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Sunteți pe pagina 1din 274
Peter Croser, Frank Ebel
Order no.: 093131
Description: PNEUM.GS.LEHRB
Designation: D.LB-TP101-1-GB
Edition: 10/2002
Layout: B. Huber
Graphics: D. Schwarzenberger, T. Ocker
Author: P. Croser, F. Ebel
© Copyright by Festo Didactic GmbH & Co., 73770 Denkendorf 2002
The copying, distribution and utilization of this document as well as the
communication of its contents to others without expressed authorization
is prohibited. Offenders will be held liable for the payment of damages.
All rights reserved, in particular the right to carry out patent, utility model
or ornamental design registrations.
Notes on the layout of the book........................................................... 8
Section A: Course
Chapter 1 – Characteristics and applications of pneumatics ......... 11
1.1 Pneumatics in review .................................................................... 12
1.2 Pneumatics and control system development .............................. 18
1.3 Structure and signal flow of pneumatic systems........................... 19
Chapter 2 – Components of a pneumatic system ............................ 23
2.1 Air generation and distribution ...................................................... 24
2.2 Valves ........................................................................................... 27
2.3 Processing elements (processors)................................................ 33
2.4 Power components ....................................................................... 34
2.5 Systems ........................................................................................ 35
Chapter 3 – Symbols and standards in pneumatics ........................ 39
3.1 Symbols and descriptions of components .................................... 40
3.2 Safety requirements for pneumatic systems ................................. 51
Festo Didactic • TP101
Chapter 4 – Methods for the development of
pneumatic systems......................................................... 55
4.1 Development of pneumatic systems.............................................. 56
4.2 Control chain ................................................................................. 57
4.3 Design of the circuit diagram ......................................................... 60
4.4 Circuit layout.................................................................................. 61
4.5 Designation of individual elements ................................................ 62
4.6 The life cycle of a pneumatic system............................................. 63
Chapter 5 – Development of single actuator circuits ....................... 67
5.1 Direct control of a pneumatic cylinder ........................................... 68
5.2 Example 1: Direct control of a single-acting cylinder..................... 68
5.3 Exercise 1: Direct control of a double-acting cylinder.................... 70
5.4 Indirect control of a pneumatic cylinder ......................................... 72
5.5 Example 2: Indirect control of a single-acting cylinder .................. 72
5.6 Exercise 2: Indirect control of a double-acting cylinder ................. 74
5.7 Logic functions: AND, OR.............................................................. 76
5.8 Example 3: The logic AND function............................................... 76
5.9 Exercise 3: The logic AND function ............................................... 79
5.10 Example 4: The logic OR function ................................................. 81
5.11 Exercise 4: The logic OR function ................................................. 83
5.12 Example 5: Memory circuit and speed control of a cylinder .......... 85
5.13 Exercise 5: Memory circuit and speed control of a cylinder .......... 88
5.14 Exercise 6: The quick exhaust valve ............................................. 90
5.15 Example 6: Pressure dependent control ....................................... 92
5.16 Exercise 7: Pressure dependent control........................................ 94
5.17 Example 7: The time delay valve................................................... 96
5.18 Exercise 8: The time delay valve................................................... 99
TP101 • Festo Didactic
Chapter 6 – Development of multiple actuator circuits ................. 101
6.1 Control of multiple actuators ....................................................... 102
6.2 Example 8: Co-ordinated motion ................................................ 102
6.3 Example 9: Signal overlap .......................................................... 107
6.4 Signal elimination by reversing valves ........................................ 109
6.5 Example 10: Reversing valve ..................................................... 109
6.6 Example 11: Reversing valves.................................................... 112
Chapter 7 – Trouble-shooting of pneumatic systems ................... 115
7.1 Documentation............................................................................ 116
7.2 The causes and effects of malfunctions...................................... 116
7.3 Maintenance ............................................................................... 120
Section B: Theory
Chapter 1 – Fundamentals of pneumatics ...................................... 123
1.1 Physical fundamentals ................................................................ 124
1.2 Characteristics of air ................................................................... 126
Chapter 2 – Air generation and distribution .................................. 129
2.1 Air preparation ............................................................................ 130
2.2 Air compressors .......................................................................... 131
2.3 Reservoirs................................................................................... 134
2.4 Air dryers..................................................................................... 136
2.5 Air distribution ............................................................................. 141
2.6 Service unit ................................................................................. 144
Chapter 3 – Actuators and output devices...................................... 155
3.1 Single-acting cylinders................................................................. 156
3.2 Double-acting cylinders ............................................................... 158
3.3 Rodless cylinders ........................................................................ 164
3.4 Cylinder construction ................................................................... 167
3.5 Cylinder performance characteristics .......................................... 170
3.6 Motors.......................................................................................... 176
3.7 Indicators ..................................................................................... 178
Chapter 4 – Directional control valves............................................. 179
4.1 Configuration and construction.................................................... 180
4.2 2/2-way valve............................................................................... 181
4.8 Flow values of valves .................................................................. 201
4.9 Reliable operation of valves ........................................................ 202
Chapter 5 – Non-return, flow and pressure valves,
valve combinations....................................................... 203
5.1 Non-return valves ........................................................................ 204
5.2 Flow control valves ...................................................................... 211
5.3 Pressure valves ........................................................................... 216
5.4 Combinational valves .................................................................. 218
Chapter 6 – Systems ......................................................................... 223
6.1 Selection and comparison of working and control media............ 224
6.2 Control theory ............................................................................. 227
6.3 Control system development ...................................................... 231
6.4 Development aspects ................................................................. 240
6.5 Modern pneumatic drives............................................................ 241
Section C: Solutions
Solutions ............................................................................................ 245
List of standards ............................................................................... 264
List of references .............................................................................. 265
Index ................................................................................................... 267
Physical values and units................................................................. 274
Notes on the layout of the book
This textbook forms part of the Learning System for Automation and
Technology from Festo Didactic GmbH & Co. It has been designed for
training courses and is also suitable for the purpose of self-tuition.
The book is divided into the following sections :
Part A: Course section,
Part B: Theory section,
Part C: Solutions to the exercises.
Part A: Course
The course provides the necessary information on the subject con-
cerned using both examples and exercises, and is to be worked through
in sequence. Subjects which are dealt with in greater depth in the The-
ory section are marked in the text.
Part B: Theory
This section contains detailed information on fundamentals. Topics are
set out in a logical manner. The student can either work through this
section chapter by chapter or use it for reference purposes.
Part C: Solutions
This section contains the solutions to the exercises in Part A.
A comprehensive index is provided at the end of the textbook.
The concept of this textbook supports training in key qualifications in the
newly structured engineering and electro-technical vocations. Particular
value is attached to the fact that students have the option of learning the
subject concerned by working through the course section independently.
The book can be incorporated into an existing training program.
Chapter A-1
Characteristics and
applications of pneumatics
1.1 Pneumatics in review
Pneumatics has long since played an important role as a technology in
the performance of mechanical work. It is also used in the development
of automation solutions.
In the majority of applications compressed air is used for one or more of
the following functions:
 To determine the status of processors (sensors)
 Information processing (processors)
 Switching of actuators by means of final control elements
 Carrying out work (actuators)
To be able to control machinery and installations necessitates the con-
struction of a generally complex logic interconnection of statuses and
switching conditions. This occurs as a result of the interaction of sen-
sors, processors, control elements and actuators in pneumatic or partly
pneumatic systems.
The technological progress made in material, design and production
processes has further improved the quality and diversity of pneumatic
components and thereby contributed to their widely spread use in auto-
mation.
The pneumatic cylinder has a significant role as a linear drive unit, due
to its
 relatively low cost,
 ease of installation,
 simple and robust construction and
 ready availability in various sizes and stroke lengths.
The pneumatic cylinder has the following general characteristics:
 Diameters 2.5 to 320 mm
 Stroke lengths 1 to 2000 mm
 Available forces 2 to 45000 N at 6 bar
 Piston speed 0.1 to 1.5 m/s
Fig. 1.1
Single-acting cylinder
Pneumatic components can perform the following types of motion:
 Linear
 Swivel
 Rotary
Some industrial applications employing pneumatics are listed below:
 General methods of material handling:
– Clamping
– Shifting
– Positioning
– Orienting
– Branching of material flow
 General applications:
– Filling
– Metering
– Locking
– Driving of axes
– Door or chute control
– Transfer of materials
– Turning and inverting of parts
– Sorting of parts
– Stacking of components
– Stamping and embossing of components
Points switch for two
Pneumatics is used in carrying out machining and working operations.
 Drilling
 Turning
 Milling
 Sawing
 Finishing
 Forming
Advantages and distinguishing characteristics of compressed air:
Availability Air is available practically everywhere in unlimited quantities. T 1.1
Advantages and
Transport Air can be easily transported in pipelines, even over large distances. distinguishing
Storage Compressed air can be stored in a reservoir and removed as required. compressed air
In addition, the reservoir can be transportable.
Temperature Compressed air is relatively insensitive to temperature fluctuations.
This ensures reliable operation, even under extreme conditions.
Explosion Compressed air offers no risk of explosion or fire.
Cleanliness Unlubricated exhaust air is clean. Any unlubricated air which escapes
through leaking pipes or components does not cause contamination.
Components The operating components are of simple construction and therefore
relatively inexpensive.
Speed Compressed air is a very fast working medium. This enables high work-
ing speeds to be attained.
Overload safe Pneumatic tools and operating components can be loaded to the point
of stopping and are therefore overload safe.
In order to accurately define the areas of application of pneumatics, it is
also necessary to be acquainted with the negative characteristics:
T 1.2 Preparation Compressed air requires good preparation. Dirt and condensate should
Disadvantages of not be present.
Compression It is not always possible to achieve uniform and constant piston speeds
with compressed air.
Force Compressed air is economical only up to a certain force requirement.
requirement Under the normal working pressure of 600 to 700 kPa (6 to 7 bar) and
dependent on the travel and speed, the output limit is between 40 000
and 50 000 Newtons.
Noise level The exhaust air is loud. This problem has now, however been largely
solved due to the development of sound absorption material and si-
lencers.
A comparison with other forms of energy is an essential part of the se-
lection process when considering pneumatics as a control or working
medium. This evaluation embraces the total system from the input signal
(sensors) through the control part (processor) to the control elements
and actuators. All factors must be considered such as:
 Preferred control methods
 Available resources
 Available expertise
 Systems currently installed which are to be integrated with the new
Choice of working media: Criteria for a
working medium
 Electrical current (electricity)
 Fluids (hydraulics)
 Compressed air (Pneumatics)
 A combination of the above
Selection criteria for the working section:
 Force
 Stroke
 Type of motion (linear, swivelling, rotating)
 Speed
 Service life
 Safety and reliability
 Energy costs
 Controllability
Choice of control media: Criteria for a
control medium
 Mechanical connections (mechanics)
 Electrical current (electrics, electronics)
 Compressed air (pneumatics, low pressure pneumatics)
Selection criteria for the control section:
 Reliability of components
 Sensitivity to environmental influences
 Ease of maintenance and repair
 Switching time of components
 Signal speed
 Space requirements
 Modification of the control system
 Training requirements of operators and maintenance personnel
1.2. Pneumatics and control system development
The product development in pneumatics can be considered in a number
of areas:
 Actuators
 Sensors and input devices
 Processors
 Control systems
The following factors must be taken into account in the development of
pneumatic control systems:
 Reliability
 Ease of maintenance
 Cost of spare parts
 Assembly and connection
 Maintenance and repair costs
 Interchangeability and adaptability
 Compact design
 Economic efficiency
 Documentation
1.3 Structure and signal flow of pneumatic systems
Pneumatic systems consist of an interconnection of different groups of
Signal flow
This group of elements forms a control path for signal flow, starting from
the signal section (input) through to the actuating section (output).
Control elements control the actuating elements in accordance with the
signals received from the processing elements.
The primary levels in a pneumatic system are:
 Energy supply
 Input elements (sensors)
 Processing elements (processors)
 Control elements
 Power components (actuators)
The elements in the system are represented by symbols which indicate
the function of the element.
A directional control valve can be used as an input, processing or control
element. The distinguishing feature for the allocation of the individual
components to the respective groups of elements is the configuration
within a pneumatic system.
Circuit diagram and
pneumatic elements
Components of a pneumatic system
2.1 Air generation and distribution
The compressed air supply for a pneumatic system should be ade-
quately calculated and made available in the appropriate quality.
Air is compressed by the air compressor and delivered to an air distribu-
tion system in the factory. To ensure the quality of the air is acceptable,
air service equipment is utilised to prepare the air before being applied
to the control system.
Malfunctions can be considerably reduced in the system if the com-
pressed air is correctly prepared. A number of aspects must be consid-
ered in the preparation of the service air:
 Quantity of air required to meet the demands of the system
 Type of compressor to be used to produce the quantity required
 Pressure requirements
 Storage required
 Requirements for air cleanliness
 Acceptable humidity levels to reduce corrosion and sticky operation
 Lubrication requirements, if necessary
 Temperature of the air and effects on the system
 Line sizes and valve sizes to meet demand
 Material selection to meet environmental and system requirements
 Drainage points and exhaust outlets in the distribution system
 Layout of the distribution system to meet demand.
As a rule pneumatic components are designed for a maximum operating
pressure of 800-1000 kPa (8 - 10 bar) but in practice it is recommended
to operate at between 500-600 kPa (5 and 6 bar) for economic use. Due
to the pressure losses in the distribution system the compressor should
deliver between 650-700 kPa (6.5 and 7) bar to attain these figures.
A reservoir should be fitted to reduce pressure fluctuations. In some
cases, the term 'receiver' is also used to describe a reservoir.
The compressor fills the reservoir which is available as a storage tank.
The pipe diameter of the air distribution system should be selected in
such a way that the pressure loss from the pressurised reservoir to the
consuming device ideally does not exceed approx. 10 kPa (0.1 bar). The
selection of the pipe diameter is governed by:
 Flow rate
 Line length
 Permissible pressure loss
 Operating pressure
 Number of flow control points in the line
Ring circuits are most frequently used as main lines. This method of
installing pressure lines also achieves a constant supply in the case of
high air consumption. The pipe lines must be installed in the direction of
flow with a gradient of 1 to 2%. This is particularly important in the case
of branch lines. Condensate can be removed from the lines at the lowest
Any branchings of air consumption points where lines run horizontally
should always be installed on the upper side of the main line.
Branchings for condensate removal are installed on the underside of the
main line.
Shut-off valves can be used to block sections of compressed air lines if
these are not required or need to be closed down for repair or mainte-
nance purposes.
The air service unit is a combination of the following :
 Compressed air filter (with water separator)
 Compressed air regulator
 Compressed air lubricator
However, the use of a lubricator does not need to be provided for in the
power section of a control system unless necessary, since the com-
pressed air in the control section does not necessarily need to be lubri-
cated.
The correct combination, size and type of these elements are deter-
mined by the application and the control system demand. An air service
unit is fitted at each control system in the network to ensure the quality
of air for each individual task.
Air service unit
The compressed air filter has the job of removing all contaminants from Compressed
the compressed air flowing through it as well as water which has already air filter
condensed. The compressed air enters the filter bowl through guide
slots. Liquid particles and larger particles of dirt are separated centri-
fugally collecting in the lower part of the filter bowl. The collected con-
densate must be drained before the level exceeds the maximum con-
densate mark, as it will otherwise be re-entrained in the air stream.
The purpose of the regulator is to keep the operating pressure of the Compressed
system (secondary pressure) virtually constant regardless of fluctuations air regulator
in the line pressure (primary pressure) and the air consumption.
The purpose of the lubricator is to deliver a metered quantity of oil mist Compressed
into a leg of the air distribution system when necessary for the operation air lubricator
of the pneumatic system.
2.2 Valves
The function of valves is to control the pressure or flow rate of pressure
media. Depending on design, these can be divided into the following
 Directional control valves
– Input/signalling elements
– Processing elements
 Non-return valves
 Flow control valves
 Pressure control valves
Directional The directional control valve controls the passage of air signals by gen-
control valves erating, cancelling or redirecting signals.
The valve is described by:
 Number of ports or openings (ways): 2-way, 3-way, 4-way, etc.
 Number of positions: 2 positions, 3 positions, etc.
 Methods of actuation of the valve: manually actuated,
mechanically actuated,
pneumatically actuated,
electrically actuated.
 Methods of return actuation: Spring return, air return, etc.
As a signalling element the directional control valve is operated for ex-
ample, by a roller lever to detect the piston rod position of a cylinder.
3/2 way roller lever valve
(without and with idle return)
As a processing element the directional control valve redirects or can-
cels signals depending on the signal inputs received.
3/2 way air actuated valve:
single pilot valve, with
As a control element the directional control valve must deliver the re-
quired quantity of air to match the power component requirements.
5/2 way valve for cylinder
control: double pilot valve
Non-return valves The non-return valve allows a signal to flow through the device in one
direction and in the other direction blocks the flow. Amongst others, this
principle is applied in shuttle valves or quick exhaust valves. The non-
return valve in the form of a basic element of other valve types is shown
in a broken outline in the illustration below.
Non-return valve and its
derivatives Check valve
Dual-pressure valve
Quick exhaust valve
Flow control valves The flow control valve restricts or throttles the air in a particular direction
to reduce the flow rate of the air and hence control the signal flow. Ide-
ally it should be possible to infinitely vary the restrictor from fully open to
completely closed. The flow control valve should be fitted as close to the
working element as is possible and must be adjusted to match the re-
quirements of the application. If the flow control valve is fitted with a
check valve then the function of flow-control is unidirectional with full free
flow in one direction.
Flow control valve Flow control valve, adjustable
One-way flow control valve
Pressure control valves are utilised in pneumatic systems. There are Pressure control
three main groups: valves
 Pressure limiting valves
 Pressure regulating valves
 Pressure sequence valves
The pressure limiting valves are utilised on the up-stream side of the
compressor to ensure the receiver pressure is limited, for safety, and
that the supply pressure to the system is set to the correct pressure.
The pressure regulating valve keeps the pressure constant irrespective
of any pressure fluctuations in the system. The valve regulates the pres-
sure via a built-in diaphragm.
The pressure sequence valve is used if a pressure-dependent signal is
required for the advancing of a control system.
Pressure sequence valve
When the applied control signal reaches the set pressure, the 3/2-way
valve incorporated at this point is actuated. Conversely, the valve re-
verses, if the control signal falls below the set pressure.
Combination valves The combined functions of various elements can produce a new func-
tion. An example is the time delay valve which is the combination of a
one-way flow control valve, a reservoir and a 3/2-way directional control
valve.
Time delay valve
Depending on the setting of the throttling screw, a greater or lesser
amount of air flows per unit of time into the air reservoir. When the nec-
essary control pressure has built up, the valve switches to through flow.
This switching position is maintained for as long as the control signal is
Other combinational valves include the
 Two-hand start unit
 Pulse generator
 Stepper modules
 Memory modules
2.3 Processing elements (processors)
To support the directional control valves at the processing level, there
are various elements which condition the control signals for a task. The
elements are:
 Dual pressure valve (AND function)
 Shuttle valve (OR function)
A shuttle valve permits the combination of two input signals into an OR
function. The OR gate has two inputs and one output. An output signal is
generated, if pressure is applied at one of the two inputs.
2 Fig. 2.10
1 1/3 Shuttle valve
The further development of processing elements in pneumatics has
brought about the modular systems, which incorporate directional control
valve functions and logic elements to perform a combined processing
task. This reduces size, cost and complexity of the system.
Fig. 2.11
Modular processing unit
(stepper module)
2.4 Power components
The power section consists of control elements and power components
or actuators. The actuator group includes various types of linear and
rotary actuators of varying size and construction. The actuators are
complemented by the control elements, which transfer the required
quantity of air to drive the actuator. Normally this valve will be directly
connected to the main air supply and fitted close to the actuator to mini-
mise losses due to resistance.
Actuator with control
Actuators can be further broken down into groups:
 Linear actuators
– Single-acting cylinder
– Double-acting cylinder
 Rotary actuators
– Air motors
Actuators, linear and rotary
2.5 Systems
Generally, the actuation of a cylinder is effected via a directional control
valve. The choice of such a directional control valve (number of connec-
tions, number of switching positions, type of actuation) is dependent on
the respective application.
Control circuit for the single-acting cylinder
The piston rod of a single-acting cylinder is to advance when a push Typical problem
button is operated. When the push button is released, the piston is to
automatically return to the initial position.
A 3/2-way valve controls the single-acting cylinder. The valve switches Solution
from the initial position into the flow position, when the push-button ac-
tuator is pressed. The circuit includes the following primary features:
 Single-acting cylinder, spring return
 3/2-way directional control valve: push button for operation and
spring for return force
 Supply air source connected to the 3/2-way valve
 Air connection between valve and cylinder
Control of a single-acting
The 3/2-way control valve has 3 ports. The supply port, the exhaust port
and the outlet port. The relationship between these ports is determined
by the passages through the valve. The possible switching positions are
shown in the above illustration.
Initial position:
The initial position (left-hand circuit) is defined as the 'rest' position of the
system. All connections are made and there is no manual intervention by
the operator. The air supply is shut off and the cylinder piston rod re-
tracted (by spring return). In this valve position, the piston chamber of
the cylinder is exhausted.
Push-button operation:
Pressing the push button moves the 3/2-way valve against the valve
return spring. The diagram (right-hand circuit) shows the valve in the
actuated or working position. The air supply is now connected via the
valve passage to the single-acting cylinder port. The build-up of pressure
causes the piston rod of the cylinder to extend against the force of the
cylinder return spring. As soon as the piston rod arrives at the forward
end position, the air pressure in the cylinder body reaches a maximum
Push-button release:
As soon as the push button is released, the valve return spring returns
the valve to its initial position and the cylinder piston rod retracts.
