed should be in Conche.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Philoctete – Anaximandre: Fragments ((Grk icon)) ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Anaximander", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Extensive bibliography by Dirk Couprie", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anaximander of Miletus Life and Work - Fragments and Testimonies by Giannis Stamatellos", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "6th-century_BC_Greek_people", "6th-century_BC_philosophers", "610s_BC_births", "540s_BC_deaths", "Ancient_Greek_astronomers", "Ancient_Greek_cartographers", "Ancient_Greek_metaphysicians", "Ancient_Greek_physicists", "Ancient_Greeks_from_the_Achaemenid_Empire", "Ancient_Milesians", "Natural_philosophers", "Philosophers_of_ancient_Ionia", "Presocratic_philosophers", "6th-century_BC_geographers" ]

[ "Anaximander of Miletus" ]

[ { "plaintext": "APL is an abbreviation, acronym, or initialism that may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "APL (shipping company), a Singapore-based container and shipping company", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 414361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aden Protectorate Levies, a militia force for local defense of the Aden Protectorate", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 23201293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Advanced Production and Loading, a Norwegian marine engineering company formed in 1993", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 2857765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Afghanistan Premier League, an Afghan Twenty20 cricket league", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 57280652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Afghan Premier League, a men's football league in Afghanistan ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 25907576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American Party of Labor, a Marxist-Leninist Anti-revisionist party in the USA ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 70091449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American Patriot League, a proposed American football spring league", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 59723401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American Premier League, a proposed Twenty20 cricket league in the US", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 22632941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American President Lines, a container transportation and shipping company", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 414361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American Protective League, a World War I-era pro-war organization", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 1422508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Applied Physics Laboratory, at Johns Hopkins University", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 2600983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Association of Pension Lawyers, UK", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 1414362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Irish Anti-Partition League, a Northern Ireland political organisation", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 3489503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aurora Public Library (disambiguation), several Aurora Public Libraries use the APL abbreviation", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 23138981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abductor pollicis longus muscle, in the human hand", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 3042764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Acute promyelocytic leukemia, a subtype of acute myelogenous leukemia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 1214213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "132524 APL, an asteroid", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 5619266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nampula Airport (IATA: APL), in Mozambique", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 9243618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Applied Physics Letters, a physics journal also abbreviated as Appl. 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[ { "plaintext": "An architect is a person who plans, designs and oversees the construction of buildings. To practice architecture means to provide services in connection with the design of buildings and the space within the site surrounding the buildings that have human occupancy or use as their principal purpose. Etymologically, the term architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek (arkhi-, chief + tekton, builder), i.e., chief builder.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The professional requirements for architects vary from place to place. An architect's decisions affect public safety, and thus the architect must undergo specialized training consisting of advanced education and a practicum (or internship) for practical experience to earn a license to practice architecture. Practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction, though the formal study of architecture in academic institutions has played a pivotal role in the development of the profession as a whole.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 27156154, 22212901, 21296224, 1977320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 44 ], [ 275, 282 ], [ 295, 307 ], [ 448, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout ancient and medieval history, most of the architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no clear distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the titles architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person, often used interchangeably. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the professional 'gentleman' architect, separate from the hands-on craftsman. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century but became increasingly available after 1500. Pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals. Concurrently, the introduction of linear perspective and innovations such as the use of different projections to describe a three-dimensional building in two dimensions, together with an increased understanding of dimensional accuracy, helped building designers communicate their ideas. However, the development was gradual. Until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 426433, 20857, 189274, 5762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 117 ], [ 133, 138 ], [ 144, 153 ], [ 267, 275 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In most developed countries, only those qualified with an appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body (often governmental) may legally practice architecture. Such licensure usually requires a university degree, successful completion of exams, as well as a training period. Representation of oneself as an architect through the use of terms and titles is restricted to licensed individuals by law, although in general, derivatives such as architectural designer are often not legally protected.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 1989819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 467, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To practice architecture implies the ability to practice independently of supervision. The term building design professional (or design professional), by contrast, is a much broader term that includes professionals who practice independently under an alternate profession, such as engineering professionals, or those who assist in the practice of architecture under the supervision of a licensed architect such as intern architects. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses and other smaller structures.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 812731, 9251, 2171222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 111 ], [ 281, 292 ], [ 414, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, the design is the driving force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client. The commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building. Throughout the project (planning to occupancy), the architect coordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists are hired by the client or the architect, who must ensure that the work is coordinated to construct the design.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [ 299790, 19528, 9531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 641, 651 ], [ 653, 663 ], [ 669, 688 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The architect, once hired by a client, is responsible for creating a design concept that both meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. The architect must meet with, and question, the client in order to ascertain all the requirements (and nuances) of the planned project. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning: entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make early proposals to the client, which may rework the very terms of the brief. The \"program\" (or brief) is essential to producing a project that meets all the needs of the owner. This then is a guide for the architect in creating the design concept.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Design proposal(s) are generally expected to be both imaginative and pragmatic. Depending on the place, time, finance, culture, and available crafts and technology in which the design takes place, the precise extent and nature of these expectations will vary.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Foresight is a prerequisite as designing buildings is a very complex and demanding undertaking. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Any design concept must at a very early stage in its generation take into account a great number of issues and variables which include qualities of space(s), the end-use and life-cycle of these proposed spaces, connections, relations, and aspects between spaces including how they are put together as well as the impact of proposals on the immediate and wider locality. Selection of appropriate materials and technology must be considered, tested and reviewed at an early stage in the design to ensure there are no setbacks (such as higher-than-expected costs) which may occur later. The site and its environs, as well as the culture and history of the place, will also influence the design. The design must also countenance increasing concerns with environmental sustainability. The architect may introduce (intentionally or not), to greater or lesser degrees, aspects of mathematics and architecture, new or current architectural theory, or references to architectural history.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [ 279293, 3704899, 3684625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 873, 901 ], [ 918, 938 ], [ 957, 978 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A key part of the design is that the architect often consults with engineers, surveyors and other specialists throughout the design, ensuring that aspects such as the structural supports and air conditioning elements are coordinated in the scheme as a whole. The control and planning of construction costs are also a part of these consultations. Coordination of the different aspects involves a high degree of specialized communication, including advanced computer technology such as BIM (building information modeling), CAD, and cloud-based technologies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [ 3978080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 489, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At all times in the design, the architect reports back to the client who may have reservations or recommendations, introducing a further variable into the design.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Architects deal with local and federal jurisdictions about regulations and building codes. The architect might need to comply with local planning and zoning laws, such as required setbacks, height limitations, parking requirements, transparency requirements (windows), and land use. Some established jurisdictions require adherence to design and historic preservation guidelines. Health and safety risks form a vital part of the current design, and in many jurisdictions, design reports and records are required which include ongoing considerations such as materials and contaminants, waste management and recycling, traffic control and fire safety.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [ 537481, 46212943, 56313, 56309, 1219810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 88 ], [ 137, 145 ], [ 150, 156 ], [ 273, 281 ], [ 346, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Previously, architects employed drawings to illustrate and generate design proposals. While conceptual sketches are still widely used by architects, computer technology has now become the industry standard. However, design may include the use of photos, collages, prints, linocuts, 3D scanning technology and other media in design production. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [ 2714255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Increasingly, computer software is shaping how architects work. BIM technology allows for the creation of a virtual building that serves as an information database for the sharing of design and building information throughout the life-cycle of the building's design, construction and maintenance. Virtual reality (VR) presentations are becoming more common for visualizing structural designs and interior spaces from a point-of-view perspective.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [ 32612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 297, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As current buildings are now known to be high emitters of carbon into the atmosphere, increasing controls are being placed on buildings and associated technology to reduce emissions, increase energy efficiency, and make use of renewable energy sources. Renewable energy sources may be developed within the proposed building or via local or national renewable energy providers. As a result, the architect is required to remain abreast of current regulations that are continually tightening. Some new developments exhibit extremely low energy use or passive solar building design.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [ 67029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 548, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, the architect is also increasingly required to provide initiatives in a wider environmental sense, such as making provision for low-energy transport, natural daylighting instead of artificial lighting, natural ventilation instead of air conditioning, pollution, and waste management, use of recycled materials and employment of materials which can be easily recycled in the future.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As the design becomes more advanced and detailed, specifications and detail designs are made of all the elements and components of the building. Techniques in the production of a building are continually advancing which places a demand on the architect to ensure that he or she remains up to date with these advances.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Depending on the client's needs and the jurisdiction's requirements, the spectrum of the architect's services during construction stages may be extensive (detailed document preparation and construction review) or less involved (such as allowing a contractor to exercise considerable design-build functions).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [ 1181133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 283, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Architects typically put projects to tender on behalf of their clients, advise on the award of the project to a general contractor, facilitate and then administer a contract of agreement which is often between the client and the contractor. This contract is legally binding and covers a very wide range of aspects including the insurances and commitments of all stakeholders, the status of the design documents, provisions for the architect's access, and procedures for the control of the works as they proceed. Depending on the type of contract utilized, provisions for further sub-contract tenders may be required. The architect may require that some elements are covered by a warranty which specifies the expected life and other aspects of the material, product or work.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [ 36571608, 1315070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 43 ], [ 112, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In most jurisdictions, prior notification to the relevant local authority must be given before commencement on site, thus giving the local authority notice to carry out independent inspections. The architect will then review and inspect the progress of the work in coordination with the local authority.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The architect will typically review contractor shop drawings and other submittals, prepare and issue site instructions, and provide Certificates for Payment to the contractor (see also Design-bid-build) which is based on the work done to date as well as any materials and other goods purchased or hired. In the United Kingdom and other countries, a quantity surveyor is often part of the team to provide cost consulting. With very large, complex projects, an independent construction manager is sometimes hired to assist in the design and to manage construction.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [ 9722901, 9521786, 1182267, 31717, 1638889, 2026112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 60 ], [ 71, 81 ], [ 185, 201 ], [ 311, 325 ], [ 349, 366 ], [ 471, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many jurisdictions, mandatory certification or assurance of the completed work or part of works is required. This demand for certification entails a high degree of risk - therefore, regular inspections of the work as it progresses on site is required to ensure that is in compliance with the design itself as well as with all relevant statutes and permissions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recent decades have seen the rise of specializations within the profession. Many architects and architectural firms focus on certain project types (for example, healthcare, retail, public housing, event management), technological expertise or project delivery methods. Some architects specialize as building code, building envelope, sustainable design, technical writing, historic preservation(US) or conservation (UK), accessibility and other forms of specialist consultants.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [ 3500286, 2704720, 1219301, 302109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 314, 331 ], [ 333, 351 ], [ 353, 370 ], [ 420, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many architects elect to move into real estate (property) development, corporate facilities planning, project management, construction management, chief sustainability officers interior design, city planning, user experience design, design researcher or other related fields.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Practice", "target_page_ids": [ 23572959, 24042, 13968718, 573174, 7945684, 922164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 69 ], [ 102, 120 ], [ 147, 176 ], [ 177, 192 ], [ 209, 231 ], [ 233, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although there are variations from place to place, most of the world's architects are required to register with the appropriate jurisdiction. To do so, architects are typically required to meet three common requirements: education, experience, and examination.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Professional requirements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Educational requirements generally consist of a university degree in architecture. The experience requirement for degree candidates is usually satisfied by a practicum or internship (usually two to three years, depending on jurisdiction). Finally, a Registration Examination or a series of exams is required prior to licensure.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Professional requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 167241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Professionals engaged in the design and supervision of construction projects prior to the late 19th century were not necessarily trained in a separate architecture program in an academic setting. Instead, they often trained under established architects. Prior to modern times, there was no distinction between architects and engineers and the title used varied depending on geographical location. They often carried the title of master builder or surveyor after serving a number of years as an apprentice (such as Sir Christopher Wren). The formal study of architecture in academic institutions played a pivotal role in the development of the profession as a whole, serving as a focal point for advances in architectural technology and theory.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Professional requirements", "target_page_ids": [ 38223, 22591783, 60891, 52946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 325, 333 ], [ 429, 443 ], [ 447, 455 ], [ 518, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The use of \"Architect\" or abbreviations such as \"Ar.\" as a title attached to a person's name is regulated by law in some countries.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Professional requirements", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Architects' fee structures are typically based on a percentage of construction value, as a rate per unit area of the proposed construction, hourly rates or a fixed lump sum fee. Combinations of these structures are also common. Fixed fees are usually based on a project's allocated construction cost and can range between 4 and 12% of new construction cost, for commercial and institutional projects, depending on a project's size and complexity. Residential projects range from 12 to 20%. Renovation projects typically command higher percentages, as high as 15-20%.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Fees", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Overall billings for architectural firms range widely, depending on location and economic climate. Billings have traditionally been dependent on the local economic conditions but, with rapid globalization, this is becoming less of a factor for larger international firms. Salaries also vary, depending on experience, position within the firm (staff architect, partner, or shareholder, etc.), and the size and location of the firm.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Fees", "target_page_ids": [ 12319895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of national professional organizations exist to promote career and business development in architecture.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Professional organizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The International Union of Architects (UIA)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Professional organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 486607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The American Institute of Architects (AIA) USA", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Professional organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 500492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) UK", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Professional organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 750724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Architects Registration Board (ARB) UK", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Professional organizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Australian Institute of Architects (AIA) Australia", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Professional organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 6853180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The South African Institute of Architects (SAIA) South Africa", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Professional organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 58615721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Association of Consultant Architects (ACA) UK ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Professional organizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Association of Licensed Architects (ALA) USA", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Professional organizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Consejo Profesional de Arquitectura y Urbanismo (CPAU) Argentina", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Professional organizations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Indian Institute of Architects (IIA) & Council of Architecture (COA) India", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Professional organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 24396939, 32402650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ], [ 40, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The National Organization of Minority Architects (NOMA) USA ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Professional organizations", "target_page_ids": [ 70990940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A wide variety of prizes is awarded by national professional associations and other bodies, recognizing accomplished architects, their buildings, structures, and professional careers.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Prizes, awards", "target_page_ids": [ 2647001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most lucrative award an architect can receive is the Pritzker Prize, sometimes termed the \"Nobel Prize for architecture.\" The inaugural Pritzker Prize winner was Philip Johnson who was cited \"for 50 years of imagination and vitality embodied in a myriad of museums, theatres libraries, houses gardens and corporate structure\". The Pritzker Prize has been awarded for forty-two straight editions without interruption, and there are now 22 countries with at least one winning architect. Other prestigious architectural awards are the Royal Gold Medal, the AIA Gold Medal (USA), AIA Gold Medal (Australia), and the Praemium Imperiale.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Prizes, awards", "target_page_ids": [ 53422, 21201, 53421, 4150097, 1648961, 7557160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 71 ], [ 95, 106 ], [ 166, 180 ], [ 536, 552 ], [ 558, 572 ], [ 616, 634 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Architects in the UK, who have made contributions to the profession through design excellence or architectural education, or have in some other way advanced the profession, might until 1971 be elected Fellows of the Royal Institute of British Architects and can write FRIBA after their name if they feel so inclined. Those elected to chartered membership of the RIBA after 1971 may use the initials RIBA but cannot use the old ARIBA and FRIBA. An Honorary Fellow may use the initials, Hon. FRIBA. and an International Fellow may use the initials Int. FRIBA. Architects in the US, who have made contributions to the profession through design excellence or architectural education, or have in some other way advanced the profession, are elected Fellows of the American Institute of Architects and can write FAIA after their name. Architects in Canada, who have made outstanding contributions to the profession through contribution to research, scholarship, public service, or professional standing to the good of architecture in Canada, or elsewhere, may be recognized as a Fellow of the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada and can write FRAIC after their name. In Hong Kong, those elected to chartered membership may use the initial HKIA, and those who have made a special contribution after nomination and election by The Hong Kong Institute of Architects (HKIA), may be elected as fellow members of HKIA and may use FHKIA after their name.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Prizes, awards", "target_page_ids": [ 750724, 750724, 2263098, 7676495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 253 ], [ 268, 273 ], [ 806, 810 ], [ 1087, 1126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Architects in the Philippines and Filipino communities overseas (whether they are Filipinos or not), especially those who also profess other jobs at the same time, are addressed and introduced as Architect, rather than Sir/Madam in speech or Mr./Mrs./Ms. (G./Gng./Bb. in Filipino) before surnames. That word is used either in itself or before the given name or surname.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Prizes, awards", "target_page_ids": [ 23440, 2257094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ], [ 34, 63 ] ] } ]

[ "Architects", "Architecture_occupations", "Professional_certification_in_architecture" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "An abbreviation (from Latin brevis, meaning short) is a shortened form of a word or phrase, by any method. It may consist of a group of letters or words taken from the full version of the word or phrase; for example, the word abbreviation can itself be represented by the abbreviation abbr., abbrv., or abbrev.; NPO, for nil (or nothing) per (by) os (mouth) is an abbreviated medical instruction. It may also consist of initials only, a mixture of initials and words, or words or letters representing words in another language (for example, e.g., i.e. or RSVP). Some types of abbreviations are acronyms (some pronounceable, some initialism) or grammatical contractions or crasis.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 2597613, 22957228, 22957415, 28341627, 1052571, 1052571, 590473, 3167944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 27 ], [ 321, 357 ], [ 541, 545 ], [ 547, 551 ], [ 555, 559 ], [ 594, 601 ], [ 629, 639 ], [ 656, 668 ], [ 672, 678 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An abbreviation is a shortening by any of these or other methods.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Acronyms, initialisms, contractions and crasis share some semantic and phonetic functions, and all four are connected by the term \"abbreviation\" in loose parlance.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Different types of abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 29107, 23194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 66 ], [ 71, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A initialism is an abbreviation pronounced by spelling out each letter, i.e. FBI (), USA (), IBM (), BBC ()", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Different types of abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 11127, 3434750, 40379651, 19344654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 80 ], [ 85, 88 ], [ 93, 96 ], [ 101, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A contraction is a reduction in the length of a word or phrase made by omitting certain of its letters or syllables. Consequently, contractions are a subset of abbreviations. Often, but not always, the contraction includes the first and last letters or elements. Examples of contractions are \"li'l\" (for \"little\"), \"I'm\" (for \"I am\"), and \"he'd've\" (for \"he would have\").", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Different types of abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 44911, 27631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 114 ], [ 150, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abbreviations have a long history. They were created to avoid spelling out whole words. This might be done to save time and space (given that many inscriptions were carved in stone) and also to provide secrecy. In both Greece and Rome the reduction of words to single letters was common. In Roman inscriptions, \"Words were commonly abbreviated by using the initial letter or letters of words, and most inscriptions have at least one abbreviation\". However, \"some could have more than one meaning, depending on their context. (For example, can be an abbreviation for many words, such as , , , , , , and .)\" Many frequent abbreviations consisted of more than one letter: for example COS for consul and COSS for its nominative etc. plural consules.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 66540, 521555, 21774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 225 ], [ 230, 234 ], [ 715, 725 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abbreviations were frequently used in English from its earliest days. Manuscripts of copies of the Old English poem Beowulf used many abbreviations, for example the Tironian et () or for and, and for since, so that \"not much space is wasted\". The standardisation of English in the 15th through 17th centuries included a growth in the use of such abbreviations. At first, abbreviations were sometimes represented with various suspension signs, not only periods. For example, sequences like ‹er› were replaced with ‹ɔ›, as in ‹mastɔ› for master and ‹exacɔbate› for exacerbate. While this may seem trivial, it was symptomatic of an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce the copy time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22667, 3833, 965498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 110 ], [ 116, 123 ], [ 165, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Early Modern English period, between the 15th and 17th centuries, the thorn was used for th, as in ('the'). In modern times, was often used (in the form ) for promotional reasons, as in .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1003268, 118563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 27 ], [ 77, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the growth of philological linguistic theory in academic Britain, abbreviating became very fashionable. Likewise, a century earlier in Boston, a fad of abbreviation started that swept the United States, with the globally popular term OK generally credited as a remnant of its influence.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23193, 24437894, 167097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 33 ], [ 142, 148 ], [ 241, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not. This question is considered below.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Widespread use of electronic communication through mobile phones and the Internet during the 1990s led to a marked rise in colloquial abbreviation. This was due largely to increasing popularity of textual communication services such as instant and text messaging. The original SMS supported message lengths of 160 characters at most (using the GSM 03.38 character set), for instance. This brevity gave rise to an informal abbreviation scheme sometimes called Textese, with which 10% or more of the words in a typical SMS message are abbreviated. More recently Twitter, a popular social networking service, began driving abbreviation use with 140 character message limits.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28207, 23752827, 18619244, 2041117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 277, 280 ], [ 344, 353 ], [ 460, 467 ], [ 580, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In modern English, there are several conventions for abbreviations, and the choice may be confusing. The only rule universally accepted is that one should be consistent, and to make this easier, publishers express their preferences in a style guide. Some questions which arise are shown below.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [ 16017237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 237, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If the original word was capitalized then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital, for example Lev. for Leviticus. When a word is abbreviated to more than a single letter and was originally spelled with lower case letters then there is no need for capitalization. However, when abbreviating a phrase where only the first letter of each word is taken, then all letters should be capitalized, as in YTD for year-to-date, PCB for printed circuit board and FYI for for your information. However, see the following section regarding abbreviations that have become common vocabulary: these are no longer written with capital letters.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A period (full stop) is often used to signify an abbreviation, but opinion is divided as to when and if this should happen.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Hart's Rules, the traditional rule is that abbreviations (in the narrow sense that includes only words with the ending, and not the middle, dropped) terminate with a full stop, whereas contractions (in the sense of words missing a middle part) do not, but there are exceptions. Fowler's Modern English Usage says full stops are used to mark both abbreviations and contractions, but recommends against this practice: advising them only for abbreviations and lower-case initialisms and not for upper-case initialisms and contractions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [ 2127150, 56442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ], [ 291, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In American English, the period is usually included regardless of whether or not it is a contraction, e.g. Dr. or Mrs.. In some cases, periods are optional, as in either US or U.S. for United States, EU or E.U. for European Union, and UN or U.N. for United Nations. There are some house styles, however—American ones included—that remove the periods from almost all abbreviations. For example:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [ 1890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The U.S. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices advises that periods should not be used with abbreviations on road signs, except for cardinal directions as part of a destination name. (For example, \"Northwest Blvd\", \"W. Jefferson\", and \"PED XING\" all follow this recommendation.) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [ 1334804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AMA style, used in many medical journals, uses no periods in abbreviations or acronyms, with almost no exceptions. Thus eg, ie, vs, et al., Dr, Mr, MRI, ICU, and hundreds of others contain no periods. The only exceptions are (an abbreviation of Numero, Number) (to avoid the appearance of \"No\" (yes and no); initials within persons' names (such as \"George R. Smith\"); and \"St.\" within persons' names when the person prefers it (such as \"Emily R. St. Clair\") (but not in city names such as St Louis or St Paul). (AMA style also forgoes italic on terms long since naturalized into English from Latin, New Latin, other languages, or ISV; thus, no italic for eg, ie, vs, et al., in vivo, in vitro, or in situ.)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [ 29494090, 29500858, 22957228, 22957415, 22957228, 8881, 26998579, 19446, 6332859, 564821, 20780721, 17730, 21983, 149795, 22957228, 22957415, 22957228, 15187, 15188, 379978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 25, 40 ], [ 121, 123 ], [ 125, 127 ], [ 133, 139 ], [ 141, 143 ], [ 145, 147 ], [ 149, 152 ], [ 154, 157 ], [ 247, 253 ], [ 297, 307 ], [ 594, 599 ], [ 601, 610 ], [ 632, 635 ], [ 657, 659 ], [ 661, 663 ], [ 669, 675 ], [ 677, 684 ], [ 686, 694 ], [ 699, 706 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Acronyms that were originally capitalized (with or without periods) but have since entered the vocabulary as generic words are no longer written with capital letters nor with any periods. Examples are sonar, radar, lidar, laser, snafu, and scuba.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [ 29438, 25676, 41958, 17556, 28798, 28502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 201, 206 ], [ 208, 213 ], [ 215, 220 ], [ 222, 227 ], [ 229, 234 ], [ 240, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today, spaces are generally not used between single-letter abbreviations of words in the same phrase, so one almost never encounters \"U.S.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When an abbreviation appears at the end of a sentence, only one period is used: The capital of the United States is Washington, D.C.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is a question about how to pluralize abbreviations, particularly acronyms. Some writers tend to pluralize abbreviations by adding (apostrophe s), as in \"two PC's have broken screens\", although this notation typically indicates possessive case. However, this style is not preferred by many style guides. For instance, Kate Turabian, writing about style in academic writings, allows for an apostrophe to form plural acronyms \"only when an abbreviation contains internal periods or both capital and lowercase letters\". Turabian would therefore prefer \"DVDs\" and \"URLs\" and \"Ph.D.'s\", while the Modern Language Association explicitly says, \"do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of an abbreviation\". Also, the American Psychological Association specifically says, \"without an apostrophe\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [ 59126, 914267, 1707089, 352927, 42042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 213 ], [ 234, 249 ], [ 324, 337 ], [ 598, 625 ], [ 719, 753 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, the 1999 style guide for The New York Times states that the addition of an apostrophe is necessary when pluralizing all abbreviations, preferring \"PC's, TV's and VCR's\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [ 30680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following those who would generally omit the apostrophe, to form the plural of run batted in, simply add an s to the end of RBI.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [ 236469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "RBIs", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For all other rules, see below:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To form the plural of an abbreviation, a number, or a capital letter used as a noun, simply add a lowercase s to the end. Apostrophes following decades and single letters are also common.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A group of MPs", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The roaring 20s", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mind your Ps and Qs", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To indicate the plural of the abbreviation or symbol of a unit of measure, the same form is used as in the singular.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1lb or 20lb", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1ft or 16ft", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1 min or 45 min", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When an abbreviation contains more than one full point, Hart's Rules recommends putting the s after the final one.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ph.D.s", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " M.Phil.s", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the d.t.s", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, subject to any house style or consistency requirement, the same plurals may be rendered less formally as:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PhDs", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " MPhils", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the DTs. (This is the recommended form in the New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors.)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Hart's Rules, an apostrophe may be used in rare cases where clarity calls for it, for example when letters or symbols are referred to as objects.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The x's of the equation", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dot the i's and cross the t's", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However, the apostrophe can be dispensed with if the items are set in italics or quotes:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The xs of the equation", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dot the 'i's and cross the 't's", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Latin, and continuing to the derivative forms in European languages as well as English, single-letter abbreviations had the plural being a doubling of the letter for note-taking. Most of these deal with writing and publishing. A few longer abbreviations use this as well.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Publications based in the U.S. tend to follow the style guides of The Chicago Manual of Style and the Associated Press. The U.S. Government follows a style guide published by the U.S. Government Printing Office. The National Institute of Standards and Technology sets the style for abbreviations of units.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [ 75877, 18935732, 288726, 21888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 93 ], [ 102, 118 ], [ 179, 210 ], [ 216, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many British publications follow some of these guidelines in abbreviation:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " For the sake of convenience, many British publications, including the BBC and The Guardian, have completely done away with the use of full stops or periods in all abbreviations. These include:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [ 19344654, 19344515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 74 ], [ 79, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Social titles, e.g. Ms or Mr (though these would usually have not had full stops—see above) Capt, Prof, etc.;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two-letter abbreviations for countries (\"US\", not \"U.S.\");", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abbreviations beyond three letters (full caps for all except initialisms);", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Words seldom abbreviated with lower case letters (\"PR\", instead of \"p.r.\", or \"pr\")", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Names (\"FW de Klerk\", \"GB Whiteley\", \"Park JS\"). A notable exception is The Economist which writes \"Mr F. W. de Klerk\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [ 50449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Scientific units (see Measurement below).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Acronyms are often referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalized. For instance, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation can be abbreviated as \"Nato\" or \"NATO\", and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome as \"Sars\" or \"SARS\" (compare with \"laser\" which has made the full transition to an English word and is rarely capitalised at all).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [ 21133, 196741, 17556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 144 ], [ 189, 222 ], [ 258, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Initialisms are always written in capitals; for example the \"British Broadcasting Corporation\" is abbreviated to \"BBC\", never \"Bbc\". An initialism is also an acronym but is not pronounced as a word.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " When abbreviating scientific units, no space is added between the number and unit (). (This is contrary to the SI standard; see below.)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A doubled letter appears in abbreviations of some Welsh names, as in Welsh the double \"l\" is a separate sound: \"Ll. George\" for (British prime minister) David Lloyd George.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [ 33545, 46836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 75 ], [ 154, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Some titles, such as \"Reverend\" and \"Honourable\", are spelt out when preceded by \"the\", rather than as \"Rev.\" or \"Hon.\" respectively. This is true for most British publications, and some in the United States.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A repeatedly used abbreviation should be spelt out for identification on its first occurrence in a written or spoken passage. Abbreviations likely to be unfamiliar to many readers should be avoided.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style conventions in English", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Writers often use shorthand to denote units of measure. Such shorthand can be an abbreviation, such as \"in\" for \"inch\" or can be a symbol such as \"km\" for \"kilometre\" (or kilometer).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measurements: abbreviations or symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 14775, 50510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 117 ], [ 156, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the International System of Units (SI) manual the word \"symbol\" is used consistently to define the shorthand used to represent the various SI units of measure. The manual also defines the way in which units should be written, the principal rules being:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measurements: abbreviations or symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 26764, 26764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 36 ], [ 179, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The conventions for upper and lower case letters must be observed—for example 1MW (megawatts) is equal to 1,000,000 watts and 1,000,000,000mW (milliwatts).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measurements: abbreviations or symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 21347693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "No periods should be inserted between letters—for example \"m.s\" (which is an approximation of \"m·s\", which correctly uses middle dot) is the symbol for \"metres multiplied by seconds\", but \"ms\" is the symbol for milliseconds.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measurements: abbreviations or symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 143854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "No periods should follow the symbol unless the syntax of the sentence demands otherwise (for example a full stop at the end of a sentence).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measurements: abbreviations or symbols", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The singular and plural versions of the symbol are identical—not all languages use the letter \"s\" to denote a plural.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measurements: abbreviations or symbols", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A syllabic abbreviation is usually formed from the initial syllables of several words, such as Interpol = International + police. It is a variant of the acronym. Syllabic abbreviations are usually written using lower case, sometimes starting with a capital letter, and are always pronounced as words rather than letter by letter. Syllabic abbreviations should be distinguished from portmanteaus, which combine two words without necessarily taking whole syllables from each.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 14338129, 625125, 625125, 16823212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 103 ], [ 211, 221 ], [ 249, 263 ], [ 382, 393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Albanian, syllabic acronyms are sometimes used for composing a person's name, such as Migjeni – an abbreviation from his original name (Millosh Gjergj Nikolla) a famous Albanian poet and writer – or ASDRENI (Aleksander Stavre Drenova), another famous Albanian poet.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 1523886, 166950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 97 ], [ 204, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other such names which are used commonly in recent decades are GETOAR, composed from Gegeria + Tosks (representing the two main dialects of the Albanian language, Gegë and Toskë, based on the country's two main regions Gegëria and Toskëria, and 'Arbanon - which is an alternative way used to describe all Albanian lands.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 42470629, 24326802, 19920884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 92 ], [ 95, 100 ], [ 247, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syllabic abbreviations are not widely used in English. Some UK government agencies such as Ofcom (Office of Communications) and the former Oftel (Office of Telecommunications) use this style.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 411296, 22652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 96 ], [ 139, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New York City has various neighborhoods named by syllabic abbreviation, such as Tribeca (Triangle below Canal Street) and SoHo (South of Houston Street). This usage has spread into other American cities, giving SoMa, San Francisco (South of Market) and LoDo, Denver (Lower Downtown), amongst others.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 645042, 358264, 100821, 507092, 626183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 80, 87 ], [ 122, 126 ], [ 211, 215 ], [ 253, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chicago-based electric service provider ComEd is a syllabic abbreviation of (Commonwealth) and (Thomas) Edison.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 6886, 1030512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 40, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sections of California are also often colloquially syllabically abbreviated, as in NorCal (Northern California), CenCal (Central California), and SoCal (Southern California) ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 5407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Partially syllabic abbreviations are preferred by the US Navy, as they increase readability amidst the large number of initialisms that would otherwise have to fit into the same acronyms. Hence DESRON 6 is used (in the full capital form) to mean \"Destroyer Squadron 6\", while COMNAVAIRLANT would be \"Commander, Naval Air Force (in the) Atlantic.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 1015717, 23004301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 200 ], [ 276, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syllabic abbreviations are a prominent feature of Newspeak, the fictional language of George Orwell's dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. The political contractions of Newspeak—Ingsoc (English Socialism), Minitrue (Ministry of Truth), Miniplenty (Ministry of Plenty)—are described by Orwell as similar to real examples of German (German) and Russian contractions (Russian) in the 20th century. Like Nazi (Nationalsozialismus) and Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei), politburo (Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union), Comintern (Communist International), kolkhoz (collective farm), and Komsomol (Young Communists' League), the contractions in Newspeak are supposed to have a political function by virtue of their abbreviated structure itself: nice sounding and easily pronounceable, their purpose is to mask all ideological content from the speaker.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 21131780, 11891, 23454753, 46996085, 41585771, 40230064, 39711745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 58 ], [ 86, 99 ], [ 118, 138 ], [ 250, 268 ], [ 477, 561 ], [ 601, 608 ], [ 610, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A more recent syllabic abbreviation has emerged with the disease COVID-19 (COrona VIrus Disease 2019) caused by the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 virus (itself frequently abbreviated to SARS-CoV-2, partly an initialism).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 63030231, 62786585, 62786585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 73 ], [ 116, 163 ], [ 204, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syllabic abbreviations were and are common in German; much like acronyms in English, they have a distinctly modern connotation, although contrary to popular belief, many date back to before 1933, if not the end of the Great War. Kriminalpolizei, literally criminal police but idiomatically the Criminal Investigation Department of any German police force, begat KriPo (variously capitalised), and likewise Schutzpolizei, the protection police or uniform department, begat SchuPo. Along the same lines, the Swiss Federal Railways' Transit Police—the Transportpolizei—are abbreviated as the TraPo.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 11884, 30813856, 4764461, 1145694, 631179, 1269947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 52 ], [ 190, 194 ], [ 214, 227 ], [ 230, 245 ], [ 295, 328 ], [ 407, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the National Socialist German Workers' Party gaining power came a frenzy of government reorganisation, and with it a series of entirely new syllabic abbreviations. The single national police force amalgamated from the Schutzpolizeien of the various states became the Ordnungspolizei or \"order police\"; the state KriPos together formed the Sicherheitspolizei or \"security police\"; and there was also the Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei) or \"secret state police\". The new order of the German Democratic Republic in the east brought about a conscious denazification, but also a repudiation of earlier turns of phrase in favour of neologisms such as Stasi for Staatssicherheit (\"state security\", the secret police) and VoPo for Volkspolizei. The phrase politisches Büro, which may be rendered literally as office of politics or idiomatically as political party steering committee, became Politbüro.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 1141250, 1163105, 12899, 13058, 48761, 29452, 24752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 288 ], [ 345, 363 ], [ 409, 416 ], [ 489, 515 ], [ 554, 568 ], [ 652, 657 ], [ 890, 899 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syllabic abbreviations are not only used in politics, however. Many business names, trademarks, and service marks from across Germany are created on the same pattern: for a few examples, there is Aldi, from Theo Albrecht, the name of its founder, followed by discount; Haribo, from Hans Riegel, the name of its founder, followed by Bonn, the town of its head office; and Adidas, from Adolf \"Adi\" Dassler, the nickname of its founder followed by his surname.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 404177, 271332, 240028, 2373164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 201 ], [ 270, 276 ], [ 372, 378 ], [ 385, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syllabic abbreviations are very common in Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian languages. They are often used as names of organizations. Historically, popularization of abbreviations was a way to simplify mass-education in 1920s (see Likbez). ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 1365953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leninist organisations such as the Comintern (Communist International) and Komsomol (Kommunisticheskii Soyuz Molodyozhi, or \"Communist youth union\") used Russian language syllabic abbreviations. In the modern Russian language, words like Rosselkhozbank (from Rossiysky selskokhozyaystvenny bank — Russian Agricultural Bank, RusAg) and Minobrnauki (from Ministerstvo obrazovaniya i nauki — Ministry of Education and Science) are still commonly used. In nearby Belarus, there are Beltelecom (Belarus Telecommunication) and Belsat (Belarus Satellite).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 239564, 39645216, 42475394, 3457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 44 ], [ 75, 83 ], [ 298, 323 ], [ 460, 467 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Syllabic abbreviations are common in Spanish; examples abound in organization names such as Pemex for Petróleos Mexicanos (\"Mexican Petroleums\") or Fonafifo for Fondo Nacional de Financimiento Forestal (National Forestry Financing Fund).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 26825, 286846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 44 ], [ 92, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Southeast Asian languages, especially in Malay languages, syllabic abbreviations are also common; examples include Petronas (for Petroliam Nasional, \"National Petroleum\"), its Indonesian equivalent Pertamina (from its original name Perusahaan Pertambangan Minyak dan Gas Bumi Negara, \"State Oil and Natural Gas Mining Company\"), and Kemenhub (from Kementerian Perhubungan, \"Ministry of Transportation\")", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 7421133, 1123978, 4042974, 21317402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 59 ], [ 118, 126 ], [ 201, 210 ], [ 336, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "East Asian languages whose writing systems use Chinese characters form abbreviations similarly by using key Chinese characters from a term or phrase. For example, in Japanese the term for the United Nations, kokusai rengō (国際連合) is often abbreviated to kokuren (国連). (Such abbreviations are called ryakugo (略語) in Japanese; see also Japanese abbreviated and contracted words). The syllabic abbreviation of kanji words is frequently used for universities: for instance, Tōdai (東大) for Tōkyō daigaku (東京大学, University of Tokyo) and is used similarly in Chinese: Běidà (北大) for Běijīng Dàxué'' (北京大学, Peking University). The English phrase \"Gung ho\" originated as a Chinese abbreviation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Syllabic abbreviation", "target_page_ids": [ 91231, 31769, 2895348, 37604, 166215, 72296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 65 ], [ 192, 206 ], [ 333, 374 ], [ 406, 411 ], [ 505, 524 ], [ 598, 615 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abbreviation (music)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 46806415 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Clipping (morphology)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2263849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gramogram", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52730964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of abbreviations used in medical prescriptions", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14470466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of abbreviations in photography", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30226226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of acronyms", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 59663353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of business and finance abbreviations", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9484113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of classical abbreviations", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 910846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of medieval abbreviations", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 910844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of portmanteaus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4356148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Neologism", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 153907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Numeronym", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2673834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " RAS syndrome", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 629192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SMS language", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18619244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The abbreviations used in the 1913 edition of Webster's dictionary", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Unicode alias names and abbreviations", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 61963471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] } ]

[ "Abbreviations" ]

