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Encyclopedia of Caribbean Archaeology
Florida A&M University, Tallahassee
Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton
Florida Gulf Coast University, Ft. Myers
Florida International University, Miami
Florida State University, Tallahassee
New College of Florida, Sarasota
University of Central Florida, Orlando
University of Florida, Gainesville
University of North Florida, Jacksonville
University of South Florida, Tampa
University of West Florida, Pensacola

of Ca r ibbean
Edited by Basil A. Reid and R. Grant Gilmore III
U niversity Press of Florida
Gainesville Tallahassee Tampa Boca Raton Pensacola
Orlando Miami Jacksonville Ft. Myers Sarasota
Frontispiece: Magens House compound, Charlotte Amalie,
St. Thomas. Courtesty of Douglas V. Armstrong.
Copyright 2014 by Basil A. Reid and R. Grant Gilmore III
Printed in the United States of America. This book is printed on
Glatfelter Natures Book, a paper certified under the standards of
the Forestry Stewardship Council (FSC). It is a recycled stock that
contains 30 percent post-consumer waste and is acid free.
This book may be available in an electronic edition.
19 18 17 16 15 14 6 5 4 3 2 1
Encyclopedia of Caribbean archaeology /
edited by Basil A. Reid and R. Grant Gilmore III.
ISBN 978-0-8130-4420-0 (alk. paper)
1. Archaeology—West Indies—Encyclopedias. 2. Excavations
(Archaeology)—West Indies—Encyclopedias. 3. West Indies—
Antiquities—Encyclopedias. I. Reid, Basil A., 1961–, editor.
II. Gilmore, R. Grant, III (Richard Grant), editor.
F1619.E63 2014
972.9'01—dc23 2013029231
The University Press of Florida is the scholarly publishing agency
for the State University System of Florida, comprising Florida
A&M University, Florida Atlantic University, Florida Gulf
Coast University, Florida International University, Florida State
University, New College of Florida, University of Central Florida,
University of Florida, University of North Florida, University
of South Florida, and University of West Florida.
15 Northwest 15th Street
http://www.upf.com
List of Figures xi B
Acknowledgments xv
The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands 58
List of Contributors xvi
Jeffrey P. Blick
Preface xvii
Banwari Trace (Trinidad) 62
Introduction: Caribbean Prehistoric and Historical
Archaeology 1 Barbados 64
Basil A. Reid, Corinne L. Hofman, R. Grant Kevin Farmer
Gilmore III, and Douglas V. Armstrong Barbados Museum and Historical Society
(BMHS) 67
A Kevin Farmer
Barka, Norman F. (1938–2008) 69
Afro-Caribbean Earthenwares 31
R. Grant Gilmore III
R. Grant Gilmore III and Kevin Farmer
The Barrancoid Series 70
Agricultural Earthworks (The Guianas) 33
Stéphen Rostain
Beads 71
Alegría, Ricardo E. (1921–2011) 36
L. Antonio Curet
Betty's Hope Plantation (Antigua) 72
Georgia L. Fox
John G. Crock
Bonaire (Dutch Caribbean; Former Netherlands
Antigua and Barbuda (Archaic Sites) 40
Antilles) 73
Reg Murphy
Jay B. Haviser
Arawak versus Taíno 41
Bonaire Archaeological Institute (BONAI) 75
The Archaeological Committee of Trinidad and
Bottles (Colonial) 76
Tobago 45
Georgia L. Fox and R. Grant Gilmore III
K. O. Laurence
Brimstone Hill Fortress National Park (St. Kitts) 78
Archaeological Conservation 46
Gerald F. Schroedl
Bullbrook, John A. (1881–1967) 81
Archaeological Heritage Management 47
Arie Boomert
Peter E. Siegel
Bullen, Ripley (1902–1976), and Adelaide Bullen
The Archaeological Society of Jamaica 52
(1908–1987) 82
Lesley-Gail Atkinson
George M. Luer
Archaeometry 53
Corinne L. Hofman C
The Archaic Age 54 The Cabrits Garrison (Portsmouth, Dominica) 83
Basil A. Reid Zachary J. Beier
The Association of Caribbean Historians 56 Caguana/Capa Site (Puerto Rico) 84
Bridget Brereton and Sherry-Ann Singh Alexandra Sajo
Cannibalism (Anthropophagy) 85 DNA and Caribbean Archaeology 125
Basil A. Reid Maria A. Nieves-Colón
Cannon 88 Drax Hall Estate (Jamaica) 127
Ruud Stelten Douglas V. Armstrong
Carriacou 90 Duerden, J. E. (1869–1937) 130
Scott M. Fitzpatrick Ivor Conolley
The Casimiroid 92 Duhos (Dujos) 131
Alexandra Sajo Joshua M. Torres
Cassava (Manioc) 93 The Dutch Caribbean 132
Mark C. Donop Jay B. Haviser
The Cayman Islands 95 Dutch Colonial Ceramic Types 135
Peter L. Drewett R. Grant Gilmore III
The Cayoid Pottery Series 95
Cemeteries 97 East End Free Black Community (St. John) 136
Naseema Hosein-Hoey Douglas V. Armstrong
The Chican Ostionoid Subseries 98 The Elenan Ostionoid Subseries 138
L. Antonio Curet L. Antonio Curet
Chiefdoms (Cacicazgos) 100 Elite Exchange in the Caribbean 140
Joshua M. Torres and Basil A. Reid Basil A. Reid and L. Antonio Curet
Ciboney versus Guanahatabey 103 English Colonial Ceramic Types 142
Basil A. Reid R. Grant Gilmore III
Clay Tobacco Pipes (Bowls and Stems) 105 Environmental Archaeology 143
Naseema Hosein-Hoey Lee A. Newsom
Cohoba 106 F
Joshua M. Torres
Falmouth (Jamaica) 148
Columbus's Landfall 108 Patricia E. Green
Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals 151
Conucos 112 Georgia L. Fox
Ieteke Witteveen and Basil A. Reid
The First Caribbean Farmers 152
Crab/Shell Dichotomy 114 Basil A. Reid
Joshua M. Torres and Basil A. Reid
The Florida Museum of Natural History 155
Cruxent, José María (1911–2005) 115 Elise V. LeCompte and Gifford J. Waters
Kathleen Deagan
Foundation for Marine Archaeology
Cuba (Historical Archaeology of) 116 of the Netherlands Antilles (STIMANA) 157
Theresa Singleton Jay B. Haviser
Cundall, Frank (1858–1937) 120 French Jesuit Mission Outpost (Dominica) 157
James Robertson Stephan Lenik
Curaçao (Former Netherlands Antilles) 121 French Colonial Ceramic Types 159
Jay B. Haviser R. Grant Gilmore III
De Boyrie Moya, Emil (1903–1967) 123 Geoinformatics 160
Clenis Tavárez María Basil A. Reid and Joshua M. Torres
De Hostos, Adolfo (1887–1982) 123 Golden Rock Site (St. Eustatius) 165
L. Antonio Curet Joanna K. Gilmore
Grenada 166 The International Council on Monuments
Scott M. Fitzpatrick and Sites (ICOMOS) 195
The Grenadines 167 Alissandra Cummins
Scott M. Fitzpatrick Island-Carib 196
Griddles 169 Basil A. Reid
Mark C. Donop
Grindstones 170 J
Joshua M. Torres and Basil A. Reid The Jamaica National Heritage Trust 199
Ground Sloths 171 Andrea Richards
H. Gregory McDonald Jamaica (Prehistory of) 201
Guadeloupe (Eastern) 173 Lesley-Gail Atkinson, Basil A. Reid, and
Maaike de Waal Alexandra Sajo
Guanín 174 The Jodensavanne and Cassipora Cemetery
Jeffrey P. Blick (Suriname) 205
Guano 176 Harrold Sijlbing
Kevin Farmer
Kabakaburi and Wyva Creek Shell Mounds
(Northwest Guyana) 208
Hematite 177 Mark G. Plew
Joshua M. Torres Kalinago Descendants of St. Vincent and the
Historical Archaeological Sites (Types) 177 Grenadines 209
Naseema Hosein-Hoey Kathy Martin
Historical Ecology 180 The Kalinago Territory (Dominica) 211
Scott M. Fitzpatrick Lennox Honychurch
Historic Bridgetown and Its Garrison (Barbados) 184 Kirby, I. A. Earle (1921–2005) 213
Kevin Farmer Kathy Martin
Historic Trails (Jamaica) 186
Ainsley Henriques L
Hondo River Settlement (Trinidad) 186 La Brea Pitch Lake (Trinidad) 214
E. Kofi Agorsah and Brinsley Samaroo Alexandra Sajo, Onika Mandela, and Basil A. Reid
Hospitals and Leprosaria in the Colonial Caribbean 188 La Isabela (Dominican Republic) 215
Joanna K. Gilmore José G. Guerrero
Lapidary Trade 218
I Basil A. Reid
La Reconnaissance Site (Trinidad) 219
The Institute of Jamaica 191
Neal H. Lopinot and Marcie L. Venter
Andrea Richards
Loyola (French Guiana) 221
The International Association for Caribbean
Anne-Marie Faucher and Allison Bain
Archaeology (IACA) 192
Basil A. Reid and Alissandra Cummins Luna Calderón, Fernando (1945–2005) 224
Clenis Tavárez María
The International Centre for the Study of the
Preservation and Restoration of Cultural
Property (ICCROM) 193 M
Alissandra Cummins Magens House Compound, Kongens Quarters
The International Council of Museums (ICOM) 194 (Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas) 226
Alissandra Cummins Douglas V. Armstrong
The Magnificent Seven Mansions (Port of Spain, The Ortoiroid 262
Trinidad) 228 Basil A. Reid and Richard T. Callaghan
Rudylynn De Four Roberts The Ostionan Ostionoid Subseries 262
The Maroons 230 L. Antonio Curet
Cheryl White The Ostionoid 264
Martinique 232 Basil A. Reid and Richard T. Callaghan
Benoît Bérard, Ryan Espersen, and Cheryl White
Matapi 235
Lesley-Gail Atkinson Pagán Perdomo, Dato (1921–2000) 266
The Meillacan Ostionoid Subseries 236
L. Antonio Curet Paleodemography 267
Mines 237
R. Grant Gilmore III The Palmettan Ostionoid Series 269
Jeffrey P. Blick, Emma K. Bate, and Charlene Dixon
Montserrat 238
Hutcheson
John F. Cherry and Krysta Ryzewski
Palo Seco (Trinidad) 273
Morban Laucer, Fernando (1921–2007) 242
Alexandra Sajo
The Peabody Museum of Natural History
Museo del Hombre Dominicano 243
(Yale University) 274
Roger H. Colten
The Museum of Antigua and Barbuda 244
Petersen, James B. (1954–2005) 276
The Museums Association of the Caribbean
Plazas and Bateys 277
(MAC) 245
Joshua M. Torres and Samuel M. Wilson
Alissandra Cummins
Port Antonio (Jamaica) 280
N Elizabeth Pigou-Dennis
The Nanny Town Maroons of Jamaica 247 Port Royal (Jamaica) 282
Cheryl White R. Grant Gilmore III and Basil A. Reid
The National Archaeological Anthropological Puerto Real (Haiti) 284
Memory Management Foundation (NAAM) 249 Gifford J. Waters
Ieteke Witteveen
The National Trust of Trinidad and Tobago 250
Basil A. Reid Rainey, Froelich G. (1907–1992) 286
Gifford J. Waters
Nevis 251
Marco Meniketti Rescue Archaeology 286
Quetta Kaye
Newton Burial Ground (Barbados) 254
Kevin Farmer Rock Art 287
Michele H. Hayward and Michael A. Cinquino
Nicholson, D. V. (1925–2006) 256
Reg Murphy Roth, Vincent (1889–1967) 290
Mark G. Plew and Jennifer Wishart
Nidhe Israel Synagogue and Mikvah (Barbados) 257
Alissandra Cummins Roth, Walter E. (1861–1933) 291
O Rouse, Benjamin Irving (1913–2006) 291
Origins of Indigenous Groups in the Northern Basil A. Reid and Roger H. Colten
Caribbean 259 Rum 293
L. Antonio Curet and Basil A. Reid Frederick H. Smith
S St. Vincent 326
Richard T. Callaghan
Saba 295
Strombus gigas (Queen Conch) 329
Corinne L. Hofman and Menno L. P. Hoogland
Peter L. Drewett
Saint Lucia 297
The Suazan Troumassoid (Suazey) 331
Corinne L. Hofman
Saint Lucia Archaeological and Historical Society
(SLAHS) 299
Winston F. Phulgence
Taíno Museum at White Marl (Jamaica) 333
The Saladoid 300
Corinne L. Hofman and Basil A. Reid
Taíno Settlement Ethnohistory 333
The Santa Rosa Carib Community, or Santa Rosa
Jeremiah Kaplan and R. Grant Gilmore III
First People's Community (Trinidad) 304
Trinidad and Tobago 335
Tracy Assing
Seafaring Simulations 305
The Troumassan Troumassoid 339
The Seville Sugar Plantation (British Colonial
Jamaica) 309
Douglas V. Armstrong
Sint Maarten (Former Netherlands Antilles) 311 Underwater Archaeology 341
Jay B. Haviser Margaret E. Leshikar-Denton
and Della A. Scott-Ireton
Sint Maarten Archaeological Center (SIMARC) 313
Sint Maarten National Heritage Foundation 314
Jay B. Haviser The Virgin Islands 349
Sloane, Sir Hans (1660–1753) 314 Brian D. Bates
Spanish Colonial Ceramic Types 315 W
R. Grant Gilmore III Willemstad (Curaçao) 351
Spanish Town (Jamaica) 316 Gertrudis J. M. Gehlen
James Robertson Williams, Denis (1923–1998) 353
St. Eustatius 320 Jennifer Wishart and Mark G. Plew
St. Eustatius Center for Archaeological Research Z
(SECAR) 322 Zemíes (Cemís) 355
R. Grant Gilmore III Alexandra Sajo and Peter E. Siegel
The St. Eustatius Historical Foundation 323
Joanna K. Gilmore
St. John Site (Trinidad) 325 Glossary 357
Basil A. Reid Notes on Contributors 371
1. The Caribbean, showing major sites discussed in Encyclopedia of Caribbean Archaeology xix
2.	Topographic map of the Caribbean xx
A.1.	Afro-Caribbean earthenware vessel forms from the Caribbean 32
A.2.	Map of raised-field areas in the Guianas 34
A.3.	Ridged raised fields in the Lower Mana in western French Guiana 35
A.4.	Large raised fields west of Kourou in French Guiana 35
A.5.	Precolonial sites on Anguilla 38
A.6.	Archaic sites on Antigua 41
A.7.	Advance of Arawakan speech communities from Amazonia into the Caribbean 43
A.8.	Ortoiroid and Casimiroid migration and colonization of the Caribbean 55
B.1.	Prehistoric archaeological sites on San Salvador, Bahamas 59
B.2.	Remains of "Banwari Man" 63
B.3.	Distribution of precolonial settlement sites, conch use sites, utilized caves, and environmental
sample locations in Barbados 65
B.4.	Front façade of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 68
B.5.	Barrancoid-influenced Saladoid adorno from Golden Grove, Tobago 70
B.6.	Wound-glass trade beads and a restrung necklace of glass and coral beads, Oranjestad,
St. Eustatius 71
B.7.	Students working at the Betty's Hope field project 72
B.8.	English, French, and Dutch bottles from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries 77
B.9.	Plan of Brimstone Hill Fortress in 1830 compiled from various sources 78
C.1.	Aerial view of the Caguana dance and ball courts 84
C.2.	Cannibal Indians, from a 1621 engraving 85
C.3.	Mancos Canyon in southwestern Colorado 86
C.4.	Two cast-iron cannon: an English Borgard pattern gun and a Swedish Finbanker 89
C.5.	Excavation and sand mining at Grand Bay, Carriacou 91
C.6.	Cayoid decorative techniques and motifs, St. Vincent 96
C.7.	Taíno (Chican Ostionoid) pottery and ceremonial objects 98
C.8.	Reconstructed chiefdoms in Hispaniola based on the names of caciques, as interpreted by
Pierre Charlevoix in 1730 101
C.9.	Location of ball court sites in Puerto Rico 102
C.10.	Guanahatabey in western Cuba 103
C.11.	Clay tobacco pipes excavated on St. Eustatius 105
C.12.	Snuff tube, wooden cohoba snuff tray, and vomiting spatula of manatee bone 107
C.13.	Detail of Coronelli's 1690 map Isole Antili, La Cuba, e La Spagnuola 108
C.14.	Reverse and obverse of a Henry IV blanca 110
C.15.	Photographs of the bronze D-ring and small bronze buckle excavated from San Salvador,
Bahamas 110
C.16.	A woman harvesting maishi chiki from a conuco in Curaçao 112
C.17.	Bell Tower at San Isidro, a former sugar plantation near Trinidad, Cuba 118
C.18.	Portion of the wall that once enclosed Old Havana 119
C.19.	A memorial plaque to Frank Cundall at the National Library of Jamaica 120
xii Encyclopedia of Caribbean Archaeology
D.1.	Researcher wearing protective equipment for working with ancient DNA from
archaeological samples 126
D.2.	House Area 1 of Drax Hall African Jamaican village 128
D.3.	Afro-Jamaican earthenware from Drax Hall, Jamaica 129
D.4.	James Edwin Duerden 130
D.5.	Wooden and stone duhos 131
D.6.	Dutch earthenwares 135
E.1.	East End Windy Hill ruins, St. John 137
E.2.	Example of Elenan Ostionoid pottery 138
E.3.	Aerial view of the Tibes Indigenous Ceremonial Center, Ponce, Puerto Rico 139
E.4.	Tin-enamel wares 142
F.1.	Street in Falmouth, Jamaica, drawn by Henry Bleby (1809–1882) 148
F.2.	Restoration of Falmouth House 149
F.3.	Sapodilla (Sapotaceae) 153
F.4.	French St. Onge ware flowerpot, late eighteenth century 159
G.1.	Recalculated digital elevation model of the Caribbean 161
G.2.	Selected sites in Trinidad within 500 meters of a river and/or coastline 162
G.3.	Location of Pleasures Estate Plantation and English Quarter Plantation on St. Eustatius 164
G.4.	Large stone with Amerindian petroglyphs located along one of Grenada's major river
systems 167
G.5.	Griddle fragments from Savanne Suazey, Grenada, AD 1000–1450 169
G.6.	Pestle/edge-ground cobbles from Puerto Rico and possible grinding stone or small metate
from Puerto Rico 170
G.7.	Representative examples of skulls of West Indian Megalonychid ground sloths 171
G.8.	Reconstruction of the appearance of Megalocnus rodens 172
G.9.	Guanín nose ring from Colombia similar to the nose ornaments worn by Taíno peoples
in the Caribbean 175
H.1.	View of some of the Grenadine islands showing shallow reef banks and lagoons 182
H.2.	Excavation of a precolonial archaeological site in the Caribbean showing evidence of intensive
exploitation of queen conch shells 183
H.3.	Aerial view of National Heroes Square in Bridgetown, Barbados 185
I.1.	Headquarters of the Institute of Jamaica 191
I.2.	Island-Carib colonization of the southern Caribbean 197
J.1.	Head office of the Jamaica National Heritage Trust 199
J.2.	Mapped prehistoric cave and midden sites in Jamaica 203
J.3.	J. Hollinger, Gesigt van de Jooden savane, in de Colonie van Suriname (A View of the Jewish
Savanna in the Colony of Suriname), late eighteenth century 205
J.4.	Beth Haim Cemetery, Jodensavanne, Suriname 206
K.1.	Sites associated with the Kalinago on St. Vincent 210
K.2.	Movement of Kalinago from former indigenous sites in Dominica in the eighteenth
K.3.	I. A. Earle Kirby 213
L.1.	La Brea Pitch Lake, Trinidad 215
L.2.	Location of La Isabela, Dominican Republic 216
L.3.	Elliot's and Royall's lapidary sites on Antigua 218
L.4.	Lopinot estate, Trinidad 219
L.5.	Fragments of dark green bottle glass found at the Lopinot estate 220
L.6.	Location of the Loyola archaeological site in French Guiana 222
L.7.	Loyola archaeological site with the kitchen/hospital building to the left 223
M.1.	Magens House compound 226
M.2.	Queens Royal College 229
Figures xiii
M.3.	Open house used to process manioc in Lower Oyapock, French Guiana 235
M.4.	Examples of Meillacan pottery 236
M.5.	Devastation of Montserratian landscape by pyroclastic flows from the Soufrière Hills
volcano 239
M.6.	Archaeological sites located and documented by the Survey and Landscape Archaeology on
Montserrat Project in 2010 240
M.7.	Museo del Hombre Dominicano, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic 243
M.8.	The Old Court House in St. John's, Antigua, that houses the Museum of Antigua and
Barbuda 244
N.1.	Nanny Town in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica 247
N.2.	Archaeological map of Nanny Town 248
N.3.	Headquarters of the National Archaeological Anthropological Memory Management
Foundation, Curaçao 250
N.4.	Major precolonial and colonial sites in Nevis 251
N.5.	Newton Burial Ground for the Enslaved looking south toward the Newton factory yard 255
N.6.	Desmond Vernon Nicholson 256
N.7.	Nidhe Israel Synagogue, Bridgetown, Barbados 257
O.1.	Benjamin Irving Rouse's time-space systematics showing the cultural evolution of indigenous
groups in the Caribbean 259
O.2.	Types of Ostionan Ostionoid (Redware) handles in Jamaica 263
O.3.	The Ostionoid in the northern Caribbean 265
P.1.	Example of Abaco Redware from the Long Bay site, San Salvador, Bahamas 270
P.2.	Example of Crooked Island Ware from the Long Bay Site, San Salvador, Bahamas 271
P.3.	Examples of Palmetto Plain rim sherds excavated in 2005 from the North Storr's Lake site,
San Salvador, Bahamas 272
P.4.	Pottery of the Palo Seco complex, Trinidad 273
P.5.	James B. Petersen 276
P.6.	Ceremonial center of Caguana, Puerto Rico 278
P.7.	In situ north wall of Jácanas site, Ponce, Puerto Rico 279
P.8.	Port Antonio, Jamaica, 1899 281
P.9.	Port Royal, Jamaica 283
P.10.	Puerto Real, Haiti 284
R.1.	Anthropomorphic petroglyphs from Puerto Rican rock art sites 288
R.2.	Zoomorphic and geometric images from Puerto Rican rock art sites 288
R.3.	Benjamin Irving Rouse 292
S.1.	Manatee bone snuff inhaler from Kelbey's Ridge site, Saba 296
S.2.	Burial F69-01 at Lavoutte, Saint Lucia 298
S.3.	Saladoid white-on-red vessel from the site of Morel, Guadeloupe 302
S.4.	Saladoid vessel with zoned-incised cross-hatched decorations from Morel, Guadeloupe 302
S.5.	Layout of Saladoid village at Blanchisseuse, north Trinidad 303
S.6.	Members of the Santa Rosa Carib Community in Arima, Trinidad, celebrate the Santa Rosa
S.7.	Computer simulations of drift voyages from the Canary Islands to the Americas in the month
of November 307
of January 307
S.9.	House yard site at Seville, Jamaica 310
S.10.	A mid-eighteenth-century engraving of Sir Hans Sloane 314
S.11.	Spanish earthenwares recovered from various late-eighteenth century sites on
St. Eustatius 316
S.12.	Location of Spanish Town, Jamaica 317
xiv Encyclopedia of Caribbean Archaeology
S.13.	Layout of Spanish Town, Jamaica, in the 1660s 318
S.14.	Removal of a large grindstone from the St. John, Trinidad, site 325
S.15.	Archaeological sites on St. Vincent 327
S.16.	Saint Lucia zoned-incised bowl found at the Escape site on St. Vincent 328
S.17.	Eastern part of Escape site, St. Vincent 328
S.18.	Ax adze made of conch, Silver Sands, Barbados 330
S.19.	Suazan Troumassoid vessel 331
T.1.	Depictions of Taíno houses in La Historia General y Natural de Indias, 1478–1557 (1851) 334
T.2.	Stone artifacts from Banwari Trace 336
T.3.	Troumassan Troumassoid colonization of the Caribbean 339
T.4.	Troumassan Troumassoid pottery 340
U.1.	Lillian Azevedo of the University of Southampton documenting a site with nine cannon off the
coast of Anguilla 342
U.2.	An anchor from the Norwegian-flagged Glamis, which was lost in 1913 343
U.3.	Excavation plan of Buildings 4 and 5 at Port Royal, including remains of a ship that wrecked
as it rammed through Building 4 during the 1692 earthquake 345
V.1.	The Virgin Island group 349
W.1.	Willemstad, Curaçao 351
W.2.	Denis Williams in his office at the Smithsonian Institution 354
We are indeed grateful to the authors of this volume, the editing of the Palo Seco and La Brea Pitch Lake (Trin-
whose seminal contributions made the Encyclopedia of idad) entries. Both Fitzpatrick and Boomert are hereby
Caribbean Archaeology a reality. Louise Mathurin, Alex- thanked for their unselfish contributions. We are grate-
andra Sajo, Onika Mandela, former archaeology research ful to Douglas V. Armstrong and Corinne L. Hofman for
assistants in the Department of History at The Univer- agreeing, at such short notice, to co-author the introduc-
sity of the West Indies (UWI), St. Augustine, should be tion. Zara Ali, in the Department of History at UWI,
commended for assisting with the formatting of several St. Augustine, helped with the collating and formatting
entries. Thanks to John Agard, head of the Department of citations in this chapter. She also assisted with the
of Life Sciences of UWI, St. Augustine, for granting us formatting of the glossary. Her indefatigable efforts are
permission to use the photograph of "Banwari Man." We well appreciated. Jeffrey P. Blick contributed a number
wish to thank Adrian Camps-Campins for allowing us of entries, one of which he co-authored with colleagues
use of one of the images of the "Magnificent Seven" his- working in the Bahamas. He deserves special mention
torical buildings in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. because he kindly agreed to write these entries at short
Laleta Davis-Mattis, former executive director of the Ja- notice. We wish to thank Peter L. Drewett, Georgia L.
maica National Heritage Trust, graciously provided us Fox, Cheryl White, Benoît Bérard, and Maria A. Nieves-
with a photograph of Hibbert House (the headquarters Colón for agreeing, also at short notice, to contribute
of the Trust), and Vivian Crawford, retired executive entries to the volume. During the copyediting phase of
director of the Institute of Jamaica, kindly furnished us the project, Professor Peter Drewett passed away. We
with a photograph of the institute. We thank them both use this opportunity to pay tribute to Professor Drewett
for their generous assistance. for his seminal contributions to Caribbean archaeology,
Thanks to Katherine Derrett and Pierre Chemin for particularly the archaeology of Barbados. We are grate-
their photography work at the St. Eustatius Center for ful to Alissandra Cummins, Clenis Tavárez María, Peter
Archaeological Research (SECAR). Courtney Linder- E. Siegel, Patricia E. Green, L. Antonio Curet, and Scott
man and Katrien Janin should be thanked for produc- M. Fitzpatrick for suggesting additional topics for the
ing illustrations for the volume while at SECAR. Ruud encyclopedia and writers for these topics. Also thanks
Stelten, who was formerly employed at SECAR, deserves to James Robertson for editorially tweaking the Notes
special commendation for producing a comprehensive on Contributors.
Caribbean map that shows the major archaeological We are especially grateful to Leiden University, The
sites discussed in the volume. Thanks to Daren Dhoray Reed Foundation Inc., and The University of the West In-
and Christopher Thomas of Campus IT Services, UWI, dies, St. Augustine, for providing much-needed financial
St. Augustine, and Christopher A. Riley, a graphic artist support for the encyclopedia. We thank the staff of the
in Trinidad and Tobago, for assisting with the conver- University Press of Florida for actively encouraging this
sion and improvement of several images. José G. Guer- project from beginning to end. Many thanks to the peer
rero's entry on La Isabela (Dominican Republic) was reviewers for taking the time to read and provide con-
translated into English by his wife, Raquel D. Vicini. L. structive comments on the first and second drafts of the
Antonio Curet translated into English all of the entries manuscript. Special thanks to Kate Babbitt for her com-
of fellow contributor Clenis Tavárez María. We grate- petence and thoroughness as she copyedited the volume.
fully acknowledge the important work of these two in- Finally, we place on record our deepest appreciation to
dividuals. our families for their patience and unwavering support
Scott M. Fitzpatrick helped with the editing of the while we sometimes worked late at night and early in the
Ground Sloths entry, while Arie Boomert assisted with morning to complete this major research publication.
Basil A. Reid and R. Grant Gilmore III
E. Kofi Agorsah Charlene Dixon Hutcheson
Douglas V. Armstrong Jeremiah Kaplan
Tracy Assing Quetta Kaye
Lesley-Gail Atkinson K. O. Laurence
Allison Bain Elise V. LeCompte
Emma K. Bate Stephan Lenik
Brian D. Bates Margaret E. Leshikar-Denton
Zachary J. Beier Neal H. Lopinot
Benoît Bérard George M. Luer
Jeffrey P. Blick Onika Mandela
Arie Boomert Kathy Martin
Bridget Brereton H. Gregory McDonald
Richard T. Callaghan Marco Meniketti
John F. Cherry Reg Murphy
Michael A. Cinquino Lee A. Newsom
Roger H. Colten Maria A. Nieves-Colón
Ivor Conolley Winston F. Phulgence
John G. Crock Elizabeth Pigou-Dennis
Alissandra Cummins Mark G. Plew
L. Antonio Curet Basil A. Reid
Kathleen Deagan Andrea Richards
Rudylynn De Four Roberts James Robertson
Maaike de Waal Stéphen Rostain
Mark C. Donop Krysta Ryzewski
Peter L. Drewett Alexandra Sajo
Ryan Espersen Brinsley Samaroo
Kevin Farmer Gerald F. Schroedl
Anne-Marie Faucher Della A. Scott-Ireton
Scott M. Fitzpatrick Peter E. Siegel
Georgia L. Fox Harrold Sijlbing
Gertrudis J. M. Gehlen Sherry-Ann Singh
Joanna K. Gilmore Theresa Singleton
R. Grant Gilmore III Frederick H. Smith
Patricia E. Green Ruud Stelten
José G. Guerrero Clenis Tavárez María
Jay B. Haviser Joshua M. Torres
Michele H. Hayward Marcie L. Venter
Ainsley Henriques Gifford J. Waters
Corinne L. Hofman Cheryl White
Lennox Honychurch Samuel M. Wilson
Menno L. P. Hoogland Jennifer Wishart
Naseema Hosein-Hoey Ieteke Witteveen
Caribbean archaeological research continues to expe- collection of drawings, maps, and diagrams; its extensive
rience exponential growth, as each year, Caribbean, bibliographies; and its glossary of terms contribute ad-
North American, and European scholars working in the ditional layers of valuable resources.
region publish dozens of monographs, journal articles,
and edited volumes. As a result, research topics have
become increasingly diverse and cutting edge, extend-
ing beyond the usual questions of colonization, adapta- The radiocarbon dates cited in the volume are cali-
tion, artifactual analysis, evolution, social and political brated. However, in those rare cases where there are un-
organization, and mythology (Ayubi and Haviser 1991; calibrated C14 dates, these will be clearly stated in the
Keegan 2000; Seigel 1989) to embrace emerging issues respective entries. The usual dating abbreviations used
such as historical ecology (Fitzpatrick and Keegan in the encyclopedia are BC and AD. Readers will notice
2007), geoinformatics (Reid 2008), paleodemography the occasional use of the dating abbreviation BP, a time
(Curet 2005), environmental archaeology (Newsom scale used in archaeology, geology and other scientific
and Wing 2004), seafaring simulations (Callaghan disciplines to specify when events in the past occurred.