Note The advancing speed and the retracting speed are different because:
 The piston reset spring creates a counteracting force when advanc-
 When retracting, the displaced air escapes via the valve. A flow re-
sistance must therefore be overcome.
Normally, single-acting cylinders are designed in such a way that the
advancing speed is greater than the retracting speed.
Control circuit for the double-acting cylinder
The piston rod of a double-acting cylinder is to advance when a push Typical problem
button is operated and to return to the initial position when the push but-
ton is released. The double-acting cylinder can carry out work in both
directions of motion, due to the full air supply pressure being available
for extension and retraction.
A 5/2-way directional control valve controls the double-acting cyliner. A Solution
signal is generated or reset on the valve, if a push-button actuator is
pressed or released. The circuit includes:
 Air connections between valve and cylinder
Control of a double-acting
In the initial position (left-hand circuit) all the connections are made and
there is no manual intervention by the operator. In this unactuated posi-
tion, air is applied at the cylinder piston rod side, while the pressure on
the piston side of the cylinder is exhausted.
Push button operation:
Pressing the push button operates the 5/2-way valve against the valve
operated or actuated position. In this position, the supply pressure is
connected to the piston side of the cylinder, while the piston rod side is
exhausted. The pressure on the piston side advances the piston rod.
Once full extension is reached, the air pressure on the piston side
reaches a maximum.
Push button release:
Once the push button is released, the valve return spring pushes the
valve into the initial position. The supply pressure is now connected to
the piston rod side, while the piston side is exhausted via the exhaust
port of the valve. The piston rod retracts.
Note The advancing speed and the retracting speed are different due to the
fact that the cylinder volume on the piston rod side is smaller than on the
piston side. Thus, the amount of supply air required during retraction is
smaller than during extension, and the return stroke is faster.
Symbols and standards in pneumatics
3.1 Symbols and descriptions of components
The development of pneumatic systems is assisted by a uniform ap-
proach to the representation of the elements and the circuits. The sym-
bols used for the individual elements must display the following charac-
teristics:
 Actuation and return actuation methods
 Number of connections (all labelled for identification)
 Number of switching positions
 General operating principle
 Simplified representation of the flow path
The technical construction of the component is not taken into account in
the abstract symbol form.
The symbols used in pneumatics are detailed in the standard DIN ISO
1219, "Circuit symbols for fluidic equipment and systems".
The relevant standards for the construction, testing and design of pneu-
matic control systems are listed in the reference section of this book.
The symbols for the energy supply system can be represented as indi- Air supply and
vidual elements or as combined elements. If a standard and common air generation
supply is used for all components, then the simplified symbols can be
Symbols used in energy
conversion and preparation
Directional control valves:
symbol development
The directional control valve is represented by the number of controlled Directional
connections, the number of positions and the flow path. In order to avoid control valves
faulty connections, all the inputs and outputs of a valve are identified.
ports and positions (ways)
A numbering system is used to designate directional control valves and
is in accordance with DIN ISO 5599-3. Prior to this a lettering system
was utilised and both systems of designation are presented here:
Working lines ISO 5599-3 Lettering System Port or Connection
1 P Pressure port
2, 4 A, B Working lines
3, 5 R, S Exhaust ports
Pilot lines 10 Z Applied signal inhibits flow from port 1 to port 2
12 Y, Z Applied signal connects port 1 to port 2
14 Z Applied signal connects port 1 to port 4
81, 91 Pz Auxiliary pilot air
Note In this book, all connections are identified by means of numbers.
Examples of designations
The methods of actuation of pneumatic directional control valves is de- Methods of actuation
pendent upon the requirements of the task. The types of actuation vary,
 manually actuated
 mechanically actuated
 pneumatically actuated
 electrical and
 combined actuation.
The symbols for the methods of actuation are detailed in DIN ISO 1219.
When applied to a directional control valve, consideration must be given
to the method of initial actuation of the valve and also the method of re-
turn actuation. Normally these are two separate methods. They are both
shown on the symbol either side of the position boxes. There may also
be additional methods of actuation such as manual overrides, which are
separately indicated.
Methods of actuation Manual General
Lever Operated
Detend lever operated
Mechanical Plunger
Roller operated
Idle return, roller
Spring centred
Pneumatic Direct pneumatic actuation
Indirect pneumatic actuation
(piloted)
Electrical Single solenoid operation
Double solenoid operation
Combined Double solenoid and pilot
operation with manual override
The non-return valve (check valve) is the basis for the development of Non-return valves
many combined components. There are two main configurations for non- and derivatives
return valves, with and without the spring return. In order to release flow,
the pressure force on the spring return design must be greater than the
spring force.
Check valve and derivatives
Spring-loaded check valve
Most flow control valves are adjustable and permit flow control in both Flow control valves
directions. The arrow shows that the component is adjustable but does
not refer to the direction of flow; it is diagrammatic only. In the case of
the one-way flow control valve, a non-return valve is switched in parallel
with the flow control valve. Flow control is effected in one direction only.
Flow control valve, adjustable Flow control valves
Pressure valves The function of pressure valves, is to influence the pressure in an overall
pneumatic system or in a part of the system. Pressure regulating valves
are generally adjustable against spring compression. The symbols are
distinguished according to the following types:
 Pressure regulating valve without relief port
 Pressure regulating valve with relief port
The symbols represent the pressure valve as a single position valve with
a flow path that is either open or closed initially. In the case of the pres-
sure regulator the flow is always open, whereas the pressure sequence
valve is closed until the pressure reaches the limit value as set on the
adjustable spring.
The linear actuators or cylinders are described by their type of construc- Linear actuators
tion and method of operation.
The single-acting cylinder, the double-acting cylinder and the rodless
cylinder form the basis for design variations. The use of cushioning to
reduce loads on the end caps and mountings during deceleration of the
piston is important for long-life and smooth operation. The cushioning
piston is shown on the exhaust air side of the piston. The arrow indicates
adjustable cushioning and not the direction of cushioned motion.
Rotary actuators Rotary actuators are divided into continuous motion and limited angle of
rotation.
The air motor is normally a high speed device with either fixed or adjust-
able speed control. Units with limited angle of rotation are fixed or ad-
justable in angular displacement. The rotary actuator may be cushioned
depending upon the load and speed of operation.
Rotary motion
Auxiliary symbols There are a number of important symbols for accessories which are util-
ised in conjunction with pneumatics.
Auxiliary symbols
3.2 Safety requirements for pneumatic systems
To date, no standards exist with regard to the safety of pneumatic sys-
tems. Therefore for all factors affecting safety, reference must be made
to existing general guidelines and regulations from a number of different
engineering fields.
An extract from one of the VDI (German association of engineers) guide-
lines number 3229 "Technical Design Guidelines for Machine Tools and
other Production Equipment" on the subject of safety states:
P 4.5 Safety
P 4.5.1 Controller malfunction
In the event of controller malfunction or disconnection of the system, operating staff
must not be endangered.
P 4.5.2 EMERGENCY-STOP SWITCH
Pneumatic systems using several force cylinders must be equipped with an emergency
switch. Based on the design and operating characteristics of a system, the decision
must be made as to whether the EMERGENCY-STOP function is
 to put the system into the zero pressure status
 to reset all force cylinders into the initial position, or
 to inhibit all cylinders in their current position.
These three options can also be combined.
Consideration should be given to the following guidelines when operat- Safety requirements
ing pneumatic cylinders under clamping conditions: for pneumatic
clamping devices
The control system for the pneumatic clamping devices should be de-
signed or arranged in such a way as to avoid accidental operation. This
can be achieved by means of:
 Manually-operated switching devices with protective covers, or
 control interlocks.
Precautions must be taken to prevent hand injuries caused by the
clamping device. This can be achieved by checking the clamping condi-
tions by means of:
 Clamping cylinder positioned outside the feed area,
 Use of safety clamping cylinders, which do not apply the full clamp-
ing force until they have reached the workpiece or
 use of two-hand control.
Machines with pneumatic clamping devices must be equipped in such a
way that the drive of the working or feed spindle cannot be switched on
until the clamping action is confirmed. This can be achieved with:
 Pressure transducers, or
 Pressure sequence valves.
A failure of the air supply must not cause the clamping device to open
during the machining of a clamped workpiece. This can be achieved by
means of:
 Mechanical clamping devices
 Self-locking clamping elements
 Reservoirs
Environmental Two forms of environmental pollution may occur in pneumatic systems :
 Noise: caused by the escape of compressed air
 Oil mist: caused by lubricants which have been introduced at the
compressor or via a service unit and which are discharged into the
atmosphere during the exhaust cycles.
Exhaust noise Measures must be taken against excessive exhaust noise. This can be
achieved by means of:
 Exhaust silencers
Silencers are used to reduce the noise at the exhaust ports of valves.
They operate on the principle of exhaust air flow control by creating a
greater or lesser flow resistance. Normal silencers have only limited in-
fluence on the speed of the piston rod.
In the case of throttle silencers, however, the flow resistance is adjust-
able. These silencers are used to control the speed of the cylinder piston
rod.
Another method of noise reduction is to fit manifolds with connections to
the exhaust ports of the power valves and thus to discharge the air via a
large common silencer.
The exhaust air of mechanically driven tools or mechanically controlled Oil mist
machines contains atomised oil which often remains in a room for some
considerable time in the form of a vapour, which can be breathed in.
Pollution of the environment is particularly acute in cases where a large
number of air motors or large-diameter cylinders are fitted in an installa-
tion. In this case, the use of filter silencers is recommended, whereby
the major part of the oil mist is filtered and does not reach the ambient
atmosphere.
When maintaining or working with pneumatic systems, care must be Operational safety
taken in the removal and the reconnection of air lines. The energy stored
in the tube or pipe will be expelled in a very short time with enough force
to cause severe whiplash of the line which can endanger personnel.
An additional danger is in the disturbance of particles due to the air blast
which causes eye hazards.
Methods for the development
of pneumatic systems
4.1 Development of pneumatic systems
The solution to a control problem is worked out according to a system
with documentation playing an important role in communicating the final
result. The circuit diagram should be drawn using standard symbols and
labelling. Comprehensive documentation is required including most of
the following:
 Function diagram
 Circuit diagram
 Description of the operation of the system
 Technical data on the components
Supplementary documentation comprising
 Parts list of all components in the system
 Maintenance and fault-finding information
 Spare parts list
There are two primary methods for constructing circuit diagrams:
 The so-called intuitive methods
 The methodical design of a circuit diagram in accordance with pre-
scribed rules and instructions
Whereas much experience and intuition is required in the first case and
above all, a great deal of time where complicated circuits are concerned;
designing circuit diagrams of the second category requires methodical
working and a certain amount of basic theoretical knowledge.
Regardless of which method is used in developing the circuit diagram,
the aim is to end up with a properly functioning and reliably operating
control. Whereas previously emphasis was placed on the least expen-
sive hardware solution, more importance is now attached to operational
reliability and ease of maintenance by a clear layout and documentation.
This inevitably leads to increased usage of methodical design proc-
esses. In such cases, the control is always constructed in accordance
with the given procedure and is less dependent upon personal influ-
ences from the designer. In many cases, however, more components
will be required for the methodical solution than in a circuit devised by
the intuitive method.
This additional material requirement will usually be rapidly compensated
for by time-saving at the project stage and also later in terms of mainte-
nance. Generally, it must be ensured that the time spent in project de-
sign and particularly in simplifying the circuit, is in reasonable proportion
to the overall effort.
Regardless of which method and which technique is used to produce a
circuit diagram, the basic requirements are sound fundamental knowl-
edge of the devices concerned and knowledge of the switching charac-
teristics of the components used.
4.2 Control chain
The control chain is a categorised representation of a control system,
from which amongst other things, the signal direction can be determined.
Control chain flowchart
With the circuit design, the system breakdown produces a rough separa-
tion of signal input, signal processing, signal output and command exe-
cution. In practice, this separation can be easily seen. In the case of
extensive installations, the control section is generally in a separate area
to that of the power section.
The signal flow diagram indicates the path of a signal from signal input
through to command execution.
The following diagram illustrates a few examples for the allocation of
devices to signal flow:
Allocation of devices
to signal flow
The illustration below clearly shows the structure of the control chain. Example
 The input elements are the manually actuated valves 1S1, 1S2
(push-button valves) and the mechanically actuated valve 1S3 (roller
lever valve).
 The processing element (processor) is the shuttle valve 1V1,
 The control element is the directional control valve 1V2.
 The power component is the cylinder 1A.
4.3 Design of the circuit diagram
The structure of the circuit diagram should correspond to the control
chain, whereby the signal flow is represented from the bottom to the top.
Simplified or detailed symbols may be used for the representation of the
circuit diagram. In the case of larger circuit diagrams, the power supply
parts (service unit, shut-off valve, various distributor connections) are
shown on a separate page of the drawing for the purpose of simplifica-
If a circuit diagram is represented in this schematic form, this is known
as a circuit diagram. Irrespective of the actual tubing connections of the
installation, the circuit diagram structure is always the same.
4.4 Circuit layout
The piston rod of a double-acting pneumatic cylinder advances if either a Typical problem
manual push button or a foot pedal is operated.
The cylinder returns to its starting position slowed down after fully ex-
tending. The piston rod will return provided the manual actuators have
been released.
The roller lever valve 1S3 is positioned as a limit switch in the forward Solution
end positon of the cylinder. The circuit diagram shows this element situ-
ated at the signal input level and does not directly reflect the orientation
of the valve. The mark on the circuit at the extended cylinder position
indicates the physical position of the limit switch 1S3 for circuit opera-
If the control is complex and contains several working elements, the con-
trol should be broken down into separate control chains, whereby a
chain is formed for each cylinder.
Wherever possible, these chains should be drawn next to each other in
the same order as the operating sequence.
4.5 Designation of individual elements
Signal elements should be represented in the normal position in the cir-
cuit diagram. If valves are actuated in the initial position as a start pre-
condition, this must be indicated by the represention of a trip cam. In this
case, the actuated switching position must be connected.
Actuated initial position
Designation With this type of designation, elements are divided into groups. Group 0
by numbers contains the elements for the power supply, groups 1,2,... designate the
individual control chains. One group number is generally allocated for
each cylinder.
T 4.1 0Z1, 0Z2 etc. Energy supply unit
by numbers 1A, 2A, etc. Power components
1V1, 1V2, etc. Control elements
1S1, 1S2, etc. Input elements (manually and mechanically actuated valves)
Designation This type of designation is used primarily for a systematic development
by letters of circuit diagrams. Here, limit switches are allocated to the cylinder,
which acknowledges them.
T 4.2 1A, 2A, etc. Power components
by letters 1S1, 2S1, etc. Limit switches, activated in the retracted end position of cylin-
ders 1A, 2A
1S2, 2S2, etc. Limit switches, activated in the forward end position of cylinders
1A, 2A
 Physical arrangement of the elements is ignored. Summary
 Draw the cylinders and directional control valves horizontally wher-
ever possible.
 The energy flow within the circuit moves from the bottom to the top.
 Energy source can be shown in simplified form.
 Show elements in the initial position of the control. Identify actuated
elements by a cam.
 Draw pipelines straight without cross-over wherever possible.
4.6 The life cycle of a pneumatic system
The development of solutions for pneumatic control systems is depen-
dent upon methodical planning.
The various phases involved in the life cycle of such systems from the
initial problem to upgrading the system are shown here.
Life cycle of a
The first step is the definition of objectives for the project with a clear Analysis of a
definition of the problem(s). Design or development of the solution is not pneumatic control
involved at the analysis stage. A flow chart of the total project plan can problem
be developed to define the step-orientated processes.
There are two stages of design development. Design
The first is the overall system design where general systems hardware
and control medium decisions are made. At this stage alternative solu-
tions may be addressed for consideration.
The next stage of the design process involves the following :
 Development of hardware systems
 Documentation development
 Definition of further requirements
 Time schedules for project implementation
 Product lists and specifications
 Costing data
Prior to the system installation, the system's functions must be fully Implementation
tested. Another function test must be carried out on the final completion
of the installation. Finally to ensure the sequence operates under all
conditions, the machine must be cycled under all of the expected and
specified operating conditions, e.g. manual cycle, auto cycle, emergency
conditions, blockages etc.
Upon completion of the commissioning process the final result is evalu- Evaluation
ated and compared to the original specification and if necessary im-
provements are made.
Maintenance Maintenance is essential to minimise the system downtimes.
Regular and careful maintenance helps to increase the reliability of a
system and to reduce the operating costs.
After a certain number of cycles, some components may show signs of
early deterioration which might be due to
 incorrect product selection or
 a change in operating conditions.
Basic preventive maintenance carried out at regular intervals helps to
diagnose failures of this kind and thus avoids system downtimes.
System upgrade Experience gained from the operation, maintenance and repairing of a
system, will ensure greater reliability in the event of any system im-
provements.
Development of single actuator circuits
5.1 Direct control of a pneumatic cylinder
The simplest level of control for the single or double-acting cylinder in-
volves direct control signals. With this, the cylinder is actuated directly
via a manually or mechanically actuated valve, without any intermediate
switching of additional directional control valves. If the port sizes and the
flow values of the valve are too large, the operating forces required may
be too great for direct manual operation.
Reference values for limits of direct cylinder control:
 Cylinder with piston diameter smaller than 40 mm
 Valves with connection sizes smaller than 1/4"
5.2 Example 1: Direct control of a single-acting cylinder
The Problem A single-acting cylinder of 25 mm diameter is to clamp a component
when a push button is pressed. As long as the push button is activated,
the cylinder is to remain in the clamped position. If the push button is
released, the clamp is to retract.
Positional sketch
The control valve used for the single-acting cylinder is the 3/2-way valve. Solution
In this case, since the cylinder is of small capacity, the operation can be
directly controlled by a push button 3/2-way directional control valve with
spring return.
On operating the push button the air passes through the valve from port
1 to 2 via the valve 1S into the piston chamber of the cylinder 1A. The
pressure builds up and advances the piston rod against the force of the
cylinder return spring. On release of the button, the valve spring returns
the 3/2-way valve to its initial position and the cylinder retracts. The air
returns from the cylinder via the exhaust port 3. Components which are
the only one of their type are designated without 2 supplementary num-
ber Since the cylinder is the only working element in the circuit, it is des-
ignated 1A.
In this and the following circuit diagrams, the service unit (0Z) and the Note
start-up valve (0S) have also been drawn in.
5.3 Exercise 1: Direct control of a double-acting cylinder
The Problem A double-acting cylinder is to extend when a push button is operated.
Upon release of the push button the cylinder is to retract. The cylinder is
of small bore (25 mm diameter) requiring a small flow rate to operate at
the correct speed.
Exercise Draw the circuit diagram for the problem.
Designate the valves and indicate the numbering system for the connec-
tions (ports).
What happens to the cylinder, if the push button is pressed for a very Question
short period, and is then immediately released?
Describe the operation of the circuit.
5.4 Indirect control of a pneumatic cylinder
Cylinders with a large piston diameter have a high air requirement. A
control element with high nominal flow rate must be used to actuate
these. If the force should prove too high for a manual actuation of the
valve, then an indirect actuation should be constructed, whereby a signal
is generated via a second smaller valve, which will provide the force
necessary to switch the control element.
5.5 Example 2: Indirect control of a single-acting cylinder
The Problem A single-acting cylinder with a large piston diameter is to clamp a work-
piece following actuation of a push button. The cylinder is to retract once
the push button is released.
In the initial position, the single-acting cylinder 1A is retracted. A spring- Solution
return 3/2-way pneumatic valve is used to actuate the cylinder. Connec-
tion 1 of the valve 1V is closed, connection 2 is exhausted to atmos-
phere via connection 3.
The valve 1S is actuated when the push button is activated and pressure
is applied to the control port 12 of the control valve 1V. The control valve
1V is actuated against spring force and is thus switched to flow. The
pressure building up at the cylinder piston causes the cylinder piston rod
of the single-acting cylinder to extend. The signal at the control port 12
remains as long as the push button is operated. Once the piston rod has
reached end position, it returns only after the push button has been re-
leased.
When the push button is released, the valve 1S returns to its initial posi-
tion. Control port 12 of the control valve 1V exhausts to atmosphere and
the signal is reset. The control valve also returns to initial position. The
return spring causes the cylinder to retract. The air from the cylinder
chamber is exhausted to atmosphere via the control valve.
5.6 Exercise 2: Indirect control of a double-acting cylinder
The Problem A double-acting cylinder is to advance when a push button is operated.
250 mm diameter and consumes a large volume of air.
short period and is then immediately released?
5.7 Logic functions: AND, OR
Describe the function using a circuit diagram. The pneumatic shuttle
valve and the dual pressure valve have logic functions. Both have two
inputs and one output each. The shuttle valve has the characteristic of
an OR function, whereby at least either of two inputs 1 or 1(3) are re-
quired to generate an output at port 2 of the valve. In the case of the
dual pressure valve, the characteristic is that of the AND function,
whereby both inputs 1 and 1(3) are required to initiate an output 2.
5.8 Example 3: The logic AND function
The Problem The piston rod of a double-acting cylinder is to advance when the 3/2-
way roller lever valve 1S2 is actuated and the push button of the 3/2-way
valve 1S1 is actuated. If either of these are released, then the cylinder is
to return to the initial position.
The inputs 1 and 1(3) of the dual-pressure valve 1V1 are connected to Solution
the working ports 2 of the valves 1S1 and 1S2. The 3/2-way roller lever
valve 1S2 is actuated by the insertion of a workpiece and then creates a
signal at one input of the dual-pressure valve. Since only one input is
actuated, the AND condition has not been fulfilled and the output of the
dual-pressure valve remains closed.