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[ { "plaintext": "Aphrodite ( ; ; , , ) is an ancient Greek goddess associated with love, lust, beauty, pleasure, passion, and procreation. She was syncretized with the Roman goddess . Aphrodite's major symbols include myrtles, roses, doves, sparrows, and swans. The cult of Aphrodite was largely derived from that of the Phoenician goddess Astarte, a cognate of the East Semitic goddess Ishtar, whose cult was based on the Sumerian cult of Inanna. Aphrodite's main cult centers were Cythera, Cyprus, Corinth, and Athens. Her main festival was the Aphrodisia, which was celebrated annually in midsummer. In Laconia, Aphrodite was worshipped as a warrior goddess. She was also the patron goddess of prostitutes, an association which led early scholars to propose the concept of \"sacred prostitution\" in Greco-Roman culture, an idea which is now generally seen as erroneous.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 274099, 17547, 50024, 4431, 169407, 1329397, 26310, 21170822, 26537, 63355, 63572, 50952, 2375688, 676228, 6328, 4015427, 78332, 23410226, 78332, 309762, 5593, 6845, 1216, 42599734, 18386, 5245886, 62062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 49 ], [ 66, 70 ], [ 72, 76 ], [ 78, 84 ], [ 86, 94 ], [ 96, 103 ], [ 109, 120 ], [ 201, 208 ], [ 210, 214 ], [ 217, 221 ], [ 224, 231 ], [ 238, 242 ], [ 304, 322 ], [ 323, 330 ], [ 334, 341 ], [ 349, 361 ], [ 370, 376 ], [ 406, 419 ], [ 423, 429 ], [ 466, 473 ], [ 475, 481 ], [ 483, 490 ], [ 496, 502 ], [ 530, 540 ], [ 589, 596 ], [ 680, 691 ], [ 760, 779 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Hesiod's Theogony, Aphrodite is born off the coast of Cythera from the foam (, ) produced by Uranus's genitals, which his son Cronus had severed and thrown into the sea. In Homer's Iliad, however, she is the daughter of Zeus and Dione. Plato, in his Symposium, asserts that these two origins actually belong to separate entities: Aphrodite Ourania (a transcendent, \"Heavenly\" Aphrodite) and Aphrodite Pandemos (Aphrodite common to \"all the people\"). Aphrodite had many other epithets, each emphasizing a different aspect of the same goddess, or used by a different local cult. Thus she was also known as Cytherea (Lady of Cythera) and Cypris (Lady of Cyprus), because both locations claimed to be the place of her birth.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13700, 30551, 19272041, 19230687, 69414, 13633, 19381951, 34398, 578251, 22954, 246725, 21855311, 469759, 514444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 12, 20 ], [ 96, 102 ], [ 129, 135 ], [ 140, 147 ], [ 176, 181 ], [ 184, 189 ], [ 223, 227 ], [ 232, 237 ], [ 239, 244 ], [ 253, 262 ], [ 333, 350 ], [ 394, 412 ], [ 478, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Greek mythology, Aphrodite was married to Hephaestus, the god of fire, blacksmiths and metalworking. Aphrodite was frequently unfaithful to him and had many lovers; in the Odyssey, she is caught in the act of adultery with Ares, the god of war. In the First Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, she seduces the mortal shepherd Anchises. Aphrodite was also the surrogate mother and lover of the mortal shepherd Adonis, who was killed by a wild boar. Along with Athena and Hera, Aphrodite was one of the three goddesses whose feud resulted in the beginning of the Trojan War and she plays a major role throughout the Iliad. Aphrodite has been featured in Western art as a symbol of female beauty and has appeared in numerous works of Western literature. She is a major deity in modern Neopagan religions, including the Church of Aphrodite, Wicca, and Hellenismos.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23416994, 14388, 58809, 22349, 2041, 185320, 83606, 77280, 52255, 1182, 13208, 16391, 30058, 19381951, 334829, 1053447, 2406845, 21686, 9721898, 33295, 151992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 45, 55 ], [ 129, 139 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 226, 230 ], [ 255, 286 ], [ 320, 328 ], [ 403, 409 ], [ 431, 440 ], [ 453, 459 ], [ 464, 468 ], [ 511, 521 ], [ 555, 565 ], [ 608, 613 ], [ 646, 657 ], [ 673, 686 ], [ 725, 743 ], [ 776, 794 ], [ 810, 829 ], [ 831, 836 ], [ 842, 853 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hesiod derives Aphrodite from () \"sea-foam\", interpreting the name as \"risen from the foam\", but most modern scholars regard this as a spurious folk etymology. Early modern scholars of classical mythology attempted to argue that Aphrodite's name was of Greek or Indo-European origin, but these efforts have now been mostly abandoned. Aphrodite's name is generally accepted to be of non-Greek, probably Semitic, origin, but its exact derivation cannot be determined.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 13700, 912426, 14848, 26919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 145, 159 ], [ 263, 276 ], [ 403, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scholars in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, accepting Hesiod's \"foam\" etymology as genuine, analyzed the second part of Aphrodite's name as *-odítē \"wanderer\" or *-dítē \"bright\". More recently, Michael Janda, also accepting Hesiod's etymology, has argued in favor of the latter of these interpretations and claims the story of a birth from the foam as an Indo-European mytheme. Similarly, Krzysztof Tomasz Witczak proposes an Indo-European compound \"very\" and \"to shine\", also referring to Eos, and Daniel Kölligan has interpreted her name as \"shining up from the mist/foam\". Other scholars have argued that these hypotheses are unlikely since Aphrodite's attributes are entirely different from those of both Eos and the Vedic deity Ushas.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 508376, 1886956, 10477, 5017842, 864930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 374, 387 ], [ 388, 395 ], [ 511, 514 ], [ 742, 753 ], [ 754, 759 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of improbable non-Greek etymologies have also been suggested. One Semitic etymology compares Aphrodite to the Assyrian barīrītu, the name of a female demon that appears in Middle Babylonian and Late Babylonian texts. Hammarström looks to Etruscan, comparing (e)prθni \"lord\", an Etruscan honorific loaned into Greek as πρύτανις. This would make the theonym in origin an honorific, \"the lady\". Most scholars reject this etymology as implausible, especially since Aphrodite actually appears in Etruscan in the borrowed form Apru (from Greek , clipped form of Aphrodite). The medieval Etymologicum Magnum () offers a highly contrived etymology, deriving Aphrodite from the compound habrodíaitos (), \"she who lives delicately\", from habrós and díaita. The alteration from b to ph is explained as a \"familiar\" characteristic of Greek \"obvious from the Macedonians\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 9455, 737681, 13989289, 1630179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 247, 255 ], [ 327, 335 ], [ 590, 609 ], [ 855, 866 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The cult of Aphrodite in Greece was imported from, or at least influenced by, the cult of Astarte in Phoenicia, which, in turn, was influenced by the cult of the Mesopotamian goddess known as \"Ishtar\" to the East Semitic peoples and as \"Inanna\" to the Sumerians. Pausanias states that the first to establish a cult of Aphrodite were the Assyrians, followed by the Paphians of Cyprus and then the Phoenicians at Ascalon. The Phoenicians, in turn, taught her worship to the people of Cythera.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 676228, 34076091, 20189, 4015427, 78332, 50521, 416255, 12688688, 597877, 55386, 309762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 97 ], [ 101, 110 ], [ 162, 173 ], [ 208, 220 ], [ 237, 243 ], [ 252, 257 ], [ 263, 272 ], [ 337, 346 ], [ 364, 372 ], [ 411, 418 ], [ 482, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aphrodite took on Inanna-Ishtar's associations with sexuality and procreation. Furthermore, she was known as Ourania (Οὐρανία), which means \"heavenly\", a title corresponding to Inanna's role as the Queen of Heaven. Early artistic and literary portrayals of Aphrodite are extremely similar on Inanna-Ishtar. Like Inanna-Ishtar, Aphrodite was also a warrior goddess; the second-century AD Greek geographer Pausanias records that, in Sparta, Aphrodite was worshipped as Aphrodite Areia, which means \"warlike\". He also mentions that Aphrodite's most ancient cult statues in Sparta and on Cythera showed her bearing arms. Modern scholars note that Aphrodite's warrior-goddess aspects appear in the oldest strata of her worship and see it as an indication of her Near Eastern origins.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 21855311, 18675984, 416255, 55944907, 36487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 116 ], [ 198, 213 ], [ 404, 413 ], [ 467, 482 ], [ 570, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nineteenth century classical scholars had a general aversion to the idea that ancient Greek religion was at all influenced by the cultures of the Near East, but, even Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker, who argued that Near Eastern influence on Greek culture was largely confined to material culture, admitted that Aphrodite was clearly of Phoenician origin. The significant influence of Near Eastern culture on early Greek religion in general, and on the cult of Aphrodite in particular, is now widely recognized as dating to a period of orientalization during the eighth century BC, when archaic Greece was on the fringes of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 162090, 6516976, 1844767, 12688688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 193 ], [ 531, 546 ], [ 582, 596 ], [ 623, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some early comparative mythologists opposed to the idea of a Near Eastern origin argued that Aphrodite originated as an aspect of the Greek dawn goddess Eos and that she was therefore ultimately derived from the Proto-Indo-European dawn goddess *Haéusōs (properly Greek Eos, Latin Aurora, Sanskrit Ushas). Most modern scholars have now rejected the notion of a purely Indo-European Aphrodite, but it is possible that Aphrodite, originally a Semitic deity, may have been influenced by the Indo-European dawn goddess. Both Aphrodite and Eos were known for their erotic beauty and aggressive sexuality and both had relationships with mortal lovers. Both goddesses were associated with the colors red, white, and gold. Michael Janda etymologizes Aphrodite's name as an epithet of Eos meaning \"she who rises from the foam [of the ocean]\" and points to Hesiod's Theogony account of Aphrodite's birth as an archaic reflex of Indo-European myth. Aphrodite rising out of the waters after Cronus defeats Uranus as a mytheme would then be directly cognate to the Rigvedic myth of Indra defeating Vrtra, liberating Ushas. Another key similarity between Aphrodite and the Indo-European dawn goddess is her close kinship to the Greek sky deity, since both of the main claimants to her paternity (Zeus and Uranus) are sky deities.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 1924079, 10477, 508376, 1211751, 10477, 713060, 864930, 1856409, 36692953, 94782, 99782, 864930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 35 ], [ 153, 156 ], [ 212, 231 ], [ 245, 253 ], [ 270, 273 ], [ 281, 287 ], [ 298, 303 ], [ 441, 448 ], [ 1052, 1060 ], [ 1069, 1074 ], [ 1085, 1090 ], [ 1103, 1108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aphrodite's most common cultic epithet was Ourania, meaning \"heavenly\", but this epithet almost never occurs in literary texts, indicating a purely cultic significance. Another common name for Aphrodite was Pandemos (\"For All the Folk\"). In her role as Aphrodite Pandemos, Aphrodite was associated with Peithō (), meaning \"persuasion\", and could be prayed to for aid in seduction. The character of Pausanias in Plato's Symposium, takes differing cult-practices associated with different epithets of the goddess to claim that Ourania and Pandemos are, in fact, separate goddesses. He asserts that Aphrodite Ourania is the celestial Aphrodite, born from the sea foam after Cronus castrated Uranus, and the older of the two goddesses. According to the Symposium, Aphrodite Ourania is the inspiration of male homosexual desire, specifically the ephebic eros, and pederasty. Aphrodite Pandemos, by contrast, is the younger of the two goddesses: the common Aphrodite, born from the union of Zeus and Dione, and the inspiration of heterosexual desire and sexual promiscuity, the \"lesser\" of the two loves. Paphian (Παφία), was one of her epithets, after the Paphos in Cyprus where she had emerged from the sea at her birth.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Forms and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 21855311, 469759, 82971, 22954, 246725, 3845894, 661952, 718116, 19629641, 14084, 597877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 50 ], [ 207, 215 ], [ 303, 309 ], [ 411, 416 ], [ 419, 428 ], [ 800, 822 ], [ 841, 848 ], [ 849, 853 ], [ 859, 868 ], [ 1024, 1043 ], [ 1151, 1157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among the Neoplatonists and, later, their Christian interpreters, Ourania is associated with spiritual love, and Pandemos with physical love (desire). A representation of Ourania with her foot resting on a tortoise came to be seen as emblematic of discretion in conjugal love; it was the subject of a chryselephantine sculpture by Phidias for Elis, known only from a parenthetical comment by the geographer Pausanias.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Forms and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 23385833, 2383389, 69804, 58545709, 416255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 301, 327 ], [ 331, 338 ], [ 343, 347 ], [ 407, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of Aphrodite's most common literary epithets is Philommeidḗs (), which means \"smile-loving\", but is sometimes mistranslated as \"laughter-loving\". This epithet occurs throughout both of the Homeric epics and the First Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite. Hesiod references it once in his Theogony in the context of Aphrodite's birth, but interprets it as \"genital-loving\" rather than \"smile-loving\". Monica Cyrino notes that the epithet may relate to the fact that, in many artistic depictions of Aphrodite, she is shown smiling. Other common literary epithets are Cypris and Cythereia, which derive from her associations with the islands of Cyprus and Cythera respectively.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Forms and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 30551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 281, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On Cyprus, Aphrodite was sometimes called Eleemon (\"the merciful\"). In Athens, she was known as Aphrodite en kopois (\"Aphrodite of the Gardens\"). At Cape Colias, a town along the Attic coast, she was venerated as Genetyllis \"Mother\". The Spartans worshipped her as Potnia \"Mistress\", Enoplios \"Armed\", Morpho \"Shapely\", Ambologera \"She who Postpones Old Age\". Across the Greek world, she was known under epithets such as Melainis \"Black One\", Skotia \"Dark One\", Androphonos \"Killer of Men\", Anosia \"Unholy\", and Tymborychos \"Gravedigger\", all of which indicate her darker, more violent nature.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Forms and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 37155847, 26375129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 142 ], [ 320, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A male version of Aphrodite known as Aphroditus was worshipped in the city of Amathus on Cyprus. Aphroditus was depicted with the figure and dress of a woman, but had a beard, and was shown lifting his dress to reveal an erect phallus. This gesture was believed to be an apotropaic symbol, and was thought to convey good fortune upon the viewer. Eventually, the popularity of Aphroditus waned as the mainstream, fully feminine version of Aphrodite became more popular, but traces of his cult are preserved in the later legends of Hermaphroditus.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Forms and epithets", "target_page_ids": [ 30038865, 1687, 21490868, 5700, 162110, 20598265, 3264956, 192727, 82161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 47 ], [ 78, 85 ], [ 130, 136 ], [ 141, 146 ], [ 169, 174 ], [ 227, 234 ], [ 271, 288 ], [ 316, 328 ], [ 530, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aphrodite's main festival, the Aphrodisia, was celebrated across Greece, but particularly in Athens and Corinth. In Athens, the Aphrodisia was celebrated on the fourth day of the month of Hekatombaion in honor of Aphrodite's role in the unification of Attica. During this festival, the priests of Aphrodite would purify the temple of Aphrodite Pandemos on the southwestern slope of the Acropolis with the blood of a sacrificed dove. Next, the altars would be anointed and the cult statues of Aphrodite Pandemos and Peitho would be escorted in a majestic procession to a place where they would be ritually bathed. Aphrodite was also honored in Athens as part of the Arrhephoria festival. The fourth day of every month was sacred to Aphrodite.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Worship", "target_page_ids": [ 42599734, 1216, 16054891, 468629, 2076, 183144, 68676, 82971, 3827111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 41 ], [ 93, 99 ], [ 104, 111 ], [ 188, 200 ], [ 386, 395 ], [ 416, 431 ], [ 459, 467 ], [ 515, 521 ], [ 665, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pausanias records that, in Sparta, Aphrodite was worshipped as Aphrodite Areia, which means \"warlike\". This epithet stresses Aphrodite's connections to Ares, with whom she had extramarital relations. Pausanias also records that, in Sparta and on Cythera, a number of extremely ancient cult statues of Aphrodite portrayed her bearing arms. Other cult statues showed her bound in chains.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Worship", "target_page_ids": [ 416255, 55944907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 63, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aphrodite was the patron goddess of prostitutes of all varieties, ranging from pornai (cheap street prostitutes typically owned as slaves by wealthy pimps) to hetairai (expensive, well-educated hired companions, who were usually self-employed and sometimes provided sex to their customers). The city of Corinth was renowned throughout the ancient world for its many hetairai, who had a widespread reputation for being among the most skilled, but also the most expensive, prostitutes in the Greek world. Corinth also had a major temple to Aphrodite located on the Acrocorinth and was one of the main centers of her cult. Records of numerous dedications to Aphrodite made by successful courtesans have survived in poems and in pottery inscriptions. References to Aphrodite in association with prostitution are found in Corinth as well as on the islands of Cyprus, Cythera, and Sicily. Aphrodite's Mesopotamian precursor Inanna-Ishtar was also closely associated with prostitution.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Worship", "target_page_ids": [ 5245886, 5245886, 321026, 7833443, 371714, 16054891, 2981578, 5593, 309762, 27619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 47 ], [ 79, 85 ], [ 93, 111 ], [ 149, 154 ], [ 159, 166 ], [ 303, 310 ], [ 563, 574 ], [ 854, 860 ], [ 862, 869 ], [ 875, 881 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scholars in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries believed that the cult of Aphrodite may have involved ritual prostitution, an assumption based on ambiguous passages in certain ancient texts, particularly a fragment of a skolion by the Boeotian poet Pindar, which mentions prostitutes in Corinth in association with Aphrodite. Modern scholars now dismiss the notion of ritual prostitution in Greece as a \"historiographic myth\" with no factual basis.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Worship", "target_page_ids": [ 62062, 11934952, 79616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 124 ], [ 223, 230 ], [ 252, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Hellenistic period, the Greeks identified Aphrodite with the ancient Egyptian goddesses Hathor and Isis. Aphrodite was the patron goddess of the Lagid queens and Queen Arsinoe II was identified as her mortal incarnation. Aphrodite was worshipped in Alexandria and had numerous temples in and around the city. Arsinoe II introduced the cult of Adonis to Alexandria and many of the women there partook in it. The Tessarakonteres, a gigantic catamaran galley designed by Archimedes for Ptolemy IV Philopator, had a circular temple to Aphrodite on it with a marble statue of the goddess herself. In the second century BC, Ptolemy VIII Physcon and his wives Cleopatra II and Cleopatra III dedicated a temple to Aphrodite Hathor at Philae. Statuettes of Aphrodite for personal devotion became common in Egypt starting in the early Ptolemaic times and extending until long after Egypt became a Roman province.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Worship", "target_page_ids": [ 455379, 9500294, 97317, 37753, 7606081, 43616, 3080, 4451970, 195952, 1918188, 1844, 84101, 382054, 92226, 2016343, 1614889, 496519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 29 ], [ 72, 98 ], [ 99, 105 ], [ 110, 114 ], [ 156, 168 ], [ 179, 189 ], [ 260, 270 ], [ 422, 437 ], [ 450, 459 ], [ 460, 466 ], [ 479, 489 ], [ 494, 515 ], [ 629, 649 ], [ 664, 676 ], [ 681, 694 ], [ 737, 743 ], [ 883, 912 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ancient Romans identified Aphrodite with their goddess Venus, who was originally a goddess of agricultural fertility, vegetation, and springtime. According to the Roman historian Livy, Aphrodite and Venus were officially identified in the third century BC when the cult of Venus Erycina was introduced to Rome from the Greek sanctuary of Aphrodite on Mount Eryx in Sicily. After this point, Romans adopted Aphrodite's iconography and myths and applied them to Venus. Because Aphrodite was the mother of the Trojan hero Aeneas in Greek mythology and Roman tradition claimed Aeneas as the founder of Rome, Venus became venerated as Venus Genetrix, the mother of the entire Roman nation. Julius Caesar claimed to be directly descended from Aeneas's son Iulus and became a strong proponent of the cult of Venus. This precedent was later followed by his nephew Augustus and the later emperors claiming succession from him.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Worship", "target_page_ids": [ 1449016, 37622, 18049, 52522174, 15924, 82562, 1273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 59, 64 ], [ 183, 187 ], [ 355, 365 ], [ 689, 702 ], [ 754, 759 ], [ 860, 868 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This syncretism greatly impacted Greek worship of Aphrodite. During the Roman era, the cults of Aphrodite in many Greek cities began to emphasize her relationship with Troy and Aeneas. They also began to adopt distinctively Roman elements, portraying Aphrodite as more maternal, more militaristic, and more concerned with administrative bureaucracy. She was claimed as a divine guardian by many political magistrates. Appearances of Aphrodite in Greek literature also vastly proliferated, usually showing Aphrodite in a characteristically Roman manner.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Worship", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aphrodite is usually said to have been born near her chief center of worship, Paphos, on the island of Cyprus, which is why she is sometimes called \"Cyprian\", especially in the poetic works of Sappho. The Sanctuary of Aphrodite Paphia, marking her birthplace, was a place of pilgrimage in the ancient world for centuries. Other versions of her myth have her born near the island of Cythera, hence another of her names, \"Cytherea\". Cythera was a stopping place for trade and culture between Crete and the Peloponesus, so these stories may preserve traces of the migration of Aphrodite's cult from the Middle East to mainland Greece.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 597877, 5593, 27784, 58717098, 309762, 6591, 45749, 18138, 12108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 84 ], [ 103, 109 ], [ 193, 199 ], [ 205, 234 ], [ 382, 389 ], [ 490, 495 ], [ 504, 515 ], [ 600, 611 ], [ 624, 630 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the version of her birth recounted by Hesiod in his Theogony, Cronus severed Uranus' genitals and threw them behind him into the sea. The foam from his genitals gave rise to Aphrodite (hence her name, which Hesiod interprets as \"foam-arisen\"), while the Giants, the Erinyes (furies), and the Meliae emerged from the drops of his blood. Hesiod states that the genitals \"were carried over the sea a long time, and white foam arose from the immortal flesh; with it a girl grew.\" Hesiod's account of Aphrodite's birth following Uranus's castration is probably derived from The Song of Kumarbi, an ancient Hittite epic poem in which the god Kumarbi overthrows his father Anu, the god of the sky, and bites off his genitals, causing him to become pregnant and give birth to Anu's children, which include Ishtar and her brother Teshub, the Hittite storm god.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 13700, 30551, 19230687, 19272041, 78470, 10141, 78514, 13308, 1770945, 22544621, 1612539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 57 ], [ 65, 73 ], [ 75, 81 ], [ 90, 97 ], [ 267, 273 ], [ 279, 286 ], [ 305, 311 ], [ 614, 621 ], [ 649, 656 ], [ 679, 682 ], [ 834, 840 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Iliad, Aphrodite is described as the daughter of Zeus and Dione. Dione's name appears to be a feminine cognate to Dios and Dion, which are oblique forms of the name Zeus. Zeus and Dione shared a cult at Dodona in northwestern Greece. In Theogony, Hesiod describes Dione as an Oceanid, but Apollodorus makes her the thirteenth Titan, child of Gaia and Uranus.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 19381951, 80219, 79541, 85577, 47401, 19272020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 12 ], [ 210, 216 ], [ 283, 290 ], [ 296, 307 ], [ 333, 338 ], [ 349, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aphrodite is consistently portrayed as a nubile, infinitely desirable adult, having had no childhood. She is often depicted nude. In the Iliad, Aphrodite is the apparently unmarried consort of Ares, the god of war, and the wife of Hephaestus is a different goddess named Charis. Likewise, in Hesiod's Theogony, Aphrodite is unmarried and the wife of Hephaestus is Aglaea, the youngest of the three Charites.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 2041, 14388, 11073065, 78372, 79539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 197 ], [ 231, 241 ], [ 271, 277 ], [ 364, 370 ], [ 398, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Book Eight of the Odyssey, however, the blind singer Demodocus describes Aphrodite as the wife of Hephaestus and tells how she committed adultery with Ares during the Trojan War. The sun-god Helios saw Aphrodite and Ares having sex in Hephaestus's bed and warned Hephaestus, who fashioned a net of gold. The next time Ares and Aphrodite had sex together, the net trapped them both. Hephaestus brought all the gods into the bedchamber to laugh at the captured adulterers, but Apollo, Hermes, and Poseidon had sympathy for Ares and Poseidon agreed to pay Hephaestus for Ares's release. Humiliated, Aphrodite returned to Cyprus, where she was attended by the Charites. This narrative probably originated as a Greek folk tale, originally independent of the Odyssey. In a much later interpolated detail, Ares put the young soldier Alectryon, by their door to warn them of Helios's arrival as Helios would tell Hephaestus of Aphrodite's infidelity if the two were discovered, but Alectryon fell asleep on guard duty. Helios discovered the two and alerted Hephaestus, as Ares in rage turned Alectryon into a rooster, which always crows at dawn when the sun is about to rise announcing its arrival.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 22349, 361189, 58809, 30058, 67230, 594, 14410, 22948, 79539, 43494, 79181, 37402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ], [ 56, 65 ], [ 140, 148 ], [ 170, 180 ], [ 194, 200 ], [ 478, 484 ], [ 486, 492 ], [ 498, 506 ], [ 659, 667 ], [ 715, 724 ], [ 829, 838 ], [ 1104, 1111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After exposing them, Hephaestus asks Zeus for his wedding gifts and dowry to be returned to him; by the time of the Trojan War, he is married to Charis/Aglaea, one of the Graces, apparently divorced from Aphrodite. Afterwards, it was generally Ares who was regarded as the husband or official consort of the goddess; on the François Vase, the two arrive at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis on the same chariot, as do Zeus with Hera and Poseidon with Amphitrite; moreover poets such as Pindar and Aeschylus explicitly refer to Ares as Aphrodite's husband.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 30058, 78372, 79539, 6478905, 38419, 37552, 13208, 60779, 79616, 2023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 126 ], [ 152, 158 ], [ 171, 177 ], [ 324, 337 ], [ 372, 378 ], [ 383, 389 ], [ 427, 431 ], [ 450, 460 ], [ 485, 491 ], [ 496, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later stories were invented to explain Aphrodite's marriage to Hephaestus. In the most famous story, Zeus hastily married Aphrodite to Hephaestus in order to prevent the other gods from fighting over her. In another version of the myth, Hephaestus gave his mother Hera a golden throne, but when she sat on it, she became trapped and he refused to let her go until she agreed to give him Aphrodite's hand in marriage. Hephaestus was overjoyed to be married to the goddess of beauty, and forged her beautiful jewelry, including a strophion () known as the (), a saltire-shaped undergarment (usually translated as \"girdle\"), which accentuated her breasts and made her even more irresistible to men. Such strophia were commonly used in depictions of the Near Eastern goddesses Ishtar and Atargatis.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 13208, 7971671, 147280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 268 ], [ 528, 537 ], [ 785, 794 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aphrodite is almost always accompanied by Eros, the god of lust and sexual desire. In his Theogony, Hesiod describes Eros as one of the four original primeval forces born at the beginning of time, but, after the birth of Aphrodite from the sea foam, he is joined by Himeros and, together, they become Aphrodite's constant companions. In early Greek art, Eros and Himeros are both shown as idealized handsome youths with wings. The Greek lyric poets regarded the power of Eros and Himeros as dangerous, compulsive, and impossible for anyone to resist. In modern times, Eros is often seen as Aphrodite's son, but this is actually a comparatively late innovation. A scholion on Theocritus's Idylls remarks that the sixth-century BC poet Sappho had described Eros as the son of Aphrodite and Uranus, but the first surviving reference to Eros as Aphrodite's son comes from Apollonius of Rhodes's Argonautica, written in the third century BC, which makes him the son of Aphrodite and Ares. Later, the Romans, who saw Venus as a mother goddess, seized on this idea of Eros as Aphrodite's son and popularized it, making it the predominant portrayal in works on mythology until the present day.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 19191789, 23508220, 82172, 1269346, 152771, 969817, 314182, 5228263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 46 ], [ 266, 273 ], [ 437, 448 ], [ 663, 671 ], [ 675, 685 ], [ 688, 693 ], [ 868, 888 ], [ 891, 902 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aphrodite's main attendants were the three Charites, whom Hesiod identifies as the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome and names as Aglaea (\"Splendor\"), Euphrosyne (\"Good Cheer\"), and Thalia (\"Abundance\"). The Charites had been worshipped as goddesses in Greece since the beginning of Greek history, long before Aphrodite was introduced to the pantheon. Aphrodite's other set of attendants was the three Horae (the \"Hours\"), whom Hesiod identifies as the daughters of Zeus and Themis and names as Eunomia (\"Good Order\"), Dike (\"Justice\"), and Eirene (\"Peace\"). Aphrodite was also sometimes accompanied by Harmonia, her daughter by Ares, and Hebe, the daughter of Zeus and Hera.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 79539, 3268133, 78372, 4803114, 27828029, 80513, 79022, 17952960, 9993397, 14279434, 80670, 318068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 51 ], [ 105, 113 ], [ 127, 133 ], [ 148, 158 ], [ 179, 185 ], [ 399, 404 ], [ 472, 478 ], [ 492, 499 ], [ 516, 520 ], [ 538, 544 ], [ 600, 608 ], [ 636, 640 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fertility god Priapus was usually considered to be Aphrodite's son by Dionysus, but he was sometimes also described as her son by Hermes, Adonis, or even Zeus. A scholion on Apollonius of Rhodes's Argonautica states that, while Aphrodite was pregnant with Priapus, Hera envied her and applied an evil potion to her belly while she was sleeping to ensure that the child would be hideous. In another version, Hera cursed Aphrodite's unborn son because he had been fathered by Zeus. When Aphrodite gave birth, she was horrified to see that the child had a massive, permanently erect penis, a potbelly, and a huge tongue. Aphrodite abandoned the infant to die in the wilderness, but a herdsman found him and raised him, later discovering that Priapus could use his massive penis to aid in the growth of plants.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 20598392, 63325, 1269346, 314182, 5228263, 20598355, 54712, 168885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 25 ], [ 74, 82 ], [ 166, 174 ], [ 178, 198 ], [ 201, 212 ], [ 557, 589 ], [ 593, 601 ], [ 632, 659 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The First Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite (Hymn 5), which was probably composed sometime in the mid-seventh century BC, describes how Zeus once became annoyed with Aphrodite for causing deities to fall in love with mortals, so he caused her to fall in love with Anchises, a handsome mortal shepherd who lived in the foothills beneath Mount Ida near the city of Troy. Aphrodite appears to Anchises in the form of a tall, beautiful, mortal virgin while he is alone in his home. Anchises sees her dressed in bright clothing and gleaming jewelry, with her breasts shining with divine radiance. He asks her if she is Aphrodite and promises to build her an altar on top of the mountain if she will bless him and his family.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 83606, 1054175, 30059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 256, 264 ], [ 328, 337 ], [ 355, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aphrodite lies and tells him that she is not a goddess, but the daughter of one of the noble families of Phrygia. She claims to be able to understand the Trojan language because she had a Trojan nurse as a child and says that she found herself on the mountainside after she was snatched up by Hermes while dancing in a celebration in honor of Artemis, the goddess of virginity. Aphrodite tells Anchises that she is still a virgin and begs him to take her to his parents. Anchises immediately becomes overcome with mad lust for Aphrodite and swears that he will have sex with her. Anchises takes Aphrodite, with her eyes cast downwards, to his bed, which is covered in the furs of lions and bears. He then strips her naked and makes love to her.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 21491716, 5897173, 2905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 112 ], [ 154, 169 ], [ 343, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the lovemaking is complete, Aphrodite reveals her true divine form. Anchises is terrified, but Aphrodite consoles him and promises that she will bear him a son. She prophesies that their son will be the demigod Aeneas, who will be raised by the nymphs of the wilderness for five years before going to Troy to become a nobleman like his father. The story of Aeneas's conception is also mentioned in Hesiod's Theogony and in Book II of Homer's Iliad.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 87334, 274463, 1540, 22058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 181 ], [ 209, 216 ], [ 217, 223 ], [ 251, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The myth of Aphrodite and Adonis is probably derived from the ancient Sumerian legend of Inanna and Dumuzid. The Greek name (Adōnis, ) is derived from the Canaanite word ʼadōn, meaning \"lord\". The earliest known Greek reference to Adonis comes from a fragment of a poem by the Lesbian poet Sappho ( – ), in which a chorus of young girls asks Aphrodite what they can do to mourn Adonis's death. Aphrodite replies that they must beat their breasts and tear their tunics. Later references flesh out the story with more details. According to the retelling of the story found in the poem Metamorphoses by the Roman poet Ovid (43 BC – 17/18 AD), Adonis was the son of Myrrha, who was cursed by Aphrodite with insatiable lust for her own father, King Cinyras of Cyprus, after Myrrha's mother bragged that her daughter was more beautiful than the goddess. Driven out after becoming pregnant, Myrrha was changed into a myrrh tree, but still gave birth to Adonis.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 50521, 78332, 15398943, 148363, 763205, 77280, 2633994, 27784, 83101, 37802, 77280, 81716, 81709, 5593, 96861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 75 ], [ 89, 95 ], [ 100, 107 ], [ 113, 118 ], [ 156, 165 ], [ 232, 238 ], [ 278, 285 ], [ 291, 297 ], [ 584, 597 ], [ 616, 620 ], [ 641, 647 ], [ 663, 669 ], [ 745, 752 ], [ 756, 762 ], [ 911, 916 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aphrodite found the baby, and took him to the underworld to be fostered by Persephone. She returned for him once he was grown and discovered him to be strikingly handsome. Persephone wanted to keep Adonis, resulting in a custody battle between the two goddesses over whom should rightly possess Adonis. Zeus settled the dispute by decreeing that Adonis would spend one third of the year with Aphrodite, one third with Persephone, and one third with whomever he chose. Adonis chose to spend that time with Aphrodite. Then, one day, while Adonis was hunting, he was wounded by a wild boar and bled to death in Aphrodite's arms. In a semi-mocking work, the Dialogues of the Gods, the satirical author Lucian comedically relates how a frustrated Aphrodite complains to the moon goddess Selene about her son Eros making Persephone fall in love with Adonis and now she has to share him with her.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 24253, 37201871, 165457, 91097, 80963, 19191789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 85 ], [ 654, 675 ], [ 698, 704 ], [ 769, 781 ], [ 782, 788 ], [ 803, 807 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In different versions of the story, the boar was either sent by Ares, who was jealous that Aphrodite was spending so much time with Adonis, or by Artemis, who wanted revenge against Aphrodite for having killed her devoted follower Hippolytus. In another version, Apollo in fury changed himself into a boar and killed Adonis because Aphrodite had blinded his son Erymanthus when he stumbled upon Aphrodite naked as she was bathing after intercourse with Adonis. The story also provides an etiology for Aphrodite's associations with certain flowers. Reportedly, as she mourned Adonis's death, she caused anemones to grow wherever his blood fell, and declared a festival on the anniversary of his death. In one version of the story, Aphrodite injured herself on a thorn from a rose bush and the rose, which had previously been white, was stained red by her blood. According to Lucian's On the Syrian Goddess, each year during the festival of Adonis, the Adonis River in Lebanon (now known as the Abraham River) ran red with blood.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 724910, 31151770, 10055, 77590, 25725334, 26537, 165457, 11130118, 17771, 32931521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 241 ], [ 362, 372 ], [ 488, 496 ], [ 602, 609 ], [ 761, 766 ], [ 774, 778 ], [ 874, 880 ], [ 883, 904 ], [ 967, 974 ], [ 993, 1006 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The myth of Adonis is associated with the festival of the Adonia, which was celebrated by Greek women every year in midsummer. The festival, which was evidently already celebrated in Lesbos by Sappho's time, seems to have first become popular in Athens in the mid-fifth century BC. At the start of the festival, the women would plant a \"garden of Adonis\", a small garden planted inside a small basket or a shallow piece of broken pottery containing a variety of quick-growing plants, such as lettuce and fennel, or even quick-sprouting grains such as wheat and barley. The women would then climb ladders to the roofs of their houses, where they would place the gardens out under the heat of the summer sun. The plants would sprout in the sunlight, but wither quickly in the heat. Then the women would mourn and lament loudly over the death of Adonis, tearing their clothes and beating their breasts in a public display of grief.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 3668578, 57079, 173548, 36858, 19541428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 64 ], [ 492, 499 ], [ 504, 510 ], [ 551, 556 ], [ 561, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Hesiod's Works and Days, Zeus orders Aphrodite to make Pandora, the first woman, physically beautiful and sexually attractive, so that she may become \"an evil men will love to embrace\". Aphrodite \"spills grace\" over Pandora's head and equips her with \"painful desire and knee-weakening anguish\", thus making her the perfect vessel for evil to enter the world. Aphrodite's attendants, Peitho, the Charites, and the Horae, adorn Pandora with gold and jewelry.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 2621292, 24290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 26 ], [ 58, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to one myth, Aphrodite aided Hippomenes, a noble youth who wished to marry Atalanta, a maiden who was renowned throughout the land for her beauty, but who refused to marry any man unless he could outrun her in a footrace. Atalanta was an exceedingly swift runner and she beheaded all of the men who lost to her. Aphrodite gave Hippomenes three golden apples from the Garden of the Hesperides and instructed him to toss them in front of Atalanta as he raced her. Hippomenes obeyed Aphrodite's order and Atalanta, seeing the beautiful, golden fruits, bent down to pick up each one, allowing Hippomenes to outrun her. In the version of the story from Ovid's Metamorphoses, Hippomenes forgets to repay Aphrodite for her aid, so she causes the couple to become inflamed with lust while they are staying at the temple of Cybele. The couple desecrate the temple by having sex in it, leading Cybele to turn them into lions as punishment.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 83565, 36743, 26032, 2295773, 77944, 78360, 3383953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 49 ], [ 85, 93 ], [ 222, 230 ], [ 354, 366 ], [ 377, 401 ], [ 825, 831 ], [ 844, 853 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The myth of Pygmalion is first mentioned by the third-century BC Greek writer Philostephanus of Cyrene, but is first recounted in detail in Ovid's Metamorphoses. According to Ovid, Pygmalion was an exceedingly handsome sculptor from the island of Cyprus, who was so sickened by the immorality of women that he refused to marry. He fell madly and passionately in love with the ivory cult statue he was carving of Aphrodite and longed to marry it. Because Pygmalion was extremely pious and devoted to Aphrodite, the goddess brought the statue to life. Pygmalion married the girl the statue became and they had a son named Paphos, after whom the capital of Cyprus received its name. Pseudo-Apollodorus later mentions \"Metharme, daughter of Pygmalion, king of Cyprus\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 1869085, 13816804, 597877, 85577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 21 ], [ 78, 102 ], [ 643, 660 ], [ 680, 698 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aphrodite generously rewarded those who honored her, but also punished those who disrespected her, often quite brutally. A myth described in Apollonius of Rhodes's Argonautica and later summarized in the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus tells how, when the women of the island of Lemnos refused to sacrifice to Aphrodite, the goddess cursed them to stink horribly so that their husbands would never have sex with them. Instead, their husbands started having sex with their Thracian slave-girls. In anger, the women of Lemnos murdered the entire male population of the island, as well as all the Thracian slaves. When Jason and his crew of Argonauts arrived on Lemnos, they mated with the sex-starved women under Aphrodite's approval and repopulated the island. From then on, the women of Lemnos never disrespected Aphrodite again.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 85577, 83010, 188824, 173634, 15885, 77334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 215 ], [ 281, 287 ], [ 474, 482 ], [ 483, 494 ], [ 618, 623 ], [ 640, 649 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Euripides's tragedy Hippolytus, which was first performed at the City Dionysia in 428 BC, Theseus's son Hippolytus worships only Artemis, the goddess of virginity, and refuses to engage in any form of sexual contact. Aphrodite is infuriated by his prideful behavior and, in the prologue to the play, she declares that, by honoring only Artemis and refusing to venerate her, Hippolytus has directly challenged her authority. Aphrodite therefore causes Hippolytus's stepmother, Phaedra, to fall in love with him, knowing Hippolytus will reject her. After being rejected, Phaedra commits suicide and leaves a suicide note to Theseus telling him that she killed herself because Hippolytus attempted to rape her. Theseus prays to Poseidon to kill Hippolytus for his transgression. Poseidon sends a wild bull to scare Hippolytus's horses as he is riding by the sea in his chariot, causing the horses to bolt and smash the chariot against the cliffs, dragging Hippolytus to a bloody death across the rocky shoreline. The play concludes with Artemis vowing to kill Aphrodite's own mortal beloved (presumably Adonis) in revenge.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 9808, 708120, 465578, 724910, 2905, 81935, 524165, 26051975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 23, 33 ], [ 68, 81 ], [ 107, 117 ], [ 132, 139 ], [ 479, 486 ], [ 609, 621 ], [ 796, 805 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Glaucus of Corinth angered Aphrodite by refusing to let his horses for chariot racing mate, since doing so would hinder their speed. During the chariot race at the funeral games of King Pelias, Aphrodite drove his horses mad and they tore him apart. Polyphonte was a young woman who chose a virginal life with Artemis instead of marriage and children, as favoured by Aphrodite. Aphrodite cursed her, causing her to have children by a bear. The resulting offspring, Agrius and Oreius, were wild cannibals who incurred the hatred of Zeus. Ultimately, he transformed all the members of the family into birds of ill omen.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 19656353, 265965, 77275, 23894344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 71, 85 ], [ 186, 192 ], [ 250, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Apollodorus, a jealous Aphrodite cursed Eos, the goddess of dawn, to be perpetually in love and have insatiable sexual desire because Eos once had lain with Aphrodite's sweetheart Ares, the god of war.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 85577, 10477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 24 ], [ 53, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Ovid in his Metamorphoses (book 10.238 ff.), Propoetides who are the daughters of Propoetus from the city of Amathus on the island of Cyprus denied Aphrodite's divinity and failed to worship her properly. Therefore, Aphrodite turned them into the world's first prostitutes. According to Diodorus Siculus, when the Rhodian sea nymphe Halia's six sons by Poseidon arrogantly refused to let Aphrodite land upon their shore, the goddess cursed them with insanity. In their madness, they raped Halia. As punishment, Poseidon buried them in the island's sea-caverns.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 5744585, 99425, 70490360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 69 ], [ 300, 316 ], [ 346, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Xanthius, a descendent of Bellerophon, had two children; Leucippus and an unnamed daughter. Through the wrath of Aphrodite (reasons unknown), Leucippus fell in love with his own sister. They started a secret relationship but the girl was already betrothed to another man and he went on to inform her father Xanthius, without telling him the name of the seducer. Xanthius went straight to his daughter's chamber, where she was together with Leucippus right at the moment. On hearing him enter, she tried to escape, but Xanthius hit her with a dagger, thinking that he was slaying the seducer, and killed her. Leucippus, failing to recognize his father at first, slew him. When the truth was revealed, he had to leave the country and took part in colonization of Crete and the lands in Asia Minor.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 79335, 23768767, 936964, 6591, 854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 26, 37 ], [ 57, 66 ], [ 761, 766 ], [ 784, 794 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Queen Cenchreis of Cyprus, wife of King Cinyras, bragged that her daughter Myrrha was more beautiful than Aphrodite. Therefore, Myrrha was cursed by Aphrodite with insatiable lust for her own father, King Cinyras of Cyprus and he slept with her unknowingly in the dark. she eventually transformed into the myrrh tree and gave birth to Adonis in this form. Cinyras also had three other daughters: Braesia, Laogora, and Orsedice. These girls by the wrath of Aphrodite (reasons unknown) cohabited with foreigners, and ended their life in Egypt.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 81709, 81716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 47 ], [ 75, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Muse Clio derided the goddess' own love for Adonis. Therefore, Clio fell in love with Pierus, son of Magnes and bore Hyacinth.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 71180, 543409, 53921531, 407853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ], [ 9, 13 ], [ 90, 96 ], [ 121, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aegiale was a daughter of Adrastus and Amphithea, and was married to Diomedes. Because of anger of Aphrodite, whom Diomedes had wounded in the war against Troy, She had multiple lovers, including a certain Hippolytus. when Aegiale went so far as to threaten his life, he fled to Italy.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 11253137, 79162, 10459596, 81927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 26, 34 ], [ 39, 48 ], [ 69, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In one of the versions of the legend, Pasiphae did not make offerings to the goddess Venus [Aphrodite]. Because of this Venus [Aphrodite] inspired in her an unnatural love for a bull or she cursed her because she was Helios's daughter who revealed her adultery to Hephaestus. For Helios' own tale-telling, she cursed him with uncontrollable lust over the mortal princess Leucothoe, which led to him abandoning his then-lover Clytie, leaving her heartbroken.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 83776, 66022019, 1035365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 182 ], [ 371, 380 ], [ 425, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lysippe was the mother of Tanais by Berossos. Her son only venerated Ares and was fully devoted to war, neglecting love and marriage. Aphrodite cursed him with falling in love with his own mother. Preferring to die rather than give up his chastity, he threw himself into the river Amazonius, which was subsequently renamed Tanais.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 10400971, 2041, 92945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 69, 73 ], [ 323, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Hyginus, At the behest of Zeus, Orpheus's mother, the Muse Calliope, judged the dispute between the goddesses Aphrodite and Persephone over Adonis and decided that both shall possess him half of the year. This enraged Venus [Aphrodite], because she had not been granted what she thought was her right. Therefore, Venus [Aphrodite] inspired love for Orpheus in the women of Thrace, causing them to tear him apart as each of them sought Orpheus for herself.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 143691, 22877693, 71180, 1363380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ], [ 45, 52 ], [ 67, 71 ], [ 72, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The myth of the Judgement of Paris is mentioned briefly in the Iliad, but is described in depth in an epitome of the Cypria, a lost poem of the Epic Cycle, which records that all the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of Peleus and Thetis (the eventual parents of Achilles). Only Eris, goddess of discord, was not invited. She was annoyed at this, so she arrived with a golden apple inscribed with the word καλλίστῃ (kallistēi, \"for the fairest\"), which she threw among the goddesses. Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena all claimed to be the fairest, and thus the rightful owner of the apple.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 19381951, 85264, 2090445, 734995, 38419, 37552, 305, 9823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 68 ], [ 102, 109 ], [ 117, 123 ], [ 144, 154 ], [ 261, 267 ], [ 272, 278 ], [ 304, 312 ], [ 320, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The goddesses chose to place the matter before Zeus, who, not wanting to favor one of the goddesses, put the choice into the hands of Paris, a Trojan prince. After bathing in the spring of Mount Ida where Troy was situated, the goddesses appeared before Paris for his decision. In the extant ancient depictions of the Judgement of Paris, Aphrodite is only occasionally represented nude, and Athena and Hera are always fully clothed. Since the Renaissance, however, Western paintings have typically portrayed all three goddesses as completely naked.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 63416, 30059, 657146, 25532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 139 ], [ 143, 149 ], [ 189, 198 ], [ 443, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All three goddesses were ideally beautiful and Paris could not decide between them, so they resorted to bribes. Hera tried to bribe Paris with power over all Asia and Europe, and Athena offered wisdom, fame and glory in battle, but Aphrodite promised Paris that, if he were to choose her as the fairest, she would let him marry the most beautiful woman on earth. This woman was Helen, who was already married to King Menelaus of Sparta. Paris selected Aphrodite and awarded her the apple. The other two goddesses were enraged and, as a direct result, sided with the Greeks in the Trojan War.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 689, 9239, 63444, 46299, 36487, 30058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 162 ], [ 167, 173 ], [ 378, 383 ], [ 417, 425 ], [ 429, 435 ], [ 580, 590 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aphrodite plays an important and active role throughout the entirety of Homer's Iliad. In Book III, she rescues Paris from Menelaus after he foolishly challenges him to a one-on-one duel. She then appears to Helen in the form of an old woman and attempts to persuade her to have sex with Paris, reminding her of his physical beauty and athletic prowess. Helen immediately recognizes Aphrodite by her beautiful neck, perfect breasts, and flashing eyes and chides the goddess, addressing her as her equal. Aphrodite sharply rebukes Helen, reminding her that, if she vexes her, she will punish her just as much as she has favored her already. Helen demurely obeys Aphrodite's command.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 153833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Book V, Aphrodite charges into battle to rescue her son Aeneas from the Greek hero Diomedes. Diomedes recognizes Aphrodite as a \"weakling\" goddess and, thrusting his spear, nicks her wrist through her \"ambrosial robe\". Aphrodite borrows Ares's chariot to ride back to Mount Olympus. Zeus chides her for putting herself in danger, reminding her that \"her specialty is love, not war.\" According to Walter Burkert, this scene directly parallels a scene from Tablet VI of the Epic of Gilgamesh in which Ishtar, Aphrodite's Akkadian precursor, cries to her mother Antu after the hero Gilgamesh rejects her sexual advances, but is mildly rebuked by her father Anu. In Book XIV of the Iliad, during the Dios Apate episode, Aphrodite lends her kestos himas to Hera for the purpose of seducing Zeus and distracting him from the combat while Poseidon aids the Greek forces on the beach. In the Theomachia in Book XXI, Aphrodite again enters the battlefield to carry Ares away after he is wounded.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 81927, 604275, 868191, 13151, 22544621, 7425218, 13208, 2155198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 94 ], [ 399, 413 ], [ 562, 566 ], [ 582, 591 ], [ 657, 660 ], [ 699, 709 ], [ 755, 759 ], [ 887, 897 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sometimes poets and dramatists recounted ancient traditions, which varied, and sometimes they invented new details; later scholiasts might draw on either or simply guess. Thus while Aeneas and Phobos were regularly described as offspring of Aphrodite, others listed here such as Priapus and Eros were sometimes said to be children of Aphrodite but with varying fathers and sometimes given other mothers or none at all.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 1269346, 1540, 80097, 20598392, 19191789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 129 ], [ 182, 188 ], [ 193, 199 ], [ 279, 286 ], [ 291, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aphrodite's most prominent avian symbol was the dove, which was originally an important symbol of her Near Eastern precursor Inanna-Ishtar. (In fact, the ancient Greek word for \"dove\", peristerá, may be derived from a Semitic phrase peraḥ Ištar, meaning \"bird of Ishtar\".) Aphrodite frequently appears with doves in ancient Greek pottery and the temple of Aphrodite Pandemos on the southwest slope of the Athenian Acropolis was decorated with relief sculptures of doves with knotted fillets in their beaks. Votive offerings of small, white, marble doves were also discovered in the temple of Aphrodite at Daphni. In addition to her associations with doves, Aphrodite was also closely linked with sparrows and she is described riding in a chariot pulled by sparrows in Sappho's \"Ode to Aphrodite\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Iconography", "target_page_ids": [ 1076007, 2076, 3720388, 2227283, 47739944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 316, 337 ], [ 405, 423 ], [ 483, 490 ], [ 605, 611 ], [ 778, 794 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of her connections to the sea, Aphrodite was associated with a number of different types of water fowl, including swans, geese, and ducks. Aphrodite's other symbols included the sea, conch shells, and roses. The rose and myrtle flowers were both sacred to Aphrodite. Her most important fruit emblem was the apple, but she was also associated with pomegranates, possibly because the red seeds suggested sexuality or because Greek women sometimes used pomegranates as a method of birth control. In Greek art, Aphrodite is often also accompanied by dolphins and Nereids.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Iconography", "target_page_ids": [ 204174, 466544, 74549, 18978770, 9061, 21586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 110 ], [ 229, 235 ], [ 355, 366 ], [ 486, 499 ], [ 554, 561 ], [ 567, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A scene of Aphrodite rising from the sea appears on the back of the Ludovisi Throne ( 460 BC), which was probably originally part of a massive altar that was constructed as part of the Ionic temple to Aphrodite in the Greek polis of Locri Epizephyrii in Magna Graecia in southern Italy. The throne shows Aphrodite rising from the sea, clad in a diaphanous garment, which is drenched with seawater and clinging to her body, revealing her upturned breasts and the outline of her navel. Her hair hangs dripping as she reaches to two attendants standing barefoot on the rocky shore on either side of her, lifting her out of the water. Scenes with Aphrodite appear in works of classical Greek pottery, including a famous white-ground kylix by the Pistoxenos Painter dating the between 470 and 460 BC, showing her riding on a swan or goose.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Iconography", "target_page_ids": [ 5452097, 48104, 45333, 1076007, 6474366, 931540, 14475917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 83 ], [ 233, 250 ], [ 254, 267 ], [ 682, 695 ], [ 716, 728 ], [ 729, 734 ], [ 742, 760 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In BC, the Athenian sculptor Praxiteles carved the marble statue Aphrodite of Knidos, which Pliny the Elder later praised as the greatest sculpture ever made. The statue showed a nude Aphrodite modestly covering her pubic region while resting against a water pot with her robe draped over it for support. The Aphrodite of Knidos was the first full-sized statue to depict Aphrodite completely naked and one of the first sculptures that was intended to be viewed from all sides. The statue was purchased by the people of Knidos in around 350 BC and proved to be tremendously influential on later depictions of Aphrodite. The original sculpture has been lost, but written descriptions of it as well several depictions of it on coins are still extant and over sixty copies, small-scale models, and fragments of it have been identified.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Iconography", "target_page_ids": [ 79994, 165763, 2887576, 44920, 79988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 40 ], [ 52, 65 ], [ 66, 85 ], [ 93, 108 ], [ 520, 526 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Greek painter Apelles of Kos, a contemporary of Praxiteles, produced the panel painting Aphrodite Anadyomene (Aphrodite Rising from the Sea). According to Athenaeus, Apelles was inspired to paint the painting after watching the courtesan Phryne take off her clothes, untie her hair, and bathe naked in the sea at Eleusis. The painting was displayed in the Asclepeion on the island of Kos. The Aphrodite Anadyomene went unnoticed for centuries, but Pliny the Elder records that, in his own time, it was regarded as Apelles's most famous work.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Iconography", "target_page_ids": [ 187245, 2134398, 5393354, 166983, 848698, 80628, 82499, 247998, 44920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 32 ], [ 77, 91 ], [ 92, 112 ], [ 159, 168 ], [ 242, 248 ], [ 317, 324 ], [ 360, 370 ], [ 388, 391 ], [ 452, 467 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, statues depicting Aphrodite proliferated; many of these statues were modeled at least to some extent on Praxiteles's Aphrodite of Knidos. Some statues show Aphrodite crouching naked; others show her wringing water out of her hair as she rises from the sea. Another common type of statue is known as Aphrodite Kallipygos, the name of which is Greek for \"Aphrodite of the Beautiful Buttocks\"; this type of sculpture shows Aphrodite lifting her peplos to display her buttocks to the viewer while looking back at them from over her shoulder. The ancient Romans produced massive numbers of copies of Greek sculptures of Aphrodite and more sculptures of Aphrodite have survived from antiquity than of any other deity.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Iconography", "target_page_ids": [ 8249333, 29819252, 13947297, 633155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 223 ], [ 341, 361 ], [ 422, 430 ], [ 484, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early Christians frequently adapted pagan iconography to suit Christian purposes. In the Early Middle Ages, Christians adapted elements of Aphrodite/Venus's iconography and applied them to Eve and prostitutes, but also female saints and even the Virgin Mary. Christians in the east reinterpreted the story of Aphrodite's birth as a metaphor for baptism; in a Coptic stele from the sixth century AD, a female orant is shown wearing Aphrodite's conch shell as a sign that she is newly baptized. Throughout the Middle Ages, villages and communities across Europe still maintained folk tales and traditions about Aphrodite/Venus and travelers reported a wide variety of stories. Numerous Roman mosaics of Venus survived in Britain, preserving memory of the pagan past. In North Africa in the late fifth century AD, Fulgentius of Ruspe encountered mosaics of Aphrodite and reinterpreted her as a symbol of the sin of Lust, arguing that she was shown naked because \"the sin of lust is never cloaked\" and that she was often shown \"swimming\" because \"all lust suffers shipwreck of its affairs.\" He also argued that she was associated with doves and conchs because these are symbols of copulation, and that she was associated with roses because \"as the rose gives pleasure, but is swept away by the swift movement of the seasons, so lust is pleasant for a moment, but is swept away forever.\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 14117, 532476, 4345275, 73513, 42207, 4298, 1977720, 18836, 3770710, 50024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 89, 106 ], [ 189, 192 ], [ 246, 257 ], [ 259, 281 ], [ 345, 352 ], [ 408, 413 ], [ 508, 519 ], [ 811, 830 ], [ 912, 916 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Fulgentius had appropriated Aphrodite as a symbol of Lust, Isidore of Seville ( 560–636) interpreted her as a symbol of marital procreative sex and declared that the moral of the story of Aphrodite's birth is that sex can only be holy in the presence of semen, blood, and heat, which he regarded as all being necessary for procreation. Meanwhile, Isidore denigrated Aphrodite/Venus's son Eros/Cupid as a \"demon of fornication\" (daemon fornicationis). Aphrodite/Venus was best known to Western European scholars through her appearances in Virgil's Aeneid and Ovid's Metamorphoses. Venus is mentioned in the Latin poem Pervigilium Veneris (\"The Eve of Saint Venus\"), written in the third or fourth century AD, and in Giovanni Boccaccio's Genealogia Deorum Gentilium.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 15506, 367384, 12957, 9368284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 83 ], [ 623, 642 ], [ 721, 739 ], [ 742, 769 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the Late Middle Ages. the myth of the Venusberg (German; French Mont de Vénus, \"Mountain of Venus\") – a subterranean realm ruled by Venus, hidden underneath Christian Europe – became a motif of European folklore rendered in various legends and epics. In German folklore of the 16th century, the narrative becomes associated with the minnesinger Tannhäuser, and in that form the myth was taken up in later literature and opera.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2287895, 11146622, 14387468, 1246795, 38233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ], [ 44, 53 ], [ 200, 217 ], [ 260, 275 ], [ 351, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aphrodite is the central figure in Sandro Botticelli's painting Primavera, which has been described as \"one of the most written about, and most controversial paintings in the world\", and \"one of the most popular paintings in Western art\". The story of Aphrodite's birth from the foam was a popular subject matter for painters during the Italian Renaissance, who were attempting to consciously reconstruct Apelles of Kos's lost masterpiece Aphrodite Anadyomene based on the literary ekphrasis of it preserved by Cicero and Pliny the Elder. Artists also drew inspiration from Ovid's description of the birth of Venus in his Metamorphoses. Sandro Botticelli's The Birth of Venus ( 1485) was also partially inspired by a description by Poliziano of a relief on the subject. Later Italian renditions of the same scene include Titian's Venus Anadyomene ( 1525) and Raphael's painting in the Stufetta del cardinal Bibbiena (1516). Titian's biographer Giorgio Vasari identified all of Titian's paintings of naked women as paintings of \"Venus\", including an erotic painting from 1534, which he called the Venus of Urbino, even though the painting does not contain any of Aphrodite/Venus's traditional iconography and the woman in it is clearly shown in a contemporary setting, not a classical one.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 73515, 28059804, 322915, 377892, 6046, 37802, 83101, 90814, 764674, 154239, 8304908, 44525, 34471431, 102036, 2607094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 52 ], [ 64, 73 ], [ 337, 356 ], [ 482, 491 ], [ 511, 517 ], [ 574, 578 ], [ 622, 635 ], [ 657, 675 ], [ 732, 741 ], [ 821, 827 ], [ 830, 846 ], [ 859, 866 ], [ 885, 915 ], [ 944, 958 ], [ 1097, 1112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jacques-Louis David's final work was his 1824 magnum opus, Mars Being Disarmed by Venus, which combines elements of classical, Renaissance, traditional French art, and contemporary artistic styles. While he was working on the painting, David described it, saying, \"This is the last picture I want to paint, but I want to surpass myself in it. I will put the date of my seventy-five years on it and afterwards I will never again pick up my brush.\" The painting was exhibited first in Brussels and then in Paris, where over 10,000 people came to see it. Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres's painting Venus Anadyomene was one of his major works. Louis Geofroy described it as a \"dream of youth realized with the power of maturity, a happiness that few obtain, artists or others.\" Théophile Gautier declared: \"Nothing remains of the marvelous painting of the Greeks, but surely if anything could give the idea of antique painting as it was conceived following the statues of Phidias and the poems of Homer, it is M. Ingres's painting: the Venus Anadyomene of Apelles has been found.\" Other critics dismissed it as a piece of unimaginative, sentimental kitsch, but Ingres himself considered it to be among his greatest works and used the same figure as the model for his later 1856 painting La Source.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 9072, 285554, 12575885, 48030, 45313071, 57215, 98141, 34887669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 46, 57 ], [ 59, 87 ], [ 552, 581 ], [ 593, 609 ], [ 772, 789 ], [ 1143, 1149 ], [ 1281, 1290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paintings of Venus were favorites of the late nineteenth-century Academic artists in France. In 1863, Alexandre Cabanel won widespread critical acclaim at the Paris Salon for his painting The Birth of Venus, which the French emperor Napoleon III immediately purchased for his own personal art collection. Édouard Manet's 1865 painting Olympia parodied the nude Venuses of the Academic painters, particularly Cabanel's Birth of Venus. In 1867, the English Academic painter Frederic Leighton displayed his Venus Disrobing for the Bath at the academy. The art critic J. B. Atkinson praised it, declaring that \"Mr Leighton, instead of adopting corrupt Roman notions regarding Venus such as Rubens embodied, has wisely reverted to the Greek idea of Aphrodite, a goddess worshipped, and by artists painted, as the perfection of female grace and beauty.\" A year later, the English painter Dante Gabriel Rossetti, a founding member of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, painted Venus Verticordia (Latin for \"Aphrodite, the Changer of Hearts\"), showing Aphrodite as a nude red-headed woman in a garden of roses. Though he was reproached for his outré subject matter, Rossetti refused to alter the painting and it was soon purchased by J. Mitchell of Bradford. In 1879, William Adolphe Bouguereau exhibited at the Paris Salon his own Birth of Venus, which imitated the classical tradition of contrapposto and was met with widespread critical acclaim, rivalling the popularity of Cabanel's version from nearly two decades prior.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 380097, 389398, 910816, 4902661, 62581, 9615, 985531, 18960192, 330700, 70955499, 149882, 103326, 270381, 35528159, 399747, 2497282, 41527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 77 ], [ 102, 119 ], [ 159, 170 ], [ 188, 206 ], [ 233, 245 ], [ 305, 318 ], [ 335, 342 ], [ 343, 351 ], [ 472, 489 ], [ 504, 532 ], [ 882, 904 ], [ 931, 957 ], [ 1061, 1071 ], [ 1223, 1234 ], [ 1257, 1283 ], [ 1321, 1335 ], [ 1379, 1391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Shakespeare's erotic narrative poem Venus and Adonis (1593), a retelling of the courtship of Aphrodite and Adonis from Ovid's Metamorphoses, was the most popular of all his works published within his own lifetime. Six editions of it were published before Shakespeare's death (more than any of his other works) and it enjoyed particularly strong popularity among young adults. In 1605, Richard Barnfield lauded it, declaring that the poem had placed Shakespeare's name \"in fames immortall Booke\". Despite this, the poem has received mixed reception from modern critics; Samuel Taylor Coleridge defended it, but Samuel Butler complained that it bored him and C. S. Lewis described an attempted reading of it as \"suffocating\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 32897, 451981, 561007, 159989, 29408, 26792, 5813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 29, 43 ], [ 44, 60 ], [ 393, 410 ], [ 577, 600 ], [ 618, 631 ], [ 665, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aphrodite appears in Richard Garnett's short story collection The Twilight of the Gods and Other Tales (1888), in which the gods' temples have been destroyed by Christians. Stories revolving around sculptures of Aphrodite were common in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Examples of such works of literature include the novel The Tinted Venus: A Farcical Romance (1885) by Thomas Anstey Guthrie and the short story The Venus of Ille (1887) by Prosper Mérimée, both of which are about statues of Aphrodite that come to life. Another noteworthy example is Aphrodite in Aulis by the Anglo-Irish writer George Moore, which revolves around an ancient Greek family who moves to Aulis. The French writer Pierre Louÿs titled his erotic historical novel mœurs antiques (1896) after the Greek goddess. The novel enjoyed widespread commercial success, but scandalized French audiences due to its sensuality and its decadent portrayal of Greek society.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1078399, 13427405, 1019626, 15027211, 161240, 205928, 30185303, 755576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 36 ], [ 62, 102 ], [ 390, 411 ], [ 432, 449 ], [ 460, 475 ], [ 616, 628 ], [ 689, 694 ], [ 714, 726 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early twentieth century, stories of Aphrodite were used by feminist poets, such as Amy Lowell and Alicia Ostriker. Many of these poems dealt with Aphrodite's legendary birth from the foam of the sea. Other feminist writers, including Claude Cahun, Thit Jensen, and Anaïs Nin also made use of the myth of Aphrodite in their writings. Ever since the publication of Isabel Allende's book Aphrodite: A Memoir of the Senses in 1998, the name \"Aphrodite\" has been used as a title for dozens of books dealing with all topics even superficially connected to her domain. Frequently these books do not even mention Aphrodite, or mention her only briefly, but make use of her name as a selling point.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 11185, 196773, 1285823, 1249101, 463990, 2919, 157994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 74 ], [ 90, 100 ], [ 105, 120 ], [ 241, 253 ], [ 255, 266 ], [ 272, 281 ], [ 370, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1938, Gleb Botkin, a Russian immigrant to the United States, founded the Church of Aphrodite, a neopagan religion centered around the worship of a mother goddess, whom its practitioners identified as Aphrodite. The Church of Aphrodite's theology was laid out in the book In Search of Reality, published in 1969, two years before Botkin's death. The book portrayed Aphrodite in a drastically different light than the one in which the Greeks envisioned her, instead casting her as \"the sole Goddess of a somewhat Neoplatonic Pagan monotheism\". It claimed that the worship of Aphrodite had been brought to Greece by the mystic teacher Orpheus, but that the Greeks had misunderstood Orpheus's teachings and had not realized the importance of worshipping Aphrodite alone.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 9720851, 9721898, 21686, 201330, 29174999, 22877693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 20 ], [ 76, 95 ], [ 99, 107 ], [ 150, 164 ], [ 620, 634 ], [ 635, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aphrodite is a major deity in Wicca, a contemporary nature-based syncretic Neopagan religion. Wiccans regard Aphrodite as one aspect of the Goddess and she is frequently invoked by name during enchantments dealing with love and romance. Wiccans regard Aphrodite as the ruler of human emotions, erotic spirituality, creativity, and art. As one of the twelve Olympians, Aphrodite is a major deity within Hellenismos (Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism), a Neopagan religion which seeks to authentically revive and recreate the religion of ancient Greece in the modern world. Unlike Wiccans, Hellenists are usually strictly polytheistic or pantheistic. Hellenists venerate Aphrodite primarily as the goddess of romantic love, but also as a goddess of sexuality, the sea, and war. Her many epithets include \"Sea Born\", \"Killer of Men\", \"She upon the Graves\", \"Fair Sailing\", and \"Ally in War\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 33295, 29612, 10907292, 766715, 151992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 35 ], [ 65, 74 ], [ 140, 147 ], [ 193, 205 ], [ 402, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anchises", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 83606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cupid", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20924853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Girdle of Aphrodite", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 70250433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of nude art", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 71247922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lakshmi, rose from the ocean like Aphrodite and has 8-pointed star like Ishtar", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 100191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 13633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 13700, 30551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Evelyn-White, Hugh, The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Homeric Hymns. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pindar, Odes, Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 79616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Euripides, The Complete Greek Drama', edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill, Jr. in two volumes. 2. The Phoenissae, translated by E. P. Coleridge. New York. Random House. 1938.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 9808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica translated by Robert Cooper Seaton (1853–1915), R. C. Loeb Classical Library Volume 001. London, William Heinemann Ltd, 1912. Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 314182, 5228263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 21, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 85577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 416255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Vol 1-2. Immanel Bekker. Ludwig Dindorf. Friedrich Vogel. in aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Leipzig. 1888–1890. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 99425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ovid, Metamorphoses. Translated by A. D. Melville; introduction and notes by E. J. Kenney. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2008. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 37802, 83101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hyginus, Gaius Julius, The Myths of Hyginus. Edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 143691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gaius Julius Hyginus, Astronomica from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 143691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hard, Robin, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's \"Handbook of Greek Mythology\", Psychology Press, 2004, . Google Books.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " APHRODITE from The Theoi Project information from classical literature, Greek and Roman art", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Glory which Was Greece from a Female Perspective", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sappho's Hymn to Aphrodite, with a brief explanation", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Aphrodite", "Beauty_goddesses", "Consorts_of_Hephaestus", "Deities_in_the_Iliad", "Fertility_goddesses", "Greek_love_and_lust_deities", "Love_and_lust_goddesses", "Divine_women_of_Zeus", "Homosexuality_and_bisexuality_deities", "New_religious_movement_deities", "Children_of_Zeus", "Prostitution", "Sexuality_in_ancient_Greece", "Women_of_Ares", "Women_of_Hermes", "Women_in_Greek_mythology", "Characters_in_Greek_mythology", "Venusian_deities", "Characters_in_the_Argonautica", "Characters_in_the_Odyssey", "Metamorphoses_characters", "Women_of_Poseidon", "Greek_goddesses", "Twelve_Olympians", "Consorts_of_Dionysus", "Women_of_the_Trojan_war", "Nudity_in_mythology" ]

[ "Cytherea", "Erycina" ]