2011), DNA (Lalueza-Fox et al. 2001), and archaeometry Because the "present" time changes, the standard prac-
(Hofman et al. 2008). While this large body of informa- tice is to use AD 1950 as the origin of the age scale.
tion is generally available, researchers may often find
it time consuming to locate specific data in disparate
Naming Prehistoric and Contact Period
formats, locations, and languages. The Encyclopedia of
Native Groups in the Caribbean
Caribbean Archaeology is a response to a growing need
for easily obtainable scholarly information on Carib- While some history books (Rogoziński 2000; Dookhan
bean archaeology. 2006) continue to refer to the Arawak and Carib as the
The alphabetized entries in the volume are eclectic, two major native groups that colonized the Caribbean,
accurately reflecting the many theoretical and method- the encyclopedia discounts this simplistic view by high-
ological approaches that are fundamental to Caribbean lighting multiple cultural groups that migrated to the
archaeological research. The topics cover a broad span region or evolved autochthonously into new native com-
of time, from the Ortoiroid sites of Banwari Trace and munities. On the basis of artifact types, the major prehis-
St. John in Trinidad, which both date to 7,000 years ago, toric groups identified by Caribbean archaeologists are
to the most recent topics in archaeological research, Ortoiroid, Casimiroid, Saladoid, Huecoid, Barrancoid,
such as archaeological heritage management (Siegel and Troumassan Troumassoid, Suazan Troumassoid, and
Righter 2011), and affiliate organizations of UNESCO in Ostionoid. While the practice of identifying "cultures"
the Caribbean (International Council on Monuments from archaeological remains is seen by many as hope-
and Sites 2006). A significant number of entries relate lessly inadequate (Jones 1997), there is presently no bet-
to the archaeological profiles of specific Caribbean and ter alternative, given that we are dealing with nonliterate
circum-Caribbean territories sites, areas of interest, his- peoples who existed thousands of years ago and who did
toric architecture, and the biographies of luminaries of not leave behind any tangible information about their
Caribbean archaeology, who are now deceased. Historic names or ethnic identities. Despite the significant chal-
architecture is included, as anything man-made, above lenges associated with ascribing names to contact period
or below the ground, is considered archaeological (see groups (Hulme 1993; Reid 2009), the volume attempts
Delle, Hauser, and Armstrong 2011). Many of the entries to clarify the use of the terms Arawak, Taíno, Ciboney,
are cross-referenced, enabling readers to easily access Guanahatabey, Island-Carib, and Kalinago in the con-
data on a variety of related topics. The volume's diverse text of Caribbean archaeology and ethnohistory.
xviii Preface
Conclusion Many, One People: The Historical Archaeology of Colonial Ja-
maica. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
The Encyclopedia of Caribbean Archaeology presents Dookhan, I. 2006. A Pre-Emancipation History of the West In-
Caribbean archaeology as a rapidly expanding area of dies. London: Longman Publishing for the Caribbean.
scholarship in which ideas are being actively deliber- Fitzpatrick, S. M., and W. F. Keegan. 2007. "Human Impacts
ated, discussed, and contested. Although the topics in and Adaptations in the Caribbean Islands: An Histori-
this volume pertain to the region, they are expected to cal Ecology Approach." Earth and Environmental Science:
Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 98: 29–45.
have considerable resonance and applicability wherever
Hofman, C. L., M.L.P. Hoogland, and A. L. van Gijn, eds. 2008.
archaeology is taught and practiced internationally. Al- Crossing the Borders: New Methods and Techniques in the
though not exhaustive in its treatment of Caribbean ar- Study of Archaeological Materials from the Caribbean. Tus-
chaeology, the encyclopedia provides a balanced repre- caloosa: University of Alabama Press.
sentation of the region by showcasing the Anglophone, Hulme, P. 1993. "Making Sense of the Native Caribbean." New
Spanish, Francophone, and Dutch Caribbean. Because West Indian Guide 67 (3–4): 189–220.
the volume contains contributions by many of the re- International Council on Monuments and Sites. 2006. Thematic
gion's leading experts, it will undoubtedly prove useful to Study: Rock Art of Latin America and the Caribbean. Paris:
archaeologists, heritage professionals, and archaeology ICOMOS.
Jones, I. 1997. The Archaeology of Ethnicity. New York: Routledge.
graduate students.
Keegan, W. F. 2000. "West Indian Archaeology. 3. Ceramic
Basil A. Reid and R. Grant Gilmore III Age." Journal of Archaeological Research 8 (2): 135–67.
Lalueza-Fox, C., F. Luna Calderon, F. Calafell, and J. Bertran-
petit. 2001. "MtDNA from Extinct Taínos and the Peopling
of the Caribbean." Annals of Human Genetics 65: 137–51.
References Cited Newsom, L., and E. Wing. 2004. On Land and Sea: Native
American Uses of Biological Resources in the West Indies.
Ayubi, E., and J. B. Haviser, eds. 1991. Proceedings of the Thir- Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
teenth International Congress for Caribbean Archaeology. Reid, B. A., ed. 2008. Archaeology and Geoinformatics: Case
Curaçao: AAINA. Studies from the Caribbean. Tuscaloosa: University of Ala-
Callaghan, R. T. 2011. "Patterns of Contact between the Is- bama Press.
lands of the Caribbean and the Surrounding Mainland as ———. 2009. Myths and Realities of Caribbean History. Tusca-
a Navigation Problem." In Islands in the Stream: Migration, loosa: University of Alabama Press.
Seafaring, and Interaction in the Caribbean, ed. A. Curet Rogoziński, J. 2000. A Brief History of the Caribbean: From the
and M. Hauser, 59–72. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Arawak and Carib to the Present. New York: Facts on File.
Press. Siegel, P. E. 1989. Early Ceramic Population Lifeways and Adap-
Curet, L. A. 2005. Caribbean Paleodemography: Population, tive Strategies in the Caribbean. Oxford: British Archaeo-
Culture History, and Sociopolitical Processes in Ancient logical Reports.
Puerto Rico. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. Siegel, P. E., and E. Righter. 2011. Protecting Heritage in the Ca-
Delle, J. A., M. W. Hauser, and D. W. Armstrong. 2011. Out of ribbean. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Figure 1. The Caribbean, showing major sites discussed in Encyclopedia of Caribbean Archaeology. Courtesy of R. Grant Gilmore III and Ruud Stelten.
Figure 2. Topographic map of the Caribbean. Courtesy of R. Grant Gilmore III and Ruud Stelten.
Caribbean Prehistoric and Historical Archaeology
Basil A. Reid, Corinne L. Hofman, R. Grant Gilmore III, and Douglas V. Armstrong
Caribbean archaeology can be broadly subdivided into the prehistoric and historic periods are contact period
two major time periods: prehistoric archaeology (5000 indigenous populations, such as the Taíno and Guana-
BC–1492) and historical archaeology (post-1492). Pre- hatabey in the northern Caribbean and the Island-Carib
historic archaeology includes studies relating to vari- in the southern Caribbean (Boomert 2000; Keegan 1992;
ous Amerindian peoples and cultures: the Ortoiroid, Keegan and Rodríguez Ramos 2007; Petersen 1997; Reid
Casimiroid, Saladoid, Huecoid, Barrancoid, Troumas- 2009; Rouse 1992).
san Troumassoid, Suazan Troumassoid, Ostionoid, and As elsewhere in the Americas, the focus of historical
Taíno. Caribbean prehistoric archaeology is based on a archaeology in the Caribbean begins with the arrival of
rich mosaic of migrations, cultural interactions, and so- Christopher Columbus in 1492. The combination of ar-
ciocultural complexities. chipelagic insularity, geographic variation, and the cul-
According to the traditional schema, prehistoric mi- tural diversity of indigenous populations set the stage
grations to the region started about 7,000 years ago with for extraordinary cultural complexity in the region dur-
the advent of Ortoiroid (Archaic) groups from South ing the historic period. In reviewing historical archae-
America, followed by movements by Casimiroid (Ar- ology in the Caribbean, Douglas Armstrong and Mark
chaic) groups from Central America 1,000 years there- Hauser define the region as a cultural "sea of diversity"
after. The next wave of migrants were the Huecoid, Sala- and describe a "complex historical landscape in which
doid, and Barrancoid, who came from South America local contexts punctuate global trends with unique ma-
between 800 and 200 BC and AD 350, respectively, and, terial expressions" (2009, 583). This introduction ex-
like their Archaic forerunners, established several indig- plores ways that historical archaeology has been used
enous communities in the Caribbean. However, recent to better understand the cultural contexts of the Carib-
revisions of this schema present a much more dynamic bean that resulted from the convergence of European,
picture involving processes of intensive mobility from Native American, African, and then Asian settlers in
various parts of South and Central America, intercul- the Caribbean (see also Armstrong and Hauser 2009;
tural dynamics (competition over resources, marriage Armstrong 2011a, 2011b). Although the specific histori-
alliances), and local developments (Hofman and Bright cal path of each island is different, they share common
2010; Hofman and van Duijvenbode 2011; Rodríguez Ra- themes that can be explored through archaeology. These
mos 2010). As such, Huecoid may have developed locally themes include the decimation or assimilation of indig-
from Archaic groups, but this development may have enous societies and the emergence of colonial societies;
included influences from Central America (the Isthmo- expressions of economic power and dominance that the
Columbian area) or may have been a separate migra- materialization of substantial agro-industry and the shift
tion from the Central or South American mainland to sugar- and coffee-based plantation systems involving
(Rodríguez Ramos 2010). Similarly, around AD 600, the large-scale enslavement of African laborers created.
the Ostionoid (who eventually evolved into the "Taíno") Colonial societies were supported by massive fortifica-
developed from a combination of Archaic and Saladoid- tions, such as Brimstone Hill Fortress (St. Kitts) and
Huecoid cultural influences. The Troumassan Trou- Castillo San Felipe del Morro (Puerto Rico), that were
massoid, Suazan Troumassoid, Ostionoid, and Taíno designed to protect them from naval invasions, enforce
were not migrants but were indigenous cultures that the authority of each colonial power, and subjugate its la-
developed autochthonously in the region. Straddling boring population. The inherent inequality in repressive
2 B. A. Reid, C. L. Hofman, R. G. Gilmore III, and D. V. Armstrong
labor systems also left their marks on the cultural land- and later the Arawak and Island-Carib) migrated from
scape in the form of sites of rebellion and struggles for South America. Over the years, the presence of several
freedom. The more subtle material records of life reflect indigenous communities in the circum-Caribbean has
the dynamic processes of cultural genesis and transfor- provided useful ethnographic information that is help-
mation in house sites and communities. Figure 1 shows ing to unlock the narratives of the precolonial past. Cen-
a map of the Caribbean that indicates many of the major tral America territories (especially Belize, the Yucatán
sites discussed in the volume. Peninsula, and Nicaragua) are also part of the circum-
However, before surveying the region's prehistoric Caribbean. Because of their cultural connections to the
and historical archaeology, it is important to examine islands (as a result of prehistoric migration and trade),
Caribbean geography, given its significant role in both Central America also has an important place in Carib-
colonization and migration. bean archaeology (Callaghan 1990, 1995, 2001; Hofman
and Bright 2010; Murphy et al. 2000; Rodríguez Ramos
Caribbean Geography 2010).
The topography of the Caribbean islands is very di-
The Caribbean region consists of the Caribbean Sea, its verse because of variations in underlying geology (Wil-
islands, and the surrounding mainland coasts. The lat- son 2007, 9). The Caribbean is part of a tectonic plate
ter is usually referred to as the circum-Caribbean (Fig- that includes Central America and is creeping slowly
ure 2). The island chain of the Caribbean is divided into westward at about 4 centimeters a year. The fault-block
three parts: the Greater Antilles, the Lesser Antilles, and mountains of the Greater Antilles are continuations of
the Bahamian Archipelago (Rouse 1992, 3). The Greater the cordillera systems of Central America, and a tec-
Antilles are large, mountainous, and mostly sedimentary tonic plate boundary between the expanding Atlantic
islands in the northwestern portion of the Caribbean plate and the Caribbean plate accounts for the volcanism
Sea. They include Cuba, Hispaniola (Haiti and the Do- and uplift of the arc of the Lesser Antilles (Wilson 2007,
minican Republic), Jamaica, and Puerto Rico. The Lesser 9–10).
Antilles constitutes a long arc of smaller, mostly volcanic Because of the region's tropical climate, oceanogra-
islands in the Caribbean Sea extending in a north-south phy, and proximity to various physiographically distinct
direction from the Virgin Islands to Trinidad and in an land masses, the Caribbean possesses amazing biodiver-
east-west direction from Margarita to Aruba, off the sity. The region's rich mosaic of natural environments
northern coast of Venezuela. The north-south portion of supports a rich array of fauna and flora that offered a
the Lesser Antilles has been divided into the Windward wide variety of resource habitats to early native inhabit-
and Leeward Islands, because of their geographical loca- ants. It is home to 2.3 percent of the world's endemic
tion in relation to the prevailing easterly trade winds. plant species and 2.9 percent of endemic vertebrate spe-
The Windward Islands range south from Dominica to cies—enormously significant percentages considering
Grenada; the Leeward Islands arc in a generally westerly that the Caribbean contributes only 0.15 percent of the
direction from Guadeloupe to the Virgin Islands. Two earth's surface. In addition, there are over 1,500 species
groups of tiny coral islands make up the Bahamian Ar- of fish, over 630 mollusk species, and numerous echino-
chipelago. The Bahamas lie north of Cuba, and the Turks derms, crustaceans, sea mammals, sponges, birds, and
and Caicos Islands are north of Hispaniola. The Leeward reptiles in marine, freshwater, brackish, and terrestrial
Antilles, an east-west chain of islands close to the South environments (Fitzpatrick and Keegan 2007, 31–32).
American coast, are arid because most of the precipi- In the Lesser Antilles, the people's diets were almost
tation from trade winds is concentrated on the Wind- always linked to ocean resources, whereas in the inte-
ward Islands of the Lesser Antilles. Three small islands rior of the large islands people often had a wholly ter-
(Margarita, Coche, and Cubagua) form the Venezuelan restrial food supply (Wilson 2007, 9). All four islands
state of Nueva Esparta, and some seventy others, most of of the Greater Antilles—Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and
which are uninhabited, belong to Venezuela. Puerto Rico—have fertile soils that were capable of sup-
The circum-Caribbean area includes the zone along porting dense pre-colonial populations (Curet 2005;
the Caribbean coast of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Rouse 1992). The two largest islands, Cuba and Hispan-
Suriname, and French Guiana. These territories are iola, have yielded remains of ground sloths, which the
considered to be important for Caribbean archaeology first settlers may have hunted to extinction (Harrington
because the majority of early Caribbean indigenous 1921, 165, 409; Veloz Maggiolo 1976, 25). The Bahamas are
peoples (the Ortoiroid, Saladoid, Huecoid, Barrancoid, rich in marine resources but lack good agricultural soils
Introduction: Caribbean Prehistoric and Historical Archaeology 3
(Rouse 1992). The Lesser Antilles possessed resources lonial peoples, it was far easier to migrate from South
rich offshore habitats; some of the shallow shelves and America (Callaghan 1990).
banks surrounding the islands were much larger than
the islands themselves (Hofman and Hoogland 2011; Prehistoric Archaeology
Keegan et al. 2008; Wilson 2007, 9).
The Caribbean Sea is the second largest sea and the While some history texts (Rogoziński 1999; Dookhan
seventh largest body of water in the world. It encom- 2006) continue to refer to the Arawak and Carib as the
passes an area of 2,754,000 square kilometers (1,063,000 two major Amerindian groups or peoples, Caribbean
square miles) and stretches 1,700 kilometers north-south archaeologists have identified multiple cultural groups
from Florida to Panama and 2,300 kilometers east-west based on artifact types (Reid 2009). The practice of
from the Antillean chain of islands to the Yucatán (Fitz- attaching an identity to particular artifacts or monu-
patrick and Keegan 2007, 31). However, the Caribbean ments, which are most frequently expressed in terms
Sea is small by the world's standards, and traversing it of the ethnic groups (or people) who produced them,
would not have posed a significant challenge for early has been the center of archaeological inquiry (Hides
natives from Central and South America. To put it in 1996; Reid 2004, 2009). While many see identifying
perspective, after 2000 BC, early Polynesians success- cultures using archaeological remains and associating
fully crossed the Pacific Ocean, where islands are some- them with past ethnic groups as hopelessly inadequate
times thousands of kilometers apart (Fagan 2005; Reid (Jones 1997), there is no better alternative at present,
2009). Most of the islands in the Lesser Antilles are given that we are dealing with nonliterate groups, com-
within sight of each other, which would have facilitated munities, and societies that existed thousands of years
island-hopping (Rouse 1992; Torres and Rodríguez Ra- ago, and left behind no tangible information about
mos 2008), but radiocarbon dates indicate there were their names or ethnic identities. Caribbean archaeolo-
also direct jumps, which Callaghan (2003) described as gists have sought to circumvent the problem of names
"chance discoveries," from the South American main- by using artifactual assemblages relating primarily to
land to the northern Leeward Islands, the United States pottery and lithic artifact types to identify the pres-
Virgin Islands, and eastern Puerto Rico (Keegan 1992; ence or absence of major cultural groups (Rouse 1992;
Haviser 1997; Hofman and Hoogland 1999; Petersen Petersen, Hofman, and Curet. 2004). This is called
1996; Reid 2009). the culture-historical approach and can be defined as
The currents and trade winds in the Caribbean fa- an attempt to use approaches that traditional histori-
vor travel from south to north and from east to west. ans use or to simply project history back into periods
A south equatorial current that flows across the South when there was no writing (Drewett 1999). In other
Atlantic from Africa is deflected northward along the words, the culture-historical approach attempts to "re-
coast of the Guianas. The Orinoco River, with its mas- construct" the history of people based on detailed lo-
sive outpouring of fresh water at its mouth, helps divert cal sequences of artifacts and information about their
part of the south equatorial current northward (Rouse geographic distribution (Drewett 1999).
1992). The remainder of the south equatorial current Most research in the West Indies is structured by Ir-
continues in a westerly direction along the coast of ving Rouse's (1992) method of time-space systematics
South America and northward past Central America (Keegan 2000, 2007). In this system, the characteristic
into the Gulf of Mexico and the Florida Straits. Trade modes of pottery at a site have been used to identify a
winds, which blow steadily from the northeast during style that usually bears the name of the first site where
most of the year, reinforce the westward-moving cur- it was described (Keegan 2000). Pottery and stone tools
rents (Rouse 1992). Columbus's first, second, third, and are the most ubiquitous artifacts found at Caribbean
fourth voyages took advantage of these ocean currents prehistoric sites, hence their importance in Rouse's
and prevailing trade winds; they all entered the region time-space systematics. According to this classification,
from the northeast or east. A countercurrent moves local pottery and lithic styles that share enough simi-
eastward along the southern side of the Greater Antilles larities are grouped into subseries (denoted by an -an
that would have facilitated travel from the Yucatán to suffix), and subseries are grouped into series (denoted
the Greater Antilles. Callaghan's computer simulations, by an -oid suffix) (Rouse 1992, 182; Keegan 2000). Rouse
which use winds, currents, and other conditions of the (1992, 182) used this classification to identify "peoples"
natural environment as variables, suggest that while the and "cultures," which in his view were "two sides of the
route from the Yucatán to Cuba was possible for preco- same coin, one consisting of a local population group
and the other of the cultural traits that define the group. loz Maggiolo and Vega 1982). Because of this evidence,
For example, Saladoid is a series and Cedrosan is a sub- a more appropriate characterization of the Archaic Age
series of the Saladoid series. Despite minor adjustments would be a combination of highly mobile and more sed-
through the years, this system of classification is an in- entary communities with a mixed marine-terrestrial ori-
trinsic part of scholarly research in the Caribbean (Reid ented subsistence that included plant management and
2011). But even as we adopt the series and subseries incipient domestication of tubers. Mobility was often
approach, we should always be mindful that within determined by resource availability and season, and the
this broad classification, several local groups emerged neolithization process on the islands was gradual rather
throughout the Caribbean that are identified by their than sudden.
distinctive artifact styles (Hofman and Hoogland 2004; Caribbean archaeologists commonly refer to the two
Reid 2009). earliest Archaic Age groups as Ortoiroid and Casimiroid.
The Ortoiroid, who originated from northwest Guyana
Archaic Age (Wilson 2007) and were assigned their name from the
In Caribbean archaeology, Archaic is generally con- shell midden of Ortoire in southeast Trinidad (Rouse
sidered to a developmental stage characterized by a 1992), first settled Banwari Trace and St. John in Trini-
marine-oriented subsistence followed by a terrestrial dad approximately 7,000 years ago, eventually moving to
hunting-based economy (Goodwin 1978; Keegan 1994). Puerto Rico. Callaghan's (1990) computer simulations,
Traditionally, Archaic sites are distinguished by an abun- however, suggest that some Ortoiroid groups may have
dance of marine mollusks, the absence of pottery, and jumped directly from South America to the Greater
the use of ground stone, coral, and shell tools. Until re- Antilles. The artifacts from Banwari Trace and St. John
cently, the absence of both pottery and agriculture was include tools of bones and stone related to fishing and
considered a major defining characteristic of Archaic collecting, canoe building, plant processing, and gen-
peoples in the region. However, increasing evidence of eral cutting and scraping (Boomert 2000; Wilson 2007).
pottery-making and plant manipulation among several Many of the ground stone tools appear to have been used
Archaic Age communities has invalidated this idea. It for pounding and processing hard and fibrous vegetable
is now generally agreed that pottery-making and in- matter (Wilson 2007).
cipient agriculture began in the Caribbean during the Taking their name from the archaeological type site
Archaic Age rather than the early Ceramic Age (Hung of Casimira in southwestern Hispaniola (Rouse 1992),
2005; Rodríguez Ramos and Pagán-Jiménez 2006; Ro- the Casimiroid migrated from Belize around 4000 BC
driguez Ramos 2007; Tabío 1984; Keegan 1994; Keegan and colonized Cuba and Hispaniola. Casimiroid stone
and Rodríguez Ramos 2007; Reid 2009). Couri I and tools, which are similar to those of the Ortoiroid, in-
Pascade II in Haiti, the Playa Blanca and Jobos sites in clude sophisticated blades used as spear points to hunt
Puerto Rico, El Caimito at the La Caleta site in eastern sloths and manatees; conical pestles and mortars to pre-
Dominican Republic, and La Luz, El Nispero and Ca- pare food; a variety of possible ritual implements such
tunda in Cuba are notable examples of pottery-bearing as stone balls, disks, and dagger-like objects; and elabo-
Archaic sites (Rouse 1941, 1952, 1992; Reid 2009; Keegan rate stone beads and shell jewelry. Casimiroid sites,
and Rodríguez Ramos 2007). Unlike Saladoid pottery, which date around 2660 BC, have been identified on
which has a highly formalized grammar (Roe 1989), the the north and south coasts of Haiti (Keegan 1994). In
pots at Archaic sites seem to reflect a period of experi- the Dominican Republic, Casimiroid sites are located
mentation during which different pastes and decorative in river valleys and along the coast. It appears that Casi-
techniques were explored (Jouravleva 2002; Keegan and miroid ground stone tools in south-central Cuba were
Rodríguez Ramos 2007). Botanical studies that inves- first shaped by flaking, then by pecking and grinding
tigate preserved starch grains on grinding tools have (Keegan 1994). There is growing evidence of interac-
demonstrated that virtually all of the plants that were tions among Archaic Age communities inhabiting
supposedly introduced during the Ceramic Age by the Puerto Rico to the northern Leeward Islands, with the
Saladoid or Huecoid were already being cultivated by sites of Maruca (Puerto Rico), Whitehead's Bluff (An-
their Archaic predecessors (Newsom 1993; Keegan 1994; guilla), several sites on St. Martin, Plum Piece (Saba)
Acevedo-Rodríguez et al. 1996, 50; Hung 2005; Curet, and divers localities on Antigua cited as prime examples
Dawdy, and La Rosa Corzo 2005; Tabío 1984; Pagán-Ji- of such cultural exchanges (Bonnissent 2008; Crock
ménez 2011; Rouse and Alegría 1990; Rodríguez Ramos 2000; Hofman, Bright, and Hoogland 2006; Wilson
2007; Rodríguez Ramos and Pagán-Jiménez 2006; Ve- 2007).
Saladoid, Huecoid, and Barrancoid ably played an important role in shaping the Saladoid
advance, their adaptation to the Caribbean environ-
Saladoid
ment, and their culture generally (Curet 2005; Hofman,
Saladoid takes its name from the archaeological type Bright, and Rodríguez Ramos 2010; Keegan and Rodrí-
site of Saladero in the Orinoco valley of Venezuela guez Ramos 2007; Reid 2004; Wilson 2007).
(Boomert 2000; Keegan 2000; Rouse 1992). In the Ca- Although the Saladoid experienced a veritable boom
ribbean, the archaeological manifestations of agricul- around AD 400, Saladoid culture in the islands came
tural expansion, known in the Spanish-language lit- to an end between AD 600 and 800 (Hofman et al.
erature as an Agro Ceramic period, is associated with 2011; Keegan 2000; Reid 2009). There are indications,
the Saladoid series (Allaire 2003). While their Archaic however, that Saladoid in the northern Lesser Antilles
predecessors were engaged in incipient agriculture and might have existed beyond AD 800. The Saladoid site of
experimental pottery-making, the Saladoid developed Golden Rock in St. Eustatius, for example, was settled
full-scale horticulture (based heavily on the cultivation until around AD 900 (Versteeg and Schinkel 1992). Sala-
of a variety of tubers) and a well-developed ceramic doid distinctive pottery styles of red, white-on-red, black
production (Rouse 1992; Veloz Maggiolo 1997). They and polychrome paint and zone-incised cross hatchings
also lived in large, permanent villages and interacted have been the primary benchmarks that archaeologists
with their environments and neighbors in unique ways use to trace the migratory route of the Saladoid from
(Hofman and Hoogland 2004, 2011; Hofman et al. 2007; northeast South America to the eastern extremity of the
Wilson 2007). Greater Antilles, although most of the pottery in Sala-
The origins of the people of the Saladoid series have doid sites in the region is undecorated (Keegan 2000),
traditionally been traced to the Orinoco River in north- and there is much more heterogeneity between the dif-
eastern Venezuela (Rouse 1989; Reid 2009). As early as ferent Saladoid assemblages than was previously thought
2100 BC, villages of agriculturalists who used pottery (Hofman and Hoogland 2004).
vessels to cook their food had been established along The Saladoid peoples practiced a mixed broad-spec-
the middle Orinoco. During the ensuing 2,000 years, trum economy that included root crop horticulture, the
they probably expanded downriver and outward along hunting of land animals, fishing, and mollusk collect-
the Orinoco tributaries (Keegan 1992; Reid 2009). It was ing (Keegan 1999; Petersen 1997). The presence of clay
previously accepted that they moved into the islands of griddles suggests that bitter manioc was cultivated for
the Lesser Antilles in a stepping-stone fashion (Rouse cassava bread at this time, as it was at contact (Veloz
1992). However, recent research suggests that Saladoid Maggiolo 1997). However, recent starch grain research
communities entered the insular Caribbean between suggests that these griddles were used to prepare mul-
800 and 200 BC in a far more dispersed way than was tiple root crops and plants (Pagán-Jiménez and Rodrí-
previously thought. While a significant number of Sala- guez Ramos 2007). Saladoid technology was simple and
doid migrants may have island-hopped from South was apparently available to everyone (Keegan 2000). Be-
America into the Caribbean, archaeological evidence sides pottery, there is evidence for wood-, stone-, bone-,
also points to the likelihood of direct jumps from South and shell-working, as well as lapidary trade and weaving
America to islands of the northern Caribbean such as (Righter 1997; Keegan 2000). Particularly at the onset of
Montserrat, St. Martin, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin this period, a vast network of semi-precious stone arti-
Islands (Hofman and Hoogland 1999; Petersen 1996; facts and raw material circulated through the archipelago
Keegan 2000; Haviser 1997; Reid 2009). However, be- (Hofman et al. 2007). Some settlements specialized in
cause of its close proximity to South America, Trinidad certain materials, exchanging them for goods from other
and Tobago would conceivably have been among the locales. It is generally inferred that the Saladoid had an
first places of contact in the Caribbean for many Sala- egalitarian or "tribally based" society (Curet 1996; Siegel
doid groups. Radiocarbon dates obtained from the Palo 1992), but alternatives have been postulated that range
Seco and Cedros sites of Trinidad suggest that commu- from theories about Big Man societies to theories that
nities of the Saladoid series occupied the island by the suggest hierarchically more complex societies (Boomert
third to second century cal. BC (Boomert 2000, 131). 2000; Hofman and Hoogland 2004; Petersen 1996). Sal-
In 2004, the Saladoid site of Lovers' Retreat (Tobago) adoid villages are characterized by thick middens with
yielded an early radiocarbon date of 770 to 380 years shell and crab remains. Dog burials are characteristic of
BC (Reid 2005). Saladoid interactions with Archaic Age the onset of the Saladoid period. In the Puerto Rico area
peoples who were already living in the islands prob- and on Morel, Guadeloupe, numerous dogs have been
found buried among humans with shell and stone para- lower Orinoco River in Venezuela (Drewett 1991; Rouse
phernalia as burial goods (Hofman et al. 2004). 1992). Like the Saladoid, the Barrancoid were villagers,
potters, farmers of cassava and other root crops, and
Huecoid expert boat builders. The Barrancoid followed the Sala-
Huecoid ceramics have been found in Puerto Rico, Vi- doid migrants and are thought to have developed out
eques, the northern Lesser Antilles, as well as on Grenada. of a local Saladoid tradition in Venezuela between 1500
The series is named after the type site of La Hueca on the BC and 1000 BC (Reid 2009). The mechanisms by which
island of Vieques, immediately east of Puerto Rico. The Barrancoid influences appear on (or became associated
main characteristics of Huecoid decorated pottery are with) Saladoid pottery remain poorly understood. The
curvilinear-incised zones, sometimes filled with punc- mixed occurrence of Saladoid and Barrancoid pottery
tation or cross-hatching. Huecoid potters did not paint in Venezuela, Guianas, Trinidad, the Windward Islands,
their ceramics; instead, they rubbed white or red paint and on some islands as far north as Puerto Rico and Vi-
onto the zoned-incised or zoned cross-hatched designs. eques suggests that between AD 350 and 650 Barrancoid
The latter is more predominant in Puerto Rican and Vi- styles were widely adopted by Saladoid potters (Boomert
eques Huecoid ceramics (Chanlatte Baik 1981, 1984; Hof- 2003) or that the Barrancoid were able to successfully
man 1999). Ceramic vessels are characteristically shaped colonize much of the southern Caribbean as a result of
like the body of an aquatic animal (a fish or a turtle) and intensive trade and seafaring activities. In many ways,
have a zoomorphic adorno on the head side and curvi- Barrancoid ceramics are an elaboration of previous Sala-
linear incisions on the tail (Hofman and Jacobs 2000, doid ceramic styles. Barrancoid pottery has been charac-
2001). Huecoid communities in Vieques and Puerto also terized as the "baroque" phase of Saladoid stylistic evo-
produced unique carved-stone bird head pendants from lution and is typically represented by modeled incised
semi-precious materials, such as serpentine (Chanlatte decoration on handles; adornos with anthropomorphic
Baik and Narganes Storde 2005; Rodríguez Ramos 2010). and zoomorphic hands, feet, faces; and incense burners
Huecoid assemblages in the northern Lesser Antilles are (Reid 2009).
often found mixed with Saladoid assemblages, and con-
flicting stratigraphic data and radiocarbon dates from Troumassoid
these sites have led to the "La Hueca" debate about the
Troumassan Troumassoid
origin and character of the Huecoid series and its rela-
tionship to the Saladoid series (Oliver 1999). Unlike the Ortoiroid, Casimiroid, Saladoid, Huecoid
Recently, the Huecoid series has been interpreted as and Barrancoid series, the Troumassoid and Suazoid de-
a separate development from the Archaic with poten- veloped locally in the islands. Recently, the Troumassoid
tial influences from Central America (Rodríguez Ramos and Suazoid were relabeled as Troumassan Troumassoid
2010). In the Caribbean, the Huecoid probably competed and Suazan Troumassoid, respectively. The Troumas-
over resources with both Archaic and Saladoid commu- san Troumassoid, which is named after the type site of
nities (Hofman et al. 2011). This competition resulted Troumassée in Saint Lucia, culturally evolved from the
in emulative behavior that is reflected in the rich mid- Saladoid in the Lesser Antilles and was culturally influ-
dens of sites such as La Hueca and Punta Candelero. It enced by the Barrancoid. The Troumassan Troumassoid
has been suggested by Hofman et al. (2011) that an early timeline is AD 500–1000. The best evidence for the ini-
interaction sphere between Archaic, Huecoid, and Sala- tial transition from Saladoid to Troumassan Troumas-
doid communities existed in northern Lesser Antilles soid comes from Martinique, where the L'Espérance
between 800 BC and AD 200 and that subsequently, all style emerged (Allaire 1977). The major characteristic
other islands of the Lesser Antilles were increasingly in- of this style is a sudden simplification of pottery shapes
habited. A recent reevaluation of the ceramic assemblage and decoration (Allaire 2003). Specific to this subseries
from Pearls on Grenada confirmed that the site bears a is a type of flat clay griddle with a raised triangular rim,
Huecoid component, which suggests that this settlement suggesting the continuity of root crop cultivation (Al-
may also been part of the early northeastern Caribbean laire 1977). For the most part, zoomorphic adornos and
interaction sphere. loop handles disappeared during this period. Vessels are
fitted with legs, pedestals, or annular (or ring-shaped)
Barrancoid bases (Hofman et al. 2011; Keegan 2000). These stylistic
The people who manufactured Barrancoid pottery were trends are well represented on Saint Lucia and on other
named after the site of Barrancas on the banks of the Windward Islands (Bright 2011; Rouse and Allaire 1978;
McKusick 1960). Clay spindle whorls first appeared at painted bodies, finished surfaces, and repeated geomet-
this time, which suggests increased cotton cultivation. ric designs in black and red paint over the shoulders
Local societies made specific adaptations to their islands and incisions) (Boomert 2000; Bullen 1965), challenges
that enabled the Troumassan Troumassoid to expand the notion of Suazey technological deterioration. The
their territory. Suazan Troumassoid persisted in some of the southern
Troumassan Troumassoid culture appears to have de- Lesser Antilles until the contact period (Hofman and
veloped differently in the northerly Leeward and Virgin Bradford 2011). Cultural traits that are reminiscent of
Islands than in the more southerly Windward Islands Suazey pottery can still be seen on contemporary Afro-
(Boomert 2003). In Guadeloupe and the Leeward Is- Caribbean earthenware in the Caribbean (Hofman and
lands, a subseries named Mamoran Troumassoid (named Bright 2004).