If the push button of the 3/2-way valve 1S1 is now also actuated, a sig-
nal will also be applied at the second input. The AND condition is now
fulfilled and a signal is generated at the output 2 of the dual-pressure
valve. The 5/2-way pneumatic valve 1V2 switches, the piston side of the
cylinder is pressurised and the piston rod advances.
If one of the two valves 1S1 or 1S2 is no longer actuated, then the AND
condition will no longer be fulfilled and the signal at the output of the
dual pressure valve will be reset. The signal pressure at the control port
14 of the control element 1V2 is exhausted to atmosphere via the reset
valve 1S1 or 1S2. The control element 1V2 switches back. The pressure
building up on the piston rod side ensures the retraction of the piston
An alternative solution to using the dual pressure valve is to use two 3/2-
way valves in series. Here the signal is passed from push-button valve
1S1 to the roller lever valve 1S2 and then on to the control element 1V2
but only if both valves 1S1 and 1S2 are operated, i.e. when the AND
condition is met. When a valve is released, the signal at the control ele-
ment is reset and the piston rod retracts.
Note A simplified representation without service unit and start-up valve has
been selected for this circuit diagram.
5.9 Exercise 3: The logic AND function
The piston rod of the cylinder 1A is to advance only if a workpiece is The Problem
inserted in the workpiece retainer, a guard has been lowered and the
operator presses the push button valve. Upon the release of the push
button or if the guard is no longer in its lower position, the cylinder 1A is
to retract to the initial position.
Draw the circuit diagram for the problem. Exercise
Question What happens to the cylinder, if the push button is pressed for a very
5.10 Example 4: The logic OR function
A double-acting cylinder is to advance if one of two push buttons is op- The Problem
erated. If the push button is then released, the cylinder is to retract.
The inputs 1 and 1(3) of the shuttle valve 1V1 are connected to the Solution
working connections of the valves 1S1 and 1S2. Upon operation of one
of the push buttons, the corresponding valve 1S1 or 1S2 is actuated and
a signal is generated at the 1 or 1(3) side of the shuttle valve. The OR
condition is fulfilled and the signal passes through the shuttle valve and
is emitted at port 2. The signal pressure is prevented from escaping via
the exhaust of the unactuated valve by closing the line in the shuttle
valve. The signal effects the switching of the control element 1V2. The
piston side of the cylinder is pressurised and the piston rod advances.
When the actuated push button is released, the signal pressure is re-
lieved via the valves 1S1 and 1S2 and the control element is switched
back to its initial position. The pressure now building up on the piston
rod side ensures the retraction of the piston rod.
Extended A double pilot valve should be fitted for the control of the cylinder. If the
problem definition cylinder is to retract on reaching its fully extended position, roller lever
valves should be used as limit valves to confirm that this position has
been reached.
One of the push buttons need only be operated for a short duration and
the cylinder will fully extend, since the effect of the signal at input 14 of
the 5/2-way double pilot valve 1V2 is maintained until a signal is applied
at input 12. As soon as the piston rod has reached the forward end posi-
tion, the limit switch 1S3 generates a signal at input 12, and the valve
1V2 is reversed. The retracted end position of the piston rod can also be
sensed. This requires an additional limit switch.
The addition of the dual pressure valve 1V2 and the roller limit switch
1S4 ensures that the cylinder is fully retracted before the cylinder can be
extended again. The condition for a renewed advancing of the piston rod
is the actuation of one of the valves 1S1 or 1S2 and the limit switch 1S4.
When the cylinder is advanced at position 1S3, the cylinder retracts
even if the valves 1S1 and 1S2 are still operated since the limit switch
1S4 is inactive.
5.11 Exercise 4: The logic OR function
A double-acting cylinder is used to transfer parts from a magazine. If The Problem
either a push button or a foot pedal is operated, the cylinder is to ad-
vance. Once the cylinder is fully advanced, it is to retract to the initial
position. A 3/2-way roller lever valve is to be used to detect the full ex-
tension of the cylinder.
Question What happens to the cylinder, if the push button or pedal are pressed for
a very short period and then immediately released?
5.12 Example 5: Memory circuit and speed control of a cylinder
The piston rod of a double-acting cylinder is to advance when a 3/2-way The Problem
push button valve is actuated manually. The cylinder is to remain ad-
vanced until a second valve is actuated. The signal of the second valve
can only take effect after the first valve has been released. The cylinder
is to then return to the initial position. The cylinder is to remain in the
initial position until a new start signal is given. The speed of the cylinder
is to be adjustable in both directions.
Circuit diagram with 4/2-way
double pilot valve
Solution 4/2-way or 5/2-way double pilot valves possess the required memory
function. The valve retains its last switched position until an opposing
signal is received. This characteristic is independent of the time period,
for which the signal is applied to the switching valve.
The one way flow control valves control the cylinder speed in both direc-
tions and are independently adjustable. Since the displaced air flow is
restricted in each case, this is an exhaust air flow control.
In the initial position, the control element 1V1 is switched in such a way
that the piston rod side of the cylinder is pressurised and the cylinder is
in the retracted state.
Upon operation of the push-button, the valve 1S1 is actuated, so that a
signal is generated at the pilot port 14 of the control element 1V1. The
control element 1V1 switches, the piston side of the cylinder is pressur-
ised and the piston rod advances. Whilst the supply air flows unre-
stricted through the one-way flow control valve 1V2, the air displaced via
the one-way flow control valve 1V3 on the piston rod side is restricted.
The advancing speed of the piston rod is therefore reduced. The switch-
ing status of the valve 1V1 is maintained, if the valve 1S1 is released,
since this is a memory valve. If the valve 1S2 is actuated, a signal is
generated at the control port 12 of the control element. The valve
switches, pressure is applied at the piston rod side of the cylinder and
the piston rod retracts. Exhaust air flow control is effected via the one-
way flow control valve 1V2. If the valve 1S2 is released, the switching
position of the control element 1V1 is maintained due to its memory
function.
The supply air is transferred through the by-pass check valve of the flow
control valves, giving unrestricted supply to the cylinder. The flow control
influences the volumetric flow rate of the exhaust air and as such the
piston speed. Due to the different volumes of air to be displaced on the
piston side and on the piston rod side, the restrictors must be set at dif-
ferent levels to obtain the same retracting and advancing speed.
5.13 Exercise 5: Memory circuit and speed control of a cylinder
The Problem A double-acting cylinder is to be used to transfer parts from a magazine.
The cylinder is to advance fully when a push button is operated and then
retract automatically. Full extension is confirmed by a roller lever valve.
The cylinder is to continue forward even if the push button is released
before full extension is reached. The speed of the cylinder is to be ad-
justable in both directions of motion.
1. What is the effect on the piston rod movement, if the push button Questions
remains actuated once the piston rod has reached the end position?
2. What is the effect on the advance stroke, if the roller lever valve is
fitted at the stroke mid position of the piston rod?
3. Describe the initial status of the system.
4. Describe the operation of the circuit.
5.14 Exercise 6: The quick exhaust valve
The Problem The combined actuation of a manually actuated valve and a roller lever
valve advances a forming tool on an edge-folding device. The forming
tool is driven by a double-acting cylinder. For rapid forward travel, the
circuit utilises a quick exhaust valve. The retracting speed is to be ad-
justable. If either of the two valves are released, the tool returns to its
initial position.
What happens to the cylinder if the push button is pressed for a short Question
period and then released?
5.15 Example 6: Pressure dependent control
The Problem A plastic component is embossed using a die driven by a double-acting
cylinder. The die is to advance and emboss the plastic when a push but-
ton is operated. The return of the die is to be effected when a preset
pressure is reached. The embossing pressure is to be adjustable.
Solution If the piston rod is not in its initial position, the circuit must be reset by
operating the manual override on the 5/2-way double pilot valve.
All valves are unactuated in the initial position, pressure is applied at the
piston rod side of the cylinder and the piston rod remains in the retracted
Actuation of the push button switches the valve 1S to flow and a signal is
applied at the control port 14 of the double pilot valve 1V2. The valve
1V2 switches, pressure is applied at the piston side of the cylinder and
the piston rod advances. The switching status of the double pilot valve
1V2 remains intact if the push button 1S is released. When the piston
rod reaches the workpiece, travel is stopped and pressure starts to build
up on the piston side. The increasing pressure causes the force of the
die to increase.
The control port 12 of the pressure sequence valve 1V1 is connected to
the pressure line on the piston side of the cylinder 1A. When the pres-
sure in the cylinder reaches the value set on the pressure sequence
valve, the 3/2-way valve switches. A signal is now applied at the control
port 12 of the valve 1V2. The valve 1V2 switches, pressure is applied at
the piston rod side of the cylinder and the piston rod retracts. During
retraction, the response pressure set on the pressure sequence valve is
not met and the pressure sequence valve returns to its initial position.
The response pressure set on the pressure sequence valve must be
lower than the system pressure in order to ensure reliable switching.
Should the advancing piston rod meet an obstacle, then it will retract
again before reaching the embossing position.
5.16 Exercise 7: Pressure dependent control; embossing of
The Problem A plastic component is embossed using a die powered by a double-
acting cylinder. The return of the die is to be effected when the cylinder
rod has fully extended to the embossing position and the preset pres-
sure is reached. A roller lever valve is to be used to confirm full exten-
sion. The signal for retracting must only be generated when the piston
rod has reached the embossing position. The pressure in the piston
chamber is indicated by a pressure gauge.
period and then immediately released?
5.17 Example 7: The time delay valve
The Problem A double-acting cylinder is used to press together glued components.
Upon operation of a push button, the clamping cylinder extends.
Once the fully advanced position is reached, the cylinder is to remain for
a time of T= 6 seconds and then immediately retract to the initial posi-
tion. The cylinder retraction is to be adjustable. A new start cycle is only
possible after the cylinder has fully retracted.
In the initial position, all valves with the exception of the roller lever
valve 1S2 (limit switch) are unactuated. Pressure is applied at the piston
rod side of the cylinder and the piston rod remains in the retracted state.
Valve 1S1 and the limit switch 1S2 must be actuated as a start condi-
tion. The limit switch 1S2 is not actuated unless the piston rod is in its
initial position. If the start condition is fulfilled, the dual-pressure valve
1V1 is switched to flow and a signal is applied at the control port 14 of
the double pilot valve 1V3. The valve 1V3 reverses, pressure is applied
at the piston side of the cylinder and the piston rod advances. The ad-
vancing speed is dependent on the setting of the one-way flow control
valve 1V5 (exhaust air control). After a short advancing travel, the piston
rod releases the limit switch 1S2.
1A 1S2 1S3 Fig. 5.29
1V4 1V5
1 1V2
1S1 1S2 1S3
Following this, the AND condition at the dual-pressure valve 1V1 is no
longer met and the signal at the control port 14 of the double pilot valve
1V3 is reset, whilst its switching position (stored) does not change. A
renewed actuation of the valve 1S1 is now ineffective until the system
has reached its initial status again. When the embossing position is
reached, the limit switch 1S3 is actuated. The air reservoir in the time
delay valve 1V2 starts filling up via the integrated one-way flow control
valve. The rate of pressure increase is dependent on the setting of the
integrated restrictor. When the pressure is sufficiently high, the 3/2-way
valve switches and a signal is applied at the control port 12 of the double
pilot valve 1V3. The valve 1V3 reverses, pressure is applied at the pis-
ton rod side of the cylinder and the piston rod retracts. The retracting
speed is dependent on the setting of the one-way flow control valve 1V4.
When retracting, the limit switch 1S3 reverses and the air reservoir of
the time delay valve 1V2 is exhausted to atmosphere via the non-return
valve and the limit switch 1S3. As result of this, the 3/2-way valve of the
time delay valve switches into its initial position. The signal at the control
port 12 of the double pilot valve 1V3 is then reset.
When the piston rod reaches its initial position, the limit switch 1S2 is
actuated and a new cycle can be started.
5.18 Exercise 8: The time delay valve
A double-acting cylinder is used to press together glued components. The Problem
Upon operation of a push button, the clamping cylinder slowly advances.
Once the fully extended position is reached, the cylinder is to remain for
a time of T = 6 seconds and then immediately retract to the initial posi-
tion. A new start cycle is only possible after the cylinder has fully re-
tracted and after a delay of 5 seconds. During this delay the finished part
is manually removed and replaced with new parts for gluing. The retract-
ing speed should be fast, but adjustable.
Question What happens to the cylinder if the push button is pressed for a short
Development of multiple actuator circuits
6.1 Control of multiple actuators
In the case of multiple cylinder circuits, a clear definition of the problem
is important. The representation of the desired motion of all actuators is
described using the displacement-step diagram. The special conditions
for the start of the sequence must also be defined.
If the motion diagram and auxiliary conditions have been clearly defined,
drawing of the circuit diagram can commence. The circuit diagram
should be designed according to the guidelines set out in chapter A-4.
In order for a circuit to operate, it is essential to avoid overlapping sig-
nals. By an overlapping signal, we understand signals applied simulta-
neously at the two control ports of a double pilot valve. The following
valves can be used to eliminate signal overlap: roller lever valves with
idle return or toggle lever valves, time delay valves, reversing valves or
sequencers.
To provide a better understanding of the methods, some examples are
given for the use of roller lever valves with idle return and reversing
6.2 Example 8: Co-ordinated motion
The Problem Two cylinders are used to transfer parts from a magazine onto a chute.
When a push button is pressed, the first cylinder extends, pushing the
part from the magazine and positions it in preparation for transfer by the
second cylinder onto the outfeed chute. Once the part is transferred, the
first cylinder retracts, followed by the second.
Confirmation of all extended and retracted positions are required.
Displacement-step
initial position
Solution Roller lever valves with idle return are to be used as limit switches to
detect the return and advance positions of the piston rod. The manual
signal input is effected via a 3/2-way valve.
In the initial position, both cylinders are in the retracted state, the limit
switches 2S1 and 1S2 are actuated.
The start condition for a cycle is that the limit switch 2S1 and push but-
ton 1S1 must be actuated.
The motion cycle can be determined from the displacement-step dia-
gram and is subdivided into the following steps:
Step 1 1S1 and 2S1 actuated ⇒ Cylinder 1A advances
Step 2 1S3 actuated ⇒ Cylinder 2A advances
Step 3 2S2 actuated ⇒ Cylinder 1A retracts
Step 5 2S1 actuated ⇒ Initial position
1. If push button 1S1 is actuated, the 5/2-way double pilot valve 1V2
switches, and the piston rod of the cylinder 1A advances. The part is
ejected from the magazine.
2. When cylinder 1A reaches the forward end position, the limit switch
1S3 is actuated. The 5/2-way double-pilot valve 2V then switches
and the piston rod of the cylinder 2A advances. The part is moved
onto a chute.
3. When cylinder 2A reaches its forward end position, the limit switch
2S2 switches. This causes the control element 1V2 to switch and the
piston rod of the cylinder 1A retracts.
4. When the retracted end position of the cylinder 1A has been
reached, the limit switch 1S2 switches and the control element 2V
switches. The piston rod of the cylinder 2A retracts and actuates the
limit switch 2S1 upon reaching its retracted end position.
5. The initial position of the system has now been reached again. A
new cycle can be started by actuating the push button 1S1.
Representation of
steps 1 to 5
6.3 Example 9: Signal overlap
In co-ordinated motion control, the 5/2-way memory valve can only The Problem
switch positions when a single pilot signal is present. If two signals are
operated simultaneously, i.e. both pilot signals on the 5/2-way valve are
active, a signal overlap problem occurs. Several possibilities are avail-
able for the solution of this problem.
However, first the signal overlap points must be established.
Displacement-step diagram
with operating status of
input elements
Where does signal overlapping occur? Question
Circuit diagram with
signal overlapping
Solution Signal overlapping occurs in steps 1 and 3. In the initial position, a signal
is applied at the control port 12 of the double pilot valve 1V2 via the ac-
tuated limit switch 2S1. If push button 1S1 is actuated, a signal is ap-
plied at the control port 14 of the double pilot valve 1V2. This signal
overlapping can be eliminated by the use of roller lever valves with idle
return. These valves are actuated in one direction of movement only by
the piston rod and are configured in such a way that actuation is trig-
gered just shortly before reaching the respective initial and end position.
In step 3, a signal overlap occurs at the double pilot valve 2V. The ad-
vancing piston rod of the cylinder 1A actuates the limit switch 1S3. The
piston rod of the cylinder 2A advances and actuates the limit switch 2S2,
which triggers the signal for the immediate retracting of the piston rod. If
the limit switch 1S3 is still switched at this point, two signals are applied
simultaneously at the double pilot valve 2V and the valve cannot switch.
Here too, signal overlapping can be eliminated, if the limit switch 1S3 is
a roller lever valve with idle return. In the circuit diagram, an arrow is
drawn on the line of the limit switches 2S1 and 1S3. The direction of the
arrow indicates in which direction the overtravel of the roller lever valve
with idle return leads to actuation. No actuation takes place in the case
of overtravel in the opposite direction.
The use of roller lever valves with idle return to eliminate signal overlap-
ping has the following disadvantages:
 The end position cannot be sensed accurately
 Function may be impaired as a result of contamination
 Fast control systems are not possible.
6.4 Signal elimination by reversing valves
Signal elimination by means of a reversing valve is a frequently used
solution. This basic idea is to allow the signal to be active only for as
long as is required. This is achieved by blocking the signal downstream
of the signal element by means of a reversing valve, or by supplying
energy to the signal element only when the signal is required. A double
pilot valve is used to effect the reversal.
6.5 Example 10: Reversing valves
A reversing valve is to be used instead of roller lever valves with idle The Problem
return to eliminate signal overlap. It is necessary to remove the signals
at the 5/2-way double solenoid valves 1V and 2V in good time in order to
cancel the signal overlaps. To achieve this, the pressure supply lines of
the limit switches 2S1 and 1S3 must be exhausted quickly before the
counter signal is applied, i.e. no opposing signals at the memory valves
1V and 2V.
Solution The reversing valve 0V supplies the lines P1 and P2 with compressed
air or exhausts these to atmosphere. In the initial position, both piston
rods are retracted, the limit switches 2S1 and 1S2 are actuated and
pressure is applied at the control ports 12 of the 5/2-way double pilot
valves 1V and 2V.
Following actuation of the push button 1S1, the reversing valve 0V
switches. The line P1 is supplied with compressed air and line P2 is ex-
hausted. The limit switch 2S1 remains actuated, but the control port 12
of the valve 1V is unpressurised. Pressure is applied at the control port
14 of the valve 1V and the valve reverses. The piston rod of the cylinder
1A advances, whereby the limit switch 1S2 is reset and the control port
14 of the reversing valve 0V is exhausted.
The limit switch 1S3 is actuated when the end position is reached and
the valve 2V reverses. The piston rod of the cylinder 2A advances.
After the piston rod has left the initial position, the limit switch 2S1 is
reset. Upon reaching the end position, the limit switch 2S2 is actuated.
The reversing valve 0V switches, line P2 is supplied with system pres-
sure and line P1 become unpressurised. The valve 2V switches and the
When the initial position is reached, the limit switch 2S1 is actuated, the
valve 1V switches and the piston rod of the cylinder 1A retracts. When
the piston rod reaches its initial position, the limit switch 1S2 is actuated
and the system is in the initial state again.
A new cycle can now be started by pressing push button 1S1.
The Problem Using a transfer station, parts are to be transferred from a vertical
magazine onto a chute. The parts are pushed out of the magazine by
cylinder 1A and then transferred onto the chute by cylinder 2A. The pis-
ton rod of the cylinder 1A may only extend once the cylinder 2A has re-
tracted. The cycle is to start when a start button is pressed. Limit
switches are used to confirm cylinder positions.
Solution In the circuit diagram, all signal input elements are connected in the ac-
tive state. This means that the input elements are directly supplied with
compressed air. In this way, the compressed air does not have to flow
through all the linked valves before a control process is triggered. Pres-
sure drop is reduced and control is faster. The input elements are con-
nected to the reversing valves via dual-pressure valves.
The sequence has three steps and signal overlap is potentially a prob-
lem at two positions. The first step is the advance of cylinder 1A, fol-
lowed by step 2, the immediate retraction of cylinder 1A. Therefore it is
possible that overlap occurs on the valve 1V1 at ports 14 and 12, unless
the reversing valve technique is used. The valve 2S1 is held operated
initially by cylinder 2A, but the push button valve 1S1 is a momentary
push button, and in most cases, it would not be expected that the start
button be operated for an extended period. Therefore the valve 1S1 may
be used as the means of cancelling the first overlap signal.
The second overlap problem occurs with cylinder 2A and valve 2V1.
Here the problem occurs in step 3, when the cylinder is to retract imme-
diately after the extension is completed. The first of the two signals on
the control valve 2V1 must be short in duration.
To remove the overlap the reversing valve circuit is developed with three
lines feeding three steps. The lines P1 to P3 represent the individual
steps 1 to 3.
In step 1 the cylinder 1A extends, therefore the pilot signal 1V1 at port
14 is fed via line P1.
Two movements occur in step 2: cylinder 1A retracts and cylinder 2A
extends. Therefore line P2 feeds the pilot signals 1V1 at port 12 and 2V1
at port 14.
In the third step, the piston rod of cylinder 2A is to retract due to the pilot
signal 2V1 at port 12 which is fed from line P3.
The input side of the circuit shows that the valves 1S1 and 2S1 have to
be operated to start the cycle. The valve 1S3 operates next and is fed to
port 12 of reversing valve 0V6. This switches to activate line P2 and ex-
hausts line P1. The next movements are cylinders 1A back and 2A out,
confirmed by valves 2S2 and 1S2 which are series connected to the 12
port of the reversing valve 0V5. The valve 0V5 switches, the line P2 is
exhausted and line P3 activated. The cycle is now prepared for a start
condition, once valve 2S1 is initiated by cylinder 2A retracting. Actuation
of the start button 1S1 causes the cycle to restart.