[ { "plaintext": "It is also the first day of the second quarter of the year.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "33 According to one historian's account, Jesus Christ's Last Supper is held.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35251, 1095706, 30667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 2 ], [ 42, 54 ], [ 57, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 527 Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35698, 4016, 47969, 16209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 24, 32 ], [ 50, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1081 Alexios I Komnenos overthrows the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates, and, after his troops spend three days extensively looting Constantinople, is formally crowned on April 4.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 42463, 1613, 4016, 74009, 5646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 40, 57 ], [ 58, 84 ], [ 145, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1572 In the Eighty Years' War, the Watergeuzen capture Brielle from the Seventeen Provinces, gaining the first foothold on land for what would become the Dutch Republic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34686, 589019, 6277433, 73588, 52626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 13, 30 ], [ 48, 63 ], [ 73, 92 ], [ 155, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1789 In New York City, the United States House of Representatives achieves its first quorum and elects Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania as its first Speaker.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34697, 645042, 19468510, 237014, 204542, 23332, 46023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 9, 22 ], [ 28, 66 ], [ 86, 92 ], [ 104, 124 ], [ 128, 140 ], [ 144, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1833 The Convention of 1833, a political gathering of settlers in Mexican Texas to help draft a series of 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], [ 58, 76 ], [ 85, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1924 Adolf Hitler is sentenced to five years imprisonment for his participation in the \"Beer Hall Putsch\" but spends only nine months in jail.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34675, 2731583, 57538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 89, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1924 The Royal Canadian Air Force is formed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 931406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1933 The recently elected Nazis under Julius Streicher organize a one-day boycott of all Jewish-owned businesses in Germany, ushering in a series of anti-Semitic acts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34864, 31045316, 103156, 1078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 27, 32 ], [ 39, 55 ], [ 150, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1935 India's central banking institution, the Reserve Bank of India, is formed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34980, 277069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 47, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1937 Aden becomes a British crown colony.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34684, 38050, 1166703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 10 ], [ 29, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1937 The Royal New Zealand Air Force is formed as an independent service.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 190903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1939 Spanish Civil War: Generalísimo Francisco Franco of the Spanish State announces the end of the Spanish Civil War, when the last of the Republican forces surrender.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34614, 207521, 11466, 294034, 18842471, 31596058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 25, 37 ], [ 38, 54 ], [ 62, 75 ], [ 101, 118 ], [ 141, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1941 Fântâna Albă massacre: Between 200 and 2,000 Romanian civilians are killed by 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Google launches its Email service Gmail.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35524, 1092923, 9738, 569005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 12 ], [ 26, 31 ], [ 40, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2006 Serious Organised Crime Agency (SOCA) of the Government of the United Kingdom is enforced, but later merged into National Crime Agency on 7 October 2013.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36164, 462665, 25318118, 28153284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 36 ], [ 51, 83 ], [ 119, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011 After protests against the burning of the Quran turn violent, a mob attacks a United Nations compound in Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan, resulting in the deaths of thirteen people, including eight foreign workers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36225, 28394320, 31769, 31361327, 737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 33, 53 ], [ 84, 98 ], [ 111, 125 ], [ 127, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2016 The 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict begins along the Nagorno-Karabakh Line of Contact.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 51387, 50021902, 52465215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 40 ], [ 58, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1220 Emperor Go-Saga of Japan (d. 1272)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36063, 45590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1282 Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1347)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34723, 38802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1328 Blanche of France, Duchess of Orléans (d. 1382)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 39968, 19942421, 36370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 43 ], [ 48, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1543 François de Bonne, Duke of Lesdiguières (d. 1626)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34943, 1807347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 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politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2011)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34708, 1049151, 26230922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 63, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1941 Gideon Gadot, Israeli journalist and politician (d. 2012)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34632, 26121309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1941 Ajit Wadekar, Indian cricketer, coach, and manager (d. 2018)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1853322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1942 Samuel R. 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Wolff, American economist and academic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6788558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1943 Dafydd Wigley, Welsh academic and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34630, 523511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1946 Nikitas Kaklamanis, Greek academic and politician, Greek Minister of Health and Social Security", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34631, 7320335, 4025427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 57, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1946 Ronnie Lane, English bass player, songwriter, and producer (d. 1997)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 188533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1946 Arrigo Sacchi, Italian footballer, coach, and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3319700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1947 Alain Connes, French mathematician and academic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34584, 340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1948 Javier Irureta, Spanish footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4198784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1948 Peter Law, Welsh politician and independent Member of Parliament (d. 2006)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1848019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1949 Gérard Mestrallet, French businessman", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34604, 2476425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1949 Paul Manafort, American lobbyist, political consultant, and convicted felon", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18306417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1949 Sammy Nelson, Northern Irish footballer and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2612560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1949 Gil Scott-Heron, American singer-songwriter and author (d. 2011)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 176479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1950 Samuel Alito, American lawyer and jurist, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283873, 1199173, 3004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 48, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1950 Loris Kessel, Swiss racing driver (d. 2010)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1235046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1950 Daniel Paillé, Canadian academic and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 25026199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1951 John Abizaid, American general", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34602, 199558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1952 Annette O'Toole, American actress ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34575, 319325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1952 Bernard Stiegler, French philosopher and academic (d. 2020)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7012397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1953 Barry Sonnenfeld, American cinematographer, director, and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34865, 289984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1953 Alberto Zaccheroni, Italian footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3072399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1954 Jeff Porcaro, American drummer, songwriter, and producer (d. 1992)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34982, 1180946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1955 Don Hasselbeck, American football player and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34851, 3896127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1955 Humayun Akhtar Khan, Pakistani politician, 5th Commerce Minister of Pakistan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2347252, 17179743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ], [ 57, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1957 David Gower, English cricketer and sportscaster ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34606, 151395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1957 Denise Nickerson, American actress (d. 2019)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2272570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1958 D. Boon, American singer and musician (d. 1985)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34953, 240999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1959 Helmuth Duckadam, Romanian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34662, 3009080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1961 Susan Boyle, Scottish singer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34659, 22378444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1961 Sergio Scariolo, Italian professional basketball head coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22219808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1961 Mark White, English singer-songwriter and guitarist ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15361302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1962 Mark Shulman, American author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 451789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1962 Chris Grayling, English journalist and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34717, 427337, 226197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 57, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1962 Samboy Lim, Filipino basketball player and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3062749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1962 Phillip Schofield, English television host", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1140024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1963 Teodoro de Villa Diaz, Filipino guitarist and songwriter (d. 1988)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34648, 7978288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1963 Aprille Ericsson-Jackson, American aerospace 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"target_page_ids": [ 34750, 1847014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1965 Mark Jackson, American basketball player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3026950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1966 Chris Evans, English radio and television host", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34691, 271829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1966 Mehmet Özdilek, Turkish footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5107439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1967 Nicola Roxon, Australian lawyer and politician, 34th Attorney-General for Australia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34749, 33159211, 595522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 59, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1968 Mike Baird, Australian politician, 44th Premier of New South Wales", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34655, 10383399, 24654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 46, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 Andreas Schnaas, German actor and director", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2200344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 Alexander Stubb, Finnish academic and politician, 43rd Prime Minister of Finland", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1767274, 231789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ], [ 65, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1969 Lev Lobodin, Ukrainian-Russian decathlete", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34610, 2776386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1969 Andrew Vlahov, Australian basketball player ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3665672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1969 Dean Windass, English footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5314986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1970 Brad Meltzer, American author, screenwriter, and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34726, 1798135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1971 Sonia Bisset, Cuban javelin thrower", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34748, 3026984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1971 Shinji Nakano, Japanese racing driver", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1226567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1972 Darren McCarty, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34671, 2442433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Jesse Tobias, American guitarist and songwriter ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", 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"anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1975 Magdalena Maleeva, Bulgarian tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1111175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976 Hazem El Masri, Lebanese-Australian rugby league player and educator", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34661, 2076930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 David Gilliland, American race car driver", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5607116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 David Oyelowo, English actor ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 991202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Clarence Seedorf, Dutch-Brazilian footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 616584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Yuka Yoshida, Japanese tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 24435642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1977 Vitor Belfort, Brazilian-American boxer and mixed martial artist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34549, 1111874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1977 Haimar Zubeldia, Spanish cyclist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6040799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1978 Antonio de Nigris, Mexican footballer (d. 2009)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34753, 5027877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Mirka Federer, Slovak-Swiss tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2663963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Anamaria Marinca, Romanian-English actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5772532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Etan Thomas, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2440807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 Ruth Beitia, Spanish high jumper", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 4589872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 Dennis Kruppke, German footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 7097205 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 Randy Orton, American wrestler ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 665823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 Bijou Phillips, American actress and model", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1173384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 Antonis Fotsis, Greek basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 5492766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Bjørn Einar Romøren, Norwegian ski jumper", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3138191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1982 Taran Killam, American actor, voice artist, comedian, and writer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34756, 4789438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1982 Andreas Thorkildsen, Norwegian javelin thrower", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 977412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1983 Ólafur Ingi Skúlason, Icelandic footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34755, 1310967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Sean Taylor, American football player (d. 2007)", "section_idx": 2, 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23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Ding Junhui, Chinese professional snooker player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34760, 457688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Gianluca Musacci, Italian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14023514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Oliver Turvey, English racing driver", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10129832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 Brook Lopez, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34670, 9802817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Robin Lopez, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 14611981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Jan Blokhuijsen, Dutch speed skater", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 25511427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 David N'Gog, French footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 26315939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Christian Vietoris, German racing driver", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10705060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 Julia Fischer, German discus thrower", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 36401492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Deng Linlin, Chinese gymnast", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 18694663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 Logan Paul, American Youtuber and actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34658, 50654292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1997 Álex Palou, Spanish racing driver", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34601, 45477779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 996 John XV, pope of the Catholic Church", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40025, 363836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1085 Shen Zong, Chinese emperor (b. 1048)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 42466, 442871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1132 Hugh of Châteauneuf, French bishop (b. 1053)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40072, 10935180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1204 Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen of France and England (b. 1122)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34986, 9962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1205 Amalric II, king of Cyprus and Jerusalem", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36372, 1872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1282 Abaqa Khan, ruler of the Mongol Ilkhanate (b. 1234)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34723, 975842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1431 Nuno Álvares Pereira, Portuguese general (b. 1360)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36127, 144014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1441 Blanche I, queen of Navarre and Sicily (b. 1387)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39925, 5611312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1455 Zbigniew Oleśnicki, Polish cardinal and statesman (b. 1389)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39508, 2041677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1528 Francisco de Peñalosa, Spanish composer (b. 1470)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36227, 1232199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1548 Sigismund I, king of Poland (b. 1467)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38672, 42583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1580 Alonso Mudarra, Spanish guitarist and composer (b. 1510)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38597, 1642412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1601 Françoise d'Orléans-Longueville, French princess (b. 1549)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35080, 18493149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1621 Cristofano Allori, Italian painter and educator (b. 1577)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35110, 446762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1682 Franz Egon of Fürstenberg, Bavarian bishop (b. 1625)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38652, 838380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1787 Floyer Sydenham, English scholar and academic (b. 1710)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34634, 2810825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1839 Benjamin Pierce, American soldier and politician, 11th Governor of New Hampshire (b. 1757)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34903, 1429051, 253081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 61, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1865 Antonios Kriezis, Greek Navy officer and Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1796) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38275275, 1989170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1865 Giuditta Pasta, Italian soprano (b. 1797)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 531849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1872 Frederick Denison Maurice, English theologian and academic (b. 1805)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34768, 206518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1878 John C.W. Daly, English-Canadian soldier and politician (b. 1796)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34938, 2086166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1890 David Wilber, American politician (b. 1820)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34707, 10410234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1890 Alexander Mozhaysky, Russian soldier, pilot, and engineer (b. 1825)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1326133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1914 Rube Waddell, American baseball player (b. 1876)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19283920, 639356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1914 Charles Wells, English founder of Charles Wells Ltd (b. 1842)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 45537613, 2327951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 44, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1917 Scott Joplin, American pianist and composer (b. 1868)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34595, 29603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1920 Walter Simon, German banker and philanthropist (b. 1857)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34676, 37976370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1922 Charles I, emperor of Austria (b. 1887)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34866, 153477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1924 Jacob Bolotin, American physician (b. 1888)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34675, 41969842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1924 Lloyd Hildebrand, English cyclist (b. 1870)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34675, 7126235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1924 Stan Rowley, Australian sprinter (b. 1876)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3651530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1946 Noah Beery, Sr., American actor (b. 1882)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34631, 1728592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1947 George II, king of Greece (b. 1890)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34584, 160203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1950 Charles R. Drew, American physician and surgeon (b. 1904)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19283873, 181532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1950 Recep Peker, Turkish soldier and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Turkey (b. 1889)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22808762, 649557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ], [ 59, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1962 Jussi Kekkonen, Finnish captain and businessman (b. 1910)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34717, 28978138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1965 Helena Rubinstein, Polish-American businesswoman (b. 1870)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34750, 747450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1966 Brian O'Nolan, Irish author (b. 1911)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34691, 371150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1968 Lev Landau, Azerbaijani-Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1908)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34655, 80322, 52497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 62, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1971 Kathleen Lonsdale, Irish crystallographer and prison reformer (b. 1903)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34748, 1253911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976 Max Ernst, German painter and sculptor (b. 1891)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34661, 42649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 Eua Sunthornsanan, Thai singer-songwriter and bandleader (b. 1910)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 8440769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 Marvin Gaye, American singer-songwriter (b. 1939)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34578, 147995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1984 Elizabeth Goudge, English author (b. 1900)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 616754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Erik Bruhn, Danish actor, director, and choreographer (b. 1928)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 534599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1986 Edwin Boston, English clergyman, author, and railway preservationist", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 16892956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Henri Cochet, French tennis player (b. 1901)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34760, 775552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Martha Graham, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1894)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 428563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Jaime Guzmán, Chilean lawyer and politician (b. 1946)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 5274590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Michael Havers, Baron Havers, English lawyer and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 325750, 226197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 34 ], [ 67, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1993 Alan Kulwicki, American race car driver (b. 1954)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34598, 1058620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Robert Doisneau, French photographer (b. 1912)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 1251136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 H. Adams Carter, American mountaineer, journalist, and educator (b. 1914)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34658, 7387429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1995 Francisco Moncion, Dominican American ballet dancer, choreographer, charter member of the New York City Ballet (b. 1918)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 55902969, 440878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 100, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1995 Lucie Rie, Austrian-English potter (b. 1902)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3400074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1997 Makar Honcharenko, Ukrainian footballer and manager (b. 1912)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34601, 36814851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 Rozz Williams, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1963)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34647, 422678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1999 Jesse Stone, American pianist, songwriter, and producer (b. 1901)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34553, 3815248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2001 Trịnh Công Sơn, Vietnamese guitarist and composer (b. 1939)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34551, 2456537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2002 Simo Häyhä, Finnish soldier and sniper (b. 1905)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35502, 410610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2003 Leslie Cheung, Hong Kong singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1956)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36163, 204766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2004 Ioannis Kyrastas, Greek footballer and manager (b. 1952)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35524, 7291082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2004 Carrie Snodgress, American actress (b. 1945)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 217821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2005 Paul Bomani, Tanzanian politician and diplomat, 1st Tanzanian Minister of Finance (b 1925)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35984, 12586228, 40889751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 58, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2005 Robert Coldwell Wood, American political scientist and academic (b. 1923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 750151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2006 In Tam, Cambodian general and politician, 26th Prime Minister of Cambodia (b. 1916)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36164, 4640080, 3971840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 12 ], [ 53, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2010 John Forsythe, American actor (b. 1918)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 43226, 355825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2010 Tzannis Tzannetakis, Greek soldier and politician, 175th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1927)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 474600, 273647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ], [ 67, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 Lionel Bowen, Australian soldier, lawyer, and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47374, 579164, 577759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 64, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Giorgio Chinaglia, Italian-American soccer player and radio host (b. 1947)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1955950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Miguel de la Madrid, Mexican banker, academic, and politician, 52nd President of Mexico (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 323556, 24356889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ], [ 78, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2013 Moses Blah, Liberian general and politician, 23rd President of Liberia (b. 1947)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 46945, 294442, 277809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 56, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Karen Muir, South African swimmer and physician (b. 1952)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 22831749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2014 King Fleming, American pianist and bandleader (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 48630, 23823389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Jacques Le Goff, French historian and author (b. 1924)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1061478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Rolf Rendtorff, German theologian and academic (b. 1925)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 12083865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2015 Nicolae Rainea, Romanian footballer and referee (b. 1933)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49708, 9440431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2017 Lonnie Brooks, American blues singer and guitarist (b. 1933)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51389, 2682586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2017 Yevgeny Yevtushenko, Soviet and Russian poet and writer (b. 1932)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 531887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2018 Steven Bochco, American television writer and producer (b. 1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51390, 187794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2019 Vonda N. McIntyre, American science fiction author (b. 1948)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51391, 1479283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christian feast day:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 180283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cellach of Armagh", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 6391891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hugh of Grenoble", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 10935180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick Denison Maurice (Episcopal Church (USA))", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 206518, 19280748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 27, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mary of Egypt", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1313306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Melito of Sardis", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 249713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nuno Álvares Pereira", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 144014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tewdrig", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 4034011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Theodora", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 22993723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Walric, abbot of Leuconay", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 4647228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "April 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1644565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Iranian Islamic Republic Day (Iran) falls on this day if the Vernal Equinox falls on March 21.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 46287119, 14653, 1730537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ], [ 30, 34 ], [ 61, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Veneralia was held on April 1 during Ancient Rome; however, this date does not lock into the modern Gregorian calendar.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 569832, 521555, 23306251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 37, 49 ], [ 100, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "April Fools' Day", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 11125478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Odisha Day (Odisha, India)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 26481955, 250724, 14533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 12, 18 ], [ 20, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arbor Day (Tanzania)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2017, 30118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 11, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Civil Service Day (Thailand)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 494455, 30128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 19, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cyprus National Day (Cyprus) ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 873491, 5593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 21, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edible Book Day", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 26601666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fossil Fools Day", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 16153364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kha b-Nisan, the Assyrian New Year (Assyrian people)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 21685314, 266350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 36, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " BBC: On This Day", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Historical Events on April 1", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Today in Canadian History", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Days_of_the_year", "April" ]

[ "1 April", "April 1st", "1st of April", "Apr 1" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In mathematics, a binary relation on a set is antisymmetric if there is no pair of distinct elements of each of which is related by to the other. More formally, is antisymmetric precisely if for all ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18831, 3931, 26691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 18, 33 ], [ 40, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "or equivalently,", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The definition of antisymmetry says nothing about whether actually holds or not for any . An antisymmetric relation on a set may be reflexive (that is, for all ), irreflexive (that is, for no ), or neither reflexive nor irreflexive. A relation is asymmetric if and only if it is both antisymmetric and irreflexive.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 200458, 200458, 1229368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 144 ], [ 167, 178 ], [ 252, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The divisibility relation on the natural numbers is an important example of an antisymmetric relation. In this context, antisymmetry means that the only way each of two numbers can be divisible by the other is if the two are, in fact, the same number; equivalently, if and are distinct and is a factor of then cannot be a factor of For example, 12 is divisible by 4, but 4 is not divisible by 12.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 49492, 21474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 33, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The usual order relation on the real numbers is antisymmetric: if for two real numbers and both inequalities and hold then and must be equal. Similarly, the subset order on the subsets of any given set is antisymmetric: given two sets and if every element in also is in and every element in is also in then and must contain all the same elements and therefore be equal:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 361924, 20646438, 89489, 27631, 682629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 33, 44 ], [ 99, 111 ], [ 165, 177 ], [ 259, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A real-life example of a relation that is typically antisymmetric is \"paid the restaurant bill of\" (understood as restricted to a given occasion). Typically some people pay their own bills, while others pay for their spouses or friends. As long as no two people pay each other's bills, the relation is antisymmetric.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Partial and total orders are antisymmetric by definition. A relation can be both symmetric and antisymmetric (in this case, it must be coreflexive), and there are relations which are neither symmetric nor antisymmetric (for example, the \"preys on\" relation on biological species).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 23572, 30330, 200459, 200458, 21780446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 12, 23 ], [ 81, 90 ], [ 135, 146 ], [ 271, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antisymmetry is different from asymmetry: a relation is asymmetric if and only if it is antisymmetric and irreflexive.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Properties", "target_page_ids": [ 1229368, 200458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 40 ], [ 106, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " nLab antisymmetric relation", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Binary_relations" ]

[ "antisymmetric property", "anti-symmetric property", "anti-symmetric relation" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Aleister Crowley (; born Edward Alexander Crowley; 12 October 1875 – 1 December 1947) was an English occultist, ceremonial magician, poet, painter, novelist, and mountaineer. He founded the religion of Thelema, identifying himself as the prophet entrusted with guiding humanity into the Æon of Horus in the early 20th century. A prolific writer, he published widely over the course of his life.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22487, 211676, 25353172, 18622193, 37397201, 20341, 30356, 24805, 4775145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 110 ], [ 112, 128 ], [ 133, 137 ], [ 139, 146 ], [ 148, 156 ], [ 162, 173 ], [ 202, 209 ], [ 238, 245 ], [ 287, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born to a wealthy family in Royal Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, Crowley rejected his parents' fundamentalist Christian Plymouth Brethren faith to pursue an interest in Western esotericism. He was educated at Trinity College at the University of Cambridge, where he focused his attentions on mountaineering and poetry, resulting in several publications. Some biographers allege that here he was recruited into a British intelligence agency, further suggesting that he remained a spy throughout his life. In 1898, he joined the esoteric Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, where he was trained in ceremonial magic by Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers and Allan Bennett. He went mountaineering in Mexico with Oscar Eckenstein, before studying Hindu and Buddhist practices in India. In 1904 he married Rose Edith Kelly and they honeymooned in Cairo, Egypt, where Crowley claimed to have been contacted by a supernatural entity named Aiwass, who provided him with The Book of the Law, a sacred text that served as the basis for Thelema. Announcing the start of the Æon of Horus, The Book declared that its followers should \"Do what thou wilt\" and seek to align themselves with their True Will through the practice of magick.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 184281, 383648, 72767, 252299, 495185, 31803, 25978572, 42139371, 13787, 494262, 707688, 3309265, 13677, 3267529, 30864346, 6293, 4750124, 30736, 1696901, 211676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 48 ], [ 50, 62 ], [ 94, 118 ], [ 119, 136 ], [ 168, 187 ], [ 208, 223 ], [ 231, 254 ], [ 411, 438 ], [ 535, 568 ], [ 614, 646 ], [ 651, 664 ], [ 704, 720 ], [ 738, 743 ], [ 748, 756 ], [ 796, 812 ], [ 837, 842 ], [ 927, 933 ], [ 957, 976 ], [ 1176, 1185 ], [ 1210, 1216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the unsuccessful 1905 Kanchenjunga expedition and a visit to India and China, Crowley returned to Britain, where he attracted attention as a prolific author of poetry, novels, and occult literature. In 1907, he and George Cecil Jones co-founded an esoteric order, the A∴A∴, through which they propagated Thelema. After spending time in Algeria, in 1912 he was initiated into another esoteric order, the German-based Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.), rising to become the leader of its British branch, which he reformulated in accordance with his Thelemite beliefs. Through the O.T.O., Thelemite groups were established in Britain, Australia, and North America. Crowley spent the First World War in the United States, where he took up painting and campaigned for the German war effort against Britain, later revealing that he had infiltrated the pro-German movement to assist the British intelligence services. In 1920, he established the Abbey of Thelema, a religious commune in Cefalù, Sicily where he lived with various followers. His libertine lifestyle led to denunciations in the British press, and the Italian government evicted him in 1923. He divided the following two decades between France, Germany, and England, and continued to promote Thelema until his death.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1780220, 8741064, 695578, 155528, 4764461, 1789994, 19556033, 600366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 51 ], [ 221, 239 ], [ 274, 278 ], [ 422, 442 ], [ 682, 697 ], [ 941, 957 ], [ 982, 988 ], [ 1040, 1049 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley gained widespread notoriety during his lifetime, being a recreational drug user, bisexual, and an individualist social critic. Crowley has remained a highly influential figure over Western esotericism and the counterculture of the 1960s, and continues to be considered a prophet in Thelema. He is the subject of various biographies and academic studies.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25949, 21378368, 2744606, 8544676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 86 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 120, 133 ], [ 217, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley was born Edward Alexander Crowley at 30 Clarendon Square in Royal Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, on 12 October 1875. His father, Edward Crowley (1829–1887), was trained as an engineer, but his share in a lucrative family brewing business, Crowley's Alton Ales, had allowed him to retire before his son was born. His mother, Emily Bertha Bishop (1848–1917), came from a Devonshire-Somerset family and had a strained relationship with her son; she described him as \"the Beast\", a name that he revelled in. The couple had been married at London's Kensington Registry Office in November 1874, and were evangelical Christians. Crowley's father had been born a Quaker, but had converted to the Exclusive Brethren, a faction of a Christian fundamentalist group known as the Plymouth Brethren; Emily likewise converted upon marriage. Crowley's father was particularly devout, spending his time as a travelling preacher for the sect and reading a chapter from the Bible to his wife and son after breakfast every day. Following the death of their baby daughter in 1880, in 1881 the Crowleys moved to Redhill, Surrey. At the age of 8, Crowley was sent to H.T. Habershon's evangelical Christian boarding school in Hastings, and then to Ebor preparatory school in Cambridge, run by the Reverend Henry d'Arcy Champney, whom Crowley considered a sadist.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 184281, 50610768, 4812151, 902272, 72767, 252299, 349436, 13830, 36995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 88 ], [ 551, 577 ], [ 662, 668 ], [ 695, 713 ], [ 730, 754 ], [ 774, 791 ], [ 1097, 1104 ], [ 1209, 1217 ], [ 1258, 1267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 1887, when Crowley was 11, his father died of tongue cancer. Crowley described this as a turning point in his life, and he always maintained an admiration of his father, describing him as \"my hero and my friend\". Inheriting a third of his father's wealth, he began misbehaving at school and was harshly punished by Champney; Crowley's family removed him from the school when he developed albuminuria. He then attended Malvern College and Tonbridge School, both of which he despised and left after a few terms. He became increasingly sceptical regarding Christianity, pointing out inconsistencies in the Bible to his religious teachers, and went against the Christian morality of his upbringing by smoking, masturbating, and having sex with prostitutes from whom he contracted gonorrhea. Sent to live with a Brethren tutor in Eastbourne, he undertook chemistry courses at Eastbourne College. Crowley developed interests in chess, poetry, and mountain climbing, and in 1894 climbed Beachy Head before visiting the Alps and joining the Scottish Mountaineering Club. The following year he returned to the Bernese Alps, climbing the Eiger, Trift, Jungfrau, Mönch, and Wetterhorn.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 414186, 59553, 375065, 590326, 3321944, 18006737, 18729001, 3937863, 5134, 20341, 181625, 981, 1085774, 55210, 400251, 19512099, 275568, 648530, 334461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 68 ], [ 397, 408 ], [ 427, 442 ], [ 447, 463 ], [ 589, 617 ], [ 785, 794 ], [ 834, 844 ], [ 880, 898 ], [ 931, 936 ], [ 950, 967 ], [ 989, 1000 ], [ 1021, 1025 ], [ 1042, 1070 ], [ 1110, 1122 ], [ 1137, 1142 ], [ 1144, 1149 ], [ 1151, 1159 ], [ 1161, 1166 ], [ 1172, 1182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having adopted the name of Aleister over Edward, in October 1895 Crowley began a three-year course at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was entered for the Moral Science Tripos studying philosophy. With approval from his personal tutor, he changed to English literature, which was not then part of the curriculum offered. Crowley spent much of his time at university engaged in his pastimes, becoming president of the chess club and practising the game for two hours a day; he briefly considered a professional career as a chess player. Crowley also embraced his love of literature and poetry, particularly the works of Richard Francis Burton and Percy Bysshe Shelley. Many of his own poems appeared in student publications such as The Granta, Cambridge Magazine, and Cantab. He continued his mountaineering, going on holiday to the Alps to climb every year from 1894 to 1898, often with his friend Oscar Eckenstein, and in 1897 he made the first ascent of the Mönch without a guide. These feats led to his recognition in the Alpine mountaineering community.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 31803, 7703977, 83025, 66655, 20502020, 297139, 3309265, 648530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 128 ], [ 159, 172 ], [ 173, 179 ], [ 623, 645 ], [ 650, 670 ], [ 735, 745 ], [ 902, 918 ], [ 964, 969 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley had his first significant mystical experience while on holiday in Stockholm in December 1896. Several biographers, including Lawrence Sutin, Richard Kaczynski, and Tobias Churton, believed that this was the result of Crowley's first same-sex sexual experience, which enabled him to recognize his bisexuality. At Cambridge, Crowley maintained a vigorous sex life with women—largely with female prostitutes, from one of whom he caught syphilis—but eventually he took part in same-sex activities, despite their illegality. In October 1897, Crowley met Herbert Charles Pollitt, president of the Cambridge University Footlights Dramatic Club, and the two entered into a relationship. They broke apart because Pollitt did not share Crowley's increasing interest in Western esotericism, a break-up that Crowley would regret for many years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 1468653, 24811103, 6933540, 32805439, 21378368, 28852, 2722912, 54569064, 225650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 53 ], [ 133, 147 ], [ 149, 166 ], [ 172, 186 ], [ 304, 315 ], [ 441, 449 ], [ 510, 526 ], [ 557, 580 ], [ 599, 644 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1897, Crowley travelled to Saint Petersburg in Russia, later saying that he was trying to learn Russian as he was considering a future diplomatic career there. In October 1897, a brief illness triggered considerations of mortality and \"the futility of all human endeavour\", and Crowley abandoned all thoughts of a diplomatic career in favour of pursuing an interest in the occult. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 24320051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 1898, he obtained A.E. Waite's The Book of Black Magic and of Pacts, and then Karl von Eckartshausen's The Cloud Upon the Sanctuary, furthering his occult interests. That same year, Crowley privately published 100 copies of his poem Aceldama: A Place to Bury Strangers In, but it was not a particular success. Aceldama was issued by Leonard Smithers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 61396, 5570894, 19548935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 37 ], [ 87, 109 ], [ 342, 358 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "That same year, Crowley published a string of other poems, including White Stains, a Decadent collection of erotic poetry that was printed abroad lest its publication be prohibited by the British authorities. In July 1898, he left Cambridge, not having taken any degree at all despite a \"first class\" showing in his 1897 exams and consistent \"second class honours\" results before that.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 15132266, 5678514, 460615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 81 ], [ 85, 93 ], [ 287, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 1898, Crowley was in Zermatt, Switzerland, where he met the chemist Julian L. Baker, and the two began discussing their common interest in alchemy. Back in London, Baker introduced Crowley to George Cecil Jones, Baker's brother-in-law and a fellow member of the occult society known as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, which had been founded in 1888. Crowley was initiated into the Outer Order of the Golden Dawn on 18 November 1898 by the group's leader, Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers. The ceremony took place in the Golden Dawn's Isis-Urania Temple held at London's Mark Masons Hall, where Crowley took the magical motto and name \"Frater Perdurabo\", which he interpreted as \"I shall endure to the end\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 414036, 573, 8741064, 13787, 494262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 38 ], [ 149, 156 ], [ 202, 220 ], [ 300, 333 ], [ 472, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley moved into his own luxury flat at 67–69 Chancery Lane and soon invited a senior Golden Dawn member, Allan Bennett, to live with him as his personal magical tutor. Bennett taught Crowley more about ceremonial magic and the ritual use of drugs, and together they performed the rituals of the Goetia, until Bennett left for South Asia to study Buddhism. In November 1899, Crowley purchased Boleskine House in Foyers on the shore of Loch Ness in Scotland. He developed a love of Scottish culture, describing himself as the \"Laird of Boleskine\", and took to wearing traditional highland dress, even during visits to London. He continued writing poetry, publishing Jezebel and Other Tragic Poems, Tales of Archais, Songs of the Spirit, Appeal to the American Republic, and Jephthah in 1898–99; most gained mixed reviews from literary critics, although Jephthah was considered a particular critical success.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 15179980, 707688, 254791, 3267529, 4983309, 19746361, 20556836, 2238065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 61 ], [ 108, 121 ], [ 298, 304 ], [ 349, 357 ], [ 395, 410 ], [ 414, 420 ], [ 437, 446 ], [ 528, 533 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley soon progressed through the lower grades of the Golden Dawn, and was ready to enter the group's inner Second Order. He was unpopular in the group; his bisexuality and libertine lifestyle had gained him a bad reputation, and he had developed feuds with some of the members, including W. B. Yeats. When the Golden Dawn's London lodge refused to initiate Crowley into the Second Order, he visited Mathers in Paris, who personally admitted him into the Adeptus Minor Grade. A schism had developed between Mathers and the London members of the Golden Dawn, who were unhappy with his autocratic rule. Acting under Mathers' orders, Crowley—with the help of his mistress and fellow initiate Elaine Simpson—attempted to seize the Vault of the Adepts, a temple space at 36 Blythe Road in West Kensington, from the London lodge members. When the case was taken to court, the judge ruled in favour of the London lodge, as they had paid for the space's rent, leaving both Crowley and Mathers isolated from the group.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 600366, 33684, 3056876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 184 ], [ 291, 302 ], [ 786, 801 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1900, Crowley travelled to Mexico via the United States, settling in Mexico City and starting a relationship with a local woman. Developing a love of the country, he continued experimenting with ceremonial magic, working with John Dee's Enochian invocations. He later claimed to have been initiated into Freemasonry while there, and he wrote a play based on Richard Wagner's Tannhäuser as well as a series of poems, published as Oracles (1905). Eckenstein joined him later in 1900, and together they climbed several mountains, including Iztaccihuatl, Popocatepetl, and Colima, the latter of which they had to abandon owing to a volcanic eruption. Leaving Mexico, Crowley headed to San Francisco before sailing for Hawaii aboard the Nippon Maru. On the ship, he had a brief affair with a married woman named Mary Alice Rogers; saying he had fallen in love with her, he wrote a series of poems about the romance, published as Alice: An Adultery (1903).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 18987, 8457942, 70875, 11227, 25452, 2223496, 90306, 90307, 493636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 83 ], [ 229, 237 ], [ 240, 248 ], [ 307, 318 ], [ 361, 375 ], [ 378, 388 ], [ 540, 552 ], [ 554, 566 ], [ 572, 578 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Briefly stopping in Japan and Hong Kong, Crowley reached Ceylon, where he met with Allan Bennett, who was there studying Shaivism. The pair spent some time in Kandy before Bennett decided to become a Buddhist monk in the Theravada tradition, travelling to Burma to do so. Crowley decided to tour India, devoting himself to the Hindu practice of Rāja yoga, from which he claimed to have achieved the spiritual state of dhyana. He spent much of this time studying at the Meenakshi Temple in Madura. At this time he also wrote poetry which was published as The Sword of Song (1904). He contracted malaria, and had to recuperate from the disease in Calcutta and Rangoon. In 1902, he was joined in India by Eckenstein and several other mountaineers: Guy Knowles, H. Pfannl, V. Wesseley, and Jules Jacot-Guillarmod. Together, the Eckenstein-Crowley expedition attempted K2, which had never been climbed. On the journey, Crowley was afflicted with influenza, malaria, and snow blindness, and other expedition members were also struck with illness. They reached an altitude of before turning back.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 273817, 305460, 30994, 628346, 4966357, 7846416, 186095, 20423, 37377990, 17359, 19572217, 240096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 129 ], [ 159, 164 ], [ 221, 230 ], [ 345, 354 ], [ 418, 424 ], [ 469, 485 ], [ 489, 495 ], [ 594, 601 ], [ 786, 808 ], [ 864, 866 ], [ 941, 950 ], [ 965, 979 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having arrived in Paris in November 1902, he socialized with his friend the painter Gerald Kelly, and through him became a fixture of the Parisian arts scene. Whilst there, Crowley wrote a series of poems on the work of an acquaintance, the sculptor Auguste Rodin. These poems were later published as Rodin in Rime (1907). One of those frequenting this milieu was W. Somerset Maugham, who after briefly meeting Crowley later used him as a model for the character of Oliver Haddo in his novel The Magician (1908). He returned to Boleskine in April 1903. In August, Crowley wed Gerald Kelly's sister Rose Edith Kelly in a \"marriage of convenience\" to prevent her from entering an arranged marriage; the marriage appalled the Kelly family and damaged his friendship with Gerald. Heading on a honeymoon to Paris, Cairo, and then Ceylon, Crowley fell in love with Rose and worked to prove his affections. While on his honeymoon, he wrote her a series of love poems, published as Rosa Mundi and other Love Songs (1906), as well as authoring the religious satire Why Jesus Wept (1904).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 11988495, 2065, 33187, 1177458, 1177458, 30864346, 26503411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 96 ], [ 250, 263 ], [ 364, 383 ], [ 466, 478 ], [ 492, 504 ], [ 598, 614 ], [ 678, 695 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 1904, Crowley and Rose arrived in Cairo. Claiming to be a prince and princess, they rented an apartment in which Crowley set up a temple room and began invoking ancient Egyptian deities, while studying Islamic mysticism and Arabic. According to Crowley's later account, Rose regularly became delirious and informed him \"they are waiting for you.\" On 18 March, she explained that \"they\" were the god Horus, and on 20 March proclaimed that \"the Equinox of the Gods has come\". She led him to a nearby museum, where she showed him a seventh-century BCE mortuary stele known as the Stele of Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu; Crowley thought it important that the exhibit's number was 666, the Number of the Beast in Christian belief, and in later years termed the artefact the \"Stele of Revealing.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 6293, 6037917, 29174999, 803, 49448, 760571, 2843936, 9086178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 51 ], [ 214, 219 ], [ 222, 231 ], [ 236, 242 ], [ 411, 416 ], [ 570, 575 ], [ 589, 615 ], [ 685, 704 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Crowley's later statements, on 8 April he heard a disembodied voice claiming to be that of Aiwass, the messenger of Horus, or Hoor-Paar-Kraat. Crowley said that he wrote down everything the voice told him over the course of the next three days, and titled it Liber AL vel Legis or The Book of the Law. The book proclaimed that humanity was entering a new Aeon, and that Crowley would serve as its prophet. It stated that a supreme moral law was to be introduced in this Aeon, \"Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law,\" and that people should learn to live in tune with their Will. This book, and the philosophy that it espoused, became the cornerstone of Crowley's religion, Thelema. Crowley said that at the time he had been unsure what to do with The Book of the Law. Often resenting it, he said that he ignored the instructions which the text commanded him to perform, which included taking the Stele of Revealing from the museum, fortifying his own island, and translating the book into all the world's languages. According to his account, he instead sent typescripts of the work to several occultists he knew, putting the manuscript away and ignoring it.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 4750124, 3190054, 30736, 4775145, 24805, 30356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 110 ], [ 139, 154 ], [ 294, 313 ], [ 368, 372 ], [ 410, 417 ], [ 696, 703 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Returning to Boleskine, Crowley came to believe that Mathers had begun using magic against him, and the relationship between the two broke down. On 28 July 1905, Rose gave birth to Crowley's first child, a daughter named Lilith, with Crowley writing the pornographic Snowdrops from a Curate's Garden to entertain his recuperating wife. He also founded a publishing company through which to publish his poetry, naming it the Society for the Propagation of Religious Truth in parody of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Among its first publications were Crowley's Collected Works, edited by Ivor Back, an old friend of Crowley's who was both a practicing surgeon and an enthusiast of literature. His poetry often received strong reviews (either positive or negative), but never sold well. In an attempt to gain more publicity, he issued a reward of £100 for the best essay on his work. The winner of this was J. F. C. Fuller, a British Army officer and military historian, whose essay, The Star in the West (1907), heralded Crowley's poetry as some of the greatest ever written.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 50091756, 1614658, 59925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 267, 299 ], [ 488, 529 ], [ 920, 935 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley decided to climb Kanchenjunga in the Himalayas of Nepal, widely recognized as the world's most treacherous mountain. The collaboration between Jacot-Guillarmod, Charles Adolphe Reymond, Alexis Pache, and Alcesti C. Rigo de Righi, the expedition was marred by much argument between Crowley and the others, who thought that he was reckless. They eventually mutinied against Crowley's control, with the other climbers heading back down the mountain as nightfall approached despite Crowley's warnings that it was too dangerous. Subsequently, Pache and several porters were killed in an accident, something for which Crowley was widely blamed by the mountaineering community.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 17073, 37377990, 1780220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 37 ], [ 151, 167 ], [ 238, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spending time in Moharbhanj, where he took part in big-game hunting and wrote the homoerotic work The Scented Garden, Crowley met up with Rose and Lilith in Calcutta before being forced to leave India after non-lethally shooting two men who tried to mug him. Briefly visiting Bennett in Burma, Crowley and his family decided to tour Southern China, hiring porters and a nanny for the purpose. Crowley smoked opium throughout the journey, which took the family from Tengyueh through to Yungchang, Tali, Yunnanfu, and then Hanoi. On the way, he spent much time on spiritual and magical work, reciting the \"Bornless Ritual\", an invocation to his Holy Guardian Angel, on a daily basis.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 5794220, 6065207, 47905, 19382593, 355283, 197181, 56667, 313663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 27 ], [ 51, 67 ], [ 157, 165 ], [ 465, 473 ], [ 496, 500 ], [ 502, 510 ], [ 521, 526 ], [ 643, 662 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Rose and Lilith returned to Europe, Crowley headed to Shanghai to meet old friend Elaine Simpson, who was fascinated by The Book of the Law; together they performed rituals in an attempt to contact Aiwass. Crowley then sailed to Japan and Canada, before continuing to New York City, where he unsuccessfully solicited support for a second expedition up Kanchenjunga. Upon arrival in Britain, Crowley learned that his daughter Lilith had died of typhoid in Rangoon, something he later blamed on Rose's increasing alcoholism. Under emotional distress, his health began to suffer, and he underwent a series of surgical operations. He began short-lived romances with actress Vera \"Lola\" Neville (née Snepp) and author Ada Leverson, while Rose gave birth to Crowley's second daughter, Lola Zaza, in February 1907.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 31596, 57404, 3176440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 450, 457 ], [ 461, 468 ], [ 719, 731 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With his old mentor George Cecil Jones, Crowley continued performing the Abramelin rituals at the Ashdown Park Hotel in Coulsdon, Surrey. Crowley claimed that in doing so he attained samadhi, or union with Godhead, thereby marking a turning point in his life. Making heavy use of hashish during these rituals, he wrote an essay on \"The Psychology of Hashish\" (1909) in which he championed the drug as an aid to mysticism. He also claimed to have been contacted once again by Aiwass in late October and November 1907, adding that Aiwass dictated two further texts to him, \"Liber VII\" and \"Liber Cordis Cincti Serpente\", both of which were later classified in the corpus of The Holy Books of Thelema. Crowley wrote down more Thelemic Holy Books during the last two months of the year, including \"Liber LXVI\", \"Liber Arcanorum\", \"Liber Porta Lucis, Sub Figura X\", \"Liber Tau\", \"Liber Trigrammaton\" and \"Liber DCCCXIII vel Ararita\", which he again claimed to have received from a preternatural source. Crowley stated that in June 1909, when the manuscript of The Book of the Law was rediscovered at Boleskine, he developed the opinion that Thelema represented objective truth.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 1027043, 93940, 147613, 14415, 186304, 20785947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 90 ], [ 120, 128 ], [ 183, 190 ], [ 280, 287 ], [ 672, 697 ], [ 1156, 1171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley's inheritance was running out. Trying to earn money, he was hired by George Montagu Bennett, the Earl of Tankerville, to help protect him from witchcraft; recognizing Bennett's paranoia as being based in his cocaine addiction, Crowley took him on holiday to France and Morocco to recuperate. In 1907, he also began taking in paying students, whom he instructed in occult and magical practice. Victor Neuburg, whom Crowley met in February 1907, became his sexual partner and closest disciple; in 1908 the pair toured northern Spain before heading to Tangier, Morocco. The following year Neuburg stayed at Boleskine, where he and Crowley engaged in sadomasochism. Crowley continued to write prolifically, producing such works of poetry as Ambergris, Clouds Without Water, and Konx Om Pax, as well as his first attempt at an autobiography, The World's Tragedy. Recognizing the popularity of short horror stories, Crowley wrote his own, some of which were published, and he also published several articles in Vanity Fair, a magazine edited by his friend Frank Harris. He also wrote Liber 777, a book of magical and Qabalistic correspondences that borrowed from Mathers and Bennett.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 446190, 33959, 1036329, 288204, 206365, 26578517, 70176, 198325, 11048391, 1390818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 124 ], [ 151, 161 ], [ 401, 415 ], [ 557, 564 ], [ 655, 668 ], [ 1013, 1024 ], [ 1058, 1070 ], [ 1086, 1095 ], [ 1119, 1129 ], [ 1130, 1145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 1907, Crowley and Jones decided to found an occult order to act as a successor to the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, being aided in doing so by Fuller. The result was the A∴A∴. The group's headquarters and temple were situated at 124 Victoria Street in central London, and their rites borrowed much from those of the Golden Dawn, but with an added Thelemic basis. Its earliest members included solicitor Richard Noel Warren, artist Austin Osman Spare, Horace Sheridan-Bickers, author George Raffalovich, Francis Henry Everard Joseph Feilding, engineer Herbert Edward Inman, Kenneth Ward, and Charles Stansfeld Jones. In March 1909, Crowley began production of a biannual periodical titled The Equinox. He billed this periodical, which was to become the \"Official Organ\" of the A∴A∴, as \"The Review of Scientific Illuminism\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 695578, 208878, 2994862, 1643433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 191 ], [ 448, 466 ], [ 608, 631 ], [ 705, 716 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley had become increasingly frustrated with Rose's alcoholism, and in November 1909 he divorced her on the grounds of his own adultery. Lola was entrusted to Rose's care; the couple remained friends and Rose continued to live at Boleskine. Her alcoholism worsened, and as a result she was institutionalized in September 1911.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In November 1909, Crowley and Neuburg travelled to Algeria, touring the desert from El Arba to Aumale, Bou Saâda, and then Dā'leh Addin, with Crowley reciting the Quran on a daily basis. During the trip he invoked the thirty aethyrs of Enochian magic, with Neuburg recording the results, later published in The Equinox as The Vision and the Voice. Following a mountaintop sex magic ritual, Crowley also performed an evocation to the demon Choronzon involving blood sacrifice, and considered the results to be a watershed in his magical career. Returning to London in January 1910, Crowley found that Mathers was suing him for publishing Golden Dawn secrets in The Equinox; the court found in favour of Crowley. The case was widely reported in the press, with Crowley gaining wider fame. Crowley enjoyed this, and played up to the sensationalist stereotype of being a Satanist and advocate of human sacrifice, despite being neither.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 3227004, 25879742, 4071440, 36922, 285684, 1836322, 696324, 817561, 80329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 91 ], [ 95, 101 ], [ 103, 112 ], [ 163, 168 ], [ 236, 250 ], [ 372, 381 ], [ 416, 425 ], [ 439, 448 ], [ 459, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The publicity attracted new members to the A∴A∴, among them Frank Bennett, James Bayley, Herbert Close, and James Windram. The Australian violinist Leila Waddell soon became Crowley's lover. Deciding to expand his teachings to a wider audience, Crowley developed the Rites of Artemis, a public performance of magic and symbolism featuring A∴A∴ members personifying various deities. It was first performed at the A∴A∴ headquarters, with attendees given a fruit punch containing peyote to enhance their experience. Various members of the press attended, and reported largely positively on it. In October and November 1910, Crowley decided to stage something similar, the Rites of Eleusis, at Caxton Hall, Westminster; this time press reviews were mixed. Crowley came under particular criticism from West de Wend Fenton, editor of The Looking Glass newspaper, who called him \"one of the most blasphemous and cold-blooded villains of modern times\". Fenton's articles suggested that Crowley and Jones were involved in homosexual activity; Crowley did not mind, but Jones unsuccessfully sued for libel. Fuller broke off his friendship and involvement with Crowley over the scandal, and Crowley and Neuburg returned to Algeria for further magical workings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 4934989, 18952953, 5195556, 32526837, 37432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 161 ], [ 477, 483 ], [ 669, 685 ], [ 690, 701 ], [ 703, 714 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Equinox continued publishing, and various books of literature and poetry were also published under its imprint, like Crowley's Ambergris, The Winged Beetle, and The Scented Garden, as well as Neuburg's The Triumph of Pan and Ethel Archer's The Whirlpool. In 1911, Crowley and Waddell holidayed in Montigny-sur-Loing, where he wrote prolifically, producing poems, short stories, plays, and 19 works on magic and mysticism, including the two final Holy Books of Thelema. In Paris, he met Mary Desti, who became his next \"Scarlet Woman\", with the two undertaking magical workings in St. Moritz; Crowley believed that one of the Secret Chiefs, Ab-ul-Diz, was speaking through her. Based on Desti's statements when in trance, Crowley wrote the two-volume Book 4 (1912–13) and at the time developed the spelling \"magick\" in reference to the paranormal phenomenon as a means of distinguishing it from the stage magic of illusionists.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 11100437, 4345455, 305193, 4986168, 4919980, 48489, 25152964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 301, 319 ], [ 522, 537 ], [ 584, 594 ], [ 629, 642 ], [ 754, 760 ], [ 839, 860 ], [ 902, 913 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early 1912, Crowley published The Book of Lies, a work of mysticism that biographer Lawrence Sutin described as \"his greatest success in merging his talents as poet, scholar, and magus\". The German occultist Theodor Reuss later accused him of publishing some of the secrets of his own occult order, the Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.), within The Book. Crowley convinced Reuss that the similarities were coincidental, and the two became friends. Reuss appointed Crowley as head of the O.T.O's British branch, the Mysteria Mystica Maxima (MMM), and at a ceremony in Berlin Crowley adopted the magical name of Baphomet and was proclaimed \"X° Supreme Rex and Sovereign Grand Master General of Ireland, Iona, and all the Britons\". With Reuss' permission, Crowley set about advertising the MMM and re-writing many O.T.O. rituals, which were then based largely on Freemasonry; his incorporation of Thelemite elements proved controversial in the group. Fascinated by the O.T.O's emphasis on sex magic, Crowley devised a magical working based on anal sex and incorporated it into the syllabus for those O.T.O. members who had been initiated into the eleventh degree.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 4925837, 1937335, 155528, 3354, 189692, 11227, 1836322, 155528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 49 ], [ 211, 224 ], [ 306, 326 ], [ 566, 572 ], [ 609, 617 ], [ 859, 870 ], [ 985, 994 ], [ 1143, 1158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 1913, Crowley acted as producer for The Ragged Ragtime Girls, a group of female violinists led by Waddell, as they performed at London's Old Tivoli theatre. They subsequently performed in Moscow for six weeks, where Crowley had a sadomasochistic relationship with the Hungarian Anny Ringler. In Moscow, Crowley continued to write plays and poetry, including \"Hymn to Pan\", and the Gnostic Mass, a Thelemic ritual that became a key part of O.T.O. liturgy. Churton suggested that Crowley had travelled to Moscow on the orders of British intelligence to spy on revolutionary elements in the city. In January 1914, Crowley and Neuburg settled into an apartment in Paris, where the former was involved in the controversy surrounding Jacob Epstein's new monument to Oscar Wilde. Together Crowley and Neuburg performed the six-week \"Paris Working\", a period of intense ritual involving strong drug use in which they invoked the gods Mercury and Jupiter. As part of the ritual, the couple performed acts of sex magic together, at times being joined by journalist Walter Duranty. Inspired by the results of the Working, Crowley wrote Liber Agapé, a treatise on sex magic. Following the Paris Working, Neuburg began to distance himself from Crowley, resulting in an argument in which Crowley cursed him.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 766363, 78881, 4813850, 280998, 22614, 37417, 40255, 623262, 244774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 156 ], [ 376, 379 ], [ 390, 402 ], [ 737, 750 ], [ 769, 780 ], [ 935, 942 ], [ 947, 954 ], [ 1064, 1078 ], [ 1291, 1296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1914, Crowley was living a hand-to-mouth existence, relying largely on donations from A∴A∴ members and dues payments made to O.T.O. In May, he transferred ownership of Boleskine House to the MMM for financial reasons, and in July he went mountaineering in the Swiss Alps. During this time the First World War broke out.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 296, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After recuperating from a bout of phlebitis, Crowley set sail for the United States aboard the RMS Lusitania in October 1914. Arriving in New York City, he moved into a hotel and began earning money writing for the American edition of Vanity Fair and undertaking freelance work for the famed astrologer Evangeline Adams. In the city, he continued experimenting with sex magic, through the use of masturbation, female prostitutes, and male clients of a Turkish bathhouse; all of these encounters were documented in his diaries.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 939814, 436113, 26735382, 1775146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 43 ], [ 95, 108 ], [ 235, 246 ], [ 303, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Professing to be of Irish ancestry and a supporter of Irish independence from Great Britain, Crowley began to espouse support for Germany in their war against Britain. He became involved in New York's pro-German movement, and in January 1915 German spy George Sylvester Viereck employed him as a writer for his propagandist paper, The Fatherland, which was dedicated to keeping the US neutral in the conflict. In later years, detractors denounced Crowley as a traitor to Britain for this action.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 334434, 3099269, 12817898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 72 ], [ 253, 277 ], [ 331, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley entered into a relationship with Jeanne Robert Foster, with whom he toured the West Coast. In Vancouver, headquarters of the North American O.T.O., he met with Charles Stansfeld Jones and Wilfred Talbot Smith to discuss the propagation of Thelema on the continent. In Detroit he experimented with Peyote at Parke-Davis, then visited Seattle, San Francisco, Santa Cruz, Los Angeles, San Diego, Tijuana, and the Grand Canyon, before returning to New York. There he befriended Ananda Coomaraswamy and his wife Alice Richardson; Crowley and Richardson performed sex magic in April 1916, following which she became pregnant and then miscarried. Later that year he took a \"magical retirement\" to a cabin by Lake Pasquaney owned by Evangeline Adams. There, he made heavy use of drugs and undertook a ritual after which he proclaimed himself \"Master Therion\". He also wrote several short stories based on J.G. Frazer's The Golden Bough and a work of literary criticism, The Gospel According to Bernard Shaw.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 3500807, 32706, 2994862, 40888399, 18952953, 1421463, 81726, 101739, 46989, 286067, 2282209, 317349, 90191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 61 ], [ 102, 111 ], [ 168, 191 ], [ 196, 216 ], [ 305, 311 ], [ 315, 326 ], [ 365, 375 ], [ 401, 408 ], [ 418, 430 ], [ 482, 501 ], [ 709, 723 ], [ 905, 916 ], [ 919, 935 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December, he moved to New Orleans, his favourite US city, before spending February 1917 with evangelical Christian relatives in Titusville, Florida. Returning to New York City, he moved in with artist and A∴A∴ member Leon Engers Kennedy in May, learning of his mother's death. After the collapse of The Fatherland, Crowley continued his association with Viereck, who appointed him contributing editor of arts journal The International. Crowley used it to promote Thelema, but it soon ceased publication. He then moved to the studio apartment of Roddie Minor, who became his partner and Scarlet Woman. Through their rituals, which Crowley called \"The Amalantrah Workings\", he believed that they were contacted by a preternatural entity named Lam. The relationship soon ended.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 53842, 109009, 4345455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 36 ], [ 131, 150 ], [ 589, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1918, Crowley went on a magical retreat in the wilderness of Esopus Island on the Hudson River. Here, he began a translation of the Tao Te Ching, painted Thelemic slogans on the riverside cliffs, and—he later claimed—experienced past life memories of being Ge Xuan, Pope Alexander VI, Alessandro Cagliostro, and Eliphas Levi. Back in New York City, he moved to Greenwich Village, where he took Leah Hirsig as his lover and next Scarlet Woman. He took up painting as a hobby, exhibiting his work at the Greenwich Village Liberal Club and attracting the attention of the New York Evening World. With the financial assistance of sympathetic Freemasons, Crowley revived The Equinox with the first issue of volume III, known as The Blue Equinox. He spent mid-1919 on a climbing holiday in Montauk before returning to London in December.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 51717315, 47911, 8574, 25806, 15595259, 23791, 168362, 200401, 13011, 4934909, 593160, 127328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 77 ], [ 85, 97 ], [ 135, 147 ], [ 232, 250 ], [ 260, 267 ], [ 269, 286 ], [ 288, 309 ], [ 315, 327 ], [ 364, 381 ], [ 397, 408 ], [ 572, 594 ], [ 787, 794 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Now destitute and back in London, Crowley came under attack from the tabloid John Bull, which labelled him traitorous \"scum\" for his work with the German war effort; several friends aware of his intelligence work urged him to sue, but he decided not to. When he was suffering from asthma, a doctor prescribed him heroin, to which he soon became addicted. In January 1920, he moved to Paris, renting a house in Fontainebleau with Leah Hirsig; they were soon joined in a ménage à trois by Ninette Shumway, and also (in living arrangement) by Leah's newborn daughter Anne \"Poupée\" Leah. Crowley had ideas of forming a community of Thelemites, which he called the Abbey of Thelema after the Abbaye de Thélème in François Rabelais' satire Gargantua and Pantagruel. After consulting the I Ching, he chose Cefalù (on Sicily, Italy) as a location, and after arriving there, began renting the old Villa Santa Barbara as his Abbey on 2 April.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 9667244, 10923, 4934909, 1789994, 80833, 194708, 26335002, 19556033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 86 ], [ 410, 423 ], [ 429, 440 ], [ 660, 676 ], [ 708, 725 ], [ 734, 758 ], [ 781, 788 ], [ 799, 805 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Moving to the commune with Hirsig, Shumway, and their children Hansi, Howard, and Poupée, Crowley described the scenario as \"perfectly happy ... my idea of heaven.\" They wore robes, and performed rituals to the sun god Ra at set times during the day, also occasionally performing the Gnostic Mass; the rest of the day they were left to follow their own interests. Undertaking widespread correspondences, Crowley continued to paint, wrote a commentary on The Book of the Law, and revised the third part of Book 4. He offered a libertine education for the children, allowing them to play all day and witness acts of sex magic. He occasionally travelled to Palermo to visit rent boys and buy supplies, including drugs; his heroin addiction came to dominate his life, and cocaine began to erode his nasal cavity. There was no cleaning rota, and wild dogs and cats wandered throughout the building, which soon became unsanitary. Poupée died in October 1920, and Ninette gave birth to a daughter, Astarte Lulu Panthea, soon afterwards.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 19230848, 38881, 2447687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 221 ], [ 654, 661 ], [ 671, 680 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "New followers continued to arrive at the Abbey to be taught by Crowley. Among them was film star Jane Wolfe, who arrived in July 1920, where she was initiated into the A∴A∴ and became Crowley's secretary. Another was Cecil Frederick Russell, who often argued with Crowley, disliking the same-sex sexual magic that he was required to perform, and left after a year. More conducive was the Australian Thelemite Frank Bennett, who also spent several months at the Abbey. In February 1922, Crowley returned to Paris for a retreat in an unsuccessful attempt to kick his heroin addiction. He then went to London in search of money, where he published articles in The English Review criticising the Dangerous Drugs Act 1920 and wrote a novel, Diary of a Drug Fiend, completed in July. On publication, it received mixed reviews; he was lambasted by the Sunday Express, which called for its burning and used its influence to prevent further reprints.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 2684662, 24761490, 30982426, 4652940, 362859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 107 ], [ 657, 675 ], [ 692, 716 ], [ 736, 757 ], [ 845, 859 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subsequently, a young Thelemite named Raoul Loveday moved to the Abbey with his wife Betty May; while Loveday was devoted to Crowley, May detested him and life at the commune. She later said that Loveday was made to drink the blood of a sacrificed cat, and that they were required to cut themselves with razors every time they used the pronoun \"I\". Loveday drank from a local polluted stream, soon developing a liver infection resulting in his death in February 1923. Returning to London, May told her story to the press. John Bull proclaimed Crowley \"the wickedest man in the world\" and \"a man we'd like to hang\", and although Crowley deemed many of their accusations against him to be slanderous, he was unable to afford the legal fees to sue them. As a result, John Bull continued its attack, with its stories being repeated in newspapers throughout Europe and in North America. The Fascist government of Benito Mussolini learned of Crowley's activities, and in April 1923 he was given a deportation notice forcing him to leave Italy; without him, the Abbey closed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Developing Thelema", "target_page_ids": [ 43436799, 5142662, 19283178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 94 ], [ 886, 893 ], [ 908, 924 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley and Hirsig went to Tunis, where, dogged by continuing poor health, he unsuccessfully tried again to give up heroin, and began writing what he termed his \"autohagiography\", The Confessions of Aleister Crowley. They were joined in Tunis by the Thelemite Norman Mudd, who became Crowley's public relations consultant. Employing a local boy, Mohammad ben Brahim, as his servant, Crowley went with him on a retreat to Nefta, where they performed sex magic together. In January 1924, Crowley travelled to Nice, France, where he met with Frank Harris, underwent a series of nasal operations, and visited the Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man and had a positive opinion of its founder, George Gurdjieff. Destitute, he took on a wealthy student, Alexander Zu Zolar, before taking on another American follower, Dorothy Olsen. Crowley took Olsen back to Tunisia for a magical retreat in Nefta, where he also wrote To Man (1924), a declaration of his own status as a prophet entrusted with bringing Thelema to humanity. After spending the winter in Paris, in early 1925 Crowley and Olsen returned to Tunis, where he wrote The Heart of the Master (1938) as an account of a vision he experienced in a trance. In March Olsen became pregnant, and Hirsig was called to take care of her; she miscarried, following which Crowley took Olsen back to France. Hirsig later distanced herself from Crowley, who then denounced her.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 57659, 162789, 4919217, 2193361, 47088, 70176, 215350, 159451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 32 ], [ 162, 177 ], [ 180, 215 ], [ 421, 426 ], [ 507, 511 ], [ 539, 551 ], [ 609, 656 ], [ 700, 716 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Crowley, Reuss had named him head of the O.T.O. upon his death, but this was challenged by a leader of the German O.T.O., Heinrich Tränker. Tränker called the Hohenleuben Conference in Thuringia, Germany, which Crowley attended. There, prominent members like Karl Germer and Martha Küntzel championed Crowley's leadership, but other key figures like Albin Grau, Oskar Hopfer, and Henri Birven backed Tränker by opposing it, resulting in a split in the O.T.O. Moving to Paris, where he broke with Olsen in 1926, Crowley went through a large number of lovers over the following years, with whom he experimented in sex magic. Throughout, he was dogged by poor health, largely caused by his heroin and cocaine addictions. In 1928, Crowley was introduced to young Englishman Israel Regardie, who embraced Thelema and became Crowley's secretary for the next three years. That year, Crowley also met Gerald Yorke, who began organising Crowley's finances but never became a Thelemite. He also befriended the homosexual journalist Tom Driberg; Driberg did not accept Thelema either. It was here that Crowley also published one of his most significant works, Magick in Theory and Practice, which received little attention at the time.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 31130, 5026859, 1176599, 259564, 30391878, 3460966, 4919980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 207 ], [ 272, 283 ], [ 363, 373 ], [ 783, 798 ], [ 906, 918 ], [ 1035, 1046 ], [ 1162, 1191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 1928 Crowley met the Nicaraguan Maria Teresa Sanchez. Crowley was deported from France by the authorities, who disliked his reputation and feared that he was a German agent. So that she could join him in Britain, Crowley married Sanchez in August 1929. Now based in London, Mandrake Press agreed to publish his autobiography in a limited edition six-volume set, also publishing his novel Moonchild and book of short stories The Stratagem. Mandrake went into liquidation in November 1930, before the entirety of Crowley's Confessions could be published. Mandrake's owner P.R. Stephenson meanwhile wrote The Legend of Aleister Crowley, an analysis of the media coverage surrounding him.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 3234309, 8784351, 9189612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 400, 409 ], [ 436, 449 ], [ 582, 597 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 1930, Crowley moved to Berlin, where he took Hanni Jaegar as his magical partner; the relationship was troubled. In September he went to Lisbon in Portugal to meet the poet Fernando Pessoa. There, he decided to fake his own death, doing so with Pessoa's help at the Boca do Inferno rock formation. He then returned to Berlin, where he reappeared three weeks later at the opening of his art exhibition at the Gallery Neumann-Nierendorf. Crowley's paintings fitted with the fashion for German Expressionism; few of them sold, but the press reports were largely favourable. In August 1931, he took Bertha Busch as his new lover; they had a violent relationship, and often physically assaulted one another. He continued to have affairs with both men and women while in the city, and met with famous people like Aldous Huxley and Alfred Adler. After befriending him, in January 1932 he took the communist Gerald Hamilton as a lodger, through whom he was introduced to many figures within the Berlin far left; it is possible that he was operating as a spy for British intelligence at this time, monitoring the communist movement.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 3354, 18091, 11431, 6340296, 1046537, 628, 81590, 8681224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 38 ], [ 146, 152 ], [ 182, 197 ], [ 275, 290 ], [ 493, 513 ], [ 816, 829 ], [ 834, 846 ], [ 909, 924 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley left Busch and returned to London, where he took Pearl Brooksmith as his new Scarlet Woman. Undergoing further nasal surgery, it was here in 1932 that he was invited to be guest of honour at Foyles' Literary Luncheon, also being invited by Harry Price to speak at the National Laboratory of Psychical Research. In need of money, he launched a series of court cases against people whom he believed had libelled him, some of which proved successful. He gained much publicity for his lawsuit against Constable and Co for publishing Nina Hamnett's Laughing Torso (1932)—a book he claimed libelled him by referring to his occult practice as black magic—but lost the case. The court case added to Crowley's financial problems, and in February 1935 he was declared bankrupt. During the hearing, it was revealed that Crowley had been spending three times his income for several years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 353798, 851818, 469303, 4125421, 167507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 205 ], [ 248, 259 ], [ 276, 317 ], [ 505, 521 ], [ 537, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley developed a friendship with Deidre Patricia Doherty; she offered to bear his child, who was born in May 1937. Named Randall Gair, Crowley nicknamed him Aleister Atatürk. He died in a car accident in 2002 at the age of 65. Crowley continued to socialize with friends, holding curry parties in which he cooked particularly spicy food for them. In 1936, he published his first book in six years, The Equinox of the Gods, which contained a facsimile of The Book of the Law and was considered to be volume III, number 3, of The Equinox periodical. The work sold well, resulting in a second print run. In 1937, he gave a series of public lectures on yoga in Soho. Crowley was now living largely off contributions supplied by the O.T.O.'s Agape Lodge in California, led by rocket scientist John Whiteside \"Jack\" Parsons. Crowley was intrigued by the rise of Nazism in Germany, and influenced by his friend Martha Küntzel believed that Adolf Hitler might convert to Thelema; when the Nazis abolished the German O.T.O. and imprisoned Germer, who fled to the US, Crowley then lambasted Hitler as a black magician.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 57893548, 54946221, 102915, 2731583, 241617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 59 ], [ 740, 751 ], [ 791, 820 ], [ 936, 948 ], [ 1096, 1107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the Second World War broke out, Crowley wrote to the Naval Intelligence Division offering his services, but they declined. He associated with a variety of figures in Britain's intelligence community at the time, including Dennis Wheatley, Roald Dahl, Ian Fleming, and Maxwell Knight, and claimed to have been behind the \"V for Victory\" sign first used by the BBC; this has never been proven.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 256068, 539058, 55490, 57985, 38775498, 352265, 19344654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ], [ 58, 85 ], [ 227, 242 ], [ 244, 254 ], [ 256, 267 ], [ 273, 287 ], [ 326, 339 ], [ 364, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1940, his asthma worsened, and with his German-produced medication unavailable, he returned to using heroin, once again becoming addicted. As the Blitz hit London, Crowley relocated to Torquay, where he was briefly hospitalized with asthma, and entertained himself with visits to the local chess club. Tiring of Torquay, he returned to London, where he was visited by American Thelemite Grady McMurtry, to whom Crowley awarded the title of \"Hymenaeus Alpha\". He stipulated that though Germer would be his immediate successor, McMurty should succeed Germer as head of the O.T.O. after the latter's death. With O.T.O. initiate Lady Frieda Harris, Crowley developed plans to produce a tarot card set, designed by him and painted by Harris. Accompanying this was a book, published in a limited edition as The Book of Thoth by Chiswick Press in 1944. To aid the war effort, he wrote a proclamation on the rights of humanity, Liber Oz, and a poem for the liberation of France, Le Gauloise. Crowley's final publication during his lifetime was a book of poetry, Olla: An Anthology of Sixty Years of Song. Another of his projects, Aleister Explains Everything, was posthumously published as Magick Without Tears.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 112274, 145272, 1261889, 2517619, 31178, 4920315, 14659582, 4931891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 154 ], [ 188, 195 ], [ 390, 404 ], [ 628, 646 ], [ 685, 695 ], [ 804, 821 ], [ 825, 839 ], [ 1185, 1205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 1944 Crowley briefly moved to Aston Clinton in Buckinghamshire, where he was visited by the poet Nancy Cunard, before relocating to Hastings in Sussex, where he took up residence at the Netherwood boarding house. He took a young man named Kenneth Grant as his secretary, paying him in magical teaching rather than wages. He was also introduced to John Symonds, whom he appointed to be his literary executor; Symonds thought little of Crowley, later publishing negative biographies of him. Corresponding with the illusionist Arnold Crowther, it was through him that Crowley was introduced to Gerald Gardner, the future founder of Gardnerian Wicca. They became friends, with Crowley authorising Gardner to revive Britain's ailing O.T.O. Another visitor was Eliza Marian Butler, who interviewed Crowley for her book The Myth of the Magus. Other friends and family also spent time with him, among them Doherty and Crowley's son Aleister Atatürk.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 319831, 1049435, 13830, 1220231, 2324138, 22788477, 12789, 12697, 33159943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 52 ], [ 106, 118 ], [ 141, 149 ], [ 248, 261 ], [ 356, 368 ], [ 533, 548 ], [ 600, 614 ], [ 638, 654 ], [ 764, 783 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 1 December 1947, Crowley died at Netherwood of chronic bronchitis aggravated by pleurisy and myocardial degeneration, aged 72. His funeral was held at a Brighton crematorium on 5 December; about a dozen people attended, and Louis Wilkinson read excerpts from the Gnostic Mass, The Book of the Law, and \"Hymn to Pan\". The funeral generated press controversy, and was labelled a Black Mass by the tabloids. Crowley's body was cremated; his ashes were sent to Karl Germer in the US, who buried them in his garden in Hampton, New Jersey.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 30206738, 322269, 49796, 56613840, 1607439, 248567, 175142, 5026859, 125349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 68 ], [ 83, 91 ], [ 156, 164 ], [ 227, 242 ], [ 266, 278 ], [ 380, 390 ], [ 427, 435 ], [ 460, 471 ], [ 516, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley's belief system, Thelema, has been described by scholars as a religion, and more specifically as both a new religious movement, and as a \"magico-religious doctrine\". It has also been characterized as a form of esotericism and Modern Paganism. Although holding The Book of the Law—which was composed in 1904—as its central text, Thelema took shape as a complete system in the years after 1904.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Beliefs and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 201588, 21686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 134 ], [ 234, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his autobiography, Crowley claimed that his purpose in life had been to \"bring oriental wisdom to Europe and to restore paganism in a purer form\", although what he meant by \"paganism\" was unclear. Crowley also wrote in the 4th Book of Magick about a great pagan Umbral fleet ruled by Ottovius that would be handed down to the great Spartan. The esoteric nature of this was also unclear.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Beliefs and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 23340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 177, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley's thought was not always cohesive, and was influenced by a variety of sources, ranging from eastern religious movements and practices like Hindu yoga and Buddhism, scientific naturalism, and various currents within Western esotericism, among them ceremonial magic, alchemy, astrology, Rosicrucianism, Kabbalah, and the Tarot. He was steeped in the esoteric teachings he had learned from the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, although pushed further with his own interpretations and strategies than the Golden Dawn had done. Crowley incorporated concepts and terminology from South Asian religious traditions like yoga and Tantra into his Thelemic system, believing that there was a fundamental underlying resemblance between Western and Eastern spiritual systems.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Beliefs and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 4349679, 49972, 31395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 193 ], [ 293, 307 ], [ 631, 637 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The historian Alex Owen noted that Crowley adhered to the \"modus operandi\" of the Decadent movement throughout his life.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Beliefs and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 5678514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley believed that the twentieth century marked humanity's entry to the Aeon of Horus, a new era in which humans would take increasing control of their destiny. He believed that this Aeon follows on from the Aeon of Osiris, in which paternalistic religions like Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism dominated the world, and that this in turn had followed the Aeon of Isis, which had been maternalistic and dominated by goddess worship. He believed that Thelema was the proper religion of the Aeon of Horus, and also deemed himself to be the prophet of this new Aeon. Thelema revolves around the idea that human beings each have their own True Will that they should discover and pursue, and that this exists in harmony with the Cosmic Will that pervades the universe. Crowley referred to this process of searching and discovery of one's True Will to be \"the Great Work\" or the attaining of the \"knowledge and conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel\". His favoured method of doing so was through the performance of the Abramelin operation, a ceremonial magic ritual obtained from a 17th-century grimoire. The moral code of \"Do What Thou Wilt\" is believed by Thelemites to be the religion's ethical law, although the historian of religion Marco Pasi noted that this was not anarchistic or libertarian in structure, as Crowley saw individuals as part of a wider societal organism.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Beliefs and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 12, 3225498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1271, 1282 ], [ 1286, 1297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley believed in the objective existence of magic, which he chose to spell \"Magick\", an older archaic spelling of the word. He provided various different definitions of this term over his career. In his book Magick in Theory and Practice, Crowley defined Magick as \"the Science and Art of causing change to occur in conformity with Will\". He also told his disciple Karl Germer that \"Magick is getting into communication with individuals who exist on a higher plane than ours. Mysticism is the raising of oneself to their level.\" Crowley saw Magick as a third way between religion and science, giving The Equinox the subtitle of The Method of Science; the Aim of Religion. Within that journal he expressed positive sentiments toward science and the scientific method, and urged magicians to keep detailed records of their magical experiments, \"The more scientific the record is, the better.\" His understanding of magic was also influenced by the work of the anthropologist James Frazer, in particular the view that magic was a precursor to science in a cultural evolutionary framework. Unlike Frazer, however, Crowley did not see magic as a survival from the past that required eradication, but rather he believed that magic had to be adapted to suit the new age of science. In Crowley's alternative schema, old systems of magic had to decline (per Frazer's framework) so that science and magic could synthesize into magick, which would simultaneously accept the existence of the supernatural and an experimental method. Crowley deliberately adopted an exceptionally broad definition of magick that included almost all forms of technology as magick, adopting an instrumentalist interpretation of magic, science, and technology.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Beliefs and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 211676, 4919980, 26833, 50482513, 59861, 270799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 52 ], [ 79, 85 ], [ 751, 768 ], [ 1055, 1073 ], [ 1502, 1521 ], [ 1664, 1679 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sexuality played an important role in Crowley's ideas about magick and his practice of it, and has been described as being central to Thelema. He outlined three forms of sex magick—the autoerotic, homosexual, and heterosexual—and argued that such acts could be used to focus the magician's will onto a specific goal such as financial gain or personal creative success. For Crowley, sex was treated as a sacrament, with the consumption of sexual fluids interpreted as a Eucharist. This was often manifested as the Cakes of Light, a biscuit containing either menstrual blood or a mixture of semen and vaginal fluids. The Gnostic Mass is the central religious ceremony within Thelema.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Beliefs and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 30139998, 9767, 3244886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 403, 412 ], [ 469, 478 ], [ 513, 527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley's theological beliefs were not clear. The historian Ronald Hutton noted that some of Crowley's writings could be used to argue that he was an atheist, while some support the idea that he was a polytheist, and others would bolster the idea that he was a mystical monotheist. On the basis of the teachings in The Book of the Law, Crowley described a pantheon of three deities taken from the ancient Egyptian pantheon: Nuit, Hadit, and Ra-Hoor-Khuit. In 1928, he made the claim that all true deities were derived from this trinity. Jason Josephson-Storm has argued that Crowley built on 19th-century attempts to link early Christianity to pre-Christian religions, such as Frazer's Golden Bough, to synthesize Christian theology and Neopaganism while remaining critical of institutional and traditional Christianity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Beliefs and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 696413, 15247542, 19195836, 29174999, 19522, 66466885, 1812233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 73 ], [ 150, 157 ], [ 201, 211 ], [ 261, 269 ], [ 270, 280 ], [ 537, 558 ], [ 617, 667 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both during his life and after it, Crowley has been widely described as a Satanist, usually by detractors. Crowley stated he did not consider himself a Satanist, nor did he worship Satan, as he did not accept the Christian world view in which Satan was believed to exist. He nevertheless used Satanic imagery, for instance by describing himself as \"the Beast 666\" and referring to the Whore of Babylon in his work, while in later life he sent \"Antichristmas cards\" to his friends. In his writings, Crowley occasionally identified Aiwass as Satan and designated him as \"Our Lord God the Devil\" at one occasion. The scholar of religion Gordan Djurdjevic stated that Crowley \"was emphatically not\" a Satanist, \"if for no other reason than simply because he did not identify himself as such\". Crowley nevertheless expressed strong anti-Christian sentiment, stating that he hated Christianity \"as Socialists hate soap\", an animosity probably stemming from his experiences among the Plymouth Brethren. He was nevertheless influenced by the King James Bible, especially the Book of Revelation, the impact of which can be seen in his writings. He was also accused of advocating human sacrifice, largely because of a passage in Book 4 in which he stated that \"A male child of perfect innocence and high intelligence is the most satisfactory victim\" and added that he had sacrificed about 150 every year. This was a tongue-in-cheek reference to ejaculation, something not realized by his critics.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Beliefs and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 27706, 27694, 188018, 170506, 16767, 4379, 80332, 20611030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 82 ], [ 181, 186 ], [ 385, 401 ], [ 444, 463 ], [ 1034, 1050 ], [ 1067, 1085 ], [ 1170, 1185 ], [ 1435, 1446 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley considered himself to be one of the outstanding figures of his time. The historian Ronald Hutton stated that in Crowley's youth, he was \"a self-indulgent and flamboyant young man\" who \"set about a deliberate flouting and provocation of social and religious norms\", while being shielded from an \"outraged public opinion\" by his inherited wealth. Hutton also described Crowley as having both an \"unappeasable desire\" to take control of any organisation that he belonged to, and \"a tendency to quarrel savagely\" with those who challenged him. Crowley biographer Martin Booth asserted that Crowley was \"self-confident, brash, eccentric, egotistic, highly intelligent, arrogant, witty, wealthy, and, when it suited him, cruel\". Similarly, Richard B. Spence noted that Crowley was \"capable of immense physical and emotional cruelty\". Biographer Lawrence Sutin noted that Crowley exhibited \"courage, skill, dauntless energy, and remarkable focus of will\" while at the same time showing a \"blind arrogance, petty fits of bile, [and] contempt for the abilities of his fellow men\". The Thelemite Lon Milo DuQuette noted that Crowley \"was by no means perfect\" and \"often alienated those who loved him dearest.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 696413, 1397880, 24811103, 2844304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 104 ], [ 567, 579 ], [ 847, 861 ], [ 1094, 1111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley enjoyed being outrageous and flouting conventional morality, with John Symonds noting that he \"was in revolt against the moral and religious values of his time\". Crowley's political thought was studied by academic Marco Pasi, who noted that for Crowley, socio-political concerns were subordinate to metaphysical and spiritual ones. He was neither on the political left nor right but perhaps best categorized as a \"conservative revolutionary\" despite not being affiliated with the German-based conservative revolutionary movement. Pasi described Crowley's fascination to the extreme ideologies of Nazism and Marxism–Leninism, which aimed to violently overturn society: \"What Crowley liked about Nazism and communism, or at least what made him curious about them, was the anti-Christian position and the revolutionary and socially subversive implications of these two movements. In their subversive powers, he saw the possibility of an annihilation of old religious traditions, and the creation of a void that Thelema, subsequently, would be able to fill.\" Crowley described democracy as an \"imbecile and nauseating cult of weakness\", and commented that The Book of the Law proclaimed that \"there is the master and there is the slave; the noble and the serf; the 'lone wolf' and the herd\". In this attitude, he was influenced by the work of Friedrich Nietzsche and by Social Darwinism. Although he had contempt for most of the British aristocracy, he regarded himself as an aristocrat and styled himself as Laird Boleskine, once describing his ideology as \"aristocratic communism\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 2324138, 18499, 56522, 1081280, 31045316, 20972, 10671, 45541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 86 ], [ 372, 376 ], [ 381, 386 ], [ 501, 536 ], [ 604, 610 ], [ 615, 631 ], [ 1347, 1366 ], [ 1374, 1390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley was bisexual, but exhibited a preference for women, with his relationships with men being fewer and mostly in the early part of his life. In particular he had an attraction toward \"exotic women\", and claimed to have fallen in love on multiple occasions; Kaczynski stated that \"when he loved, he did so with his whole being, but the passion was typically short-lived\". Even in later life, Crowley was able to attract young bohemian women to be his lovers, largely due to his charisma. He applied the term \"Scarlet Woman\" to various female lovers whom he believed played an important role in his magical work. During homosexual acts, he usually played the passive role, which Booth believed \"appealed to his masochistic side\". An underlying theme in many of his writings is that spiritual enlightenment arises through transgressing socio-sexual norms.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley advocated complete sexual freedom for both men and women. He argued that homosexual and bisexual people should not suppress their sexual orientation, commenting that a person \"must not be ashamed or afraid of being homosexual if he happens to be so at heart; he must not attempt to violate his own true nature because of public opinion, or medieval morality, or religious prejudice which would wish he were otherwise.\" On other issues he adopted a more conservative attitude; he opposed abortion on moral grounds, believing that no woman following her True Will would ever desire one.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Biographer Lawrence Sutin stated that \"blatant bigotry is a persistent minor element in Crowley's writings\". Sutin thought Crowley \"a spoiled scion of a wealthy Victorian family who embodied many of the worst John Bull racial and social prejudices of his upper-class contemporaries\", noting that he \"embodied the contradiction that writhed within many Western intellectuals of the time: deeply held racist viewpoints courtesy of society, coupled with a fascination with people of colour\". Crowley is said to have insulted his close Jewish friend Victor Benjamin Neuburg, using antisemitic slurs, and he had mixed opinions about Jewish people as a group. Although he praised their \"sublime\" poetry and stated that they exhibited \"imagination, romance, loyalty, probity and humanity\", he also thought that centuries of persecution had led some Jewish people to exhibit \"avarice, servility, falseness, cunning and the rest\". He was also known to praise various ethnic and cultural groups, for instance he thought that the Chinese people exhibited a \"spiritual superiority\" to the English, and praised Muslims for exhibiting \"manliness, straightforwardness, subtlety, and self-respect\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 325917, 1036329, 1078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 218 ], [ 546, 569 ], [ 577, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both critics of Crowley and adherents of Thelema have accused Crowley of sexism. Booth described Crowley as exhibiting a \"general misogyny\", something the biographer believed arose from Crowley's bad relationship with his mother. Sutin noted that Crowley \"largely accepted the notion, implicitly embodied in Victorian sexology, of women as secondary social beings in terms of intellect and sensibility\". The scholar of religion Manon Hedenborg White noted that some of Crowley's statements are \"undoubtedly misogynist by contemporary standards\", but characterized Crowley's attitude toward women as complex and multi-faceted. Crowley's comments on women's role varied dramatically within his written work, even that produced in similar periods. Crowley described women as \"moral inferiors\" who had to be treated with \"firmness, kindness and justice\", while also arguing that Thelema was essential to women's emancipation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 27165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Biographers Richard B. Spence and Tobias Churton have suggested that Crowley was a spy for the British secret services and that among other things he joined the Golden Dawn under their command to monitor the activities of Mathers, who was known to be a Carlist. Spence suggested that the conflict between Mathers and the London lodge for the temple was part of an intelligence operation to undermine Mathers' authority. Spence has suggested that the purpose of Crowley's trip to Mexico might have been to explore Mexican oil prospects for British intelligence. Spence has suggested that his trip to China was orchestrated as part of a British intelligence scheme to monitor the region's opium trade. Churton suggested that Crowley had travelled to Moscow on the orders of British intelligence to spy on revolutionary elements in the city.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Intelligence work", "target_page_ids": [ 293530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 253, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spence and Sutin both claim that Crowley's pro-German work in the United States was actually a cover for him being a double agent for Britain, citing his hyperbolic articles in The Fatherland to make the German lobby appear ridiculous in the eyes of the American public. Spence also claims that Crowley encouraged the German Navy to destroy the Lusitania, informing them that it would ensure the US stayed out of the war, while in reality hoping that it would bring the US into the war on Britain's side.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Intelligence work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley has remained an influential figure, both amongst occultists and in popular culture, particularly that of Britain, but also of other parts of the world. In 2002, a BBC poll placed Crowley seventy-third in a list of the 100 Greatest Britons. Richard Cavendish has written of him that \"In native talent, penetrating intelligence and determination, Aleister Crowley was the best-equipped magician to emerge since the seventeenth century.\" The scholar of esotericism Egil Asprem described him as \"one of the most well-known figures in modern occultism\". The scholar of esotericism Wouter Hanegraaff asserted that Crowley was an extreme representation of \"the dark side of the occult\", adding that he was \"the most notorious occultist magician of the twentieth century\". The philosopher John Moore opined that Crowley stood out as a \"Modern Master\" when compared with other prominent occult figures like George Gurdjieff, P. D. Ouspensky, Rudolf Steiner, or Helena Blavatsky, also describing him as a \"living embodiment\" of Oswald Spengler's \"Faustian Man\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy and influence", "target_page_ids": [ 200958, 4960553, 4726934, 159451, 215289, 26104, 168171, 22588, 350674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 246 ], [ 248, 265 ], [ 584, 601 ], [ 906, 922 ], [ 924, 939 ], [ 941, 955 ], [ 960, 976 ], [ 1026, 1041 ], [ 1045, 1057 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Biographer Tobias Churton considered Crowley \"a pioneer of consciousness research\". Hutton noted that Crowley had \"an important place in the history of modern Western responses to Oriental spiritual traditions\", while Sutin thought that he had made \"distinctly original contributions\" to the study of yoga in the West.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy and influence", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thelema continued to develop and spread following Crowley's death. In 1969, the O.T.O. was reactivated in California under the leadership of Grady Louis McMurtry; in 1985 its right to the title was unsuccessfully challenged in court by a rival group, the Society Ordo Templi Orientis, led by Brazilian Thelemite Marcelo Ramos Motta.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy and influence", "target_page_ids": [ 5026371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 312, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another American Thelemite is the filmmaker Kenneth Anger, who had been influenced by Crowley's writings from a young age. In the United Kingdom, Kenneth Grant propagated a tradition known as Typhonian Thelema through his organisation, the Typhonian O.T.O., later renamed the Typhonian Order.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy and influence", "target_page_ids": [ 389779, 1220231, 1220177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 57 ], [ 146, 159 ], [ 276, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in Britain, an occultist known as Amado Crowley claimed to be Crowley's son; this has been refuted by academic investigation. Amado argued that Thelema was a false religion created by Crowley to hide his true esoteric teachings, which Amado claimed to be propagating.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy and influence", "target_page_ids": [ 15413962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several Western esoteric traditions other than Thelema were also influenced by Crowley, with Djurdjevic observing that \"Crowley's influence on twentieth-century and contemporary esotericism has been enormous\". Gerald Gardner, founder of Gardnerian Wicca, made use of much of Crowley's published material when composing the Gardnerian ritual liturgy, and the Australian witch Rosaleen Norton was also heavily influenced by Crowley's ideas. More widely, Crowley became \"a dominant figure\" in the modern Pagan community. L. Ron Hubbard, the American founder of Scientology, was involved in Thelema in the early 1940s (with Jack Parsons), and it has been argued that Crowley's ideas influenced some of Hubbard's work. The scholars of religion Asbjørn Dyrendel, James R. Lewis, and Jesper Petersen noted that despite the fact that Crowley was not a Satanist, he \"in many ways embodies the pre-Satanist esoteric discourse on Satan and Satanism through his lifestyle and his philosophy\", with his \"image and ought\" becoming an \"important influence\" on the later development of religious Satanism. For instance, two prominent figures in religious Satanism, Anton LaVey and Michael Aquino, were influenced by Crowley's work.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy and influence", "target_page_ids": [ 12697, 1894101, 17862, 13118744, 102915, 45589862, 238765, 31117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 237, 253 ], [ 375, 390 ], [ 518, 532 ], [ 558, 569 ], [ 620, 632 ], [ 663, 712 ], [ 1149, 1160 ], [ 1165, 1179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crowley also had a wider influence in British popular culture. After his time in Cefalù which had brought him to public attention in Britain, various \"literary Crowleys\" appeared: characters in fiction based upon him. One of the earliest was the character of the poet Shelley Arabin in John Buchan's 1926 novel The Dancing Floor. In his novel The Devil Rides Out, the writer Dennis Wheatley used Crowley as a partial basis for the character of Damien Morcata, a portly bald defrocked priest who engages in black magic. The occultist Dion Fortune used Crowley as a basis for characters in her books The Secrets of Doctor Taverner (1926) and The Winged Bull (1935). He was included as one of the figures on the cover art of The Beatles' album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967), and his motto of \"Do What Thou Wilt\" was inscribed on the vinyl of Led Zeppelin's album Led Zeppelin III (1970). Led Zeppelin co-founder Jimmy Page bought Boleskine in 1971, and part of the band's film The Song Remains the Same was filmed in the grounds. He sold it in 1992. Though David Bowie makes but a fleeting reference to Crowley in the lyrics of his song \"Quicksand\" (1971), it has been suggested that the lyrics of Bowie's No. 1 hit single \"Let's Dance\" (1983) may substantially paraphrase Crowley's 1923 poem \"Lyric of Love to Leah\". Ozzy Osbourne and his lyricist Bob Daisley wrote a song titled \"Mr. Crowley\" (1980). A prophetic quote about the coming of the New Aeon borrowed from Crowley's work Magick in Theory and Practice (1911) has been featured as the opening introduction to the video game Legacy of Kain (1996). Crowley began to receive scholarly attention from academics in the late 1990s.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy and influence", "target_page_ids": [ 275009, 84935, 7903784, 1582196, 539058, 207221, 29812, 65450, 17909, 50241, 102096, 50455, 8786, 4080261, 3393868, 85406, 1781418, 2384647, 4775145, 4919980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 61 ], [ 286, 297 ], [ 311, 328 ], [ 343, 362 ], [ 375, 390 ], [ 533, 545 ], [ 722, 733 ], [ 741, 778 ], [ 854, 866 ], [ 875, 891 ], [ 924, 934 ], [ 989, 1014 ], [ 1069, 1080 ], [ 1150, 1159 ], [ 1236, 1247 ], [ 1330, 1343 ], [ 1361, 1372 ], [ 1394, 1405 ], [ 1457, 1465 ], [ 1495, 1524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aleister Crowley Collection at the Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 946273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Libri of Aleister Crowley – online editions of Crowley writings", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Aleister Crowley and the Abbey of Thelema in Cefalù\" at WondersOfSicily.com, with photos", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Perdurabo (Where is Aleister Crowley?) – film on the Abbey of Thelema by Carlos Atanes", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 2848016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 87 ] ] } ]