after the type site Mamora Bay on Antigua) emerged in
AD 800 and lasted until 1200 (Rouse 1992). Mamoran Taíno
ceramics present some Cedrosan Saladoid elements, At the time of European contact in 1492, three major
although these became less over time. The Troumassan cultural groups were reported to be present in the Ca-
Troumassoid did not extend to the Virgin Islands. In ribbean: Taíno, Island-Carib, and Guanahatabey. The
these islands, Magens Bay ceramics display striking sim- Taíno (AD 1200–1500) inhabited much of the northern
ilarities with the ceramics of eastern Puerto Rico, where Caribbean (especially in the Greater Antilles) at the time
Ostionoid societies were beginning to emerge (Allaire of Spanish contact in 1492, They produced a variety of
1997). As a result, these ceramics are generally classified pottery styles relating to the Ostionoid series, the lat-
as the Elenan Ostionoid series (Allaire 1997). ter of which developed autochthonously in the north-
ern Caribbean from AD 600–1200. The Ostionoid series
Suazan Troumassoid was named after the type site of Ostiones in Puerto Rico
The Suazan Troumassoid (also called Suazey) take their (Rouse 1992; Keegan 2000). Various pottery subseries
name from the Savanne Suazey site on Grenada, which have traditionally been included in the Ostionoid se-
succeeded the Troumassan Troumassoid series in the ries, namely Ostionan, Elenan, Meillacan, Chican, and
southern Lesser Antilles around AD 1000. Suazan Trou- Palmettan (Rouse 1992; Keegan 1992). However, this
massoid pottery is characterized by simple and bulky classification is being challenged by some scholars, who
plain vessels, scratched surfaces, finger-indented rims, prefer an analysis of independent developments, which
and finger-painted red and incised wares. They also oc- they refer to as Ostionoid, Mellaicoid, and Chicoid (Ro-
casionally contain flat adornos of human heads with dríguez Ramos 2010). Settlement remains suggest that
flaring pierced ears (Allaire 1997; Bright 2011). Footed Late Ceramic Age groups in the Greater Antilles were
griddles, which were first introduced in the Troumas- active farmers, potters, and villagers and that they had
san Troumassoid subseries, are also common in the Sua- socially complex societies based on extensive interac-
zan Troumassoid subseries. Other Suazan Troumassoid tion networks (Curet and Stringer 2010; Hofman and
items include clay spindle whorls and loom weights, (fe- Hoogland 2011; Rodríguez Ramos 2010).
male) figurines, roller stamps, stone pestles, shell celts In order to capture the plurality of Taíno society that
and gouges, and clay tripods and cylinders; the latter existed at contact, Caribbean archaeologists have devel-
may have been incense burners (Allaire 1997; Bright oped classifications such as Classic, Western, and East-
2011; Bullen and Bullen 1968; Hofman et al. 2011; Keegan, ern Taíno (Rouse 1992). Taíno in both Puerto Rico and
Hofman, and Hoogland 2007). Hispaniola are called Classic Taíno. Their societies were
The impression from the literature is that Troumas- characterized by the highest level of sociopolitical de-
san Troumassoid and Suazan Troumassoid ceramics velopment, as evidenced by the presence of ball courts,
are crude (Allaire 1977; Rouse 1992; Keegan, Hofman, stone-lined plazas, and conucos. Taíno communities of
and Hoogland 2007) As a result, Suazan Troumassoid less social complexity that lived elsewhere in the north-
ceramics are sometimes viewed as representing a gen- ern Caribbean are referred to as Western and Eastern
eral decline in technological production and artistic Taíno (Rouse 1992). It was generally assumed that the
style from the earlier Saladoid and Troumassan Trou- Ostionoid/Taíno evolved from the Saladoid (Rouse
massoid traditions, though continuities exist. However, 1992; Wilson 1997) with some influences from the Casi-
the presence of fine ware in the Suazan Troumassoid miroid (Archaic) peoples in eastern Hispaniola (Rouse
subseries, which may be affiliated with what has been 1992; Keegan 1994). However, alternative theories that
called the Caliviny style (which is characterized by red- strongly underscore the role of Archaic Age groups in
the development of the Ostionoid/Taíno have been gain- and woven cotton, carved wood, gold, and guanin (a
ing broad acceptance among Caribbean archaeologists gold alloy) (Lovén 1935; Reid 2009). The trade objects
(Curet 2005; Chanlatte Baik 1986; Keegan and Rodrí- most prominent in the archaeological record are elabo-
guez Ramos 2007; Reid 2009; Rodríguez Ramos 2010). rate ceramics, such as anthropomorphic and zoomor-
The name Taíno is currently under heavy scrutiny be- phic effigy bottles, carved stone objects, shell objects,
cause the term often masks the diversity of peoples and and ritual paraphernalia (Hofman and Hoogland 2011;
cultures that inhabited the islands at the time of contact Mol 2007; Ostapkowicz et al. 2011; Wilson 1990).
(Rodríguez Ramos 2010). The Taíno were adept at constructing plazas or ball
The Taíno lived a settled village life and practiced ag- courts that typically were composed of earth embank-
riculture, supplementing their main food of root crops ments and stone slabs (Olazagasti 1997). In the Carib-
such as manioc, zamia, and sweet potato, maize, a variety bean, ball courts varied in size. However, they were
of fruits plus fish, shellfish, birds, rodents, snakes, mana- generally oval, rectangular, or long and narrow in shape
tees, and sea turtles. Tobacco and cotton were important and may have been used either as ball courts or dance
nonfood plant resources. The Classic Taíno practiced a grounds (Olazagasti 1997). Of all the stone-lined plazas
sophisticated form of conuco agriculture, in which they in the northern Caribbean, probably the most elaborate
heaped up mounds of earth in more permanent fields to and specialized complex of the ball and dance courts can
cultivate root crops, such as cassava, in the soft alluvial be found at the Caguana site (also known as Capá) in the
soil (Rouse 1992). The primacy of cassava for the Taíno mountains northwest of the El Bronce and Tibes sites in
was illustrated by the fact that one of their two supreme Puerto Rico (Reid 2009).
deities was Yocahu, the lord of cassava and the sea, and
the other was Atabey, the goddess of fresh water and hu- Guanahatabey
man fertility and the mother of Yocahu (Arrom 1978; Scholars have mistakenly called the western neighbors
Bourne 1906; Petersen 1997). The presence of maize is of the Taíno in Cuba by another name, Ciboney, but the
often underestimated, but recent starch grain analysis term actually applies to a local group of Western Taíno
reveals that maize was consumed in the Caribbean by in central Cuba (Alegría 1981; Reid 2009). The gener-
Taíno, Saladoid, and Archaic Age communities in the ally accepted Caribbean name among archaeologists for
region (Pagán-Jiménez 2011). inhabitants of western Cuba at contact is Guanahatabey
The Taíno are believed to have had chiefdom soci- (Rouse 1992; Wilson 1990; Keegan 1992). Taíno inhabit-
eties, known as cacicazgos, many of which were orga- ants of Cuba who met the Spanish colonizers apparently
nized into district chiefdoms. Each chiefdom was ruled mentioned a non-Taíno people called Guanahatabey, or
by one of the village chiefs in the district, and the dis- Guanahacabibe.
trict chiefdoms were in turn grouped into regional The Guanahatabey were reported to have lived at the
chiefdoms, each headed by the most prominent district far western end of Cuba. They probably spoke a differ-
chief (Wilson 1990). By the time Columbus arrived in ent language from their neighbors, since Columbus's
the Caribbean in 1492, 100 Taíno polities were reported Taíno interpreter was unable to converse with them
in the region and combined populations in the tens of (Rouse 1992). Archaeological research has not identi-
thousands existed (Wilson 2007). The larger Taíno vil- fied any Taíno sites in western Cuba. What has been
lages are reported to have had hundreds of communal unearthed is evidence of a preexisting hunting, fishing,
houses that were occupied by extended families. They and gathering culture marked by the presence of small
were arranged around a central plaza that was used for coastal sites. These sites contain a scatter of debris from
social and religious events, such as ceremonial dances tools, shellfish, iguanas, land and sea crabs, larger sea
called areitos and ballgames known as bateys. Recent animals such as manatee and turtles, and rodents such
excavations in the Dominican Republic have revealed as the hutia (Rouse 1948; Reid 2009). The evidence sug-
that smaller community villages also existed without a gests the presence of people who lived in caves, rock
central plaza and house trajectories. These house trajec- shelters, and open-air sites; relied heavily on shellfish,
tories, characterized by a series overlapping structures, fish, and wild game; and were organized into small
lasted for more than 500 years (Hofman et al. 2008; Sam- bands rather than villages. It has been argued, how-
son 2010). Exchanges of exotic items, which helped build ever, that these sites may have been formed by people
regional alliances among trading partners, were part of who were ancestors of the Guanahatabey (Rouse 1948).
the chief 's elite exchange networks. Ethnohistorical ac- The name Guanahatabey may, in fact, be a figment of
counts mentioned items such as parrots, feathers, raw Spanish or Taíno imagination, given the lack of suffi-
cient evidence to support the belief that such a popu- and archaeological data. Archaeological studies of the
lation survived in western Cuba until Spanish contact landscapes created, the material used, and the social
(Keegan 1992; Reid 2009). relations expressed allow us to better understand the
richness of each localized history. We have already
Island-Carib discussed the dramatic and devastating impact that
In order to differentiate the mainland Carib of South Europeans had and continue to have on indigenous
America from the Carib of the Windward Islands at populations. This was just the first of a series of world-
contact, Caribbean archaeologists generally refer to the changing interactions for which the Caribbean was a
latter as Island-Carib or Kalinago. Ethnohistoric docu- central theatre (Williams 1944/2005). Each island in-
ments suggest that in the mid-fifteenth century, Carib teracted differently in the global arena based on colo-
from South America moved into the southern Carib- nial and postcolonial affiliations, trade patterns, and
bean, filling the vacuum left by communities of the Sua- social networks. The cultures that emerged on each
zan Troumassoid subseries (Reid 2009). The Kalinago island were influenced by external colonial governance
are thought to have colonized the Windward Islands and global change, including the impact of movement
of Dominica, Martinique, St. Vincent, Grenada, and of peoples associated with the slave trade, changes in
Guadeloupe as well as Tobago and northern Trinidad. world markets and economic structures associated
Douglas Taylor and Berend J. Hoff (1980) theorize that with the production of sugar and other crops such as
the Island-Carib warriors who conquered the Igneri tobacco and cotton, or the exchange of ideas resulting
(an ethnic group that preceded the Island-Carib in the from expanding networks of trade and interaction. The
Windward Islands) retained their mainland pidgin as tragic form of chattel slavery that emerged in Barba-
a symbol of their origin, but they probably maintained dos and spread through the West Indies beginning in
their language to facilitate trade with their neighbors on the 1640s had profound impacts on the demography
the mainland. and cultural landscape of Western and Central Africa
Island-Carib societies have been interpreted as egali- and was transferred almost directly within the region
tarian (or tribal-based). The village community was to places such as Jamaica and beyond the region to
ruled by a headman, but unlike the Taíno, no chiefs settlements in South Carolina (Williams 1944/2005;
ruled over groups of villages or entire islands. For pur- Green 1987). The wealth generated from colonial en-
poses of war, however, some individuals were able to as- terprises had a significant impacts on the social eco-
sume leadership over warriors from various islands and nomic landscapes of Europe, resulting in transforma-
to lead expeditions all the way to the coasts of Guianas tions of landscapes where the legacy of the vast wealth
or Venezuela (Allaire 1997). created on the backs of enslaved laborers produced
Island-Carib communities were primarily agricultural, massive country estates such as the Harewood House
though not as extensive as those of the Taíno. They grew (Beckles 2013; Finch and Armstrong 2013). Archaeolo-
and consumed manioc, making it into cassava bread. gists and social historians are just now beginning to
They also ate a stew known as pepper pot. Details about look both ways at the Caribbean and Europe to explore
Island-Carib subsistence suggest that land crabs and the important influences of the Caribbean abroad. For
shellfish were supplemented by agouti, birds, lizards, example, at Harewood House in Yorkshire, England, if
manatees, sea turtles, and fish (Petersen 1997). As they one looks closely one will see Caribbean legacies in the
were for the Taíno, tobacco and cotton were important form of prints and paintings of Caribbean landscapes
for the Island-Carib. Gardens were placed in protected displayed on its walls, documents in its chests, tortoise
locales, sometimes at great distances from Island-Carib shells above the sink in its kitchen, papayas and cycads
habitations. Because of their more aggressive postures growing in its gardens, and Caribbean-derived wealth
toward the Spanish, French, English, Dutch, and anyone in the financial accounts of its owners (see University
else who threatened their sovereignty, the Island-Carib College of London 2013; Finch and Armstrong 2013). In
of the Lesser Antilles were erroneously categorized as the world of art, the dramatic shift to nineteenth-cen-
cannibals (Beckles 1992; Keegan 1992). tury impressionist art, with its transformation in use of
color palette, use of light, and choice of subjects, was
Historical Archaeology dramatically impacted by Camille Pissarro, a painter
of Danish West Indian and Dominican parentage who
Historical archaeology in the Caribbean benefits enor- influenced French and ultimately global artistic expres-
mously from the availability of both documentary sion (Armstrong 2011c).
10 B. A. Reid, C. L. Hofman, R. G. Gilmore III, and D. V. Armstrong
Each island's history and cultural trajectory correlates pasts has engaged archaeological explorations that fol-
with unique relationships tied to complex differences in low a wealth of local and national themes. In the follow-
colonial rule by the English (on islands such as Barba- ing discussion, we examine a few of the most prominent
dos, Jamaica and St. Kitts), the Spanish (on Hispañola themes that historical archaeologists are currently ex-
and later in the eastern half of the island that is now the ploring in the Caribbean.
Dominican Republic, along with Puerto Rico and Cuba),
the French (on Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Saint- Columbus and the Period of Initial Contact
Domingue, now Haiti), the Dutch (on islands such as and Interaction
Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, and St. Eustatius), the Danish The historic period in the Caribbean begins with Christo-
(on St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John), and even the pher Columbus's somewhat accidental passage through
Swedish (who once held Saint Barthélemy). the islands in 1492. The encounter between indigenous
Before the 1970s, historical archaeology tended to populations and European explorers had sweeping con-
focus on sites associated directly with colonial develop- sequences that were ultimately devastating to the native
ment, such as forts, the residences of planters, ports, and peoples and changed the trajectory of European and
merchant quarters. However, over the past forty years, global history (see Woodward 2011). Archaeologists have
studies have broadened to include thematic coverage of long sought out the sites of the initial points of encoun-
just about every aspect of life, from studies of the quar- ter, including landfalls and interactions on San Salvador
ters and burial sites of enslaved laborer (Armstrong island in the Bahamas and the ruins of Puerto Real in
1983, 1990, 2011a; Armstrong and Kelly 2000; Delle 1998; Haiti (Deagan 1995), La Isabella in the Dominican Re-
Handler and Lange 1978; Higman 1998; Gilmore 2006a, public (Deagan and Cruxent 2002a, 2002b), and the
2006b; Pulsipher and Goodwin 2000; Howson 1990, settlement at Seville La Nueva in Jamaica (Woodward
1995; Wilkie and Farnsworth 1999, 2005; Petersen and 2011; Cotter 1970).
Watters 1988); to studies of free persons of color living Comparing prehistoric settlement data with the vari-
in both urban and rural areas (Armstrong 2003a, 2003b; ous routes of early European exploration led William
Armstrong and Williamson 2011; Gilmore 2009). Ar- Keegan (1996) to conclude that the first landfall must
chaeological studies have examined pubs in Barbados have been on present-day San Salvador and that Colum-
(Smith 2005, 2008; Smith and Watson 2009), Jewish bus continued in his travels to Rum Bay, Long Island,
cemeteries on Nevis (Terrell 2004), the wreck of a nine- and Crooked Island before crossing to Cuba and then
teenth-century cargo ship in Jamaica (Cook and Ru- Hispaniola (Keegan 1996; Reid 2009). Efforts to recover
binstein-Gottschamer 2011), health care (Gilmore 2008; evidence of Columbus's settlements have resulted in
Nicholson 1995), and the material record of local pottery studies that have significantly improved our understand-
production and marketing of goods in sites from Barba- ing of the lifeways of Europeans as they entered the New
dos to Jamaica (Handler 1963a, 1963b; Hauser 2008). The World and the impacts that they had on the indigenous
entries in this volume illustrate the breadth of sites and populations of the region. Studies at La Isabella, the first
the findings of historical archaeology in the region. successful European settlement in the New World, pro-
From island to island, structures and their material vided evidence of the layout of the settlement and the
residue show differences that correspond to various conditions that both indigenous peoples and the Span-
forms of governance, fortification, and modes of eco- ish settlers faced (Deagan 1995; Armstrong and Hauser
nomic production, including differences in the scale 2009, 594).
of plantations and the timing of slavery and emancipa- Archaeological investigations at the Spanish-period
tion. Moreover, each island was prone to forms of lo- settlement at Sevilla la Nueva in Jamaica not only tell of
calized destruction by the natural forces of hurricanes, changes in how historical archaeology is done but also
earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions, which demonstrate historical archaeology's potential for recon-
had dramatic impacts on some islands but spared oth- structing lifeways that have been long forgotten. From
ers in the region. These events led to the destruction of 1915 to around 1938, William B. Goodwin described a
vibrant cities such as Port Royal, Jamaica (earthquake); series of possible Spanish sites in Jamaica and undertook
St. Pierre, Martinique (the eruption of Mt. Pelée); and a massive excavation of Don Christopher Cove at Drax
Oranjestad, St. Eustatius (the worst hurricane in Carib- Hall using a steam shovel in an unsuccessful effort to
bean history). rediscover two of Columbus's caravels (Goodwin 1940,
Each island followed its own path to independence 1946). Goodwin drew a series of plans of his surveys and
and nation building. Postcolonial reevaluation of these excavations in Jamaica and noted a continuing friendly
Introduction: Caribbean Prehistoric and Historical Archaeology 11
debate between himself and Frank Cundall, then direc- Plantation but now has been identified as Trents Plan-
tor of the Institute of Jamaica, regarding the cultural at- tation, located near the settlement at Holetown, Barba-
tribution of sites as Spanish or English (Goodwin 1946, dos (Armstrong, Watson, and Reilly 2012; Hapcott Map
10). Amateur archaeologist Charles S. Cotter stumbled 1646). Excavation of this site has yielded data on early
on the ruins of Seville la Nueva in the 1930s and pro- settlement, pre–sugar era farms, and the period of tran-
ceeded to clear land to expose ruins of early structures sition to sugar production and the rapid expansion of
(Cotter 1964, 1970). His findings, which included carved the use of enslaved labor on the island.
limestone blocks, foundations, and wells, invigorated The French also established a colony on St. Kitts in
interest in the site and led to the acquisition of Seville the 1620s, splitting the island with the English. Both
Estate as a heritage park by the newly independent gov- powers used the island to begin settlements on larger
ernment of Jamaica in the early 1960s. Recently, studies nearby islands. In the 1630s, the English established
by Robyn Woodward have systematically examined ru- communities on Barbados, Anguilla, Antigua, Montser-
ins at Seville that provide details of early sixteenth-cen- rat, Nevis, and Tortola and the French began settling on
tury industry, economy, and social relations (Woodward Guadeloupe and Martinique (Burns 1965). Dutch colo-
2011, 23). Woodward's excavations of an early sixteenth- nies were established on Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba,
century mill site combined with her thorough examina- St. Eustatius, and St. Maarten, primarily as trading cen-
tion of historical documents pertaining to the settlement ters (Goslinga 1971). The Dutch shared St. Maarten with
provide data about a way of life that was deeply invested the French, but the island was a Dutch dependency until
in feudal systems of production. The technology derived 2010, when it, along with Curaçao, began the process of
from medieval sugar-milling practices and a centuries- becoming independent.
old agricultural system in which farmers grew crops on In the 1960s and 1970s, historians, sometimes with
a series of small tenant estancias (farms). The proceeds the assistance of archaeologists, continued to document
of the milled product were split between the repartidor monumental historic properties (forts, estate works, and
(the Crown representative), the miller, and the farmer. planter residences), but the real interest among archaeol-
This sharecropping system replicated feudal production ogists remained focused on defining the complex prehis-
systems and provides evidence of a way of life that was tory of the Caribbean region. The fact that insular varia-
significantly altered when the English brought their plan- tions occurred over time on each island and the material
tation system with them when they captured the island in record was diverse, even among affiliated groups and is-
1655 (Woodward 2011, 38–40; Armstrong 2011a, 77–91). lands, brought an understanding of the complexity and
Spanish settlers initially focused on mining and pro- variability in the historic record that has been critical
visioning, but Spain quickly turned its attention to the for later historical archaeologists in the region. Even a
vast potential for wealth that could be obtained by ex- cursory examination of the insular nature of the region
tracting resources from the mainland of Central and reveals the diversity of ethnic and social relations and
South America (Deagan 1995). They continued to ex- the distinctive differences in the historical trajectories of
pand their settlements, particularly on the larger islands each colonial domain and local polity. Historical archae-
of the Greater Antilles, but for Spain the primary roles ologists found distinctive differences in the material and
of Caribbean settlements were as protective harbors and cultural records from island to island and from colonial
sources of provisions for fleets of ships laden with goods domain to colonial domain.
plundered from the Spanish Main. Samuel Wilson points out that there is a rich history
During the late sixteenth and early seventeenth cen- of ethnographic, historical, and archaeological explora-
turies, other European powers began to explore the Ca- tions of the early colonial era (Wilson 1990). Armstrong
ribbean and establish beachhead settlements. From an and Hauser link the interest of prehistoric archaeologists
archaeological standpoint, very little is known about in the early colonial era to the theoretical groundings of
these early outposts. It was not until the seventeenth the direct historical approach, whereby archaeologists
century that England, France and the Netherlands be- tried to establish the location and context of sites associ-
gan to establish permanent settlements in the region. St. ated with historic contact (2009, 583). They would then
Christopher and Barbados were settled by the English in draw upon the rich ethnographic detail of the chroni-
the 1620s. Using GIS to orient a unique early plantation clers of the interactions of indigenous people and colo-
map for Barbados, the archaeologists researching the nizers in the historic period and work back to interpret
1646 Hapcott Map have been able to identify the earli- the archaeological record of prehistoric peoples. Archae-
est plantation on Barbados, which was known as Fort ologists who focused on the prehistoric era used historic
sites as a starting point to establish a basis for defining an array of contexts associated with refuge, Maroon, and
the era of contact and the consequences of colonial en- entrepreneurial settlements by peoples of a wide range
counters on local indigenous populations. Studies draw- of African, European, and Native Caribbean ancestry
ing on historic period sites and accounts are compiled in before islands were formally colonized.
Julian Steward's The Circum-Caribbean Tribes (1948) and
works by DeBooy (1919), Rouse (1939), Rainey (1940), Manifestation of a Colonial Presence:
Wilson (1990, 2007), Keegan (1994), Siegel (2005), and Landscapes of Power and Authority
Rouse (1992). These works figured strongly in establish- Well before the emergence of a field defined as histori-
ing the ethnohistorical basis for understanding more re- cal archaeology, scholars and avocational archaeologists
cently defined contact period sites such as Argyle, on St. began to study the ruins of early settlements, massive
Vincent (Hoogland, Hofman, and Boomert 2011). forts, and abandoned plantation houses and lifeways as-
In the Lesser Antilles, the period of historic contact sociated with colonialism. Sir Hans Sloane, one of the
is less formally documented than in the Greater Antil- most noted naturalists of the late seventeenth century,
les, and many islands were essentially abandoned by the wrote detailed descriptive accounts of the early colonial
time of later colonial settlers with sanctions from Eng- landscape of many islands in the West Indies (Sloane
land, France, Holland, or Denmark. One of the critical 1707–25). Sloane set out to document the natural land-
questions archaeologists have faced is how to define the scape of Jamaica and in the process recorded not only
ethnic identity of those who occupied the Lesser Antil- the flora and fauna but also the structural manifestations
les during the protohistoric and early historic periods. of an earlier colonial era. Sloane's observations at Seville
Armstrong and Hauser (2009, 586) note that one of the la Nueva in Jamaica include details of the ruins of the
biggest interpretive problems has been that "until re- surviving visible relics of an earlier Spanish era, includ-
cently archaeologists continued to generalize the early ing the art and architecture of a Catholic church and the
contact era population as 'Carib' without solid evidence unusual presence of a trench cut across the yard in front
from well-defined archaeological contexts." This practice of the planter's house at the English colonial sugar estate
did not account for variations in material expression by at Seville plantation, which he described as a defensive
island and the very diverse and temporally distinct tra- trench designed to defend the estate from possible attack
jectories of surviving, remnant, and resettled popula- by the Spanish.
tions in the region (see Allaire 1980, 1984, 1991; Good- Armstrong and Hauser point out that these observa-
win and Davis 1990). The term "Carib" became a catchall tions of monuments to early colonial rule "conflate 'moral'
term that did not account for the diverse trajectories his- 'natural' and 'civil' aspects of history" (2009, 587). Most
torians have defined (Paquette and Engerman 1996). The histories of the region include some description of the
"Carib" issue is currently being studied on islands such as monumental architecture and archaeological ruins from
Dominica (Honychurch 1997), Saint Lucia (Hofman and this historic period; these descriptions are used to illus-
Bright 2004), and St. Vincent (Hoogland, Hofman, and trate and reflect the power and authority of contempo-
Boomert 2011). To date, the most well-defined example rary colonial enterprises or the vestiges of past colonial
of a site with clear contact and early historic context is lifeways. For example, early works such as Richard Ligon's
the Argyle site on St. Vincent that has been explored by history of Barbados (1657) and Edward Long's history of
Hoogland, Hofman, and Boomert (2011). The layout of Jamaica (1770) use descriptions of past and current struc-
the village with oval and round houses around a plaza tures to define and defend the emerging or established
matches the descriptions in the ethnohistoric sources. socioeconomics of slavery and the plantation system.
The associated Cayo pottery, now confirmed to be the Historic sites archaeologists, both avocational and
ceramic tradition associated with the Island-Carib, was professional, have documented the monuments of the
found commingled with early seventeenth-century Eu- colonial era. Moving beyond abstract or casual descrip-
ropean artifacts. Remarkably, the rims of some of the tion to detailed archaeological investigation, they began
Cayo potsherds were inlaid with European seed beads. to focus on forts and great houses as soon as the social
The excellent context of this site will provide a basis for systems that had supported large-scale naval forces and
comparing and contrasting contact period settlements massive plantation works began to collapse. For exam-
throughout the region. For example, we will now be able ple, as early as 1859, Jeremiah D. Murphy described the
to compare these findings with sites and lifeways that are abandoned ruins of Fort James in Jamaica (Mayes 1972,
defined as being "Carib" on Dominica. We will also be 9). Much of this early literature took a perspective that
able to contrast the material record from this site with mourned the passing of the colonial era.
Archaeologists documented and explored historic thus very important to the functioning of Caribbean so-
forts soon after they were abandoned. Massive fortresses cial and economic frameworks. Three primary trading
such as Brimstone Hill on St. Kitts, El Morro in Puerto centers have been studied in some detail by historical
Rico, the Citadel in Haiti, and Fort Shirley in Dominica archaeologists: Port Royal in Jamaica, Charlotte Amalie
(Beier 2011), and Nelson's Dockyard in Antigua literally on St. Thomas, and Oranjestad on St. Eustatius have each
dominate the landscape and remained a strong presence been analyzed by archaeologists for several decades.
even after they were abandoned. In the years before colo-
nial powers transferred control to local rule, there was a Explorations of the African Diaspora
keen interest among sectors of the population in herald- In the period 1950–1970, many Caribbean nations gained
ing the might of European imperial power. Hence, his- independence from former colonial powers and began
torians and archaeologists began a process of document- the process of nation building under local control. A
ing and preserving these sites (see Mathewson 1971). In new field of study quickly emerged as archaeologists
recent years, archaeologists have renewed their interest and other scholars began exploring the rich topic of
in these sites as a means of exploring the use of power postcolonial identity. At the same time the direction of
and to illuminate details that initially were overlooked, archaeological studies shifted direction. Archaeologists
including the involvement of enslaved and indentured had been primarily engaged in the study of prehistoric
laborers in the construction of forts, the lifeways and sites and contact period sites that helped define ques-
conditions of soldiers, and the role black soldiers and en- tions of the region's prehistory. With the emergence of
slaved laborers played in the specific living and working new nations, attention shifted to learning more about
contexts associated with these fortifications (Ahlman, the heritage of persons of African descent in the region
Schroedl, and McKeown 2009; Schroedl and Ahlman and the diversity of cultural backgrounds of peoples of
2002; Honychurch 2011; Murphy 2011). the Caribbean (see Delle, Hauser, and Armstrong 2011).
As in North and South America, Caribbean planta- For this shift in focus to occur, it was necessary to con-
tion great houses or "big houses" were often built in lo- ceptualize the African Diaspora in the Caribbean. The
cations where owners of enslaved laborers could project shift was strongly influenced by the emergence of the
their power literally and symbolically on the landscape. historical archaeology of Diaspora contexts in North
Plantation owners or their proxies could often observe America, but some of the initial examinations of African
every aspect of plantation life from their elevated loca- Caribbean contexts emerged somewhat independently
tions. Caribbean archaeologists have analyzed the spa- based on explanations of findings associated with port
tial distribution of plantations on island landscapes (e.g. towns (Mayes 1970), elite colonial housing in Jamaica
Delle 1998, 2008; Leech 2007). Over time, as the sugar (Mathewson 1971), and ethnographic studies of pottery
industry gave way to the oil and tourism industries in production in Barbados (Handler 1963a, 1963b).
the last half of the twentieth century, the plantation land- Early studies of locally produced earthenware were
scapes were often swallowed up by development or na- completed as part of more broadly defined studies of
ture. The industrial buildings associated with sugar pro- the colonial period at Port Royal and the Old King's
duction were often large and were the most significant House in Jamaica (Mayes 1970, 1972; Mathewson 1971,
private investment in the Caribbean. The substantive ar- 1972a, 1972b, 1973). These studies led to the realization
chitecture involved in these structures has ensured that that archaeology could provide significant information
windmills, aqueducts, sugar factories, curing facilities, about the majority population of African-descended
and rum distilleries still dot island landscapes. They have laborers in the Caribbean. Persons of African de-
proven to be a strong attraction to archaeologists study- scent and the cultural landscapes of plantations quickly
ing the manifestations of the industrial revolution in the emerged as a significant focus for Caribbean research.