Trouble-shooting of pneumatic systems
The documentation of a pneumatic system comprises the following:
 Operating instructions
 Data sheets
When the system is modified, the documentation and the machine his-
tory should be updated to reflect any changes, in order to facilitate trou-
ble-shooting and elimination of faults.
7.2 The causes and effects of malfunctions
In general, malfunctions of a system fall into the following categories:
 Wear and tear on components and lines which can be accelerated
– Ambient medium (e.g. aggressive air, temperature)
– Quality of compressed air (e.g. excessive humidity or lubrication)
– Relative motion of components
– Incorrect loading of components
– Incorrect maintenance
– Incorrect mounting and connection
These influences can lead to the following malfunctions or failures of the
 Blocking of lines
 Seizure of units
 Breakages
 Leakages
 Pressure drop
 Incorrect switching
A systematic procedure for finding and eliminating faults reduces com- Fault diagnosis
missioning and downtimes of a pneumatic control system.
Faults generally occur either:
 Due to external failure of the machine components or due to stop-
 Internal failures within the control system.
Experience has shown that the occurrence of control system failure is
rare compared with external sensor or machine failure.
If a fault occurs, this manifests itself through the malfunction or down- Fault finding
time of a machine. A fault can be eliminated as follows:
 Fault elimination by operating or maintenance personnel
 Fault elimination through customer services.
External faults and most internal faults can be identified and often solved
by an experienced operator. If the problem cannot be quickly solved, the
characteristics of the machine at the point of failure and the status of the
control system should be recorded. Using this information, the mainte-
nance engineer can make a decision as to the kind of failure that has
occurred and the necessary actions to be taken.
Fault diagnosis should be carried out without delay at the time of failure
and steps taken to eliminate the fault. Therefore, machine downtime will
be minimal.
Preventive Premature wear or failure of components can be the result of design or
maintenance planning errors. If the following points are taken into consideration dur-
ing the planning phase, this minimises the risk of premature machine
 Selection of the appropriate components and signal generators.
They should be adjusted to suit the environmental and operational
conditions of the system (e.g. switching frequency, heavy loads)
 Protection of components against contamination
 Mechanical absorption of the actuating forces through additional
 Short line lengths, fitted with amplifiers where necessary
Fault finding in As a rule, a newly-designed and installed pneumatic system will run
pneumatic systems trouble-free for some time after initial adjustments have been carried out.
It is important to proceed systematically when faults occur. Even more
complex controls can be divided into smaller units and then examined
independently of each other for faults.
If the operator is unable to rectify the fault, then maintenance or cus-
tomer services personnel will have to be called upon.
It frequently occurs that sections of pneumatic systems are extended Malfunctions caused
without enlarging the necessary air supply. Malfunctions which can be by under-sized
caused by under-sized air supply are: air supply
 The piston rod speed is not always correct
 The force at the power cylinder drops for a short time during a pres-
sure drop.
 Switching times are too long
The same symptoms may occur as the result of changes in orifice cross-
sections caused by contamination or kinked lines or if leakage is causing
a pressure drop.
Apart from the corrosive damage caused to surfaces by condensate Malfunctions caused
which is, in many cases extremely aggressive, there is the considerable by condensate
danger of seizure of valve components if they need to be reset by spring
force after being held in one switching position for a considerable time.
Lubricants without additives have a tendency to emulsify and create
resin or gumming. All close-tolerance sliding fits in valves are particularly
susceptible to these resistances to movement.
In a pneumatic system, a service unit should generally be connected Malfunctions caused
upstream in the compressed air supply section. This filters the dirt parti- by contamination
cles from the compressed air supply.
During assembly or maintenance work, dirt particles (e.g. thread parti-
cles, sealing agents, etc.) may remain in the pressure lines and get into
the valve during operation.
In the case of systems which have been in service for some time, may
find their way into the lines. This contamination of the lines may produce
the following effects :
 Sticking or seizure of slide-valve seats
 Leaks in poppet valves
 Blockage of flow control valve nozzles.
Systematic maintenance helps to prolong service life and improve the
functional reliability of pneumatic control systems.
A detailed maintenance plan should be drawn up for every pneumatic
system. A maintenance pIan lists the maintenance tasks and time inter-
vals. In the case of complex control systems, the maintenance
documentation must include a function diagram and circuit diagram.
The time intervals between individual maintenance work to be carried
out is dependent on the period of use, the wear characteristics of the
individual components and the ambient medium. The following mainte-
nance work must be carried out frequently and at short intervals:
 Service unit
– Check the filter
– Drain water regularly
– Refill and set lubricator, if a lubricator is used.
 Check signal generators for possible deposits of dirt or swarf
The following maintenance work can be undertaken at greater time in-
tervals:
 Check the seals of the connectors for leaks
 Replace lines connected to moving parts
 Check the rod bearings in the cylinders for wear and replace if nec-
essary
 Clean or replace filter elements
 Check function of safety valves
 Check mountings
Chapter B-1
Fundamentals of pneumatics
1.1 Physical fundamentals
Air is an abundant gas mixture with the following composition:
 Nitrogen approx. 78 vol. %
 Oxygen approx. 21 vol. %
It also contains traces of carbon dioxide, argon, hydrogen, neon, helium,
krypton and xenon.
To assist in the understanding of the natural laws as well as the behav-
iour of air, the physical dimensions which are employed. The data is
taken from the "International System of Units", SI for short.
Basic units Quantity Symbol Units
Length L Meter (m)
Mass m Kilogram (kg)
Time t Second (s)
Temperature T Kelvin (K, 0 °C = 273.15 K)
Derived units Quantity Symbol Units
Force F Newton (N) = 1 kg • m/s2
Area A Square metre (m2)
Volume V Cubic metre (m3)
Flowrate qv (m3/s)
Pressure p Pascal (Pa)
1 Pa= 1 N/m2
1 bar = 105 Pa
Newtons Law: Force = mass • acceleration
F=m•a
where a is replaced by the acceleration due to gravity
g = 9.81 m/s2
Pressure: 1 Pascal is equal to the constant pressure on a surface
area of 1 m2 with the vertical force of 1 N (Newton).
The pressure prevailing directly on the earth's surface is known as at-
mospheric pressure (pamb). This pressure is also referred to as reference
pressure. The range above this pressure is known as excess pressure
range (pe > 0), the range below is referred to as vacuum range (pe < 0).
The atmospheric differential pressure pe is calculated according to the
pe = pabs – pamb
This is illustrated by the following diagram:
Atmospheric pressure does not have a constant value. It varies with the
geographical location and the weather.
The absolute pressure pabs is the value relative to pressure Zero - Vac-
uum. It is equal to the sum of the atmospheric pressure and the excess
pressure or vacuum. In practice, pressure gauges which only indicate
the excess pressure are generally used. The absolute pressure value
pabs is approximately 100 kPa (1 bar) higher.
Generally, in pneumatics all data concerning air quantity refers to the so-
called standard state. According to DIN 1343, the standard state is the
status of a solid, fluid or gaseous substance defined by standard tem-
perature and pressure.
 Standard temperature Tn = 273.15 K, tn = 0 °C
 Standard pressure pn = 101325 Pa = 1.01325 bar
1.2 Characteristics of air
A characteristic of air is its minimal cohesion, i.e. the forces between the
air molecules are to be disregarded for operating conditions usual in
pneumatics. In common with all gases, air has no particular shape. Its
shape changes with the slightest resistance, i.e. it assumes the shape of
its surroundings.
Boyle-Mariotte's Law
Boyle-Mariotte's Law Air can be compressed and it endeavours to expand. The applicable
relationship is given in Boyle-Mariottes Law. At constant temperature,
the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the abso-
lute pressure, i.e. the product of absolute pressure and volume is con-
stant for a given mass of gas.
p1 • V1 = p2 • V2 = p3 • V3 = Constant
The following example illustrates the above principles. Air at atmos- Example calculation
pheric pressure is compressed by an air compressor to 1/7th the vol-
ume. What is the gauge pressure of the air assuming a constant tem-
perature process ?
p1 • V1 = p2 • V2
p 2 = p1 • Note: V2 / V1 = 1/7
p1 = pamb = 100 kPa = 1 bar
p2 = 1 • 7 = 700 kPa = 7 bar absolute
Therefore: pe = pabs – pamb = (700 – 100) kPa = 600 kPa = 6 bar
A compressor that produces 600 kPa must have a compression ratio of
Air expands by 1/273 of its volume at constant pressure, a temperature Gay-Lussac law
of 273 K and a temperature rise of 1 K. According to the Gay-Lussac's
law, the volume of a given mass of gas is proportional to the absolute
temperature as long as the pressure does not change.
V1 T1
= V1 = Volume at T1, V2 = Volume at T2
= Constant
The volume change ∆V is:
T2 − T1
∆V = V2 − V1 = V1 •
The following applies for V2:
V2 = V1 + ∆V = V1 + (T2 − T1 )
The above equations only apply if the temperatures in K are used. In
order to be able to calculate in oC, the following formula is to be used:
V2 = V1 + (T2 − T1 )
273°C + T1
Example calculation 0.8 m3 air at temperature T1 = 293 K (20 oC) are heated to T2 = 344 K
(71 oC). How much does the air expand?
V2 = 0.8m 3 + (344K − 293K)
V2 = 0.8m 3 + 0.14m 3 = 0.94.m 3
The air has expanded by 0.14 m3 to 0.94 m3.
If the volume is kept constant during the temperature rise, this results in
the following formula for the pressure increase:
p 1 T1
General gas equation The general gas equation is a combination of all three:
p 1 • V1 p 2 • V2
= = Constant
In the case of a given mass of gas, the product of pressure and volume
divided by the absolute temperature is constant.
This general gas equation results in the previously mentioned laws, if
one of the three factors p, V or T is kept constant in each case.
 Pressure p constant ⇒ isobar changes
 Volume V constant ⇒ isochore changes
 Temperature T constant ⇒ isothermal changes
Air generation and distribution
2.1 Air preparation
For the continuing performance of control systems and working ele-
ments it is necessary to guarantee that the air supply is:
 at the required pressure,
 dry and
 clean
If these conditions are not fulfilled, then short to medium term degenera-
tion of the system will be accelerated. The effect is downtime on the ma-
chinery in addition to increased costs for repair or replacement of parts.
The generation of compressed air starts off with compression. The com-
pressed air flows through an entire series of components before reach-
ing the consuming device. The type of compressor and its location to a
lesser or greater degree affect the amount of dirt particles, oil and water
which enter into a pneumatic system. The equipment to be considered in
the generation and preparation of air include:
 Inlet filter
 Air compressor
 Air reservoir
 Air dryer
 Air filter with water separator
 Pressure regulator
 Air lubricator as required
 Drainage points
Poorly-prepared compressed air will inevitably lead to malfunctions and
may manifest itself in the system as follows:
 Rapid wear of seals and moving parts in the cylinders and valves
 Oiled-up valves
 Contaminated silencers
 Corrosion in pipes, valves, cylinders and other components
 Flushing out of lubrication of moving components
In the case of leakage, escaping compressed air may impair the materi-
als to be processed (e.g. food).
As a rule, pneumatic components are designed for a maximum operat- Pressure level
ing pressure of 800 to 1000 kPa (8-10 bar). Practical experience has
shown, however, that approximately 600 kPa (6 bar) should be used for
economic operation. Pressure losses of between 10 and 50 kPa (0.1
and 0.5 bar) must be expected due to the restrictions, bends, leaks and
pipe-runs, depending on the size of the piping system and the method of
layout. The compressor's system should provide at least 650 to 700 kPa
(6.5 to 7 bar) for a desired operating pressure level of 600 kPa (6 bar).
2.2 Air compressors
The selection from the various types of compressors available is de-
pendent upon quantity of air, pressure, quality and cleanliness and how
dry the air should be. There are varying levels of these criteria depend-
ing on the type of compressor.
Compressor types
A piston compresses the air drawn in via an inlet valve. The air is Reciprocating piston
passed on via an outlet valve. compressors
Reciprocating compressors are very common and provide a wide range
of pressures and delivery rates. For higher pressures multistage com-
pression is used with intercooling between each stage of compression.
The optimum range of pressures for reciprocating compressors are ap-
proximately:
up to 400 kPa (4 bar) Single stage
up to 1500 kPa (15 bar) Double stage
over 1500 kPa (> 15 bar) Treble or multi stage
Also, it is possible but not necessarily economic to operate in the follow-
ing ranges:
up to 1200 kPa (12 bar) Single stage
Diaphragm The diaphragm compressor belongs to the reciprocating piston com-
compressor pressor group. The compressor chamber is separated from the piston by
a diaphragm. The advantage of this is that no oil can enter into the air
flow from the compressor. The diaphragm compressor is therefore used
where oil is to be excluded from the air supply, for example in the food,
pharmaceutical and chemical industries.
Rotary piston The rotary group of compressors use rotating elements to compress and
compressor increase the pressure of the air. During the compression process, the
compression chamber is continually reduced.
Screw compressor Two screw-shaped shafts (rotors) turn in opposite directions. The mes-
hed profile of the two shafts causes the air to flow which is then com-
pressed.
Flow compressor These are particularly suitable for large delivery quantities. Flow com-
pressors are made in axial or radial form. The air is made to flow by
means of one or several turbine wheels. The kinetic energy is converted
into pressure energy. In the case of an axial compressor, the air is ac-
celerated in the axial direction of flow by means of blades.
In order to adapt the delivery quantity of the compressor to the fluctuat- Regulation
ing demand, it is necessary to regulate the compressor. The delivery
quantity is regulated between the adjustable limits for maximum and
minimum pressure. There are a number of different types of regulation:
 Idling regulation Relief regulation
Shut-off regulation
Claw regulation
 Part-load control Speed adjustment
Suction throttle control
 Intermittent control
In the case of relief regulation, the compressor operates against a pres- Idling regulation
sure-relief valve. When the set pressure is reached, the pressure-relief
valve opens and the air is exhausted to atmosphere. A non-return valve
prevents the emptying of the tank. This type of regulator is only used for
very small installations.
With shut-off regulation the suction side is shut off. The compressor
cannot take in air. This type of regulation is mainly used in the case of
rotary piston compressors.
With larger piston compressors, claw regulation is used. A claw holds
the suction valve open; the compressor cannot compress any air.
In the case of speed adjustment, the speed of the drive motor of the Part-load control
compressor is controlled dependent on the pressure reached.
With suction throttle control, control is effected by means of a restrictor
in the suction connection of the compressor.
With this type of control, the compressor assumes the operational condi- Intermittent control
tions 'full load' and 'normal'. The drive motor of the compressor is
switched off when pmax is reached, and switched on when pmin is
reached.
It is recommended that a duty cycle of approx. 75 % is achieved for a Duty cycle
compressor. To do so, it is necessary to determine the average and
maximum air requirement of a pneumatic system and to select the com-
pressor on the basis of this. If it is anticipated that the air requirement
will increase as a result of system expansions, then the compressor air
supply section should be designed larger, since subsequent expansion
is associated with high costs.
2.3 Reservoirs
A reservoir is configured downstream of a compressor to stabilise com-
pressed air. A reservoir compensates the pressure fluctuations when the
compressed air is taken from the system. If the pressure in the reservoir
drops below a certain value, the compressor will compensate until the
set higher value is reached again. This has the advantage that the com-
pressor does not need to operate continuously.
The large surface area of the reservoir cools the air. Thus, a portion of
the moisture in the air is separated directly from the reservoir as water,
which has to be regularly drained via a drain cock.
The size of a compressed air reservoir depends on the:
 Delivery volume of the compressor
 Air consumption for the applications
 Network size (any additional requirements)
 Type of compressor cycle regulation
 Permissible pressure drop in the supply network
Volume of reservoir
Diagram: Determining the
volume of a reservoit
Delivery volume qL = 20 m3/min Example
Switching cycles per hour z = 20 1/h
Differential pressure ∆p = 100 kPa (1 bar)
Result: Reservoir size VB = 15 m3 (refer to the chart)
2.4 Air dryers
Condensate (water) enters into the air network through the air intake of
the compressor. The accumulation of condensate depends largely on
the relative air humidity. The relative air humidity is dependent on the air
temperature and the weather situation.
The absolute humidity is the mass of water vapour, actually contained in
one m3 of air. The saturation quantity is the mass of water vapour, which
one m3 of air can absorb at the respective temperature.
The following formula applies if the relative air humidity is specified in
percent:
absolute humidity
Relative humidity = • 100%
saturation quantity
Since the saturation quantity is dependent on temperature, the relative
humidity changes with the temprature, even if the absolute humidity re-
mains constant. If the dew point is reached, the relative humidity in-
creases to 100%.
Dew point The dew point temperature is the temperature at which relative humidity
is 100%. The lower the dew point the more the water will condense and
reduce the amount entrapped in the air.
The service life of pneumatic systems is considerably reduced if exces-
sive moisture is carried through the air system to the components.
Therefore it is important to fit the necessary air drying equipment to re-
duce the moisture content to a level which suits the application and the
components used. There are three auxiliary methods of reducing the
moisture content in air:
 Low temperature drying
 Adsorption drying
 Absorption drying
Pressure dew point To be able to compare different types of drying systems, the operating
pressure of the system must be taken into account. The term 'pressure
dew point' is used in this context. The pressure dew point is the air tem-
perature reached during drying at operating pressure.
The pressure dew point of the dried air should be approx. 2 to 3 °C un-
der the coolest ambient temperature.
The additional cost of installing air drying equipment can be amortised
over a short period due to the reduction in maintenance costs, reduced
downtime and increased reliability of the system.
The most common type of dryer today is the refrigeration dryer. With Low temperature
refrigerated drying, the compressed air is passed through a heat- drying
exchanger system through which a refrigerant flows. The aim is to re-
duce the temperature of the air to a dew point which ensures that the
water in the air condenses and drops out in the quantity required.
The air entering into the refrigeration dryer is pre-cooled in a heat ex-
changer by the escaping cold air. It is then cooled in the cooling unit to
temperatures between + 2 and + 5 °C. The dried compressed air is fil-
tered. Before the compressed air is output into the network, the air is
heated to bring the air back to ambient conditions.
Using refrigeration methods, it is possible to achieve dew points of be-
tween + 2 and + 5 °C.
Low temperature drying
Adsorption dryers Adsorption: water is deposited on the surface of solids.
The drying agent is a granular material (gel) consisting almost entirely of
silicon dioxide.
Usually two tanks are used. When the gel in one tank is saturated, the
air flow is switched to the dry, second tank and the first tank is regener-
ated by hot-air drying.
The lowest equivalent dew points (down to – 90 °C) can be achieved by
means of adsorption drying.
Absorption: A solid or liquid substance bonds a gaseous substance. Absorption dryers
Absorption drying is a purely chemical process. Absorption drying is not
of major significance in present-day practice, since the operating costs
are too high and the efficiency too low for most applications.
Absorption dryers
Oil vapour and oil particles are also separated in the absorption dryer.
The moisture in the compressed air forms a compound with the drying
agent in the tank. This causes the drying agent to break down; it is then
discharged in the form of a fluid at the base of the tank.
The mixture must be regularly drained and the fluxing agent must be
regularly replaced.
The features of the absorption process are :
 Simple installation of the equipment
 Low mechanical wear because there are no moving parts in the
 No external energy requirements.
A dust filter must be provided downstream of the dryer to catch any en-
trained fluxing agent dust.
Pressure dew points below 0 °C can be reached.
Dew point chart
Suction capacity 1000 m3/h Example calculation
Absolute pressure 700 kPa (7 bar)
Compressed volume per hour 143 m3
Suction temperature 293 K (20 °C)
Temperature after compression 313 K (40 °C)
Quantity of water prior to compression:
The following water content is obtained at 293 K (20 °C):
100% = 17.3 g/m3
Therefore 50% = 8.65 g/m3
Results in 8.65 g/m3 • 1000 m3/h = 8650 g/h
Quantity of water after compression:
The following saturation quantity is obtained at 313 K (40 °C):
51.1 g/m3
Results in 51.1 g/m3 • 143 m3/h = 7307 g/h
The separated quantity of water downstream of the compressor is there-
fore:
8650 g/h - 7307 g/h = 1343 g/h.
2.5 Air distribution
In order to ensure reliable and trouble-free air distribution, a number of
points must be observed. This includes primarily the correct sizing of the
pipe system, but also the pipe material, flow resistances, pipe layout and
maintenance.
In the case of new installations, allowance should be made in all cases Sizing pipe systems
for extension of the compressed-air network. The main line size deter-
mined by current requirements should therefore be increased to include
an appropriate safety margin. Plugs and shut-off valves allow extension
to be carried out easily at a later time.
Losses occur in all pipes due to flow resistances. Flow resistances are
represented by restrictions, bends, branches and fittings. These losses
must be made up by the compressor. The pressure drop in the entire
network should be as small as possible.
To be able to calculate the pressure drop the total pipe length must be
known. For fittings, branches and bends, equivalent pipe lengths are
determined. The choice of the correct internal diameter is also depend-
ent on the operating pressure and delivery of the compressor. Selection
is best made with the aid of a nomograph.
Flow resistances Any influence or change of direction within the pipe system means inter-
ference with the air flow and thus an increase of the flow resistance. This
leads to a continuous pressure drop along the pipe system. Since
branches, bends, adapters and fittings are required in all compressed-air
networks, this pressure drop cannot be avoided but can be considerably
reduced by routing pipes favourably, choosing suitable materials and
assembling the fittings correctly.