[ "Aleister_Crowley", "1875_births", "1947_deaths", "19th-century_English_poets", "20th-century_English_novelists", "Alumni_of_Trinity_College,_Cambridge", "Bisexual_men", "Bisexual_writers", "Bisexual_sportspeople", "British_psychedelic_drug_advocates", "Burials_in_New_Jersey", "Ceremonial_magicians", "Channellers", "Critics_of_Christianity", "Deaths_from_bronchitis", "English_astrologers", "English_astrological_writers", "English_autobiographers", "English_chess_players", "English_dramatists_and_playwrights", "English_expatriates_in_India", "English_expatriates_in_Switzerland", "English_Freemasons", "English_male_dramatists_and_playwrights", "English_male_novelists", "English_mountain_climbers", "English_occultists", "English_occult_writers", "English_spiritual_writers", "English_Thelemites", "Founders_of_new_religious_movements", "Free_love_advocates", "Freemasons_of_the_Grand_Lodge_of_France", "Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn", "Hermetic_Qabalists", "LGBT_climbers", "English_LGBT_novelists", "LGBT_sportspeople_from_England", "Members_of_Ordo_Templi_Orientis", "Mystics", "Obscenity_controversies_in_literature", "People_educated_at_Eastbourne_College", "People_educated_at_Malvern_College", "People_educated_at_Tonbridge_School", "People_from_Leamington_Spa", "People_who_faked_their_own_death", "Prophets", "Social_critics", "Tarotologists", "Thelema", "Victorian_writers", "19th-century_pseudonymous_writers", "20th-century_pseudonymous_writers" ]