Americas. The lives of the enslaved and free people have Geographer and historian Barry Higman organized
also been the focus of much research in the region. excavations at the well-documented ruins at Montpe-
Moving sugar, rum, and people throughout the re- lier in Jamaica (1974, 1998), and Jerome Handler and
gion required the development of an extremely effi- Frederick Lange began an effort to locate and excavate
cient interisland and regional trade network. This net- village sites associated with enslaved laborers in Barba-
work was serviced by thousands of ships both large and dos. A significant result of their study was their iden-
small. The ports these vessels called upon were places tification of the burial ground for enslaved people at
where news, information, contraband, and ideas were Newton Plantation (Handler and Lange 1978).
imported along with manufactured goods. Ports were Information from Handler and Lange's efforts to
locate enslaved laborer settlements in Barbados was They have examined the local social and economic sys-
used to help model Armstrong's archaeological studies tems, legacies of emergent societies, landscapes of power,
at Drax Hall and Seville Plantations in Jamaica (Arm- and the relationship of local sites to a globalized world in
strong 1983, 1985, 1990, 1992, 2011a). The archaeologi- the context of the rise of capitalism under a wide range
cal investigation of Drax Hall Plantation examined of local conditions and colonial polities. Archaeologists
the households of both enslaved laborers and planter/ have done plantation studies on the Anglophone islands
managers and focused on the bilateral expressions of of Barbados (Handler 1963a, 1963b, 1964, 1965, 1972,
continuity and change in African and European life- 1997; Handler and Lange 1978; Loftfield 2001), the Ba-
ways (Armstrong 1990). In Jamaica, plantation studies hamas, (Farnsworth 1992, 1996, 1999, 2000, 2001; Wilkie
focused on the material record recovered from domes- 1995, 2000a, 2000b; Wilkie and Farnsworth 1999, 2005;
tic spaces, including discrete houses and yards, and Wilkie and Bartoy 2000), Nevis (Hicks 2008; Meniketti
went on to examine social relations, power relations, 1998; Platzer 1979), Montserrat (Petersen and Watters
and ethnic identity as expressed in laborer contexts 1988; Pulsipher 1986, 1991, 1993; Pulsipher and Goodwin
(Armstrong and Kelly 2000; Armstrong and Fleisch­ 2000; Watters 1987, 1994a, 1994b; Watters and Petersen
man 2003; Armstrong 2011a) In Montserrat, Jean 1988), Antigua (Handler 1964; Murphy 1996, 2001),
Howson explored enslaved laborers' houses and social Trinidad and Tobago (Clement 1997; Lopinot and Venter
relations expressed in the material record on Galways this volume), and, most significantly, Jamaica (Agorsah
Plantation, and Conrad Goodwin and Lydia Pulsipher 1992, 1993; Armstrong 1983, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1998, 1999,
explored plantation management and the spatial mani- 2011a; Armstrong and Fleischman, 2003; Armstrong
festation of managerial controls (Goodwin 1987; Pul- and Hauser 2004; Armstrong and Kelly 2000; Bonner
sipher 1986, 1991, 1993; Pulsipher and Goodwin 1982, 1974; Delle 1999, 2000a, 2000b, 2001, 2008, 2009; Delle,
2000). Pulsipher also gathered detailed and irreplace- Hauser, and Armstrong 2011; Farnsworth 1992; Goucher
able ethnographic studies of houses, yards, and gardens 1990; Hamilton 2006; Hauser 2001, 2006, 2008, 2011;
in an area that was destroyed by the eruption of the Hauser and DeCorse 2003; Higman 1975, 1976, 1986a,
Soufrière Hills volcano in 1995 (Pulsipher 1991). 1987, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2005; Kelly and Armstrong
Armstrong's study of Seville Plantation initially fo- 1991; Kelly, Hauser, and Armstrong 2011; Mathewson
cused on two temporally and spatially discrete settle- 1972a, 1972b, 1973; Mayes 1972; Priddy 1975; Reeves,
ments of enslaved laborers (Armstrong 1991, 1992, 1999; 1997, 2011; Robertson 2005).
Armstrong and Kelly 2000), but expanded to contrast Other than the island-wide archaeological surveys
findings from the enslaved laborer settlements with data Haviser conducted in the early 1980s, few detailed analy-
from sites representing three distinct levels of plantation ses of plantation life have been conducted in the Dutch
management (Armstrong 1998). This study also explores islands outside of St. Eustatius. Barka (1996), Haviser
the plantation landscape to examine how plantation (2001), and Hofman et al. (2008) have done some work
managers expressed their control over enslaved labor- on St. Maarten. On St. Eustatius, four plantations have
ers in the positioning of housing and buildings on the been excavated, primarily by Gilmore (2005). This work
estate (Armstrong and Kelly 2000). An important aspect combined with detailed documentary analyses has re-
of this study was the recovery of burials in the yards of vealed a plantation landscape unlike that found any-
houses associated with the early (1670–1770) enslaved where else in the Americas. Over ninety plantations
laborer village at the site (Armstrong and Fleischman, were distributed over the island's 22 square kilometers—
2003). A significant accidental discovery was the iden- about the same size as Thomas Jefferson's Monticello in
tification of the site of a nineteenth-century house that Virginia. The research has shown that the plantations
was built and occupied by East Indian contract labor- served primarily as centers for subversive activities in
ers (Kelly and Armstrong 1991; Armstrong and Hauser the region that significantly impacted the mercantile sys-
2003, 2004; Kelly, Hauser, and Armstrong 2011). tems of France and England. French and English islands
Since the early 1980s, archaeological studies of plan- secretly exported a significant proportion of their sugar
tation contexts have been the most prominent form of production to the island throughout the latter half of the
historical archaeology studies in the region. Such studies eighteenth century. Testimony before the British Parlia-
have now been carried out in virtually every part of the ment in 1779 indicates that perhaps half the sugar pro-
Caribbean. These studies have concentrated on illumi- duced on Jamaica during that year was sent to St. Eusta-
nating lifeways associated with the majority population tius to be reprocessed into more profitable white sugar
of African and African-descended enslaved laborers. and then reexported as "St. Eustatius" sugar (Gilmore
forthcoming). The function of plantations as social cen- slaved labor forces organized around large-scale works
ters was particularly important on St. Eustatius. Agricul- powered by steam engines grew rapidly (see Armstrong
tural pursuits were not the primary focus of discussion and Hauser 2009, 598).
at these country seats; international trade was the main The rapid growth of Cuban plantations in the nine-
issue. Owners earned their profits not from the planta- teenth century can be attributed to the fact that the
tions but from the trade that passed through their ware- Spanish continued to use enslaved laborers into the
houses on Statia's Oranje Bay. As a consequence of this era of industrialization, when plantations began using
focus on trade, plantation landscapes on the island were steam power to process sugar. Cuba was building new
significantly different from those on other islands in the estates and was still importing enslaved and contract
region. On most Caribbean sugar plantations, the en- labor after the British, French, Danish, and Dutch Ca-
slaved village was easily observable from the plantation ribbean had abolished slavery. Theresa Singleton's recent
seat. However, on every plantation on St. Eustatius, the studies of coffee estates in Cuba provide new examples
industrial complex obscured the view of the enslaved la- of diverse forms of plantation management and social
borer village. This was a reflection of the high value own- controls (Singleton 2001, 2006). Singleton's study shows
ers of enslaved laborers placed on the ultimate product examples of the construction of walled villages to control
of their enslaved laborers—capitalist trade. Enslaved Sta- and restrict outsiders' access to laborers. The presence
tians were literate and consummate traders themselves. of locally made artifacts and items that were reworked
They plied the surrounding sea conducting interisland using local materials is a consistent pattern in studies of
commerce themselves as well as their owners (Equiano enslaved laborers throughout the Caribbean (Singleton
1789; Gilmore 2006a, 2006b, 2009). 2001; see also Armstrong and Hauser 2009, 598).
Dan Hicks has suggested a redefining of the mean- Sugar plantations in Puerto Rico have been studied,
ing of landscapes for their residents in the eighteenth but the focus there has been on the industrial complexes
century. Previous post-medieval landscape studies in on plantations, and archaeologists have not examined
the Caribbean, North America, and England sought to contexts associated with the island's African and Afri-
define estates as illustrations of their owners' power to can-descended populations and their heritage (Arm-
subjugate land, labor, and the economy. Hicks (2008) strong 2006).
suggests that the focus of plantation owners was to at- Plantation studies have also been carried out in the
tempt to "improve" the land, the environment, and soci- Dutch Caribbean (Barka 1996; Delle 1989, 1994; Gilmore
ety through a transformational process of carefully man- 2005, 2006a, 2006b, 2008; Haviser 1999a, 1999b; Haviser
aged labor and agricultural pursuits. and DeCorse 1991; Heath 1988, 1991, 1999), the former
Plantation archaeology on Spanish colonial sites Danish West Indies (Armstrong 2003a, 2003b; Arm-
included several studies in the Dominican Republic strong, Hauser, and Knight 2005; Gartley 1979; Hauser
(Ortega and Fondeur 1978a, 1978b, 1979). Arrom and and Armstrong 1999; Lenik 2004), and the French An-
García Arévalo (1986) focused on industrial works and tilles (Delpuech 2001; Kelly 2002, 2004, 2005; Kelly and
production systems associated with mining and sugar Gibson 2003; Kelly et al. 2008a, 2008b; England 1994;
production. Several ethnohistorical and archaeological Hauser, Kelly, and Armstrong 2007). Kelly's studies
studies have focused on marronage (Cimarrons) (Gar- demonstrate the significance of differences in the trajec-
cía Arévalo 1986; Arrom and García Arévalo 1986). In tory of plantation slavery on the islands of Guadeloupe
Cuba, as with many studies in the British Caribbean, and Martinique.
plantations studies tend to examine the role of labor in Studies of cultural landscapes in relation to settings of
the capitalist colonial plantation context and to focus on authority, power, and control have been done for virtu-
power relations. These studies found distinct differences ally every part of the Caribbean (for Jamaica see Delle
linked to time period, crop production, and labor sys- 1998, 1999, 2001; Armstrong and Kelly 2000; Higman
tems (Domínguez 1978, 1989, 1991; La Rosa Corzo 1988, 1986a, 1986b, 1987, 1988, 1998; for the United States
1991, 2003; La Rosa Corzo, Dawdy, and Curet 2005; Virgin Islands see Armstrong 2003a; for Barbados see
La Rosa Corzo and Gonzalez 2004; Lugo Romera and Handler and Jacoby 1993). Archaeological studies have
Menendez Castro 2003; Prat Puig 1980; Singleton 2001, also explored African Caribbean identities as expressed
2006; Singleton and de Souza Torres 2009). In contrast in the material record. Laurie Wilkie and Paul Farns­
to most British colonial sites, Cuban plantations often worth have explored how access to local and regional
involved the use of large-scale barracks, and in the mid- markets enabled enslaved Africans in the Bahamas to
nineteenth century, plantations that had very large en- become active in the selection and consumption of
the materials they used in their daily lives (Wilkie and National Geographic in a format that demonstrated the
Farnsworth 1999). great potential for archaeological reconnaissance (Link
Studies of African Diaspora contexts include sites as- 1960). The richness of the material record, the illustra-
sociated with resistance and freedom. Kofi E. Agorsah tions of whole vessels and artifacts from the seventeenth
has researched Maroon communities in Jamaica (Agor­ century, and the reconstructive drawings of the city did
sah 1992, 1993) and Suriname (Agorsah 2006), and ex- much to popularize historical archaeology and under-
aminations of sites in places such as Dominica and St. water archaeology. Subsequent studies gathered what is
Vincent have explored possible refugee and Maroon still the most wide-ranging collection of seventeenth-
sites. Port town contexts have also been important for century material culture in the Americas. The most
studies of free blacks (see Hamilton 2006). Studies of extensive excavations were carried out by Robert Marx
rural settings where persons of African descent gained (1967, 1968a, 1968b, 1973) using rather crude dredging
freedom prior to emancipation include Armstrong's techniques that allowed him to gather a large collection,
detailed exploration of the East End maritime commu- albeit without very good excavation controls and at the
nity on St. John (Armstrong 2003a) and a follow-up GIS expense of many smaller objects. This rather crude data
study that demonstrated the presence of a series of free gathering was followed by a series of studies that be-
black settlements on lands that were marginal to sugar gan to set the standard for underwater reconnaissance.
production on the island (Armstrong et al. 2008, 2009). Philip Mayes carried out very careful and detailed ex-
cavations on land and in the water (Mayes 1972; Mayes
Underwater Explorations and Mayes 1972). The publications are well illustrated
Underwater sites in the Caribbean have been a catalyst and are among the best-illustrated sources for the range
for the broad expansion of archaeological explorations of seventeenth-century material culture.
of nautical and inundated sites. When Port Royal, Ja- In the 1980s, Port Royal became a center for exca-
maica, then the largest British settlement in the Carib- vation and field training for Texas A&M's Institute of
bean, was struck by a devastating earthquake in 1692, Nautical Archaeology (INA). Under the direction of
much of the city sank into Kingston Harbour, and the Donny Hamilton, the site was used to refine underwater
damage was so great that its role as a vibrant port town excavation and material conservation techniques. The
was permanently altered. Rapid expansion of the planta- careful excavations Hamilton directed produced an ar-
tion economy had already outpaced the scale of trade in ray of publications (Brown 1996, 2011; Darrington 1994;
the port town, and in the aftermath, the center of com- Dewolf 1998; Franklin 1992, 2011; Fox 1998; Gotelipe-
merce quickly shifted to the land-based side of Kingston Miller 1990; Hamilton 1986, 1988, 2006; Hamilton and
Harbour. Immediately after the earthquake, Port Royal- Woodward 1984; Hailey 1994; Heidtke 1992; McClen-
ists engaged in large-scale salvage operations to recover aghan 1988; Smith 1995; Trussel 2004). These studies set
ships' cargoes and lost possessions, but a substantial por- in motion a Caribbean-wide effort to recover historic
tion of the town simply settled into the bay and was not period archaeological sites from submerged contexts
seen again until the advent of scuba technology. (see Downing and Harris 1982 for underwater studies of
The well documented destruction of Port Royal and Bermuda; Leshikar-Denton 1991 for studies of the Cay-
the visual access to ruins on the shallow shoreline off man Islands; Cook and Rubinstein-Gottschamer 2011 for
shore made this site an excellent laboratory and training studies of a commercial sloop; and Nagelkerken 2000 for
ground for underwater archaeology. Excavations at Port an overview of work done by him and the College of
Royal began in the 1950s at a time when the island was William and Mary during the 1980s in Oranje Bay, St.
beginning a process of nation building and self-identi- Eustatius).
fication based on its distinct insular heritage. From the
early 1950s to the 1980s, a near-continuous flow of ar- Port Towns, Merchants, and Trade
chaeologists worked at the site and helped develop the The importance of port towns and trade has been well
emerging field of underwater archaeology. Beginning demonstrated by the extensive studies on land and un-
with excavations by Mr. and Mrs. Alexi DuPont (1954) derwater at Port Royal, Jamaica. Caribbean port towns
and continuing with studies by Edward Link (1960), were sites of commodity production and were central
Robert Marx (1967, 1968a, 1968b, 1968c, 1973), Philip to trade routes and transshipment of merchandise. They
Mayes (1970), and Anthony Priddy (1975), researchers have been well documented in archaeological studies
studied both submerged sites and waterlogged land- throughout the region (see Armstrong and William-
based sites. In 1960, Marian Link's study appeared in son 2011). Norman Barka explored the Dutch trading
center and port town at St. Eustatius in the early 1980s study to understand the complex economic dynamics
(Barka 1985, 1990, 1991, 1996; Dethlefsen et al. 1982). that built the Atlantic World trading machine.
These studies examined the waterfront associated with
the eighteenth-century Dutch trading center and began New Directions
the process of documenting the distribution of domestic
sites and plantations across the island. The archaeologi- Prehistoric Archaeology
cal studies Barka and his team began were followed up New methods and techniques that have been success-
under the leadership of Netherlands Antilles archaeolo- fully applied elsewhere in the world are increasingly be-
gist Jay Haviser and are currently being carried out by ing used in prehistoric archaeology in the Caribbean.
the St. Eustatius Center for Archaeological Research Primary examples are archaeometric techniques for
established and formerly directed by Grant Gilmore the study of artifacts and skull and dental morphology
(http://www.secar.org/). In addition, merchant shops to determine origins and migration patterns (Coppa
and an array of port town facilities, including rum bars, et al. 2008; Ross and Ubelaker 2010). Isotopic research
have been the focus of a series of archaeological stud- has been used to study human mobility and nutrition.
ies on Barbados conducted by Frederick Smith and Karl Other recent research strategies include starch grain
Watson (2009). analysis, dental calculus, use wear analysis (Hofman et
Houses associated with merchants in the nineteenth- al. 2008; Knippenberg 2006; Pagán-Jiménez 2011; Mick-
century port town of Charlotte Amalie on St. Thomas leburgh and Pagán-Jiménez 2012), and geoinformatics
in what was the Danish West Indies demonstrate the (Reid 2008). The application of chronometric hygiene
complexity of local and global trade (Armstrong and to hundreds of radiocarbon dates of the Caribbean has
Williamson 2011). The Magens House compound in provided rich insights into insular chronology (Fitzpat-
Charlotte Amalie provided a material record that dem- rick 2006; Rodríguez Ramos, Torres, and Oliver 2010).
onstrated use of a wide range of locally produced ma- Computer simulations (Callaghan 2003) and social net-
terials, including ceramics from the region. The labor work analysis (Hofman et al. 2011) are additional new
quarters at the site offered evidence of an in situ cottage approaches. The near-absence of DNA research in the
industry that made bone buttons for sale in the port. The region has limited our understanding of the origin and
site also illustrates the global nature of trade; the own- ethnic diversity of various prehistoric populations in
ers had warehouses throughout the Caribbean, in Eng- the Caribbean (Lalueza-Fox et al. 2003; Schurr 2010).
land, in South America, and even in Australia and New DNA research is a fertile ground for expansion, given
Zealand. The Danish global trade network had distinc- its unique ability to determine the origins, mobility pat-
tive patterns, as illustrated by the presence of overglaze terns, and social relationships of various cultural and
Imari-style porcelain from Japan. The presence of Royal linguistic groups in the region.
Copenhagen lace-decorated porcelain illustrates the use The prehistoric archaeological record of the Carib-
of distinctive Danish products in Charlotte Amalie. bean continues to be threatened by climate change, earth-
In light of the complexity of the Caribbean trade net- quakes, hurricanes, and volcanic eruptions. In addition,
works further work should be conducted in other trad- tourism has caused considerable damage to much of the
ing centers that developed on other islands. Gustavia region's fragile archaeological record. In the Caribbean,
on Swedish/French Saint Barthélemy became a thriving heritage management legislation is either woefully in-
port after the French increased taxation on St. Eustatius adequate or is not properly enforced (Siegel and Righter
in 1795 effectively ending the dominance of the modern 2011). More effective cultural resource management is
world's first free trade port. Falmouth on Jamaica was also required to protect and preserve prehistoric sites in the
a significant trading center for the island and although Caribbean.
it has been studied as a townscape more work could be Too often, Caribbean prehistoric archaeology and
completed to integrate these results into regional and Caribbean historical archaeology are still regarded as
Atlantic World contexts. Local trading centers such as two distinctly different fields, when in fact there is much
Sandy Ground on St. Kitts served a localized inter-island overlap between the two fields of inquiry. There is little
trade with a dozen warehouses that operated until quite cooperation between the two fields, limiting our under-
recently. Operating as a virtual extension of Oranjestad standing of cultural transformations Amerindian soci-
on St. Eustatius, provisions and water were imported and eties experienced during early European colonization
exported directly to St. Eustatius. Additional examples (Hoogland, Hofman, and Boomert 2011; Valcárcel Ro-
abound across the Caribbean region that warrant further jas et al. 2011). Greater levels of collaboration between
prehistoric and historical archaeologists, whose research New World mainstream archaeology, which heavily fo-
agendas intersect, would significantly improve our un- cused on the "high cultures" of South America, Central
derstanding of dynamic interactions between native and America, the American Southwest, and the American
early colonial societies. Southeast. Happily for us, that time has long passed
(Reid 2007). Since the late 1930s and 1940s, when Irving
Historical Archaeology Rouse first introduced his cultural histories of series,
Now that we have a well-developed baseline of archaeo- subseries, and complexes, generations of archaeologists
logical studies for the region for the sixteenth through have developed new research techniques and approaches
nineteenth centuries, we can expect to see regional com- that are specific to but not necessarily unique to the Ca-
parison on a wide range of topics. Already comparative ribbean (Hofman et al. 2008; Reid 2007). This survey
analyses have begun to explore topics such as the range of Caribbean prehistoric archaeology reflects many of
and variation in the production of earthenware from these positive trends, which are largely the result of the
island to island. Studies of locally produced earthen- internationalization of Caribbean archaeology; scholars
ware are defining the sources and composition of locally from the Caribbean, Latin America, North America, and
produced goods. The study of earthenware studies has Europe have brought a multiplicity of new ideas and per-
moved toward refined petrographic, and element analy- spectives to the archaeological discourse of the region.
ses that provide a basis for understanding production Over the past several years, historical archaeology in
systems and regional variation. the Caribbean has expanded to address a wide range of
In the Caribbean, archaeologists have struggled to issues on practically every island. As a result, a wide body
interpret local and regionally produced ceramics (see of data has been generated that is presently being used
the critique in Hauser and Armstrong 1999). In 1979, in comparative studies. Examples of the range of stud-
Gartley described a group of Afro-Cruzian wares for St. ies now being done include the examination of settings
Croix. Soon after, Armstrong found an array of low-fired defined by specific cultural and religious expression, such
earthenware from the households of enslaved laborers as John Chenoweth's study of an estate in the British Vir-
at Drax Hall and pointed out the island-wide distribu- gin Islands that was owned by Quakers (Chenoweth 2011)
tion of pottery in Jamaica made by African Jamaicans and the recent excavations of the protohistoric contexts
(1985). Soon, various forms of locally made earthenware of the site of Argyle on St. Vincent (Hoogland, Hoffman,
were being reported from nearly every island in the Ca- and Boomert 2011). Studies are also beginning to address
ribbean. For example, Jim Peterson and David Watters sites and contexts relating to the more recent past. The
used data from local earthenware found at the Harney significant impact of military sites associated with World
Cemetery site in Montserrat as part of their attribution War II is just beginning to be explored (Haviser 2011;
of the human remains as enslaved Africans (Watters Watters 2011). Although military instillations made a sig-
1994a). They also suggested that these wares represented nificant material impact on the landscape, the cultural
regionally produced material. Heath (1999) and Gilm- implications of interaction associated with these sites had
ore (2005) have completed petrographic analyses for St. a major impact on later twentieth-century Caribbean life.
Eustatius. Heath's work indicated that interisland trade It is expected that in the near future studies of these sites
was likely. Gilmore found strong evidence for a range of will become a significant theme in regional research.
sources for low fired earthenware excavated on St. Eusta- Soon historical archaeologists will begin to explore the
tius. Over the past ten years, a number of archaeologists broader contexts of twentieth-century change, including
have tackled research questions related to the extent and sites associated with union and labor movements, inde-
diversity of interisland and local trade using elemen- pendence, and nation building, themes that were signifi-
tal analyses. Mark Hauser has been at the forefront of cant to the creation of the modern cultural landscape,
these studies. His work includes the beginnings of com- much as the transition from slavery was for earlier eras
parisons of chemical and elemental analysis of regional in the Caribbean.
earthenware using neutron activation analysis (Hauser, Future archaeological study of prehistoric and his-
Descantes, and Glascock 2008; Kelly et al. 2008). toric contexts in the Caribbean has great potential for
interpretations that project the diversity expressed in the
Conclusion local setting of each island. New research in the theory
and methodology of the region is becoming increasingly
There was a time when Caribbean prehistoric archae- important. It is clear that although the Caribbean occu-
ology was seen as peripheral to what was described as pies a small geographic space, it offers a rich, dynamic,
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Afro-Caribbean Earthenwares
Afro-Caribbean earthenware is a ceramic type that is toms can generally be considered to have derived from
ubiquitous on many Caribbean historical archaeology European designs. Round or globular bottoms are com-
sites. Produced by both enslaved and free blacks in the mon in West African pottery traditions. Hybrid forms
region, these low-fired coarse earthenwares were made may incorporate elements of both, such as handles on
from locally obtained clays and tempers and were sold a round or globular vessel. Round-bottom cooking ves-
in local and regional markets by their makers. As with sels have been excavated on Antigua, Jamaica, and St.
the Afro-Colonoware (or Colonoware) found in North Eustatius. Both in West Africa and the West Indies, pots
America, there is some debate about whether all these with rounded bottoms were placed directly in coals
vessels were made by people of African heritage. during cooking. Many of the vessels recovered from St.
The environmental, economic, and social environ- Eustatius were burned and coated in soot from this ac-
ments under which enslaved Africans produced these tivity. Hybrid forms including flat-bottomed handle-less
earthenwares differed across the West Indies, resulting cooking or storage vessels have been found on St. Croix
in considerable variation in the degree of African cul- and St. Eustatius. Vessels with lids have been recovered
tural retentions in these ceramics. Research has shown archaeologically from Jamaica and Barbados.
that in Antigua and Barbuda, African material cultural Particularly noteworthy are jugs with handles and
retentions were freely expressed under the more oppres- spouts known as "monkeys." Monkey jugs from various
sive conditions enslaved individuals endured there. Le- Caribbean territories are illustrated in Figure A.1. The
land Ferguson (1992) was a pioneer in addressing pos- cultural derivation of these vessel forms is not known;
sible West African characteristics found in the ceramics they may represent a design developed in the West In-
produced by the enslaved in South Carolina. Barbara dies. Some have suggested that all of these vessels may
Heath (1998) has documented vessel types and forms for date to the post-emancipation period, but their presence
Afro-Caribbean pots excavated on St. Eustatius. Heath in eighteenth-century archaeological contexts suggests
observed contemporary potters on Nevis to compare otherwise. In addition, they bear some similarity to the
their work with pots she analyzed on St. Eustatius and hidroceramo forms produced in Spain and Mexico. In
was able to successfully build a typology for St. Eustatius Figure A.1, the jug from Barbados (BAR) has a distinct
Afro-Caribbean wares and provide some ideas about the foot ring while the other two vessels have rounded bot-
functions of the various vessel types. However, she was toms. The jug from Montserrat tapers more sharply, in
unable to establish specific relationships with potters or contrast to the more squat form characteristic of the St.
pottery on other West Indian islands. Eustatius (EUS) jugs. Carafes (vessels with flared lips used
Ceramic samples obtained from a range of West for serving water) have also been found on both St. Eu-
Indian islands have been compared using both petro- statius EUS (g) and Jamaica JAM (h, j). Gilmore has also
graphic analyses and vessel forms. A wide variety of noted this on vessel forms from Barbados BAR (d). These
vessel forms are found among Afro-Caribbean potters. are all European designs that exhibit no aspects of West
Heath (1998) and Gilmore (2005) have both described African pottery traditions. Among the vessel forms seen
the diversity of vessel forms found across the Caribbean. in Figure A.1 from Barbados is a "flower pot" BAR (c),
Vessel forms are defined according to several char- which Heath (1998) indicates also has been found on St.
acteristics and can be classified as being derived from Eustatius. Although vessel forms exhibit a great deal of
European designs, African forms, or a hybrid of both variation among the islands, they also provide evidence of
pottery traditions. Vessels with handles and flat bot- the likely possibility of a shared corpus of pottery forms
32 Encyclopedia of Caribbean Archaeology
Figure A.1. Afro-Caribbean earthenware
vessel forms from the Caribbean.
Courtesy of Katrien Janin and R. Grant
Gilmore III.
across the West Indies. This implies an exchange of ideas, cate a strong interisland trade in ceramics among the
pottery technologies, and material culture uses among enslaved. Islands in the region are in close proximity
people of African heritage both before and after emanci- to one another and had well-established trade connec-
pation. tions throughout the eighteenth century. The results of
Ongoing X-ray fluorescence, neutron activation, and the petrographic analysis and analysis of vessel forms
petrographic work across the West Indies, especially indicate that there was some cultural exchange between
in the French Islands and the Virgin Islands, also indi- St. Eustatius, Antigua, St. Croix, and Nevis and probably
among other islands, including Barbados and Jamaica. Gilmore, R. G. 2005. "The Archaeology of New World Slave So-
Even with current data, it is not possible to determine cieties: A Comparative Analysis with Particular Reference
whether the enslaved or their masters were traveling to St. Eustatius, Netherlands Antilles." PhD diss., University
between the islands with the express purpose of trad- College London.
Hauser, M. W. 2008. An Archaeology of Black Markets: Local Ce-
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However, two facts support the supposition that the en- Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
slaved themselves were traders. First, documentary evi- Heath, B. J. 1998. "Yabbas, Monkeys, Jugs, and Jars: An His-
dence for St. Eustatius indicates that the enslaved were torical Context for African-Caribbean Pottery on St. Eu-
active participants in interisland trade for their owners by statius." In African Sites Archaeology in the Caribbean, ed.
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their contents) among many Caribbean islands. Research of the West Indies.
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Agricultural Earthworks (The Guianas)
Today in Amazonia, most Indians cultivate with the Ancient Raised Fields
slash-and-burn technique, which involves opening up
of an area in the rainforest by cutting and burning trees. Ancient raised fields are known from various parts of
Ash has been used to fertilize poor Amazonian soils on South America, especially around the periphery of the
occasion. There are many variations of shifting cultiva- Amazon rainforest. Most of these earthworks date back
tion, including slash/mulch and agroforestry systems. to the first millennium AD, but some were made as early
It is often assumed that pre-Columbian Indians mainly as 1000 BC and were used until the period of European
used the same technique. However, various other elabo- conquest and beyond. They are located in savannas, An-
rated agricultural techniques were developed during dean valleys, and flooded areas generally. In fact, the
pre-Columbian times, such as those relating to terra main reason for building raised fields is to control excess
preta (black earth), várzeas (fertile floodplains along the water for agricultural purposes.
main Amazonian rivers), and raised fields. It is now ac- Pre-Columbian Indians also used the raised-field
cepted that the first agricultural inhabitants of the rain- technique to cultivate in the coastal swamps in the Gui-
forest used complex farming techniques that left impor- anas, comprised of French Guiana, Suriname, and Guy-
tant and long-lasting modifications on the landscape. ana (Rostain 1994). This technique is based on building
Figure A.2. Map of raised-field areas
in the Guianas. Courtesy of Stéphen
Rostain.
mounds above the water level. The goal is to concen- of the slope between the sandy ridges and the swamp.
trate fertile matter from the organic horizon level of the Their distribution is related to both altitude and existing
swamp. Raised fields were not always sufficient to protect water levels. At the foot of the Quaternary sand ridges,
cultivated plants from flooding, so canals and ditches elongated raised fields are positioned in the direction of
were also dug for the purpose of controlling variations the slope to allow for easy drainage. Near the top of the
in water levels. Raised fields had two main functions: 1) sandy bars, the ridged fields are arranged perpendicular
to secure a dry location for cultivation; and 2) to concen- to the slope for optimal water retention. In Suriname,
trate fertile material. two types of raised fields are distinguished: regular and
Thousands of pre-Columbian raised fields sur- irregular ones. On the western coast of Suriname, ir-
rounded by ditches are presently located in the coastal regular raised fields are located near residential artificial
zone of the Guianas (McKey and Rostain 2010). Raised mounds (Boomert 1980). They are distributed arbitrarily
fields are classified on the basis of their size, shape, and or arranged in groups of 2 to 15. They are oval shaped,
topographical location (Rostain 2008). This last crite- measuring between 3 and 6.5 meters wide, 8 to 140 me-
rion is indicative of differences in adaptation to both ters long, with an average of four to five meters wide and
hydrographical conditions and the nature of the soil. In twenty to thirty meters long. In eastern Guyana, raised
French Guiana, raised fields have been recently dated for fields are mostly rectangular and are distributed in a lin-
the first time to the eleventh and fourteenth centuries ear configuration. They are associated with a residential
(McKey et al. 2010). mound between the Canje and Berbice Rivers.
Raised-field complexes are found along the coast of the 2) Large raised fields, which range in size from 2 to
Guianas from central Guyana up to central French Gui- 5 meters in diameter and from 30 to 100 centimeters
ana, which represents a distance of approximately 600 tall (Figure A.4). These raised fields, generally round
kilometers (Figure A.2). However, colonial and modern in shape, are found in eastern Suriname and around
earthworks, especially Dutch and English polders, de- Kourou and Sinnamary in French Guiana, but they are
stroyed many sites during the eighteenth century. more square or rectangular near Cayenne Island. On
the eastern coast and in some areas of the western coast
Types of Raised Fields of Suriname, the regular raised fields have rounded-off
rectangular or square shapes. Their size ranges from 3
Four types of raised fields have been identified: to 4 meters wide, 4 to 30 meters long and 50 to 100 cen-
1) Ridged fields are found in the Guianas (Figure timeters high. They are clearly visible on aerial photo-
A.3). They are elongated and narrow, measuring be- graphs. These large raised fields are located in the most
tween 1 and 3 meters in width, 5 to 30 meters in length, flooded areas, and their sizes are smaller in the deepest
and 30 to 80 centimeters in height. They take the shape swamps.
ana, elongated raised fields are distributed perpendicu-
lar to a river. In western Suriname, complexes are made
of small groups of elongated raised fields. In eastern Su-
riname, rectangular and square raised fields are located
along sandy bars. In the Lower Mana in French Guiana,
parallel and ridged fields are in flooded depressions.