Pipe material The choice of suitable pipe material is determined by the requirements
placed on a modern compressed-air network:
 Low pressure losses
 Freedom from leaks
 Resistant to corrosion
 Capability of system expansion.
In selecting a suitable pipe material, consideration must be given not
only to price per metre run but also to another major factor, the installa-
tion costs. These are lowest with plastics. Plastic pipes can be joined
100% airtight by means of adhesives or fittings and can easily be ex-
tended.
Copper, steel and iron pipes have a lower purchase price but must be
brazed, welded or joined by means of threaded connectors; if this work
is not carried out correctly, swarf, scale, welding particles or sealing ma-
terials may be introduced into the system. This may lead to major mal-
functions. For small and medium diameters, plastic pipes are superior to
other materials as regards price, assembly, maintenance and ease of
Pressure fluctuations in the network make it necessary to ensure that
the pipes are mounted securely in order to avoid leakages at screwed
and brazed connections.
Apart from correct sizing of the piping and the quality of the pipe mate- Piping layout
rial, correct pipe layout is the decisive factor in determining the economic
operation of the compressed-air system. Compressed air is fed into the
system at intervals by the compressor. It is often the case that consump-
tion at consuming devices rises for only a short time. This may lead to
unfavourable conditions in the compressed-air network. It is therefore
recommended that the compressed-air network should be produced in
the form of a ring main. A ring main ensures largely constant pressure
Ring circuit
For ease of maintenance, repair or extension of the network without in-
terfering with the overall air supply, it is advisable to sub-divide the net-
work into individual sections. Branches with T-pieces and manifolds with
plug-in couplings make this possible. It is advisable to fit the branch lines
with standard ball valves or shut off valves.
Interconnected network
Despite the best water separation in the pressure generating system,
pressure drops and external cooling may produce condensate in the
pipe system. In order to discharge this condensate, the pipes should be
inclined 1-2%; this can also be carried out in stages. The condensate
can then be discharged from the system via water separators at the low-
est point.
2.6 Service unit
The individual functions of compressed air preparation, i.e. filtering,
regulating and lubricating, can be fulfilled by individual components.
These functions have often been combined into one unit, i.e. the service
unit. Service units are connected upstream of all pneumatic systems.
Generally, the use of a lubricator is not necessary in advanced systems.
This is to be used for specific requirements only, primarily in the power
section of a system. Compressed air in a control section should not be
lubricated.
Condensed water, contamination and excess oil can lead to wear on the Compressed air filter
moving parts and seals of pneumatic components. These substances
can escape as a result of leakage. Without the use of filters, for exam-
ple, products to be processed in the food, pharmaceutical or chemical
industries could become contaminated and therefore rendered useless.
Compressed air filter
Filter bowl
The selection of the correct filter plays an important role in determining
the quality and performance of the working system which is to be sup-
plied with compressed air. One characteristic of compressed-air filters is
the pore size. The pore size of the filter element indicates the minimum
particle size which can be filtered out of the compressed air. The col-
lected condensate must be drained before the level exceeds the maxi-
mum condensate mark otherwise it will be re-introduced in the air
stream.
If a large amount of condensate accumulates, it is advisable to fit an
automatic drain in place of the manually operated drain cock. However,
in such cases, the cause of the accumulated condensate is to be estab-
lished. For example, an unsuitable pipe layout may be the cause of the
condensate accumulation.
The automatic drain uses a float to determine the level of condensate in
the bowl and when the limit is reached a control piston opens a valve
seat that ejects the condensate under air pressure via a drain line. If the
float reaches the minimum level of condensate, the seat valve is closed
and the process stopped. The filter bowl can also be emptied manually.
The compressed air passes through the filter from left to right and is fed
through a baffle plate in the filter bowl. The effect of the baffle plate is
that the air is caused to rotate, and the heavier dust particles and water
droplets are spun by centrifugal force against the inner wall of the filter
bowl. They then run down the wall of the housing and collect in the filter
bowl. The air which has been pre-cleaned in this way then passes
through the filter element, which filters out the smaller dirt particles. The
filter element in this case consists of a highly-porous sintered material.
The degree of separation depends on the pore size of the filter element
used. Inserts with different pore sizes are available. The usual pore
sizes are between 5 microns and 40 microns.
A further important characteristic of compressed-air filters is the degree
of separation, or efficiency, which indicates the percentage of particles
of a particular size which can be separated out. The efficiency is quoted
for a particle size, e.g. efficiency of 99.99% for 5 microns. With micro
filters, 99,999% of particles greater than 0.01 µm can be filtered.
The filtration action of a compressed-air filter is retained, even after long
service and with heavy contamination. However, under these conditions,
the pressure drop becomes disproportionately high and the filter be-
comes an energy-waster.
In order to recognise the correct time to change the filter element, a vis-
ual inspection or a measurement of the pressure difference across the
filter should be carried out.
Depending on the nature of the compressed air available, the air con- Maintenance
sumption of the components and the filter size, compressed-air filters
require a greater or lesser amount of maintenance work. Maintenance
work means the following :
 Replacing or cleaning the filter element
 Draining the condensate
When cleaning is required, the manufacturer's specifications must be
observed concerning the cleaning agents to be used.
The compressed air generated by the compressor will fluctuate. Compressed
Changes in the pressure level in the pipe system can adversely affect air regulators
the switching characteristics of valves, the running times of cylinders and
the timing characteristics of flow control and memory valves.
A constant pressure level is thus a prerequisite for the trouble-free op-
eration of a pneumatic control. In order to provide constant pressure
conditions, regulators are fitted in a central position in the compressed
air network to ensure that there is a constant supply pressure (secon-
dary pressure) irrespective of the pressure fluctuations in the main loop
(primary pressure). The pressure reducer or pressure regulator is fitted
downstream of the compressed air filter and has the task of keeping the
operating pressure constant, regardless of pressure fluctuations or air
consumption in the system. The air pressure should be matched to indi-
vidual requirements upstream of each plant section.
The system pressure which has proved in practice to be the best eco-
nomic and technical compromise between compressed-air generation
and the efficiency of the components is approximately:
 600 kPa (6 bar) in the power section and
 300 to 400 kPa (4 bar) in the control section.
A higher operating pressure would lead to inefficient energy utilisation
and increased wear, whereas a lower operating pressure would lead to
poor efficiency, particularly in the power section.
Pressure regulator:
Operational The input pressure (primary pressure) at the pressure regulator must
principle always be higher than the output pressure (secondary pressure). The
pressure is regulated by a diaphragm. The output pressure acts on one
side of the diaphragm and a spring acts on the other side. The spring
force can be adjusted by means of an adjusting screw.
When the output pressure increases for example during cylinder load
changes, the diaphragm moves against the spring force causing the
outlet cross-sectional area at the valve seat to be reduced or closed en-
tirely. The centrepiece of the diaphragm then opens and the compressed
air can flow to atmosphere through the vent holes in the housing.
When the output pressure decreases the spring force opens the valve.
Regulation of the preset output pressure is thus a continual opening and
closing of the valve seat caused by the flow of air. The operating pres-
sure is indicated on a gauge.
non-relieving
If no air is drawn off on the secondary side, the pressure rises and Operational
presses the diaphragm against the compression spring. The outlet principle
cross-sectional area at the vlave seat is reduced or closed and the flow
of air is reduced or cut off entirely. The compressed air can continue to
flow only when air is drawn off on the secondary side.
As a rule the compressed air which is generated should be dry, i.e. free Compressed
of oil. For some components lubricated air is damaging, for others, it is air lubricator
undesirable, but for power components it may in certain cases be nec-
essary. Lubrication of the compressed air should therefore always be
limited to the plant sections which require lubrication. For this purpose,
mist lubricators are fitted to feed the compressed air with specially se-
lected oils. Oils which are introduced into the air from the compressor
are not suitable for the lubrication of control system components.
As a general principle cylinders with heat-resistant seals must not be
supplied with lubricated compressed air, since the special grease which
forms the original lubrication would be washed out.
If systems, which have been operated with lubrication, are converted to
unlubricated compressed air, the original lubrication of the valves and
cylinders must be renewed, since these may have been flushed out in
some instances.
Lubricator Viaduct
Drip chamber
Duct Valve
Ball seat
Lubrication of the compressed air by means of mist lubricators may be
necessary in certain cases:
 Where extremely rapid oscillating motions are required
 With cylinders of large diameter, lubricators should where possible
be installed only directly upstream of the consuming cylinders
The following problems may occur as a result of excessive lubrication:
 Malfunction of components
 Increased environmental problems
 Seizing of components after prolonged downtime
The compressed air passing through the lubricator causes a pressure Operational principle
drop between the oil reservoir and the upper part of the lubricator. The
pressure difference is sufficient to force the oil upwards through a duct
where it then drips into a nozzle which can be seen through an inspec-
tion glass. Here the oil is atomised and taken up by the air stream to a
greater or lesser extent.
It is possible to check the oil dosage as follows: Checking the
oil dosage
A reference value for oil dosage is a quantity of 1 to 10 droplets per cu-
bic metre of compressed air. The correct metering can be checked as
follows: A piece of white cardboard should be held at a distance of ap-
proximately 10 cm from the exhaust port of the power valve of the cylin-
der which is furthest away from the lubricator. If the system is then al-
lowed to operate for some time, it should be possible to see only a pale
yellow colour on the cardboard. Dripping oil is a clear sign of over-
lubrication.
Up to a few years ago, the general view was that the oil discharged by Removing oil
the compressor could be used as a lubricant for the power components.
Now it has been recognised that this is not the case. As the level of heat
produced in the compressor is very high, the oil is carbonised and the oil
vapour exhausted. This leads to an abrasive action on cylinders and
valves, and service is considerably reduced.
A further problem is that oil is deposited on the inner walls of the pipes
and is eventually absorbed in an uncontrolled way into the air flow. This
fact alone makes controlled and effective distribution impossible. A pipe
which has become contaminated in this way can no longer be cleaned
without dismantling. A further disadvantage is gumming, which means
that after a system has been at a standstill for some time (after week-
ends and public holidays), lubricated components do not function cor-
rectly.
Lubrication of compressed air should be restricted solely to the system
components to be supplied. The best way of supplying oil is to install
lubricators directly upstream of the consuming devices. Components
with auto-lubrication should be selected for the control section of a
pneumatic system.
The basic rule should therefore be: Preparation of compressed air in oil-
free form.
The following points should be observed in everyday practice:
 As far as possible compressor oils should be prevented from enter-
ing the compressed-air network (oil separators should be fitted)
 For operation fit components which can also function with non-
lubricated compressed air
 Once a system has been operated and run-in with oil, the lubrication
must be continued since the original lubrication of the components
will have been flushed away by the oil.
Service unit The following should be observed with service units:
 The total air throughput in m3/h determines the size of the unit. If the
air throughput is too high, a large pressure drop occurs in the units.
The values specified by the manufacturer should be observed.
 The working pressure may not exceed the value stated on the ser-
vice unit. The ambient temperature should not exceed 50 °C (maxi-
mum values for plastic bowls).
Service unit:
Service unit: symbols
The following routine service measures are necessary on a regular ba- Maintenance of
sis. air service units
 Compressed air filter:
The condensate level has to be checked regularly, as the level indi-
cated in the sight glass must not be exceeded. If the level is ex-
ceeded, this can result in the accumulated condensate being drawn
into the air supply lines. The excess condensate can be drained us-
ing the drain cock on the sight glass. The filter cartridge must also be
checked for contamination and cleaned or replaced if necessary.
 Compressed air regulator:
This requires no servicing, provided it is preceded by a compressed
 Compressed air lubricator:
If fitted check the oil level in the sight glass and top up, if necessary,
to the level indicated. The plastic filter and lubricator bowl must not
be cleaned with trichloroethylene. Only mineral oils may be used for
the lubricator.
Actuators and output devices
An actuator is an output device for the conversion of supply energy into
useful work. The output signal is controlled by the control system, and
the actuator responds to the control signals via the control element.
Other types of output devices are used to indicate the status of the con-
trol system or actuators, e.g. a pneumatically actuated visual display.
The pneumatic actuator can be described under two groups, linear and
rotary :
 Linear motion
– Single-acting cylinders
– Double-acting cylinders
 Rotary motion
– Air motor
– Rotary cylinders
– Rotary actuator
3.1 Single-acting cylinders
With single-acting cylinders compressed air is applied on only one side
of the piston face. The other side is open to atmosphere. The cylinder
can produce work in only one direction. The return movement of the pis-
ton is effected by a built-in spring or by the application of an external
force. The spring force of the built-in spring is designed to return the
piston to its start position with a reasonably high speed under no load
Fig.3.1
For single-acting cylinders with built-in spring, the stroke is limited by the
natural length of the spring. Single-acting cylinders are therefore only
available in stroke lengths of up to approximately 80 mm.
The construction and simplicity of operation of the single-acting cylinder
makes it particularly suitable for compact, short stroke length cylinders
for the following types of applications:
 Transferring
 Branching
 Converging
 Allocating
 Ejecting
The single-acting cylinder has a single piston seal which is fitted on the Construction
air supply side. Sealing is by a flexible material that is embedded in a
metal or plastic piston (Perbunan). During motion, the sealing edges
slide over the cylinder bearing surface.
There are varying designs of single-acting cylinders including:
 Diaphragm cylinder
 Rolling diaphragm cylinder
With a diaphragm cylinder, a built-in diaphragm made of rubber, plastic
or metal performs the task of the piston. The piston rod is mounted cen-
trally on the diaphragm. There is no sliding seal, but merely friction as a
result of the tensile stress of the diaphragm. They are used in short
stroke applications, for clamping, embossing and lifting operations.
Diaphragm cylinder
3.2 Double-acting cylinders
Double-acting cylinder
The construction principle of a double-acting cylinder is similar to that of
the single-acting cylinder. However, there is no return spring, and the
two ports are used alternatively as supply and exhaust ports. The dou-
ble-acting cylinder has the advantage that the cylinder is able to carry
out work in both directions of motion. Thus, installation possibilities are
universal. The force transferred by the piston rod is somewhat greater
for the forward stroke than for the return stroke as the effective piston
surface is reduced on the piston rod side by the cross-sectional area of
the piston rod.
Design development Pneumatic cylinders have developed in the following directions:
 Contactless sensing requirements - hence the use of magnets on
pistons for reed switch operation
 Stopping heavy loads
 Rodless cylinders where space is limited
 Alternative manufacturing materials such as plastic
 Protective coatings against harsh environments, i.e. acid-resistant
 Increased load carrying capacity
 Robotic applications with special features such as non-rotating pis-
ton rods, hollow piston rods for vacuum suction cups
If large masses are moved by a cylinder, cushioning is used in the end Cylinder with end
positions to prevent sudden damaging impacts. Before reaching the end position cushioning
position, a cushioning piston interrupts the direct flow path of the air to
the outside. Instead a very small and often adjustable exhaust aperture
is open. For the last part of the stroke the cylinder speed is progressively
reduced. If the passage adjustment is too small, the cylinder may not
reach the end position due to the blockage of air.
Double-acting cylinder with
end position cushioning
With very large forces and high accelerations extra measures must be
taken such as external shock absorbers to assist the load deceleration.
To achieve correct deceleration:
 the regulating screw should first be screwed in fully and
 backed off in order to allow the adjustment to be increased slowly to
the optimum value.
Tandem The tandem cylinder incorporates the features of two double-acting cyl-
double-acting cylinder inders which have been joined to form a single unit. By this arrangement
and with the simultaneous loading of both pistons, the force on the pis-
ton rod is almost doubled. This design is suitable for such applications
where a large force is required but the cylinder diameter is restricted.
Cylinders with This cylinder has a piston rod on both sides, which is a through piston
through piston rod rod. The guide of the piston rod is better, as there are two bearing
points. The force is identical in both directions of movement.
The through piston rod can be hollow, in which case it can be used to
conduct various media, such as compressed air. A vacuum connection
is also possible.
Cylinders with
through piston rod
The multiposition cylinder consists of two or several double-acting cylin- Multiposition cylinders
ders, which are interconnected. The individual cylinders advance when
pressure is applied. In the case of two cylinders with different stroke
lengths, four positions are obtained.
Multiposition cylinders
The pressure forces of pneumatic cylinders are limited. One cylinder for Impact cylinders
high kinetic energy is the impact cylinder. The high kinetic energy is
achieved by means of increasing the piston speed. The piston speed of
the impact cylinder is between 7.5 m/s and 10 m/s. However, in the case
of large forming distances, the speed is rapidly reduced. The impact
cylinder is therefore not suitable for large forming distances.
Impact cylinders
Actuation of a valve causes pressure to build up in chamber A. If the
cylinder moves in direction Z, the full piston surface is exposed. The air
from chamber A is able to flow quickly via the large cross section C. The
piston is greatly accelerated.
Rotary cylinders With this design of double-acting cylinder, the piston rod has a gear-
tooth profile. The piston rod drives a gear wheel, and a rotary movement
results from a linear movement. The range of rotation varies from 45o,
90o, 180o, 270o to 360o. The torque is dependent on pressure, piston
surface and gear ratio; values of roughly up to 150 Nm are possible.
Rotary cylinders
With a rotary actuator, force is transmitted direct to the drive shaft via a Rotary actuator
vane. Angular displacement is infinitely adjustable from 0o to approx.
180o. Torque should not exceed 10 Nm.
Rotary actuator
Design features of pneumatic rotary actuators:
 Small and robust
 Available with contactless sensing
 Adjustable for angular displacement
 Easy to install
3.3 Rodless cylinders
Three different operational principles are used for the construction of
rodless cylinders:
 Band or cable cylinder
 Sealing band cylinder with slotted cylinder barrel
 Cylinder with magnetically coupled slide
Compared with conventional double-acting cylinders, rodless cylinders
are shorter in length. This eliminates the risk of a buckling piston rod and
movement can take place over the entire stroke length. The cylinder
design can be used for extremely large cylinder lengths of up to 10 m.
Devices, loads etc, can be attached directly to the mounting surface pro-
vided for this on a carriage or outer slide. The force is identical in both
directions of movement.
Band cylinder In the case of band cylinders, the piston force is transferred to a slide via
a circulating band. When leaving the piston chamber, the band passes
through a seal. In the cylinder caps, the band is reversed via guide roll-
ers. Wipers ensure that no contamination reaches the guide rollers via
Band cylinder
With this type, the cylinder barrel is provided with a slot across the entire Sealing band cylinder
length. The force is transmitted via a slide permanently connected to the
piston. The connection from piston to slide is directed outwards via the
slotted cylinder barrel. The slot is sealed by means of a sealing band,
which seals the inside of the slot. The sealing band is guided between
the piston seals and passed under the slide. A second cover strip covers
the slot from the outside in order to prevent the ingress of dirt.
Sealing band cylinder
Cylinder with This double-acting pneumatic linear actuator (rodless cylinder) consists
magnetic coupling of a cylindrical barrel, a piston and 2 slide. The piston in the cylinder is
freely movable according to pneumatic actuation, but there is no positive
external connection. The piston and the slide are fitted with a set of an-
nular permanent magnets. Thus, a magnetic coupling is produced be-
tween slide and piston. As soon as the piston is moved by compressed
air the slide moves synchronously with it. The cylinder barrel is hermeti-
cally sealed from the outer slide since there is no mechanical connec-
tion. There are no leakage losses.
Cylinder with
3.4 Cylinder construction
The cylinder consists of a cylinder barrel, bearing and end cap, piston
with seal (double-cup packing), piston rod, bearing bush, scraper ring,
connecting parts and seals.
Design of a pneumatic
cylinder with end position
The cylinder barrel (1) is usually made of seamless drawn steel tube. To
increase the life of the sealing components, the bearing surfaces of the
cylinder barrel are precision-machined. For special applications, the cyl-
inder barrel can be made of aluminium, brass or steel tube with hard-
chromed bearing surface. These special designs are used where opera-
tion is infrequent or where there are corrosive influences.
The end cap (2) and the bearing cap (3) are, for the most part, made of
cast material (aluminium or malleable cast iron). The two caps can be
fastened to the cylinder barrel by tie rods, threads or flanges.
The piston rod (4) is preferably made from heat-treated steel. A certain
percentage of chrome in the steel protects against rusting. Generally the
threads are rolled to reduce the danger of fracture.
A sealing ring (5) is fitted in the bearing cap to seal the piston rod. The
bearing bush (6) guides the piston rod and may be made of sintered
bronze or plastic-coated metal.
In front of this bearing bush is a scraper ring (7). It prevents dust and dirt
particles from entering the cylinder space. Bellows are therefore not
normally required.
The materials for the double-cup packing seals (8) are:
Perbunan for – 20 °C to + 80 °C
Viton for – 20 °C to + 150 °C
Teflon for – 80 °C to + 200 °C
0-rings (9) are normally used for static sealing.
The type of mounting is determined by the manner in which the cylinder Mounting
is to be fitted to a machine or fixture. The cylinder can be designed with
a permanent type of mounting if it does not have to be altered at any
time. Alternatively, the cylinder can utilise adjustable types of mounting
which can be altered at a later date by using suitable accessories on the
modular construction principle. This results in considerable simplification
in storage, especially where a large number of pneumatic cylinders are
used as only the basic cylinder and optional mounting parts need to be
stored.
for cylinders
The cylinder mounting and the piston rod coupling must be matched
carefully to the relevant application since cylinders must be loaded only
in the axial direction.
As soon as force is transmitted to a machine, stresses occur at the cyl-
inder. If shaft mismatching and misalignments are present, bearing
stresses at the cylinder barrel and piston rod can also be expected. The
consequences are :
 High edge pressures on the cylinder bearing bushes leading to in-
creased wear
 High edge pressures on the piston rod guide bearings
 Increased and uneven stresses on piston rod seals and piston seals.