[ "Edward Alexander Crowley" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The afterlife (also referred to as life after death or the world to come) is a purported existence in which the essential part of an individual's identity or their stream of consciousness continues to live after the death of their physical body. According to various ideas about the afterlife, the essential aspect of the individual that lives on after death may be some partial element, or the entire soul or spirit of an individual, which carries with it and may confer personal identity or, on the contrary nirvana. Belief in an afterlife is in contrast to the belief in oblivion after death.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 480672, 34171748, 9957257, 8221, 28297, 25879157, 21233, 41185116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 126 ], [ 146, 154 ], [ 164, 187 ], [ 216, 221 ], [ 402, 406 ], [ 423, 433 ], [ 510, 517 ], [ 574, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some views, this continued existence takes place in a spiritual realm, and in other popular views, the individual may be Reincarnation into this world and begin the life cycle over again, likely with no memory of what they have done in the past. In this latter view, such rebirths and deaths may take place over and over again continuously until the individual gains entry to a spiritual realm or otherworld. Major views on the afterlife derive from religion, esotericism and metaphysics.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 55382, 38714, 28935983, 25414, 495185, 18895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 66 ], [ 143, 153 ], [ 400, 410 ], [ 453, 461 ], [ 463, 474 ], [ 479, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some belief systems, such as those in the Abrahamic tradition, hold that the dead go to a specific place after death, as determined by God, or other divine judgment, based on their actions or beliefs during life. In contrast, in systems of Reincarnation, such as those in the Indian religions, the nature of the continued existence is determined directly by the actions of the individual in the ended life.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13906453, 5042765, 7126061, 709530, 262629, 14605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 61 ], [ 135, 138 ], [ 149, 164 ], [ 181, 188 ], [ 192, 199 ], [ 276, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Theists generally believe some afterlife awaits people when they die. Members of some generally non-theistic religions tend to believe in an afterlife but without reference to a deity. The Sadducees were an ancient Jewish sect that generally believed that there was a God but no existence after death.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Different metaphysical models", "target_page_ids": [ 30843, 184485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 189, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many religions, whether they believe in the soul's existence in another world like Christianity, Islam, and many pagan belief systems, or reincarnation like many forms of Hinduism and Buddhism, believe that one's status in the afterlife is a consequence of one's conduct during life.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Different metaphysical models", "target_page_ids": [ 23340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each death. This concept is also known as rebirth or transmigration and is part of the Saṃsāra/karma doctrine of cyclic existence. Samsara refers to the process in which souls (jivas) go through a sequence of human and animal forms. Traditional Hinduism and Buddhism teaches that each life helps the soul (jivas) learn until the soul become purifed to the point of enlightenment (unity with the cosmos). It is a central tenet of all major Indian religions, namely Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism. The idea of reincarnation is found in many ancient cultures, and a belief in rebirth/metempsychosis was held by historic Greek figures, such as Pythagoras and Plato. It is also a common belief of various ancient and modern religions such as Spiritism, Theosophy, and Eckankar. It is found as well in many tribal societies around the world, in places such as Australia, East Asia, Siberia, and South America.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Different metaphysical models", "target_page_ids": [ 13692155, 25414, 3409, 18393, 1722616, 8221, 174528, 14605, 3267529, 13543, 16016, 27964, 53141, 23275, 22954, 189740, 31480, 380782, 4689264, 19605700, 29639, 26769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 34 ], [ 38, 47 ], [ 83, 88 ], [ 102, 106 ], [ 122, 135 ], [ 155, 160 ], [ 237, 244 ], [ 590, 606 ], [ 615, 623 ], [ 625, 633 ], [ 635, 642 ], [ 648, 655 ], [ 742, 756 ], [ 801, 811 ], [ 816, 821 ], [ 898, 907 ], [ 909, 918 ], [ 924, 932 ], [ 1015, 1024 ], [ 1026, 1035 ], [ 1037, 1044 ], [ 1050, 1063 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the majority of denominations within the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not believe that individuals reincarnate, particular groups within these religions do refer to reincarnation; these groups include the mainstream historical and contemporary followers of Kabbalah, the Cathars, Alawites, the Druze, and the Rosicrucians. The historical relations between these sects and the beliefs about reincarnation that were characteristic of Neoplatonism, Orphism, Hermeticism, Manicheanism, and Gnosticism of the Roman era as well as the Indian religions have been the subject of recent scholarly research. Unity Church and its founder Charles Fillmore teach reincarnation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Different metaphysical models", "target_page_ids": [ 13906453, 15624, 5211, 6037917, 16905, 7630, 436616, 8632, 49972, 23385833, 1403568, 180786, 19760, 12471, 521555, 80656, 5126579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 69 ], [ 73, 80 ], [ 82, 94 ], [ 100, 105 ], [ 296, 304 ], [ 310, 317 ], [ 319, 327 ], [ 333, 338 ], [ 348, 360 ], [ 471, 483 ], [ 485, 492 ], [ 494, 505 ], [ 507, 519 ], [ 525, 535 ], [ 543, 552 ], [ 637, 649 ], [ 666, 682 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rosicrucians speak of a life review period occurring immediately after death and before entering the afterlife's planes of existence (before the silver cord is broken), followed by a judgment, more akin to a final review or end report over one's life.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Different metaphysical models", "target_page_ids": [ 5345336, 1037059, 2411822, 161978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 35 ], [ 113, 132 ], [ 145, 156 ], [ 183, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heaven, the heavens, Seven Heavens, pure lands, Tian, Jannah, Valhalla, or the Summerland, is a common religious, cosmological, or transcendent place where beings such as gods, angels, jinn, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or live. According to the beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to earth or incarnate, and earthly beings can ascend to heaven in the afterlife, or in exceptional cases, enter heaven alive.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Different metaphysical models", "target_page_ids": [ 13811, 5178616, 14179211, 476248, 507555, 32534, 5732986, 977209, 1666427, 45087159, 19404136, 13027, 28436, 32632, 256323, 78215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 21, 34 ], [ 36, 45 ], [ 48, 52 ], [ 54, 60 ], [ 62, 70 ], [ 75, 89 ], [ 103, 126 ], [ 131, 143 ], [ 171, 175 ], [ 177, 182 ], [ 185, 189 ], [ 191, 196 ], [ 202, 221 ], [ 248, 257 ], [ 352, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heaven is often described as a \"higher place\", the holiest place, a paradise, in contrast to hell or the underworld or the \"low places\", and universally or conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of divinity, goodness, piety, faith or other virtues or right beliefs or simply the will of God. Some believe in the possibility of a heaven on Earth in a world to come.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Different metaphysical models", "target_page_ids": [ 12178732, 92982, 5098574, 84369, 1290363, 8363, 53403353, 49895, 11064, 49901, 262629, 21517691, 8163829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 58 ], [ 68, 76 ], [ 93, 97 ], [ 105, 115 ], [ 141, 152 ], [ 233, 241 ], [ 243, 251 ], [ 253, 258 ], [ 260, 265 ], [ 275, 281 ], [ 286, 299 ], [ 314, 325 ], [ 385, 398 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Hinduism, heaven is considered as Svarga loka. There are seven positive regions the soul can go to after death and seven negative regions. After completing its stay in the respective region, the soul is subjected to rebirth in different living forms according to its karma. This cycle can be broken after a soul achieves Moksha or Nirvana. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (heaven, hell, or other) is referred to as otherworld.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Different metaphysical models", "target_page_ids": [ 13543, 100256, 25806, 16864, 175918, 21233, 28935983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 11 ], [ 37, 48 ], [ 219, 226 ], [ 270, 275 ], [ 324, 330 ], [ 334, 341 ], [ 473, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hell, in many religious and folkloric traditions, is a place of torment and punishment in the afterlife. Religions with a linear divine history often depict hell as an eternal destination, while religions with a cyclic history often depict a hell as an intermediary period between incarnations. Typically, these traditions locate hell in another dimension or under the earth's surface and often include entrances to hell from the land of the living. Other afterlife destinations include purgatory and limbo.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Different metaphysical models", "target_page_ids": [ 5098574, 11303, 47702, 146764, 25414, 177438, 8363, 134233, 25806, 78215, 9228, 26305234, 17982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 28, 37 ], [ 64, 71 ], [ 76, 86 ], [ 105, 113 ], [ 122, 128 ], [ 129, 135 ], [ 168, 187 ], [ 212, 226 ], [ 281, 292 ], [ 369, 374 ], [ 487, 496 ], [ 501, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Traditions that do not conceive of the afterlife as a place of punishment or reward merely describe hell as an abode of the dead, the grave, a neutral place (for example, Sheol or Hades) located under the surface of earth.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Different metaphysical models", "target_page_ids": [ 1597073, 323679, 214731, 8737046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 128 ], [ 134, 139 ], [ 171, 176 ], [ 180, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The afterlife played an important role in Ancient Egyptian religion, and its belief system is one of the earliest known in recorded history. When the body died, parts of its soul known as ka (body double) and the ba (personality) would go to the Kingdom of the Dead. While the soul dwelt in the Fields of Aaru, Osiris demanded work as restitution for the protection he provided. Statues were placed in the tombs to serve as substitutes for the deceased.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient religions", "target_page_ids": [ 10331, 97240, 22763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 67 ], [ 295, 309 ], [ 311, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arriving at one's reward in afterlife was a demanding ordeal, requiring a sin-free heart and the ability to recite the spells, passwords, and formulae of the Book of the Dead. In the Hall of Two Truths, the deceased's heart was weighed against the Shu feather of truth and justice taken from the headdress of the goddess Ma'at. If the heart was lighter than the feather, they could pass on, but if it were heavier they would be devoured by the demon Ammit.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient religions", "target_page_ids": [ 158534, 97236, 97233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 174 ], [ 321, 326 ], [ 450, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Egyptians also believed that being mummified and put in a sarcophagus (an ancient Egyptian \"coffin\" carved with complex symbols and designs, as well as pictures and hieroglyphs) was the only way to have an afterlife. What are referred to as the Coffin Texts, are inscribed on a coffin and serve as a guide for the challenges in the afterlife. The Coffin texts are more or less a duplication of the Pyramid Texts, which would serve as a guide for Egyptian pharaohs or queens in the afterlife. Only if the corpse had been properly embalmed and entombed in a mastaba, could the dead live again in the Fields of Yalu and accompany the Sun on its daily ride. Due to the dangers the afterlife posed, the Book of the Dead was placed in the tomb with the body as well as food, jewelry, and 'curses'. They also used the \"opening of the mouth\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient religions", "target_page_ids": [ 188863, 1713556, 1866773, 213976, 113084, 30875824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 69 ], [ 245, 257 ], [ 398, 411 ], [ 529, 537 ], [ 556, 563 ], [ 575, 590 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ancient Egyptian civilization was based on religion. The belief in the rebirth after death became the driving force behind funeral practices. Death was simply a temporary interruption, rather than complete cessation of life. Eternal life could be ensured by means like piety to the gods, preservation of the physical form through mummification, and the provision of statuary and other funerary equipment. Each human consisted of the physical body, the ka, the ba, and the akh. The Name and Shadow were also living entities. To enjoy the afterlife, all these elements had to be sustained and protected from harm.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient religions", "target_page_ids": [ 20224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 330, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 30 March 2010, a spokesman for the Egyptian Culture Ministry claimed it had unearthed a large red granite door in Luxor with inscriptions by User, a powerful adviser to the 18th Dynasty Queen Hatshepsut who ruled between 1479 BC and 1458 BC, the longest of any woman. It believes the false door is a 'door to the Afterlife'. According to the archaeologists, the door was reused in a structure in Roman Egypt.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient religions", "target_page_ids": [ 50607950, 28830228, 60832, 496519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 148 ], [ 176, 188 ], [ 195, 205 ], [ 399, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Greek god Hades is known in Greek mythology as the king of the underworld, a place where souls live after death. The Greek god Hermes, the messenger of the gods, would take the dead soul of a person to the underworld (sometimes called Hades or the House of Hades). Hermes would leave the soul on the banks of the River Styx, the river between life and death.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient religions", "target_page_ids": [ 13225, 23416994, 84369, 14410, 28745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 19 ], [ 32, 47 ], [ 67, 77 ], [ 131, 137 ], [ 323, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Charon, also known as the ferry-man, would take the soul across the river to Hades, if the soul had gold: Upon burial, the family of the dead soul would put coins under the deceased's tongue. Once crossed, the soul would be judged by Aeacus, Rhadamanthus and King Minos. The soul would be sent to Elysium, Tartarus, or Asphodel Fields. The Elysian Fields were for the ones that lived pure lives. It consisted of green fields, valleys and mountains, everyone there was peaceful and contented, and the Sun always shone there. Tartarus was for the people that blasphemed against the gods, or were simply rebellious and consciously evil.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient religions", "target_page_ids": [ 79560, 2618, 75173, 20665, 65131, 57095, 4117589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 234, 240 ], [ 242, 254 ], [ 264, 269 ], [ 297, 304 ], [ 306, 314 ], [ 319, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Asphodel Fields were for a varied selection of human souls including those whose sins equalled their goodness, those who were indecisive in their lives, and those who were not judged. Those who had sinned went to the deepest pit, Tartarus. In Tartarus, the soul would be punished by being burned in lava, or stretched on racks. Some heroes of Greek legend are allowed to visit the underworld. The Romans had a similar belief system about the afterlife, with Hades becoming known as Pluto. In the ancient Greek myth about the Labours of Heracles, the hero Heracles had to travel to the underworld to capture Cerberus, the three-headed guard dog, as one of his tasks.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient religions", "target_page_ids": [ 98694, 1418970, 13815, 6697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 486, 491 ], [ 529, 548 ], [ 559, 567 ], [ 611, 619 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Dream of Scipio, Cicero describes what seems to be an out of body experience, of the soul traveling high above the Earth, looking down at the small planet, from far away.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient religions", "target_page_ids": [ 355204, 6046, 122329, 28297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 20, 26 ], [ 57, 79 ], [ 88, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Book VI of Virgil's Aeneid, the hero, Aeneas, travels to the underworld to see his father. By the River Styx, he sees the souls of those not given a proper burial, forced to wait by the river until someone buries them. While down there, along with the dead, he is shown the place where the wrongly convicted reside, the fields of sorrow where those who committed suicide and now regret it reside, including Aeneas' former lover, the warriors and shades, Tartarus (where the titans and powerful non-mortal enemies of the Olympians reside) where he can hear the groans of the imprisoned, the palace of Pluto, and the fields of Elysium where the descendants of the divine and bravest heroes reside. He sees the river of forgetfulness, Lethe, which the dead must drink to forget their life and begin anew. Lastly, his father shows him all of the future heroes of Rome who will live if Aeneas fulfills his destiny in founding the city.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient religions", "target_page_ids": [ 32359, 37322, 1540, 98694, 17983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 20 ], [ 23, 29 ], [ 41, 47 ], [ 603, 608 ], [ 735, 740 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other eschatological views populate the ancient-Greek worldview. For instance, Plato argued for reincarnation in several dialogues, including the Timaeus.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient religions", "target_page_ids": [ 22954, 540497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 84 ], [ 146, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Poetic and Prose Eddas, the oldest sources for information on the Norse concept of the afterlife, vary in their description of the several realms that are described as falling under this topic. The most well-known are:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient religions", "target_page_ids": [ 70786, 72196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 15, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Valhalla: (lit. \"Hall of the Slain\" i.e. \"the Chosen Ones\") Half the warriors who die in battle join the god Odin who rules over a majestic hall called Valhalla in Asgard.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient religions", "target_page_ids": [ 32534, 19230767, 1460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 110, 114 ], [ 165, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fólkvangr: (lit. \"Field of the Host\") The other half join the goddess Freyja in a great meadow known as Fólkvangr.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient religions", "target_page_ids": [ 88022, 11038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 71, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hel: (lit. \"The Covered Hall\")", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient religions", "target_page_ids": [ 70076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Niflhel: (lit. \"The Dark\" or \"Misty Hel\")", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ancient religions", "target_page_ids": [ 11441067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sheol, in the Hebrew Bible, is a place of darkness (Job x. 21, 22) to which all the dead go, both the righteous and the unrighteous, regardless of the moral choices made in life, (Gen. xxxvii. 36; Ezek. xxxii.; Isa. xiv.; Job xxx. 23), a place of stillness, (Ps. lxxxviii. 13, xciv. 17; Eccl. ix. 10), at the longest possible distance from heaven (Job xi. 8; Amos ix. 2; Ps. cxxxix. 8).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 214731, 30344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 14, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The inhabitants of Sheol are the \"shades\" (rephaim), entities without personality or strength. Under some circumstances they are thought to be able to be contacted by the living, as the Witch of Endor contacts the shade of Samuel for Saul, but such practices are forbidden (Deuteronomy 18:10).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 5009568, 198661, 28354, 28330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 50 ], [ 186, 200 ], [ 223, 229 ], [ 234, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the Hebrew Bible appears to describe Sheol as the permanent place of the dead, in the Second Temple period (roughly 500 BC – 70 AD) a more diverse set of ideas developed. In some texts, Sheol is considered to be the home of both the righteous and the wicked, separated into respective compartments; in others, it was considered a place of punishment, meant for the wicked dead alone. When the Hebrew scriptures were translated into Greek in ancient Alexandria around 200 BC, the word \"Hades\" (the Greek underworld) was substituted for Sheol. This is reflected in the New Testament where Hades is both the underworld of the dead and the personification of the evil it represents.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 19890049, 27915, 3080, 13225, 5355670, 21433, 9897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 112 ], [ 438, 443 ], [ 455, 465 ], [ 491, 496 ], [ 503, 519 ], [ 573, 586 ], [ 665, 669 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Talmud offers a number of thoughts relating to the afterlife. After death, the soul is brought for judgment. Those who have led pristine lives enter immediately into the Olam Haba or world to come. Most do not enter the world to come immediately, but experience a period of reflection of their earthly actions and are made aware of what they have done wrong. Some view this period as being a \"re-schooling\", with the soul gaining wisdom as one's errors are reviewed. Others view this period to include spiritual discomfort for past wrongs. At the end of this period, not longer than one year, the soul then takes its place in the world to come. Although discomforts are made part of certain Jewish conceptions of the afterlife, the concept of eternal damnation is not a tenet of the Jewish afterlife. According to the Talmud, extinction of the soul is reserved for a far smaller group of malicious and evil leaders, either whose very evil deeds go way beyond norms, or who lead large groups of people to utmost evil. This is also part of Maimonides' 13 principles of faith.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 30345, 8163829, 134233, 20759814, 52978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 187, 200 ], [ 755, 764 ], [ 830, 852 ], [ 1042, 1076 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maimonides describes the Olam Haba in spiritual terms, relegating the prophesied physical resurrection to the status of a future miracle, unrelated to the afterlife or the Messianic era. According to Maimonides, an afterlife continues for the soul of every human being, a soul now separated from the body in which it was \"housed\" during its earthly existence.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 19445, 3488006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 172, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Zohar describes Gehenna not as a place of punishment for the wicked but as a place of spiritual purification for souls.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 34471, 21967601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ], [ 20, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although there is no reference to reincarnation in the Talmud or any prior writings, according to rabbis such as Avraham Arieh Trugman, reincarnation is recognized as being part and parcel of Jewish tradition. Trugman explains that it is through oral tradition that the meanings of the Torah, its commandments and stories, are known and understood. The classic work of Jewish mysticism, the Zohar, is quoted liberally in all Jewish learning; in the Zohar the idea of reincarnation is mentioned repeatedly. Trugman states that in the last five centuries the concept of reincarnation, which until then had been a much hidden tradition within Judaism, was given open exposure.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Shraga Simmons commented that within the Bible itself, the idea [of reincarnation] is intimated in Deut. 25:5–10, Deut. 33:6 and Isaiah 22:14, 65:6.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 4396207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yirmiyahu Ullman wrote that reincarnation is an \"ancient, mainstream belief in Judaism\". The Zohar makes frequent and lengthy references to reincarnation. Onkelos, a righteous convert and authoritative commentator of the same period, explained the verse, \"Let Reuben live and not die...\" (Deuteronomy 33:6) to mean that Reuben should merit the World to Come directly, and not have to die again as a result of being reincarnated. Torah scholar, commentator and kabbalist, Nachmanides (Ramban 1195–1270), attributed Job's suffering to reincarnation, as hinted in Job's saying \"God does all these things twice or three times with a man, to bring back his soul from the pit to... the light of the living' (Job 33:29, 30).\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 676363, 155380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 162 ], [ 471, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reincarnation, called gilgul, became popular in folk belief, and is found in much Yiddish literature among Ashkenazi Jews. Among a few kabbalists, it was posited that some human souls could end up being reincarnated into non-human bodies. These ideas were found in a number of Kabbalistic works from the 13th century, and also among many mystics in the late 16th century. Martin Buber's early collection of stories of the Baal Shem Tov's life includes several that refer to people reincarnating in successive lives.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 1268230, 20207911, 34272, 150184, 228980, 44242617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ], [ 48, 59 ], [ 82, 89 ], [ 107, 121 ], [ 372, 384 ], [ 422, 435 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among well known (generally non-kabbalist or anti-kabbalist) rabbis who rejected the idea of reincarnation are Saadia Gaon, David Kimhi, Hasdai Crescas, Yedayah Bedershi (early 14th century), Joseph Albo, Abraham ibn Daud, the Rosh and Leon de Modena. Saadia Gaon, in Emunoth ve-Deoth (Hebrew: \"beliefs and opinions\") concludes Section VI with a refutation of the doctrine of metempsychosis (reincarnation). While rebutting reincarnation, Saadia Gaon further states that Jews who hold to reincarnation have adopted non-Jewish beliefs. By no means do all Jews today believe in reincarnation, but belief in reincarnation is not uncommon among many Jews, including Orthodox.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 166531, 1553832, 784618, 784363, 231407, 59043, 3111832, 230696, 53141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 122 ], [ 124, 135 ], [ 137, 151 ], [ 192, 203 ], [ 205, 221 ], [ 227, 231 ], [ 236, 250 ], [ 268, 284 ], [ 376, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other well-known rabbis who are reincarnationists include Yonassan Gershom, Abraham Isaac Kook, Talmud scholar Adin Steinsaltz, DovBer Pinson, David M. Wexelman, Zalman Schachter, and many others. Reincarnation is cited by authoritative biblical commentators, including Ramban (Nachmanides), Menachem Recanti and Rabbenu Bachya.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 3026531, 163565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 74 ], [ 76, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among the many volumes of Yitzchak Luria, most of which come down from the pen of his primary disciple, Chaim Vital, are insights explaining issues related to reincarnation. His Shaar HaGilgulim, \"The Gates of Reincarnation\", is a book devoted exclusively to the subject of reincarnation in Judaism.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 1150530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rabbi Naftali Silberberg of The Rohr Jewish Learning Institute notes that \"Many ideas that originate in other religions and belief systems have been popularized in the media and are taken for granted by unassuming Jews.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 41936350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mainstream Christianity professes belief in the Nicene Creed, and English versions of the Nicene Creed in current use include the phrase: \"We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 21541, 21541, 38649452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 48, 60 ], [ 66, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When questioned by the Sadducees about the resurrection of the dead (in a context relating to who one's spouse would be if one had been married several times in life), Jesus said that marriage will be irrelevant after the resurrection as the resurrected will be like the angels in heaven.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 184485, 30875824, 1095706, 19404136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 32 ], [ 43, 67 ], [ 168, 173 ], [ 271, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jesus also maintained that the time would come when the dead would hear the voice of the Son of God, and all who were in the tombs would come out; those who have heard His \"[commandments] and believes in the one who sent [Him]\" to the resurrection of life, but those who do not to the resurrection of condemnation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 28170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Book of Enoch describes Sheol as divided into four compartments for four types of the dead: the faithful saints who await resurrection in Paradise, the merely virtuous who await their reward, the wicked who await punishment, and the wicked who have already been punished and will not be resurrected on Judgment Day. The Book of Enoch is considered apocryphal by most denominations of Christianity and all denominations of Judaism.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 392807, 92982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 142, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The book of 2 Maccabees gives a clear account of the dead awaiting a future resurrection and judgment in addition to prayers and offerings for the dead to remove the burden of sin.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 316391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The author of Luke recounts the story of Lazarus and the rich man, which shows people in Hades awaiting the resurrection either in comfort or torment. The author of the Book of Revelation writes about God and the angels versus Satan and demons in an epic battle at the end of times when all souls are judged. There is mention of ghostly bodies of past prophets, and the transfiguration.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 12491, 1636038, 4379, 27694, 8280, 303916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 18 ], [ 41, 65 ], [ 169, 187 ], [ 227, 232 ], [ 237, 243 ], [ 370, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The non-canonical Acts of Paul and Thecla speak of the efficacy of prayer for the dead so that they might be \"translated to a state of happiness\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 1437484, 639226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 41 ], [ 67, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hippolytus of Rome pictures the underworld (Hades) as a place where the righteous dead, awaiting in the bosom of Abraham their resurrection, rejoice at their future prospect, while the unrighteous are tormented at the sight of the \"lake of unquenchable fire\" into which they are destined to be cast.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 73313, 84369, 5355670, 1597073, 13680174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 32, 42 ], [ 44, 49 ], [ 104, 120 ], [ 232, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gregory of Nyssa discusses the long-before believed possibility of purification of souls after death.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 38020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pope Gregory I repeats the concept, articulated over a century earlier by Gregory of Nyssa that the saved suffer purification after death, in connection with which he wrote of \"purgatorial flames\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 38020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The noun \"purgatorium\" (Latin: place of cleansing) is used for the first time to describe a state of painful purification of the saved after life. The same word in adjectival form (purgatorius -a -um, cleansing), which appears also in non-religious writing, was already used by Christians such as Augustine of Hippo and Pope Gregory I to refer to an after-death cleansing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 26305234, 36768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ], [ 320, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Age of Enlightenment, theologians and philosophers presented various philosophies and beliefs. A notable example is Emanuel Swedenborg who wrote some 18 theological works which describe in detail the nature of the afterlife according to his claimed spiritual experiences, the most famous of which is Heaven and Hell. His report of life there covers a wide range of topics, such as marriage in heaven (where all angels are married), children in heaven (where they are raised by angel parents), time and space in heaven (there are none), the after-death awakening process in the World of Spirits (a place halfway between Heaven and Hell and where people first wake up after death), the allowance of a free will choice between Heaven or Hell (as opposed to being sent to either one by God), the eternity of Hell (one could leave but would never want to), and that all angels or devils were once people on earth.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 30758, 224173, 2879636, 19728, 19404136, 30012, 27667, 217472, 5098574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 31 ], [ 127, 145 ], [ 311, 326 ], [ 392, 400 ], [ 422, 428 ], [ 504, 508 ], [ 513, 518 ], [ 803, 811 ], [ 815, 819 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Catholic conception of the afterlife teaches that after the body dies, the soul is judged, the righteous and free of sin enter Heaven. However, those who die in unrepented mortal sin go to hell. In the 1990s, the Catechism of the Catholic Church defined hell not as punishment imposed on the sinner but rather as the sinner's self-exclusion from God. Unlike other Christian groups, the Catholic Church teaches that those who die in a state of grace, but still carry venial sin, go to a place called Purgatory where they undergo purification to enter Heaven.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 5578209, 357089, 194260, 357034, 26305234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 93 ], [ 176, 186 ], [ 217, 249 ], [ 470, 480 ], [ 503, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite popular opinion, Limbo, which was elaborated upon by theologians beginning in the Middle Ages, was never recognized as a dogma of the Catholic Church, yet, at times, it has been a very popular theological theory within the Church. Limbo is a theory that unbaptized but innocent souls, such as those of infants, virtuous individuals who lived before Jesus Christ was born on earth, or those that die before baptism exist in neither Heaven nor Hell proper. Therefore, these souls neither merit the beatific vision, nor are subjected to any punishment, because they are not guilty of any personal sin although they have not received baptism, so still bear original sin. So they are generally seen as existing in a state of natural, but not supernatural, happiness, until the end of time.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 44941, 606848, 49901, 261019, 4298, 1126101, 28307, 22735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 134 ], [ 142, 157 ], [ 319, 327 ], [ 357, 387 ], [ 414, 421 ], [ 504, 519 ], [ 602, 605 ], [ 661, 673 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In other Christian denominations it has been described as an intermediate place or state of confinement in oblivion and neglect.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 342411, 11051468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 32 ], [ 61, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The notion of purgatory is associated particularly with the Catholic Church. In the Catholic Church, all those who die in God's grace and friendship, but still imperfectly purified, are indeed assured of their eternal salvation; but after death they undergo purification, so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of heaven or the final purification of the elect, which is entirely different from the punishment of the damned. The tradition of the church, by reference to certain texts of scripture, speaks of a \"cleansing fire\" although it is not always called purgatory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 26305234, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ], [ 60, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anglicans of the Anglo-Catholic tradition generally also hold to the belief. John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, believed in an intermediate state between death and the resurrection of the dead and in the possibility of \"continuing to grow in holiness there\", but Methodism does not officially affirm this belief and denies the possibility of helping by prayer any who may be in that state.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 1214, 59949, 42411, 20119, 11051468, 30875824, 639226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 17, 31 ], [ 77, 88 ], [ 105, 114 ], [ 131, 149 ], [ 172, 196 ], [ 346, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Orthodox Church is intentionally reticent on the afterlife, as it acknowledges the mystery especially of things that have not yet occurred. Beyond the second coming of Jesus, bodily resurrection, and final judgment, all of which is affirmed in the Nicene Creed (325 CE), Orthodoxy does not teach much else in any definitive manner. Unlike Western forms of Christianity, however, Orthodoxy is traditionally non-dualist and does not teach that there are two separate literal locations of heaven and hell, but instead acknowledges that \"the 'location' of one's final destiny—heaven or hell—as being figurative.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 21541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 253, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Instead, Orthodoxy teaches that the final judgment is simply one's uniform encounter with divine love and mercy, but this encounter is experienced multifariously depending on the extent to which one has been transformed, partaken of divinity, and is therefore compatible or incompatible with God. \"The monadic, immutable, and ceaseless object of eschatological encounter is therefore the love and mercy of God, his glory which infuses the heavenly temple, and it is the subjective human reaction which engenders multiplicity or any division of experience.\" For instance, St. Isaac the Syrian observes that \"those who are punished in Gehenna, are scourged by the scourge of love. ... The power of love works in two ways: it torments sinners ... [as] bitter regret. But love inebriates the souls of the sons of Heaven by its delectability.\" In this sense, the divine action is always, immutably, and uniformly love and if one experiences this love negatively, the experience is then one of self-condemnation because of free will rather than condemnation by God.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 2536383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 571, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Orthodoxy therefore uses the description of Jesus' judgment in John 3:19–21 as their model: \"19 And this is the judgment: the light has come into the world, and people loved the darkness rather than the light because their works were evil. 20 For everyone who does wicked things hates the light and does not come to the light, lest his works should be exposed. 21 But whoever does what is true comes to the light, so that it may be clearly seen that his works have been carried out in God.\" As a characteristically Orthodox understanding, then, Fr. Thomas Hopko writes, \"[I]t is precisely the presence of God's mercy and love which cause the torment of the wicked. God does not punish; he forgives... . In a word, God has mercy on all, whether all like it or not. If we like it, it is paradise; if we do not, it is hell. Every knee will bend before the Lord. Everything will be subject to Him. God in Christ will indeed be \"all and in all,\" with boundless mercy and unconditional pardon. But not all will rejoice in God's gift of forgiveness, and that choice will be judgment, the self-inflicted source of their sorrow and pain.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 2289330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 549, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Moreover, Orthodoxy includes a prevalent tradition of apokatastasis, or the restoration of all things in the end. This has been taught most notably by Origen, but also many other Church fathers and Saints, including Gregory of Nyssa. The Second Council of Constantinople (553 CE) affirmed the orthodoxy of Gregory of Nyssa while simultaneously condemning Origen's brand of universalism because it taught the restoration back to our pre-existent state, which Orthodoxy doesn't teach. It is also a teaching of such eminent Orthodox theologians as Olivier Clément, Metropolitan Kallistos Ware, and Bishop Hilarion Alfeyev. Although apokatastasis is not a dogma of the church but instead a theologoumenon, it is no less a teaching of the Orthodox Church than its rejection. As Met. Kallistos Ware explains, \"It is heretical to say that all must be saved, for this is to deny free will; but, it is legitimate to hope that all may be saved,\" as insisting on torment without end also denies free will.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 405839, 22702, 38020, 48808, 21365561, 6643123, 7290117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 67 ], [ 151, 157 ], [ 216, 232 ], [ 238, 270 ], [ 546, 561 ], [ 576, 590 ], [ 603, 619 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joseph F. Smith of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints presents an elaborate vision of the afterlife. It is revealed as the scene of an extensive missionary effort by righteous spirits in paradise to redeem those still in darkness—a spirit prison or \"hell\" where the spirits of the dead remain until judgment. It is divided into two parts: Spirit Prison and Paradise. Together these are also known as the Spirit World (also Abraham's Bosom; see Luke 16:19–25). They believe that Christ visited spirit prison (1 Peter 3:18–20) and opened the gate for those who repent to cross over to Paradise. This is similar to the Harrowing of Hell doctrine of some mainstream Christian faiths. Both Spirit Prison and Paradise are temporary according to Latter-day Saint beliefs. After the resurrection, spirits are assigned \"permanently\" to three degrees of heavenly glory, determined by how they lived – Celestial, Terrestrial, and Telestial. (1 Cor 15:44–42; Doctrine and Covenants, Section 76) Sons of Perdition, or those who have known and seen God and deny it, will be sent to the realm of Satan, which is called Outer Darkness, where they shall live in misery and agony forever. However, according to the beliefs of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, most persons lack the amount of knowledge to commit the Eternal sin and are therefore incapable of becoming sons of perdition.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 639575, 5935, 249524, 30072578, 27694, 1243977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 19, 66 ], [ 629, 646 ], [ 996, 1013 ], [ 1094, 1099 ], [ 1326, 1337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Celestial Kingdom is believed to be a place where the righteous can live eternally with their families. Progression does not end once one has entered the Celestial Kingdom, but extends eternally. According to \"True to the Faith\" (a handbook on doctrines in the LDS faith), \"The celestial kingdom is the place prepared for those who have \"received the testimony of Jesus\" and been \"made perfect through Jesus the mediator of the new covenant, who wrought out this perfect atonement through the shedding of his own blood\" (Doctrine and Covenants, 76:51, 69). To inherit this gift, we must receive the ordinances of salvation, keep the commandments, and repent of our sins.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jehovah's Witnesses occasionally use terms such as \"afterlife\" to refer to any hope for the dead, but they understand Ecclesiastes 9:5 to preclude belief in an immortal soul. Individuals judged by God to be wicked, such as in the Great Flood or at Armageddon, are given no hope of an afterlife. However, they believe that after Armageddon there will be a bodily resurrection of \"both righteous and unrighteous\" dead (but not the \"wicked\"). Survivors of Armageddon and those who are resurrected are then to gradually restore earth to a paradise. After Armageddon, unrepentant sinners are punished with eternal death (non-existence).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 52547, 9910, 601839, 3058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 118, 130 ], [ 230, 241 ], [ 248, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Seventh-day Adventist Church's beliefs regarding the afterlife differ from other Christian churches. Rather than ascend to Heaven or descend to Hell, Adventists believe the dead \"remain unconscious until the return of Christ in judgement\". The concept that the dead remain dead until resurrection is one of the fundamental beliefs of Seventh-day Adventist. Adventists believe that death is an unconscious state (a \"sleep\"). This is based on Matt. 9:24; Mark 5:39; John 11:11-14; 1 Cor. 15:51, 52; 1 Thess. 4:13-17; 2 Peter 3:4; Eccl. 9:5, 6, 10. At death, all consciousness ends. The dead person does not know anything and does not do anything. They believe that death is creation, only in reverse. Ecclesiastes 12:7. When a person dies, the body turns to dust again, and the spirit goes back to God, who gave it. The spirit of every person who dies—whether saved or unsaved—returns to God at death. The spirit that returns to God at death is the breath of life.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Quran (the holy book of Islam), emphasizes the insignificance of worldly life (ḥayāt ad-dunyā usually translated as \"this world\") vis-a-vis the hereafter.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 36922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A central doctrine of Islamic faith is the Last Day (al-yawm al-ākhir, also known by other names), on which the world will come to an end and God will raise all mankind (as well as the jinn) from the dead and evaluate their worldly actions. The resurrected will be judged according to their deeds, records of which are kept on two books compiled for every human being—one for their good deeds and one for their evil ones.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 161978, 13027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 51 ], [ 185, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having been judged, the resurrected will cross the bridge of As-Sirāt over the pit of hell; when the condemned attempt to they will be made to fall off into hellfire below; while the righteous will have no trouble and continue on to their eternal abode of heaven.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 1550365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Afterlife in Islam actually begins before the Last Day.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After death, humans will be questioned about their faith by two angels, Munkar and Nakīr. Those who die as martyrs go immediately to paradise. Others who have died and been buried, will receive a taste of their eternal reward from the al-qabr or \"the grave\" (compare the Judaism of Sheol). Those bound for hell will suffer \"punishment of the grave\", while those bound for heaven will find the grave \"peaceful and blessed\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 21919, 214731, 24509913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 88 ], [ 283, 288 ], [ 325, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Islamic scripture — the Quran and hadith (reports of the words and deeds of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad who is believed to have visited heaven and hell during his Isra and Mi'raj journey) -- give vivid descriptions of the pleasures of paradise (Jannah) and sufferings of hell (Jahannam). The gardens of jannah have cool shade adorned couchs and cushions rich carpets spread out, cups full of wine and every meat and fruit . Men will be provided with perpetually youthful, beautiful ḥūr, \"untouched beforehand by man or jinn\", with large, beautiful eyes .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 36922, 13749, 18934, 811108, 507555, 607906, 251180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 29 ], [ 35, 41 ], [ 97, 105 ], [ 165, 180 ], [ 247, 253 ], [ 279, 287 ], [ 491, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(In recent years some have argued that the term ḥūr refers both to pure men and pure women, and/or that Quranic references to \"immortal boys\" (, ) or \"young men\" () (ghilmān, wildān, and suqāh) who serve wine and meals to the blessed, are the male equivalents of hur.)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 636856, 32961, 337346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 173 ], [ 204, 208 ], [ 226, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In contrast, those in Jahannam will dwell in a land infested with thousands of serpents and scorpions; be \"burnt\" by \"scorching fire\" and when \"their skins are roasted through, We shall change them for fresh skins\" to repeat the process forever ; they will have nothing to drink but \"boiling water and running sores\" ; their cries of remorse and pleading for forgiveness will be in vain .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 607906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Traditionally jannah and jahannam are thought to have different levels. Eight gates and eight levels in Jannah, where the higher the level the better it is and the happier you are. Jahannam possess seven layers. Each layer more horrible than the one above.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Quran teaches that the purpose of Man's creation is to worship God and God alone. Those it describes as being punished in hell are \"most typically\", unbelievers, including those who worship others besides Allah , those who deny the divine origin of the Quran , or the coming of Judgement Day .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Straightforward crimes/sins against other people are also grounds for going to hell: the murder of a believer , usury (Q.2:275), devouring the property of an orphan , slander , particularly of a chaste woman .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "However it is a common belief among Muslims that whatever crimes/sins Muslims may have committed, their punishment in hell will be temporary. Only unbelievers will reside in hell permanently. Thus Jahannam combines both the concept of an eternal hell (for unbelievers), and what is known in Christian Catholicism as purgatory (for believers eventually destined for heaven after punishment for their sins).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 26305234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 316, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The common belief holds that Jahannam coexists with the temporal world. Mainstream Islam teaches the continued existence of the soul and a transformed physical existence after death. The resurrection that will take place on the Last Day is physical, and is explained by suggesting that God will re-create the decayed body (\"Have they not realized that Allah, Who created the heavens and the earth, can ˹easily˺ re-create them?\" ).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ahmadi Muslims believe that the afterlife is not material but of a spiritual nature. According to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, founder of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, the soul will give birth to another rarer entity and will resemble the life on this earth in the sense that this entity will bear a similar relationship to the soul as the soul bears relationship with the human existence on earth. On earth, if a person leads a righteous life and submits to the will of God, his or her tastes become attuned to enjoying spiritual pleasures as opposed to carnal desires. With this, an \"embryonic soul\" begins to take shape. Different tastes are said to be born which a person given to carnal passions finds no enjoyment. For example, sacrifice of one's own rights over that of others becomes enjoyable, or that forgiveness becomes second nature. In such a state a person finds contentment and peace at heart and at this stage, according to Ahmadiyya beliefs, it can be said that a soul within the soul has begun to take shape.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 26282410, 466991, 26282410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 98, 116 ], [ 133, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Sufi Muslim scholar Ibn 'Arabi defined Barzakh as the intermediate realm or \"isthmus\". It is between the world of corporeal bodies and the world of spirits, and is a means of contact between the two worlds. Without it, there would be no contact between the two and both would cease to exist. He described it as simple and luminous, like the world of spirits, but also able to take on many different forms just like the world of corporeal bodies can. In broader terms Barzakh, \"is anything that separates two things\". It has been called the dream world in which the dreamer is in both life and death.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 28246, 200354, 1754718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 15 ], [ 24, 34 ], [ 43, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The teachings of the Baháʼí Faith state that the nature of the afterlife is beyond the understanding of those living, just as an unborn fetus cannot understand the nature of the world outside of the womb. The Baháʼí writings state that the soul is immortal and after death it will continue to progress until it finally attains God's presence. In Baháʼí belief, souls in the afterlife will continue to retain their individuality and consciousness and will be able to recognize and communicate spiritually with other souls whom they have made deep profound friendships with, such as their spouses.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [ 4251, 31863, 4083789, 7020690, 19728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 33 ], [ 199, 203 ], [ 209, 224 ], [ 327, 341 ], [ 587, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Baháʼí scriptures also state there are distinctions between souls in the afterlife, and that souls will recognize the worth of their own deeds and understand the consequences of their actions. It is explained that those souls that have turned toward God will experience gladness, while those who have lived in error will become aware of the opportunities they have lost. Also, in the Baháʼí view, souls will be able to recognize the accomplishments of the souls that have reached the same level as themselves, but not those that have achieved a rank higher than them.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Abrahamic religions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Buddhists maintain that rebirth takes place without an unchanging self or soul passing from one form to another. The type of rebirth will be conditioned by the moral tone of the person's actions (kamma or karma). For example, if a person has committed harmful actions by body, speech and mind based on greed, hate and delusion, would have his/her rebirth in a lower realm, i.e. an animal, a hungry ghost or a hell realm, is to be expected. On the other hand, where a person has performed skillful actions based on generosity, loving-kindness (metta), compassion and wisdom, rebirth in a happy realm, i.e. human or one of the many heavenly realms, can be expected.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Indian religions", "target_page_ids": [ 456706, 803763, 5008209, 1864505, 2224291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 31 ], [ 66, 70 ], [ 196, 210 ], [ 391, 403 ], [ 543, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, the mechanism of rebirth with Kamma is not deterministic. It depends on various levels of kamma. The most important moment that determines where a person is reborn into is the last thought moment. At that moment, heavy kamma would ripen if there were performed. If not, near death kamma would ripen, and if not death kamma, then habitual kamma would ripen. Finally if none of the above happened, then residual kamma from previous actions can ripen. According to Theravada Buddhism, there are 31 realms of existence that one can be reborn into.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Indian religions", "target_page_ids": [ 30994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 472, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pure Land Buddhism of Mahayana believes in a special place apart from the 31 planes of existence called Pure Land. It is believed that each Buddha has their own pure land, created out of their merits for the sake of sentient beings who recall them mindfully to be able to be reborn in their pure land and train to become a Buddha there. Thus the main practice of pure land Buddhism is to chant a Buddha's name.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Indian religions", "target_page_ids": [ 197710, 27937488, 14179211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 22, 30 ], [ 104, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Tibetan Buddhism the Tibetan Book of the Dead explains the intermediate state of humans between death and reincarnation. The deceased will find the bright light of wisdom, which shows a straightforward path to move upward and leave the cycle of reincarnation. There are various reasons why the deceased do not follow that light. Some had no briefing about the intermediate state in the former life. Others only used to follow their basic instincts like animals. And some have fear, which results from foul deeds in the former life or from insistent haughtiness. In the intermediate state the awareness is very flexible, so it is important to be virtuous, adopt a positive attitude, and avoid negative ideas. Ideas which are rising from subconsciousness can cause extreme tempers and cowing visions. In this situation they have to understand, that these manifestations are just reflections of the inner thoughts. No one can really hurt them, because they have no more material body. The deceased get help from different Buddhas who show them the path to the bright light. The ones who do not follow the path after all will get hints for a better reincarnation. They have to release the things and beings on which or whom they still hang from the life before. It is recommended to choose a family where the parents trust in the Dharma and to reincarnate with the will to care for the welfare of all beings.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Indian religions", "target_page_ids": [ 30988, 606818, 174976, 8753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ], [ 24, 48 ], [ 1022, 1028 ], [ 1329, 1335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Life is cosmic energy of the universe and after death it merges in universe again and as the time comes to find the suitable place for the entity died in the life condition it gets born. There are 10 life states of any life: Hell, hunger, anger, animality, rapture, humanity, learning, realization, bodhisatva and buddhahood. The life dies in which life condition it reborn in the same life condition.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Indian religions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are two major views of afterlife in Hinduism: mythical and philosophical. The philosophies of Hinduism consider each individual consists of 3 bodies: physical body compose of water and bio-matter (sthūla śarīra), an energetic/psychic/mental/subtle body (sūkṣma-śarīra) and a causal body (kāraṇa śarīra) comprising subliminal stuff i.e. mental impressions etc.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Indian religions", "target_page_ids": [ 38147087 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The individual is a stream of consciousness (Ātman) which flows through all the physical changes of the body and at the death of the physical body, flows on into another physical body. The two components that transmigrate are the subtle body and the causal body.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Indian religions", "target_page_ids": [ 100542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The thought that occupies the mind at the time of death determines the quality of our rebirth (antim smaraṇa), hence Hinduism advises to be mindful of one's thoughts and cultivate positive wholesome thoughts - Mantra chanting (Japa) is commonly practiced for this.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Indian religions", "target_page_ids": [ 1386213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 227, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mythical includes the philosophical but adds heaven and hell myths.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Indian religions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When one leaves the physical body at death he appears in the court of Lord Yama, the God of Death for an exit interview. The panel consists of Yama and Chitragupta - the cosmic accountant, and Varuna the cosmic intelligence officer. He is counseled about his life, achievements and failures and is shown a mirror in which his entire life is reflected. (Philosophically these three men are projections of one's mind) Yama the Lord of Justice then sends him to a heavenly realm (svarga) if he has been exceptionally benevolent and beneficent for a period of Rest and Recreation. his period is limited in time by the weight of his good deeds. If he has been exceptionally malevolent and caused immense suffering to other beings then he is sent to a cosmic gulag (naraka) for his sins. After one has exhausted his karmas, he takes birth again to continue his spiritual evolution. However, belief in rebirth was not a part of early Vedic religions and texts. It was later developed by Rishis who challenged idea of one life as simplistic.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Indian religions", "target_page_ids": [ 5053316, 2174898, 32551, 100256, 37160096, 174528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 79 ], [ 152, 163 ], [ 193, 199 ], [ 477, 483 ], [ 760, 766 ], [ 855, 875 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rebirth can take place as a god (deva), a human (manuṣya) an animal (tiryak) — but it is generally taught that the spiritual evolution takes place from lower to higher species. In certain cases of traumatic death a person can take the form of a Preta or Hungry Ghost - and remains in an earth-bound state interminably - until certain ceremonies are done to liberate them. This mythological part is extensively elaborated in the Hindu Puranas especially in the Garuda Purana.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Indian religions", "target_page_ids": [ 321978, 2882475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 434, 441 ], [ 460, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Upanishads are the first scriptures in Hinduism which explicitly mention about Afterlife, The Bhagavad Gita, a famous Hindu script, says that just as a man discards his old clothes and wears new ones; similarly the Atman discards the old body and takes on a new one. In Hinduism, the belief is that the body is nothing but a shell, the consciousness inside is immutable and indestructible and takes on different lives in a cycle of birth and death. The end of this cycle is called mukti (Sanskrit: मुक्ति) and staying finally with the ultimate reality forever; is moksha (Sanskrit: मोक्ष) or liberation", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Indian religions", "target_page_ids": [ 80666, 23277715, 20646880, 175918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 98, 111 ], [ 539, 555 ], [ 568, 574 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jainism also believes in the afterlife. They believe that the soul takes on a body form based on previous karmas or actions performed by that soul through eternity. Jains believe the soul is eternal and that the freedom from the cycle of reincarnation is the means to attain eternal bliss.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Indian religions", "target_page_ids": [ 16016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The essential doctrine of Sikhism is to experience the divine through simple living, meditation and contemplation while being alive. Sikhism also has the belief of being in union with God while living. Accounts of afterlife are considered to be aimed at the popular prevailing views of the time so as to provide a referential framework without necessarily establishing a belief in the afterlife. Thus while it is also acknowledged that living the life of a householder is above the metaphysical truth, Sikhism can be considered agnostic to the question of an afterlife. Some scholars also interpret the mention of reincarnation to be naturalistic akin to the biogeochemical cycles.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Indian religions", "target_page_ids": [ 27964, 398638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 33 ], [ 659, 679 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "But if one analyses the Sikh Scriptures carefully, one may find that on many occasions the afterlife and the existence of heaven and hell are mentioned in Guru Granth Sahib and in Dasam Granth, so from that it can be concluded that Sikhism does believe in the existence of heaven and hell; however, heaven and hell are created to temporarily reward and punish, and one will then take birth again until one merges in God. According to the Sikh scriptures, the human form is the closet form to God and the best opportunity for a human being to attain salvation and merge back with God. Sikh Gurus said that nothing dies, nothing is born, everything is ever present, and it just changes forms. Like standing in front of a wardrobe, you pick up a dress and wear it and then you discard it. You wear another one. Thus, in the view of Sikhism, your soul is never born and never dies. Your soul is a part of God and hence lives forever.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Indian religions", "target_page_ids": [ 520887, 561629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 172 ], [ 180, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Traditional African religions are diverse in their beliefs in an afterlife. Hunter-gatherer societies such as the Hadza have no particular belief in an afterlife, and the death of an individual is a straightforward end to their existence. Ancestor cults are found throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, including cultures like the Yombe, Beng, Yoruba and Ewe, \"[T]he belief that the dead come back into life and are reborn into their families is given concrete expression in the personal names that are given to children....What is reincarnated are some of the dominant characteristics of the ancestor and not his soul. For each soul remains distinct and each birth represents a new soul.\" The Yoruba, Dogon and LoDagoa have eschatological ideas similar to Abrahamic religions, \"but in most African societies, there is a marked absence of such clear-cut notions of heaven and hell, although there are notions of God judging the soul after death.\" In some societies like the Mende, multiple beliefs coexist. The Mende believe that people die twice: once during the process of joining the secret society, and again during biological death after which they become ancestors. However, some Mende also believe that after people are created by God they live ten consecutive lives, each in progressively descending worlds. One cross-cultural theme is that the ancestors are part of the world of the living, interacting with it regularly.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Others", "target_page_ids": [ 4655918, 210098, 6618605, 32632, 27067, 1573215, 42781443, 19996678, 1730727, 301390, 561253, 561253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ], [ 76, 91 ], [ 114, 119 ], [ 239, 253 ], [ 275, 293 ], [ 323, 328 ], [ 330, 334 ], [ 336, 342 ], [ 347, 350 ], [ 694, 699 ], [ 966, 971 ], [ 1079, 1093 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is common for families to participate in ceremonies for children at a shrine, yet have a Buddhist funeral at the time of death. In old Japanese legends, it is often claimed that the dead go to a place called yomi (黄泉), a gloomy underground realm with a river separating the living from the dead mentioned in the legend of Izanami and Izanagi. This yomi very closely resembles the Greek Hades; however, later myths include notions of resurrection and even Elysium-like descriptions such as in the legend of Ōkuninushi and Susanoo. Shinto tends to hold negative views on death and corpses as a source of pollution called kegare. However, death is also viewed as a path towards apotheosis in Shintoism as can be evidenced by how legendary individuals become enshrined after death. Perhaps the most famous would be Emperor Ōjin who was enshrined as Hachiman the God of War after his death.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Others", "target_page_ids": [ 642345, 432273, 5355670, 65131, 2649986, 153717, 494683, 10455, 227057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 108 ], [ 211, 215 ], [ 389, 394 ], [ 458, 465 ], [ 509, 519 ], [ 524, 531 ], [ 678, 688 ], [ 814, 826 ], [ 848, 856 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some Unitarian Universalists believe in universalism: that all souls will ultimately be saved and that there are no torments of hell. Unitarian Universalists differ widely in their theology hence there is no exact same stance on the issue. Although Unitarians historically believed in a literal hell, and Universalists historically believed that everyone goes to heaven, modern Unitarian Universalists can be categorized into those believing in a heaven, reincarnation and oblivion. Most Unitarian Universalists believe that heaven and hell are symbolic places of consciousness and the faith is largely focused on the worldly life rather than any possible afterlife.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Others", "target_page_ids": [ 32059, 31902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 27 ], [ 40, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Edgar Cayce, the afterlife consisted of nine realms equated with the nine planets of astrology. The first, symbolized by Saturn, was a level for the purification of the souls. The second, Mercury's realm, gives us the ability to consider problems as a whole. The third of the nine soul realms is ruled by Earth and is associated with the Earthly pleasures. The fourth realm is where we find out about love and is ruled by Venus. The fifth realm is where we meet our limitations and is ruled by Mars. The sixth realm is ruled by Neptune, and is where we begin to use our creative powers and free ourselves from the material world. The seventh realm is symbolized by Jupiter, which strengthens the soul's ability to depict situations, to analyze people and places, things, and conditions. The eighth afterlife realm is ruled by Uranus and develops psychic ability. The ninth afterlife realm is symbolized by Pluto, the astrological realm of the unconscious. This afterlife realm is a transient place where souls can choose to travel to other realms or other solar systems, it is the souls liberation into eternity, and is the realm that opens the doorway from our solar system into the cosmos point of view.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Others", "target_page_ids": [ 159184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mainstream Spiritualists postulate a series of seven realms that are not unlike Edgar Cayce's nine realms ruled by the planets. As it evolves, the soul moves higher and higher until it reaches the ultimate realm of spiritual oneness. The first realm, equated with hell, is the place where troubled souls spend a long time before they are compelled to move up to the next level. The second realm, where most souls move directly, is thought of as an intermediate transition between the lower planes of life and hell and the higher perfect realms of the universe. The third level is for those who have worked with their karmic inheritance. The fourth level is that from which evolved souls teach and direct those on Earth. The fifth level is where the soul leaves human consciousness behind. At the sixth plane, the soul is finally aligned with the cosmic consciousness and has no sense of separateness or individuality. Finally, the seventh level, the goal of each soul, is where the soul transcends its own sense of \"soulfulness\" and reunites with the World Soul and the universe.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Others", "target_page_ids": [ 200732, 1279037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 23 ], [ 1051, 1061 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Wiccan afterlife is most commonly described as The Summerland. Here, souls rest, recuperate from life, and reflect on the experiences they had during their lives. After a period of rest, the souls are reincarnated, and the memory of their previous lives is erased. Many Wiccans see The Summerland as a place to reflect on their life actions. It is not a place of reward, but rather the end of a life journey at an end point of incarnations.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Others", "target_page_ids": [ 5732986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zoroastrianism states that the urvan, the disembodied spirit, lingers on earth for three days before departing downward to the kingdom of the dead that is ruled by Yima. For the three days that it rests on Earth, righteous souls sit at the head of their body, chanting the Ustavaiti Gathas with joy, while a wicked person sits at the feet of the corpse, wails and recites the Yasna. Zoroastrianism states that for the righteous souls, a beautiful maiden, which is the personification of the soul's good thoughts, words and deeds, appears. For a wicked person, a very old, ugly, naked hag appears. After three nights, the soul of the wicked is taken by the demon Vizaresa (Vīzarəša), to Chinvat bridge, and is made to go to darkness (hell).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Others", "target_page_ids": [ 562477, 1406996, 5098574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 289 ], [ 376, 381 ], [ 733, 737 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yima is believed to have been the first king on earth to rule, as well as the first man to die. Inside of Yima's realm, the spirits live a shadowy existence, and are dependent on their own descendants which are still living on Earth. Their descendants are to satisfy their hunger and clothe them, through rituals done on earth.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Others", "target_page_ids": [ 1334657, 52374650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 40, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rituals which are done on the first three days are vital and important, as they protect the soul from evil powers and give it strength to reach the underworld. After three days, the soul crosses Chinvat bridge which is the Final Judgment of the soul. Rashnu and Sraosha are present at the final judgment. The list is expanded sometimes, and include Vahman and Ormazd. Rashnu is the yazata who holds the scales of justice. If the good deeds of the person outweigh the bad, the soul is worthy of paradise. If the bad deeds outweigh the good, the bridge narrows down to the width of a blade-edge, and a horrid hag pulls the soul in her arms, and takes it down to hell with her.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Others", "target_page_ids": [ 11237247, 161978, 3168314, 19998957, 50324, 4704982, 2359143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 209 ], [ 223, 237 ], [ 262, 269 ], [ 349, 355 ], [ 360, 366 ], [ 368, 374 ], [ 382, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Misvan Gatu is the \"place of the mixed ones\" where the souls lead a gray existence, lacking both joy and sorrow. A soul goes here if his/her good deeds and bad deeds are equal, and Rashnu's scale is equal.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Others", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Society for Psychical Research was founded in 1882 with the express intention of investigating phenomena relating to Spiritualism and the afterlife. Its members continue to conduct scientific research on the paranormal to this day. Some of the earliest attempts to apply scientific methods to the study of phenomena relating to an afterlife were conducted by this organization. Its earliest members included noted scientists like William Crookes, and philosophers such as Henry Sidgwick and William James.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Parapsychology", "target_page_ids": [ 28122, 26833, 27648, 206999, 90682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 34 ], [ 275, 292 ], [ 434, 449 ], [ 476, 490 ], [ 495, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Parapsychological investigation of the afterlife includes the study of haunting, apparitions of the deceased, instrumental trans-communication, electronic voice phenomena, and mediumship.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Parapsychology", "target_page_ids": [ 409702, 6525262, 744997, 2269697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 79 ], [ 81, 92 ], [ 144, 170 ], [ 176, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A study conducted in 1901 by physician Duncan MacDougall sought to measure the weight lost by a human when the soul \"departed the body\" upon death. MacDougall weighed dying patients in an attempt to prove that the soul was material, tangible and thus measurable. Although MacDougall's results varied considerably from \"21 grams\", for some people this figure has become synonymous with the measure of a soul's mass. The title of the 2003 movie 21 Grams is a reference to MacDougall's findings. His results have never been reproduced, and are generally regarded either as meaningless or considered to have had little if any scientific merit.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Parapsychology", "target_page_ids": [ 2883760, 2883760, 28297, 468326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 7 ], [ 39, 56 ], [ 111, 115 ], [ 443, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frank Tipler has argued that physics can explain immortality, although such arguments are not falsifiable and, in Karl Popper's views, they do not qualify as science.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Parapsychology", "target_page_ids": [ 415958, 22939, 11283, 16623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 29, 36 ], [ 94, 105 ], [ 114, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After 25 years of parapsychological research Susan Blackmore came to the conclusion that, according to her experiences, there is not enough empirical evidence for many of these cases.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Parapsychology", "target_page_ids": [ 145810, 307139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 60 ], [ 140, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mediums purportedly act as a vessel for communications from spirits in other realms. Mediumship is not specific to one culture or religion; it can be identified in several belief systems, most notably Spiritualism. While the practice gained popularity in Europe and North America in the 19th century, evidence of mediumship dates back thousands of years in Asia. Mediums who claim to have contact with deceased people include Tyler Henry and Pascal Voggenhuber.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Parapsychology", "target_page_ids": [ 2269697, 200732, 49262719, 62461924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 95 ], [ 201, 213 ], [ 426, 437 ], [ 442, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Research also includes the study of the near death experience. Scientists who have worked in this area include Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, Raymond Moody, Sam Parnia, Michael Sabom, Bruce Greyson, Peter Fenwick, Jeffrey Long, Susan Blackmore, Charles Tart, William James, Ian Stevenson, Michael Persinger, Pim van Lommel, Penny Sartori, Walter van Laack among others.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Parapsychology", "target_page_ids": [ 713529, 445864, 35623626, 52342134, 7624849, 34274705, 52394881, 145810, 1584178, 90682, 450976, 423938, 32511056, 34264908, 50777403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 132 ], [ 134, 147 ], [ 149, 159 ], [ 161, 174 ], [ 176, 189 ], [ 191, 204 ], [ 206, 218 ], [ 220, 235 ], [ 237, 249 ], [ 251, 264 ], [ 266, 279 ], [ 281, 298 ], [ 300, 314 ], [ 316, 329 ], [ 331, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a view based on the philosophical question of personal identity, termed open individualism by Daniel Kolak, that concludes that individual conscious experience is illusory, and because consciousness continues after death in all conscious beings, you do not die. This position has allegedly been supported by physicists such as Erwin Schrödinger and Freeman Dyson.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 34171748, 27083831, 7947529, 9942, 11397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 72 ], [ 81, 99 ], [ 103, 115 ], [ 336, 353 ], [ 358, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Certain problems arise with the idea of a particular person continuing after death. Peter van Inwagen, in his argument regarding resurrection, notes that the materialist must have some sort of physical continuity. John Hick also raises questions regarding personal identity in his book, Death and Eternal Life, using an example of a person ceasing to exist in one place while an exact replica appears in another. If the replica had all the same experiences, traits, and physical appearances of the first person, we would all attribute the same identity to the second, according to Hick.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1677156, 1457023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 101 ], [ 214, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the panentheistic model of process philosophy and theology the writers Alfred North Whitehead and Charles Hartshorne rejected the idea that the universe was made of substance, instead saying reality is composed of living experiences (occasions of experience). According to Hartshorne people do not experience subjective (or personal) immortality in the afterlife, but they do have objective immortality because their experiences live on forever in God, who contains all that was. However other process philosophers such as David Ray Griffin have written that people may have subjective experience after death.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 23591, 24269, 43395, 588100, 19673093, 5042765, 1820506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ], [ 30, 48 ], [ 74, 96 ], [ 101, 119 ], [ 168, 177 ], [ 451, 454 ], [ 526, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Psychological proposals for the origin of a belief in an afterlife include cognitive disposition, cultural learning, and as an intuitive religious idea. In one study, children were able to recognize the ending of physical, mental, and perceptual activity in death, but were hesitant to conclude the ending of will, self, or emotion in death.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2008, a large-scale study conducted by the University of Southampton involving 2060 patients from 15 hospitals in the United Kingdom, United States and Austria was launched. The AWARE (AWAreness during REsuscitation) study examined the broad range of mental experiences in relation to death. In a large study, researchers also tested the validity of conscious experiences for the first time using objective markers, to determine whether claims of awareness compatible with out-of-body experiences correspond with real or hallucinatory events. The results revealed that 40% of those who survived a cardiac arrest were aware during the time that they were clinically dead and before their hearts were restarted. One patient also had a verified out-of-body experience (over 80% of patients did not survive their cardiac arrest or were too sick to be interviewed), but his cardiac arrest occurred in a room without markers. Dr. Parnia in the interview stated, \"The evidence thus far suggests that in the first few minutes after death, consciousness is not annihilated.\" The AWARE study drew the following primary conclusions:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In some cases of cardiac arrest, memories of visual awareness compatible with so called out-of-body experiences may correspond with actual events.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A number of NDErs may have vivid death experiences, but do not recall them due to the effects of brain injury or sedative drugs on memory circuits.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The recalled experience surrounding death merits a genuine investigation without prejudice.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Studies have also been done on the widely reported phenomenon of Near Death Experiences. Experiencers commonly report being transported to a different \"realm\" or \"plane of existence\" and they have been shown to display a lasting positive aftereffect on most experiencers.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 19008500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Allegory of the long spoons", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32772868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Astral Plane", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 838378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bardo", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 327632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brig of Dread (Bridge of Dread)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5145263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Empiricism", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Epistemology", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eternal oblivion", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41185116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Exaltation (Mormonism)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 52555125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fate of the unlearned", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5392294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Heaven", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rebecca Hensler", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47473401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hell", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5098574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Immortality", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 177052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mictlan", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 90194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mind uploading", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 162435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nirvana", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Omega Point", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 217422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Paradise", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 92982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Phowa", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3288847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pre-existence", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Purgatory", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26305234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rebirth", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 456706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reincarnation", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Soul", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Soul retrieval", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 705313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Spiritism", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 57971639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Suspended animation", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 354077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Spirit World", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11879346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Undead", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Afterlife: A History of Life after Death by Philip C Almond (London and Ithaca NY: I.B. Tauris and Cornell University Press, 2015).", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Campbell, Douglas R. \"Plato's Theory of Reincarnation: Eschatology and Natural Philosophy,\" Review of Metaphysics 75 (4): 643–665. 2022.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Death and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions edited by Hiroshi Obayashi, Praeger, 1991.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Beyond Death: Theological and Philosophical Reflections on Life after Death edited by Dan Cohn-Sherbok and Christopher Lewis, Pelgrave-MacMillan, 1995.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 428368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection by Jane Idelman Smith and Yazbeck Haddad, Oxford UP, 2002.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Life After Death: A History of the Afterlife in Western Religion by Alan F. Segal, Doubleday, 2004.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 13362698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brain & Belief: An Exploration of the Human Soul by John J. McGraw, Aegis Press, 2004.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Beyond the Threshold: Afterlife Beliefs and Experiences in World Religions by Christopher M. Moreman, Rowman & Littlefield, 2008.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Is there an afterlife: a comprehensive overview of the evidence by David Fontana, O Books 2005.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Death and the Afterlife, by Robert A. Morey. Minneapolis, Minn.: Bethany House Publishers, 1984. 315 p. ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Conceptions of the Afterlife in Early Civilizations: Universalism, Constructivism and Near-Death Experience by Gregory Shushan, New York & London, Continuum, 2009. .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Myth of an Afterlife: The Case against Life After Death edited by Michael Martin and Keith Augustine, Rowman & Littlefield, 2015. .", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 743205 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Traveler's Guide to the Afterlife: Traditions and Beliefs on Death, Dying, and What Lies Beyond by Mark Mirabello, PhD Inner Traditions. 2016 ", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Conceptions of the Afterlife in Early Civilizations: Universalism, Constructivism, and near-Death Experience by Gregory Shushan, Continuum, 2009.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Vatican.va: Catechism of the Catholic Church", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Islamic Guide: Life After Death", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Judaism 101: Olam Ha-Ba: The Afterlife", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stewart Salmond, Christian Doctrine of Immortality", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 51781919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Death and Immortality", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (Extensive 1878 text by William Rounseville Alger)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 69427191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Online searchable edition of Swedenborg's Heaven and Hell (Swedenborg Foundation 2000)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Collection: Heaven, Hell, and Afterlives from the University of Michigan Museum of Art", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 5721292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 86 ] ] } ]

[ "Afterlife", "Religious_belief_and_doctrine", "Philosophy_of_religion" ]