Between the Organabo and Sinnamary Rivers, savan-
nas are covered by a large number of rounded medium-
sized raised fields. Between the Sinnamary and Kourou
rivers, rounded or square raised fields, associated with
ridged fields, are located in the savannas and along the
edge of the sandy ridges. Between the Kourou River and
Cayenne Island, rounded or square raised fields cover
the savannas.
Figure A.3. Ridged raised fields in the Lower Mana in western
French Guiana. Courtesy of Stéphen Rostain.
Along the French Guiana coast, raised fields are gen-
erally arranged roughly in squares, and the largest ones
are often located in the deepest and wettest areas. The
raised fields seem to be organized by homogeneous areas
of an average size of 0.5 hectares each, placed side by
side. A precise stereoscopic comparison of aerial photo-
graphs with field data shows that the raised fields were
made and situated on the landscape according to the
differences in water levels during the two annual sea-
sons (Rostain 1994). In fact, water was the main physical
constraint that determined both the shape and the topo-
graphical location of these structures. However, shape
and location were not always sufficient to prevent the
drowning of the raised fields. For this reason, it was nec-
essary to surround some groups of raised fields with a
Figure A.4. Large raised fields west of Kourou in French Guiana. belt ditch. In some cases, the checkerboard distribution
Courtesy of Stéphen Rostain. of the ridged fields also reflected the need to control the
water level. In some areas, such as in the Iracoubo sur-
3) Medium-sized raised fields can be round, square, roundings, the whole surface of the lower area is covered
or rectangular and are found only in French Guiana. by raised fields, and in other areas, such as in Kourou
Their size ranges from 1.5 to 3 meters diameter and 20 area, only the edge of the sandy ridges has raised fields.
to 30 centimeters tall. They occur in large clusters. They
were originally placed in open areas, but vegetation has
grown in these areas since the Indians left, and today Identification of Cultivated Plants
they are sometimes under forest cover so it is not pos- One of the important aspects of the raised field study
sible to see them on aerial photographs. is the proper identification of cultivated plants. Phyto-
4) Small, rounded raised fields, which range in size liths, pollen, and starch grains have been collected and
from 50 to 100 centimeters in diameter and from 20 identified. Phytolith and pollen from raised fields were
to 50 centimeters tall. They are found only in French analyzed like starch grains from sherds of ceramic grid-
Guiana and are almost invisible on aerial photographs dles from the nearby domestic dwellings. Based on the
at a scale of 1:10,000. Known cases were found during results of these analyses, the main plants cultivated on
ground surveys. They cover the entire surface of the sea- raised fields were maize (Zea mays), manioc (Manihot
sonally flooded savannas, which dried out in August. esculenta), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), and gourd
(Cucurbita). Maize, manioc, and chili pepper were
Local Differences
cooked on griddles, suggesting that these plants were
A general study of the raised fields emphasizes local dif- both cultivated on raised fields and consumed in the vil-
ferences along the coast of the Guianas. In eastern Guy- lages.
The first raised fields were made in Suriname in AD growth, social complexity, intersocietal interactions,
350 by the Barrancoid inhabitants of western Guyana. craft specialization, and long-distance trade. These fac-
However, most of the earthworks are associated with tors led to the emergence of chiefdoms along the coast
Arauquinoid sites in Guyana, Suriname, and French of the Guianas.
Guiana (Rostain 2008). Along the coast of the Guianas,
Arauquinoid culture spread from the middle Orinoco Further Reading
to the coast of the Guianas. The first Arauquinoid raised Boomert, A. 1980. "Hertenrits: An Arauquinoid Complex in
fields were made from AD 650. These became more Northwest Suriname." Journal of the Walter Roth Museum
common and eventually spread extensively along the of Archaeology and Anthropology, Georgetown 3 (2): 68–104.
coast up to Cayenne Island between AD 1000 and 1450. Iriarte, J., B. Glaser, J. Watling, A. Wainwright, J. Birk, D. Re-
This represents a territory of approximately 600 kilome- nard, S. Rostain, and D. McKey. 2010. "Agricultural Land-
ters long where the raised field technique was intensively scapes of Coastal Amazonia: Phytolith and Carbon Isotope
used for almost 1,000 years prior to the European con- Analysis of Raised Fields from French Guiana Savannah."
Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (12): 2984–94.
quest.
McKey, D., and S. Rostain. 2010. "Les champs surélevés préhis-
toriques: Histoire, sols et impact sur le fonctionnement
Social Complexity actuel des savanes côtières de Guyane." In Amazonie, une
aventure scientifique et humaine, ed. Alain Pavé and Gaëlle
There is evidence for the emergence of chiefdoms on the
Fornet, 132–34. Paris: Éditions Galaade.
coast of the Guianas during this period. The chiefdom
McKey, D., S. Rostain, J. Iriarte, B. Glaser, J. Birk, I. Holst, and
is the prehistoric equivalent of a polity with centralized D. Renard. 2010. "Pre-Columbian Agricultural Landscapes,
authority in this region. Such a polity could have been Ecosystem Engineers and Self-Organized Patchiness in Am-
directly involved in the creation of the diversity of the azonia." In Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
landscape that is evident today. It is obvious that pre- of the USA 107 (17): 7823–28.
Columbian Indians intensively transformed coastal sa- Rostain, S. 1994. L'occupation amérindienne ancienne du littoral
vannas of the Guianas. de Guyane. coll. Travaux et Documents Micro-fichés 129,
In the flooded savannas, raised fields seem to have Paris: Éditions de l'ORSTOM.
been the best agricultural answer to population growth ———. 2008. "Agricultural Earthworks on the French Guiana
Coast." In Handbook of South American Archaeology, ed.
because this technique made intensive agricultural land
Helaine Silverman and William Isbell, 217–34. New York:
use possible. Population density may have reached 50 Springer.
to 100 persons per square kilometer in areas with raised
fields. Arguably, from AD 650, the intensification of ag- See also Arawak versus Taíno; Archaeometry; The First
riculture (based on raised fields) resulted in population Caribbean Farmers.
Alegría, Ricardo E. (1921–2011)
Ricardo E. Alegría was a Puerto Rican archaeologist, Centro de Investigaciones Arqueológica y Etnológicas of
anthropologist, historian, folklorist, historical conser- the University of Puerto Rico and began an ambitious
vationist, and cultural activist. Many saw him as the research program that included excavations of sev-
defender of Puerto Rican culture. He was born in Old eral important sites of Puerto Rico and the Caribbean,
San Juan on April 14, 1921. In 1947, Alegría earned his including Monserrate (Luquillo), Hacienda Grande
master's degree in anthropology from the University of (Loíza), Cueva María la Cruz (Loíza), and the Caguana
Chicago, and in 1954, he earned his PhD from Harvard Ceremonial Center (Utuado). He also conducted an eth-
University. In 1945, he was named instructor of history nographic study of the town of Loíza, which was com-
at the University of Puerto Rico and assistant director posed primarily of the descendants of former enslaved
of the Museo de Historia, Antropología y Arte at the Africans, and extensive research on early colonial eth-
same institution. In 1947, he founded and directed the nohistoric sources.
In the 1950s, he was instrumental in the formation of of Alegría's publications included his commentaries on
the Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña (ICP), and in or analysis of these documents. He also used historical
1955 he became its first executive director. During his documents as the basis for articles and books on chief-
directorship, the ICP maintained an anthropological doms, indigenous religions, personal ornaments and
view that integrated various fields, including folklore, other accessories among the late pre-Hispanic groups
history, art, literature, music, and theater. The ICP had of the Greater Antilles, and harmful gases indigenous
the monumental task of defining, identifying, promot- groups used as weapons. Alegría published several pop-
ing, and preserving Puerto Rican culture, a topic that ular books, some of which were children's books. These
was never part of any aspect of the daily life of the island include Historia de Nuestros Indios (History of the Indi-
before. Using his anthropological background, Alegría ans of Puerto Rico), Descubrimiento, Conquista y Coloni-
began defining Puerto Rican culture as the historical zación de Puerto Rico, 1493–1599 (Discovery, Conquest,
product of the fusion of native, African, and European and Colonization of Puerto Rico, 1493–1599); La Fiesta
influences. Under his direction, the ICP implemented de Santiago Apóstol en Loíza Aldea (The Feast of the
a series of programs to preserve and stimulate Puerto Apostle James in the Village of Loíza); and El Fuerte de
Rican culture through publications, exhibitions, confer- San Jerónimo del Boquerón (The Fort of San Jerónimo
ences, and festivals. The institute also conducted the res- del Boquerón). Some of them were eventually translated
toration of historical buildings, first in Old San Juan and into English.
later in Ponce, San Germán, and other towns. Alegría His efforts at historical conservation are probably
also established guidelines for the restoration of historic the most visible of all his works. He was responsible for
buildings that eventually were enacted as law. Perhaps conserving and protecting individual sites by turning
the most influential and effective ways of disseminat- them in historical parks such as the Caguana Ceremo-
ing and promoting Puerto Rican culture were 1) creat- nial Center (Utuado) or the Ruinas de Caparra, the first
ing local museums throughout the island; 2) publishing European settlement in the island. He also began a pro-
popular books, especially on the least-known compo- gram for the restoration and renovation of Old San Juan.
nents of Puerto Rican culture, the influences of native One key part of this program was Alegría's novel vision
and African cultures; and 3) adopting these ideas in of turning Old San Juan into a living city rather than
textbooks and school curricula. These and other efforts a static museum. Alegría's program for Old San Juan
helped developed a sense of a unified national identity served as a model for similar projects throughout the
that had repercussions in many other aspects of Puerto Americas, including in the United States. As a result of
Rican (and, eventually, Caribbean) life. For example, the his work, Old San Juan was declared a historical zone by
emphasis on the mixture of cultures led to a marked de- the U.S. federal government.
crease in open racial discrimination in Puerto Rico. In During Alegría's lifetime he was recognized by a
1976, Alegría founded and directed the Centro de Estu- number of national and international institutions, in-
dios Avanzados de Puerto Rico y el Caribe, a graduate cluding the Catholic University of Puerto Rico (1971),
school that specializes in social, cultural, artistic, eco- New York University (1971), Inter-American University
nomic, and historical research. Today, the Centro offers (1986), and Hunter College of New York (1989). Alegría
the first and only MA program in archaeology in Puerto also received the History Prize (1941), the National Prize
Rico. Alegría retired from the Centro in 2001. (1977), and the Prize of Honor (1981) from the Puerto
Among other things, Alegría made major contribu- Rican Athenaeum; the George McAneny Prize (1970)
tions to the archaeology, ethnohistory, and historical from the American Historical Preservation Society; and
preservation of and education about the Caribbean. His the Charles Frankel Prize (1993) from the National En-
contributions to archaeology include discovering defi- dowment for the Humanities. In 1990, the Puerto Rican
nite evidence of the presence of Archaic people in Puerto Endowment for the Humanities named him Humanist
Rico; defining the ancient Puerto Rican cultures, includ- of the Year, and in 1998 he was honored by the Fernando
ing defining the Hacienda Grande style; and publishing Ortiz Foundation in Cuba. The government of the Com-
a cross-cultural study of ball courts in the Caribbean. monwealth of Puerto Rico gave him the gold medal of
Most of his work was published in prestigious national the Order of the Fifth Centennial of the Discovery of the
and international media. His contributions in ethnohis- Americas and Puerto Rico. U.S. president Bill Clinton
tory are as important as those in archaeology. He was presented Alegría with the Charles Frankel Prize in 1993
responsible for transcribing and publishing a large num- for his contributions in the field of archaeology. He was
ber of early colonial documents from Puerto Rico. Many a member of the Puerto Rican Academy of the Spanish
Language, the Puerto Rican Academy of Arts and Sci- de las Antillas Mayores y sus Orígenes Suramericanos (Notes
ences, and the San Jorge Academy of Fine Arts in Barce- on the Mythology of the Taíno Indians of the Greater Antilles
lona, among other organizations. and Its South American Origins). 2nd ed. Museo del Hombre
Dominicano, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.
Alegría, R. E., H. B. Nicholson, and G. R. Willey. 1955. "The
Further Reading Archaic Tradition in Puerto Rico." American Antiquity 21
Alegría, R. E. 1983. Ball Courts and Ceremonial Plazas in the (2): 113–21.
West Indies. Department of Anthropology, New Haven, CT: Rouse, B. I., and R. E. Alegría. 1990. Excavations at María de la
Yale University. Cruz Cave and Hacienda Grande Village Site, Loíza, Puerto
———. 1986. Apuntes en Torno a la Mitología de los Indios Taínos Rico. New Haven, CT: Yale Peabody Museum.
Anguilla is a relatively small island (91 square kilome- (Figure A.5). Several smaller cays to the north and east
ters) with a rich archaeological record. The majority of Anguilla, including Dog Island, located some 20 ki-
of archaeology conducted in Anguilla has focused on lometers to the northwest, and Scrub Island, less than
the pre-Columbian Amerindian occupation; little re- one km to the east, also preserve significant pre-Co-
search to date has been devoted to colonial and more lumbian sites.
recent historical and nautical archaeology. One excep- Anguilla's limestone bedrock and low elevation (max-
tion is the documentation of numerous shipwrecks in imum of 65 meters AMSL) are largely responsible for
Anguillan waters, including a limited survey of the El its limited arable land (less than 3 square kilometers)
Buen Consejo, a ship carrying Spanish missionaries and limited annual rainfall (ca. 100 centimeters/year),
to Mexico that wrecked off Anguilla's south coast in factors that limited colonial interest in the island and
1772. More than 40 pre-Columbian Amerindian sites resulted in a comparatively short history of plantation
are known in Anguilla, with occupations cumulatively agriculture. These conditions are partly countered by the
spanning 3,200 years or more (Crock and Petersen 1999) abundance of maritime resources and a few permanent
Figure A.5. Precolonial sites on Anguilla. Courtesy of John G. Crock.
water sources such as the freshwater spring in the pre- period, circa AD 900–1500, along with other smaller
Columbian Fountain Cavern ceremonial site. The An- sites. Sizeable collections exist from the majority of these
guilla Bank, which stretches eastward to St. Martin, Saint sites, and field inspections suggest that originally all of
Barthélemy, and beyond, is one of the most productive these settlements probably exceeded two hectares in
reef systems in the Caribbean. Abundant fish and shell- size. The largest sites are typically located near beaches,
fish were a major factor in the use and settlement of the salt ponds and/or arable soils. Anguillan sites in this cat-
island by Amerindians. A reconstructed culture history egory include Rendezvous Bay, Sandy Ground, Island
for Anguilla is partially based on surface collections the Harbour, Sandy Hill, Cove Bay, Mead's Bay, Barnes Bay,
Anguilla Archaeological and Historical Society (AAHS) Indian Bottom Hill, Savannah Bay, Little Harbour, Shoal
has made since 1981 and on limited AAHS excavations Bay, Forest North, Lockrum Bay, and Limestone Bay.
(Crock and Petersen 1999; Douglas 1986). Various sys- Unfortunately, coastal development has resulted in the
tematic excavations made by professional researchers complete or partial destruction of several documented
have provided context for local collections and have sites and continues to threaten archaeological resources
addressed research questions related to the timing of on the island.
occupation, participation in interregional systems of A total of four or perhaps five ceremonial cave sites
exchange, and the development of social complexity have been recorded in Anguilla, all of which likely were
(Crock 2000; Crock and Petersen 1999; Watters 1991). used during the Late Ceramic Age. These sites include
At least two Archaic period sites are known in An- Fountain Cavern, Big Spring, Airport Cave, and Tangle-
guilla, including the Whitehead's Bluff and Flowers wood Cave. The Cavannagh Cave site may have origi-
Avenue sites. The combined inventory from these sites nally belonged in this category too, but historic min-
includes shellfish food remains, shell axes and shell con- ing activities completely destroyed the archaeological
tainers, and stone tools made from flint likely imported deposits contained therein. The subterranean Fountain
from Antigua. The Whitehead's Bluff site has been dated Cavern site clearly was the most significant; it contains
to cal. 1670–1430 BC. No evidence has yet been found a carved stalagmite statue, numerous pecked petroglyph
in Anguilla of the very earliest Saladoid period (Early designs, and dense artifacts associated with a freshwater
Ceramic Age), dating from 500 BC to AD 300. It is pos- pool (Watters 1991). Twelve other sites, all attributable
sible that Anguilla may have been the home to Archaic to the Late Ceramic Age, are characterized as smaller
Amerindians at this time, that the earliest sites have been "hamlets," or special-purpose sites. These were occupied
eroded/inundated, or that the island was temporarily contemporaneously with the one to five more substantial
abandoned. Paleoenvironmental data also indicate that sites mentioned above. Other sites in the AAHS inven-
this was the driest period during the span of Amerindian tory are spot finds or reported sites that have not been
occupation in the Caribbean, and this may explain the thoroughly investigated. Available information indicates
absence of occupation on the low, dry island of Anguilla. that most, if not all, of these are also likely attributable to
Fisher-farmers first colonized Anguilla by AD 300– the Late Ceramic Age.
400, and to date, only four of the many known sites in Petrographic and neutron activation analysis indi-
Anguilla have produced artifacts that are diagnostic of cates that pottery and/or volcanic temper was imported
the late-terminal Saladoid period, which is estimated to into Anguilla from other nearby islands during this
extend from AD 300 to 900. These include three resi- period. Volcanic material, such as greenstone and cal-
dential sites, including Rendezvous Bay, Sandy Ground, cirudite, both of which originated in nearby St. Martin,
Shoal Bay East, and the Fountain Cavern ceremonial site also were imported in addition to materials from farther
(Watters 1991). More extensive Late Ceramic Age (Post- away. The greenstone was used to manufacture petaloid
Saladoid) deposits overlie all of these earlier occupations celts, and the calcirudite was used exclusively to produce
and are found at numerous other sites in Anguilla, sug- three-pointed cemí idols. Evidence from other islands
gesting a substantial increase in local population after suggests that these artifacts also were exported from
AD 600. In fact, between circa AD 900 and 1200, An- Anguilla.
guilla apparently became an important center in a local The development of a hierarchy of settlements and
hierarchy of settlements, based on its position within more political centralization apparently took place in
an interisland exchange network (Crock and Petersen Anguilla, where there is also evidence for religious cer-
2004). emonialism. These data link populations in Anguilla
At least 14 substantial residential sites in Anguilla can culturally with populations that have been documented
be assigned to one or more portions of the Post-Saladoid ethnohistorically in the Greater Antilles. The timing and
nature of the Amerindians' abandonment of Anguilla tural Heritage, 1992–1998." Report prepared for the Anguilla
is not known. No mention of an Amerindian popula- Archaeological and Historical Society, The Valley, Anguilla,
tion was made when Columbus sailed by Anguilla on British West Indies.
his second voyage in 1493, and no Amerindians lived in ———. 2004. "Inter-Island Exchange, Settlement Hierarchy, and
a Taino-Related Chiefdom on the Anguilla Bank, Northern
Anguilla when the first Europeans and Africans came in
Lesser Antilles." In Late Ceramic Age Societies in the East-
the 1650s. ern Caribbean, ed. André Delpuech and Corinne Hofman,
139–56. Oxford: Archaeopress.
Further Reading Douglas, N. 1986. Anguilla Archaeological and Historical Society
Crock, J. G. 2000. "Interisland Interaction and the Develop- Review, 1981–1985. Anguilla Archaeological and Historical
ment of Chiefdoms in the Eastern Caribbean." PhD diss., Society, The Valley, Anguilla.
Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh. Watters, D. R. 1991. "Archaeology of Fountain Cavern, Anguilla,
Crock, J. G., and J. B. Petersen. 1999. "A Long and Rich Cul- West Indies." Annals of Carnegie Museum 60 (4): 255–320.
Antigua and Barbuda (Archaic Sites)
Shell middens and debitage from the manufacture of est date of human occupation on Antigua is 3106 BC
stone tools typically delineate Archaic Age sites. They are at the Little Deep Site, Mill Reef. Other early sites in-
mostly situated on the seafront in close proximity to ma- clude Twenty Hill, Parham (2910 BC), Crabb's Peninsula
rine ecosystems that are rich with shellfish, mangroves, (1770 BC), Deep Bay (1387 BC), Jolly Beach (1775 BC),
and shallow grassy bottom bays that have a higher di- and the Clover Leaf Site (383 BC) at Emerald Cove (de
versity of species (Rouse 1992). It appears that Archaic Mille 2005, 339). Archaic Age sites were densely situated
Age people did not make or use pottery and it is believed along the northeast coast of Antigua, from Hodges Bay
that they were highly mobile and lived in small family to Mill Reef (Davis 2000). Some underlay later Ceramic
groups. Their apparent reliance on shellfish, which can Age deposits, as at Blackman's Bay and Winthorpes Bay.
be rapidly depleted from a habitat zone, adds to their On Barbuda, much of the west coast from Spanish Point
classification as a fisher-forager society. However, the south to the River Site comprises a single site several
numerous mortars, pestles, and tools commonly asso- miles long known as the Strombus Line. The dates are
ciated with the processing of plants (seeds, roots, fruit, similar to those of Antigua, ranging between 2000 and
etc.) suggest that they were an early horticultural people 1000 BC (Watters 1980).
who planted and foraged over a wide area, moving sea- Archaic Age peoples occupied Antigua until the ar-
sonally between the islands and sites to exploit a variety rival of Arawak-speaking, fully horticultural, ceramic-
of resources. making Saladoid people in the middle of the first mil-
To date, about 50 sites have been classified as Archaic lennium BC. The area most extensively occupied was the
Age on Antigua (see Figure A.6). Researchers do not east coast of the island, from Barnacle Point to Parham.
know what these first seafaring people called them- Sadly, many of the best and largest sites have been lost to
selves, but archaeologists refer to them as Archaic Age development, including Deep Bay and Jolly Beach. The
people because they did not make or use pottery, al- only well-preserved large habitation site remaining on
though some pottery-bearing Archaic sites have been Antigua is located in the military compound at Crabb's
found in the northern Leeward Islands and islands Peninsula. On Barbuda, the once-spectacular Strombus
of the Greater Antilles such as Cuba, Hispaniola, and Line and River sites have mostly been destroyed by re-
Puerto Rico. In addition, it is often stated that their cent land development, and only a few pockets remain
material culture was not as complex as the Ceramic intact. The transition from the Archaic Age to the Ce-
Age peoples who eventually displaced them. The earli- ramic Age on Antigua and Barbuda remains a mystery
to archaeologists, but it appears that the Archaic people
Figure A.6. Archaic sites on Antigua. Map by Reg Murphy.
were present on Antigua in significant numbers at a time De Mille, C. N. 2005. "The Pre-Ceramic Occupation of Anti-
when Ceramic Age settlements were being established gua, W.I." PhD diss., Department of Archaeology, University
on other islands such as Montserrat and St. Martin. of Calgary.
Rouse, I. 1992. The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who
Greeted Columbus. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Further Reading Watters, D. R. 1980. "Transect Surveying and Prehistoric Site
Davis, Dave D. 2000. Jolly Beach and the Preceramic Occupation Locations on Barbuda and Montserrat, Leeward Islands,
of Antigua, West Indies. Yale University Publications in An- West Indies." PhD diss., University of Pittsburgh.
thropology, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
See also The Archaic Age.
Arawak versus Taíno
It is impossible to write about the past without assigning Caribbean. In order to distinguish the substantial cul-
names to the peoples about whom we write. Over the tural differences between Arawak societies in mainland
years, a variety of names have been used to designate the South America and the peoples of the northern Carib-
precolonial peoples of the Americas. Unfortunately, the bean at the time of Spanish contact, Caribbean archae-
names that were selected have in some cases led to con- ologists now use the name Taíno to refer to the latter.
fusion about cultural heritage and ethnic identity. The This term relates specifically to natives who lived in the
name Arawak is one that has resulted in such significant northern Caribbean from AD 1200 to 1500 and who had
confusion that archaeologists working in the region have evolved from the Ostionoid. Although the names Taíno
now abandoned the name, as it specifically relates to the and Arawak have been used interchangeably, from all
accounts, they were two distinct ethnic/cultural groups: Amazon Basin to Venezuela, the Guianas, and the West
the former were located in northeastern South America, Indies. But the differences between these languages were
while the latter occupied much of the Greater Antilles substantial, and whatever similarities that existed could
and the Bahamas at the time of Columbus. be compared to those between English and Dutch within
the Indo-European family of languages.
The Name Arawak The Arawak language itself (now called Lokono) is
better documented than the language of the Taíno. There
Neither Columbus nor any of his contemporaries came is general consensus among linguists that the Taíno,
across the name Arawak. Essentially, the term Arawak Island-Carib, and Arawak languages diverged from the
does not appear in the literature until the exploration main line of Arawak development at the same time and
of the Guianas began in the late 1500s, almost a century that all three belong to the Maipuran family. However,
after the arrival of Columbus in the New World. Sir Wal- scholarly research has shown that the Taíno language
ter Raleigh, the famed English explorer, identified the shared few cognates with those of its nearest neighbors
Arawak and at least four Indian groups when he visited at the time of European contact: the Island-Carib and
Trinidad in 1595. Centuries later, in 1894, Juan Lopez de Arawak. Therefore, its line of development branched off
Velasco noted the presence of people who called them- the trunk of the family tree earlier than the lines leading
selves Arawak on the Guiana coast and commented that to the Island-Carib and the Arawak (Rouse 1992) (see
a group of them had "intruded" into Trinidad. Although Figure A.7).
the Arawak of Trinidad have long ceased to be an identi- The cultural differences between the Taíno and the
fiable ethnic group, there are numerous Arawak villages Arawak clearly distinguished one group from the other.
in Guyana, Suriname, northern Brazil, and French Gui- Although both worshipped ancestral spirits (zemíes) and
ana to this day. used griddles to bake cassava bread, archaeological and
In the past, some scholars used certain linguistic sim- ethnohistorical data indicate that the Arawak had a sim-
ilarities between these native peoples of South America pler culture. While the Arawak slashed and burned the
and those Columbus encountered in the northern Carib- forest to make temporary farms, the Taíno of the Ca-
bean. In 1871, for instance, Daniel Brinton, after study- ribbean, especially those in Hispaniola and Puerto Rico,
ing a few word lists that survived in the Greater Antilles practiced a sophisticated conuco agriculture that was
with the modern language of the Arawak in the Gui- based on mounds of earth in more permanent fields. In
anas, came to the conclusion that the Amerindians in contrast to the Arawak of South America, the Taíno built
the Greater Antilles also conversed in the language the much larger, permanent villages. The latter were charac-
Arawak spoke. He applied the name "Island-Arawak" terized by an elaborate sociopolitical organization that
to the Antilleans in order to distinguish them from the included district and even regional chiefdoms as well as
peoples of the mainland. Unfortunately, this distinc- ballparks and plazas.
tion was lost and the peoples of the Caribbean came to However, the notion that the Arawak were cultur-
be known simply as Arawak. Subsequent authors such ally inferior to the Taíno has been seriously questioned.
as Sven Lovén have demonstrated a preference for the According to Heckenberger (2009), several headwa-
terms Insular Arawak or Island-Arawak. ter basins of the southern Amazon show evidence of
substantial pre-Columbian landscape modification,
Linguistic and Cultural Differences particularly in areas historically dominated by speak-
between the Taíno and the Arawak ers of the Arawak language family. He and his team
have unearthed evidence of early cultures going back
The Taíno, who inhabited the northern Caribbean at to about AD 500 that had larger populations and were
contact, spoke a different language and were culturally more advanced than previously imagined. Of special
distinct from the South American Arawak. At a more significance were elaborate pottery, ringed villages,
general level, the languages of the Taíno and the Arawak raised fields, large mounds, and evidence of regional
share enough similarities to be classified as members of trade networks. All of these are markers of a sophisti-
the Arawakan language family (Keegan 1992). However, cated Arawak culture. There is also evidence that the
this is not surprising as the languages of the Taíno, Ar- early natives modified the soil using various techniques
awak, and Island-Carib all originated from the Arawak such as deliberate burning of vegetation to transform it
family of languages, which extended from the Upper into terra preta, or "black earth," which even today is
Figure A.7. Advance of Arawakan speech communities from Amazonia into the Caribbean.
Reprinted from Rouse (1992, fig. 12) by permission of Yale University Press.
famed for its agricultural productivity (Heckenberger The word Taíno may have first been used in an aca-
2009). It is likely that this conception of a simpler Ar- demic context by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1836
awak culture was propagated by the first archaeologists in specific reference to the language spoken anciently in
to study this area (such as Betty Meggers and Julian Haiti. Over time, Caribbean archaeologists applied the
Steward), who thought the region had been occupied name Taíno to the ethnicity of natives in the northern
by small bands of hunter-gatherers living in a world of Caribbean at contact. The word nitayno, which bears a
scarcity. striking similarity to the name Taíno, has cropped up in
the Spanish literature as referring to Taíno nobility (Rouse
Controversy 1992). Instead of being used as an ethnic label, nitayno re-
ferred to the Taíno ruling class. This was probably a reflec-
However, the use of the word Taíno has not been without tion of how the natives were viewed through the prism of
controversy. Taíno purportedly means "good" or "noble," the Spanish class structure (Hulme 1993). It is likely that
and several of this group's members allegedly used that the islanders Columbus encountered on his first voyage
word when speaking with Columbus's crew to indicate did not have a specific self-designation, or if they did, Co-
that they were not Island-Carib (Rouse 1992). This was lumbus made no mention of it. Columbus simply called
documented in Peter Martyr D'Anghera's late-sixteenth- them indios, as the admiral mistakenly thought that he
century account of an incident during Columbus's sec- had "discovered" natives of islands off the coast of Asia.
ond voyage while Melchior Maldonado was exploring
the coast of Hispaniola. But the authenticity of this ac- Taíno Heterogeneity
count has been seriously questioned (Hulme 1993), con-
sidering that Peter Martyr was not an actual eyewitness But even if we accept the use of the name Taíno for the
to the event and never set foot in the New World. northern Caribbean, the natives Columbus encountered
were not homogenous because they had diverse pheno- peoples of the Bahama archipelago are referred to as
types, languages, and cultural traditions. Columbus re- Lucayans, or more accurately Lucayan Taíno (Keegan
ported differences in physical appearance and material and Carlson 2008).
culture between the natives of northeastern Hispaniola
and those elsewhere on the island (Dunn and Kelley Conclusion
1989). Although there seemed to have been one domi- Whether or not the natives of the Greater Antilles and
nant speech community, Las Casas and other writers of the Caribbean actually identified themselves as Taíno is
the early 1500s clearly distinguished between a number still a subject of considerable debate. Despite the con-
of other aboriginal languages in the Greater Antilles, troversy surrounding the word Taíno, it is generally ac-
such as Macorix, Ciguayo, and Guanahatabey. The most cepted that there were significant linguistic and cultural
reasonable explanation for this is that the Taíno language differences between the contact period natives of the
of the Greater Antilles, which had many monolingual northern Caribbean and the Arawak of South America,
speakers and was the numerically dominant language of although the notion of a "simple Arawak culture" may
the Greater Antilles, also served as a language of inter- have been overplayed. It is therefore grossly inaccurate
change, even with the speakers of other languages. Thus, to refer to the inhabitants of the Greater Antilles and the
it served much the same purpose as Norman French did Bahamas at the time of Spanish contact as Arawak. The
in post-1066 England (Granberry and Vescelius 2004). jury is still out on whether the word Taíno is entirely ac-
However, language uniformity does not necessarily in- curate as it is presently used. Suffice it to say that Carib-
dicate the presence of an ethnic group, because a single bean archaeologists will continue to use it until they find
speech community may be the result of colonization or a better alternative.
assimilation. For example, English has been the official
language of the Anglo-Caribbean for centuries because Further Reading
of British colonial rule. However, the extensive use of Dunn, O., and J. E. Kelly Jr., eds. 1989. The Diario of Christopher
English belies the many ethnic and cultural differences Columbus's First Voyage to America, 1492–1493. Abstracted
that exist in specific territories in the region. from Bartolomé de las Casas. Norman: University of Okla-
To further compound the issue, a number of Taíno homa Press.
subdivisions relating to both geography and cultural Granberry, J., and G. S. Vescelius. 2004. Languages of the Pre-
development are being used in Caribbean archaeology, Columbian Antilles. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
namely Classic, Western, and Eastern Taíno. These Heckenberger, M. 2009. "Biocultural Diversity in the Southern
names are more reflective of broad regional classifica- Amazon." Diversity 2010 2 (1): 1–16.