 With large cylinder strokes, the buckling load of the piston rod should
be observed
3.5 Cylinder performance characteristics
Cylinder performance characteristics can be determined theoretically or
by the use of manufacturer's data. Both methods are acceptable, but in
general the manufacturer's data is more relevant to a particular design
and application.
Piston force The piston force exerted by the cylinder is dependent upon the air pres-
sure, the cylinder diameter and the frictional resistance of the sealing
components. The theoretical piston force is calculated by the formula:
Fth = A•p
Fth = Theoretical piston Force (N)
A = Useful piston Area (m2)
p = Operating Pressure (Pa)
In practice, the effective piston force is significant. When calculating this,
frictional resistance should be taken into consideration. Under normal
operating conditions (pressure range of 400 to 800 kPa / 4 to 8 bar) fric-
tional force of approx. 10% of the theoretical piston force can be as-
sumed.
Feff = (A • p) - (FR + FF)
Forward stroke Feff = (A • p) - FR
Return stroke Feff = (A' • p) - FR
Feff = effective piston force (N)
A = useful piston surface (m2)
D2 •π
= ( )
A' = useful annular surface (m2)
= (D 2 − d 2 )
p = Working pressure (Pa)
FR = Frictional force (approx. 10 % of Fth) (N)
FF = Return spring force (N)
D = Cylinder diameter (m)
d = Piston rod diameter (m).
Pressure vs. force
Stroke length The stroke lengths of pneumatic cylinders should not be greater than
2 m and for rodless cylinders 10 m.
With excessive stroke lengths the mechanical stress on the piston rod
and on the guide bearings would be too great. To avoid the danger of
buckling, the buckling diagram should be observed with large stroke
lengths.
Buckling diagram
The piston speed of pneumatic cylinders is dependent on the load, the Piston speed
prevailing air pressure, the length of pipe, the cross-sectional area of the
line between the control element and the working element and also the
flow rate through the control element. In addition, the speed is influenced
by the end position cushioning.
The average piston speed of standard cylinders is about 0.1-1.5 m/sec.
With special cylinders (impact cylinders), speeds of up to 10 m/sec are
attained. The piston speed can be regulated by one way flow control
valves and speed increased by the use of quick exhaust valves.
Average piston speed
Air consumption For the preparation of the air, and to obtain facts concerning power
costs, it is important to know the air consumption of the system. The air
consumption is specified in litres of air drawn in per minute. For a par-
ticular operating pressure, piston diameter, stroke and stroke number,
the air consumption is calculated by:
Air consumption =
Compression ratio • Piston surface • Stroke • Stroke number per minute
101.3 + Operating pressure (in kPa)
Compression ratio =
Air consumption chart
The formulae for the calculation of air consumption in accordance with
the air consumption diagram are as follows:
for single-acting cylinders
qB = s • n • qH
for double-acting cylinders
qB = 2 • s • n • qH
qB = Air consumption (l/min)
s = Stroke (cm)
n = Number of strokes per minute (1/min)
qH = Air consumption per cm of stroke (l/cm)
With these formulae, the varying air consumption of double-acting cylin-
ders during forward and return stroke are not taken into consideration.
This can be disregarded due to the different tolerances in lines and
The overall air consumption of a cylinder also includes the filling of dead
zones. The air consumption required to fill dead zones can be up to 20%
of the air consumption. Dead zones of a cylinder are compressed air
supply lines in the cylinder itself and not zones in the end positions of
the piston which are effective for the stroke.
Piston Cover side Base side Piston Cover side Base side Dead zones of cylinders
diameter in cm in cm diameter in cm in cm (1000 cm³ = 1l)
in mm in mm
12 1 0.5 70 27 31
16 1 1.2 100 80 88
25 5 6 140 128 150
50 16 19 250 2005 2337
3.6 Motors
Devices which transform pneumatic energy into mechanical rotary
movement with the possibility of continuous motion are known as pneu-
matic motors. The pneumatic motor with unlimited angle of rotation has
become one of the most widely used working elements operating on
compressed air. Pneumatic motors are categorised according to design:
 Piston motors
 Sliding-vane motors
 Gear motors
 Turbines (high flow)
Air motor
Piston motors This type of design is further subdivided into radial and axial piston mo-
tors. The crank shaft of the motor is driven by the compressed air via
reciprocating pistons and connecting rods. To ensure smooth running
several pistons are required. The power of the motor depends on input
pressure, number of pistons, piston area, stroke and piston speed.
The working principle of the axial piston motor is similar to that of the
radial piston motor. The force from 5 axially arranged cylinders is con-
verted into a rotary motion via a swash plate. Compressed air is applied
to two pistons simultaneously, the balanced torque providing smooth
running of the motor.
These pneumatic motors are available in clockwise or anti-clockwise
rotation. The maximum speed is around 5000 rpm, the power range at
normal pressure being 1.5 - 19 kW (2 - 25 hp).
Because of their simple construction and the low weight, sliding vane Sliding vane motors
motors are used for hand tools.
An eccentric rotor is contained in bearings in a cylindrical chamber. Slots
are arranged in the rotor. The vanes are guided in the slots of the rotor
and forced outwards against the inner wall of the cylinder by centrifugal
force. With other designs, the vanes are moved via springs. This en-
sures that the individual chambers are sealed. The rotor speed is be-
tween 3000 and 8500 rpm. Here too, clockwise or anti-clockwise units
are available. Power range 0.1 - 17 kW (0.14 - 24 hp).
In this design, torque is generated by the pressure of the air against the Gear motors
teeth profiles of two meshed gear wheels. One of the gear wheels is
secured to the motor shaft. Gear motors are produced with spur or heli-
cal gearing. These gear motors are used in applications with a very high
power rating ( up to 44 kW/60 hp). The direction of rotation is also re-
versible for these motors.
Turbine motors can be used only where a low power is required. The Turbines
speed range is very high. For example, the Dentists' air drill operates at (flow motors)
500,000 rpm. The working principle is the reverse of the flow compres-
sor.
Characteristics of pneumatic motors are:
 Smooth regulation of speed and torque
 Small size (weight)
 Overload safe
 Insensitive to dust, water, heat, cold
 Explosion proof
 Large speed selection
 Maintenance minimal
 Direction of rotation easily reversed
3.7 Indicators
Optical indicators visually represent the operating status of the pneu-
matic system and serve as diagnostic aids.
Some of the visual devices are:
 Counters, for displaying counting cycles
 Pressure gauges, to indicate air pressure values
 Timers, with visual indication of time delay
 Optical indicators
Optical indicators With the optical indicators the colour codes represent certain functions in
the cycle. The visual indicators are mounted on the control panel to indi-
cate status of control functions and the sequential steps currently active.
The colours for visual indicators in accordance with VDE 0113 are:
T 3.2 Colour Meaning Notes
Red Immediate danger, alarm Machine status or situations requiring
immediate intervention.
Yellow Caution Change or imminent change of condi-
Green Start, on Normal operation, safe situation, free
Blue Special information Special meaning which cannot be made
clear by red, yellow or green.
White or Clear General information Without special meaning. Can also be
used in cases where there is doubt as
to the suitability of the three colours red,
yellow or green.
4.1 Configuration and construction
Directional control valves are devices which influence the path taken by
an air stream. Normally this involves one or all of the following: opening
the passage of air and directing it to particular air lines, cancelling air
signals as required by blocking their passage and/or relieving the air to
atmosphere via an exhaust port. The directional control valve is charac-
terised by its number of controlled connections or ways, the number of
switching positions and the method of actuation. However, these sym-
bols do not provide any information about the constructional design, but
merely indicate the function of the valve.
The normal position on valves with existing reset, e.g. spring, refers to
the switching position assumed by the moving parts of the valve, if the
valve is not connected.
The initial position is the switching position assumed by the moving
parts of a valve after the valve has been installed in a system and the
system pressure has been switched on and possibly also the electrical
voltage, and with which the designated switching program starts.
The constructional principle of a directional control valve is an important
factor as far as the service life, switching time, type of actuation, connec-
tion methods and size are concerned.
Designs are categorised as follows:
 Poppet valves:
– Ball seat valve
– Disc seat valve
 Slide valves :
– Longitudinal slide valve (spool valve)
– Longitudinal flat slide valve
– Plate slide valve
Poppet valves With poppet valves the connections are opened and closed by means of
balls, discs, plates or cones. The valve seats are usually sealed simply
using flexible seals. Seat valves have few parts which are subject to
wear and hence they have a long service life. They are insensitive to dirt
and are robust. The actuating force, however, is relatively high as it is
necessary to overcome the force of the built-in reset spring and the air
pressure.
Slide valves In slide valves, the individual connections are linked together or closed
by means of spools, flat slide or plate slide valves.
4.2 2/2-way valve
The 2/2-way valve has two ports and two positions (open, closed). It is
rarely used except as an on-off valve, since its only function is to enable
signal flow through and cannot release the air to atmosphere once in the
closed position in contrast to the 3/2-way vlave. The 2/2-way valve is
normally of the ball seat construction.
This valve can be operated either manually, mechanically or pneumati-
cally.
The 3/2-way valve is a signal generating valve, with the characteristic
that a signal on the output side of the valve can be generated and also
cancelled. The 3/2-way valve has three ports and two positions. The
addition of the exhaust port 3 enables the signal generated via the pas-
sage through the 3/2-way valve to be cancelled. The valve connects the
output signal 2 to exhaust 3 and thus to atmosphere in the initial posi-
tion. A spring forces a ball against the valve seat preventing the com-
pressed air from flowing from the air connection 1 to the working line 2.
3/2-way valve,
normally closed,
Actuation of the valve plunger causes the ball to be forced away from
the seat. In doing this, the opposing force of the reset spring and that
generated from the compressed air must be overcome.
In the actuated state, connection 1 and 2 are connected and the valve is
switched to flow. The vlav is actuated either manually or mechanically.
The actuation force required is dependent on the supply pressure, spring
force and the friction in the valve. The actuation force limits the feasible
size of the valve. The construction of the ball seat valve is very simple
and compact.
controlling a single-
acting cylinder
In this circuit the 3/2-way valve 1S controls a single-acting cylinder 1A.
The push button activated valve is at rest with the 1 port blocked and the
cylinder exhausted to atmosphere via 2 to 3. The operation of the push
button diverts the 1 supply to the 2 port and the cylinder extends against
spring force. When the push button is released, the valve returns by
spring, and the cylinder is returned to its initial position by the cylinder
return spring.
3/2-way valve:
disc seat normally closed,
unactuated
The valve shown here is constructed on the disc seat principle. The
sealing is simple but effective. The response time is short and a small
movement results in a large cross-sectional area being available for air
flow. Like the ball seat valves, they are insensitive to dirt and thus have
a long service life. The 3/2-way valves are used for controls employing
single-acting cylinders or for generating signals supplied to control ele-
ments.
A 3/2-way valve in which the normal position is open to flow from 1 to 2,
is referred to as a normally open valve. Initially the 1 port is connected to
the 2 port through the stem of the valve and the valve disc seat is closed
at the 3 port. When the plunger is operated, the 1 air is initially blocked
by the stem seat and then the disc is pushed off its seat to exhaust the
output air to atmosphere via the passage 2 to 3. When the plunger is
released, the piston with the two sealing seats is returned to the initial
position by the return spring. Once again the 3 port is blocked and air is
supplied from 1 to 2.
The valves can be actuated manually, mechanically, electrically or
pneumatically. Different actuation methods can be applied to suit the
disc seat normally open,
In this circuit diagram, pressure is applied to the single-acting cylinder
via the 3/2-way valve in normally open position 1V. The cylinder piston
has advanced into the initial position. If the valve is actuated, the air
supply from 1 to 2 is shut off. The piston chamber is exhausted via port 2
to 3, and the piston rod retracts due to the force of the return spring.
3/2-way hand The construction of the valve is simple. Actuation is effected by displac-
slide valve ing the grip sleeve lengthwise. This valve is used as a shut-off valve,
primarily for the pressurising and exhausting of control systems or sys-
tem components.
3/2-way hand
slide valve
The pneumatically actuated 3/2-way valve is operated by an air signal at Pneumatically
12. The circuit diagram shown illustrates a pneumatically actuated valve actuated:
with spring return in normally closed position. 3/2-way valve
3/2-way valve single pilot,
normally closed, with spring
return, unactuated
Air applied at the 12 port moves the valve plunger against the reset
spring. The connections 1 and 2 are connected. Upon release of the
signal at port 12, the pilot spool is returned to the initial position by the
return spring. The disc closes the connection between 1 and 2. The ex-
cess air in the working line 2 is exhausted through 3. The single pilot
3/2-way valve with return spring can be configured as normally closed or
as normally open.
return, actuated
The pneumatically actuated valve can be used as a control element,
when used in an indirect control. The signal for extension of the cylinder
1A is initiated indirectly by a push button 3/2-way valve 1S which sup-
plies the control signal to the control element 1V.
For the normally open position, ports 1 and 3 only need to be inversely
connected to the normally closed position. The head of the valve with
port 12 can be rotated 180°. The designation of the pilot port then is 10.
3/2-way valve, single pilot,
normally open, unactuated
If a normally open valve is used at the position of valve 1V, then the cyl-
inder is initially extended and upon operation of the push button of valve
1S, the cylinder retracts.
acting cylinder, indirect
Servo controlled: 3/2- Piloted valves require only minimal actuating forces. A small hole con-
way roller lever valve nects the pressure connection 1 and the pilot valve. If the roller lever is
operated, the pilot valve opens. Compressed air flows to the diaphragm
and actuates the main valve disc. The first effect is the closing of the
path 2 to 3 followed by the second disc seat opening the airway from 1
to 2.
The return position is effected by means of releasing the roller lever,
thereby closing the pilot valve. The valve is exhausted via the hollow
stem. The pilot piston of the main valve is returned to its initial position
via the reset spring.
Pilot valve:
left unactuated,
right actuated
This type of valve can be used as either a normally closed valve or nor-
mally open valve by changing ports 1 and 3 and by rotating the head
180°.
3/2-way roller lever
valve, internal pilot, normally
Roller lever valve The roller lever valve with idle return only switches if the movement of
with idle return the trip cam on the roller lever is in a certain direction. The valve is used
as a limit switch for the position sensing of the extended and retracted
piston rod. Care should be taken to ensure that the valve is fitted in the
correct direction of movement.
Likewise, this type of valve can be used either in the normally open or
normally closed position. In the case of the normally open position, only
ports 1 and 3 need to be inversely connected to the nomally closed posi-
tion. The head of the valve with roller lever actuator can be repositioned
by 180o.
Roller lever valve
with idle return
The 4/2-way valve has four ports and two positions.
disc seat, unactuated
A disc-seat 4/2-way valve is similar in construction to the combination of
two 3/2-way valves, one valve normally closed and the other normally
disc seat, actuated
Actuation of the valve: When the two plungers are actuated simultane-
ously, 1 to 2 and 4 to 3 are closed by the first movement. By pressing
the valve plungers further against the discs, opposing the reset spring
force, the passages between 1 to 4 and from 2 to 3 are opened.
The valve has a non-overlapping exhaust connection and is returned to
its start position by the spring. The valves are used for controls employ-
ing double-acting cylinders.
There are other actuating methods and types of construction available
for the 4/2-way valve including push button, single air pilot, double air
pilot, roller lever actuated, spool and sliding plate. In the main, the 4/2-
way valve is utilised in similar roles as the 5/2-way valve.
controlling a double-
acting cylinder, direct
The longitudinal flat slide valve has a control piston for the reversal of
the valve. However, the lines are interconnected or separated from one
another by means of an additional flat slide.
4/2-way double pilot valve,
longitudinal flat slide
The valve is reversed by means of direct pneumatic actuation. When the
compressed air is removed from the control port, the control piston re-
mains in the respective position until it receives a signal from the oppo-
site control port.
The 4/3-way valve has four ports and three positions. An example of the
4/3 way valve is the plate slide valve with hand or foot actuation. By turn-
ing two discs, channels are connected with one another.
4/3-way plate slide valve,
mid-position closed
In this circuit diagram the lines of the 4/3-way valve are closed in the
middle position. This enables the piston rod of a cylinder to be stopped
in any position over its stroke range, although intermediate positions of
the piston rod cannot be located with accuracy. Owing to the compressi-
bility of air, another position will be assumed if the load on the piston rod
The 5/2-way valve has five ports and two positions. The 5/2-way valve is
used primarily as a control element for the control of cylinders.
An example of the 5/2-way valve, the longitudinal slide valve, uses a
pilot spool as a control component. This connects or separates the cor-
responding lines by means of longitudinal movements. The required
actuating force is lower because there are no opposing forces due to
compressed air or spring.
All forms of actuation can be used with longitudinal slide valves, i.e.
manual, mechanical, electrical or pneumatic. These types of actuation
can also be used for resetting the valve to its starting position.
longitudinal slide principle
The actuation travel is considerably larger than with seat valves. Sealing
presents a problem in this type of slide valve. The type of fit known in
hydraulics as metal to metal, requires the spool to fit precisely in the
bore of the housing.
In pneumatic valves, the gap between spool and housing bore should
not exceed 0.002 - 0.004 mm, as otherwise the leakage losses will be
too great. To save these expensive fitting costs, the spool is often sealed
with 0-rings or double-cup packings or the bore of the housing is sealed
with 0-rings. To avoid damaging the seals, the connecting ports can be
distributed around the circumference of the spool housing.
In general the 4/2-way valve is replaced by the 5/2-way valve. The 5/2-
way valve has advantages in passage construction and allows the ex-
haust of both extension and retraction air for cylinders to be separately
controlled. The 5/2-way valve circuit carries out the same primary control
functions as the 4/2-way valve circuit.
Another method of sealing is to use a suspended disc seat with relatively
small switching movement. The disc seat seal connects the 1 port to
either the 2 port or the 4 port. The secondary seals on the spool pistons
close whichever exhaust port is not required. The valve in the diagram
below has a manual override button at each end to manually operate the
valve spool.
suspended disc seat,
flow from 1 to 2
The 5/2-way double pilot valve has the characteristic of memory control.
The valve is reversed from port 14 or 12 by means of reciprocal pneu-
matic signals. This new position is memorised until another unique sig-
nal occurs.
The 5/3-way valve has five working ports and three switching positions.
With these valves, double-acting cylinders can be stopped within the
stroke range. This means a cylinder piston under pressure in mid-
position is briefly clamped in the normally closed position and in the
normally open position, the piston can be moved unpressurised. If no
signals are applied at either of the two control ports, the valve remains
spring-centred in mid position.
4.8 Flow values of valves
Pressure loss and air flow rate are important functions for the user. The
selection of a valve is dependent on
 Volume and speed of cylinder
 Required switching frequency
 Permissible pressure drop
Pneumatic valves are designated with their nominal flow rate. Various
factors need to be taken into account to calculate flow values. The fac-
tors are:
p1 Pressure at the valve input side (kPa or bar)
p2 Pressure at the valve output side (kPa or bar)
∆p Differential pressure (p1 – p2) (kPa or bar)
T1 Temperature (K)
qn Nominal flow rate (l/min)
During the measurement, air is to flow through the valve in one direction.
The input pressure and output pressure are measured and the air flow is
measured by means of a flow meter.
Data regarding the nominal flow values can be found in the manufac-
turer's catalogue.
4.9 Reliable operation of valves
Mounting of roller lever valves:
The reliability of a control sequence is heavily dependent upon the cor-
rect fitting of the limit valves. For all designs of limit valves the mounting
must allow simple adjustment or readjustment of the limit valve position
in order to achieve precise co-ordination of the cylinder motions within a
control sequence.
Fitting of valves:
Apart from a careful selection of valves, correct fitting is a further pre-
requisite for reliable switching characteristics, trouble-free operation and
easy access for repair and maintenance work. This applies both to
valves in the power section and valves in the control section.
Maintenance and repairs are facilitated by:
 Numbering of components
 Incorporation of visual displays
 Comprehensive documentation
Manually-actuated valves for signal input are generally fitted on a control
panel or control desk. It is therefore practical and convenient to use
valves with actuators that can be fitted onto the basic valve. Various
actuators are available for a wide variety of input functions.
Valves in the form of control elements control the sequence of pneu-
matic power components. They need to be constructed in such a way as
to trigger as fast a reaction of the actuators as possible. The power valve
should therefore be positioned as closely as possible to the actuator in
order to keep line lengths, and thus switching times, as short as possi-
ble. Ideally, the power valve should be fitted directly to the drive. An ad-
ditional advantage of this is that connectors, tubing and assembly time
can be saved.
Non-return, flow and pressure valves,
valve combinations
5.1 Non-return valves
Non-return valves are devices which preferentially stop the flow in one
direction and permit flow in the opposite direction. The pressure on the
downstream side acts against the restrictive component, thereby assist-
ing the sealing effect of the valve.
Check valves Check valves can stop the flow completely in one direction. In the oppo-
site direction the flow is free with a minimal pressure drop due to the
resistance of the valve. Blocking of the one direction can be effected by
cones, balls, plates or diaphragms.
Junction elements Elements fitted at a three way junction which have non-return character-
istics and direct the movement of signal air. The two valves here referred
to as junction elements have logic characteristics which determine the
passage of two input signals. The dual pressure valve requires two sig-
nals (AND function) to produce an output and the shuttle valve requires
at least one signal input (OR function) to produce an output. These are
processing elements whereby two signals are processed internally and
the resulting signal is output at port 2.