[ "life after death", "Hereafter" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Astrometry is a branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies. It provides the kinematics and physical origin of the Solar System and our galaxy, the Milky Way.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 50650, 26808, 206542, 65914, 26903, 12558, 2589714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 35 ], [ 105, 109 ], [ 121, 137 ], [ 155, 165 ], [ 193, 205 ], [ 214, 220 ], [ 226, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The history of astrometry is linked to the history of star catalogues, which gave astronomers reference points for objects in the sky so they could track their movements. This can be dated back to Hipparchus, who around 190 BC used the catalogue of his predecessors Timocharis and Aristillus to discover Earth's precession. In doing so, he also developed the brightness scale still in use today. Hipparchus compiled a catalogue with at least 850 stars and their positions. Hipparchus's successor, Ptolemy, included a catalogue of 1,022 stars in his work the Almagest, giving their location, coordinates, and brightness.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28232, 13600, 236984, 2545884, 24714, 23979, 148060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 68 ], [ 197, 207 ], [ 266, 276 ], [ 281, 291 ], [ 312, 322 ], [ 497, 504 ], [ 558, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 10th century, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi carried out observations on the stars and described their positions, magnitudes and star color; furthermore, he provided drawings for each constellation, which are depicted in his Book of Fixed Stars. Ibn Yunus observed more than 10,000 entries for the Sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe with a diameter of nearly 1.4 metres. His observations on eclipses were still used centuries later in Simon Newcomb's investigations on the motion of the Moon, while his other observations of the motions of the planets Jupiter and Saturn inspired Laplace's Obliquity of the Ecliptic and Inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn. In the 15th century, the Timurid astronomer Ulugh Beg compiled the Zij-i-Sultani, in which he catalogued 1,019 stars. Like the earlier catalogs of Hipparchus and Ptolemy, Ulugh Beg's catalogue is estimated to have been precise to within approximately 20 minutes of arc.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 262757, 1962, 28927, 317238, 998087, 73664, 9770, 443879, 344783, 370256, 44328, 5962454, 2431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 42 ], [ 112, 121 ], [ 127, 137 ], [ 223, 242 ], [ 244, 253 ], [ 340, 349 ], [ 408, 415 ], [ 452, 465 ], [ 597, 604 ], [ 698, 705 ], [ 717, 726 ], [ 740, 753 ], [ 927, 941 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 16th century, Tycho Brahe used improved instruments, including large mural instruments, to measure star positions more accurately than previously, with a precision of 15–35 arcsec. Taqi al-Din measured the right ascension of the stars at the Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din using the \"observational clock\" he invented. When telescopes became commonplace, setting circles sped measurements", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30027, 13226237, 2431, 982540, 26073, 982595, 7070301, 4385708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ], [ 76, 92 ], [ 180, 186 ], [ 188, 199 ], [ 213, 228 ], [ 249, 290 ], [ 341, 350 ], [ 372, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "James Bradley first tried to measure stellar parallaxes in 1729. The stellar movement proved too insignificant for his telescope, but he instead discovered the aberration of light and the nutation of the Earth's axis. His cataloguing of 3222 stars was refined in 1807 by Friedrich Bessel, the father of modern astrometry. He made the first measurement of stellar parallax: 0.3 arcsec for the binary star 61 Cygni.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 170095, 202661, 7070301, 2703, 52297430, 11574, 2431, 52713, 36188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 37, 53 ], [ 119, 128 ], [ 160, 179 ], [ 188, 196 ], [ 271, 287 ], [ 377, 383 ], [ 392, 403 ], [ 404, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Being very difficult to measure, only about 60 stellar parallaxes had been obtained by the end of the 19th century, mostly by use of the filar micrometer. Astrographs using astronomical photographic plates sped the process in the early 20th century. Automated plate-measuring machines and more sophisticated computer technology of the 1960s allowed more efficient compilation of star catalogues. Started in the late 19th century, the project Carte du Ciel to improve star mapping couldn't be finished but made photography a common technique for astrometry. In the 1980s, charge-coupled devices (CCDs) replaced photographic plates and reduced optical uncertainties to one milliarcsecond. This technology made astrometry less expensive, opening the field to an amateur audience.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12979470, 2313526, 206897, 28232, 182353, 6804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 153 ], [ 155, 165 ], [ 186, 204 ], [ 380, 394 ], [ 443, 456 ], [ 573, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1989, the European Space Agency's Hipparcos satellite took astrometry into orbit, where it could be less affected by mechanical forces of the Earth and optical distortions from its atmosphere. Operated from 1989 to 1993, Hipparcos measured large and small angles on the sky with much greater precision than any previous optical telescopes. During its 4-year run, the positions, parallaxes, and proper motions of 118,218 stars were determined with an unprecedented degree of accuracy. A new \"Tycho catalog\" drew together a database of 1,058,332 stars to within 20-30 mas (milliarcseconds). Additional catalogues were compiled for the 23,882 double and multiple stars and 11,597 variable stars also analyzed during the Hipparcos mission.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10363, 207964, 52015, 207964, 2431, 63025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 34 ], [ 37, 46 ], [ 397, 411 ], [ 494, 507 ], [ 569, 572 ], [ 680, 693 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2013, the Gaia satellite was launched and improved the accuracy of Hipparcos.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 801330, 207964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 17 ], [ 70, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The precision was improved by a factor of 100 and enabled the mapping of a billion stars.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Today, the catalogue most often used is USNO-B1.0, an all-sky catalogue that tracks proper motions, positions, magnitudes and other characteristics for over one billion stellar objects. During the past 50 years, 7,435 Schmidt camera plates were used to complete several sky surveys that make the data in USNO-B1.0 accurate to within 0.2 arcsec.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28232, 969720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 49 ], [ 218, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apart from the fundamental function of providing astronomers with a reference frame to report their observations in, astrometry is also fundamental for fields like celestial mechanics, stellar dynamics and galactic astronomy. In observational astronomy, astrometric techniques help identify stellar objects by their unique motions. It is instrumental for keeping time, in that UTC is essentially the atomic time synchronized to Earth's rotation by means of exact astronomical observations. Astrometry is an important step in the cosmic distance ladder because it establishes parallax distance estimates for stars in the Milky Way.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 580, 74263, 102182, 456270, 44057, 507266, 41799, 25453500, 334, 9228, 471487, 23253, 2589714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 59 ], [ 68, 83 ], [ 164, 183 ], [ 185, 201 ], [ 206, 224 ], [ 229, 252 ], [ 355, 367 ], [ 377, 380 ], [ 400, 411 ], [ 428, 433 ], [ 529, 551 ], [ 575, 583 ], [ 620, 629 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Astrometry has also been used to support claims of extrasolar planet detection by measuring the displacement the proposed planets cause in their parent star's apparent position on the sky, due to their mutual orbit around the center of mass of the system. Astrometry is more accurate in space missions that are not affected by the distorting effects of the Earth's atmosphere. NASA's planned Space Interferometry Mission (SIM PlanetQuest) (now cancelled) was to utilize astrometric techniques to detect terrestrial planets orbiting 200 or so of the nearest solar-type stars. The European Space Agency's Gaia Mission, launched in 2013, applies astrometric techniques in its stellar census. In addition to the detection of exoplanets, it can also be used to determine their mass.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 7290120, 570274, 570274, 48510, 2014936, 801330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 78 ], [ 392, 420 ], [ 422, 437 ], [ 503, 521 ], [ 557, 573 ], [ 603, 615 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Astrometric measurements are used by astrophysicists to constrain certain models in celestial mechanics. By measuring the velocities of pulsars, it is possible to put a limit on the asymmetry of supernova explosions. Also, astrometric results are used to determine the distribution of dark matter in the galaxy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 361897, 102182, 1227284, 344913, 27680, 8651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 51 ], [ 84, 103 ], [ 136, 142 ], [ 182, 191 ], [ 195, 204 ], [ 285, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Astronomers use astrometric techniques for the tracking of near-Earth objects. Astrometry is responsible for the detection of many record-breaking Solar System objects. To find such objects astrometrically, astronomers use telescopes to survey the sky and large-area cameras to take pictures at various determined intervals. By studying these images, they can detect Solar System objects by their movements relative to the background stars, which remain fixed. Once a movement per unit time is observed, astronomers compensate for the parallax caused by Earth's motion during this time and the heliocentric distance to this object is calculated. Using this distance and other photographs, more information about the object, including its orbital elements, can be obtained.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 21626, 98663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 77 ], [ 738, 754 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "50000 Quaoar and 90377 Sedna are two Solar System objects discovered in this way by Michael E. Brown and others at Caltech using the Palomar Observatory's Samuel Oschin telescope of and the Palomar-Quest large-area CCD camera. The ability of astronomers to track the positions and movements of such celestial bodies is crucial to the understanding of the Solar System and its interrelated past, present, and future with others in the Universe.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 21491359, 526042, 528312, 392143, 1403957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 17, 28 ], [ 84, 100 ], [ 133, 152 ], [ 155, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A fundamental aspect of astrometry is error correction. Various factors introduce errors into the measurement of stellar positions, including atmospheric conditions, imperfections in the instruments and errors by the observer or the measuring instruments. Many of these errors can be reduced by various techniques, such as through instrument improvements and compensations to the data. The results are then analyzed using statistical methods to compute data estimates and error ranges.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Statistics", "target_page_ids": [ 44281046, 26685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 407, 415 ], [ 422, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " XParallax viu (Free application for Windows)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computer programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Astrometrica (Application for Windows)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computer programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Astrometry.net (Online blind astrometry)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Computer programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In Voyager, the Astrometrics lab is the set for various scenes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 416758, 3074472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 45 ], [ 58, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2004, TV series Battlestar Galactica an Astrometrics lab is stated in dialogue multiple times.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In fiction", "target_page_ids": [ 3604726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MPC Guide to Minor Body Astrometry", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Astrometry Department of the U.S. Naval Observatory", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "USNO Astrometric Catalog and related Products ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Planet-Like Body Discovered at Fringes of Our Solar System (2004-03-15)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mike Brown's Caltech Home Page", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scientific Paper describing Sedna's discovery", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission on ESA", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Astrometry", "Astronomical_sub-disciplines", "Astrological_aspects", "Measurement" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is an ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, handicraft, and warfare who was later syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarded as the patron and protectress of various cities across Greece, particularly the city of Athens, from which she most likely received her name. The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens is dedicated to her. Her major symbols include owls, olive trees, snakes, and the Gorgoneion. In art, she is generally depicted wearing a helmet and holding a spear.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 514444, 274099, 29612, 28957716, 19845, 1216, 23672, 2076, 3206672, 22479, 8546801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 41 ], [ 56, 77 ], [ 140, 151 ], [ 161, 174 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 292, 298 ], [ 350, 359 ], [ 367, 386 ], [ 434, 438 ], [ 440, 451 ], [ 469, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From her origin as an Aegean palace goddess, Athena was closely associated with the city. She was known as Polias and Poliouchos (both derived from polis, meaning \"city-state\"), and her temples were usually located atop the fortified acropolis in the central part of the city. The Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis is dedicated to her, along with numerous other temples and monuments. As the patron of craft and weaving, Athena was known as Ergane. She was also a warrior goddess, and was believed to lead soldiers into battle as Athena Promachos. Her main festival in Athens was the Panathenaia, which was celebrated during the month of Hekatombaion in midsummer and was the most important festival on the Athenian calendar.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 207848, 131855, 1536, 23672, 2076, 8125947, 3327549, 268279, 468629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 43 ], [ 148, 153 ], [ 234, 243 ], [ 281, 290 ], [ 298, 316 ], [ 466, 481 ], [ 532, 548 ], [ 586, 597 ], [ 640, 652 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Greek mythology, Athena was believed to have been born from the forehead of her father Zeus. In some versions of the story, Athena has no mother and is born from Zeus' forehead by parthenogenesis. In others, such as Hesiod's Theogony, Zeus swallows his consort Metis, who was pregnant with Athena; in this version, Athena is first born within Zeus and then escapes from his body through his forehead. In the founding myth of Athens, Athena bested Poseidon in a competition over patronage of the city by creating the first olive tree. She was known as Athena Parthenos \"Athena the Virgin,\" but in one archaic Attic myth, the god Hephaestus tried and failed to rape her, resulting in Gaia giving birth to Erichthonius, an important Athenian founding hero. Athena was the patron goddess of heroic endeavor; she was believed to have aided the heroes Perseus, Heracles, Bellerophon, and Jason. Along with Aphrodite and Hera, Athena was one of the three goddesses whose feud resulted in the beginning of the Trojan War.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23416994, 34398, 9276466, 13700, 30551, 44657, 12797709, 22948, 85346, 302613, 14388, 19272020, 332748, 209446, 13815, 23768767, 15885, 1174, 13208, 16391, 30058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 90, 94 ], [ 183, 198 ], [ 219, 225 ], [ 228, 236 ], [ 264, 269 ], [ 411, 424 ], [ 450, 458 ], [ 554, 570 ], [ 611, 616 ], [ 631, 641 ], [ 685, 689 ], [ 706, 718 ], [ 849, 856 ], [ 858, 866 ], [ 868, 879 ], [ 885, 890 ], [ 903, 912 ], [ 917, 921 ], [ 961, 971 ], [ 1005, 1015 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "She plays an active role in the Iliad, in which she assists the Achaeans and, in the Odyssey, she is the divine counselor to Odysseus. In the later writings of the Roman poet Ovid, Athena was said to have competed against the mortal Arachne in a weaving competition, afterward transforming Arachne into the first spider; Ovid also describes how she transformed Medusa into a Gorgon after witnessing her being raped by Poseidon in her temple. Since the Renaissance, Athena has become an international symbol of wisdom, the arts, and classical learning. Western artists and allegorists have often used Athena as a symbol of freedom and democracy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19381951, 2020, 22349, 22537, 37802, 43446, 392192, 80990, 25532, 5178, 1837, 43571413, 7959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 37 ], [ 64, 72 ], [ 85, 92 ], [ 125, 133 ], [ 175, 179 ], [ 233, 240 ], [ 361, 367 ], [ 375, 381 ], [ 452, 463 ], [ 532, 550 ], [ 572, 583 ], [ 622, 629 ], [ 634, 643 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athena is associated with the city of Athens. The name of the city in ancient Greek is (), a plural toponym, designating the place where—according to myth—she presided over the Athenai, a sisterhood devoted to her worship. In ancient times, scholars argued whether Athena was named after Athens or Athens after Athena. Now scholars generally agree that the goddess takes her name from the city; the ending -ene is common in names of locations, but rare for personal names. Testimonies from different cities in ancient Greece attest that similar city goddesses were worshipped in other cities and, like Athena, took their names from the cities where they were worshipped. For example, in Mycenae there was a goddess called Mykene, whose sisterhood was known as Mykenai, whereas at Thebes an analogous deity was called Thebe, and the city was known under the plural form Thebai (or Thebes, in English, where the 's' is the plural formation). The name Athenai is likely of Pre-Greek origin because it contains the presumably Pre-Greek morpheme *-ān-.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 1216, 144869, 66540, 207848, 37548, 65806, 6215972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 44 ], [ 101, 108 ], [ 511, 525 ], [ 546, 558 ], [ 688, 695 ], [ 781, 787 ], [ 971, 980 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his dialogue Cratylus, the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (428–347 BC) gives some rather imaginative etymologies of Athena's name, based on the theories of the ancient Athenians and his own etymological speculations:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 2211169, 22954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 24 ], [ 56, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus, Plato believed that Athena's name was derived from Greek , —which the later Greeks rationalised as from the deity's (, ) mind (, ). The second-century AD orator Aelius Aristides attempted to derive natural symbols from the etymological roots of Athena's names to be aether, air, earth, and moon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 1406690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athena was originally the Aegean goddess of the palace, who presided over household crafts and protected the king. A single Mycenaean Greek inscription appears at Knossos in the Linear B tablets from the Late Minoan II-era \"Room of the Chariot Tablets\"; these comprise the earliest Linear B archive anywhere. Although Athana potnia is often translated as \"Mistress Athena\", it could also mean \"the Potnia of Athana\", or the Lady of Athens. However, any connection to the city of Athens in the Knossos inscription is uncertain. A sign series appears in the still undeciphered corpus of Linear A tablets, written in the unclassified Minoan language. This could be connected with the Linear B Mycenaean expressions and or (Diwia, \"of Zeus\" or, possibly, related to a homonymous goddess), resulting in a translation \"Athena of Zeus\" or \"divine Athena\". Similarly, in the Greek mythology and epic tradition, Athena figures as a daughter of Zeus (; cfr. Dyeus). However, the inscription quoted seems to be very similar to \"\", quoted as SY Za 1 by Jan Best. Best translates the initial , which is recurrent in line beginnings, as \"I have given\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 2624, 704006, 80252, 18551, 3911635, 17989, 2441993, 35641284, 1110853, 22931047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 32 ], [ 124, 139 ], [ 165, 172 ], [ 180, 188 ], [ 400, 406 ], [ 588, 596 ], [ 634, 649 ], [ 770, 788 ], [ 954, 959 ], [ 1036, 1038 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Mycenean fresco depicts two women extending their hands towards a central figure, who is covered by an enormous figure-eight shield; this may depict the warrior-goddess with her palladion, or her palladion in an aniconic representation. In the \"Procession Fresco\" at Knossos, which was reconstructed by the Mycenaeans, two rows of figures carrying vessels seem to meet in front of a central figure, which is probably the Minoan precursor to Athena. The early twentieth-century scholar Martin Persson Nilsson argued that the Minoan snake goddess figurines are early representations of Athena.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 37548, 1278771, 36016770, 80252, 11835618, 5940583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 9 ], [ 180, 189 ], [ 247, 264 ], [ 269, 276 ], [ 487, 509 ], [ 526, 556 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nilsson and others have claimed that, in early times, Athena was either an owl herself or a bird goddess in general. In the third book of the Odyssey, she takes the form of a sea-eagle. Proponents of this view argue that she dropped her prophylactic owl-mask before she lost her wings. \"Athena, by the time she appears in art,\" Jane Ellen Harrison remarks, \"has completely shed her animal form, has reduced the shapes she once wore of snake and bird to attributes, but occasionally in black-figure vase-paintings she still appears with wings.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 37654, 2320502, 22349, 1799818, 453672, 1076046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 78 ], [ 92, 104 ], [ 142, 149 ], [ 175, 184 ], [ 328, 347 ], [ 485, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is generally agreed that the cult of Athena preserves some aspects of the Proto-Indo-European transfunctional goddess. The cult of Athena may have also been influenced by those of Near Eastern warrior goddesses such as the East Semitic Ishtar and the Ugaritic Anat, both of whom were often portrayed bearing arms. Classical scholar Charles Penglase notes that Athena resembles Inanna in her role as a \"terrifying warrior goddess\" and that both goddesses were closely linked with creation. Athena's birth from the head of Zeus may be derived from the earlier Sumerian myth of Inanna's descent into and return from the Underworld.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 508376, 4015427, 78332, 203595, 765765, 78332, 50521, 57719922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 120 ], [ 226, 238 ], [ 239, 245 ], [ 254, 260 ], [ 263, 267 ], [ 380, 386 ], [ 561, 566 ], [ 620, 630 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Plato notes that the citizens of Sais in Egypt worshipped a goddess known as Neith, whom he identifies with Athena. Neith was the ancient Egyptian goddess of war and hunting, who was also associated with weaving; her worship began during the Egyptian Pre-Dynastic period. In Greek mythology, Athena was reported to have visited mythological sites in North Africa, including Libya's Triton River and the Phlegraean plain. Based on these similarities, the Sinologist Martin Bernal created the \"Black Athena\" hypothesis, which claimed that Neith was brought to Greece from Egypt, along with \"an enormous number of features of civilization and culture in the third and second millennia\". The \"Black Athena\" hypothesis stirred up widespread controversy near the end of the twentieth century, but it has now been widely rejected by modern scholars.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Origins", "target_page_ids": [ 930272, 97287, 44373, 860454, 376186, 1038053, 1078791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 37 ], [ 77, 82 ], [ 382, 394 ], [ 403, 419 ], [ 454, 464 ], [ 465, 478 ], [ 492, 504 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In her aspect of Athena Polias, Athena was venerated as the goddess of the city and the protectress of the citadel. In Athens, the Plynteria, or \"Feast of the Bath\", was observed every year at the end of the month of Thargelion. The festival lasted for five days. During this period, the priestesses of Athena, or plyntrídes, performed a cleansing ritual within the Erechtheion, a sanctuary devoted to Athena and Poseidon. Here Athena's statue was undressed, her clothes washed, and body purified. Athena was worshipped at festivals such as Chalceia as Athena Ergane, the patroness of various crafts, especially weaving. She was also the patron of metalworkers and was believed to aid in the forging of armor and weapons. During the late fifth century BC, the role of goddess of philosophy became a major aspect of Athena's cult.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult and patronages", "target_page_ids": [ 17699152, 280929, 12306841, 51970, 593135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 140 ], [ 366, 377 ], [ 541, 549 ], [ 612, 619 ], [ 824, 828 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Athena Promachos, she was believed to lead soldiers into battle. Athena represented the disciplined, strategic side of war, in contrast to her brother Ares, the patron of violence, bloodlust, and slaughter—\"the raw force of war\". Athena was believed to only support those fighting for a just cause and was thought to view war primarily as a means to resolve conflict. The Greeks regarded Athena with much higher esteem than Ares. Athena was especially worshipped in this role during the festivals of the Panathenaea and Pamboeotia, both of which prominently featured displays of athletic and military prowess. As the patroness of heroes and warriors, Athena was believed to favor those who used cunning and intelligence rather than brute strength.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult and patronages", "target_page_ids": [ 3327549, 2041, 276804, 17399417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ], [ 154, 158 ], [ 507, 518 ], [ 523, 533 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In her aspect as a warrior maiden, Athena was known as Parthenos ( \"virgin\"), because, like her fellow goddesses Artemis and Hestia, she was believed to remain perpetually a virgin. Athena's most famous temple, the Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis, takes its name from this title. According to Karl Kerényi, a scholar of Greek mythology, the name Parthenos is not merely an observation of Athena's virginity, but also a recognition of her role as enforcer of rules of sexual modesty and ritual mystery. Even beyond recognition, the Athenians allotted the goddess value based on this pureness of virginity, which they upheld as a rudiment of female behavior. Kerényi's study and theory of Athena explains her virginal epithet as a result of her relationship to her father Zeus and a vital, cohesive piece of her character throughout the ages. This role is expressed in a number of stories about Athena. Marinus of Neapolis reports that when Christians removed the statue of the goddess from the Parthenon, a beautiful woman appeared in a dream to Proclus, a devotee of Athena, and announced that the \"Athenian Lady\" wished to dwell with him.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult and patronages", "target_page_ids": [ 85346, 2905, 36745, 23672, 2076, 487454, 360219, 23672, 24797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 64 ], [ 113, 120 ], [ 125, 131 ], [ 215, 224 ], [ 232, 250 ], [ 297, 309 ], [ 905, 924 ], [ 997, 1006 ], [ 1049, 1056 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athena was not only the patron goddess of Athens, but also other cities, including Argos, Sparta, Gortyn, Lindos, and Larisa. The various cults of Athena were all branches of her panhellenic cult and often proctored various initiation rites of Grecian youth, such as the passage into citizenship by young men or the passage of young women into marriage. These cults were portals of a uniform socialization, even beyond mainland Greece. Athena was frequently equated with Aphaea, a local goddess of the island of Aegina, originally from Crete and also associated with Artemis and the nymph Britomartis. In Arcadia, she was assimilated with the ancient goddess Alea and worshiped as Athena Alea. Sanctuaries dedicated to Athena Alea were located in the Laconian towns of Mantineia and Tegea. The temple of Athena Alea in Tegea was an important religious center of ancient Greece. The geographer Pausanias was informed that the temenos had been founded by Aleus.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult and patronages", "target_page_ids": [ 70011, 36487, 2454146, 340649, 18490, 78925, 2627, 6591, 2905, 78926, 3535358, 18359204, 18386, 264324, 491845, 416255, 13405274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 88 ], [ 90, 96 ], [ 98, 104 ], [ 106, 112 ], [ 118, 124 ], [ 471, 477 ], [ 512, 518 ], [ 536, 541 ], [ 567, 574 ], [ 589, 600 ], [ 605, 612 ], [ 681, 692 ], [ 751, 758 ], [ 769, 778 ], [ 783, 788 ], [ 893, 902 ], [ 953, 958 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athena had a major temple on the Spartan Acropolis, where she was venerated as Poliouchos and Khalkíoikos (\"of the Brazen House\", often latinized as Chalcioecus). This epithet may refer to the fact that cult statue held there may have been made of bronze, that the walls of the temple itself may have been made of bronze, or that Athena was the patron of metal-workers. Bells made of terracotta and bronze were used in Sparta as part of Athena's cult. An Ionic-style temple to Athena Polias was built at Priene in the fourth century BC. It was designed by Pytheos of Priene, the same architect who designed the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. The temple was dedicated by Alexander the Great and an inscription from the temple declaring his dedication is now held in the British Museum.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cult and patronages", "target_page_ids": [ 36487, 17730, 85429, 93460, 1556565, 69798, 783, 42654838, 4675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 50 ], [ 136, 141 ], [ 455, 466 ], [ 504, 510 ], [ 556, 573 ], [ 611, 637 ], [ 667, 686 ], [ 691, 721 ], [ 766, 780 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athena was known as Atrytone ( \"the Unwearying\"), Parthenos ( \"Virgin\"), and Promachos ( \"she who fights in front\"). The epithet Polias (Πολιάς \"of the city\"), refers to Athena's role as protectress of the city. The epithet Ergane (Εργάνη \"the Industrious\") pointed her out as the patron of craftsmen and artisans. Burkert notes that the Athenians sometimes simply called Athena \"the Goddess\", hē theós (ἡ θεός), certainly an ancient title. After serving as the judge at the trial of Orestes in which he was acquitted of having murdered his mother Clytemnestra, Athena won the epithet Areia (Αρεία). Some have described Athena, along with the goddesses Hestia and Artemis as being asexual, this is mainly supported by the fact that in the Homeric Hymns, 5, To Aphrodite, where Aphrodite is described as having \"no power\" over the three goddesses.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Epithets and attributes", "target_page_ids": [ 77802, 6000418, 36745, 2905, 1174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 484, 491 ], [ 548, 560 ], [ 653, 659 ], [ 664, 671 ], [ 777, 786 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athena was sometimes given the epithet Hippia (Ἵππια \"of the horses\", \"equestrian\"), referring to her invention of the bit, bridle, chariot, and wagon. The Greek geographer Pausanias mentions in his Guide to Greece that the temple of Athena Chalinitis (\"the bridler\") in Corinth was located near the tomb of Medea's children. Other epithets include Ageleia, Itonia and Aethyia, under which she was worshiped in Megara. The word aíthyia () signifies a \"diver\", also some diving bird species (possibly the shearwater) and figuratively, a \"ship\", so the name must reference Athena teaching the art of shipbuilding or navigation. In a temple at Phrixa in Elis, reportedly built by Clymenus, she was known as Cydonia (Κυδωνία). Pausanias wrote that at Buporthmus there was a sanctuary of Athena Promachorma (Προμαχόρμα), meaning protector of the anchorage.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Epithets and attributes", "target_page_ids": [ 8866835, 1220403, 45748, 403005, 416255, 39245, 17398452, 17392394, 20344, 208846, 83703, 81689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 122 ], [ 124, 130 ], [ 132, 139 ], [ 145, 150 ], [ 173, 182 ], [ 308, 313 ], [ 349, 356 ], [ 358, 364 ], [ 411, 417 ], [ 504, 514 ], [ 651, 655 ], [ 677, 685 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Greek biographer Plutarch (AD 46–120) refers to an instance during the Parthenon's construction of her being called Athena Hygieia (Ὑγίεια, i.e. personified \"Health\") after inspiring a physician to a successful course of treatment.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Epithets and attributes", "target_page_ids": [ 24517, 82497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 29 ], [ 127, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Homer's epic works, Athena's most common epithet is Glaukopis (), which usually is translated as, \"bright-eyed\" or \"with gleaming eyes\". The word is a combination of glaukós (, meaning \"gleaming, silvery\", and later, \"bluish-green\" or \"gray\") and ṓps (, \"eye, face\"). ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Epithets and attributes", "target_page_ids": [ 13633, 9418, 922838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ], [ 11, 21 ], [ 44, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The word glaúx (, \"little owl\") is from the same root, presumably according to some, because of the bird's own distinctive eyes. Athena was clearly associated with the owl from very early on; in archaic images, she is frequently depicted with an owl perched on her hand. Through its association with Athena, the owl evolved into the national mascot of the Athenians and eventually became a symbol of wisdom.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Epithets and attributes", "target_page_ids": [ 3206672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 246, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Iliad (4.514), the Odyssey (3.378), the Homeric Hymns, and in Hesiod's Theogony, Athena is also given the curious epithet Tritogeneia (Τριτογένεια), whose significance remains unclear. It could mean various things, including \"Triton-born\", perhaps indicating that the homonymous sea-deity was her parent according to some early myths. One myth relates the foster father relationship of this Triton towards the half-orphan Athena, whom he raised alongside his own daughter Pallas. Kerényi suggests that \"Tritogeneia did not mean that she came into the world on any particular river or lake, but that she was born of the water itself; for the name Triton seems to be associated with water generally.\" In Ovid's Metamorphoses, Athena is occasionally referred to as \"Tritonia\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Epithets and attributes", "target_page_ids": [ 19381951, 22349, 185320, 13700, 30551, 44373, 10641961, 37802, 83101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 12 ], [ 26, 33 ], [ 47, 60 ], [ 69, 75 ], [ 78, 86 ], [ 275, 295 ], [ 479, 485 ], [ 709, 713 ], [ 716, 729 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another possible meaning may be \"triple-born\" or \"third-born\", which may refer to a triad or to her status as the third daughter of Zeus or the fact she was born from Metis, Zeus, and herself; various legends list her as being the first child after Artemis and Apollo, though other legends identify her as Zeus' first child. Several scholars have suggested a connection to the Rigvedic god Trita, who was sometimes grouped in a body of three mythological poets. Michael Janda has connected the myth of Trita to the scene in the Iliad in which the \"three brothers\" Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades divide the world between them, receiving the \"broad sky\", the sea, and the underworld respectively. Janda further connects the myth of Athena being born of the head (i.e. the uppermost part) of Zeus, understanding Trito- (which perhaps originally meant \"the third\") as another word for \"the sky\". In Janda's analysis of Indo-European mythology, this heavenly sphere is also associated with the mythological body of water surrounding the inhabited world (cfr. Triton's mother, Amphitrite).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Epithets and attributes", "target_page_ids": [ 36692953, 5019543, 19381951, 60779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 377, 385 ], [ 390, 395 ], [ 528, 533 ], [ 1066, 1076 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yet another possible meaning is mentioned in Diogenes Laertius' biography of Democritus, that Athena was called \"Tritogeneia\" because three things, on which all mortal life depends, come from her.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Epithets and attributes", "target_page_ids": [ 80047, 8211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 62 ], [ 77, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "She was the daughter of Zeus, produced without a mother, so that she emerged full-grown from his forehead. There was an alternative story that Zeus swallowed Metis, the goddess of counsel, while she was pregnant with Athena, so that Athena finally emerged from Zeus. Being the favourite child of Zeus, she had great power.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the classical Olympian pantheon, Athena was regarded as the favorite daughter of Zeus, born fully armed from his forehead. The story of her birth comes in several versions. The earliest mention is in Book V of the Iliad, when Ares accuses Zeus of being biased in favor of Athena because \"autos egeinao\" (literally \"you fathered her\", but probably intended as \"you gave birth to her\").", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "She was essentially urban and civilized, the antithesis in many respects of Artemis, goddess of the outdoors. Athena was probably a pre-Hellenic goddess and was later taken over by the Greeks.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the version recounted by Hesiod in his Theogony, Zeus married the goddess Metis, who is described as the \"wisest among gods and mortal men\", and engaged in sexual intercourse with her. After learning that Metis was pregnant, however, he became afraid that the unborn offspring would try to overthrow him, because Gaia and Ouranos had prophesied that Metis would bear children wiser than their father. In order to prevent this, Zeus tricked Metis into letting him swallow her, but it was too late because Metis had already conceived. A later account of the story from the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus, written in the second century AD, makes Metis Zeus's unwilling sexual partner, rather than his wife. According to this version of the story, Metis transformed into many different shapes in effort to escape Zeus, but Zeus successfully raped her and swallowed her.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 13700, 30551, 44657, 19272041, 85577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 34 ], [ 42, 50 ], [ 77, 82 ], [ 325, 332 ], [ 574, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After swallowing Metis, Zeus took six more wives in succession until he married his seventh and present wife, Hera. Then Zeus experienced an enormous headache. He was in such pain that he ordered someone (either Prometheus, Hephaestus, Hermes, Ares, or Palaemon, depending on the sources examined) to cleave his head open with the labrys, the double-headed Minoan axe. Athena leaped from Zeus's head, fully grown and armed. The \"First Homeric Hymn to Athena\" states in lines 9–16 that the gods were awestruck by Athena's appearance and even Helios, the god of the sun, stopped his chariot in the sky. Pindar, in his \"Seventh Olympian Ode\", states that she \"cried aloud with a mighty shout\" and that \"the Sky and mother Earth shuddered before her.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 13208, 23250, 14388, 14410, 2041, 224505, 73327, 18962267, 67230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 114 ], [ 212, 222 ], [ 224, 234 ], [ 236, 242 ], [ 244, 248 ], [ 331, 337 ], [ 357, 363 ], [ 364, 367 ], [ 541, 547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hesiod states that Hera was so annoyed at Zeus for having given birth to a child on his own that she conceived and bore Hephaestus by herself, but in Imagines 2. 27 (trans. Fairbanks), the third-century AD Greek rhetorician Philostratus the Elder writes that Hera \"rejoices\" at Athena's birth \"as though Athena were her daughter also.\" The second-century AD Christian apologist Justin Martyr takes issue with those pagans who erect at springs images of Kore, whom he interprets as Athena: \"They said that Athena was the daughter of Zeus not from intercourse, but when the god had in mind the making of a world through a word (logos) his first thought was Athena.\" According to a version of the story in a scholium on the Iliad (found nowhere else), when Zeus swallowed Metis, she was pregnant with Athena by the Cyclops Brontes. The Etymologicum Magnum instead deems Athena the daughter of the Daktyl Itonos. Fragments attributed by the Christian Eusebius of Caesarea to the semi-legendary Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon, which Eusebius thought had been written before the Trojan war, make Athena instead the daughter of Cronus, a king of Byblos who visited \"the inhabitable world\" and bequeathed Attica to Athena.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 14388, 9276466, 29461429, 16403, 24253, 319762, 44657, 55870, 13989289, 703780, 30820869, 10172, 34076091, 653250, 30058, 19230687, 176481, 302613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 130 ], [ 134, 141 ], [ 224, 246 ], [ 378, 391 ], [ 453, 457 ], [ 626, 631 ], [ 769, 774 ], [ 812, 819 ], [ 833, 852 ], [ 894, 900 ], [ 901, 907 ], [ 947, 967 ], [ 990, 999 ], [ 1011, 1024 ], [ 1077, 1087 ], [ 1125, 1131 ], [ 1143, 1149 ], [ 1201, 1207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athena's epithet Pallas is derived either from , meaning \"to brandish [as a weapon]\", or, more likely, from and related words, meaning \"youth, young woman\". On this topic, Walter Burkert says \"she is the Pallas of Athens, Pallas Athenaie, just as Hera of Argos is Here Argeie.\" In later times, after the original meaning of the name had been forgotten, the Greeks invented myths to explain its origin, such as those reported by the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus and the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus, which claim that Pallas was originally a separate entity, whom Athena had slain in combat.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 2625475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 455, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In one version of the myth, Pallas was the daughter of the sea-god Triton; she and Athena were childhood friends, but Athena accidentally killed her during a friendly sparring match. Distraught over what she had done, Athena took the name Pallas for herself as a sign of her grief. In another version of the story, Pallas was a Gigante; Athena slew him during the Gigantomachy and flayed off his skin to make her cloak, which she wore as a victory trophy. In an alternative variation of the same myth, Pallas was instead Athena's father, who attempted to assault his own daughter, causing Athena to kill him and take his skin as a trophy.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 10641961, 44373, 1440743, 10626278, 78470, 78470, 899541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 34 ], [ 67, 73 ], [ 167, 175 ], [ 315, 321 ], [ 328, 335 ], [ 364, 376 ], [ 381, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The palladion was a statue of Athena that was said to have stood in her temple on the Trojan Acropolis. Athena was said to have carved the statue herself in the likeness of her dead friend Pallas. The statue had special talisman-like properties and it was thought that, as long as it was in the city, Troy could never fall. When the Greeks captured Troy, Cassandra, the daughter of Priam, clung to the palladion for protection, but Ajax the Lesser violently tore her away from it and dragged her over to the other captives. Athena was infuriated by this violation of her protection. Although Agamemnon attempted to placate her anger with sacrifices, Athena sent a storm at Cape Kaphereos to destroy almost the entire Greek fleet and scatter all of the surviving ships across the Aegean.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 1278771, 6526, 24132, 1567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 355, 364 ], [ 382, 387 ], [ 432, 447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Homer's Iliad, Athena, as a war goddess, inspired and fought alongside the Greek heroes; her aid was synonymous with military prowess. Also in the Iliad, Zeus, the chief god, specifically assigned the sphere of war to Ares, the god of war, and Athena. Athena's moral and military superiority to Ares derived in part from the fact that she represented the intellectual and civilized side of war and the virtues of justice and skill, whereas Ares represented mere blood lust. Her superiority also derived in part from the vastly greater variety and importance of her functions and from the patriotism of Homer's predecessors, Ares being of foreign origin. In the Iliad, Athena was the divine form of the heroic, martial ideal: she personified excellence in close combat, victory, and glory. The qualities that led to victory were found on the aegis, or breastplate, that Athena wore when she went to war: fear, strife, defense, and assault. Athena appears in Homer's Odyssey as the tutelary deity of Odysseus, and myths from later sources portray her similarly as helper of Perseus and Heracles (Hercules). As the guardian of the welfare of kings, Athena became the goddess of good counsel, of prudent restraint and practical insight, as well as of war.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 19381951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a founding myth reported by Pseudo-Apollodorus, Athena competed with Poseidon for the patronage of Athens. They agreed that each would give the Athenians one gift and that Cecrops, the king of Athens, would determine which gift was better. Poseidon struck the ground with his trident and a salt water spring sprang up; this gave the Athenians access to trade and water. Athens at its height was a significant sea power, defeating the Persian fleet at the Battle of Salamis—but the water was salty and undrinkable. In an alternative version of the myth from Vergil's Georgics, Poseidon instead gave the Athenians the first horse. Athena offered the first domesticated olive tree. Cecrops accepted this gift and declared Athena the patron goddess of Athens. The olive tree brought wood, oil, and food, and became a symbol of Athenian economic prosperity. Robert Graves was of the opinion that \"Poseidon's attempts to take possession of certain cities are political myths\", which reflect the conflict between matriarchal and patriarchal religions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 12797709, 22948, 79416, 195513, 30927438, 47968, 32359, 1351137, 22479, 39345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ], [ 72, 80 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 279, 286 ], [ 437, 444 ], [ 458, 475 ], [ 560, 566 ], [ 569, 577 ], [ 670, 680 ], [ 856, 869 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pseudo-Apollodorus records an archaic legend, which claims that Hephaestus once attempted to rape Athena, but she pushed him away, causing him to ejaculate on her thigh. Athena wiped the semen off using a tuft of wool, which she tossed into the dust, impregnating Gaia and causing her to give birth to Erichthonius. Athena adopted Erichthonius as her son and raised him. The Roman mythographer Hyginus records a similar story in which Hephaestus demanded Zeus to let him marry Athena since he was the one who had smashed open Zeus's skull, allowing Athena to be born. Zeus agreed to this and Hephaestus and Athena were married, but, when Hephaestus was about to consummate the union, Athena vanished from the bridal bed, causing him to ejaculate on the floor, thus impregnating Gaia with Erichthonius.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 14388, 20611030, 18842168, 38431, 19272020, 332748, 143691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 74 ], [ 146, 155 ], [ 187, 192 ], [ 213, 217 ], [ 264, 268 ], [ 302, 314 ], [ 394, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The geographer Pausanias records that Athena placed the infant Erichthonius into a small chest (cista), which she entrusted to the care of the three daughters of Cecrops: Herse, Pandrosos, and Aglauros of Athens. She warned the three sisters not to open the chest, but did not explain to them why or what was in it. Aglauros, and possibly one of the other sisters, opened the chest. Differing reports say that they either found that the child itself was a serpent, that it was guarded by a serpent, that it was guarded by two serpents, or that it had the legs of a serpent. In Pausanias's story, the two sisters were driven mad by the sight of the chest's contents and hurled themselves off the Acropolis, dying instantly, but an Attic vase painting shows them being chased by the serpent off the edge of the cliff instead.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 416255, 79416, 78405, 78413, 17695680, 1536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 24 ], [ 162, 169 ], [ 171, 176 ], [ 178, 187 ], [ 193, 201 ], [ 695, 704 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Erichthonius was one of the most important founding heroes of Athens and the legend of the daughters of Cecrops was a cult myth linked to the rituals of the Arrhephoria festival. Pausanias records that, during the Arrhephoria, two young girls known as the Arrhephoroi, who lived near the temple of Athena Polias, would be given hidden objects by the priestess of Athena, which they would carry on their heads down a natural underground passage. They would leave the objects they had been given at the bottom of the passage and take another set of hidden objects, which they would carry on their heads back up to the temple. The ritual was performed in the dead of night and no one, not even the priestess, knew what the objects were. The serpent in the story may be the same one depicted coiled at Athena's feet in Pheidias's famous statue of the Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon. Many of the surviving sculptures of Athena show this serpent.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 3827111, 62691901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 168 ], [ 350, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Herodotus records that a serpent lived in a crevice on the north side of the summit of the Athenian Acropolis and that the Athenians left a honey cake for it each month as an offering. On the eve of the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC, the serpent did not eat the honey cake and the Athenians interpreted it as a sign that Athena herself had abandoned them. Another version of the myth of the Athenian maidens is told in Metamorphoses by the Roman poet Ovid (43 BC17 AD); in this late variant Hermes falls in love with Herse. Herse, Aglaulus, and Pandrosus go to the temple to offer sacrifices to Athena. Hermes demands help from Aglaulus to seduce Herse. Aglaulus demands money in exchange. Hermes gives her the money the sisters have already offered to Athena. As punishment for Aglaulus's greed, Athena asks the goddess Envy to make Aglaulus jealous of Herse. When Hermes arrives to seduce Herse, Aglaulus stands in his way instead of helping him as she had agreed. He turns her to stone.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 20198436, 83101, 37802, 14410, 26496812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 236 ], [ 433, 446 ], [ 465, 469 ], [ 505, 511 ], [ 835, 839 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Pseudo-Apollodorus's Bibliotheca, Athena advised Argos, the builder of the Argo, the ship on which the hero Jason and his band of Argonauts sailed, and aided in the ship's construction. Pseudo-Apollodorus also records that Athena guided the hero Perseus in his quest to behead Medusa. She and Hermes, the god of travelers, appeared to Perseus after he set off on his quest and gifted him with tools he would need to kill the Gorgon. Athena gave Perseus a polished bronze shield to view Medusa's reflection rather than looking at her directly and thereby avoid being turned to stone. Hermes gave him an adamantine scythe to cut off Medusa's head. When Perseus swung his blade to behead Medusa, Athena guided it, allowing his scythe to cut it clean off. According to Pindar's Thirteenth Olympian Ode, Athena helped the hero Bellerophon tame the winged horse Pegasus by giving him a bit.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 36026090, 80988, 15885, 77334, 209446, 392192, 14410, 62323, 230613, 23768767, 23986, 8866835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 67 ], [ 88, 92 ], [ 121, 126 ], [ 143, 152 ], [ 259, 266 ], [ 290, 296 ], [ 306, 312 ], [ 615, 622 ], [ 626, 632 ], [ 835, 846 ], [ 869, 876 ], [ 893, 896 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In ancient Greek art, Athena is frequently shown aiding the hero Heracles. She appears in four of the twelve metopes on the Temple of Zeus at Olympia depicting Heracles's Twelve Labors, including the first, in which she passively watches him slay the Nemean lion, and the tenth, in which she is shown actively helping him hold up the sky. She is presented as his \"stern ally\", but also the \"gentle... acknowledger of his achievements.\" Artistic depictions of Heracles's apotheosis show Athena driving him to Mount Olympus in her chariot and presenting him to Zeus for his deification. In Aeschylus's tragedy Orestes, Athena intervenes to save Orestes from the wrath of the Erinyes and presides over his trial for the murder of his mother Clytemnestra. When half the jury votes to acquit and the other half votes to convict, Athena casts the deciding vote to acquit Orestes and declares that, from then on, whenever a jury is tied, the defendant shall always be acquitted.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 42869687, 13815, 2685903, 3299390, 1418970, 80959, 494683, 2023, 2769235, 77802, 10141, 6000418, 44720, 300834, 232180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 65, 73 ], [ 109, 115 ], [ 124, 149 ], [ 171, 184 ], [ 251, 262 ], [ 470, 480 ], [ 588, 597 ], [ 608, 615 ], [ 643, 650 ], [ 673, 680 ], [ 738, 750 ], [ 766, 770 ], [ 780, 786 ], [ 815, 822 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In The Odyssey, Odysseus' cunning and shrewd nature quickly wins Athena's favour. For the first part of the poem, however, she largely is confined to aiding him only from afar, mainly by implanting thoughts in his head during his journey home from Troy. Her guiding actions reinforce her role as the \"protectress of heroes,\" or, as mythologian Walter Friedrich Otto dubbed her, the \"goddess of nearness,\" due to her mentoring and motherly probing. It is not until he washes up on the shore of the island of the Phaeacians, where Nausicaa is washing her clothes that Athena arrives personally to provide more tangible assistance. She appears in Nausicaa's dreams to ensure that the princess rescues Odysseus and plays a role in his eventual escort to Ithaca. Athena appears to Odysseus upon his arrival, disguised as a herdsman; she initially lies and tells him that Penelope, his wife, has remarried and that he is believed to be dead, but Odysseus lies back to her, employing skillful prevarications to protect himself. Impressed by his resolve and shrewdness, she reveals herself and tells him what he needs to know in order to win back his kingdom. She disguises him as an elderly beggar so that he will not be recognized by the suitors or Penelope, and helps him to defeat the suitors. Athena also appears to Odysseus's son Telemachus. Her actions lead him to travel around to Odysseus's comrades and ask about his father. He hears stories about some of Odysseus's journey. Athena's push for Telemachos's journey helps him grow into the man role, that his father once held. She also plays a role in ending the resultant feud against the suitors' relatives. She instructs Laertes to throw his spear and to kill Eupeithes, the father of Antinous.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 22349, 22537, 24227644, 357094, 82884, 81776, 84198, 3434345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 16, 24 ], [ 344, 365 ], [ 511, 521 ], [ 529, 537 ], [ 1675, 1682 ], [ 1714, 1723 ], [ 1739, 1747 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Gorgoneion appears to have originated as an apotropaic symbol intended to ward off evil. In a late myth invented to explain the origins of the Gorgon, Medusa is described as having been a young priestess who served in the temple of Athena in Athens. Poseidon lusted after Medusa, and raped her in the temple of Athena, refusing to allow her vow of chastity to stand in his way. Upon discovering the desecration of her temple, Athena transformed Medusa into a hideous monster with serpents for hair whose gaze would turn any mortal to stone.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 8546801, 3264956, 392192, 28797983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 48, 58 ], [ 155, 161 ], [ 513, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his Twelfth Pythian Ode, Pindar recounts the story of how Athena invented the aulos, a kind of flute, in imitation of the lamentations of Medusa's sisters, the Gorgons, after she was beheaded by the hero Perseus. According to Pindar, Athena gave the aulos to mortals as a gift. Later, the comic playwright Melanippides of Melos ( 480-430 BC) embellished the story in his comedy Marsyas, claiming that Athena looked in the mirror while she was playing the aulos and saw how blowing into it puffed up her cheeks and made her look silly, so she threw the aulos away and cursed it so that whoever picked it up would meet an awful death. The aulos was picked up by the satyr Marsyas, who was later killed by Apollo for his hubris. Later, this version of the story became accepted as canonical and the Athenian sculptor Myron created a group of bronze sculptures based on it, which was installed before the western front of the Parthenon in around 440 BC.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 79616, 538948, 209446, 24191241, 78972, 14282, 82512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 34 ], [ 81, 86 ], [ 207, 214 ], [ 309, 330 ], [ 673, 680 ], [ 721, 727 ], [ 817, 822 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A myth told by the early third-century BC Hellenistic poet Callimachus in his Hymn 5 begins with Athena bathing in a spring on Mount Helicon at midday with one of her favorite companions, the nymph Chariclo. Chariclo's son Tiresias happened to be hunting on the same mountain and came to the spring searching for water. He inadvertently saw Athena naked, so she struck him blind to ensure he would never again see what man was not intended to see. Chariclo intervened on her son's behalf and begged Athena to have mercy. Athena replied that she could not restore Tiresias's eyesight, so, instead, she gave him the ability to understand the language of the birds and thus foretell the future.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 97080, 1054655, 83725, 79145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 70 ], [ 127, 140 ], [ 198, 206 ], [ 223, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fable of Arachne appears in Ovid's Metamorphoses (8 AD) (vi.5–54 and 129–145), which is nearly the only extant source for the legend. The story does not appear to have been well known prior to Ovid's rendition of it and the only earlier reference to it is a brief allusion in Virgil's Georgics, (29 BC) (iv, 246) that does not mention Arachne by name. According to Ovid, Arachne (whose name means spider in ancient Greek) was the daughter of a famous dyer in Tyrian purple in Hypaipa of Lydia, and a weaving student of Athena. She became so conceited of her skill as a weaver that she began claiming that her skill was greater than that of Athena herself. Athena gave Arachne a chance to redeem herself by assuming the form of an old woman and warning Arachne not to offend the deities. Arachne scoffed and wished for a weaving contest, so she could prove her skill.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 11491, 43446, 37802, 83101, 32359, 1351137, 150320, 18039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ], [ 13, 20 ], [ 32, 36 ], [ 39, 52 ], [ 280, 286 ], [ 289, 297 ], [ 463, 476 ], [ 491, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athena wove the scene of her victory over Poseidon in the contest for the patronage of Athens. Athena's tapestry also depicted the 12 Olympian gods and defeat of mythological figures who challenged their authority. Arachne's tapestry featured twenty-one episodes of the deities' infidelity, including Zeus being unfaithful with Leda, with Europa, and with Danaë. It represented the unjust and discrediting behavior of the gods towards mortals. Athena admitted that Arachne's work was flawless, but was outraged at Arachne's offensive choice of subject, which displayed the failings and transgressions of the deities. Finally, losing her temper, Athena destroyed Arachne's tapestry and loom, striking it with her shuttle. Athena then struck Arachne across the face with her staff four times. Arachne hanged herself in despair, but Athena took pity on her and brought her back from the dead in the form of a spider.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 22948, 34398, 104528, 47219, 83148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 50 ], [ 301, 305 ], [ 328, 332 ], [ 339, 345 ], [ 356, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The myth of the Judgement of Paris is mentioned briefly in the Iliad, but is described in depth in an epitome of the Cypria, a lost poem of the Epic Cycle, which records that all the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of Peleus and Thetis (the eventual parents of Achilles). Only Eris, goddess of discord, was not invited. She was annoyed at this, so she arrived with a golden apple inscribed with the word καλλίστῃ (kallistēi, \"for the fairest\"), which she threw among the goddesses. Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena all claimed to be the fairest, and thus the rightful owner of the apple.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 19381951, 85264, 2090445, 734995, 38419, 37552, 305, 9823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 68 ], [ 102, 109 ], [ 117, 123 ], [ 144, 154 ], [ 261, 267 ], [ 272, 278 ], [ 304, 312 ], [ 320, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The goddesses chose to place the matter before Zeus, who, not wanting to favor one of the goddesses, put the choice into the hands of Paris, a Trojan prince. After bathing in the spring of Mount Ida where Troy was situated, the goddesses appeared before Paris for his decision. In the extant ancient depictions of the Judgement of Paris, Aphrodite is only occasionally represented nude, and Athena and Hera are always fully clothed. Since the Renaissance, however, Western paintings have typically portrayed all three goddesses as completely naked.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 30059, 657146, 25532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 149 ], [ 189, 198 ], [ 443, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All three goddesses were ideally beautiful and Paris could not decide between them, so they resorted to bribes. Hera tried to bribe Paris with power over all Asia and Europe, and Athena offered fame and glory in battle, but Aphrodite promised Paris that, if he were to choose her as the fairest, she would let him marry the most beautiful woman on earth. This woman was Helen, who was already married to King Menelaus of Sparta. Paris selected Aphrodite and awarded her the apple. The other two goddesses were enraged and, as a direct result, sided with the Greeks in the Trojan War.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 689, 9239, 63444, 46299, 36487, 30058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 162 ], [ 167, 173 ], [ 370, 375 ], [ 409, 417 ], [ 421, 427 ], [ 572, 582 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Books V–VI of the Iliad, Athena aids the hero Diomedes, who, in the absence of Achilles, proves himself to be the most effective Greek warrior. Several artistic representations from the early sixth century BC may show Athena and Diomedes, including an early sixth-century BC shield band depicting Athena and an unidentified warrior riding on a chariot, a vase painting of a warrior with his charioteer facing Athena, and an inscribed clay plaque showing Diomedes and Athena riding in a chariot. Numerous passages in the Iliad also mention Athena having previously served as the patron of Diomedes's father Tydeus. When the Trojan women go to the temple of Athena on the Acropolis to plead her for protection from Diomedes, Athena ignores them.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 19381951, 81927, 81928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 26 ], [ 49, 57 ], [ 609, 615 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athena also gets into a duel with Ares, the god of the brutal wars, and her male counterpart Ares blames her for encouraging Diomedes to tear his beautiful flesh. He curses her and strikes with all his strength. Athena deflects his blow with her aegis, a powerful shield which even Zeus's thunderbolt and lightning cannot blast through. Athena picked up a massive boulder and threw it at Ares, who immediately crumpled to the ground. Aphrodite, who was a lover of Ares, came down from Olympus to carry Ares away but was struck by Athena's golden spear and fell. Athena taunted the gods who supported Troy, saying that they will too eventually end up like Ares and Aphrodite, which scared them, therefore proving her power and reputation among the other gods.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Book XXII of the Iliad, while Achilles is chasing Hector around the walls of Troy, Athena appears to Hector disguised as his brother Deiphobus and persuades him to hold his ground so that they can fight Achilles together. Then, Hector throws his spear at Achilles and misses, expecting Deiphobus to hand him another, but Athena disappears instead, leaving Hector to face Achilles alone without his spear. In Sophocles's tragedy Ajax, she punishes Odysseus's rival Ajax the Great, driving him insane and causing him to massacre the Achaeans' cattle, thinking that he is slaughtering the Achaeans themselves. Even after Odysseus himself expresses pity for Ajax, Athena declares, \"To laugh at your enemies - what sweeter laughter can there be than that?\" (lines 78–9). Ajax later commits suicide as a result of his humiliation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 13207, 83874, 26984, 1715921, 1568, 16831059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 59 ], [ 136, 145 ], [ 411, 420 ], [ 431, 435 ], [ 467, 481 ], [ 788, 795 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athena appears frequently in classical Greek art, including on coins and in paintings on ceramics. She is especially prominent in works produced in Athens. In classical depictions, Athena is usually portrayed standing upright, wearing a full-length chiton. She is most often represented dressed in armor like a male soldier and wearing a Corinthian helmet raised high atop her forehead. Her shield bears at its centre the aegis with the head of the gorgon (gorgoneion) in the center and snakes around the edge. Sometimes she is shown wearing the aegis as a cloak. As Athena Promachos, she is shown brandishing a spear. Scenes in which Athena was represented include her birth from the head of Zeus, her battle with the Gigantes, the birth of Erichthonius, and the Judgement of Paris.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Classical art", "target_page_ids": [ 3245785, 2001989, 78470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 255 ], [ 338, 355 ], [ 719, 727 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Mourning Athena or Athena Meditating is a famous relief sculpture dating to around 470-460 BC that has been interpreted to represent Athena Polias. The most famous classical depiction of Athena was the Athena Parthenos, a now-lost gold and ivory statue of her in the Parthenon created by the Athenian sculptor Phidias. Copies reveal that this statue depicted Athena holding her shield in her left hand with Nike, the winged goddess of victory, standing in her right. Athena Polias is also represented in a Neo-Attic relief now held in the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, which depicts her holding an owl in her hand and wearing her characteristic Corinthian helmet while resting her shield against a nearby herma. The Roman goddess Minerva adopted most of Athena's Greek iconographical associations, but was also integrated into the Capitoline Triad.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Classical art", "target_page_ids": [ 1797459, 85346, 2383389, 23672, 69804, 11338027, 3159839, 86289, 944850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 206, 222 ], [ 236, 250 ], [ 272, 281 ], [ 315, 322 ], [ 412, 416 ], [ 544, 572 ], [ 710, 715 ], [ 836, 852 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early Christian writers, such as Clement of Alexandria and Firmicus, denigrated Athena as representative of all the things that were detestable about paganism; they condemned her as \"immodest and immoral\". During the Middle Ages, however, many attributes of Athena were given to the Virgin Mary, who, in fourth century portrayals, was often depicted wearing the Gorgoneion. Some even viewed the Virgin Mary as a warrior maiden, much like Athena Parthenos; one anecdote tells that the Virgin Mary once appeared upon the walls of Constantinople when it was under siege by the Avars, clutching a spear and urging the people to fight. During the Middle Ages, Athena became widely used as a Christian symbol and allegory, and she appeared on the family crests of certain noble houses.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 7342, 163644, 73513, 8546801, 5646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 54 ], [ 59, 67 ], [ 283, 294 ], [ 362, 372 ], [ 528, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Renaissance, Athena donned the mantle of patron of the arts and human endeavor; allegorical paintings involving Athena were a favorite of the Italian Renaissance painters. In Sandro Botticelli's painting Pallas and the Centaur, probably painted sometime in the 1480s, Athena is the personification of chastity, who is shown grasping the forelock of a centaur, who represents lust. Andrea Mantegna's 1502 painting Minerva Expelling the Vices from the Garden of Virtue uses Athena as the personification of Graeco-Roman learning chasing the vices of medievalism from the garden of modern scholarship. Athena is also used as the personification of wisdom in Bartholomeus Spranger's 1591 painting The Triumph of Wisdom or Minerva Victorious over Ignorance.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 73515, 3069482, 214213, 11776408, 5300902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 203 ], [ 215, 237 ], [ 392, 407 ], [ 424, 477 ], [ 666, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Athena was used as a symbol for female rulers. In his book A Revelation of the True Minerva (1582), Thomas Blennerhassett portrays Queen Elizabeth I of England as a \"new Minerva\" and \"the greatest goddesse nowe on earth\". A series of paintings by Peter Paul Rubens depict Athena as Marie de' Medici's patron and mentor; the final painting in the series goes even further and shows Marie de' Medici with Athena's iconography, as the mortal incarnation of the goddess herself. The Flemish sculptor Jean-Pierre-Antoine Tassaert (Jan Peter Anton Tassaert) later portrayed Catherine II of Russia as Athena in a marble bust in 1774. During the French Revolution, statues of pagan gods were torn down all throughout France, but statues of Athena were not. Instead, Athena was transformed into the personification of freedom and the republic and a statue of the goddess stood in the center of the Place de la Revolution in Paris. In the years following the Revolution, artistic representations of Athena proliferated.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 33293531, 10128, 21463370, 76037, 14808261, 44240, 11188, 80899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 169 ], [ 179, 207 ], [ 295, 312 ], [ 330, 346 ], [ 544, 572 ], [ 616, 638 ], [ 686, 703 ], [ 937, 959 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A statue of Athena stands directly in front of the Austrian Parliament Building in Vienna, and depictions of Athena have influenced other symbols of Western freedom, including the Statue of Liberty and Britannia. For over a century, a full-scale replica of the Parthenon has stood in Nashville, Tennessee. In 1990, the curators added a gilded forty-two-foot (12.5 m) tall replica of Phidias's Athena Parthenos, built from concrete and fiberglass. The Great Seal of California bears the image of Athena kneeling next to a brown grizzly bear. Athena has occasionally appeared on modern coins, as she did on the ancient Athenian drachma. Her head appears on the $50 1915-S Panama-Pacific commemorative coin.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3227097, 55866, 28617, 86124, 2060456, 22018, 85346, 458026, 8347, 46250540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 79 ], [ 83, 89 ], [ 180, 197 ], [ 202, 211 ], [ 233, 270 ], [ 284, 304 ], [ 372, 409 ], [ 451, 475 ], [ 626, 633 ], [ 670, 703 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of Sigmund Freud's most treasured possessions was a small, bronze sculpture of Athena, which sat on his desk. Freud once described Athena as \"a woman who is unapproachable and repels all sexual desires - since she displays the terrifying genitals of the Mother.\" Feminist views on Athena are sharply divided; some feminists regard her as a symbol of female empowerment, while others regard her as \"the ultimate patriarchal sell out... who uses her powers to promote and advance men rather than others of her sex.\" In contemporary Wicca, Athena is venerated as an aspect of the Goddess and some Wiccans believe that she may bestow the \"Owl Gift\" (\"the ability to write and communicate clearly\") upon her worshippers. Due to her status as one of the twelve Olympians, Athena is a major deity in Hellenismos, a Neopagan religion which seeks to authentically revive and recreate the religion of ancient Greece in the modern world.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 26743, 11185, 23266996, 33295, 10907292, 151992, 21686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ], [ 267, 275 ], [ 415, 426 ], [ 534, 539 ], [ 581, 588 ], [ 797, 808 ], [ 812, 820 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athena is a natural patron of universities: At Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania a statue of Athena (a replica of the original bronze one in the arts and archaeology library) resides in the Great Hall. It is traditional at exam time for students to leave offerings to the goddess with a note asking for good luck, or to repent for accidentally breaking any of the college's numerous other traditions. Pallas Athena is the tutelary goddess of the international social fraternity Phi Delta Theta. Her owl is also a symbol of the fraternity.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Post-classical culture", "target_page_ids": [ 220852, 1267347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 64 ], [ 478, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Athenaeum (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1558008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ambulia, a Spartan epithet used for Athena, Zeus, and Castor and Pollux", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26383285, 34398, 60790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 45, 49 ], [ 55, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aten", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Apollodorus, Library, 3,180", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Augustine, De civitate dei xviii.8–9", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cicero, De natura deorum iii.21.53, 23.59", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Eusebius, Chronicon 30.21–26, 42.11–14", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 13633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Homer; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 13633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 13700, 30551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lactantius, Divinae institutions i.17.12–13, 18.22–23", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Livy, Ab urbe condita libri vii.3.7", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1955144 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lucan, Bellum civile ix.350", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1684853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Harrison, Jane Ellen, 1903. Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 453672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Telenius, Seppo Sakari, (2005) 2006. Athena-Artemis (Helsinki: Kirja kerrallaan).", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 6866615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ATHENA on the Perseus Project", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ATHENA from The Theoi Project", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ATHENA from Mythopedia", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Crafts_goddesses", "Greek_war_deities", "Greek_Virgin_goddesses", "Justice_goddesses", "Peace_goddesses", "Smithing_goddesses", "Tutelary_goddesses", "War_goddesses", "Wisdom_goddesses", "Women_metalsmiths", "Snake_goddesses", "Agricultural_goddesses", "New_religious_movement_deities", "Children_of_Zeus", "Metamorphoses_characters", "Characters_in_Greek_mythology", "Athena", "Deeds_of_Poseidon", "Rape_of_Persephone", "Deities_in_the_Iliad", "Attic_mythology", "Civic_personifications", "Women_in_Greek_mythology", "Textiles_in_folklore", "Characters_in_the_Odyssey", "Women_warriors", "Women_of_the_Trojan_war", "Twelve_Olympians" ]