Hulme, P. 1993. "Making Sense of the Native Caribbean." New
tions than of localized differences and represent an ef-
West Indian Guide 67 (3–4): 189–220.
fort by some Caribbean archaeologists to capture the
Keegan, W. F. 1992. The People Who Discovered Columbus: The
level of indigenous plurality that existed at contact. Ca- Prehistory of the Bahamas. Gainesville: University Press of
ribbean archaeologists refer to the Taíno in Puerto Rico Florida.
and Hispaniola with the highest level of sociopolitical Keegan, W. F., and L. A. Carlson. 2008. Talking Taino: Carib-
development (including ball courts, stone-lined plazas, bean Natural History from a Native Perspective. Tuscaloosa:
and conucos) as Classic Taíno, while they refer to the University of Alabama Press.
less-developed members of the Taíno community who Reid, B. A. 2009. Myths and Realities of Caribbean History. Tus-
lived elsewhere in the northern Caribbean as either caloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Western or Eastern Taíno (Rouse 1992). In addition to Rouse, I. 1992. The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who
being called Western Taíno, the natives of the Bahamas
have also come to be known as the Lucayans (Keegan See also Ciboney versus Guanahatabey; Origins of In-
1992). The Spanish called the islands to the north of digenous Groups in the Northern Caribbean; Taíno Set­
Hispaniola "Las Islas de Los Lucayos"; therefore, all tlement Ethnohistory.
The Archaeological Committee of Trinidad and Tobago 45
The Archaeological Committee of Trinidad and Tobago
The Archaeological Committee of Trinidad and Tobago bank and advise on the archaeological implications of
came into being in 1979 as a result of a proposal by Wil- construction projects. The committee thus has always
fred Laurier University to carry out archaeological work worked very closely with Trinidad and Tobago's planning
at Lovers Retreat in Tobago. The government of Trini- authorities. The archaeologist appointed in 1981, Dr. Arie
dad and Tobago was pleased to approve the project, but Boomert, concentrated his attention in the early years on
it recognized that there was no trained archaeologist listing and classifying the archaeological sites that had
in the country or any organization that could monitor been reported in the country over the years while noting
such proceedings. The Cabinet therefore agreed to fund new ones that came to light. The archaeological material
a post for an archaeologist at The University of the West that was found in the process, and sometimes in the pos-
Indies at St. Augustine on the condition that the appoin- session of private citizens, was stored at The University
tee would act as technical liaison officer for the project of the West Indies, but studying it was deemed to be less
and for any other similar undertakings that might arise. important than producing a register and inventory of
The Cabinet also appointed a Committee to co-ordinate known sites, a task that was largely completed by the late
the preparations for the Tobago project and to act as an 1990s, by which time some 300 sites had been listed. The
Advisory Committee to the Minister of Education and committee was also able to closely monitor the activities
Culture in Archaeological Matters that included the of a series of visiting archaeologists, some of whom the
archaeologist. Thus was born the Archaeological Com- committee was able to assist with small grants from the
mittee, which contained representatives of the Planning very limited budget the ministry allowed it from 1999
Authority, the National Cultural Council, and a number onward. The most important project the committee has
of special interests including tourism, forestry, conser- been involved with is the exploration of an Amerindian
vation, and the National Commission for UNESCO. settlement complex at Manzanilla that a team from
Tobago later acquired its own special representative. Al- Leiden University first investigated in 1997. The Archae-
though the Wilfred Laurier University's Lovers Retreat ology Committee ceased to function in 2009, and in 2011
project never materialized because of funding problems, was replaced by the Archaeological Sub-Committee of
Trinidad and Tobago thus established both an Archaeo- the National Trust of Trinidad and Tobago.
logical Committee that worked closely with the ministry
responsible for culture and planning authorities, and a Further Reading
professional archaeologist (whose time was divided be-
Reid, B., and V. Lewis. 2011. "Trinidad and Tobago." In Protect-
tween work as a university research fellow and work as
ing Heritage in the Caribbean, ed. Peter E. Siegel and Eliza-
the committee's technical advisor).
beth Righter. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Provided with access to infinitesimal resources through
the ministry responsible for culture, the committee See also The National Trust of Trinidad and Tobago;
set out to accumulate an archaeological information Trinidad and Tobago.
Overview of Archaeological Conservation out conservation treatments that take into account the
health and safety of the conservators.
Scientific conservation in archaeology provides for the
stewardship of cultural property through the care and
Caribbean Examples
preservation of archaeologically recovered materials. A
full program of archaeological conservation begins with A variety of organic and inorganic materials may be
the planning and budgeting for conservation as part of encountered in an archaeological context in the Carib-
a project's overall research design, which includes both bean. Often organic materials do not survive unless they
field and laboratory conservation. In the twenty-first are well preserved in an anaerobic environment, such as
century, conservation refers to the examination, docu- well-sealed contexts like the sunken city of Port Royal,
mentation, assessment, analysis, cleaning, and stabiliza- Jamaica. Some of the most commonly encountered ma-
tion of cultural heritage in the form of objects, on-site terials from Caribbean archaeological sites include ob-
architectural features, shipwrecks, and other forms of jects made of iron, glass, ceramics, wood, bone, and cop-
human-made or modified material culture, including per alloys. Materials recovered from prehistoric contexts
the conservation of rock art, which has been addressed include low- and high-fired pottery and objects made of
for the Caribbean region by Hayward, Atkinson, and stone, shell, clay, and bone. Care must be taken when
Cinquino (2009). considering any scientific testing such as DNA analysis,
Archaeological conservation also addresses the pro- isotope analysis, or chemical analysis. Any preliminary
cesses of deterioration that affect chemical, biological, intervention may contaminate an object, and even the
and physical archaeological remains. Restoration refers simple act of mechanical cleaning can potentially affect
to the process of restoring an object to an assumed previ- scientific testing results. Common cleaning methods in-
ous state through the repair or replacement of missing clude removing dirt, repairing ceramics and glass with
and non-original parts. This process is done with caution adhesives, removing soluble and insoluble salts, and
and judicious consideration (AIC 2012). Most conserva- consolidating archaeological bone.
tion efforts currently focus on preventative care, which The choice of materials and methods used in treat-
includes a fully integrated program of proper handling, ment can impact an object's long-term stability. This is
storage, monitoring, transportation, and mitigation of where the principle of reversibility guides the conserva-
the deterioration of archaeological collections to pre- tor, particularly if a treatment proves ineffective or threat-
serve them for posterity, research, and exhibition. ens an object's long-term stability. In such cases, other
The special needs of archaeological conservation treatment options need to be considered. An example of
require a holistic approach, particularly in being able this is the use of polyvinyl acetate resins used in repair-
to recognize diagnostic features and attributes that are ing ceramics from Caribbean collections. These resins
associated with the history of an object. These include have proven to be unstable in many instances, especially
elements that indicate materials and methods of con- in storage environments that lack any climate control in
struction, use wear, function, archaeological context, the often humid and hot conditions of the region. This
and cultural context. All of these provide information has caused reassessment of certain commonly accepted
about an object's unique history and significance. Ar- treatments that used in more temperate climates that are
tifact conservation should not detract from an object's unsuitable for artifacts recovered from Caribbean sites.
natural appearance or alter its scientific attributes. Hav- This is particularly relevant when considering that once
ing a treatment plan is part of a broad spectrum of ethi- an object is removed from its archaeological context, the
cal practices and standards that are implemented when in situ equilibrium is disturbed, setting in motion dete-
conservation treatments for archaeological materials are rioration processes that are exacerbated by atmospheric
being considered. Other factors to consider include the oxygen, moisture, and temperature, particularly for or-
competence of the conservators, the ability of conser- ganic materials. This is why planning and budgeting for
vators to provide informed respect for the integrity of conservation in the field and in the laboratory is essen-
the object, and the presence of proper facilities to carry tial. For example, the recovery of waterlogged artifacts
from marine sites require that objects remain wet until tion Laboratory (HRCL) at California State University,
they can be properly stored, documented, and assessed Chico, and were subsequently returned to be exhibited
for treatment. For field conservation, it is important to at the Museum of Antigua and Barbuda. Objects such
anticipate the types of material remains that might be as metal coins, iron padlocks and implements, parts of a
encountered. This means preparing for the on-site re- cast-iron stove with the manufacturer's name intact, and
moval of artifacts, on-site temporary storage, and the small copper-alloy sewing notions are among a number
subsequent transportation of artifacts to a laboratory of artifacts recently conserved from the plantation. An
facility equipped with trained staff, supplies, and equip- iron coffin plate recovered from another site on Antigua
ment in the controlled environment that is necessary for was carefully reconstructed and repaired at HRCL and
proper documentation, cleaning, and further analyses. returned to Antigua along with the artifacts from Betty's
One of the more significant efforts in the conserva- Hope. Finally, over the past three decades, an extrare-
tion of Caribbean artifacts has been the conservation gional conservation partnership between St. Eustatius
of hundreds of objects recovered from the sunken city and Curtis Moyer's Conservation Laboratory at the Col-
of Port Royal, Jamaica. An array of imported ceramics, lege of William and Mary in Virginia has facilitated the
pewter plates, tankards, and utensils as well as numer- conservation of hundreds of metallic and glass artifacts
ous "onion" glass bottles have been cleaned, desalinated, recovered from sites on St. Eustatius.
and conserved at Texas A&M University's Conservation
Research Laboratory in College Station, Texas, directed Further Reading
by D. L. Hamilton. One of the most challenging materi- American Institute for the Conservation of Historic and Ar-
als to conserve in the Caribbean is archaeological iron. tistic Works (AIC). 2012. "Definitions of Conservation
Because iron is prone to corrosion, the deterioration Terminology." http://www.conservation-us.org/index.cfm?
processes both on land and underwater often result in fuseaction=page.viewPage&PageID=620&E:\ColdFusion9\
loss of iron from the artifact. In some instances, iron verity\Data\dummy.txt. Accessed October 26, 2012.
objects recovered from Port Royal lost most of their re- Appelbaum, B. 2007. Conservation Treatment Methodology.
Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
maining metal, leaving an encrusted calcium carbonate
Cronyn, J. M., and W. S. Robinson. 1990. The Elements of Ar-
shell of the object's original shape. In one example, an
chaeological Conservation. London: Routledge.
iron butcher's cleaver was reproduced from a one-part Hayward, M. H., L. Atkinson, and M. A. Cinquino. 2009. Rock
epoxy resin mold of the missing metal. The original Art of the Caribbean. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama
wooden handle of the cleaver survived and was con- Press.
served separately, then joined to the epoxy facsimile, Sease, C. 1994. A Conservation Manual for the Field Archaeolo-
resulting in a composite rendition of the original arti- gist. 3rd ed. Los Angeles: UCLA Institute of Archaeology.
fact, with details of the metal cleaver well preserved in
the epoxy cast. See also Archaeometry; Betty's Hope Plantation (An-
Excavated objects from Betty's Hope Plantation have tigua); DNA and Caribbean Archaeology; Ferrous and
been conserved at the Heritage Resources Conserva- Nonferrous Metals; Port Royal (Jamaica).
Archaeological Heritage Management
Heritage is intimately linked to the core of community, relating to all manifestations of human activity, aban-
which is frequently diverse. Every human group has a doned structures, and remains of all kinds . . . together
past within which fundamental notions of identity are with all the portable cultural material associated with
centered. Historical memories link people to one another them" (ICAHM 1990, Article 1). "Protection and proper
and to the ground (Shackel 2003). According to the Inter- management [of archaeological heritage] is . . . essential
national Committee on Archaeological Heritage Manage- to enable . . . scholars to study and interpret it . . . on be-
ment (ICAHM), "'archaeological heritage' . . . comprises half of . . . present and future generations" (ICAHM 1990,
all vestiges of human existence and consists of places Introduction). The following entries review the status
of heritage management for specific Caribbean nations. ment" (ibid., 116). "Archaeological protection becomes
They are abstracted from chapters in Protecting Heritage the activity of the Barbados Museum and Historical So-
in the Caribbean (2011), edited by Siegel and Righter. ciety and The University of the West Indies, Cave Hill
Campus, two institutions acting out of . . . responsibility
Antigua and Barbuda but not supported by a legislative framework" (ibid., 119).
Heritage resources in Antigua and Barbuda are consid- Cuba
ered under several regulations "spread through different
ministries and government agencies" (Murphy 2011, 74). Heritage protection in Cuba stems from two laws en-
Because of poor oversight, many resources have been de- acted in 1977, the Law of Protection of Cultural Patri-
stroyed. Among all the government agencies on Antigua mony and the Law of National and Local Monuments.
and Barbuda, "the National Parks Authority and the De- On paper, these laws require planning studies to docu-
velopment Control Authority have the strongest legisla- ment and preserve "structures, sites, and declared ob-
tion and Acts of Parliament granting them clear authority jects that are National or Local Monuments" (Torres
to declare, manage, and protect heritage sites" (ibid., 75). Etayo 2011, 13). There is also oversight of the issuance
of permits to conduct archaeological investigations and
The Bahamas the registration of cultural resources and sanctions for
violations of heritage legislation.
Heritage management in the Bahamas is based on the
Antiquities, Monuments, and Museums Act of 1998, Guantánamo Bay, Cuba
which provides for "the preservation, conservation, res-
toration, documentation, study and presentation of sites Since 1903, the U.S. government has maintained a mili-
and objects of historical, anthropological, archaeologi- tary presence at Guantánamo Bay, located along the
cal and paleontological interest [and] . . . establish[ed] a southeastern coast of Cuba. In 1994, the U.S. Depart-
National Museum" (quoted in Pateman 2011, 4). The An- ment of Defense implemented Final Governing Stan-
tiquities Act centralized heritage management initiatives dards (FGS) for environmental protection on Cuba
into one agency, facilitating better regulatory oversight. (Larson 2011, 19). Heritage resources are included in
A permitting process was instituted for "the excavation the mandate of environmental protection. The FGS ad-
and/or removal of antiquities . . . [and the] lev[ying of] dressed "historic and cultural resources . . . designed to
fines against the destruction of antiquities without prior be consistent with the [U.S.] National Historic Preser-
approval" (ibid., 5). One limitation of the Antiquities Act vation Act. . . . The sole intent is to be compatible with
is the "lack [of] significant enforcement . . . , [especially] host nation regulations and provide U.S. forces with a
when dealing with multimillion-dollar development consistent approach to achieving the goal of stewardship
projects." In addition, the act "does not cover the protec- of host nation cultural resources" (ibid., 19–20).
tion of underwater heritage resources" (ibid., 8).
Heritage management has evolved from no protection
There is strong legislation in Barbados but little enforce- of patrimony during colonial occupations to formal leg-
ment. The Town and Country Planning Act of 1985 is a islation with inadequate enforcement. The State Secre-
regulatory and permitting process developers must fol- tary of Culture, which was created in 2000, mandates
low before projects may proceed if it is anticipated that coordination "across state institutions that deal with
impact of the project will affect listed heritage resources cultural issues" (Prieto Vicioso 2011, 37). This legislation
(Farmer 2011). The Amended Physical Development Plan promoted a strategy to "protect the tangible and intan-
of 2003 addressed "cultural heritage in a systematic and gible patrimony of the Nation against exploitation by
deliberate manner with a view toward protecting it . . . , others, and to protect the traditional ways of life of the
including both the built heritage and areas of archaeo- Dominican people" (quoted in ibid., 37). The problem
logical significance" (ibid., 117). The Barbados Museum with Dominican heritage protection is nonexistent en-
and Historical Society, a nongovernmental organization, forcement of relevant legislation: "protection of Domini-
maintains "the list of archaeological sites, [which] in the can cultural heritage has not been a priority for recent
past has been shared with the Town Planning Depart- government administrations. . . . Agencies charged with
heritage preservation do not receive the necessary sup- until such time as they make island-level revisions" (ibid.,
port to . . . carry out their mandates" (ibid., 45). 137). Curaçao "has the most effective heritage manage-
ment program" in the Dutch Caribbean; it includes a
French West Indies Monuments Foundation and a Monuments Plan, which
registers heritage resources in a master inventory (ibid.).
The French West Indies include Basse-Terre, Grande- The Bonaire Archaeological Institute was established
Terre, Île des Saintes, Marie-Galante, La Désirade, Mar- in 2003 as an educational, research, and heritage man-
tinique, St. Martin, and Saint Barthélemy. Since 1946, agement foundation. Later, a Monuments Ordinance
they have been integrated into France as overseas de- was formed that registers archaeological sites as heritage
partments, and national laws apply (Bérard and Stou- resources, although "enforcement has been weak" (ibid.).
venot 2011, 80). Despite French legislation, "heritage A Monuments Ordinance was formed on St. Maarten in
management . . . has been slow to develop" in the FWI. 2000 "for the identification, regulation, and protection
One problem is the poor fit between the "French home- of historical monuments . . . [and] in 2005 the . . . Ordi-
land" and the islands, and "development of an Antillean- nance was revised to include archaeological sites" (ibid.,
centered perspective" is needed (ibid., 89). The heritage 138). In 2007, the St. Maarten Archaeological Center
legislation applicable to the French West Indies is called was formed "for documenting, conducting research, and
the Code du Patrimoine (ibid., 80). regulating archaeological sites and properties on the is-
land," although developers are not required to conduct
Jamaica archaeological investigations (ibid.). Some developers
have voluntarily sponsored investigations in advance of
Heritage resources protection falls within the purview of their projects. Saba established a Strategic Development
the Jamaica National Heritage Trust, which was formed Plan 1998–2002, which addressed some "aspects of cul-
in 1985 as a statutory agency (Richards and Henriques tural heritage management" (ibid.).
2011, 26–27). The trust is mandated "to promote the On St. Eustatius, a Monuments Foundation was es-
preservation of national monuments and anything des- tablished in 1990 and a Monuments Ordinance was leg-
ignated as protected national heritage for the benefit of islated in 2008. St. Eustatius made a commitment to heri-
the island" (ibid., 27). The act has been implemented tage protection by creating a position for a professional
slowly, and in some cases it has been misinterpreted. archaeologist, who is employed by the St. Eustatius Cen-
ter for Archaeological Research (SECAR). "In the Neth-
The Dutch Caribbean (Formerly erlands, commercial archaeology conducted prior to de-
the Netherlands Antilles) velopment is the only option . . . [and that] archaeology
is paid for by the developer" (ibid., 13). In 2007, the Neth-
"After October 10, 2010, the Netherlands Antilles ceased to erlands Antilles ratified the European Convention on the
exist, presenting interesting challenges for the future" of Protection of the Archaeological Heritage, also known as
heritage management on Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, St. Eu- the Valetta Treaty; it became effective on the BES islands
statius, Saba, and St. Maarten (Haviser and Gilmore 2011, in 2010. The treaty requires that archaeological work be
134). Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba (the BES islands) conducted before any construction is undertaken. On St.
have become municipalities of the Netherlands, while Eustatius, SECAR is responsible for archaeological as-
"Curaçao and St. Maarten [have] become autonomous en- sessments. SECAR partners with SABARC in conducting
tities [like Aruba]" (ibid., 140). The Kingdom of the Neth- archaeological work on Saba and Bonaire.
erlands now consists of the Netherlands, Aruba, Curaçao,
and St. Maarten. In 1968, the Archaeological-Anthropo- Puerto Rico
logical Institute of the Netherlands Antilles (AAINA) was
formed to further "scientific archaeological research and Cultural heritage in Puerto Rico is considered at one of
public awareness" (ibid., 136). In the 1990s, AAINA be- two regulatory levels: U.S. federal or local commonwealth.
came a government foundation called the National Ar- Who owns the land, what sources of project funding are
chaeological Anthropological Museum (NAAM) and its available, and which agencies issue permits determine the
mission shifted to heritage management "with a primary level of regulatory oversight. The U.S. National Historic
focus on the island of Curaçao." The Netherlands Antilles Preservation Act (NHPA) was approved by Congress in
ratified the Malta Convention in 2007, "ensur[ing] appli- 1966. Every state, territory, and commonwealth in the
cation of the treaty standards for the individual islands United States has an agency called the State Historic Pres-
ervation Office (SHPO), funded by the National Park Ser- ment of Saint Lucia in 1968 (Branford 2011, 91). In 1975,
vice, an agency in the Department of the Interior. SHPOs the Saint Lucia National Trust was created to serve as an
are responsible for commenting on work performed additional heritage agency. Between these two entities,
within the framework of federal historic preservation law. "heritage . . . preservation; protection; and management
Many development projects in Puerto Rico do not receive of . . . architectural and historic buildings [are carried
federal funds, take place on non-federally administered out]. . . . Since 2003, salvage archaeology has been un-
lands, and do not require federal permits. As such, the dertaken on sites designated for development and rec-
NHPA is not applicable, the Puerto Rico SHPO has no ommendations for protection . . . [are] submitted to the
regulatory oversight, and local legislation applies. Com- government and developers. Developers are required to
monwealth Law 112 of 1988 created the Consejo para la pay for reconnaissance and salvage archaeological in-
Protección del Patrimonio Arqueológico Terrestre de vestigations associated with their projects. Artifacts col-
Puerto Rico, or Consejo, an organ attached to the Instituto lected during these studies are curated by the SLAHS"
de Cultura Puertorriqueña. Law 112 specifies broad pow- (Branford 2011, 92).
ers of enforcement: "obligations regarding every excava-
tion, construction and reconstruction work that is carried St. Vincent and the Grenadines
out in Puerto Rico" (quoted in Siegel 2011, 49). In 1992,
the Consejo published rules that must be followed when There are a number of heritage-protection laws for St.
conducting archaeological research associated with devel- Vincent and the Grenadines. These include the St. Vin-
opment projects. Included are statements about ultimate cent and the Grenadines National Trust Acts; the Pres-
disposition of collections and associated documentation. ervation of Historical Building and Antiquities Act; the
Botanical Gardens Act; the Marine Parks Act; the Na-
St. Kitts and Nevis tional Parks Act; the Plant Protection Act; the Fisheries
Act; the Wild Life Act; the Forest Resources Conser-
In 1987, the National Conservation and Environmen- vation Act; and the Town and Country Planning Act.
tal Protection Act was created, which governs heritage However, "implementation . . . in heritage protection is
management on St. Kitts and Nevis. However, "there questionable . . . [owing to the] lack [of] trained man-
are no explicit standards of cultural resource regula- power and finances to enforce such legislation" (Lewis
tions . . . guid[ing] the government or developer on . . . cul- 2011, 101). Although enforcement is spotty, Callaghan
tural resource investigations." Additional measures are observed that the National Trust is taking a proactive
"outlined in the National Environmental Action Plans stance to "identify priorities and meet . . . developers
of 1994 and National Environmental Management Strat- to . . . convince them to set aside . . . portions of sites
egy and Action of 2005–2009." Other legislation requires for the future even if they are not currently listed in the
the completion of environmental impact assessments PNH" (2011, 110). Legislative Act 37 of 2007 "provides
"prior to any development of more than three structures," the National Trust with the authority to 'declare as "Pro-
which includes consideration of heritage resources, "but tected National Heritage" any place, building or object,
no specific guidelines are available . . . [that] address the which should be . . . protected on account of its national
way . . . heritage studies are to be conducted." Challenges interest, or the archaeological, historic, artistic, architec-
in protecting heritage are exacerbated by rivalries between tural, scientific or traditional interest'" (quoted in ibid.).
the two islands and "economic dependency . . . on tourism
[leading to] unregulated development [produce] a con- Trinidad and Tobago
stant threat to the nation's cultural heritage" (Ahlman and
Scudder-Temple 2011, 66). Heritage management will be Heritage protection falls within the purview of the Na-
enhanced if St. Kitts (St. Christopher National Trust) and tional Trust of Trinidad and Tobago; the Archaeological
Nevis (Nevis Historical and Conservation Society) coop- Committee of Trinidad and Tobago; the Advisory Com-
erate with common initiatives. mittee on Historic Wrecks; the Archaeology Centre of
the Department of History, University of the West Indies;
Saint Lucia and the World Heritage Convention (Reid and Lewis 2011,
126–30). Heritage resources managers face challenges,
Heritage protection on Saint Lucia falls within the juris- including the lack of enforcement: "Mandates requiring
diction of the Saint Lucia Archaeological and Historical archaeological investigations in advance of development
Society (SLAHS), which was recognized by the govern- are ignored." Poor interagency coordination is a problem,
and there is no centralized plan for regulatory oversight. Efforts in Protecting Heritage." In Protecting Heritage in the
As a result, consideration of heritage resources on Trini- Caribbean, ed. P. E. Siegel and E. Righter, 106–11. Tuscaloosa:
dad and Tobago is less than adequate (ibid., 130–31). The University of Alabama Press.
way forward for heritage protection is through productive Farmer, K. 2011. "Barbados." In Protecting Heritage in the Carib-
bean, edited by P. E. Siegel and E. Righter, 112–24. Tusca-
dialogue among stakeholders, including "policy makers,
loosa: University of Alabama Press.
archaeologists, museologists, heritage managers, develop- Haviser, J. B., and G. Gilmore III. 2011. "Netherlands Antilles."
ers, and members of the public" (ibid., 133). In Protecting Heritage in the Caribbean, ed. P. E. Siegel and
E. Righter, 134–42. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
United States Virgin Islands International Committee on Archaeological Heritage Manage-
ment. 1990. A Charter for the Protection and Management
Despite the fact that the U.S. National Historic Preserva- of the Archaeological Heritage Management. Paris: Interna-
tion Act applies to projects that receive federal funding, tional Council on Monuments and Sites.
require federal permits, or take place on federal land, Larson, B. J. 2011. "United States Naval Station, Guantánamo
regulatory oversight on federally mandated archaeologi- Bay, Cuba." In Protecting Heritage in the Caribbean, ed. P.
cal projects in the United States Virgin Islands is inad- E. Siegel and E. Righter, 15–25. Tuscaloosa: University of
equate (Righter 2011, 61–62). The Antiquities Act, the local Alabama Press.
heritage legislation, applies to projects without a federal Lewis, P. E. 2011. "St. Vincent and the Grenadines." In Protect-
link. "The goals of the Antiquities Act are lofty, and, as ing Heritage in the Caribbean, ed. P. E. Siegel and E. Righter,
96–105. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
is frequently the case . . . local law does not provide staff
Murphy, R. 2011. "Antigua and Barbuda." In Protecting Heritage
or adequate funding for the additional workload involved
in the Caribbean, ed. P. E. Siegel and E. Righter, 73–79. Tus-
with implementation of the law" (ibid., 63). Volunteer or- caloosa: University of Alabama Press.
ganizations and historical societies maintain interest in Pateman, M. P. 2011. "The Bahamas." In Protecting Heritage in
heritage preservation with uneven results (ibid., 64). the Caribbean, ed. P. E. Siegel and E. Righter, 1–8. Tusca-
Heritage Protection in the Caribbean Prieto Vicioso, E. 2011. "Dominican Republic." In Protecting
Heritage in the Caribbean, ed. P. E. Siegel and E. Righter,
One might ask, "Why are things of the past important to 35–45. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
protect, conserve, manage, or consider when things of Reid, B. A., and V. Lewis. 2011. "Trinidad and Tobago." In Pro-
the present are increasingly dire?" Is heritage preserva- tecting Heritage in the Caribbean, ed. P. E. Siegel and E.
tion a nicety of the global North? Consideration of Ca- Righter, 125–33. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
ribbean heritage resources ranges from seemingly strong Richards, A., and A. Henriques. 2011. "Jamaica." In Protecting
and enforced legislation that is backed by government Heritage in the Caribbean, ed. P. E. Siegel and E. Righter,
oversight to no apparent interest in preserving the past 26–34. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Righter, E. 2011. "U.S. Virgin Islands." In Protecting Heritage in
to instances of purposely obliterating a past associated
the Caribbean, ed. P. E. Siegel and E. Righter, 58–64. Tusca-
with painful memories. The people of each nation must
decide if cultural heritage is worthy of consideration in Shackel, P. 2003. Memory in Black and White: Race, Commemo-
the face of development and, if so, what measures will be ration, and the Post-Bellum Landscape. Walnut Creek, CA:
taken to achieve that goal. AltaMira Press.
Siegel, P. E. 2011. "Puerto Rico." In Protecting Heritage in the
Further Reading Caribbean, ed. P. E. Siegel and E. Righter, 46–57. Tuscaloosa:
University of Alabama Press.
Ahlman, T. M., and K. Scudder-Temple. 2011. "St. Kitts and
Siegel, P. E., and E. Righter, eds. 2011. Protecting Heritage in the
Nevis." In Protecting Heritage in the Caribbean, ed. P. E.
Caribbean. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Siegel and E. Righter, 65–72. Tuscaloosa: University of Ala-
Torres Etayo, D. 2011. "Cuba." In Protecting Heritage in the Ca-
bama Press.
ribbean, ed. P. E. Siegel and E. Righter, 9–14. Tuscaloosa:
Bérard, B., and C. Stouvenot. 2011. "French West Indies." In
Protecting Heritage in the Caribbean, ed. P. E. Siegel and E.
Righter, 80–89. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Branford, M. E. 2011. "Saint Lucia." In Protecting Heritage in the
See also The Archaeological Committee of Trinidad and
Caribbean, ed. P. E. Siegel and E. Righter, 90–95. Tuscaloosa: Tobago; The Dutch Caribbean; The Jamaica National
University of Alabama Press. Heritage Trust; The National Trust of Trinidad and To-
Callaghan, R. T. 2011. "St. Vincent and the Grenadines: Recent bago; Rescue Archaeology.
The Archaeological Society of Jamaica
The Archaeological Club of Jamaica, the predecessor Maroon, and Jewish archaeology became important re-
of the Archaeological Society of Jamaica (ASJ), was search areas within the ASJ. Currently, the interests of
formed in February 1965. The club was founded by Dr. the society are more diverse and have tended to reflect
James W. Lee and nine archaeologists and archaeo- research trends on the island.
logical enthusiasts. Five years later, the Archaeological In attempts to encourage the preservation of archaeo-
Club expanded, and on September 5, 1970, The Archae- logical sites, the ASJ has collaborated with several in-
ological Society of Jamaica was established with a total terest groups and organizations such as the Jamaica Na-
of 40 members. tional Heritage Trust (JNHT), The University of the West
The ASJ is administered by the Executive Committee, Indies (Mona), and the Jamaica Historical Society. Pres-
which consists of the following ten positions: president, ently, members of the Archaeological Society of Jamaica
vice-president, secretary and treasurer, and the floor sit on the board of the JNHT, represent Jamaica's posi-
members. The most prolific president of the ASJ has tion on the ratification of the UNESCO Convention for
been Dr. James W. Lee, a Canadian geologist who lived Underwater Cultural Heritage Committee, and Jamaica's
and worked in Jamaica from 1951 to 1986. Dr. Lee served UNESCO World Heritage Sites Nomination Committee.
as president for 17 years. The constitution has since then One special preservation project was at Mountain River
been revised so that the president cannot serve more Cave, St. Catherine, the most prominent rock art site on
than three consecutive years. the island; it has over 200 pictographs (rock paintings)
The ASJ and its members have played an integral role and several petroglyphs (rock carvings). The site, which
in the development of Jamaican archaeology. Its central was initially discovered in the late nineteenth century,
objective is to research, preserve and promote Jamaica's was lost until it was rediscovered in 1954 by James Lee
archaeological heritage. The functions of the society in- and Robert Cooper. In 1976, the ASJ bought two acres of
clude discovering new sites, doing site surveys, conduct- land that housed the rock art site. With the assistance of
ing and participating in fieldwork, promoting aware- the Jamaica Defence Force, the society built a protective
ness, and preserving Jamaica's archaeological resources. grill to shelter the cave from the elements and vandals.
As early as 1959, James Lee began mapping all the known In May 1982, the ASJ handed over the management of
Taíno (formerly known as Arawak) sites on the island. the Mountain River Cave to the JNHT.
Thus, for the first 20 years, the society's primary focus The main avenue for promoting the work of the ASJ
was on the island's prehistory. During this period, Dr. and current research on the island is the society's news-
Lee and the ASJ located and mapped 265 sites on the letter, Archaeology Jamaica, which was first published
island. A number of members of the society conducted in January 1965. The newsletter was initially produced
excavations, such as Father Osborne, who excavated monthly, but it is now an annual publication. Members
Bengal (1962) and Cinnamon Hill (1974), and John Wil- of the ASJ have sought to highlight research in Jamaica
man, who conducted excavations at Rodney's House by presenting papers at the International Congress of
(1978 and 1979). In 2000, James Lee donated his collec- Caribbean Archaeology (IACA) and other archaeol-
tion of Jamaican prehistoric artifacts to The University ogy conferences. The society has placed considerable
of the West Indies, Mona Campus. The analysis of this emphasis on developing student awareness of Jamaica's
collection was published in Philip Allsworth-Jones's Pre- archaeological heritage by hosting essay/poster/photo
Columbian Jamaica (2008). In addition to research on competitions and archaeological field schools and par-
Taíno sites, members of the ASJ conducted excavations ticipating in exhibitions and expositions. Over the years,
at Spanish sites such as Sevilla La Nueva (New Seville). the society has hosted conferences for the Society for
Lieutenant Commander J. S. Tyndale-Biscoe worked on Historical Archaeology (January 1992) and the World
excavations there in the 1950s and 1960s, and Captain Archaeological Congress Inter-Congress (May 2007),
Charles S. Cotter excavated the site for almost 40 years and since April 2002 it has held its own annual sympo-
until his death in 1977. During the 1990s, Afro-Jamaican, sium.