The dual pressure valve has two inlets 1 and 1(3) and one outlet A. Dual pressure valve:
Compressed air flows through the valve only if signals are applied to logic AND function
both inlets. One input signal at 1 or 1(3) blocks the flow due to the differ-
ential forces at the piston slide. If signals are applied to both 1 and 1(3),
the signal which is last applied passes to the outlet. If the input signals
are of different pressures, the larger of the two pressures closes the
valve and the smaller air pressure is transferred to the outlet 2. The dual
pressure valve is used mainly for interlocking controls, safety controls,
check functions and logic AND operations.
Dual pressure valve:
logic AND function
dual pressure valve
The dual pressure valve circuit is equivalent to the two input signalling
devices in series, i.e. one after the other (3/2-way valve, normally closed
position). The signal output is passed all the way through only if both
signal elements are operated.
series AND function
A disadvantage of the switching variant is that in practice this often leads
to extremely long lines between the valves. Moreover, the signal from
valve 1S2 cannot be used in another logic, since the valve 1S2 is only
pressurised if valve 1S1 is actuated.
This non-return element has two inlets 1 and 1(3) and one outlet 2. If Shuttle valve:
compressed air is applied to the first inlet 1, the valve seat seals the op- logic OR function
posing inlet 1(3), the air flows from 1 to 2. Inlet 1 is closed, if air passes
from 1(3) to 2. A signal is generated at the outlet. When the air flow is
reversed, i.e. a cylinder or valve is exhausted, the seat remains in its
previously assumed position because of the pressure conditions.
This valve is also called an OR element. If a cylinder or control valve is
to be actuated from two or more positions, one or more shuttle valves
should be used.
Shuttle valve:
logic OR function
In the example shown, a cylinder is to be advanced using two hand op-
erated valves, which can be fitted at different distances from the cylin-
der. Without the use of the shuttle valve, the compressed air would
mainly flow via port 3 of the valve 1S2, if the valve 1S1 is actuated.
Controlling a cylinder with
two input elements
Shuttle valves can be linked to create additional logic OR conditions e.g.
as shown below: if any of three push buttons are operated, the cylinder
is to extend.
three input elements
Quick-exhaust valves are used to increase the piston speed of cylinders. Quick exhaust valve
This enables lengthy return times to be avoided, particularly with single-
acting cylinders. The principle of operation is to allow the cylinder to re-
tract at its near maximum speed by reducing the resistance to flow of the
exhausting air during motion of the cylinder. To reduce resistance, the
air is expelled to atmosphere close to the cylinder via a large orifice
opening. The valve has a closable supply connection 1, a closable ex-
haust 3 and an outlet 2.
Quick exhaust valve:
If pressure is applied at port 1, then the sealing disc covers the exhaust
3, whereby the compressed air passes from 1 to 2. If pressure is no
longer applied at 1, then the air from 2, moves the sealing disc against
port 1 and closes this, whereby the exhaust air immediately vents to
atmosphere. There is no need for the air to pass through a long and
possibly restricted path to the directional control valve via the connecting
lines. It is advantageous to mount the quick-exhaust valve directly on the
cylinder or as near to it as possible.
exhaust from 2 to 3
Fig 5.10
Shut-off valves are non-adjustable valves, which release or shut off flow Shut-off valves
in both directions. Typical examples are the stop cock and ball cock.
5.2 Flow control valves
Flow control valves influence the volumetric flow of the compressed air
in both directions. The throttle valve is a flow control valve.
Throttle valves are normally adjustable and the setting can be locked in Throttle valve,
position. Throttle valves are used for speed control of cylinders. Care bi-directional
must be taken that the throttle valve does not close fully, cutting off air
from the system.
Characteristics of flow control valves according to construction principle:
 Throttle valve:
In the throttle valve, the length of the throttling section is greater than
its diameter.
 Diaphragm valve:
In the diaphragm valve, the length of the throttling section is less
than its diameter.
One-way flow In the case of the one-way flow control valve, the air flow is throttled in
control valve one direction only. A check valve blocks the flow of air in the bypass leg
and the air can flow only through the regulated cross-section. In the op-
posite direction, the air can flow freely through the opened check valve.
These valves are used for speed regulation of actuators and if possible,
should be mounted directly on the cylinder.
One-way flow
Fundamentally, there are two types of throttling circuits for double-acting
 Supply air throttling
 Exhaust air throttling
For supply air throttling, one-way flow control valves are installed so that Supply air throttling
the air entering the cylinder is throttled. The exhaust air can escape
freely through the check valve of the throttle valve on the outlet side of
the cylinder. The slightest fluctuations in the load on the piston rod, such
as occur for example when passing a limit switch, lead to very large ir-
regularities in the feed speed.
A load in the direction of movement of the cylinder accelerates the cylin-
der beyond the set value. Therefore supply air throttling can be used for
single-acting and small volume cylinders.
Supply air throttling
Exhaust air throttling With exhaust air throttling, the supply air flows freely to the cylinder and
the exhaust air is throttled. In this case, the piston is loaded between two
cushions of air. The first cushion effect is the supply pressure to the cyl-
inder and the second cushion is the exhausting air being restricted at the
one-way flow control valve orifice. Arranging throttle relief valves in this
way contributes substantially to the improvement of feed behaviour. Ex-
haust air throttling should be used for double-acting cylinders. In the
case of miniature cylinders, supply and exhaust air flow control is to be
selected because of the reduced air quantity.
Exhaust air throttling
With mechanically adjustable one-way flow control valves, the speed of Mechanically
the cylinder can be changed during the stroke. The basic speed can be adjustable one-way
set via an adjusting screw. By means of an irregular shaped follower, flow control valve
which actuates the roller lever of the mechanically adjustable one-way
flow control valve, the throttle cross section is correspondingly changed.
Mechanically
adjustable one-way
flow control valve
5.3 Pressure valves
Pressure control valves are elements which predominantly influence the
pressure or are controlled by the magnitude of the pressure. They are
divided into the three groups:
 Pressure regulating valve
 Pressure limiting valve
 Pressure sequence valve
Pressure regulating The pressure regulating valve is dealt with under the section B 2.6 "Ser-
valve vice unit". The role of this unit is to maintain constant pressure even with
fluctuating supply. The input pressure must be greater than the required
output pressure.
Pressure limiting valve The pressure limiting valves are used mainly as safety valves (pressure
relief valves). They prevent the maximum permissible pressure in a sys-
tem from being exceeded. If the maximum pressure has been reached
at the valve inlet, the valve outlet is opened and the excess air pressure
exhausts to atmosphere. The valve remains open until it is closed by the
built-in spring after reaching the preset system pressure.
The principle on which this valve acts is the same as for the pressure Pressure sequence
limiting valve. If the pressure exceeds that set on the spring, the valve valve
opens.
The flow from 1 to 2 is closed. Outlet 2 is opened only if a preset pres-
sure has built up in pilot line 12. A pilot spool opens the passage 1 to 2.
Pressure sequence valves are installed in pneumatic controls where a
specific pressure is required for a switching operation (pressure-
dependent controls).
5.4 Combinational valves
Components of different control groups can be combined into the body
of one unit with the features, characteristics and construction of a com-
bination of valves. These are referred to as combinational valves and
their symbols represent the various components that make up the com-
bined unit. The following units can be defined as combinational valves:
 Time delay valves: for the delay of signals
 Air control blocks: for the execution of individual and oscillating
movements using double-acting cylinders
 5/4-way valve: for the stopping of double-acting cylinders in any
 Air operated 8-way valve: for the control of feed units
 Pulse generator: for the execution of rapid cylinder movements
 Vacuum generator with ejector: for pick and place applications
 Stepper modules: for sequential control tasks
 Command memory modules: for startup with signal input conditions
The time delay valve is a combined 3/2-way valve, one way flow control Time delay valve
valve and air reservoir. The 3/2-way valve can be a valve with normal
position open or closed. The delay time is generally 0-30 seconds for
both types of valves.
Time delay valve:
By using additional reservoirs, the time can be extended. An accurate
switch-over time is assured, if the air is clean and the pressure relatively
constant.
Operational principle The following operational principle applies for a time delay valve with a
3/2-way valve in normally closed position: The compressed air is sup-
plied to the valve at connection 1. The control air flows into the valve at
12 through a one-way flow control valve and depending on the setting of
the throttling screw, a greater or lesser amount of air flows per unit of
time into the air reservoir. When the necessary control pressure has built
up in the air reservoir, the pilot spool of the 3/2-way valve is moved
downwards. This blocks the passage from 2 to 3. The valve disc is lifted
from its seat and thus air can flow from 1 to 2. The time required for
pressure to build up in the air reservoir is equal to the control time delay
of the valve.
If the time delay valve is to switch to its initial position, the pilot line 12
must be exhausted. The air flows from the air reservoir to atmosphere
through the bypass of the one-way flow control valve and then to the
exhaust line. The valve spring returns the pilot spool and the valve disc
seat to their initial positions. Working line 2 exhausts to 3 and 1 is
blocked.
The normally open time delay valve includes a 3/2-way valve which is
open. Initially the output 2 is active. When the valve is switched by 10
the output 2 is exhausted to 3 and 1 is closed. The result is that the out-
put signal is turned off after a set time delay.
The time delay corresponds to the pressure build up in the reservoir
again. If the air at port 10 is removed, then the 3/2-way valve assumes
the normal position.
The circuit below utilises two time delay valves, one a normally closed
valve (1V2) and the other a normally open valve (1V1). Upon operation
of the start button 1S1, the signal generated passes through the valve
1V1 and initiates the movement of cylinder extension (1A) via the 14 port
of the control element 1V3. The time delay valve 1V1 has a short time
delay set of 0.5 seconds. This is long enough to initiate the start signal
but then the 14 signal is cancelled by the 10 pilot signal of the time delay
valve. The cylinder operates limit valve 1S2. The time delay valve 1V2
receives a pilot signal which after the preset time opens the valve. This
supplies the 12 signal which reverses the valve and retracts the cylinder.
A new cycle can only be started via the start button and renewed actua-
tion of the valve 1S1.
The following illustrations show the time behaviour of circuits with time
delay valves.
Time response of circuits
with time delay valves
6.1 Selection and comparison of working and control media
To select the working and control media consideration must be given to
 The work or output requirements
 The preferred control methods
 The resources and expertise available to support the project
 The systems currently installed which are to be integrated with the
Firstly, the individual advantages and disadvantages of the media avail-
able must be considered, both as a control medium and as a working
medium. Then the selections can be developed towards a solution.
Working media
Criteria Pneumatics Hydraulics Electrics
Force Forces limited due to low pres- Large forces due to high pres- Lower forces, poor efficiency,
linear sure and the cylinder diameter, sure non overload-proof, high energy
no energy consumption during consumption during idling
Force, Full torque, even during stop- Full torque, even during stop- Minimal torque during stoppage
rotating page, no energy consumption page, but increased energy con-
sumption
Movement, Simple generation, high accel- Simple generation, easily adjust- Complicated and expensive due
linear eration, high speed able to conversion by mechanical
means or in the case of short
distances via solenoids and for
lower forces, linear motors
Movement, Compressed air motors with Hydraulic motors and swivel Greatest efficiency for rotary
rotating extremely high speeds, high cylinders with lower speeds than drives, limited speed
or swivel- operating costs, poor efficiency, pneumatic types, high efficiency
ling swivel movement by means of
conversion via gear rack and
Adjust- Easy adjustability of force via Excellent adjustability of force Limited possibility of use, whilst
ability pressure and of speed via vol- and speed, can be accurately at the same time high cost
ume, even in the lower speed adjusted even in slow speed
range range
Energy Large quantities possible, with- Only limited storage possible Storage difficult and expensive
storage out expenditure, easily trans- using auxiliary medium of gas or (accumulator, battery) easily
and portable in lines (approx. 1000 by means of spring-loaded res- transportable over great dis-
Transport m) and compressed air bottles ervoir, transportable in lines of tances via lines
up to 100 m
Environ- Resistant to temperature fluctua- Sensitive to temperature fluctua- Resistant to temperature fluctua-
mental tions, no explosion hazard, risk tions, fire risk in the event of tions, fire and explosion protec-
Effects of icing in the event of high air leakage and contamination tion are essential in hazardous
humidity, high flow velocities and areas
low ambient temperatures
Energy Too high compared to electricity, Too high compared to electricity Lowest energy costs
costs 1m³ compressed air at 600 kPa
(6 bar) costs approx. DM 0.03 to
0.05, depending on system and
degree of utilisation
General Components are overload-proof, Pump noise at higher pressures, Components are not overload-
exhaust air noise is unpleasant, components are overload-proof proof, or can only be protected
silencing is therefore essential against overload at high cost;
noise during switching of contac-
tors and solenoids
Control media
Criteria Electrics Electronics Standard pressure Low-pressure
pneumatics pneumatics
Robustness Insensitive to envi- Very sensitive to Very insensitive to Very insensitive to
of elements ronmental influences environmental influ- environmental influ- environmental influ-
such as dust, humid- ences such as dust, ences, ences, sensitive to
ity, etc. humidity, interfer- long service life if air contaminated air,
ence fields, jolts and is clean long service life
vibrations, long ser-
vice life
Switching time > 10 ms << 1 ms > 5 ms > 1 ms
of elements
Signal speed Light speed Light speed Approx. 10 - 40 m/s Approx. 100 –200
Possible distances Practically unlimited Practically unlimited Limited by signal speed
Space requirements Small Very small Small Small
Main signal Digital Digital, analogue Digital Digital, analogue
6.2 Control theory
Differentiation between the control systems can be made according to
the following viewpoints. The following illustrations respresent the control
types according to DIN 19226. There are three main groups. The cate-
gorisation of a control system to the three main groups depends on the
problem definition. If it is a case of program control, the project designer
has the choice of the three subgroups of program control .
Control types according to
Pilot control system Control types
There is always a clear relationship between the command or reference according to DIN
value and the output value provided disturbance variables do not cause 19226
any deviations. Pilot controls do not have a memory function.
Memory control system
When the command or reference value is removed or cancelled, in par-
ticular after completion of the input signal, the output value achieved is
retained (memorised). A different command value or an opposing input
signal is required to return the output value to an initial value. Memory
control systems always have a storage function.
Program control
The three types of program control are:
 Step diagram control
In the case of step diagram control, the reference variables are sup-
plied by a program generator (program memory), whose output vari-
ables depend on the path travelled or the position of a moving part of
the controlled system.
 Sequence control system
The sequence program is stored in a program generator which runs
through the program step-by-step according to the status attained by
the system being controlled. This program may either be perma-
nently installed or else read from punched cards, magnetic tapes or
other suitable memories.
 Time (schedule) control
In a time (schedule) control system, the command values are sup-
plied by a time-dependent program generator. Characteristics of a
timing control system are, thus, the existence of a program generator
and a time-dependent program sequence. Program generators
may be :
– Cam shafts
– Cams
– Punched cards
– Punched tape
– Programs in an electronic memory
Control system types Differentiation between the control systems can be made on the basis of
different viewpoints. According to this standard, distinguishing features
for control systems are in the form of the representation of information
and in the form of signal processing.
Analogue control system Form of information
A control system which operates predominantly with analogue signals representation
within the signal processing section. Signal processing is effected pri-
marily with continuously acting function elements.
Digital control system
A control system which operates chiefly using numerical digital signals
within the signal processing section. The information is represented nu-
merically. The function units are: Counters, registers, memories, arith-
metic units.
Binary control system
A control system which operates predominantly with binary signals
within the signal processing section and where the signals are not part
of numerically represented data.
Differentiation between the
control systems: in the
form of representation of
Form of signal Synchronous control system
processing A control system where signal processing is synchronous to a clock
pulse.
Asynchronous control system
A control system operating without clock pulses where signal modifica-
tions are only triggered by a change in the input signals.
A control system where specific signal status for the output signals are
assigned to the signal status of the input signals by means of Boolean
logic connections (e.g. AND, OR, NOT).
form of signal processing
Sequence control system
A control system with compulsory stepped operation where switching on
from one step to the next in the program is dependent upon certain con-
ditions being satisfied. In particular, the programming of jumps, loops,
branching, etc. is possible.
Sequence control is divided into two subgroups:
 Time-dependent sequence control system
A sequence control whose switching conditions are dependent only
on time. Step enabling conditions are generated via timers, or cam-
shaft controllers with constant speed.
The existing term of timing control according to DIN 19226 is subject
to the time-dependent specification of reference variables.
 Process-dependent
A sequence control system whose switching conditions are depend-
ent only on signals from the system being controlled. Step-diagram
control as defined in DIN 19226 is a form of process-dependent se-
quence control, whose step enabling conditions depend purely on
the stroke-dependent signals of the controlled system.
6.3 Control system development
The development of the control system solution requires that the prob-
lem is defined clearly. There are many ways of representing the problem
in a descriptive or graphical form. The methods of representing the con-
trol problem include:
 Positional sketch
 Displacement-step diagram
 Control chart
 Function chart
Positional sketch The positional sketch shows the relationship between the actuators and
the machine fixture. The actuators are shown in the correct orientation.
The positional sketch is not normally to scale and should not be too de-
tailed. The diagram will be used in conjunction with the description of the
machine operation and the motion diagrams.
Positional sketch example
Displacement-step The displacement-step diagram and the displacement-time diagram are
diagram used for motion sequences. The displacement-step diagram represents
the operating sequence of the actuators; the displacement is recorded in
relation to the sequence step.
If a control system incorporates a number of actuators, they are shown
in the same way and are drawn one below the other. Their interrelation
can be seen by comparing the steps.
Note The VDI standard 3260 "Function diagrams of production machinery and
installations" has been withdrawn. It is nonetheless used in this book to
illustrate control sequences.
In this case there are two cylinders 1A and 2A. In step 1 cylinder 1A ex-
tends and then cylinder 2A extends in step 2. In step 3 cylinder 1A re-
tracts and in step 4 cylinder 2A retracts. Step number 5 is equivalent to
In the case of a displacement-time diagram, the displacement is plotted Displacement-time
in relation to the time. diagram
Displacement-time diagram
Control chart In the control chart, the switching status of the control element is repre-
sented in relation to the steps or the time. The switching time is not
taken into account.
The control diagram in Fig. 6.7 shows the statuses of the control com-
ponents (1V for cylinder 1A and 2V for cy1inder 2A) and the status of the
limit switch 1S1 fitted at the front end position of the cylinder 1A.
Function diagram The function diagram is a combination of the motion diagram and the
control chart. The lines representing the individual states are referred to
as function lines
Function diagram
Apart from the function lines, signal lines can also be entered in the
function diagram.
The signal line output is at the signal element and the end at the point,
where a change in status occurs, dependent on this signal. Arrows on
the signal lines indicate the direction of signal flow.
of signal lines
Signal branchings are denoted by a dot at the point of branching. Sev-
eral changes in status of components are introduced by a signal output.
In the case of the OR condition, a dot is placed at the point of conjunc-
tion of the signal lines. Several signal outputs effect the same change in
status irrespective of one another.
The AND condition is designated by means of an oblique stroke at the
point of conjunction of the signal lines. A change in status only occurs, if
all signal outputs are present.
of input elements
The designations of the individual input elements are entered at the out-
put point of the respective signal line.
with signal lines
The diagram illustrates the following sequence:
 If the limit switch 2S1 is actuated and the push button 1S1 is pressed
by the operator, the piston rod of cylinder 1A extends.
 When the cylinder 1A reaches its forward end position, the limit
switch 1S3 is actuated and the piston rod of cylinder 2A advances.
switch 2S2 is actuated and the piston rod of cylinder 1A retracts.
 When the cylinder 1A reaches its retracted end position, the limit
 When cylinder 2A reaches its retracted end position, the limit switch
2S1 is actuated and the initial position is reached again.
Abbreviated notation is another possibility of representing motion se- Abbreviated notation
quences. In this case, the cylinder designations 1A, 2A, etc. are used in
the sequence. The signal for advancing is designated using a '+' and the
signal for retracting using a '-'.
 The sequence 1A+ 2A+ 2A- 1A- is to be read as follows:
Cylinder 1A advances, cylinder 2A advances, cylinder 2A retracts,
cylinder 1A retracts. Sequential movements are written consecu-
tively.
 The sequence 1A+ 2A+ 2A-
1A- is to be read as:
Cylinder 1A advances, cylinder 2A advances and cylinder 1A re-
tracts, cylinder 2A retracts. Simultaneous movements are written ver-
tically.
Function chart The function chart gives a clear picture of action, and reactions in se-
quences. The diagram describes the following sequence:
 The clamp cylinder 1A is extended (1A+) and the limit valve then
operated is 1S2.
 This limit 1S2 initiates the extension of cylinder 2A (2A+) which is the
riveting process.
 The riveting cylinder fully extends and operates the limit 2S2. The
limit 2S2 initiates the retraction of the riveting cylinder (2A-).
 The limit 2S1 is then operated which initiates the movement of cylin-
der 1A unclamping and retracting (1A-).
 The full retraction of cylinder 1A is indicated by the limit 1S1 and this
is the initial condition required for a new cycle to commence.
Function chart:
riveting process
The circuit diagram shows signal flow and the relationship between Circuit diagram
components and the air connections. There is no mechanical layout rep-
resentation with the circuit diagram.
The circuit is drawn with the energy flow from the bottom to the top. The
various levels of a circuit include the energy source, signal inputs, signal
processing, control elements and the actuators. The position of the limit
valves are marked at the actuator. Components and lines are identified
by the component numbering system and the port (way) connection
numbers. These allow cross reference to the components on the actual
machine and make the circuit readable.
Circuit diagram example
6.4 Development aspects
An important component in the transfer of power from the processor to
the linear or rotary actuator is the directional control valve (DCV). The
selection of the size and type of valve determines many of the operating
characteristics of the actuator. The development in directional control
valves is towards :
 Sub-base and manifold mounting with common supply and exhaust
 Directional control valves are optimised with respect to dead volume,
actuating force and working loads. This results in fast switching of
the valve.