[ "Pallas Athena", "Athene" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game is a role-playing game created and written by Erick Wujcik, set in the fictional universe created by author Roger Zelazny for his Chronicles of Amber. The game is unusual in that no dice are used in resolving conflicts or player actions; instead a simple diceless system of comparative ability, and narrative description of the action by the players and gamemaster, is used to determine how situations are resolved.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25475, 1698001, 83932, 37736, 83931, 8244, 7602256, 12373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 58 ], [ 82, 94 ], [ 107, 125 ], [ 144, 157 ], [ 166, 185 ], [ 218, 222 ], [ 291, 299 ], [ 390, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amber DRPG was created in the 1980s, and is much more focused on relationships and roleplaying than most of the roleplaying games of that era. Most Amber characters are members of the two ruling classes in the Amber multiverse, and are much more advanced in matters of strength, endurance, psyche, warfare and sorcery than ordinary beings. This often means that the only individuals who are capable of opposing a character are from his or her family, a fact that leads to much suspicion and intrigue.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 174653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Erick Wujcik offered to design an Amber role-playing game for West End Games, who agreed to look at his work. Wujcik intended to integrate the feel of the Amber setting from the novels into a role-playing game, and playtested his system for a few months at the Michigan Gaming Center where he decided to try it out as a diceless game. West End was not interested in a diceless role-playing game, so Wujcik acquired the RPG rights to Amber and took the game to R. Talsorian Games, until he withdrew over creative differences. Wujcik then founded Phage Press, and published Amber Diceless Role-playing in 1991.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 335419, 764814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 76 ], [ 462, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The original 256-page game book was published in 1991 by Phage Press, covering material from the first five novels (the \"Corwin Cycle\") and some details – sorcery and the Logrus – from the remaining five novels (the \"Merlin Cycle\"), in order to allow players to roleplay characters from the Courts of Chaos. Some details were changed slightly to allow more player choice – for example, players can be full Trump Artists without having walked the Pattern or the Logrus, which Merlin says is impossible; and players' psychic abilities are far greater than those shown in the books.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 83931, 3666872, 83931, 3675802, 58323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 133 ], [ 171, 177 ], [ 217, 229 ], [ 475, 481 ], [ 515, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 256-page companion volume, Shadow Knight, was published in 1993. This supplemental rule book includes the remaining elements from the Merlin novels, such as Broken Patterns, and allows players to create Constructs such as Merlin's Ghostwheel. The book presents the second series of novels not as additions to the series' continuity but as an example of a roleplaying campaign with Merlin, Luke, Julia, Jurt and Coral as the PCs. The remainder of the book is a collection of essays on the game, statistics for the new characters and an update of the older ones in light of their appearance in the second series, and (perhaps most usefully for GMs) plot summaries of each of the ten books. The book includes some material from the short story \"The Salesman's Tale,\" and some unpublished material cut from Prince of Chaos, notably Coral's pregnancy by Merlin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3675802, 5899, 199422, 1045298, 269893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 233, 243 ], [ 323, 333 ], [ 357, 377 ], [ 743, 765 ], [ 805, 820 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both books were translated into French and published by Jeux Descartes in 1994 and 1995.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5331192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A third book, Rebma, was promised. Cover art was commissioned and pre-orders were taken, but it was never published. Wujcik also expressed a desire to create a book giving greater detail to the Courts of Chaos. The publishing rights to the Amber DRPG games were acquired in 2004 by Guardians of Order, who took over sales of the game and announced their intention to release a new edition of the game. However, no new edition was released before Guardians of Order went out of business in 2006. The two existing books are now out-of-print, but they have been made available as PDF downloads.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1196141, 988803, 24077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 300 ], [ 526, 538 ], [ 577, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2007 a new publishing company, headed by Edwin Voskamp and Eric Todd, was formed with the express purpose of bringing Amber DRPG back into print. The new company is named Diceless by Design.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In May 2010, Rite Publishing secured a license from Diceless by Design to use the rules system with a new setting in the creation of a new product to be written by industry and system veteran Jason Durall. The project Lords of Gossamer & Shadow (Diceless) was funded via Kickstarter in May 2013. In Sept 2013 the project was completed, and on in Nov 2013 Lords of Gossamer and Shadow (Diceless) was released publicly in full-color Print and PDF, along with additional supplements and continued support.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 27155990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The game is set in the multiverse described in Zelazny's Chronicles of Amber. The first book assumes that gamemasters will set their campaigns after the Patternfall war; that is, after the end of the fifth book in the series, The Courts of Chaos, but uses material from the following books to describe those parts of Zelazny's cosmology that were featured there in more detail. The Amber multiverse consists of Amber, a city at one pole of the universe wherein is found the Pattern, the symbol of Order; The Courts of Chaos, an assembly of worlds at the other pole where can be found the Logrus, the manifestation of Chaos, and the Abyss, the source or end of all reality; and Shadow, the collection of all possible universes (shadows) between and around them. Inhabitants of either pole can use one or both of the Pattern and the Logrus to travel through Shadow.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting", "target_page_ids": [ 174653, 230096, 3666872, 3666872, 728004, 31880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 33 ], [ 226, 245 ], [ 470, 481 ], [ 584, 594 ], [ 617, 622 ], [ 716, 724 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is assumed that players will portray the children of the main characters from the books – the ruling family of Amber, known as the Elder Amberites – or a resident of the Courts. However, since some feel that being the children of the main characters is too limiting, it is fairly common to either start with King Oberon's death before the book begins and roleplay the Elder Amberites as they vie for the throne; or to populate Amber from scratch with a different set of Elder Amberites. The former option is one presented in the book; the latter is known in the Amber community as an \"Amethyst\" game. A third option is to have the players portray Corwin's children, in an Amber-like city built around Corwin's pattern; this is sometimes called an \"Argent\" game, since one of Corwin's heraldic colours is Silver.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Setting", "target_page_ids": [ 1366, 1093917, 105249, 13610, 27119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 588, 596 ], [ 650, 656 ], [ 751, 757 ], [ 787, 795 ], [ 807, 813 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Characters in Amber DRPG are represented by four attributes: Psyche, Strength, Endurance and Warfare.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [ 3783878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Psyche is used for feats of willpower or magic", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Strength is used for feats of strength or unarmed combat", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [ 1494071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Endurance is used for feats of endurance", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Warfare is used for armed combat, from duelling to commanding armies", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The attributes run from −25 (normal human level), through −10 (normal level for a denizen of the Courts of Chaos) and 0 (normal level for an inhabitant of Amber), upwards without limit. Scores above 0 are \"ranked\", with the highest score being ranked 1st, the next-highest 2nd, and so on. The character with 1st rank in each attribute is considered \"superior\" in that attribute, being considered to be substantially better than the character with 2nd rank even if the difference in scores is small. All else being equal, a character with a higher rank in an attribute will always win a contest based on that attribute.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A character's ability scores are purchased during character creation in an auction; players get 100 character points, and bid on each attribute in turn. The character who bids the most for an attribute is \"ranked\" first and is considered superior to all other characters in that attribute. Unlike conventional auctions, bids are non-refundable; if one player bids 65 for psyche and another wins with a bid of 66, then the character with 66 is \"superior\" to the character with 65 even though there is only one bid difference. Instead, lower bidding characters are ranked in ascending order according to how much they have bid, the characters becoming progressively weaker in that attribute as they pay less for it. After the auction, players can secretly pay extra points to raise their ranks, but they can only pay to raise their scores to an existing rank. Further, a character with a bid-for rank is considered to have a slight advantage over character with a bought-up rank.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [ 3885983, 62912, 5812946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 68 ], [ 75, 82 ], [ 100, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Auction simulates a 'history' of competition between the descendants of Oberon for player characters who have not had dozens of decades to get to know each other. Through the competitive Auction, characters may begin the game vying for standings. The auction serves to introduce some unpredictability into character creation without the need to resort to dice, cards, or other randomizing devices. A player may intend, for example, to create a character who is a strong, mighty warrior, but being \"outplayed\" in the auction may result in lower attribute scores than anticipated, therefore necessitating a change of character concept. Since a player cannot control another player's bids, and since all bids are non-refundable, the auction involves a considerable amount of strategizing and prioritization by players. A willingness to spend as many points as possible on an attribute may improve your chances of a high ranking, but too reckless a spending strategy could leave a player with few points to spend on powers and objects. In a hotly contested auction, such as for the important attribute of warfare, the most valuable skill is the ability to force one's opponents to back down. With two or more equally determined players, this can result in a \"bidding war,\" in which the attribute is driven up by increments to large sums. An alternative strategy is to try to cow other players into submission with a high opening bid. Most players bid low amounts between one and ten points in an initial bid in order to feel out the competition and to save points for other uses. A high enough opening bid could signal a player's determination to be first ranked in that attribute, thereby dissuading others from competing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [ 23622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Characters with high psyche are presented as having strong telepathic abilities, being able to hypnotise and even mentally dominate any character with lesser psyche with whom they can make eye-contact. This is likely due to three scenes in the Chronicles: first, when Eric paralyzes Corwin with an attack across the Trump and refuses to desist because one or the other would be dominated; second, when Corwin faces the demon Strygalldwir, it is able to wrestle mentally with him when their gazes meet; and third, when Fiona is able to keep Brand immobile in the final battle at the Courts of Chaos. However, in general, the books only feature mental battles when there is some reason for mind-to-mind contact (for example, Trump contact) and magic or Trump is involved in all three of the above conflicts, so it is not clear whether Zelazny intended his characters to have such a power; the combination of Brand's \"living trump\" powers and his high Psyche (as presented in the roleplaying game) would have guaranteed him victory over Corwin. Shadow Knight does address this inconsistency somewhat, by presenting the \"living trump\" abilities as somewhat limited.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [ 29923, 14417, 1093917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 69 ], [ 95, 104 ], [ 402, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Characters in Amber DRPG have access to the powers seen in the Chronicles of Amber: Pattern, Logrus, Shape-shifting, Trump, and magic.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pattern: A character who has walked the pattern can walk in shadow to any possible universe, and while there can manipulate probability.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Logrus: A character who has mastered the Logrus can send out Logrus tendrils and pull themselves or objects through shadow.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Shape-shifting: Shape-shifters can alter their physical form and abilities.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Trump: Trump Artists can create Trumps, a sort of tarot card which allows mental communication and travel. The book features Trump portraits of each of the elder Amberites. The trump picture of Corwin is executed in a subtly different style – and has features very similar to Roger Zelazny's.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [ 31178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magic: Three types of magic are detailed: Power Words, with a quick, small effect; Sorcery, with pre-prepared spells as in many other game systems; and Conjuration, the creation of small objects.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Each of the first four powers is available in an advanced form.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While a character with Pattern, Logrus or Conjuration can acquire virtually any object, players can choose to spend character points to obtain objects with particular virtues – unbreakability, or a mind of their own. Since they have paid points for the items, they are a part of the character's legend, and cannot lightly be destroyed. Similarly, a character can find any possible universe, but they can spend character points to know of or inhabit shadows which are (in some sense) \"real\" and therefore useful. The expansion, Shadow Knight, adds Constructs – artifacts with connections to shadows.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Unspent character points become good stuff – a good luck for the character. Players are also allowed to overspend (in moderation), with the points becoming bad stuff – bad luck which the Gamemaster should inflict on the character. Stuff governs how non-player characters perceive and respond to the character: characters with good stuff will often receive friendly or helpful reactions, while characters with bad stuff are often treated with suspicion or hostility.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As well as representing luck, stuff can be seen as representing a character's outlook on the universe: characters with good stuff seeing the multiverse as a cheerful place, while characters with bad stuff see it as hostile.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In any given fair conflict between two characters, the character with the higher score in the relevant attribute will eventually win. The key words here are fair and eventually – if characters' ranks are close, and the weaker character has obtained some advantage, then the weaker character can escape defeat or perhaps prevail. Close ranks result in longer contests while greater difference between ranks result in fast resolution. Alternatively, if characters' attribute ranks are close, the weaker character can try to change the relevant attribute by changing the nature of the conflict. For example, if two characters are wrestling the relevant attribute is Strength; a character could reveal a weapon, changing it to Warfare; they could try to overcome the other character's mind using a power, changing it to Psyche; or they could concentrate their strength on defense, changing it to Endurance. If there is a substantial difference between characters' ranks, the conflict is generally over before the weaker character can react.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Amber DRPG advises gamemasters to change rules as they see fit, even to the point of adding or removing powers or attributes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "System", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the June 1992 edition of Dragon (Issue 182), both Lester Smith and Allen Varney published reviews of this game.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 55357, 41122692, 3514137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 34 ], [ 53, 65 ], [ 70, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Smith admired the professional production qualities of the 256-page rulebook, noting that because it was Smyth sewn in 32-page signatures, the book would always lie flat when opened. However, he found the typeface difficult to read, and the lack a coherent hierarchy of rules increased the reading difficulty as well. Smith admired the Attribute Auction and point-buy system for skills, and the focus on roleplaying in place of dice-rolling, but he mused that all of the roleplaying would mean \"GMs have to spend quite a bit of time and creative effort coming up with wide-reaching plots for their players to work through. Canned, linear adventures just won't serve.\" He concluded by stating that the diceless system is not for every gamer: \"As impressed as I am with the game, do I think it is the 'end-all' of role-playing games, or that diceless systems are the wave of the future? I'll give a firm “No” on both counts... However, I certainly do think that the Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game is destined for great popularity and a niche among the most respected of role-playing game designs.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 23277840, 12347330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 116 ], [ 128, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Allen Varney thought the \"Attribute Auction\" to be \"brilliant and elegant\", but he wondered if character advancement was perhaps too slow to keep marginal players interested. He also believed that being a gamemaster would be \"tough work. Proceed with caution.\" Varney recommended that players need some familiarity with the first five \"Amber\" novels by Zelazny. He concluded, \"The intensity of the Amber game indicates [game designer Erik ] Wujcik is on to something. When success in every action depends on the role and not the roll, players develop a sense of both control and urgency, along with creativity that borders on mania.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 12373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Loyd Blankenship reviewed Amber in Pyramid #2 (July/Aug., 1993), and stated that \"Amber is a valuable resource to a GM - even if he isn't running an Amber game. For gamers who have an aspiring actor or actress lurking within their breast, or for someone running a campaign via electronic mail or message base, Amber should be given serious consideration.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 573644, 712259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 35, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the game's out-of-print status, a thriving convention scene exists supporting the game. Amber conventions, known as Ambercons, are held yearly in Massachusetts, Michigan, Portland (United States), Milton Keynes (England), Belfast (Northern Ireland) and Modena, Italy. Additionally, Phage Press published 12 volumes of a dedicated Amber DRPG magazine called Amberzine. Some Amberzine issues are still available from Phage Press.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Community", "target_page_ids": [ 988803, 621010, 1645518, 18859, 23503, 148642, 5046, 62418, 61584628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 31 ], [ 51, 61 ], [ 154, 167 ], [ 169, 177 ], [ 179, 187 ], [ 205, 218 ], [ 230, 237 ], [ 261, 274 ], [ 365, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Challenge #65 (Oct., 1992)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reviews", "target_page_ids": [ 8195538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "White Wolf #31 (May/June, 1992)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reviews", "target_page_ids": [ 28539976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shadis #10 (Dec., 1993)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reviews", "target_page_ids": [ 852772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Casus Belli #70 (July 1992)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reviews", "target_page_ids": [ 47661583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Review ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Official Amber DRPG and Erick Wujcik Forum The Official Amber DRPG and Erick Wujcik Forum (This site is no longer live)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "The_Chronicles_of_Amber", "Fantasy_role-playing_games", "Role-playing_games_based_on_novels", "American_role-playing_games", "Role-playing_games_introduced_in_1991", "Role-playing_game_systems" ]

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[ { "plaintext": "Athene or Athena is the shrewd companion of heroes and the goddess of heroic endeavour in Greek mythology.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athene may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "881 Athene, a main-belt asteroid", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3036757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athene (bird), a genus of small owls", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7679447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athene (Cynuria), a town in ancient Cynuria, Greece", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 58985807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athene Glacier, a glacier in Antarctica", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16489914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "HMS Athene, an aircraft transport", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 439363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "USS Athene (AKA-22), an Artemis-class attack cargo ship", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6391832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bachir Boumaaza or Athene (born 1980), Belgian YouTube personality and social activist", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37099640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athene (research center), stylized as ATHENE, an IT security research institute in Darmstadt, Germany", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 61975455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athene Seyler (1889–1990), English actress", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People with the given name", "target_page_ids": [ 586440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athene Donald (born 1953), British physicist", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People with the given name", "target_page_ids": [ 18517789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Altena (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2108338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Atena (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23834192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athen (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 662344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athena (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 308605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athens (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 265308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements of which at least one is a metal. Unlike chemical compounds with metallic bases, an alloy will retain all the properties of a metal in the resulting material, such as electrical conductivity, ductility, opacity, and luster, but may have properties that differ from those of the pure metals, such as increased strength or hardness. In some cases, an alloy may reduce the overall cost of the material while preserving important properties. In other cases, the mixture imparts synergistic properties to the constituent metal elements such as corrosion resistance or mechanical strength.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 286069, 5659, 19042, 21347411, 61580, 87019, 3581788, 60652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 21 ], [ 25, 41 ], [ 70, 75 ], [ 84, 101 ], [ 210, 233 ], [ 235, 244 ], [ 246, 253 ], [ 259, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alloys are defined by a metallic bonding character. The alloy constituents are usually measured by mass percentage for practical applications, and in atomic fraction for basic science studies. Alloys are usually classified as substitutional or interstitial alloys, depending on the atomic arrangement that forms the alloy. They can be further classified as homogeneous (consisting of a single phase), or heterogeneous (consisting of two or more phases) or intermetallic. An alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements (a single phase, where all metallic grains (crystals) are of the same composition) or a mixture of metallic phases (two or more solutions, forming a microstructure of different crystals within the metal).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19838, 7626743, 1187, 1250206, 2221187, 286069, 2189901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 40 ], [ 150, 165 ], [ 244, 262 ], [ 456, 469 ], [ 489, 503 ], [ 610, 617 ], [ 671, 685 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Examples of alloys include red gold (gold and copper) white gold (gold and silver), sterling silver (silver and copper), steel or silicon steel (iron with non-metallic carbon or silicon respectively), solder, brass, pewter, duralumin, bronze, and amalgams.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20063724, 12240, 125293, 20063724, 27119, 221192, 27058, 3737589, 14734, 5299, 27114, 28942, 3292, 60288, 162197, 4169, 19074264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 35 ], [ 37, 41 ], [ 46, 52 ], [ 54, 64 ], [ 75, 81 ], [ 84, 99 ], [ 121, 126 ], [ 130, 143 ], [ 145, 149 ], [ 168, 174 ], [ 178, 185 ], [ 201, 207 ], [ 209, 214 ], [ 216, 222 ], [ 224, 233 ], [ 235, 241 ], [ 247, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alloys are used in a wide variety of applications, from the steel alloys, used in everything from buildings to automobiles to surgical tools, to exotic titanium alloys used in the aerospace industry, to beryllium-copper alloys for non-sparking tools.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements, which forms an impure substance (admixture) that retains the characteristics of a metal. An alloy is distinct from an impure metal in that, with an alloy, the added elements are well controlled to produce desirable properties, while impure metals such as wrought iron are less controlled, but are often considered useful. Alloys are made by mixing two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal. This is usually called the primary metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. The other constituents may or may not be metals but, when mixed with the molten base, they will be soluble and dissolve into the mixture.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [ 5659, 19042, 99603, 59497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 41 ], [ 126, 131 ], [ 299, 311 ], [ 669, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mechanical properties of alloys will often be quite different from those of its individual constituents. A metal that is normally very soft (malleable), such as aluminium, can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal, such as copper. Although both metals are very soft and ductile, the resulting aluminium alloy will have much greater strength. Adding a small amount of non-metallic carbon to iron trades its great ductility for the greater strength of an alloy called steel. Due to its very-high strength, but still substantial toughness, and its ability to be greatly altered by heat treatment, steel is one of the most useful and common alloys in modern use. By adding chromium to steel, its resistance to corrosion can be enhanced, creating stainless steel, while adding silicon will alter its electrical characteristics, producing silicon steel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [ 87019, 904, 125293, 87019, 6191356, 277641, 5299, 14734, 27058, 684489, 182208, 5669, 155443, 27059, 27114, 3737589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 154 ], [ 165, 174 ], [ 239, 245 ], [ 286, 293 ], [ 309, 324 ], [ 348, 356 ], [ 396, 402 ], [ 406, 410 ], [ 482, 487 ], [ 542, 551 ], [ 594, 608 ], [ 685, 693 ], [ 722, 731 ], [ 758, 773 ], [ 788, 795 ], [ 849, 862 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like oil and water, a molten metal may not always mix with another element. For example, pure iron is almost completely insoluble with copper. Even when the constituents are soluble, each will usually have a saturation point, beyond which no more of the constituent can be added. Iron, for example, can hold a maximum of 6.67% carbon. Although the elements of an alloy usually must be soluble in the liquid state, they may not always be soluble in the solid state. If the metals remain soluble when solid, the alloy forms a solid solution, becoming a homogeneous structure consisting of identical crystals, called a phase. If as the mixture cools the constituents become insoluble, they may separate to form two or more different types of crystals, creating a heterogeneous microstructure of different phases, some with more of one constituent than the other. However, in other alloys, the insoluble elements may not separate until after crystallization occurs. If cooled very quickly, they first crystallize as a homogeneous phase, but they are supersaturated with the secondary constituents. As time passes, the atoms of these supersaturated alloys can separate from the crystal lattice, becoming more stable, and forming a second phase that serves to reinforce the crystals internally.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [ 59497, 59497, 18993825, 18993816, 2221187, 23637, 2189901, 63337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 129 ], [ 208, 224 ], [ 400, 406 ], [ 452, 457 ], [ 524, 538 ], [ 616, 621 ], [ 774, 788 ], [ 1046, 1060 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some alloys, such as electrum—an alloy of silver and gold—occur naturally. Meteorites are sometimes made of naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel, but are not native to the Earth. One of the first alloys made by humans was bronze, which is a mixture of the metals tin and copper. Bronze was an extremely useful alloy to the ancients, because it is much stronger and harder than either of its components. Steel was another common alloy. However, in ancient times, it could only be created as an accidental byproduct from the heating of iron ore in fires (smelting) during the manufacture of iron. Other ancient alloys include pewter, brass and pig iron. In the modern age, steel can be created in many forms. Carbon steel can be made by varying only the carbon content, producing soft alloys like mild steel or hard alloys like spring steel. Alloy steels can be made by adding other elements, such as chromium, molybdenum, vanadium or nickel, resulting in alloys such as high-speed steel or tool steel. Small amounts of manganese are usually alloyed with most modern steels because of its ability to remove unwanted impurities, like phosphorus, sulfur and oxygen, which can have detrimental effects on the alloy. However, most alloys were not created until the 1900s, such as various aluminium, titanium, nickel, and magnesium alloys. Some modern superalloys, such as incoloy, inconel, and hastelloy, may consist of a multitude of different elements.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [ 56226, 27119, 12240, 21274, 4169, 30042, 125293, 28716, 60288, 3292, 53694, 633593, 633593, 2581444, 6186026, 5669, 19052, 32431, 21274, 685784, 633601, 19051, 23318, 27127, 22303, 1836449, 315474, 4826789, 2025632, 27486088, 1568958, 19277123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 29 ], [ 42, 48 ], [ 53, 57 ], [ 147, 153 ], [ 231, 237 ], [ 272, 275 ], [ 280, 286 ], [ 562, 570 ], [ 633, 639 ], [ 641, 646 ], [ 651, 659 ], [ 716, 728 ], [ 804, 814 ], [ 835, 847 ], [ 849, 860 ], [ 908, 916 ], [ 918, 928 ], [ 930, 938 ], [ 942, 948 ], [ 978, 994 ], [ 998, 1008 ], [ 1027, 1036 ], [ 1140, 1150 ], [ 1152, 1158 ], [ 1163, 1169 ], [ 1302, 1310 ], [ 1312, 1318 ], [ 1324, 1339 ], [ 1354, 1364 ], [ 1375, 1382 ], [ 1384, 1391 ], [ 1397, 1406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An alloy is technically an impure metal, but when referring to alloys, the term impurities usually denotes undesirable elements. Such impurities are introduced from the base metals and alloying elements, but are removed during processing. For instance, sulfur is a common impurity in steel. Sulfur combines readily with iron to form iron sulfide, which is very brittle, creating weak spots in the steel. Lithium, sodium and calcium are common impurities in aluminium alloys, which can have adverse effects on the structural integrity of castings. Conversely, otherwise pure-metals that simply contain unwanted impurities are often called \"impure metals\" and are not usually referred to as alloys. Oxygen, present in the air, readily combines with most metals to form metal oxides; especially at higher temperatures encountered during alloying. Great care is often taken during the alloying process to remove excess impurities, using fluxes, chemical additives, or other methods of extractive metallurgy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [ 2091702, 17561, 26826, 5668, 36337411, 22305, 493521, 145066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 333, 345 ], [ 404, 411 ], [ 413, 419 ], [ 424, 431 ], [ 513, 533 ], [ 767, 778 ], [ 933, 939 ], [ 981, 1002 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alloying a metal is done by combining it with one or more other elements. The most common and oldest alloying process is performed by heating the base metal beyond its melting point and then dissolving the solutes into the molten liquid, which may be possible even if the melting point of the solute is far greater than that of the base. For example, in its liquid state, titanium is a very strong solvent capable of dissolving most metals and elements. In addition, it readily absorbs gases like oxygen and burns in the presence of nitrogen. This increases the chance of contamination from any contacting surface, and so must be melted in vacuum induction-heating and special, water-cooled, copper crucibles. However, some metals and solutes, such as iron and carbon, have very high melting-points and were impossible for ancient people to melt. Thus, alloying (in particular, interstitial alloying) may also be performed with one or more constituents in a gaseous state, such as found in a blast furnace to make pig iron (liquid-gas), nitriding, carbonitriding or other forms of case hardening (solid-gas), or the cementation process used to make blister steel (solid-gas). It may also be done with one, more, or all of the constituents in the solid state, such as found in ancient methods of pattern welding (solid-solid), shear steel (solid-solid), or crucible steel production (solid-liquid), mixing the elements via solid-state diffusion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 40283, 30040, 185775, 297203, 4750916, 2940900, 1557416, 975309, 975309, 24175, 975309, 339125, 19908550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 181 ], [ 372, 380 ], [ 699, 707 ], [ 992, 1005 ], [ 1037, 1046 ], [ 1048, 1062 ], [ 1081, 1095 ], [ 1116, 1135 ], [ 1149, 1162 ], [ 1295, 1310 ], [ 1326, 1337 ], [ 1356, 1370 ], [ 1434, 1443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By adding another element to a metal, differences in the size of the atoms create internal stresses in the lattice of the metallic crystals; stresses that often enhance its properties. For example, the combination of carbon with iron produces steel, which is stronger than iron, its primary element. The electrical and thermal conductivity of alloys is usually lower than that of the pure metals. The physical properties, such as density, reactivity, Young's modulus of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its base element, but engineering properties such as tensile strength, ductility, and shear strength may be substantially different from those of the constituent materials. This is sometimes a result of the sizes of the atoms in the alloy, because larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms, and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors, helping the alloy resist deformation. Sometimes alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior even when small amounts of one element are present. For example, impurities in semiconducting ferromagnetic alloys lead to different properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie and Nakamura.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 27058, 14734, 61580, 59438, 8429, 508602, 228108, 237207, 2260942, 902, 11807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 243, 248 ], [ 273, 277 ], [ 304, 314 ], [ 319, 339 ], [ 430, 437 ], [ 439, 449 ], [ 451, 466 ], [ 569, 585 ], [ 602, 616 ], [ 736, 740 ], [ 1077, 1090 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a single melting point, but a melting range during which the material is a mixture of solid and liquid phases (a slush). The temperature at which melting begins is called the solidus, and the temperature when melting is just complete is called the liquidus. For many alloys there is a particular alloy proportion (in some cases more than one), called either a eutectic mixture or a peritectic composition, which gives the alloy a unique and low melting point, and no liquid/solid slush transition.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 40283, 18993816, 18993825, 1708244, 8796024, 152969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 66 ], [ 130, 135 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 219, 226 ], [ 292, 300 ], [ 404, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alloying elements are added to a base metal, to induce hardness, toughness, ductility, or other desired properties. Most metals and alloys can be work hardened by creating defects in their crystal structure. These defects are created during plastic deformation by hammering, bending, extruding, et cetera, and are permanent unless the metal is recrystallized. Otherwise, some alloys can also have their properties altered by heat treatment. Nearly all metals can be softened by annealing, which recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects, but not as many can be hardened by controlled heating and cooling. Many alloys of aluminium, copper, magnesium, titanium, and nickel can be strengthened to some degree by some method of heat treatment, but few respond to this to the same degree as does steel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 3588836, 684489, 87019, 1590842, 237876, 3471089, 182208, 3424459, 904, 125293, 18909, 30040, 21274, 27058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 63 ], [ 65, 74 ], [ 76, 85 ], [ 146, 159 ], [ 241, 260 ], [ 344, 358 ], [ 425, 439 ], [ 478, 487 ], [ 627, 636 ], [ 638, 644 ], [ 646, 655 ], [ 657, 665 ], [ 671, 677 ], [ 798, 803 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The base metal iron of the iron-carbon alloy known as steel, undergoes a change in the arrangement (allotropy) of the atoms of its crystal matrix at a certain temperature (usually between and , depending on carbon content). This allows the smaller carbon atoms to enter the interstices of the iron crystal. When this diffusion happens, the carbon atoms are said to be in solution in the iron, forming a particular single, homogeneous, crystalline phase called austenite. If the steel is cooled slowly, the carbon can diffuse out of the iron and it will gradually revert to its low temperature allotrope. During slow cooling, the carbon atoms will no longer be as soluble with the iron, and will be forced to precipitate out of solution, nucleating into a more concentrated form of iron carbide (Fe3C) in the spaces between the pure iron crystals. The steel then becomes heterogeneous, as it is formed of two phases, the iron-carbon phase called cementite (or carbide), and pure iron ferrite. Such a heat treatment produces a steel that is rather soft. If the steel is cooled quickly, however, the carbon atoms will not have time to diffuse and precipitate out as carbide, but will be trapped within the iron crystals. When rapidly cooled, a diffusionless (martensite) transformation occurs, in which the carbon atoms become trapped in solution. This causes the iron crystals to deform as the crystal structure tries to change to its low temperature state, leaving those crystals very hard but much less ductile (more brittle).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 1839, 19908550, 2221187, 233317, 59497, 286262, 1996857, 233281, 7739, 15285305, 12363573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 109 ], [ 318, 327 ], [ 372, 380 ], [ 461, 470 ], [ 664, 671 ], [ 709, 720 ], [ 738, 748 ], [ 946, 955 ], [ 960, 967 ], [ 984, 991 ], [ 1242, 1283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the high strength of steel results when diffusion and precipitation is prevented (forming martensite), most heat-treatable alloys are precipitation hardening alloys, that depend on the diffusion of alloying elements to achieve their strength. When heated to form a solution and then cooled quickly, these alloys become much softer than normal, during the diffusionless transformation, but then harden as they age. The solutes in these alloys will precipitate over time, forming intermetallic phases, which are difficult to discern from the base metal. Unlike steel, in which the solid solution separates into different crystal phases (carbide and ferrite), precipitation hardening alloys form different phases within the same crystal. These intermetallic alloys appear homogeneous in crystal structure, but tend to behave heterogeneously, becoming hard and somewhat brittle.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 1590904, 1250206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 163 ], [ 484, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1906, precipitation hardening alloys were discovered by Alfred Wilm. Precipitation hardening alloys, such as certain alloys of aluminium, titanium, and copper, are heat-treatable alloys that soften when quenched (cooled quickly), and then harden over time. Wilm had been searching for a way to harden aluminium alloys for use in machine-gun cartridge cases. Knowing that aluminium-copper alloys were heat-treatable to some degree, Wilm tried quenching a ternary alloy of aluminium, copper, and the addition of magnesium, but was initially disappointed with the results. However, when Wilm retested it the next day he discovered that the alloy increased in hardness when left to age at room temperature, and far exceeded his expectations. Although an explanation for the phenomenon was not provided until 1919, duralumin was one of the first \"age hardening\" alloys used, becoming the primary building material for the first Zeppelins, and was soon followed by many others. Because they often exhibit a combination of high strength and low weight, these alloys became widely used in many forms of industry, including the construction of modern aircraft.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 1590904, 17803578, 904, 30040, 1166049, 18909, 162197, 34440, 849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 32 ], [ 59, 70 ], [ 130, 139 ], [ 141, 149 ], [ 206, 214 ], [ 513, 522 ], [ 813, 822 ], [ 926, 934 ], [ 1145, 1153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When a molten metal is mixed with another substance, there are two mechanisms that can cause an alloy to form, called atom exchange and the interstitial mechanism. The relative size of each element in the mix plays a primary role in determining which mechanism will occur. When the atoms are relatively similar in size, the atom exchange method usually happens, where some of the atoms composing the metallic crystals are substituted with atoms of the other constituent. This is called a substitutional alloy. Examples of substitutional alloys include bronze and brass, in which some of the copper atoms are substituted with either tin or zinc atoms respectively.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 3292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 563, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the case of the interstitial mechanism, one atom is usually much smaller than the other and can not successfully substitute for the other type of atom in the crystals of the base metal. Instead, the smaller atoms become trapped in the interstitial sites between the atoms of the crystal matrix. This is referred to as an interstitial alloy. Steel is an example of an interstitial alloy, because the very small carbon atoms fit into interstices of the iron matrix.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 43156657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 239, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stainless steel is an example of a combination of interstitial and substitutional alloys, because the carbon atoms fit into the interstices, but some of the iron atoms are substituted by nickel and chromium atoms.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Theory", "target_page_ids": [ 27059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The use of alloys by humans started with the use of meteoric iron, a naturally occurring alloy of nickel and iron. It is the main constituent of iron meteorites. As no metallurgic processes were used to separate iron from nickel, the alloy was used as it was. Meteoric iron could be forged from a red heat to make objects such as tools, weapons, and nails. In many cultures it was shaped by cold hammering into knives and arrowheads. They were often used as anvils. Meteoric iron was very rare and valuable, and difficult for ancient people to work.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 2081868, 21274, 14734, 3234346, 12235954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 65 ], [ 98, 104 ], [ 109, 113 ], [ 145, 159 ], [ 544, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Iron is usually found as iron ore on Earth, except for one deposit of native iron in Greenland, which was used by the Inuit. Native copper, however, was found worldwide, along with silver, gold, and platinum, which were also used to make tools, jewelry, and other objects since Neolithic times. Copper was the hardest of these metals, and the most widely distributed. It became one of the most important metals to the ancients. Around 10,000 years ago in the highlands of Anatolia (Turkey), humans learned to smelt metals such as copper and tin from ore. Around 2500 BC, people began alloying the two metals to form bronze, which was much harder than its ingredients. Tin was rare, however, being found mostly in Great Britain. In the Middle East, people began alloying copper with zinc to form brass. Ancient civilizations took into account the mixture and the various properties it produced, such as hardness, toughness and melting point, under various conditions of temperature and work hardening, developing much of the information contained in modern alloy phase diagrams. For example, arrowheads from the Chinese Qin dynasty (around 200 BC) were often constructed with a hard bronze-head, but a softer bronze-tang, combining the alloys to prevent both dulling and breaking during use.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 145352, 32253448, 12118, 15704166, 125293, 27119, 12240, 23324, 854, 28716, 30042, 22595, 4169, 34420, 3292, 3588836, 684489, 40283, 20647050, 1590842, 56398, 43461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 33 ], [ 70, 81 ], [ 85, 94 ], [ 118, 123 ], [ 132, 138 ], [ 181, 187 ], [ 189, 193 ], [ 199, 207 ], [ 472, 480 ], [ 509, 514 ], [ 541, 544 ], [ 550, 553 ], [ 616, 622 ], [ 782, 786 ], [ 795, 800 ], [ 902, 910 ], [ 912, 921 ], [ 926, 939 ], [ 969, 980 ], [ 985, 999 ], [ 1056, 1076 ], [ 1119, 1130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mercury has been smelted from cinnabar for thousands of years. Mercury dissolves many metals, such as gold, silver, and tin, to form amalgams (an alloy in a soft paste or liquid form at ambient temperature). Amalgams have been used since 200 BC in China for gilding objects such as armor and mirrors with precious metals. The ancient Romans often used mercury-tin amalgams for gilding their armor. The amalgam was applied as a paste and then heated until the mercury vaporized, leaving the gold, silver, or tin behind. Mercury was often used in mining, to extract precious metals like gold and silver from their ores.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 18617142, 53464, 19074264, 390698, 2147, 20545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 30, 38 ], [ 133, 141 ], [ 258, 265 ], [ 282, 287 ], [ 292, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many ancient civilizations alloyed metals for purely aesthetic purposes. In ancient Egypt and Mycenae, gold was often alloyed with copper to produce red-gold, or iron to produce a bright burgundy-gold. Gold was often found alloyed with silver or other metals to produce various types of colored gold. These metals were also used to strengthen each other, for more practical purposes. Copper was often added to silver to make sterling silver, increasing its strength for use in dishes, silverware, and other practical items. Quite often, precious metals were alloyed with less valuable substances as a means to deceive buyers. Around 250 BC, Archimedes was commissioned by the King of Syracuse to find a way to check the purity of the gold in a crown, leading to the famous bath-house shouting of \"Eureka!\" upon the discovery of Archimedes' principle.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 8087628, 37548, 20063724, 221192, 1844, 28441, 333420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 89 ], [ 94, 101 ], [ 287, 299 ], [ 425, 440 ], [ 641, 651 ], [ 684, 692 ], [ 828, 849 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term pewter covers a variety of alloys consisting primarily of tin. As a pure metal, tin is much too soft to use for most practical purposes. However, during the Bronze Age, tin was a rare metal in many parts of Europe and the Mediterranean, so it was often valued higher than gold. To make jewellery, cutlery, or other objects from tin, workers usually alloyed it with other metals to increase strength and hardness. These metals were typically lead, antimony, bismuth or copper. These solutes were sometimes added individually in varying amounts, or added together, making a wide variety of objects, ranging from practical items such as dishes, surgical tools, candlesticks or funnels, to decorative items like ear rings and hair clips.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 60288, 4620, 17747, 898, 18933196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 15 ], [ 166, 176 ], [ 450, 454 ], [ 456, 464 ], [ 466, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest examples of pewter come from ancient Egypt, around 1450 BC. The use of pewter was widespread across Europe, from France to Norway and Britain (where most of the ancient tin was mined) to the Near East. The alloy was also used in China and the Far East, arriving in Japan around 800 AD, where it was used for making objects like ceremonial vessels, tea canisters, or chalices used in shinto shrines.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 28272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 396, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first known smelting of iron began in Anatolia, around 1800 BC. Called the bloomery process, it produced very soft but ductile wrought iron. By 800 BC, iron-making technology had spread to Europe, arriving in Japan around 700 AD. Pig iron, a very hard but brittle alloy of iron and carbon, was being produced in China as early as 1200 BC, but did not arrive in Europe until the Middle Ages. Pig iron has a lower melting point than iron, and was used for making cast-iron. However, these metals found little practical use until the introduction of crucible steel around 300 BC. These steels were of poor quality, and the introduction of pattern welding, around the 1st century AD, sought to balance the extreme properties of the alloys by laminating them, to create a tougher metal. Around 700 AD, the Japanese began folding bloomery-steel and cast-iron in alternating layers to increase the strength of their swords, using clay fluxes to remove slag and impurities. This method of Japanese swordsmithing produced one of the purest steel-alloys of the ancient world.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 854, 1473011, 87019, 99603, 53694, 5299, 5760, 132784, 339125, 24175, 250438, 7528817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 50 ], [ 79, 95 ], [ 123, 130 ], [ 131, 143 ], [ 234, 242 ], [ 286, 292 ], [ 316, 321 ], [ 465, 474 ], [ 551, 565 ], [ 640, 655 ], [ 949, 953 ], [ 985, 1007 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the use of iron started to become more widespread around 1200 BC, mainly because of interruptions in the trade routes for tin, the metal was much softer than bronze. However, very small amounts of steel, (an alloy of iron and around 1% carbon), was always a byproduct of the bloomery process. The ability to modify the hardness of steel by heat treatment had been known since 1100 BC, and the rare material was valued for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Because the ancients could not produce temperatures high enough to melt iron fully, the production of steel in decent quantities did not occur until the introduction of blister steel during the Middle Ages. This method introduced carbon by heating wrought iron in charcoal for long periods of time, but the absorption of carbon in this manner is extremely slow thus the penetration was not very deep, so the alloy was not homogeneous. In 1740, Benjamin Huntsman began melting blister steel in a crucible to even out the carbon content, creating the first process for the mass production of tool steel. Huntsman's process was used for manufacturing tool steel until the early 1900s.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 27058, 182208, 975309, 1215905, 633601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 208 ], [ 346, 360 ], [ 635, 648 ], [ 910, 927 ], [ 1056, 1066 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The introduction of the blast furnace to Europe in the Middle Ages meant that people could produce pig iron in much higher volumes than wrought iron. Because pig iron could be melted, people began to develop processes to reduce carbon in liquid pig iron to create steel. Puddling had been used in China since the first century, and was introduced in Europe during the 1700s, where molten pig iron was stirred while exposed to the air, to remove the carbon by oxidation. In 1858, Henry Bessemer developed a process of steel-making by blowing hot air through liquid pig iron to reduce the carbon content. The Bessemer process led to the first large scale manufacture of steel.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 53694, 18993825, 2852265, 66313, 44342, 40180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 107 ], [ 238, 244 ], [ 271, 279 ], [ 459, 468 ], [ 479, 493 ], [ 607, 623 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, but the term alloy steel usually only refers to steels that contain other elements— like vanadium, molybdenum, or cobalt—in amounts sufficient to alter the properties of the base steel. Since ancient times, when steel was used primarily for tools and weapons, the methods of producing and working the metal were often closely guarded secrets. Even long after the Age of reason, the steel industry was very competitive and manufacturers went through great lengths to keep their processes confidential, resisting any attempts to scientifically analyze the material for fear it would reveal their methods. For example, the people of Sheffield, a center of steel production in England, were known to routinely bar visitors and tourists from entering town to deter industrial espionage. Thus, almost no metallurgical information existed about steel until 1860. Because of this lack of understanding, steel was not generally considered an alloy until the decades between 1930 and 1970 (primarily due to the work of scientists like William Chandler Roberts-Austen, Adolf Martens, and Edgar Bain), so \"alloy steel\" became the popular term for ternary and quaternary steel-alloys.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 6186026, 32431, 19052, 24580536, 30758, 88885, 15508, 13529858, 20279841, 2208754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 62 ], [ 127, 135 ], [ 137, 147 ], [ 152, 158 ], [ 401, 414 ], [ 668, 677 ], [ 798, 818 ], [ 1063, 1094 ], [ 1096, 1109 ], [ 1115, 1125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel in 1740, he began experimenting with the addition of elements like manganese (in the form of a high-manganese pig-iron called spiegeleisen), which helped remove impurities such as phosphorus and oxygen; a process adopted by Bessemer and still used in modern steels (albeit in concentrations low enough to still be considered carbon steel). Afterward, many people began experimenting with various alloys of steel without much success. However, in 1882, Robert Hadfield, being a pioneer in steel metallurgy, took an interest and produced a steel alloy containing around 12% manganese. Called mangalloy, it exhibited extreme hardness and toughness, becoming the first commercially viable alloy-steel. Afterward, he created silicon steel, launching the search for other possible alloys of steel.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 339125, 19051, 189278, 8422763, 22694419, 3737589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 52 ], [ 120, 129 ], [ 179, 191 ], [ 505, 520 ], [ 643, 652 ], [ 773, 786 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robert Forester Mushet found that by adding tungsten to steel it could produce a very hard edge that would resist losing its hardness at high temperatures. \"R. Mushet's special steel\" (RMS) became the first high-speed steel. Mushet's steel was quickly replaced by tungsten carbide steel, developed by Taylor and White in 1900, in which they doubled the tungsten content and added small amounts of chromium and vanadium, producing a superior steel for use in lathes and machining tools. In 1903, the Wright brothers used a chromium-nickel steel to make the crankshaft for their airplane engine, while in 1908 Henry Ford began using vanadium steels for parts like crankshafts and valves in his Model T Ford, due to their higher strength and resistance to high temperatures. In 1912, the Krupp Ironworks in Germany developed a rust-resistant steel by adding 21% chromium and 7% nickel, producing the first stainless steel.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 10938277, 30046, 685784, 746462, 58410, 13371, 156891, 5669, 21274, 27059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 44, 52 ], [ 207, 223 ], [ 264, 280 ], [ 499, 514 ], [ 608, 618 ], [ 692, 704 ], [ 859, 867 ], [ 875, 881 ], [ 903, 918 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to their high reactivity, most metals were not discovered until the 19th century. A method for extracting aluminium from bauxite was proposed by Humphry Davy in 1807, using an electric arc. Although his attempts were unsuccessful, by 1855 the first sales of pure aluminium reached the market. However, as extractive metallurgy was still in its infancy, most aluminium extraction-processes produced unintended alloys contaminated with other elements found in the ore; the most abundant of which was copper. These aluminium-copper alloys (at the time termed \"aluminum bronze\") preceded pure aluminium, offering greater strength and hardness over the soft, pure metal, and to a slight degree were found to be heat treatable. However, due to their softness and limited hardenability these alloys found little practical use, and were more of a novelty, until the Wright brothers used an aluminium alloy to construct the first airplane engine in 1903. During the time between 1865 and 1910, processes for extracting many other metals were discovered, such as chromium, vanadium, tungsten, iridium, cobalt, and molybdenum, and various alloys were developed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 3760, 14369, 1239265, 145066, 58410, 14752, 24580536, 19052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 132 ], [ 149, 161 ], [ 180, 192 ], [ 309, 330 ], [ 862, 877 ], [ 1087, 1094 ], [ 1096, 1102 ], [ 1108, 1118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to 1910, research mainly consisted of private individuals tinkering in their own laboratories. However, as the aircraft and automotive industries began growing, research into alloys became an industrial effort in the years following 1910, as new magnesium alloys were developed for pistons and wheels in cars, and pot metal for levers and knobs, and aluminium alloys developed for airframes and aircraft skins were put into use.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History and examples", "target_page_ids": [ 4826789, 10334744, 3130291, 463408, 15885469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 252, 267 ], [ 300, 306 ], [ 320, 329 ], [ 387, 395 ], [ 401, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alloy broadening", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 57843630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " CALPHAD", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13776683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ideal mixture", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 731401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of alloys", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 315474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] } ]

[ "Alloys", "Metallurgy", "Chemistry" ]

[ "alloys" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Throughout history, forms of art have gone through periodic abrupt changes called artistic revolutions. Movements have come to an end to be replaced by a new movement markedly different in striking ways. See also cultural movements.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 752, 5903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 32 ], [ 215, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Not all artistic revolutions were political. Sometimes, science and technological innovations have brought about unforeseen transformations in the works of artists. The stylistic revolution known as Impressionism, by painters eager to more accurately capture the changing colors of light and shadow, is inseparable from discoveries and inventions in the mid-19th century in which the style was born.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Scientific and technological", "target_page_ids": [ 15169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 200, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eugene Chevreul, a French chemist hired as director of dyes at a French tapestry works, began to investigate the optical nature of color in order to improve color in fabrics. Chevreul realized It was the eye, and not the dye, that had the greatest influence on color, and from this, he revolutionized color theory by grasping what came to be called the law of simultaneous contrast: that colors mutually influence one another when juxtaposed, each imposing its own complementary color on the other. The French painter Eugène Delacroix, who had been experimenting with what he called broken tones, embraced Chevreul's book, \"The Law of Contrast of Color (1839) with its explanations of how juxtaposed colors can enhance or diminish each other, and his exploration of all the visible colors of the spectrum. Inspired by Chevreul’s 1839 treatise, Delacroix passed his enthusiasm on to the young artists who were inspired by him. It was Chevreul who led the Impressionists to grasp that they should apply separate brushstrokes of pure color to a canvas and allow the viewer’s eye to combine them optically.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Scientific and technological", "target_page_ids": [ 191847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "They were aided greatly in this by innovations in oil paint itself. Since the Renaissance, painters had to grind pigment, add oil and thus create their own paints; these time-consuming paints also quickly dried out, making studio painting a necessity for large works, and limiting painters to mix one or two colors at a time and fill in an entire area using just that one color before it dried out. in 1841, a little-known American painter named John G. Rand invented a simple improvement without which the Impressionist movement could not have occurred: the small, flexible tin tube with removable cap in which oil paints could be stored. Oil paints kept in such tubes stayed moist and usable -- and quite portable. For the first time since the Renaissance, painters were not trapped by the time frame of how quickly oil paint dried.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Scientific and technological", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Paints in tubes could be easily loaded up and carried out into the real world, to directly observe the play of color and natural light, in shadow and movement, to paint in the moment. Selling the oil paint in tubes also brought about the arrival of dazzling new pigments - chrome yellow, cadmium blue - invented by 19th century industrial chemists. The tubes freed the Impressionists to paint quickly, and across an entire canvas, rather than carefully delineated single-color sections at a time; in short, to sketch directly in oil - racing across the canvas in every color that came to hand and thus inspiring their name of \"impressionists\" - since such speedy, bold brushwork and dabs of separate colors made contemporary critics think their paintings were mere impressions, not finished paintings, which were to have no visible brush marks at all, seamless under layers of varnish.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Scientific and technological", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pierre-Auguste Renoir said, “Without colors in tubes, there would be no Cézanne, no Monet, no Pissarro, and no Impressionism.”", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Scientific and technological", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Finally, the careful, hyper-realistic techniques of French neo-classicism were seen as stiff and lifeless when compared to the remarkable new vision of the world as seen through the new invention of photography by the mid-1850s. It was not merely that the increasing ability of this new invention, particularly by the French inventor Daguerre, made the realism of the painted image redundant as he deliberately competed in the Paris diorama with large-scale historical paintings. The neo-classical subject matter, limited by Academic tradition to Greek and Roman legends, historical battles and Biblical stories, seemed oppressively clichéd and limited to artists eager to explore the actual world in front of their own eyes revealed by the camera - daily life, candid groupings of everyday people doing simple things, Paris itself, rural landscapes and most particularly the play of captured light - not the imaginary lionizing of unseen past events. Early photographs influenced Impressionist style by its use of asymmetry, cropping and most obviously the blurring of motion, as inadvertently captured in the very slow speeds of early photography.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Scientific and technological", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir - in their framing, use of color, light and shadow, subject matter - put these innovations to work to create a new language of visual beauty and meaning.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Scientific and technological", "target_page_ids": [ 63146, 6548, 24546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 13, 25 ], [ 27, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Their initial break with realism into an exploration of light, color and the nature of paint was brought to an ultimate conclusion by the Abstract Expressionists who broke away from recognizable content of any kind into works of pure shape, color and painterliness which emerged at the end of the second world war. At first thought of as primitive, inept works - as in \"my four year old could do that\"—these works were misunderstood and neglected until given critical and support by the rise of art journalists and critics who championed their work in the 1940s and 50's, expressing the power of such work in aesthetic terms the artists themselves seldom used, or even understood. Jackson Pollock who pioneered splatter painting, dispensing with a paint brush altogether, soon became lionized as the angry young man in a large spread in Life Magazine.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Faking revolution: the C.I.A. and Abstract Expressionism", "target_page_ids": [ 147847, 16307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 162 ], [ 685, 700 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In fact, in a deliberate, secret and successful effort to separate artistic revolutions from political ones, abstract expressionists like Pollock, Robert Motherwell, Willem de Kooning and Mark Rothko, while seemingly difficult, pathbreaking artists, were in fact secretly supported for twenty years by the C.I.A. in a Cold War policy begun in 1947 to prove that the United States could foster more artistic freedom than the Soviet bloc. \"It was recognized that Abstract Expressionism was the kind of art that made Socialist Realism look even more stylized and rigid and confined than it was, \" said former C.I.A. case worker Donald Jameson, who finally broke the silence on this program in 1995. Ironically, the covert C.I.A. support for these radical works was required because an attempt to use government funds for a European tour of these works during the Truman administration led to a public uproar in conservative McCarthy-era America, with Truman famously remarking, \"If that's art, I'm a Hottentot.\" Thus the program was hidden under the guise of fabricated foundations and the support of wealthy patrons who were actually using C.I.A. funds, not their own, to sponsor traveling exhibitions of American abstract expressionists all over the world, publish books and articles praising them and to purchase and exhibit Abstract Expressionist works in major American and British museums. Thomas Braden, in charge of these cultural programs for the C.I.A.. in the early years of the Cold War, had formerly been executive secretary of the Museum of Modern Art, America's leading institution for 20th Century art and the charges of collusion between the two echoed for many years after this program was revealed, though most of the artists involved had no idea they were being used in this way and were furious when they found out.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Faking revolution: the C.I.A. and Abstract Expressionism", "target_page_ids": [ 884499, 459853, 127657, 5663964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 165 ], [ 167, 184 ], [ 189, 200 ], [ 1397, 1410 ] ] } ]