Lee, J. W. 1980/2006. "Jamaican Redware." In Proceedings of the
Eighth International Congress for the Study of Pre-Columbian
Allsworth-Jones, P. 2008. Pre-Columbian Jamaica. Tuscaloosa: Cultures of the Lesser Antilles, St. Kitts, 1979, ed. S. M. Lew-
University of Alabama Press. enstein, 597–609. Tempe: University of Arizona. Reprinted
Cotter, C. S. 1970. "Sevilla la Nueva: The Story of Excavation." in The Earliest Inhabitants: The Dynamics of the Jamaican
Jamaica Journal 4 (2): 15–22. Taíno, ed. L. Atkinson, 153–60. Kingston: University of the
Keegan, W. F., and L. Atkinson. 2006. "The Development of Ja- West Indies Press.
maican Prehistory." In The Earliest Inhabitants: The Dynam-
ics of the Jamaican Taíno, ed. L. Atkinson, 13–33. Kingston: See also Jamaica (Prehistory of); The Jamaica National
University of West Indies Press. Heritage Trust.
Archaeometry
Archaeometry is the application of a variety of scien- been successfully applied over the past decades to the
tific methods and techniques in order to chemically and study of archaeological materials from this region (for
physically analyze archaeological materials. Archaeo- an overview see Hofman et al. 2008).
metric research uses analytical techniques from biol- The most commonly used archaeometric technique
ogy, earth sciences, chemistry, and physics to measure is radiocarbon dating. Recently, "chronometric hygiene"
or quantify parameters in order to determine the ages has been applied to sets of Caribbean radiocarbon dates
of sites and artifacts, identify human mobility, provide in order to eliminate unreliable and contaminated dates.
insights into paleodietary exploitation and consump- This involves calibrating marine and terrestrial samples
tion patterns, establish the provenance of raw materials, and correcting for the "marine reservoir effect" (Fitzpat-
and reconstruct the manufacturing processes of various rick 2006). Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis
materials. Among the main archaeometric methods and has contributed to our understanding of prehistoric diet
techniques are unstable (carbon-14) and stable isotope during the past decade. This technique is continuously
analysis (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, strontium, oxygen, lead, being refined and combined with other isotopes. Recent
and sulfur), X-ray fluorescence, instrumental neutron applications of strontium, lead, and sulfur isotopes have
activation analysis (INAA), X-ray diffraction, and an- provided insights into the mobility of precolonial insu-
cient DNA analysis. These geophysical and geochemi- lar communities (Laffoon et al. 2012). Although in its
cal analyses are often combined with a range of other infancy, the analysis of ancient mitochondrial DNA in
"softer" technological approaches that include micro- the Caribbean has also revealed some interesting pat-
scopic use-wear analysis and starch residue, phytolith, terns in precolonial migrations into the Caribbean is-
and pollen analysis. Experimental and ethnoarchaeolog- lands from South America. Provenance studies of stone
ical research can later be used to conceptualize the so- and pottery artifacts have been achieved through the use
ciocultural behavior behind the technological sequence of archaeometric techniques such as thin sectioning and
in the manufacture of artifacts. petrographic analysis, X-ray diffraction, and X-ray fluo-
Many of these approaches have long proven to be rescence, among others (e.g., Descantes et al. 2008).
very successful in the study of archaeological materi- Microscopic use-wear analysis and experimental
als elsewhere in the world. However, in the Caribbean, archaeology have led to a better understanding of how
these techniques were less common and were not ap- Caribbean artifacts made of stone, ceramic, shell, bone,
plied systematically until recently. The following exam- antler, and coral were manufactured and handled dur-
ples illustrate some of the most recent advances in the ing domestic activities (Lammers-Keysers 2007). Both
application of archaeometric techniques in the Carib- phytolith and starch grain analyses have identified plants
bean. These are only a few of the many methods and and organic materials on precolonial lithic plant-pro-
techniques from the archaeological sciences that have cessing tools, ceramics and dental calculus (Mickleburgh
and Pagán-Jiménez 2012). The combination of wear pat- 2008. Crossing the Borders: New Methods and Techniques in
terns and starch residues reveal that many artifacts had the Study of Archaeological Materials from the Caribbean.
multiple functions. This finding offers insights into the Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
subsistence system of various Caribbean populations Laffoon, J. E., G. R. Davies, M. L. P. Hoogland, and C. L. Hof-
man. 2012. "Spatial Variation of Biologically Available
and provides information on intra- and interregional
Strontium Isotopes (87Sr/86Sr) in an Archipelagic Setting:
human-plant interactions through time and space. A Case Study from the Caribbean." Journal of Archaeological
Science 39 (7): 2371–384.
Lammers-Keysers, Y. 2007. Tracing Traces from Present to Past:
A Functional Analysis of Pre-Columbian Shell and Stone Ar-
Descantes, C., R. J. Speakman, M. D. Glascock, and M. T. tefacts from Anse a la Gourde and Morel, Guadeloupe, FWI.
Boulanger. 2008. "An Exploratory Study into the Chemical Leiden: Leiden University Press Academic.
Characterization of Caribbean Ceramics." Special publica- Mickleburgh, H. L., and J. Pagán-Jiménez. 2012. "New Insights
tion #2, Journal of Caribbean Archaeology. into the Consumption of Maize and Other Food Plants in
Fitzpatrick, S. M. 2006. "A Critical Approach to 14C Dating in the Pre-Columbian Caribbean from Starch Grains Trapped
the Caribbean: Using Chronometric Hygiene to Evaluate in Human Dental Calculus." Journal of Archaeological Sci-
Chronological Control and Prehistoric Settlement." Latin ence 39 (7): 2468–78.
American Antiquity 17 (4): 389–418.
Hofman, Corinne L., M. L. P. Hoogland, and A. van Gijn, eds. See also The First Caribbean Farmers; Grindstones.
The Archaic Age
The Archaic Age in the Caribbean spans from 5000 BC stone tools appear to have been used for pounding and
to 200 BC and is generally considered to be a develop- processing hard and fibrous vegetable matter.
mental stage characterized by a marine-oriented subsis- Taking their name from archaeological type-site of
tence followed by a terrestrial hunting-based economy. Casimira in southwestern Hispaniola, the Casimiroid
The two major groups associated with this period are the migrated from Belize around 4000 BC and colonized
Ortoiroid (5000 BC–200 BC) and the Casimiroid (4000 both Cuba and Hispaniola. Casimiroid stone tools,
BC–400 BC) (Figure A.8). The Archaic people were for- which are similar to those of the Ortoiroid, include so-
merly referred to as Ciboney in popular literature and in phisticated blades, which they used as spear points to
some scholarly writings. However, the term Ciboney is a hunt sloths and manatees; conical pestles and mortars
misnomer, because it specifically refers to a local Taíno to prepare food; a variety of possibly ritual implements
group in central Cuba (Reid 2009). such as stone balls, disks, and dagger-like objects; and
The Ortoiroid, who originated from northwest Guy- elaborate stone beads and shell jewelry. Casimiroid sites,
ana and took their name from the shell midden of Or- which date to around 2660 BC, have been identified on
toire in southeast Trinidad, first settled Banwari Trace the north and south coasts of Haiti. In the Dominican
and St. John in Trinidad approximately 7,000 years ago, Republic, Casimiroid sites are located in river valleys
eventually colonizing the entire swath of the eastern and along the coast. It appears that Casimiroid ground
Caribbean region as far north as Puerto Rico. However, stone tools in south-central Cuba were first shaped by
Richard T. Callaghan's computer simulations suggest flaking, which was then followed by pecking and grind-
that some Ortoiroid groups may have jumped directly ing (Reid 2009). There is growing evidence of interac-
from South America to the Greater Antilles. The arti- tions between the Ortoiroid and the Casimiroid from
facts from Banwari Trace and St. John include tools Puerto Rico and the northern Leeward Islands; the sites
made of bones and stone related to fishing and collect- of Maruca (Puerto Rico) and Jolly Beach (Antigua) are
ing, canoe building, plant processing, and general cut- cited as prime examples of such cultural exchanges (Wil-
ting and scraping (Boomert 2000). Many of the ground son 2007).
The Archaic Age 55
Figure A.8. Ortoiroid and Casimiroid migration and colonization of the Caribbean. Reprinted from Reid (2009, fig.2.2) by permis-
sion of the University of Alabama Press.
Archaic Age sites are also typically characterized by that neither the Ortoiroid nor the Casimiroid practiced
shell middens and waste material (or debitage) from the pottery-making and agriculture. It is now generally ac-
manufacture of stone tools. They are mostly situated cepted that pottery-making and incipient agriculture
in close proximity to marine ecosystems that are rich began in the Caribbean during the Archaic rather than
with shellfish, mangroves, and shallow grassy bottom the Saladoid period. Notable examples of pottery-bear-
bays that have a high diversity of species. Archaic stone ing Archaic sites are Couri I and Pascade II in Haiti, the
technology was based on the reduction of flint cobbles Playa Blanca and Jobos sites in Puerto Rico, El Caimito at
to produce blades and usable flakes. The reduction pro- the La Caleta site in eastern Dominican Republic, Krum
cess used a hard percussor to remove the outer layers Bay in the United States Virgin Islands and La Luz, and
or cortex of the cobbles, creating a core and platform El Nispero and Catunda in Cuba. Unlike Saladoid pot-
from which flakes could be removed or struck off. At tery, which has a highly formalized grammar, the pots in
times, the larger blades were retouched to make special- Archaic sites seem to reflect a period of experimentation
ized tools, such as backed knives, scrapers, and burins. during which different pastes and decorative techniques
Excellent examples of these have been recovered at a were explored (Keegan and Rodríguez Ramos 2007).
number of sites on Antigua. Ground stone tools are also Botanical studies of preserved starch grains on grinding
represented but are comparatively rare. Bowls, mortars, tools have demonstrated that virtually all of the plants
pestles, and axes are the most common of these items. that were supposedly introduced by the Saladoid were
For years, the Archaic Age was defined by the ab- already being cultivated by their Archaic predecessors.
sence of pottery and agricultural practices. However, in- Numerous Archaic Age grindstones and pestles and
creasing evidence of pottery-making and horticultural tools commonly associated with the processing of plants
practices at Archaic sites has now invalidated the idea (seeds, roots, fruit, etc.) suggest that both the Ortoiroid
and Casimiroid were part of early horticultural societ- Keegan, W. F., and R. Rodríguez Ramos. 2007. "Archaic Ori-
ies who planted and foraged over a wide area, moving gins of the Classic Taínos." In Proceedings of the Twenty-
seasonally within and between the islands and sites to First Congress of the International Association for Carib-
exploit a variety of plant resources. Given these realities, bean Archaeology, vol. 1, ed. B. Reid, H. P. Roget, and C.
Antonio, 211–17. St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago:
a more appropriate definition for the Archaic Age in the
School of Continuing Studies, University of the West In-
Caribbean would be a period of marine-oriented subsis- dies.
tence followed by a terrestrial hunting-based economy, Reid, B. A. 2009. Myths and Realities of Caribbean History. Tus-
coupled with transition from a highly mobile hunting caloosa: University of Alabama Press.
and gathering life to a more settled agricultural life. Wilson, S. M. 2007. The Archaeology of the Caribbean. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Boomert, A. 2000. Trinidad, Tobago, and the Lower Orinoco See also Antigua and Barbuda (Archaic Sites); Ciboney
Interaction Sphere: An Archaeological/Ethnohistorical Study. versus Guanahatabey; The First Caribbean Farmers;
Alkmaar: Cairi. Grindstones.
The Association of Caribbean Historians
Bridget Brereton and Sherry-Ann Singh
The Association of Caribbean Historians (ACH) is an 1973, respectively. Thanks largely to the efforts of Doug-
independent, nonprofit, professional association of per- las Hall of the Jamaica campus of UWI and Marshall,
sons who research, write about, and teach the history the decision was made to establish the ACH as a formal
of the Caribbean region. Its several hundred members body at the Trinidad conference in 1973. As a result, at
are based in the region and in other parts of the Ameri- the sixth conference in 1974 at San Juan, Puerto Rico,
cas, Europe, Africa, and Asia. They include academic the ACH constitution was adopted and the organization
and public historians, archaeologists, graduate students, came into being, with Marshall as its first president and
archivists, librarians, museum curators, secondary and Campbell as its first secretary/treasurer.
tertiary level teachers, members of local historical soci- Since 1974, each annual conference has included an
eties, and others. annual general meeting of the ACH. Up to the time
The origin of the ACH and of the annual Conferences of writing (2011), fifteen persons have served as presi-
of Caribbean Historians can be traced to 1969. In that dent for consecutive terms of from one to three years.
year, Jacques Adelaide-Merlande of the Centre Univer- Two persons, Adelaide-Merlande and Marshall, have
sitaire des Antilles et de Guyane asked the Department served for two separate, nonconsecutive terms. Most of
of History of The University of the West Indies (UWI) the presidents have come from universities or national
if some of its members could join him in a small col- archives throughout the region, but they have also in-
loquium in Guadeloupe on the theme "From Slavery cluded historians based in the United States. The Execu-
to Emancipation." Three members of the multi-campus tive Committee consists of the president, the vice-pres-
History Department attended (Woodville Marshall, Carl ident, the secretary/treasurer, and four other members,
Campbell, and Neville Hall), as did a few of Adelaide- who are elected by the membership. The ACH does not
Merlande's colleagues. Nine papers were presented and have a fixed physical location; in effect, its base is the
discussed. As the result of discussions in Guadeloupe location of the current secretary/treasurer, who runs the
and later discussions, UWI historians organized the sec- organization between conferences and helps organize
ond conference in 1970 at the Barbados campus of UWI. the conferences in collaboration with the host institu-
Continuing informal discussions on a wider basis led to tion (usually a university in the particular Caribbean
conferences at the University of Guyana in 1971 and at country chosen). In 1974, the ACH adopted as its logo
the Jamaica and Trinidad campuses of UWI in 1972 and the Birdman, a Jamaican Taíno carving found in the late
The Association of Caribbean Historians 57
eighteenth century that is now located in the British Mu- Guyana, Suriname, Colombia, Trinidad and Tobago,
seum. Barbados, Curaçao, St. Thomas, the Bahamas, Jamaica,
The main aims of the ACH, according to its constitu- Puerto Rico, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic. At the
tion, are to promote historical studies of the Caribbean, first small meeting in 1969, nine papers were presented;
to facilitate regular communications and exchange of at the 43rd conference in 2011, 57 papers were presented,
information among historians working on the region, grouped in 17 panels.
and to keep under review the state of history teaching in From time to time, papers on particular aspects of
the different countries of the region. The ACH produces Caribbean archaeology are presented. For instance, at
two bulletins a year for its members, which are now the 1978 conference in St. Thomas, a paper was pre-
posted online on the ACH Web site. The bulletins and sented on prehistoric rock art in Guyana and the An-
the Web site provide information about the ACH and tilles, and at the eighteenth Conference in 1986 in the
its conferences and about many other activities, confer- Bahamas, a paper was presented on the archaeological
ences, publications, and so forth of interest to its mem- record of early nineteenth-century plantations on San
bers. The ACH awards two prizes, which are announced Salvador, Bahamas. At the 1983 conference in Jamaica,
every two years. The most prestigious is the Elsa Goveia a panel on archaeology included papers on nautical ar-
Book Prize, which was established soon after 1980 and chaeology, Port Royal, and the surface collections of the
is named for the distinguished Guyanese-born, UWI- Seville Heritage Park. In 1988, at the 20th conference in
based historian who died in that year. It is awarded for St. Thomas, a paper was presented on the first phase of
the best book on Caribbean history published over a archaeological research on the village of enslaved indi-
two-year period, and a special committee makes the se- viduals at Seville, Jamaica. At the 22nd conference, in
lection. The Andrés Ramos Mattei-Neville Hall Article Trinidad, a paper was presented on archaeology in the
Prize, which was established in 1995 to commemorate teaching of history at the secondary school level in the
two active ACH members who had died, is awarded for English-speaking Caribbean, and at the 24th conference,
the best article on Caribbean history published in a jour- held in the Bahamas, there was a panel on archaeological
nal over a two-year period; it is also selected by a special research in that country.
The most important activity of the ACH, however, Further Reading
continues to be the organization of the annual confer- Association of Caribbean Historians. 2011. "The ACH." http://
ences held in different Caribbean countries. Starting in www.associationofcaribbeanhistorians.org. Accessed Janu-
1969, before the ACH existed, these conferences have ary 8, 2013.
been held every year without a break; the 43rd confer-
ence was in 2011 in Puerto Rico. Conferences have been See also The International Association for Caribbean
held (up to 2011) in Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guyane, Archaeology (IACA).
The Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands
Prehistoric Archaeology in the Bahamas and the Islands dates to the Post-Saladoid/Early Ostionoid pe-
Turks and Caicos Islands riod, circa AD 600–900. Berman refers to this period as
the Antillean expansion period, during which Ostionoid
Prehistoric archaeology in the Bahamas and the Turks peoples migrated from the Greater Antilles into the Ba-
and Caicos Islands began in the 1880s with work con- hamian Archipelago, where they underwent in situ de-
ducted by William Brooks. Later, after collecting notable velopment to become the Lucayan Taíno. The Taíno in
artifacts, including wooden paddles, duhos, stone carv- the Bahamas are referred to as Lucayans, derived from
ings, and human skeletal remains, Theodoor de Booy "lukku cairi," the Lucayan Taíno word for "people of the
was able to place the cultures and peoples of the Baha- island."
mas and the Turks and Caicos Islands in their proper re- Early period sites include Three Dog on San Salva-
lationships to other Native American cultures on main- dor, Preacher's Cave on Eleuthera, and Coralie (AD
land Florida, in the Caribbean, and in Central America. 700–1170) on the Turks and Caicos Islands. Three Dog,
Archaeologists such as John Goggin (1939) (on Andros) which dates to AD 600–1030, is one of the earliest occu-
and Julian Granberry (on Bimini and the Gordon Hill pations in the Bahamas. It was excavated by Mary Jane
site on Crooked Island) continued the early work in the Berman and Perry Gnivecki (1995). Early ceramics from
Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands (Granberry Three Dog are similar to Cuba's Arroyo del Palo pot-
1955, 1957, 1978). Granberry also wrote extensively on tery, while John Winter and team (Winter and Gilstrap
Lucayan toponyms and linguistics. Avocational archae- 1991) demonstrated ceramic ties between San Salvador,
ologist Ruth Durlacher-Wolper discovered numerous Hispaniola, and Cuba. Recent identification of Crooked
prehistoric sites and founded the New World Museum Island Ware at Minnis Ward, San Salvador, suggests that
on San Salvador. Minnis Ward may also have an early component coeval
Modern excavations in the Bahamas began with the with Three Dog and Preacher's Cave.
work of Charles A. Hoffman Jr. on San Salvador, where The intermediate prehistoric period, circa AD 900–
he did work at Palmetto Grove. Hoffman's (1967, 1970) 1200, is sometimes called the Late Ostionoid or the Early
large-scale excavation was the first to identify Palmetto Lucayan period. Recent settlement pattern studies on
Ware as a major ceramic type in the Bahamas. Hoffman's San Salvador (Figure B.1) by Blick, Hopkins, and Oet-
work was also one of the first in the Bahamas to offer a ter (2011) suggest that sparse early occupation expanded
systematic typology of Caribbean-area shell tools; this from a few sites to virtually the entire island, indicating
work was recently updated by Sharyn Jones and William a period of relatively robust population growth. Further
Keegan (2001). While there has been some discussion of evidence of population growth and dispersal through-
possible early (even Archaic) occupation in the Baha- out the Bahamas around AD 1200 was detected by Eric
mian Archipelago, evidence for such early occupation Kjellmark (1996) on Andros Island vegetation, which
is sparse and is only vaguely implied by early radiocar- suggests either human arrival or an increase in slash-
bon dates that are likely contaminated or problematic. and-burn cultivation. A human tibia from Sawmill
Dates of 1880–1730 BC from North Storr's Lake and AD Sink, Abaco, dates to the beginning of this period, AD
120–260 from Minnis Ward, both based on charcoal 900–1030. Evidence of population growth during the in-
from San Salvador, suggest that an earlier occupation in termediate period is reflected in the abundance of sites
the Bahamian Archipelago is an unlikely scenario. The throughout the Bahamas, including Pink Wall (AD 850–
occupation of the Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos 1150), Clifton Pier (AD 1000–1200), and Alexandra (AD
ports a tiny charred corn cob from Preacher's Cave on
Eleuthera dated to AD 1430–1570, around the same time
Late radiocarbon dates are reported from Barker's
Point Shell Midden (AD 1170–1510), North Storr's Lake
(AD 1520–1550), Pigeon Creek (AD 1435–1635), and
Three Dog (AD 1492, lead shot) on San Salvador. The
end of the late prehistoric period in the Bahamian Archi-
pelago is marked by the arrival of Columbus in 1492, the
best evidence for which is the intermingling of Lucayan
and Spanish artifacts in the same strata at Long Bay, San
Salvador. Lucayan occupation may have persisted in the
Bahamas into the 1520s and 1540s and perhaps as late as
the 1550s, as indicated by a number of radiocarbon dates
from artifacts found from Eleuthera to San Salvador.
Although early archaeological interest in the Turks
and Caicos Islands was spawned by the work of De Booy
and others, modern systematic surveys and excavations
were first carried out in the Turks and Caicos by William
H. Sears and Shaun Sullivan (Sullivan 1981). This work
Figure B.1. Prehistoric archaeological sites on San Salvador, Ba- was followed by that of William Keegan and associates
hamas. The Long Bay site (SS-9), SW portion of the island, is the (Carlson 1999; Keegan 1992). Coralie, Grand Turk, dated
probable landfall of Columbus in 1492. Other sites mentioned to AD 705–1170, is one of the earliest sites in the Turks
in the article are indicated. Map drawn by Katrien Janin.
and Caicos and is best known for its massive quantity of
sea turtle (Cheloniidae) remains and for the presence of
990–1310) on New Providence Island; McKay (AD 1200– now-extinct fauna such as ground tortoises and birds,
1300) on Crooked Island; Pigeon Creek Dune 2 on San as reported by Betsy Carlson and W. Keegan (Carlson
Salvador (AD 895–1170); and GI-12 (AD 1040–1270) on 1999; Carlson and Keegan 2004). Sea turtles outweighed
Great Inagua. Minnis Ward (AD 970–1430) and North all other animal taxa at Coralie, where the massive num-
Storr's Lake (AD 860–1310), both on San Salvador, also ber of vertebrate fauna included some 6,500 pieces of
have components from this period. sea turtles. Coralie has one of the largest samples of pre-
The late prehistoric period, circa AD 1200–1492, historic sea turtle bones in the Bahamian archipelago,
called the Taíno period, the Taíno florescent period, or if not the entire Greater Caribbean. In the Turks and
the Late Lucayan period, exhibited major population Caicos, Coralie (AD 1000–1200), Governor's Beach (AD
growth in many parts of the Bahamas, especially on 1000–1330), Kendrick (AD 1020–1240), and the MC-12
San Salvador and areas of the northern Bahamas. This site on Middle Caicos (AD 1040–1280) date approxi-
period continued until and just beyond the arrival of mately to the intermediate period (ca. AD 900–1200).
the Spanish into the Bahamas. Kjellmark (1996) dem- Governor's Beach, which Carlson (1993) has researched,
onstrated agricultural intensification on Andros based probably has the largest collection of beads and bead
on the rise of charcoal particles in blue-hole sediments manufacturing debris of any site in the pan-Caribbean
and concomitant changes in plant communities and region. The site, which has been dated to AD 1100–1200,
an increase in disturbance indicators from AD 1210 to contained thousands of whole beads, blanks, and bead
1520. Perhaps the most spectacular late prehistoric site fragments, and around 14,000 bead-making scraps and
in the Bahamas is Deadman's Reef on Grand Bahama, debitage. Governor's Beach was a Taíno site with con-
which Berman and Gnivecki excavated. Large quantities nections to the Greater Antilles, rather than a Lucayan
of wooden remains with vestiges of anthropomorphic site. The Governor's Beach bead makers were obviously
and zoomorphic carvings and designs have been dated skilled artisans who fashioned red and white shell disc
to AD 1400–1485. Berman believes these wooden carv- beads from Chama sarda (the cherry jewel box clam)
ings and designs are suggestive of hallucinatory imagery and Strombus gigas (queen conch). The site was appar-
that may have been inspired by the use of cohoba snuff ently a seasonal bead-making camp that was used for
(Anadenanthera peregrina). Grace Turner (2006a) re- only a few months of the year.
Finally, Ia góra (MC-6) is an example of a late period of firing a lead arquebus ball, although some scholars
site in the Turks and Caicos Islands. The site has been believe that smaller shot was fired from bomdardetas
dated to circa AD 1200. Sullivan and Keegan described (barrel-tube cannons) as scatter shot (Malcolm 1996).
it as a chief 's village with a ceremonial plaza or ball court The St. John's Bahamas Shipwreck Project is only
between two groups of houses of differing social status. one of several Spanish shipwreck recovery projects that
Interpretation of rock mounds on the site suggested that have been conducted in the waters of the Bahamas and
higher-status households may have been built on small the Turks and Caicos. The St. John's wreck, located near
platform mounds. More recently, MC-6 has been inter- the western end of Grand Bahama, contained one of
preted as a chiefly village that controlled access to salt the largest sixteenth-century maritime collections ever
resources of a nearby hypersaline pond. Keegan (1992) recovered (Malcolm 1996). Armaments from the ship,
hypothesizes that salt was a high-value commodity that including various versos (swivel guns) and bombardetas,
was traded throughout the pan-Caribbean because of similar to weapons described aboard Columbus's 1492
its value as a dietary supplement and as a preservative vessels, indicate a 1550–1554 date. The Molasses Reef
for fish and other foodstuffs. Control and distribution shipwreck in the Turks and Caicos, dated to circa 1520–
of such necessary and desirable goods, including shell 1530, had a similar complement of weapons, olive jars,
beads such as those from Governor's Beach, would have and other ceramics as the St. John's wreck. Weapons (e.g.,
provided Taíno elites with opportunities to trade, travel, sword hilts) from the St. John's wreck suggest dates over-
and expand their influence, thus increasing their social lapping between 1525 and 1550. A bowl-shaped Spanish
status. During this late period, which is rightly referred helmet with a low comb and a down-turned brim from
to as the Taíno florescent period, chiefdoms emerged in the St. John's wreck dates to 1520–1530 and is likely of
the Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands before Italian manufacture (Malcolm 1996). The Highborn Cay
their development was curtailed by the arrival of the Eu- shipwreck from the early sixteenth century, with its 13
ropeans in the late fifteenth century. versos and two bombardetas, is another good example
of the inherent perils of sailing the rocky and shallow
Historical Archaeology in the Bahamas Bahamian shoals during the late fifteenth through early
and the Turks and Caicos seventeenth centuries. After the Spanish finished raid-
ing the Bahamas for enslaved Lucayans to work on the
Historical archaeology in the Bahamian Archipelago Greater Antillean plantations and to dive for pearls in
begins with the 1492 landfall of Columbus at Long Bay, the lucrative pearl beds off the coast of northern Ven-
San Salvador, and the contact between the Lucayans and ezuela, the Spanish quickly turned their attention to the
Europeans. A small piece of evidence of Spanish contact wealth to be found on the bigger islands of Puerto Rico,
on San Salvador includes an item that was not necessar- Hispaniola, and Cuba and mainland Mexico, Central
ily traded: a Spanish colonial lead arquebus (or pistol) America, and South America.
ball that Berman and Gnivecki found about 2.7 kilome- The fact that Spain's attention was diverted allowed
ters south of Long Bay at the Three Dog site. The lead the British to set their eyes on the colonization of the Ba-
arquebus ball has been seen by very few, but that number hamas and the Turks and Caicos, and they made claims
includes Robert H. Brill, who tested lead scrapings from to those lands as early as 1629. In 1648, during the time of
the ball (personal communication). The ball is similar the English Civil War, the vessel of a company of British
in size to other lead arquebus balls of the time, such as colonists calling themselves the Company of Eleutherian
those found at another Columbus-era settlement, La Adventurers, the William, sank near the modern island
Isabela, in the Dominican Republic (1493–1498), and of Eleuthera. Seventy souls went ashore on Eleuthera to
the Coronado expedition's 2nd infantry encampment in establish a new colony based on freedom of religious
North America (1541). The lead from the arquebus ball conscience. Although archaeological evidence suggests
has been sourced to the Sierra de Gador mining region that some of these Eleutherian Adventurers lived inside,
in Spain and is compositionally similar to the lead in a stored goods and animals (such as cows and pigs), and
small bronze buckle excavated at Long Bay. In his Dia- may also have performed religious services in Preacher's
rio, Columbus mentions several times the firing of an Cave, the original 1648 settlement was soon deserted.
espingarda, a predecessor of the arquebus, musket, and The Eleutherians continued to receive political outcasts
rifle that was introduced in the mid-1400s but was su- in the wake of the English Civil War and were forced to
perseded by the musket in Spain around 1520. It is clear make a difficult living by scavenging shipwrecks (known
that Columbus had weapons aboard that were capable as "wracking") and by harvesting braziletto dyewood
and whale ambergris. Occasional shipments to and tions may be related to the "wracking" industry that was
from the British mainland colonies of South Carolina common in the Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos from
and Massachusetts provide the inhabitants of Eleuthera the seventeenth century. Other incidents of these draw-
with some needed financial support and survival neces- ings of sailing ships, known as "ship graffiti," have been
sities that were given as charity. found inside a cave on Abaco, on several plantations on
In 1787, William Wylly migrated to the Bahamas San Salvador, on a Turks and Caicos hillside, and in pris-
after being a Loyalist supporter during the American ons in Nassau and San Salvador in the eighteenth and
Revolution. Wylly became attorney general of the co- twentieth centuries, respectively (Turner 2006a).
lonial Bahamas and a major plantation owner at Clifton Recent work in the area is bringing the archaeology of
Plantation on the western end of New Providence. Clif- the Bahamian Archipelago into the twenty-first century.
ton Plantation is considered one of the best preserved Investigation of local reuse of older artifacts such as glass
plantations in the Bahamas today. William Wylly later bottles by emancipated and recent peoples suggest that
became an abolitionist, and his abolitionist tendencies peoples at the end of fragile supply chains must reuse
and advocacy for the enslaved from the Bahamas and common materials at hand. Reinterpretations of ship
former British colonies eventually resulted in his arrest graffiti and Bahamian cemeteries are using postmodern
for contempt (a series of events known as the Wylly approaches and creating a transition from processual to
Affair). Wylly apparently employed liberated African postprocessual interpretations of archaeological materi-
laborers at Clifton, and many freed Africans were al- als in the Bahamian Archipelago (Baxter 2009; Baxter
lowed to serve in the Royal Navy and as apprentices and Marshall 2009; Turner 2006b). The future of archae-
for the standard seven-year period. New slave laws ology in the Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos is en-
were implemented in 1824, and very soon thereafter, tering a new and exciting phase of research in the early
in 1824, the British Empire emancipated its enslaved. decades of the twenty-first century.
Numerous cotton plantations, many of which also
raised cattle and sheep, dominated the economy of the
Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos, but the peak Brit- Further Reading
ish plantation period lasted only 50 years, from circa
Baxter, Jane. 2009. "Creating Community on 19th Century San
1780 to 1834. Very few plantations of this period have
Salvador: Ship Graffiti and Identity in the Bahamian Past."
been studied archaeologically and most of the planta- Presented at the Thirteenth Symposium on the Natural His-
tion studies have focused on the bigger and better-pre- tory of the Bahamas, Gerace Research Center, San Salvador,
served owner's houses rather than on more poorly built Bahamas, June 18–22.
and smaller enslaved laborer quarters. Baxter, Jane, and Michael Steven Marshall. 2009. "Regional
Several studies at plantations on New Providence and Variation in Historic Burial Practices on San Salvador, the
San Salvador indicate that in the wake of the collapsing Bahamas." Presented at the Thirteenth Symposium on the
slavery system and subsequent legal emancipation, the Natural History of the Bahamas, Gerace Research Center,
African population reused and modified the structure San Salvador, Bahamas, June 18–22.