 The housing interior is specially designed to achieve a high flow rate.
 Multiple function valves where characteristics are changed via wafer
and seal variations
 Multiple valves in single unit construction
 Mounting of the DCV on the cylinder
The manifold mounted valves utilise a common supply port and exhaust
ports. The exhausts can be tubed away separately or locally silenced as
required. The compact and rigid mounting is suitable for a control cabi-
net construction.
Fig 6.14 a) b)
Optimised individual valves
and valve terminals
a) Individual valve
b) Valve terminal
6.5 Modern pneumatic drives
In addition to standard cylinders, which continue to be important as a
low-cost, versatile drive component, special cylinders are also gaining
importance. With these drives, additional components such as guides
and retainers are frequently attached directly to the cylinder housing.
This results in benefits such as a smaller fitting space and reduced wor-
king loads. The reduced material, planning and assembly costs lead to a
noticeable cost saving.
Multi-position cylinders are used for applications where more than two Multi-position cylinders
positions are to be approached. The following figure illustrates the mode
of operation of a double-acting multi-position cylinder. One piston rod is
attached to the frame, while the second is connected to the load. This
type of cylinder can assume up to four different positions. In each case
the cylinder is driven precisely against a stop.
Cylinder settings Fig. 6.15
Multi-position cylinders
Stroke 1 Stroke 2
Fluidic Muscle The Fluidic Muscle is a membrane contraction system. An impervious,
flexible tube is covered with tightly woven threads in a diamond-shaped
pattern. This creates a three-dimensional grid structure. The air flowing
inwards deforms the grid structure. A tensile force is generated in the
axial direction, which causes a contraction of the muscle in the event of
increasing internal pressure.
In the extended state, the Fluidic Muscle generates up to ten times more
force than a conventional pneumatic cylinder and uses only 40% of the
energy while offering the same force. A third of the diameter is sufficient
for the same force, while the stroke is shorter for the same overall
Application example with
the Fluidic Muscle
Handling technology Handling and assembly operations frequently require components that
can perform movements in two or three different directions. This sector
was previously dominated by special designs. Today, standard handling
modules that can be combined for specific applications are being used
more and more.
The swivel/linear drive can be used for the positioning of workpieces, for Swivel/linear drive
example. The bearing of the piston rod is designed so that it can support
high lateral forces. The unit can be mounted in a number of different
ways, e.g. with a flange on the front side or with slot nuts, which are in-
serted in the linear profile. If required, the energy for the gripper or the
suction cup is supplied through the hollow piston rod.
Swivel/linear drive
Pneumatic grippers Handling equipment must have grippers for picking up, moving and re-
leasing the workpiece. Grippers establish either a force-locking or a po-
sitive-locking connection with the part.
Figure 6.19 shows different gripper types. All gripper types have a doub-
le-acting piston drive and are self-centring. Contactless position sensing
is possible with proximity sensors. External gripper fingers make the
grippers suitable for a wide variety of applications.
Fig. 6.19 a) b) c) d)
Pneumatic grippers
a) Radial grippers
b) Parallel grippers
c) 3-point grippers
d) Angle grippers
Vacuum generators Handling with suction cups is generally a simple, low-cost and reliable
solution.
Suction cups allow the handling of different workpieces with weights
ranging from a few grammas right up to several hundred kilo grammas.
They come in a wide variety of different shapes, such as universal, flat
or bellows suction cups, for example.
Fig. 6.20 a) b)
a) Flat suction cups
b) Bellows suction cups
Solutions to the exercises in chapter 5
Exercise 1: Direct control of a double-acting cylinder
Problem definition A double-acting cylinder is to extend when a push button is operated.
with 5/2-way valve
The following manually operated directional control valves can be used Solution
as control elements:
 5/2-way valve.
 4/2-way valve
In the initial position, the valve is unactuated, pressure is applied at the
piston rod side and the piston rod of the cylinder is retracted.
On operating the push button, the air passes through the valve from 1 to
the 4 port and advances the piston rod. The displaced air flows to at-
mosphere via the ports 2 and 3. On release of the push button, the valve
spring returns the control valve to its initial position and the cylinder re-
tracts. Air returns from the cylinder via the exhaust port 5.
The push button is released, the direction of movement is immediately
reversed and the piston rod retracts. It is therefore possible to change
the direction of movement without the piston rod reaching its initial or
end position.
Exercise 2: Indirect control of a double-acting cylinder
Problem definition A double-acting cylinder is to advance when a push button is operated.
250 mm in diameter and consumes a large volume of air.
For controlling cylinders at high speed or of large diameter, the air flow Solution
required determines that a large size control valve should be used. The
operating force to actuate the valve may be relatively large and in this
case indirect control is preferable.
The valve 1S when operated by a push button supplies a pilot signal to
the 14 port of the control valve 1V. The valve 1V reverses, the piston rod
of the cylinder is pressurised and the piston rod of cylinder 1A advances.
If the push button is released, the control port of valve 1V exhausts to
atmosphere. The valve 1V then reverses and the cylinder retracts.
If the push button is released, the direction of movement is immediately
reversed and the piston rod retracts. A change in the direction of move-
ment is therefore possible without the piston rod reaching its initial or
end position. Since the valve 1V is without memory function, it changes
its switching position immediately after the push button of valve 1S has
been pressed.
Exercise 3: The logic AND function
Problem definition The piston rod of cylinder 1A is to advance only if a workpiece is in-
serted in the workpiece retainer, a guard has been lowered and the op-
erator presses the push button valve. Upon the release of the push but-
ton or if the guard is no longer in the lower position, the cylinder 1A is to
retract to the initial position.
The logic AND operation of the output signals of valves 1S1, 1S2 and Solution
1S3 is checked by the dual-pressure valves 1V1 and 1V2.
If the valves are actuated, i.e. 1S2 (via the workpiece), 1S3 (via the
guard) and 1S1 (via the operator), a signal is applied at output A of the
dual-pressure valve 1V2. This signal is passed on to the control port 14
of the control element 1V3. The valve 1V3 reverses, pressure is applied
at the piston side of the cylinder 1A and the piston rod advances.
If the push button is released or the guard opened, this means that the
AND conditions are no longer met. The control port 14 of the valve 1V3
is unpressurised. The valve 1V3 switches and the piston rod retracts.
Exercise 4: The logic OR function
Problem definition A double-acting cylinder is used to transfer parts from a magazine. If
either a push button or a footpedal is operated, then the cylinder is to
advance. Once the cylinder is fully advanced, it is to retract to the initial
The logic OR operation of the ourtput signals of valves 1S1 and 1S2 is Solution
checked by the shuttle valve 1V1.
Upon operation of either the push button of valve 1S1 or the pedal of
valve 1S2, a signal is generated at the 1 or 1(3) side of the shuttle valve.
The OR condition is met and the signal is passed to the control port 14
of the valve 1V2. The valve 1V2 switches, pressure is applied to the pis-
ton side of the cylinder 1A, and the cylinder advances.
If the actuation (push button or pedal) of the valve is released, the signal
at the control port of valve 1V2 is reset. Since valve 1V2 is a double pilot
valve (with memory function), its switching position does not change.
The limit swith 1S3 is actuated, when the piston rod reaches its end po-
sition. A signal is then applied at the control port 12 of the valve 1V2.
The valve 1V2 reverses and the piston rod retracts.
If the limit switch 1S3 is released during retracting, the direction of
movement can be changed by actuating the push button or the pedal,
even if the piston rod has not yet reached its initial position.
Exercise 5: Memory circuit and speed control of a cylinder
Problem definition A double-acting cylinder is to be used to transfer parts from a magazine.
The cylinder is to fully advance when a push button is operated and then
The limit switch 1S2 is actuated, when the piston rod reaches its end Answer to question 1
position. If the push button 1S1 remains pressed in this status, a rever-
sal of the valve 1V1 is not possible, since a signal is applied at both con-
trol ports 12 and 14. The first signal applied 14 is dominant. The signal
at control port 12 is ineffective. The piston rod remains in the extended
status. The piston rod cannot be retracted until the push button 1S1 has
been released and the control port 14 becomes unpressurised.
If the roller lever valve 1S2 is fitted at the stroke mid-position, then the Answer to question 2
piston rod retracts again upon reaching this position. However, this is not
possible unless the push button 1S1 has already been released again. If
the push button 1S1 has not yet been released at this point, the piston
rod overtravels the limit switch 1S2 and travels up to the cylinder stop. A
return stroke is not possible unless the roller lever valve has been
manually actuated or with the help of the manual override of the control
element 1V1.
Both valves 1S1 and 1S2 are unactuated in the initial position. The Answer to question 3
switching position of the valve 1V1 is such that connections 1 and 2 and
connection 4 and 5 are each interconnected. With this, pressure is ap-
plied at the piston rod side of the cylinder 1A and the piston rod remains
in the retracted status.
If push button 1S1 is actuated, a signal is applied at the input 14 of the Answer to question 4
valve 1V1. The valve 1V1 switches, pressure is applied at the piston
side of the cylinder 1A and the piston rod advances. Upon reaching the
end position, the piston rod actuates the limit switch 1S2, and a signal is
applied at the control port 12 of the valve 1V1. This reverses and the
piston rod retracts.
The speed of the piston rod is set via the adjusting screw on the flow
control valves 1V2 and 1V3 (exhaust air flow control).
After each of the valves 1S1 and 1S2 has been released, the control
ports become pressureless. The use of a double pilot valve (valve 1V1
has a memory function) ensures that the switching position does not
Exercise 6: The quick exhaust valve
Problem definition The combined actuation of a manually actuated valve and a roller lever
In the initial position, the inserted workpiece actuates the roller lever Solution
valve 1S2. The quick exhaust valve 1V4 is closed to atmosphere, pres-
sure is applied at the piston rod side of the cylinder 1A, and the piston
rod remains in the retracted status.
If the start button 1S1 is actuated, a signal is applied at both inputs 1
and 1(3) of the dual-pressure valve 1V1. The AND condition is met and
the signal is passed to the control port 14 of the control element 1V2.
The valve 1V2 switches, pressure is applied to the piston side of the
cylinder 1A, and the piston rod advances. As a result of the valve 1V2
reversing, input 1 of the quick exhaust valve 1V4 becomes pressureless.
The air displaced on the piston rod side of the cylinder during advancing
opens the quick exhaust valve and flows directly to atmosphere via the
output 3. The flow resistance, created by the valve 1V2 and the lines
against the displaced air, no longer applies. The piston rod is able to
advance more rapidly.
If one of the two valves 1S1 or 1S2 is released, the AND condition at the
dual-pressure valve 1V1 is no longer met. The final control element 1V2
switches, the quick exhaust valve 1V4 closes and the piston rod retracts.
The retracting speed is set at the restrictor of the one-way flow control
valve 1V3.
Exercise 7: Pressure dependent control; embossing of plastic
Problem definition A plastic component is embossed using a die powered by a double-
In the initial position, valves 1S1 and 1S2 are unactuated, pressure is Solution
applied at the piston rod side of the cylinder 1A and the piston rod re-
mains in the retracted state. If necessary, the circuit needs to be put into
its initial position with the help of the manual override on the control ele-
ment 1V2. A signal is applied at the control port 14 of the control ele-
ment 1V2, if the push button 1S1 is actuated. The valve 1V2 switches,
pressure is applied at the piston side of the cylinder 1A, and the piston
rod advances. If the push button 1S1 is released, the switching position
of the double pilot valve 1V2 does not change due to its memory func-
Just before reaching the forward end position (embossing position), the
limit switch 1S2 is actuated. The actuated roller lever valve 1S2 releases
the pressure line 1 to the pressure sequence valve 1V1. During the em-
bossing process, the pressure on the piston side starts to increase. The
indicator of the pressure gauge turns to the right. When this pressure
reaches the value set at the control port 12 of the pressure sequence
valve, the 3/2-way valve of the pressure sequence valve switches. The
control element 1V2 reverses and the piston rod retracts. During the
retracting movement, the limit switch 1S2 is released and the signal at
the control port 12 of the valve 1V2 is reset and the pressure sequence
valve is also reset.
Exercise 8: The time delay valve
Problem definition A double-acting cylinder is used to press together glued components.
a time of t1 = 6 seconds and then immediately retract to the initial posi-
tracted and after a delay of t2 = 5 seconds. During this delay the finished
part is manually removed and replaced with new parts for gluing. The
retracting speed is to be rapid, but adjustable.
Fig. 10
In the initial position, the roller lever valve 1S2 is actuated by the piston Solution
rod and the time delay valve 1V1 is switched through, i.e. the working
port 2 supplies a signal. The piston rod side of the cylinder 1A is
pressurised and the piston rod remains in the retracted state. The
following start condition must apply:
 Roller lever valve 1S2 is actuated
 Time delay valve 1V1 is switched through
 Start button is actuated
If the roller lever valve 1S2 is actuated for a sufficiently long time period
(t1 = 5 seconds), then the air reservoir of the time delay valve 1V1 is
filled and the corresponding 3/2-way valve is switched, following which a
signal is applied at input 1(3) of the dual-pressure valve 1V2.
If the push button 1S1 is actuated, the AND condition at the dual-
pressure valve is met. A signal is applied at the control port 14 of the
control element 1V4. The valve 1V4 switches, pressure is applied to the
piston side of the cylinder 1A and the piston rod advances. After a short
advancing distance, the limit switch 1S2 is released, pressure is reduced
in the air reservoir of the time delay valve 1V1 via the roller lever valve
1S2, and the integrated 3/2-way valve switches back to its initial posi-
tion. The AND condition at the dual-pressure valve is now no longer met.
Actuation of the push button 1S1 becomes ineffective.
Upon reaching the advancing position, the piston rod actuates the roller
lever valve 1S3. The pressure line to the time delay valve 1V3 is now
released and pressure in the air reservoir is increased. The rate of pres-
sure increase is adjustable via the integrated flow control valve. When
the switching pressure has been reached, the integrated 3/2-way valve
switches and a signal is applied at the control port 12 of the final control
element 1V4. The valve 1V4 reverses and the piston rod retracts. Upon
release of the limit switch 1S3, the time delay valve 1V3 switches to its
initial position again.
The limit switch 1S2 is actuated, when the piston rod reaches its initial
position. The pressure in the air reservoir of the time delay valve 1V1
starts to increase until the switching pressure has been reached after
t2 = 5 seconds. The integrated 3/2-way valve switches. The initial status
of the system is now reached again and a new cycle can be started.
The piston rod speed is set at the restrictors of the one-way flow control
valves 1V5 and 1V6 (exhaust air flow control).
List of standards and references
List of Standards DIN/EN 292-1 Safety of machinery – Basic concepts, general
principles of design – Part 1: Basic terminology,
DIN/EN 292-2 Safety of machinery – Basic concepts, general
principles of design – Part 2: Technical principles
and specifications
DIN/EN 418 Safety of machinery – Emergency stop equipment,
functional aspects – Principles for design
DIN/EN 983 Safety of machinery – Safety requirements for fluid
power systems and their components – Pneumat-
DIN/ISO 1219-1 Fluid power systems and components – Graphic
symbols and circuit diagrams – Part 1 and Part 2
ISO/DIS 11727 Pneumatic fluid power – Identification of ports and
control mechanisms of control valves and other
components (port designations for pneumatic
equipment)
DIN 1343 Reference conditions, standard conditions, stan-
dard volumes, concepts and values
DIN 24558 Pneumatic systems, design principles
DIN 40719 Circuit documents (IEC 848 modified); Part 6:
Rules for function charts
DIN/EN 60073 Coding of indicating devices and actuators
(VDE 0199) by colours and supplementary means
DIN/EN 60617-8 Graphical symbols for diagrams (IEC 617-8)
Part 8: Measuring instruments, lamps and signal-
ling devices
Eberhardt, H.-J., Scholz, D. Servo-pneumatic positioning, Workbook List of References
Festo Didactic, Esslingen 2000
Gerhartz, J., Scholz, D. Closed-loop control pneumatics, Workbook
Gevatter, H.-J. Automatisierungstechnik 2, Geräte
Springer Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg 2000
Prede, G., Scholz, D. Elektropneumatics, Basic level, Textbook
Stoll, K.: Pneumatische Steuerungen Vogel Verlag,
Stoll, K.: Pneumatik Anwendungen Vogel Verlag,
Subject Page
2/2-way valve 181
A Absorption drying 139
Adsorption dryers 138
Actuators 34
Advantageous characteristics of compressed air 15
Air compressor 131
Air distribution 24, 141
Air dryers 136
Air filter 26, 144
Air lubricator 26, 149
Air motor 176
Air reservoir 134
Air preparation equipment 144
Air supply 24, 129
Analogue control 229
Analysis of problem 65
Applications 11
Asynchronous control 230
B Binary control 229
C Cylinder performance characteristics 170
Chain sequence control 240
Characteristics of air 126
Check valves 204
Circuit diagram 56, 116, 238
Clamping devices 51
Combinational valves 218
Comparison of media 16, 224
Compressor 131
Compressed air regulators 147
Condensate 119, 144
Control chart 234
Control circuits - Systems 35
Control medium criteria 17
Control system development 55, 231
Control theory 227
Coordinated motion 101, 231
Derived elements 40 D
Derived units 124
Design process 65
Designating the elements 62
Designations 40
Dew point 136
Diagnostics 117
Diaphragm 147
Diaphragm compressor 131
Diaphragm cylinder 157
Diaphragm valve 212
Digital control 229
DIN ISO5599-3 44
Direct control of a pneumatic cylinder 68
Directional control valves 27, 179
Disc seat 180
Displacement-step diagram 103, 232
Distinguishing features 15
Documentation 116, 231
Double-acting cylinder 158
Double piston rod 160
Dry compressed air 129
Dryers 136
Dual pressure valve: AND function 205
E Emergency stop 51
End position cushioning 159
Environmental pollution 52
Exhaust silencers 52
Evaluation 65
F Fault finding 117
Filters 144
Fitting of valves 201
Flow compressors 132
Flow control elements 180
Flow control valves 30, 211
Flow resistances 141
Fluid muscle 242
G Gear motors 177
Gripper, pneumatic 244
H Handling technology 242
I Idle roller lever valve 192
Implementation 65
Indicators 178
Indirect control of a pneumatic cylinder 72
Input element 58
J Junction elements 205
L Lettering system 44
Linear actuators 49
Linear motion 155
Logic control 230
Longitudinal slide valve 197
Lubrication 149
Maintenance 120, 147 M
Malfunctions 51, 118
Manifold mounting of valves 240
Memory control system 227
Methods of actuation 45
Modular systems 240
Motors 176
Mounting of roller valves 201
Mounting of cylinders 169
Multiple actuators 102
Multi-position cylinder 241
Noise pollution 16, 52 N
Non-return elements 47
Non-return valves 27, 203
Oil mist 53 O
Oil removal 151
Operational safety 53
Optical indicators 178
Optimum pressures 130
Over-lubrication 149
Pilot control system 227 P
Pipe material 142
Pipe layout 143
Piston force 170
Piston motors 176
Plastic pipes 142
Pneumatics and control system development 18
Pneumatic elements 23
Pneumatics in review 12
Poppet valves 180
Positional sketch 231
Power components 34, 58
Pressure control valves 27, 48, 215
Pressure level 24, 131
Pressure regulator 24, 130
Pressure regulator with/without vent hole 148
Pressure sequence valve 31, 217
Principles of air 124
Processors: Valves and logic elements 33
Product development 18
Q Quick exhaust valve 209
R Reciprocating compressor 131
Reliable operation of valves 201
Reservoirs 134
Ring main 143
Riveting process 237
Rodless cylinder 164
Roller lever valve 28, 190
Rotary actuators 50, 163
Rotary motion 156
Rotary piston compressor 132
S Safety requirements for pneumatic clamping devices 51
Seals 144, 165
Servo-controlled 190
Selection criteria for working media 17
Selection and comparison of media 224
Sequence control 227
Sequence valves 217
Setting pressure regulator 148
Shut-off valves 211
Shuttle OR valve 207
Signal flow 57
Signal overlap 107
Single-acting cylinder 34, 156
Sizing pipe 141
Slide valves 180
Sliding-vane motors 177
Standards 39
Static output devices 155
Supply air throttling 213
Swivel/linear drive 243
Synchronous control 230
Symbols and descriptions of components 40
System upgrade 66
Systems: Control circuits 35
Tandem double-acting cylinder 160 T
Throttle valve 211
Time delay valve 32, 219
Time-dependent sequence 230
Trouble-shooting in pneumatic systems 115
Turbine motors 177
Utilisation factor 147 U
Vacuum generator 244 V
Vent hole 148
Physical values l Length m
and units m Mass kg
t Time s
T Temperature K
F Force N
A Area m2
V Volume m3
qv Volumetric flow rate m3/s
p Pressure bar (Pa)
A Piston surface m2
A' Annular surface m2
d Piston rod diameter m
D Cylinder diameter m
Feff Effective piston force N
FF Force of retract spring N
FR Friction force N
Fth Theoretical piston force N
n Number of strokes per minute 1/min
pabs Absolute pressure bar (Pa)
pamb Ambient pressure bar (Pa)
pe Excess or vacuum pressure bar (Pa)
∆p Differential pressure bar (Pa)
qB Air consumption l/min
qH Air consumption per cm of stroke l/cm
qL Delivery quantity m3/min
qn Nominal flow rate l/min
s Stroke length cm
t Centigrade temperature °C
VB Reservoir size m3
z Switching cycles per hour 1/h
Tn Standard temperature Tn = 273.15 K, tn = 0 °C
pn Standard pressure pn = 101325 Pa
Supapă
Teoria controlului
Tehnologii de gaz
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