[ "Art_history", "Revolutions_by_type" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Agrarianism is a political and social philosophy that has promoted subsistence agriculture, smallholdings, and egalitarianism, with agrarian political parties normally supporting the rights and sustainability of small farmers and poor peasants against the wealthy in society. In highly developed and industrial nations or regions, it can denote use of financial and social incentives for self-sustainability, more community involvement in food production (such as allotment gardens) and smart growth that avoids urban sprawl, and also what many of its advocates contend are risks of human overpopulation; when overpopulation occurs, the available resources become too limited for the entire population to survive comfortably or at all in the long term.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23040, 586276, 323964, 2765707, 10113, 23996, 23820746, 68282, 155660, 45425, 655311, 20041526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 26 ], [ 31, 48 ], [ 67, 90 ], [ 92, 104 ], [ 111, 125 ], [ 141, 158 ], [ 212, 225 ], [ 235, 242 ], [ 464, 481 ], [ 487, 499 ], [ 512, 524 ], [ 589, 603 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some scholars suggest that agrarianism values rural society as superior to urban society and the independent farmer as superior to the paid worker, and sees farming as a way of life that can shape the ideal social values. It stresses the superiority of a simpler rural life as opposed to the complexity of city life. For example, M. Thomas Inge defines agrarianism by the following basic tenets:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1096689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 330, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Farming is the sole occupation that offers total independence and self-sufficiency.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 62450, 27861521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 61 ], [ 66, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Urban life, capitalism, and technology destroy independence and dignity and foster vice and weakness.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 5416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The agricultural community, with its fellowship of labor and co-operation, is the model society.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The farmer has a solid, stable position in the world order. They have \"a sense of identity, a sense of historical and religious tradition, a feeling of belonging to a concrete family, place, and region, which are psychologically and culturally beneficial.\" The harmony of their life checks the encroachments of a fragmented, alienated modern society.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 25414, 581358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 127 ], [ 176, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cultivation of the soil \"has within it a positive spiritual good\" and from it the cultivator acquires the virtues of \"honor, manliness, self-reliance, courage, moral integrity, and hospitality.\" They result from a direct contact with nature and, through nature, a closer relationship to God. The agrarian is blessed in that they follow the example of God in creating order out of chaos.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 28387, 21830, 5042765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 59 ], [ 234, 240 ], [ 287, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The philosophical roots of agrarianism include European and Chinese philosophers. The Chinese school of Agriculturalism (农家/農家) was a philosophy that advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. In societies influenced by Confucianism, the farmer was considered an esteemed productive member of society, but merchants who made money were looked down upon. That influenced European intellectuals like François Quesnay, an avid Confucianist and advocate of China's agrarian policies, in forming the French agrarian philosophy of physiocracy. The physiocrats, along with the ideas of John Locke and the Romantic Era, formed the basis of modern European and American agrarianism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32449444, 153803, 5820, 46765, 45440, 16143, 26094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 119 ], [ 176, 187 ], [ 235, 247 ], [ 413, 429 ], [ 540, 551 ], [ 594, 604 ], [ 613, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The United States president Thomas Jefferson was an agrarian who based his ideas about the budding American democracy around the notion that farmers are “the most valuable citizens” and the truest republicans. Jefferson and his support base were committed to American republicanism, which they saw as being in opposition to aristocracy and corruption, and which prioritized virtue, exemplified by the \"yeoman farmer\", \"planters\", and the \"plain folk\". In praising the rural farmfolk, the Jeffersonians felt that financiers, bankers and industrialists created \"cesspools of corruption\" in the cities and should thus be avoided.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of agrarianism", "target_page_ids": [ 29922, 1764584, 1764584, 37671, 3608404, 49901, 68442, 31510137, 7086283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 44 ], [ 197, 208 ], [ 259, 281 ], [ 324, 335 ], [ 340, 350 ], [ 374, 380 ], [ 402, 415 ], [ 419, 427 ], [ 438, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Jeffersonians sought to align the American economy more with agriculture than industry. Part of their motive to do so was Jefferson's fear that the over-industrialization of America would create a class of wage laborers who relied on their employers for income and sustenance. In turn, these workers would cease to be independent voters as their vote could be manipulated by said employers. To counter this, Jefferson introduced, as scholar Clay Jenkinson noted, \"a graduated income tax that would serve as a disincentive to vast accumulations of wealth and would make funds available for some sort of benign redistribution downward\" and tariffs on imported articles, which were mainly purchased by the wealthy. In 1811, Jefferson, writing to a friend, explained: \"these revenues will be levied entirely on the rich... . the rich alone use imported articles, and on these alone the whole taxes of the general government are levied. the poor man ... pays not a farthing of tax to the general government, but on his salt.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of agrarianism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is general agreement that the substantial United States' federal policy of offering land grants (such as thousands of gifts of land to veterans) had a positive impact on economic development in the 19th century.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of agrarianism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Agrarian socialism is a form of agrarianism that is anti-capitalist in nature and seeks to introduce socialist economic systems in their stead.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of agrarianism", "target_page_ids": [ 44443, 26847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 67 ], [ 101, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notable agrarian socialists include Emiliano Zapata who was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution. As part of the Liberation Army of the South, his group of revolutionaries fought on behalf of the Mexican peasants, whom they saw as exploited by the landowning classes. Zapata published Plan of Ayala, which called for significant land reforms and land redistribution in Mexico as part of the revolution. Zapata was killed and his forces crushed over the course of the Revolution, but his political ideas lived on in the form of Zapatismo.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of agrarianism", "target_page_ids": [ 86692, 145401, 1848423, 1814153, 48087353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 51 ], [ 84, 102 ], [ 119, 147 ], [ 291, 304 ], [ 533, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zapatismo would form the basis for neozapatismo, the ideology of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation. Known as Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional or EZLN in Spanish, EZLN is a far-left libertarian socialist political and militant group that emerged in the state of Chiapas in southmost Mexico in 1994. EZLN and Neozapatismo, as explicit in their name, seek to revive the agrarian socialist movement of Zapata, but fuse it with new elements such as a commitment to indigenous rights and community-level decision making.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of agrarianism", "target_page_ids": [ 12981529, 87066, 18247344, 18048, 6787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 47 ], [ 69, 106 ], [ 189, 197 ], [ 198, 219 ], [ 278, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subcommander Marcos, a leading member of the movement, argues that the peoples' collective ownership of the land was and is the basis for all subsequent developments the movement sought to create:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of agrarianism", "target_page_ids": [ 23733653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "...When the land became property of the peasants ... when the land passed into the hands of those who work it ... [This was] the starting point for advances in government, health, education, housing, nutrition, women’s participation, trade, culture, communication, and information ...[it was] recovering the means of production, in this case, the land, animals, and machines that were in the hands of large property owners.”", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of agrarianism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Maoism, the far-left ideology of Mao Zedong and his followers, places a heavy emphasis on the role of peasants in its goals. In contrast to other Marxist schools of thought which normally seek to acquire the support of urban workers, Maoism sees the peasantry as key. Believing that \"political power grows out of the barrel of a gun\", Maoism saw the Chinese Peasantry as the prime source for a Marxist vanguard because it possessed two qualities: (i) they were poor, and (ii) they were a political blank slate; in Mao's words, “A clean sheet of paper has no blotches, and so the newest and most beautiful words can be written on it”. During the Chinese Civil War and the Second Sino-Japanese War, Mao and the Chinese Communist Party made extensive use of peasants and rural bases in their military tactics, often eschewing the cities.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of agrarianism", "target_page_ids": [ 46636, 18247344, 75469, 19527, 1904053, 31968224, 43134145, 54422, 69980, 7175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 12, 20 ], [ 21, 29 ], [ 33, 43 ], [ 146, 153 ], [ 284, 332 ], [ 394, 410 ], [ 645, 662 ], [ 671, 695 ], [ 709, 732 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the eventual victory of the Communist Party in both wars, the countryside and how it should be run remained a focus for Mao. In 1958, Mao launched the Great Leap Forward, a social and economic campaign which, amongst other things, altered many aspects of rural Chinese life. It introduced mandatory collective farming and forced the peasantry to organize itself into communal living units which were known as people's communes. These communes, which consisted of 5,000 people on average, were expected to meet high production quotas while the peasants who lived on them adapted to this radically new way of life. The communes were run as co-operatives where wages and money were replaced by work points. Peasants who criticised this new system were persecuted as \"rightists\" and \"counter-revolutionaries\". Leaving the communes was forbidden and escaping from them was difficult or impossible, and those who attempted it were subjected to party-orchestrated \"public struggle sessions,\" which further jeopardized their survival. These public criticism sessions were often used to intimidate the peasants into obeying local officials and they often devolved into little more than public beatings.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of agrarianism", "target_page_ids": [ 71262, 39711745, 420119, 89313, 56522, 43440724, 22828874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 179 ], [ 309, 327 ], [ 419, 435 ], [ 648, 660 ], [ 774, 783 ], [ 790, 813 ], [ 975, 991 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the communes, experiments were conducted in order to find new methods of planting crops, efforts were made to construct new irrigation systems on a massive scale, and the communes were all encouraged to produce steel backyard furnaces as part of an effort to increase steel production. However, following the Anti-Rightist Campaign, Mao had instilled a mass distrust of intellectuals into China, and thus engineers often were not consulted with regard to the new irrigation systems and the wisdom of asking untrained peasants to produce good quality steel from scrap iron was not publicly questioned. Similarly, the experimentation with the crops did not produce results. In addition to this the Four Pests Campaign was launched, in which the peasants were called upon to destroy sparrows and other wild birds that ate crop seeds, in order to protect fields. Pest birds were shot down or scared away from landing until they dropped from exhaustion. This campaign resulted in an ecological disaster that saw an explosion of the vermin population, especially crop-eating insects, which was consequently not in danger of being killed by predators.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of agrarianism", "target_page_ids": [ 207661, 4041070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 312, 334 ], [ 699, 718 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "None of these new systems were working, but local leaders did not dare to state this, instead, they falsified reports so as not to be punished for failing to meet the quotas. In many cases they stated that they were greatly exceeding their quotas, and in turn, the Chinese state developed a completely false sense of success with regard to the commune system.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of agrarianism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All of this culminated in the Great Chinese Famine, which began in 1959, lasted 3 years, and saw an estimated 15 to 30 million Chinese people die. A combination of bad weather and the new, failed farming techniques that were introduced by the state led to massive shortages of food. By 1962, the Great Leap Forward was declared to be at an end.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of agrarianism", "target_page_ids": [ 317778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Mao once again radically altered life in rural China with the launching of the Down to the Countryside Movement. As a response to the Great Chinese Famine, the Chinese President Liu Shaoqi began \"sending down\" urban youths to rural China in order to recover its population losses and alleviate overcrowding in the cities. However, Mao turned the practice into a political crusade, declaring that the sending down would strip the youth of any bourgeois tendencies by forcing them to learn from the unprivileged rural peasants. In reality, it was the Communist Party's attempt to reign in the Red Guards, who had become uncontrollable during the course of the Cultural Revolution. 10% of the 1970 urban population of China was sent out to remote rural villages, often in Inner Mongolia. The villages, which were still poorly recovering from the effects of the Great Chinese Famine, did not have the excess resources that were needed to support the newcomers. Furthermore, the so-called \"sent-down youth\" had no agricultural experience and as a result, they were unaccustomed to the harsh lifestyle that existed in the countryside, and their unskilled labor in the villages provided little benefit to the agricultural sector. As a result, many of the sent-down youth died in the countryside. The relocation of the youths was originally intended to be permanent, but by the end of the Cultural Revolution, the Communist Party relented and some of those who had the capacity to return to the cities were allowed to do so.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of agrarianism", "target_page_ids": [ 5958004, 47747524, 43472976, 1169199, 45311, 55064, 11016072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 146 ], [ 195, 212 ], [ 213, 223 ], [ 626, 636 ], [ 693, 712 ], [ 804, 818 ], [ 1020, 1035 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In imitation of Mao's policies, the Khmer Rouge of Cambodia (who were heavily funded and supported by the People's Republic of China) created their own version of the Great Leap Forward which was known as \"Maha Lout Ploh\". With the Great Leap Forward as its model, it had similarly disastrous effects, contributing to what is now known as the Cambodian genocide. As a part of the Maha Lout Ploh, the Khmer Rouge sought to create an entirely agrarian socialist society by forcibly relocating 100,000 people to move from Cambodia's cities into newly created communes. The Khmer Rouge leader, Pol Pot sought to \"purify\" the country by setting it back to \"Year Zero\", freeing it from \"corrupting influences\". Besides trying to completely de-urbanize Cambodia, ethnic minorities were slaughtered along with anyone else who was suspected of being a \"reactionary\" or a member of the \"bourgeoisie\", to the point that wearing glasses was seen as grounds for execution. The killings were only brought to an end when Cambodia was invaded by the neighboring socialist nation of Vietnam, whose army toppled the Khmer Rouge. However, with Cambodia's entire society and economy in disarray, including its agricultural sector, the country still plunged into renewed famine due to vast food shortages. However, as international journalists began to report on the situation and send images of it out to the world, a massive international response was provoked, leading to one of the most concentrated relief efforts of its time.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of agrarianism", "target_page_ids": [ 17049, 334751, 40668394, 40556040, 24326, 2172566, 202354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 47 ], [ 51, 59 ], [ 343, 361 ], [ 441, 459 ], [ 590, 597 ], [ 652, 661 ], [ 1066, 1073 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peasant parties first appeared across Eastern Europe between 1860 and 1910, when commercialized agriculture and world market forces disrupted traditional rural society, and the railway and growing literacy facilitated the work of roving organizers. Agrarian parties advocated land reforms to redistribute land on large estates among those who work it. They also wanted village cooperatives to keep the profit from crop sales in local hands and credit institutions to underwrite needed improvements. Many peasant parties were also nationalist parties because peasants often worked their land for the benefit of landlords of different ethnicity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 43158054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 369, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Peasant parties rarely had any power before World War I but some became influential in the interwar era, especially in Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia. For a while, in the 1920s and the 1930s, there was a Green International (International Agrarian Bureau) based on the peasant parties in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Serbia. It functioned primarily as an information center that spread the ideas of agrarianism and combating socialism on the left and landlords on the right and never launched any significant activities.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 3415, 5322, 18304863, 22936, 29265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 127 ], [ 132, 146 ], [ 222, 251 ], [ 311, 317 ], [ 323, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Bulgaria, the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union (BZNS) was organized in 1899 to resist taxes and build cooperatives. BZNS came to power in 1919 and introduced many economic, social, and legal reforms. However, conservative forces crushed BZNS in a 1923 coup and assassinated its leader, Aleksandar Stamboliyski (1879–1923). BZNS was made into a communist puppet group until 1989, when it reorganized as a genuine party.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 3359206, 413773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 50 ], [ 290, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Czechoslovakia, the Republican Party of Agricultural and Smallholder People often shared power in parliament as a partner in the five-party pětka coalition. The party's leader, Antonín Švehla (1873–1933), was prime minister several times. It was consistently the strongest party, forming and dominating coalitions. It moved beyond its original agrarian base to reach middle-class voters. The party was banned by the National Front after the Second World War.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 5322, 13221371, 2014031, 423290, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 17 ], [ 23, 78 ], [ 180, 194 ], [ 419, 433 ], [ 444, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In France, the Hunting, Fishing, Nature, Tradition party is a moderate conservative, agrarian party, reaching a peak of 4.23% in the 2002 French presidential election. It would later on become affiliated to France's main conservative party, Union for a Popular Movement. More recently, the Resistons! movement of Jean Lassalle espoused agrarianism.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 5843419, 355997, 147060, 323434, 4750584 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 15, 50 ], [ 133, 166 ], [ 241, 269 ], [ 314, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Hungary, the first major agrarian party, the small-holders party was founded in 1908. The party became part of the government in the 1920s but lost influence in the government. A new party, the Independent Smallholders, Agrarian Workers and Civic Party was established in 1930 with a more radical program representing larger scale land redistribution initiatives. They implemented this program together with the other coalition parties after WWII. However, after 1949 the party was outlawed when a one-party system was introduced. They became part of the government again 1990–1994, and 1998-2002 after which they lost political support. The ruling Fidesz party has an agrarian faction, and promotes agrarian interest since 2010 with the emphasis now placed on supporting larger family farms versus small-holders.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 1868248, 404647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 255 ], [ 652, 658 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 19th century, the Irish National Land League aimed to abolish landlordism in Ireland and enable tenant farmers to own the land they worked on. The \"Land War\" of 1878–1909 led to the Irish Land Acts, ending absentee landlords and ground rent and redistributing land among peasant farmers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 423007, 147575, 4705035, 1414549, 156584, 1375681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 56 ], [ 89, 96 ], [ 160, 168 ], [ 194, 209 ], [ 218, 236 ], [ 241, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Post-independence, the Farmers' Party operated in the Irish Free State from 1922, folding into the National Centre Party in 1932. It was mostly supported by wealthy farmers in the east of Ireland.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 2497682, 42953, 331372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 37 ], [ 54, 70 ], [ 99, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clann na Talmhan (Family of the Land; also called the National Agricultural Party) was founded in 1938. They focused more on the poor smallholders of the west, supporting land reclamation, afforestation, social democracy and rates reform. They formed part of the governing coalition of the Government of the 13th Dáil and Government of the 15th Dáil. Economic improvement in the 1960s saw farmers vote for other parties and Clann na Talmhan disbanded in 1965.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 1101439, 2765707, 579223, 1968338, 18247265, 856250, 319273, 325075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 134, 146 ], [ 171, 187 ], [ 189, 202 ], [ 204, 220 ], [ 225, 230 ], [ 290, 317 ], [ 322, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Latvia, the Union of Greens and Farmers is supportive of traditional small farms and perceives them as more environmentally friendly than large-scale farming: Nature is threatened by development, while small farms are threatened by large industrial-scale farms.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 737046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Lithuania, as of 2017, the government is led by the Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union, under the leadership of industrial farmer Ramūnas Karbauskis.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 788889, 49743251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 90 ], [ 134, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Poland, the Polish People's Party traces its tradition to an agrarian party in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Galician Poland. After the fall of the communist regime, PPP's biggest success came in 1993 elections, where it won 132 out of 460 parliamentary seats. Since then, PPP's support has steadily declined, until 2019, when they formed Polish Coalition with an anti- establishment, direct democracy Kukiz'15 party, and managed to get 8.5% of votes. Moreover, PPP tends to get much better results in local elections. In 2014 elections they have managed to get 23.88% of votes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 22936, 39265, 2983, 402344, 2144022, 61221888, 47330351, 48974097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 15, 36 ], [ 82, 98 ], [ 110, 125 ], [ 197, 211 ], [ 340, 356 ], [ 403, 411 ], [ 523, 537 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The right-wing Law and Justice party has also become supportive of agrarian policies in recent years and polls show that most of their support comes from rural areas. AGROunia resembles the features of agrarianism.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 520309, 68520183 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 30 ], [ 167, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Romania, older parties from Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia merged to become the National Peasants' Party in 1926. Iuliu Maniu (1873–1953) was a prime minister with an agrarian cabinet from 1928 to 1930 and briefly in 1932–1933, but the Great Depression made proposed reforms impossible. The communist regime dissolved the party in 1947, but it reformed in 1989 after they fell from power.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 25445, 30853, 46007, 46026, 220337, 405891, 19283335, 297157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ], [ 31, 43 ], [ 45, 53 ], [ 59, 68 ], [ 90, 114 ], [ 124, 135 ], [ 246, 262 ], [ 301, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The reformed party, which also incorporated elements of Christian democracy in its ideology, governed Romania as part of the Romanian Democratic Convention between 1996 and 2000.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 1573186, 328969, 1290059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 56, 75 ], [ 125, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Serbia, Nikola Pašić (1845–1926) and his People's Radical Party dominated Serbian politics after 1903. The party also monopolized power in Yugoslavia from 1918 to 1929. During the dictatorship of the 1930s, the prime minister was from that party.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 860304, 11140684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 23 ], [ 44, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Ukraine, the Radical Party of Oleh Lyashko has promised to purify the country of oligarchs \"with a pitchfork\". The party advocates a number of traditional left-wing positions (a progressive tax structure, a ban on agricultural land sale and eliminating the illegal land market, a tenfold increase in budget spending on health, setting up primary health centres in every village) and mixes them with strong nationalist sentiments.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 37654687, 29275515, 799436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 45 ], [ 84, 93 ], [ 102, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In land law the heyday of English, Irish (and thus Welsh) agrarianism was to 1603, led by the Tudor royal advisors, who sought to maintain a broad pool of agricultural commoners from which to draw military men, against the interests of larger landowners who sought enclosure (meaning complete private control of common land, over which by custom and common law lords of the manor always enjoyed minor rights). The heyday was eroded by hundreds of Acts of Parliament to expressly permit enclosure, chiefly from 1650 to the 1810s. Politicians standing strongly as reactionaries to this included the Levellers, those anti-industrialists (Luddites) going beyond opposing new weaving technology and, later, radicals such as William Cobbett.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 186721, 218798, 30558, 17864, 537595, 175818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 275 ], [ 340, 346 ], [ 599, 608 ], [ 637, 645 ], [ 704, 712 ], [ 721, 736 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A high level of net national or local self-sufficiency has a strong base in campaigns and movements. In the 19th century such empowered advocates included Peelites and most Conservatives. The 20th century saw the growth or start of influential non-governmental organisations, such as the National Farmers' Union of England and Wales, Campaign for Rural England, Friends of the Earth (EWNI) and of the England Wales, Scottish and Northern Irish political parties prefixed by and focussed on Green politics. The 21st century has seen decarbonisation already in electricity markets. Following protests and charitable lobbying local food has seen growing market share, sometimes backed by wording in public policy papers and manifestos. The UK has many sustainability-prioritising businesses, green charity campaigns, events and lobby groups ranging from espousing allotment gardens (hobby community farming) through to a clear policy of local food and/or self-sustainability models.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 506706, 32113, 549609, 366795, 1177611, 188641, 34079852, 233373, 155660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 162 ], [ 173, 186 ], [ 288, 332 ], [ 334, 360 ], [ 362, 389 ], [ 490, 504 ], [ 532, 578 ], [ 624, 634 ], [ 862, 878 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historian F.K. Crowley finds that:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The National Party of Australia (formerly called the Country Party), from the 1920s to the 1970s, promulgated its version of agrarianism, which it called \"countrymindedness\". The goal was to enhance the status of the graziers (operators of big sheep stations) and small farmers and justified subsidies for them.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 21927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The New Zealand Liberal Party aggressively promoted agrarianism in its heyday (1891–1912). The landed gentry and aristocracy ruled Britain at this time. New Zealand never had an aristocracy but its wealthy landowners largely controlled politics before 1891. The Liberal Party set out to change that by a policy it called \"populism.\" Richard Seddon had proclaimed the goal as early as 1884: \"It is the rich and the poor; it is the wealthy and the landowners against the middle and labouring classes. That, Sir, shows the real political position of New Zealand.\" The Liberal strategy was to create a large class of small landowning farmers who supported Liberal ideals. The Liberal government also established the basis of the later welfare state such as old age pensions and developed a system for settling industrial disputes, which was accepted by both employers and trade unions. In 1893, it extended voting rights to women, making New Zealand the first country in the world to do so.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [ 913700, 211484, 163835, 8898707, 43613, 9175501, 175581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ], [ 322, 330 ], [ 333, 347 ], [ 673, 691 ], [ 754, 770 ], [ 895, 926 ], [ 981, 986 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To obtain land for farmers, the Liberal government from 1891 to 1911 purchased of Maori land. The government also purchased from large estate holders for subdivision and closer settlement by small farmers. The Advances to Settlers Act (1894) provided low-interest mortgages, and the agriculture department disseminated information on the best farming methods. The Liberals proclaimed success in forging an egalitarian, anti-monopoly land policy. The policy built up support for the Liberal Party in rural North Island electorates. By 1903, the Liberals were so dominant that there was no longer an organized opposition in Parliament.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Notable agrarian parties", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Agrarianism is similar to but not identical with the back-to-the-land movement. Agrarianism concentrates on the fundamental goods of the earth, on communities of more limited economic and political scale than in modern society, and on simple living, even when the shift involves questioning the \"progressive\" character of some recent social and economic developments. Thus, agrarianism is not industrial farming, with its specialization on products and industrial scale.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Back-to-the-land movement", "target_page_ids": [ 295693, 10980601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 78 ], [ 393, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Agrarian Justice", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8192236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Agrarian socialism", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40556040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Agrarian society", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1404125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Agrarian system", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18506917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Georgism", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 368329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jeffersonian democracy", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 384945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Agroecology", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 216211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Physiocrats, 18th-century French thinkers", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Agrarian Bureau", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18304863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nordic agrarian parties", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11305341 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yeoman, English farmers", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 68442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Permaculture", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 78214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Brass, Tom. Peasants, Populism and Postmodernism: The Return of the Agrarian Myth (2000) ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " * Inge, M. Thomas. Agrarianism in American Literature (1969)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kolodny, Annette. The Land before Her: Fantasy and Experience of the American Frontiers, 1630–1860 (1984). online edition", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Marx, Leo. The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (1964).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Murphy, Paul V. The Rebuke of History: The Southern Agrarians and American Conservative Thought (2000)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Parrington, Vernon. Main Currents in American Thought (1927), 3-vol online ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thompson, Paul, and Thomas C. Hilde, eds. The Agrarian Roots of Pragmatism (2000)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sorokin, Pitirim A. et al., eds. A Systematic Source Book in Rural Sociology (3 vol. 1930) vol 1 pp.1–146 covers many major thinkers down to 1800", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bell, John D. Peasants in Power: Alexander Stamboliski and the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union, 1899–1923(1923)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Donnelly, James S. Captain Rock: The Irish Agrarian Rebellion of 1821–1824 (2009)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Donnelly, James S. Irish Agrarian Rebellion, 1760–1800 (2006)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gross, Feliks, ed. European Ideologies: A Survey of 20th Century Political Ideas (1948) pp.391–481 online edition, on Russia and Bulgaria", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kubricht, Andrew Paul. \"The Czech Agrarian Party, 1899-1914: a study of national and economic agitation in the Habsburg monarchy\" (PhD thesis, Ohio State University Press, 1974)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Narkiewicz, Olga A. The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics, 1867–1970 (1976).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Oren, Nissan. Revolution Administered: Agrarianism and Communism in Bulgaria (1973), focus is post 1945", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Paine, Thomas. Agrarian Justice (1794)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 30795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roberts, Henry L. Rumania: Political Problems of an Agrarian State (1951).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Goodwyn, Lawrence. The Populist Moment: A Short History of the Agrarian Revolt in America (1978), 1880s and 1890s in U.S.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lipset, Seymour Martin. Agrarian socialism: the Coöperative Commonwealth Federation in Saskatchewan (1950), 1930s-1940s", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " McConnell, Grant. The decline of agrarian democracy(1953), 20th century U.S.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mark, Irving. Agrarian conflicts in colonial New York, 1711–1775 (1940)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ochiai, Akiko. Harvesting Freedom: African American Agrarianism in Civil War Era South Carolina (2007)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Robison, Dan Merritt. Bob Taylor and the agrarian revolt in Tennessee (1935)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Stine, Harold E. The agrarian revolt in South Carolina;: Ben Tillman and the Farmers' Alliance (1974)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Summerhill, Thomas. Harvest of Dissent: Agrarianism in Nineteenth-Century New York (2005)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Szatmary, David P. Shays' Rebellion: The Making of an Agrarian Insurrection (1984), 1787 in Massachusetts", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Woodward, C. Vann. Tom Watson: Agrarian Rebel (1938) online edition", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Brass, Tom (ed.). New Farmers' Movements in India (1995) 304 pages.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Handy, Jim. Revolution in the Countryside: Rural Conflict and Agrarian Reform in Guatemala, 1944–1954 (1994)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Paige, Jeffery M. Agrarian revolution: social movements and export agriculture in the underdeveloped world (1978) 435 pages excerpt and text search", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sanderson, Steven E. Agrarian populism and the Mexican state: the struggle for land in Sonora (1981)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stokes, Eric. The Peasant and the Raj: Studies in Agrarian Society and Peasant Rebellion in Colonial India (1980)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tannenbaum, Frank. The Mexican Agrarian Revolution (1930)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Writings of a Deliberate Agrarian", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The New Agrarian", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Agrarianism" ]

[]

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[ { "plaintext": "In Euclidean geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9417, 946975, 12158034, 11308417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 21 ], [ 60, 64 ], [ 77, 82 ], [ 135, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Angles formed by two rays lie in the plane that contains the rays. Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes. These are called dihedral angles. Two intersecting curves may also define an angle, which is the angle of the rays lying tangent to the respective curves at their point of intersection. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 84029, 338046, 89246, 31482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 42 ], [ 142, 156 ], [ 176, 181 ], [ 246, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Angle is also used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation. This measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. In the case of a geometric angle, the arc is centered at the vertex and delimited by the sides. In the case of a rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19022, 410009, 89246, 1780815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 43 ], [ 64, 72 ], [ 119, 131 ], [ 139, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The word angle comes from the Latin word angulus, meaning \"corner\"; cognate words are the Greek (ankylοs), meaning \"crooked, curved,\" and the English word \"ankle\". Both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning \"to bend\" or \"bow\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History and etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 6328, 11887, 8569916, 336880, 559297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 35 ], [ 68, 75 ], [ 90, 95 ], [ 143, 150 ], [ 157, 162 ], [ 193, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines which meet each other, and do not lie straight with respect to each other. According to Proclus, an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. The first concept was used by Eudemus, who regarded an angle as a deviation from a straight line; the second by Carpus of Antioch, who regarded it as the interval or space between the intersecting lines; Euclid adopted the third concept.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History and etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 9331, 24797, 3454204, 946975, 16302250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 176, 183 ], [ 283, 290 ], [ 336, 349 ], [ 365, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters (, , , , ,...) as variables denoting the size of some angle (to avoid confusion with its other meaning, the symbol is typically not used for this purpose). Lower case Roman letters (a,b,c,...) are also used. In contexts where this is not confusing, an angle may be denoted by the upper case Roman letter denoting its vertex. See the figures in this article for examples.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Identifying angles", "target_page_ids": [ 609125, 715909, 3728109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 27 ], [ 49, 61 ], [ 81, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the three points that define them. For example, the angle with vertex A formed by the rays AB and AC (that is, the lines from point A to points B and C) is denoted or . Where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may sometimes be referred to simply by its vertex (in this case \"angle A\").", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Identifying angles", "target_page_ids": [ 946975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Potentially, an angle denoted as, say, , might refer to any of four angles: the clockwise angle from B to C, the anticlockwise angle from B to C, the clockwise angle from C to B, or the anticlockwise angle from C to B, where the direction in which the angle is measured determines its sign (see Positive and negative angles). However, in many geometrical situations, it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant, in which case no ambiguity arises. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that always refers to the anticlockwise (positive) angle from B to C, and the anticlockwise (positive) angle from C to B.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Identifying angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is some common terminology for angles, whose measure is always non-negative (see ):", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An angle equal to 0° or not turned is called a zero angle.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An angle smaller than a right angle (less than 90°) is called an acute angle (\"acute\" meaning \"sharp\").", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 3226361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " An angle equal to turn (90° or radians) is called a right angle. Two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 76956, 173224, 102221, 76944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 65 ], [ 116, 122 ], [ 124, 134 ], [ 139, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " An angle larger than a right angle and smaller than a straight angle (between 90° and 180°) is called an obtuse angle (\"obtuse\" meaning \"blunt\").", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An angle equal to turn (180° or radians) is called a straight angle.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An angle larger than a straight angle but less than 1turn (between 180° and 360°) is called a reflex angle.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An angle equal to 1 turn (360° or 2 radians) is called a full angle, complete angle, round angle or a perigon.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An angle that is not a multiple of a right angle is called an oblique angle.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The names, intervals, and measuring units are shown in the table below:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Angles that have the same measure (i.e. the same magnitude) are said to be equal or congruent. An angle is defined by its measure and is not dependent upon the lengths of the sides of the angle (e.g. all right angles are equal in measure).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 39330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Two angles that share terminal sides, but differ in size by an integer multiple of a turn, are called coterminal angles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A reference angle is the acute version of any angle determined by repeatedly subtracting or adding straight angle ( turn, 180°, or radians), to the results as necessary, until the magnitude of the result is an acute angle, a value between 0 and turn, 90°, or radians. For example, an angle of 30 degrees has a reference angle of 30 degrees, and an angle of 150 degrees also has a reference angle of 30 degrees (180–150). An angle of 750 degrees has a reference angle of 30 degrees (750–720).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When two straight lines intersect at a point, four angles are formed. Pairwise these angles are named according to their location relative to each other.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A pair of angles opposite each other, formed by two intersecting straight lines that form an \"X\"-like shape, are called vertical angles or opposite angles or vertically opposite angles. They are abbreviated as vert. opp. ∠s.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The equality of vertically opposite angles is called the vertical angle theorem. Eudemus of Rhodes attributed the proof to Thales of Miletus. The proposition showed that since both of a pair of vertical angles are supplementary to both of the adjacent angles, the vertical angles are equal in measure. According to a historical note, when Thales visited Egypt, he observed that whenever the Egyptians drew two intersecting lines, they would measure the vertical angles to make sure that they were equal. Thales concluded that one could prove that all vertical angles are equal if one accepted some general notions such as: ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 3454204, 30072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 98 ], [ 123, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " All straight angles are equal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Equals added to equals are equal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Equals subtracted from equals are equal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When two adjacent angles form a straight line, they are supplementary. Therefore, if we assume that the measure of angle A equals x, then the measure of angle C would be . Similarly, the measure of angle D would be . Both angle C and angle D have measures equal to and are congruent. Since angle B is supplementary to both angles C and D, either of these angle measures may be used to determine the measure of Angle B. Using the measure of either angle C or angle D, we find the measure of angle B to be . Therefore, both angle A and angle B have measures equal to x and are equal in measure.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Adjacent angles, often abbreviated as adj. ∠s, are angles that share a common vertex and edge but do not share any interior points. In other words, they are angles that are side by side, or adjacent, sharing an \"arm\". Adjacent angles which sum to a right angle, straight angle, or full angle are special and are respectively called complementary, supplementary and explementary angles (see below).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A transversal is a line that intersects a pair of (often parallel) lines, and is associated with alternate interior angles, corresponding angles, interior angles, and exterior angles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 13295107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three special angle pairs involve the summation of angles:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Complementary angles are angle pairs whose measures sum to one right angle ( turn, 90°, or radians). If the two complementary angles are adjacent, their non-shared sides form a right angle. In Euclidean geometry, the two acute angles in a right triangle are complementary, because the sum of internal angles of a triangle is 180 degrees, and the right angle itself accounts for 90 degrees.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 30654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 315, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The adjective complementary is from Latin complementum, associated with the verb complere, \"to fill up\". An acute angle is \"filled up\" by its complement to form a right angle.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The difference between an angle and a right angle is termed the complement of the angle.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If angles A and B are complementary, the following relationships hold:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "(The tangent of an angle equals the cotangent of its complement and its secant equals the cosecant of its complement.)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 31482, 30367, 30367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 12 ], [ 36, 45 ], [ 90, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The prefix \"co-\" in the names of some trigonometric ratios refers to the word \"complementary\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 24564, 3986044 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 12, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Two angles that sum to a straight angle ( turn, 180°, or radians) are called supplementary angles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the two supplementary angles are adjacent (i.e. have a common vertex and share just one side), their non-shared sides form a straight line. Such angles are called a linear pair of angles. However, supplementary angles do not have to be on the same line, and can be separated in space. For example, adjacent angles of a parallelogram are supplementary, and opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral (one whose vertices all fall on a single circle) are supplementary.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 11308417, 946975, 133496, 194131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 71 ], [ 128, 141 ], [ 322, 335 ], [ 380, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If a point P is exterior to a circle with center O, and if the tangent lines from P touch the circle at points T and Q, then ∠TPQ and ∠TOQ are supplementary.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 19491492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sines of supplementary angles are equal. Their cosines and tangents (unless undefined) are equal in magnitude but have opposite signs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Euclidean geometry, any sum of two angles in a triangle is supplementary to the third, because the sum of internal angles of a triangle is a straight angle.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Two angles that sum to a complete angle (1 turn, 360°, or 2 radians) are called explementary angles or conjugate angles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The difference between an angle and a complete angle is termed the explement of the angle or conjugate of an angle.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An angle that is part of a simple polygon is called an interior angle if it lies on the inside of that simple polygon. A simple concave polygon has at least one interior angle that is a reflex angle.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 1059530, 524003, 605156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 42 ], [ 56, 70 ], [ 129, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In Euclidean geometry, the measures of the interior angles of a triangle add up to radians, 180°, or turn; the measures of the interior angles of a simple convex quadrilateral add up to 2 radians, 360°, or 1 turn. In general, the measures of the interior angles of a simple convex polygon with n sides add up to (n−2)radians, or (n−2)180degrees, (n−2)2 right angles, or (n−2)turn.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 9417, 30654, 660019, 25278, 23621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 22 ], [ 65, 73 ], [ 158, 164 ], [ 165, 178 ], [ 284, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The supplement of an interior angle is called an exterior angle, that is, an interior angle and an exterior angle form a Linear pair of angles. There are two exterior angles at each vertex of the polygon, each determined by extending one of the two sides of the polygon that meet at the vertex; these two angles are vertical and hence are equal. An exterior angle measures the amount of rotation one has to make at a vertex to trace out the polygon. If the corresponding interior angle is a reflex angle, the exterior angle should be considered negative. Even in a non-simple polygon it may be possible to define the exterior angle, but one will have to pick an orientation of the plane (or surface) to decide the sign of the exterior angle measure.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 524003, 154616, 187446, 84029, 4342970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 64 ], [ 546, 554 ], [ 663, 674 ], [ 682, 687 ], [ 692, 699 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In Euclidean geometry, the sum of the exterior angles of a simple convex polygon, if only one of the two exterior angles is assumed at each vertex, will be one full turn (360°). The exterior angle here could be called a supplementary exterior angle. Exterior angles are commonly used in Logo Turtle programs when drawing regular polygons.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 18334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 288, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In a triangle, the bisectors of two exterior angles and the bisector of the other interior angle are concurrent (meet at a single point).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 30654, 152547, 2206157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 14 ], [ 20, 29 ], [ 102, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In a triangle, three intersection points, each of an external angle bisector with the opposite extended side, are collinear.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 43958459, 3189581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 109 ], [ 115, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In a triangle, three intersection points, two of them between an interior angle bisector and the opposite side, and the third between the other exterior angle bisector and the opposite side extended, are collinear.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Some authors use the name exterior angle of a simple polygon to simply mean the explement exterior angle (not supplement!) of the interior angle. This conflicts with the above usage.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The angle between two planes (such as two adjacent faces of a polyhedron) is called a dihedral angle. It may be defined as the acute angle between two lines normal to the planes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [ 84029, 23470, 338046, 173224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 29 ], [ 63, 73 ], [ 87, 101 ], [ 158, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The angle between a plane and an intersecting straight line is equal to ninety degrees minus the angle between the intersecting line and the line that goes through the point of intersection and is normal to the plane.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Types of angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The size of a geometric angle is usually characterized by the magnitude of the smallest rotation that maps one of the rays into the other. Angles that have the same size are said to be equal or congruent or equal in measure.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In some contexts, such as identifying a point on a circle or describing the orientation of an object in two dimensions relative to a reference orientation, angles that differ by an exact multiple of a full turn are effectively equivalent. In other contexts, such as identifying a point on a spiral curve or describing the cumulative rotation of an object in two dimensions relative to a reference orientation, angles that differ by a non-zero multiple of a full turn are not equivalent.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 855329, 61563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 210 ], [ 292, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In order to measure an angle , a circular arc centered at the vertex of the angle is drawn, e.g. with a pair of compasses. The ratio of the length of the arc by the radius of the circle is the number of radians in the angle. Conventionally, in mathematics and in the SI, the radian is treated as being equal to the dimensionless value 1.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 5578920, 492445, 26003, 26764, 51331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 45 ], [ 112, 121 ], [ 205, 211 ], [ 270, 272 ], [ 318, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The angle expressed another angular unit may then be obtained by multiplying the angle by a suitable conversion constant of the form , where k is the measure of a complete turn expressed in the chosen unit (for example, for degrees or 400grad for gradians):", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 1195294, 201629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 232 ], [ 248, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The value of thus defined is independent of the size of the circle: if the length of the radius is changed then the arc length changes in the same proportion, so the ratio s/r is unaltered.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The angle addition postulate states that if B is in the interior of angle AOC, then", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The measure of the angle AOC is the sum of the measure of angle AOB and the measure of angle BOC.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout history, angles have been measured in various units. These are known as angular units, with the most contemporary units being the degree ( ° ), the radian (rad), and the gradian (grad), though many others have been used throughout history.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 19873, 21347678, 1195294, 26003, 201629, 14220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 45 ], [ 57, 62 ], [ 141, 147 ], [ 159, 165 ], [ 181, 188 ], [ 242, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the International System of Quantities, angle is defined as a dimensionless quantity. This impacts how angle is treated in dimensional analysis.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 11559418, 8267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 41 ], [ 127, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most units of angular measurement are defined such that one turn (i.e. one full circle) is equal to n units, for some whole number n. Two exceptions are the radian (and its decimal submultiples) and the diameter part.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 855329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One radian is the angle subtended by an arc of a circle that has the same length as the circle's radius. The radian is the derived unit of angular measurement in the SI system. By definition, it is dimensionless, though it may be specified as rad to avoid ambiguity. Angles measured in degrees, are shown with the symbol °. Subdivisions of the degree are minute (symbol ′, 1′ = 1/60°) and second (symbol ″, 1″ = 1/3600°). An angle of 360° corresponds to the angle subtended by a full circle, and is equal to radians, or 400gradians.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 26003, 26764, 51331, 1198479, 2431, 2431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 166, 168 ], [ 198, 211 ], [ 286, 292 ], [ 355, 361 ], [ 389, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other units used to represent angles are listed in the following table. These units are defined such that the number of turns is equivalent to a full rotation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 855329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hour angle (n=24): The astronomical hour angle is turn. As this system is amenable to measuring objects that cycle once per day (such as the relative position of stars), the sexagesimal subunits are called minute of time and second of time. These are distinct from, and 15 times larger than, minutes and seconds of arc. 1hour = 15° = rad = quad = turn = grad.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 48838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (Compass) point or wind (n=32): The point, used in navigation, is of a turn. 1point = of a right angle = 11.25° = 12.5grad. Each point is subdivided in four quarter-points so that 1 turn equals 128 quarter-points.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 339183, 21854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 52, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pechus (n=144–180): The pechus was a Babylonian unit equal to about 2° or °.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 3861353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tau, the number of radians in one turn (1 turn = rad), .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 166710, 855329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Diameter part (n=376.99...): The diameter part (occasionally used in Islamic mathematics) is radian. One \"diameter part\" is approximately 0.95493°. There are about 376.991 diameter parts per turn.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Milliradian and related definitions: The true milliradian is defined a thousandth of a radian, which means that a rotation of one turn would equal exactly 2000πmrad (or approximately 6283.185mrad), and almost all scope sights for firearms are calibrated to this definition. In addition there are three other related definitions used for artillery and navigation, often called a 'mil', which are approximately equal to a milliradian. Under these three other definitions one turn makes up for exactly 6000, 6300 or 6400 mils, which equals spanning the range from 0.05625 to 0.06 degrees (3.375 to 3.6 minutes). In comparison, the milliradian is approximately 0.05729578 degrees (3.43775 minutes). One \"NATO mil\" is defined as of a turn. Just like with the milliradian, each of the other definitions approximates the milliradian's useful property of subtensions, i.e. that the value of one milliradian approximately equals the angle subtended by a width of 1 meter as seen from 1km away ( = 0.0009817... ≈ ).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 1730553, 855329, 1052795, 11966, 21133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 131, 135 ], [ 214, 226 ], [ 231, 238 ], [ 701, 705 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Akhnam and zam. In old Arabia a turn was subdivided in 32 Akhnam and each akhnam was subdivided in 7 zam, so that a turn is 224 zam.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 855329, 855329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 37 ], [ 117, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the definition of the measurement of an angle does not support the concept of a negative angle, it is frequently useful to impose a convention that allows positive and negative angular values to represent orientations and/or rotations in opposite directions relative to some reference.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 2544098, 410009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 214, 226 ], [ 234, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, an angle is typically defined by its two sides, with its vertex at the origin. The initial side is on the positive x-axis, while the other side or terminal side is defined by the measure from the initial side in radians, degrees, or turns. With positive angles representing rotations toward the positive y-axis and negative angles representing rotations toward the negative y-axis. When Cartesian coordinates are represented by standard position, defined by the x-axis rightward and the y-axis upward, positive rotations are anticlockwise and negative rotations are clockwise.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 7706, 7706, 7706, 26569682, 26569682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 48 ], [ 165, 171 ], [ 354, 360 ], [ 576, 589 ], [ 617, 626 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many contexts, an angle of −θ is effectively equivalent to an angle of \"one full turn minus θ\". For example, an orientation represented as −45° is effectively equivalent to an orientation represented as 360°−45° or 315°. Although the final position is the same, a physical rotation (movement) of −45° is not the same as a rotation of 315° (for example, the rotation of a person holding a broom resting on a dusty floor would leave visually different traces of swept regions on the floor).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In three-dimensional geometry, \"clockwise\" and \"anticlockwise\" have no absolute meaning, so the direction of positive and negative angles must be defined relative to some reference, which is typically a vector passing through the angle's vertex and perpendicular to the plane in which the rays of the angle lie.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 32533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In navigation, bearings or azimuth are measured relative to north. By convention, viewed from above, bearing angles are positive clockwise, so a bearing of 45° corresponds to a north-east orientation. Negative bearings are not used in navigation, so a north-west orientation corresponds to a bearing of 315°.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 21854, 221429, 47487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 13 ], [ 15, 23 ], [ 27, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For an angular unit, it is definitional that the angle addition postulate holds. Some angle measurements where the angle addition postulate does not hold include:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 1196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The slope or gradient is equal to the tangent of the angle; a gradient is often expressed as a percentage. For very small values (less than 5%), the grade of a slope is approximately the measure of the angle in radians.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 29368, 30367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 10 ], [ 39, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The spread between two lines is defined in rational geometry as the square of the sine of the angle between the lines. As the sine of an angle and the sine of its supplementary angle are the same, any angle of rotation that maps one of the lines into the other leads to the same value for the spread between the lines.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 2696396, 2696396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 11 ], [ 44, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Although done rarely, one can report the direct results of trigonometric functions, such as the sine of the angle.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 30367, 5010838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 83 ], [ 97, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Astronomers measure apparent sizes of and distances between objects in degrees from their point of observation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 580, 826723, 3720362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 20, 34 ], [ 42, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 0.5° is the approximate diameter of the Sun and of the Moon as viewed from Earth.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 26751, 19331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 44 ], [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1° is the approximate width of the little finger at arm's length.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 950991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 10° is the approximate width of a closed fist at arm's length.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 20° is the approximate width of a handspan at arm's length.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These measurements clearly depend on the individual subject, and the above should be treated as rough rule of thumb approximations only.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 56538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In astronomy, right ascension and declination are usually measured in angular units, expressed in terms of time, based on a 24-hour day.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Measuring angles", "target_page_ids": [ 50650, 26073, 8612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 14, 29 ], [ 34, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The angle between a line and a curve (mixed angle) or between two intersecting curves (curvilinear angle) is defined to be the angle between the tangents at the point of intersection. Various names (now rarely, if ever, used) have been given to particular cases:—amphicyrtic (Gr. , on both sides, κυρτός, convex) or cissoidal (Gr. κισσός, ivy), biconvex; xystroidal or sistroidal (Gr. ξυστρίς, a tool for scraping), concavo-convex; amphicoelic (Gr. κοίλη, a hollow) or angulus lunularis, biconcave.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Angles between curves", "target_page_ids": [ 89246, 31482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 36 ], [ 145, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ancient Greek mathematicians knew how to bisect an angle (divide it into two angles of equal measure) using only a compass and straightedge, but could only trisect certain angles. In 1837, Pierre Wantzel showed that for most angles this construction cannot be performed.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bisecting and trisecting angles", "target_page_ids": [ 1503369, 61229, 2610953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 32 ], [ 119, 143 ], [ 193, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Euclidean space, the angle θ between two Euclidean vectors u and v is related to their dot product and their lengths by the formula", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dot product and generalisations", "target_page_ids": [ 9697, 32533, 157093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ], [ 48, 64 ], [ 94, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This formula supplies an easy method to find the angle between two planes (or curved surfaces) from their normal vectors and between skew lines from their vector equations.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dot product and generalisations", "target_page_ids": [ 173224, 1975821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 119 ], [ 133, 143 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To define angles in an abstract real inner product space, we replace the Euclidean dot product ( · ) by the inner product , i.e.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dot product and generalisations", "target_page_ids": [ 14856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a complex inner product space, the expression for the cosine above may give non-real values, so it is replaced with", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dot product and generalisations", "target_page_ids": [ 14856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "or, more commonly, using the absolute value, with", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dot product and generalisations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The latter definition ignores the direction of the vectors and thus describes the angle between one-dimensional subspaces and spanned by the vectors and correspondingly.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dot product and generalisations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The definition of the angle between one-dimensional subspaces and given by", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dot product and generalisations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "in a Hilbert space can be extended to subspaces of any finite dimensions. Given two subspaces , with , this leads to a definition of angles called canonical or principal angles between subspaces.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dot product and generalisations", "target_page_ids": [ 20598932, 46955123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ], [ 162, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Riemannian geometry, the metric tensor is used to define the angle between two tangents. Where U and V are tangent vectors and gij are the components of the metric tensor G,", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dot product and generalisations", "target_page_ids": [ 195243, 195795, 31482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 22 ], [ 28, 41 ], [ 82, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A hyperbolic angle is an argument of a hyperbolic function just as the circular angle is the argument of a circular function. The comparison can be visualized as the size of the openings of a hyperbolic sector and a circular sector since the areas of these sectors correspond to the angle magnitudes in each case. Unlike the circular angle, the hyperbolic angle is unbounded. When the circular and hyperbolic functions are viewed as infinite series in their angle argument, the circular ones are just alternating series forms of the hyperbolic functions. This weaving of the two types of angle and function was explained by Leonhard Euler in Introduction to the Analysis of the Infinite.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Dot product and generalisations", "target_page_ids": [ 1139981, 32842052, 56567, 30367, 1139926, 1967249, 1209, 15287, 494308, 17902, 19777721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 18 ], [ 25, 33 ], [ 39, 58 ], [ 107, 124 ], [ 192, 209 ], [ 216, 231 ], [ 242, 246 ], [ 433, 448 ], [ 501, 519 ], [ 624, 638 ], [ 642, 686 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In geography, the location of any point on the Earth can be identified using a geographic coordinate system. This system specifies the latitude and longitude of any location in terms of angles subtended at the center of the Earth, using the equator and (usually) the Greenwich meridian as references.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Angles in geography and astronomy", "target_page_ids": [ 18963910, 48361, 17616, 17617, 20611356, 441212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 79, 107 ], [ 135, 143 ], [ 148, 157 ], [ 241, 248 ], [ 267, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In astronomy, a given point on the celestial sphere (that is, the apparent position of an astronomical object) can be identified using any of several astronomical coordinate systems, where the references vary according to the particular system. Astronomers measure the angular separation of two stars by imagining two lines through the center of the Earth, each intersecting one of the stars. The angle between those lines can be measured and is the angular separation between the two stars.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Angles in geography and astronomy", "target_page_ids": [ 50650, 48239, 48381, 3720362, 26808, 9228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 35, 51 ], [ 150, 181 ], [ 269, 287 ], [ 295, 299 ], [ 350, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In both geography and astronomy, a sighting direction can be specified in terms of a vertical angle such as altitude /elevation with respect to the horizon as well as the azimuth with respect to north.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Angles in geography and astronomy", "target_page_ids": [ 1196, 48386, 29181, 48910, 47487, 56478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 99 ], [ 108, 116 ], [ 118, 127 ], [ 148, 155 ], [ 171, 178 ], [ 195, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Astronomers also measure the apparent size of objects as an angular diameter. For example, the full moon has an angular diameter of approximately 0.5°, when viewed from Earth. One could say, \"The Moon's diameter subtends an angle of half a degree.\" The small-angle formula can be used to convert such an angular measurement into a distance/size ratio.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Angles in geography and astronomy", "target_page_ids": [ 826723, 11432, 2009207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 76 ], [ 95, 104 ], [ 253, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Angle measuring instrument", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27643777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Angular statistics (mean, standard deviation)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1444970, 9956299, 1444970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 21, 25 ], [ 27, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Angle bisector", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 152547 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Angular acceleration", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 65929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Angular diameter", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 826723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Angular velocity", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 65927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Argument (complex analysis)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14699765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Astrological aspect", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 179966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Central angle", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 462705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Clock angle problem", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11843393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Decimal degrees", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3774825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dihedral angle", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 338046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Exterior angle theorem", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19298354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Golden angle", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 315659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Great circle distance", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 379733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Inscribed angle", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 462730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Irrational angle", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9445837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Phase (waves)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Protractor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 837995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Solid angle", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 94102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Spherical angle", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2335732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Transcendent angle", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 303274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trisection", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 91111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zenith angle", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 48909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Angle" ]

[ "plane angle" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Asa may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aṣa (born 1982), Nigerian-French singer, songwriter, and recording artist", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 18071478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asa (rapper) (born 1980), Finnish rapper", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 47671323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asa of Judah, third king of the Kingdom of Judah and the fifth king of the House of David", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 730866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asa (Kazakhstan), a river of Kazakhstan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 22928395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asa River (Japan), a tributary of the Tama River in Tokyo, Japan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 1710637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asa Station, a railway station in San'yō-Onoda, Yamaguchi, Japan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 18189154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Åsa, Kungsbacka, a locality situated in Kungsbacka Municipality, Halland County, Sweden", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 22481700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asa, Kwara State, a local government area in Kwara State, Nigeria", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 24856922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asa, Hardoi, a village in Tadiyawan block of Hardoi district, Uttar Pradesh, India", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 67908822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asu, South Khorasan (also Asa), an Inranian village in Alqurat Rural District", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 35758214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asa (album), the sixth studio album by the German Viking metal band Falkenbach", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 41125820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asa (name), a given name in several parts of the world", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 10336825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asa (raga), peculiar raga of Gurmat Sangeet Tradition", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 6874074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ASA carriage control characters, simple printing command characters used to control the movement of paper through line printers", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 6054947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Åsa IF, a Swedish football club located in Åsa", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 32996770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asa language, spoken by the Asa people of Tanzania", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 2604356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asa people, an ethnic group based on the Maasai Steppe in Manyara Region, Tanzania", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 6620467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Naboot (also asa), a quarterstaff constructed of palm wood or rattan", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 13300708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aasa (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16397554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ASA (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Åsa (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23570409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ása or Æsir, Norse gods", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asia (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 882730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aza (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 586496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] } ]

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