Berman, M. J., and P. L. Gnivecki. 1995. "The Colonization of
of main houses and storage buildings. For example, open
the Bahama Archipelago: A Reappraisal." World Archaeol-
doors and windows were blocked up, new interior room
ogy 26 (3): 421–441.
divides were added to existing structures, and gener- Blick, Jeffrey P., Jacqueline Hope Hopkins, and Doug Oetter.
ally the existing European-style architecture at many 2011. "Prehistoric Settlement Patterns of San Salvador, Ba-
plantations was modified to meet the needs of the new hamas." Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 6 (3):
African occupants. Although of uncertain dates and ori- 421–41.
gins, many Bahamian plantation buildings have carved Carlson, Lisabeth Anne. 1993. "Strings of Command: Manu-
images of sailing ships, schooners, and other vessels facture and Utilization of Shell Beads among the Taino In-
scratched into the walls, usually in doorways and win- dians of the West Indies." MA thesis, University of Florida,
dows with ocean-facing views. Some have interpreted Gainesville.
———. 1999. "Aftermath of a Feast: Human Colonization of the
these ship drawings as accurate depictions of recogniz-
Southern Bahamian Archipelago and Its Effect on the Indig-
able vessels that were regularly bringing supplies to the
enous Fauna." PhD diss., Gainesville: University of Florida.
islands or simply as the drawings of children, likely boys, Carlson, L. A., and W. F. Keegan. 2004. "Resource Depletion in
who were fascinated with the most common mode of the Prehistoric Northern West Indies." In Voyages of Discov-
transportation at the time, the sailing ship. Other inter- ery: The Archaeology of Islands, ed. S. Fitzpatrick, 85–107.
pretations of the ship drawings suggest that the illustra- Westport, CT: Praeger.
Goggin, John M. 1939. "An Anthropological Reconnaissance of Interim Report I: The Excavation and Artifacts, 1991–1995.
Andros Island, Bahamas." American Antiquity 5: 21–26. Key West: Mel Fisher Maritime Heritage Society. Available
Granberry, Julian. 1955. "A Survey of Bahamian Archaeology." at http://www.melfisher.org/interimreport1.pdf. Accessed
MA thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville. January 8, 2013.
———. 1957. "An Anthropological Reconnaissance of Bimini, Sullivan, Shaun D. 1981. "Prehistoric Patterns of Exploitation
Bahamas." American Antiquity 22 (4): 378–81. and Colonization in the Turks and Caicos Islands." PhD
———. 1978. "The Gordon Hill Site, Crooked Island, Bahamas." diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Journal of the Virgin Islands Archaeological Society 6: 32–44. Turner, Grace. 2006a. "Bahamian Ship Graffiti." International
Hoffman, Charles A., Jr. 1967. Bahama Prehistory: Cultural Ad- Journal of Nautical Archaeology 35 (2): 253–73.
aptation to an Island Environment. Ann Arbor, MI: Univer- ———. 2006b. "Dark Visions from the Ocean: Lucayan Per-
sity Microfilms, Inc. spective on a Spanish Vessel." Presented at the 71st Annual
———. 1970. The Palmetto Grove Site on San Salvador, Bahamas. Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, San Juan,
Gainesville, FL: University of Florida. Puerto Rico, April 26–30.
Jones O'Day, Sharyn, and William F. Keegan. 2001. "Expedient Winter, John, and M. Gilstrap. 1991. "Preliminary Results of
Shell Tools from the Northern West Indies." Latin American Ceramic Analysis and the Movements of Populations into
Antiquity 12: 1–17. the Bahamas." In Proceedings of the Twelfth International
Keegan, William F. 1992. The People Who Discovered Columbus: Congress for Caribbean Archaeology, ed. L. S. Robinson,
The Prehistory of the Bahamas. Gainesville: University Press 371–86. Martinique: International Association for Carib-
of Florida. bean Archaeology.
Kjellmark, E. 1996. "Late Holocene Climate Change and Hu-
man Disturbance on Andros Island, Bahamas." Journal of
Paleolimnology 15: 133–45. See also Arawak versus Taíno; Beads; Columbus's Land-
Malcolm, Corey. 1996. St. John's Bahamas Shipwreck Project: fall; The Palmettan Ostionoid Series.
Banwari Trace (Trinidad)
The 7,000 year old Banwari Trace, along with St. John— projectile points, most likely used for tipping arrows
both situated in southwest Trinidad—are the two oldest and fish spears, beveled peccary teeth used as fishhooks,
sites in the Caribbean. The Banwari Trace deposit is lo- and bipointed pencil hooks of bone that were intended
cated on the southern edge of the Oropouche Lagoon in to be attached in the middle to a fishing line. A variety
southwest Trinidad, just west of the Coora River. The site of ground stone tools were manufactured especially for
occupies the top of a Miocene hillock that rises above vegetable foods processing, including blunt or pointed
the swamp. Irving Rouse classifies all of the Archaic sites conical pestles, large grinding stones, and round to oval
in the Lesser Antilles and Puerto Rico, including Ban- manos. In the absence of starch grain analysis, it is un-
wari trace, as belonging to the Ortoiroid Series, which clear what specific plant foods were processed at the Ban-
gets its name from the type site of Ortoire in Trinidad. wari Trace site, but they probably included edible roots,
Peter Harris excavated Banwari Trace in the center of palm starch, and seeds. The midden has also yielded a
the midden in 1969/1970 and 1971. The observed change large variety of small, irregular chips and cores manu-
in shell-collecting habits of the Banwari Trace people factured from quartz, flint, chert, and other rock mate-
closely reflects the alteration in the natural environment, rials by percussion flaking. They include flake scrapers,
which took place in the Oropouche Lagoon area during cutters, small knives, blades, and piercers, which were
the period of midden formation in about 5000 BC. probably used for a multitude of purposes, for example,
The material culture of Banwari Trace suggests that its cutting meat, scaling fish, prying open shells, scraping
Ortoiroid inhabitants were actively engaged in hunting, skins, finishing arrow shafts, and processing vegetable
gathering, and shell (mollusk) collecting. A considerable fibers for making baskets.
portion of the shellfish collected was deposited in the A significant discovery at Banwari Trace in 1969 was
immediate surroundings of the site. Objects associated the remains of a human skeleton, dubbed "Banwari Man"
with hunting and fishing found at the site include bone (Figure B.2). Lying on its left side in a typical Amerindian
Figure B.2. Remains of "Banwari Man." Courtesy of
the Department of Life Sciences, The University
of the West Indies, St. Augustine.
tightly flexed "crouched" burial position along a north- burial context suggests that the interment was made in the
west axis, Banwari Man was found 20 centimeters below midden. An unfused portion of the sacrum appears to be
the surface (Harris 1973). Only two items were associated pathological (Tankersley, personal communication, 2013).
with the burial, a round pebble by the skull and a needle The archaeological site of Banwari Trace was featured
point by the hip. The individual was apparently buried in the World Monuments Watch in 2004, an internation-
in a shell midden and was subsequently covered by shell ally acclaimed program that showcases the world's 100
refuse. Based on its stratigraphic location in the site's ar- most endangered sites.
chaeological deposits, the burial can be dated to the pe-
riod shortly before the site was abandoned, approximately Further Reading
3400 BC, which makes it approximately 5,400 years old Boomert, A. 2000. Trinidad, Tobago, and the Lower Orinoco
(Reid 2009). Plans are afoot to conduct more detailed re- Interaction Sphere. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Cairi Publi-
search on these remains, which are currently in the cus- cations.
tody of the Life Sciences Department at The University Harris, P. O. B. 1973. "Banwari Trace: A Preliminary Report on
of the West Indies, St. Augustine. The gracile nature of a Preceramic Site in Trinidad, West Indies." In Proceedings
the skeleton and pelvic structure both suggest that the of the Fourth International Congress for the Study of Pre-Co-
famous "Banwari Man" could in fact be a woman (K. B. lumbian Cultures of the Lesser Antilles, ed. Ripley P. Bullen,
115–25. Castries, Saint Lucia: Saint Lucia Archaeological and
Tankersley, personal communication 2013). Upon exam-
Historical Society.
ining its third upper molar teeth, physical anthropologist Reid, B. A. 2009. Myths and Realities of Caribbean History. Tus-
Alfredo Coppa noticed that all the roots were formed caloosa: University of Alabama Press.
and that there was a slight wear on the occlusal portion. Rouse, I. 2006. The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who
Subject to further verification, this suggests that "Banwari Greeted Columbus. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Man" or "Woman" was a 25- to 30-year-old adult. There
is clear evidence of blunt force trauma (likely fatal) to the See also The Archaic Age; St. John Site (Trinidad); The
right parietal portion of the cranium. Evidence from the Ortoiroid; Trinidad and Tobago.
northern Caribbean islands and then moved south to
Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest settle- the Lesser Antilles. Though Saladoid pottery is normally
ment of the island by Archaic peoples took place some- characterized by thin, hard, white on red or finely in-
time between 2300 and 3300 BC (Drewett 2000; Fitz- cised pottery, in Barbados elements of Barrancoid style
patrick 2011). This evidence was recovered from the are also seen, with its raised modeling and broad curvi-
Heywoods/Port St. Charles site located on the island's linear incisions. The intertwined styles on the island can
northwest coast. The site, located near a marine inlet, be referred to as Modified Saladoid (Drewett 2000). The
was first investigated in 1986 and later excavated in 1991 earliest datable sherds of this type were excavated by Ste-
by Drewett. Interestingly, the recovery of two Archaic- ven Hackenberger at the Goddard site, which provided
type queen conch (Eustrombus gigas) lip adzes buried 1.5 radiocarbon dates of 400 BC to AD 450 and 400 BC to
meters in marsh clay suggests that there was an earlier 170 BC. Hillcrest was excavated by Drewett and provides
settlement on Barbados. The deposit, which has been a date of AD 380 to 460 (Drewett 2000). The date range
radiocarbon dated to around 2000 BC, was the first to for Modified Saladoid on the island is therefore circa 400
demonstrate the possible presence of an Archaic occu- BC and AD 650.
pation on Barbados. An Archaic age was later confirmed The Troumassan Troumassoid tradition (AD 650–
with the dating of one of the two adzes Drewett (2000) 1150) followed the Modified Saladoid tradition. This
recovered and another associated juvenile conch shell pottery is larger and thicker than the pottery of the Sala-
that Fitzpatrick (2011) recovered to as early as 328–940 doid and has less decoration. Troumassan Troumassoid
BC. If the earliest of the dates is confirmed, this would pottery also has simple rims, lugs, and incurved forms.
make Heywoods the oldest site in the Lesser Antilles. Al- It is uncertain whether this new style marked the ar-
though not much else is known about the daily activities rival of new peoples or contact with the Troumassan
of these Archaic groups on the island, Heywoods was Troumassoid peoples. The final pottery style on the is-
probably a temporary foraging and fishing camp, simi- land is the Suazan Troumassoid (ca. AD 1150 to 1450),
lar to what has been seen on other islands, particularly which noted for its finger-scratched surfaces and fin-
in the northern Lesser Antilles such as Saba and Anti- ger-indented rims. Although normally associated with
gua. Questions still remain as to why the Archaic groups an undecorated tradition, the Suazan Troumassoid on
here did not exhibit the typical lithic toolkit seen at other Barbados shows some innovative individualistic pieces
similarly aged sites in the Caribbean. that include decoration bordering on the baroque. Pot-
Given the rise in sea level over the intervening pe- tery design is illustrative of life in the society, and in
riod, many Archaic coastal sites on Barbados may either some cases it uses zoomorphic and anthropomorphic
be below sea level or may have been washed away. The forms, such as octopus pots or a human face modeled
origins of the first settlers are currently unknown, but on a griddle (Drewett 2000). All pottery made during
the site date corresponds to the earliest habitation of the the Modified Saladoid to Suazan Troumassoid is hand
region by the Ortoiroid people from Trinidad. These built using either a coiled or molded technique of man-
people, who originated from the Guianas, migrated to ufacture. Lys Drewett, who has used petrological analy-
the region around 5000 BC and take their name from sis to identify the clay source used in the production
the Ortoire site in Trinidad. They settled the southern of pottery, highlights two main areas of source clays.
Caribbean region as far north as Puerto Rico. These The clays used during the Modified Saladoid period are
native peoples were primarily subsistence hunters and obtained from the quartz-rich areas of the Scotland Dis-
gatherers who exploited both terrestrial and marine eco- trict on the island's northeast coast. Clays used during
systems. This is reflected in the stone tools they used to the Suazey period indicate an increasing dependence on
process vegetable matter. nearby marsh clays, which feature a heavy concentra-
The second wave of migrants to the island, the makers tion of calcareous debris. This change in resource gath-
of Saladoid-style pottery, originated from lowland South ering might be attributable to increased population,
America, although they may have traveled directly to the resulting in stricter access to the better clay sources and
the search for and use of alternative (though poorer) Analysis of the wood revealed that the posts are false
clays (Drewett 2000). mastic (Mastichodendron sp.), and date to AD 650–1150
These Ceramic Age peoples lived in a series of rect- (Drewett 2000). The structure at Hillcrest, located on
angular and round/oval houses while constructing the promontory overlooking the east coast of the island,
other shelters for ancillary use. Most settlements were was a small D-shaped building, perhaps constituting a
situated in coastal areas, although there were some in- windbreak consisting of five postholes. A shell tool taken
land settlements (Drewett 1991). Excavations at Port St. from the site was radiocarbon dated to AD 1420–1680,
Charles, Goddard, and Chancery Lane have revealed the suggesting a late occupation for the island (Drewett 2000).
outlines of such buildings and, in the rare instance of The scarcity of water on coral islands, such as Bar-
Port St. Charles, posts in situ. The house types on the bados, with few above-ground rivers or springs led to
island coincide with the type of houses used by the mi- a need to sink shallow wells to access drinking water.
gratory peoples who settled the island, from the large Access to underground water was increased through lin-
round houses associated with Saladoid settlement to ing holes with large ceramic pots. Such a system of pot
the smaller round houses associated with Troumassan stacks were excavated at a number of sites and illustrate
Troumassoid and Suazan Troumassoid occupation. Both the ingenuity of these early peoples in obtaining drink-
types of houses were excavated at the Port St. Charles ing water in a water-scarce environment. Twenty-three
site, where excavation recovered the remains of sev- pot-lined waterholes were excavated at Port St. Charles.
enteen posts and bases of posts in waterlogged holes. They have also been found at Goddard, Spring Garden,
Figure B.3. Distribution of precolonial settlement sites,
conch use sites, utilized caves, and environmental sample
locations in Barbados. Reprinted from Reid (2009, fig. 2.23)
by permission of the University of Alabama Press.
South Point, and Maxwell, suggesting they were widely Historical Archaeology
used on the west and south coast of Barbados (Drewett
2000). Historical archaeology research in Barbados has been
There is no naturally occurring hard rock on Barba- directed at rural landscapes, burial sites (Handler and
dos, which precludes a prehistoric local toolkit comprised Lange 1978; Farmer 2004), enslaved villages (Handler
of stone tools. Therefore, the presence of any stone tools and Lange 1978), sugar estates, the urban environment,
on the island is assumed to be a consequence of trade and the creolization of pottery manufacture (Loftfield
(Drewett 1991). The toolkit on Barbados is predominantly 2001). During the past thirty years, research has exam-
comprised of shell technology. Early Amerindian settlers ined the lifeways of enslaved persons during the historic
used the shell of the queen conch to fashion their major period in Barbados, primarily on plantations. This is in
tools. Continued use of shell in the manufacture of tools part the result of the primary thrust of Caribbean histo-
developed during the Troumassan Troumassoid/Suazan riography of the region in the 1970s, which resulted in
Troumassoid period into a unique form of shell tool char- the seminal publication by Handler and Lange on the
acterized by a distinctive twisted butt end and a scoop- Newton Plantation Site (Handler and Lange 1978).
like reverse side. This evolution in both form and style From the analysis of the Newton Burial Ground, it
from the characteristic chipped lip with one end ground has been possible to reconstruct how enslaved people
for cutting that was used during the Archaic Age to the lived and died, what they ate, and certain pathologies in
smaller, better-shaped axes with a polished edge that were the enslaved population. The Newton site is a unique site
used during the modified Saladoid period perhaps takes in historical archaeology in the region, for it is the only
a cue from the continental tradition of the stone toolkit excavated communal burial ground of enslaved individ-
in its appearance and application (Drewett 1991). uals in the Caribbean. Notwithstanding their paucity,
Such tools and their organic counterparts were used burial grounds of enslaved peoples offer an opportunity
to plant cassava for harvest and aid in the hunting and to examine the spiritual beliefs, concepts of cosmology,
fishing of many varieties of fauna. The Amerindian peo- and afterlife beliefs of the enslaved community. The site,
ples of Barbados exploited their ecosystem for hunting located within a half-acre site of land on a sloping field,
and gathering a variety of species from nearshore reef has approximately 400 individuals interred within its
fish, including the parrot fish and pelagic fish such as grounds. Study of the site has made possible a detailed
tuna; birds such as the ring-necked duck (Aythya col- physical anthropological analysis of the effects of slavery
laris), the tree duck (Dendrocygna sp.), the purple galli- on the enslaved population.
nule (Porphyrula martinius), and the mocking bird (Mi- Because of the rapid rate of development of urban
mus sp.); and even geckos. However, the primary protein space, locating urban burial grounds of the enslaved
source of the early natives came from the sea. More than takes on greater significance as we seek to piece together
36 species of fish have been identified in the bone assem- and understand the historic past. Burial sites can be used
blages excavated at the key sites of Port St. Charles, Sil- to reconstruct a people's cosmology, diet, and morbidity
ver Sands, Hillcrest, and Chancery Lane. These include and the material culture they use in the ritual of death.
sharks, rays, moray eel, herring, flying fish, grouper, jack, Such practices might even be part of a new cultural shift
grunt, hogfish, parrotfish, barracuda, mackerel, tunny, brought about by deculturation, leading to the creation
triggerfish, and trunkfish. By food weight, the assem- of other cultures. Research into enslaved persons liv-
blages are dominated by conch (Strombus gigas) and ing in urban Barbados has been undertaken by Smith
West Indian top shell, or whelk (Cittarium pica). Turtle and Farmer (Farmer 2004), and the excavation of burial
bones, especially of the green turtle (Chelonia mydas), spaces of enslaved individuals in urban Bridgetown has
suggest that both the turtle and their eggs were eaten. provided invaluable insight into the lifeways of enslaved
Sea urchins, lobsters, and crabs were also found in the persons living in this port city.
archaeological bone assemblages, indicating that virtu- The Pier Head and Fontabelle sites are both situated
ally all marine life was eaten. Many of these foods are on the seaside, one near commercial warehouses and
represented in stone, ceramic, and shell artifacts (Wing the other on the periphery of the town. At Fontabelle,
in Drewett 1991; Drewett 2000). The Amerindian pres- the interments were done in a uniform way. The buri-
ence on Barbados seems to have existed until the late als were excavated at the same depth, indicating both
fifteenth century; no contact pottery of the Island-Carib a prescribed burial depth and knowledge of local con-
Cayoid pottery has been found on the island to date ditions. Dateable material culture such as ceramics and
(Drewett 1991) (see Figure B.3). pipe stems provide dates of 1670–1815 for the use of the
Barbados Museum and Historical Society (BMHS) 67
site. Documentary evidence for the site underscores its Drewett, P. 1991. Prehistoric Barbados. London: Archetype.
use as a place of interment. In the seventeenth century, ———. 2000. Prehistoric Settlements in the Caribbean: Fieldwork
the Fontabelle area was an undeveloped area of beach in Barbados, Tortola, and the Cayman Islands. London: Ar-
and swamp land. Situated on the periphery of the north- chetype Publications for the Barbados Museum and Histori-
cal Society.
ern end of Bridgetown, this area was noted as the West
Farmer, K. 2004. "Human Skeletal Remains from an Un-
End in 1660. This place name was given in Poole's ac- marked Barbadian Burial Ground in the Fontabelle Section
count, where he noted the burial ground for the enslaved of Bridgetown, Barbados." Journal of the Barbados Museum
of Fontabelle in 1748 (Farmer 2004). and Historical Society 50: 84–90.
In the 1990s, historical archaeological research was Fitzpatrick, S. M. 2011. "Verification of an Archaic Age Occupa-
conducted on settlement sites in both rural and urban tion on Barbados, Southern Lesser Antilles." Radiocarbon 53
contexts (Farmer 2004). This research is ongoing in the (4): 595–604.
context of limited cultural resource management (CRM) Handler, J. S., and F. W. Lange. 1978. Plantation Slavery in Bar-
legislation. The continued development of historical ar- bados. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Loftfield, C. T. 2001. "Creolization in Seventeenth-Century
chaeology in Barbados will further expand our under-
Barbados: Two Case Studies." In Island Lives: Historical Ar-
standing of this period and provide insight into the life-
chaeologies of the Caribbean, ed. Paul Farnsworth, 207–33.
ways of members of both urban and rural communities Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
who lived during the historic period.
Beckles, H. McD. 1990. A History of Barbados: From Amer- See also Historic Bridgetown and Its Garrison (Bar-
indian Settlement to Nation-State. Cambridge, UK: Cam- bados); Newton Burial Ground (Barbados); Strombus
bridge University Press. gigas (Queen Conch).
Barbados Museum and Historical Society (BMHS)
Incorporated in 1933 by an act of Parliament, the Bar- (Farmer 2008, 65). In the early period (1934–80), col-
bados Museum and Historical Society (BMHS) is one lections were mainly donated by members of the His-
of the oldest continuous-running museums in the Eng- torical Society, supplemented with purchases and actual
lish-speaking Caribbean; it celebrated its 75th anniver- fieldwork conducted in the acquisition of archaeologi-
sary in 2008. It is located in the precinct of the Historic cal material. The systematic collection of archaeologi-
Garrison Savannah in a military prison constructed in cal material was a direct result of a research question
1817 (Figure B.4). The BMHS is a general history mu- posed at the first general meeting of the BMHS, during
seum that exhibits the natural history, prehistory, his- which a Committee of Archaeology was created to ex-
tory, and art of the island. Its collection includes fine amine the origin of the precolonial inhabitants of the
and decorative art, archaeology, photography, textiles, island. Early excavations that were carried out in the
ethnography, manuscripts, and paper documents. The parish of Christ Church recovered native pottery and
museum's mandate is to collect, interpret, and exhibit tools.
"all things Barbadian." It is also involved in cultural re- The Historical Society collected objects that inter-
source management on the island. ested its members. Thus, items such as Chinese export
Founded in 1933 by elite members of Barbadian ceramics, silver, furniture, paintings, and maps were
society, the BMHS was concerned with activities that collected alongside native axes, pottery, African shields,
would "collect, preserve and publish matter relating arrows, and furniture. Such collecting informed an in-
to the history and the antiquities of Barbados, and to terpretative narrative that framed Barbadian history
gather and preserve appropriate articles for collection" through the lens of empire and sought at the same time
Figure B.4. Front façade of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society. Photo by Barbados Museum and Historical Society. Courtesy
of Kevin Farmer.
to highlight the economic, industrial, and aesthetic de- and environmental heritage and to interpret and pres-
velopment of the island. This resulted in an impressive ent this evidence for all sectors of society."
collection that included both commodified objects of This renewed mandate and policy focus led to fo-
high value and objects that spoke to the industrious- cused projects such as the Barbados Archaeological
ness of Barbadian society in the fields of sugar, agricul- Survey, undertaken from 1984 in conjunction with the
ture, and fishing. The eclectic nature of this collection University College London. The project was led by the
changed during the museum's modern period (1980 to late Professor Peter L. Drewett. The Drewett-led sur-
present). veys of Barbados redefined the prehistory of the island:
A committee to inquire into the management and it was the first full-scale, systematic archaeological
interpretation of the museum was formed in the 1980s, investigation of the island's prehistoric past since the
chaired by Professor Woodville Marshall. According to introduction of professional archaeology in the island
Marshall, the remit of the committee was to review the in the 1960s by Ripley and Adelaide Bullen. The mu-
role of the BMHS and plan a way forward. The com- seum was one of the founding institutions at a meeting
mittee noted in its review that "the collection focuses of persons interested in prehistoric archaeology; this
mainly on one segment of society and culture and group evolved into the International Association for
therefore does not present a coherent or complete story Caribbean Archaeology. The museum was also one of
of Barbados in history" (Marshall 1982, 6). The result the founding members of the Museums Association of
of its work was a move toward a professional museum the Caribbean. Such change was brought about by the
organization and away from the institution's antiquar- need to refocus the activity of the museum to include
ian roots. The shift is best embodied in the new mis- all community groups.
sion statement of the institution, which appears on all The development plan of the 1980s continues to
of its publications: "The Barbados Museum is a non- guide the BMHS. It focuses on professional museum
profit institution. Its mandate is to collect, document development and practice as it seeks to carry out its
and conserve evidence of Barbados' cultural, historical mandate and serve its community. Not only does the
BMHS serve as a place of interpretation of and a repos- Further Reading
itory for the island's heritage, it also provides technical Cannizzo, J. 1987. "How Sweet It Is: Cultural Politics in Barba-
knowledge to both nongovernmental and governmental dos." Muse 4 (4): 22–26.
agencies in the areas of cultural resource management, Cummins, Alissandra. 1998. "Confronting Colonialism: The
museum development, and heritage preservation and First 60 Years at the BMHS." Journal of the Barbados Mu-
interpretation. The museum houses the Documentary seum and Historical Society 42: 1–35.
Heritage of the Enslaved Peoples of the Caribbean, Farmer, K. 2008. "From the Orient to Barbados: Seventy-Five
which was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the Years of Collecting at the Barbados Museum." Journal of the
Barbados Museum 54: 62–73.
World Register in 2003. It is also a component of Silver
Marshall, Woodville. 1982. "Final Report of the Museum Devel-
Men: West Indian Labourers at the Panama Canal, a
opment Plan Committee." Unpublished document in author's
documentary heritage project that was inscribed on the possession.
World Register in 2011. The museum continues to col-
lect and interpret the history and ecology of Barbados See also The International Council of Museums (ICOM);
as it serves as a custodian of Barbadian heritage. The Museum of Antigua and Barbuda; Taíno Museum at
White Marl (Jamaica).
Barka, Norman F. (1938–2008)
Born in Chicago, Illinois, in 1938, Norman Forthun room and in the field. His year-long artifact courses at
Barka had a lifelong passion for archaeology, reflected William and Mary were legendary.
in his numerous archaeological excavations across In 1979, Barka arrived on St. Eustatius with his col-
North America and the Caribbean. He is considered league Edwin Dethlefsen. Shortly thereafter, their semi-
one of the founding fathers of the discipline of his- nal article in Archaeology Magazine described Statia as
torical archaeology and was a primary founder of the "The Pompeii of the New World." He and his students
Society for Historical Archaeology. "Sparky," as he was spent the next 20 years recording standing structures
affectionately known, had a profound impact on the and excavating a diverse array of sites on the island. He
development of the discipline not only in the Carib- also worked on several sites in St. Maarten. Toward the
bean but globally. Barka was educated at Beloit College end of the 1990s, Barka began working on Bermuda with
and at Harvard University, where he earned his PhD in his longtime friend and colleague, Edward C. Harris. He
1965. He worked extensively in Canada and Virginia supported the development of the St. Eustatius Center
during the first part of his career. After Thomas Jef- for Archaeological Research until his death in 2008.
ferson, Barka was the first archaeologist hired by the
College of William and Mary in Virginia, and it was Further Reading
here that his primary contribution to the discipline had
Barka, N. F. 2001. "Time Lines: Changing Settlement Patterns
the greatest impact. Dozens of students earned their
on St. Eustatius." In Island Lives: Historical Archaeologies
MA and PhD degrees under his tutelage. Hundreds
of the Caribbean, ed. Paul Farnsworth, 103–41. Tuscaloosa:
of graduate and undergraduate students participated University of Alabama Press.
in his field schools in Canada, Virginia, St. Eustatius, Dethlefsen, E., and N. F. Barka. 1982. "Archaeology on St. Eu-
St. Maarten, and Bermuda. Although his publication statius: The Pompeii of the New World." Archaeology 35 (2):
record is not extensive, a significant proportion of his 8–15.
students have contributed to the teaching and prac-
tice of historical archaeology around the world. His See also St. Eustatius; St. Eustatius Center for Archaeo-
sardonic manner, sarcastic asides, cheeky smile, and logical Research (SECAR); St. Eustatius Historical Foun-
forceful nature kept students entertained in the class- dation.
The Barrancoid Series
The Barrancoid series (AD 350–650) takes its name ment of the Barrancoid population went to live in Sala-
from the site of Barrancas on the banks of the lower doid villages, where they interacted with the Saladoid.
Orinoco River in Venezuela. Barrancoid culture seems The Barrancoid-influenced Saladoid pottery, referred
to have developed out of the local Saladoid tradition in to as the modified Saladoid tradition, differed little from
Venezuela between 1500 BC and 1000 BC. Its peoples the Saladoid pottery in terms of manufacture and choice
moved northward to the mouth of the Orinoco River of temper. However, striking differences are evident in
delta, perhaps displacing or bypassing other Saladoid vessel shapes and ornamentation. Barrancoid pottery
communities as they went. Like the Saladoid, they cul- has often been characterized as the "baroque" phase of
tivated cassava, produced pottery, and lived in villages. Saladoid stylistic evolution, and it is typically represented
Barrancoid influence was quite extensive throughout the by modeled incised decoration on handles; adornos with
Caribbean, reaching as far north as Puerto Rico. Like the anthropomorphic and zoomorphic hands, feet, and faces
Saladoid, the Barrancoid peoples were expert canoeists (Figure B.5); and incense burners that were probably
and appear to have been masters of long-distance trade. used for the ritual taking of hallucinogens. The Barran-
Archaeologists referred to sites such as Sorcé on Vieques coid culture faded in the Caribbean around AD 650. The
and others in Montserrat and Tobago as Saladoid/Bar- reasons for this are unclear, and it is hoped that ongoing
rancoid ports of trade. research will eventually provide more definitive answers.
The Barrancoid peoples in eastern Venezuela and
adjacent areas eventually settled Trinidad around AD Further Reading
350. The mechanisms by which Barrancoid influences Allaire, L. 1997. "The Lesser Antilles before Columbus." In The
are associated with Saladoid pottery remain poorly un- Indigenous People of the Caribbean, ed. S. Wilson, 20–28.
derstood, and the relationship between the two styles is Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
problematic. A common tendency is to describe ceram- Boomert, A. 2003. "Agricultural Societies in the Continental
ics of this period as Saladoid with Barrancoid influences. Caribbean." In General History of the Caribbean, ed. J. Sued
Nevertheless, the discovery of Barrancoid pottery in Ce- Badillo, 1:134–94. Paris and London: Autochthonous Societ-
ies, UNESCO.
drosan Saladoid sites in Trinidad and Tobago and of typi-
Reid, B. A. 2009. Myths and Realities of Caribbean History. Tus-
cally Saladoid zone-incised cross-hatching pottery in the
caloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Lower Orinoco locations suggest that trade was an im-
portant mechanism. No independent Barrancoid settle-
See also The Saladoid; The Suazan Troumassoid (Suazey);
ments have been found on Trinidad or Paria (Venezuela),
The Troumassan Troumassoid.
which further suggests that after AD 350 a significant ele-
Figure B.5. Barrancoid-influenced Saladoid
adorno from Golden Grove, Tobago. Reprinted
from Reid (2009, fig. 2.16) by permission of the
Beads have been used throughout much of human his-
tory for adornment and for exchange. Caribbean indig-
enous, colonial, and enslaved peoples are no exception.
Stone, shells such as cowry and queen conch (Strombus
gigas), coral, and seeds are all regularly found on Carib-
bean archaeological sites relating to precolonial societ-
ies and enslaved Africans. Glass, copper, gold and silver
alloys, bone, and coral materials for beads are common
on colonial sites.
Beads may be found in situ in human burials and rit-
ual burials but the vast majority are found loose either on
the ground surface or scattered across various archaeo-
logical contexts. Under fortuitous circumstances, entire
necklaces may be recovered, such as in a privy context
on St. Eustatius, where over 600 beads were found (Fig-
ure B.6). The necklace was likely lost while the owner
was using the privy—thus they were not highly moti-
vated to retrieve it despite its clear beauty.
Beads were valued primarily for aesthetics while
some varieties have been ascribed intrinsic worth that
is not related to the material they are made from. Beads
have become a key interpretative artifact for archaeolo-
gists, providing insights into trade networks on local,
regional, and global scales. Beads may also be reflec-
Figure B.6. A series of wound-glass trade beads (center). The re-
tive of religious beliefs. Certain bead types gain special strung necklace surrounding these was found intact in an out-
meaning and obtain an almost cult status. This is true of house/privy in Oranjestad, St. Eustatius, and is made from glass
the so-called Statia Blue Bead. Originally manufactured and coral beads. The scale is 2 cm. Courtesy of R. Grant Gilmore
in Amsterdam, these wound cobalt glass beads were ex- III and SECAR.
ported to many areas around the world. However, one
type that is pentagonal in cross-section has been found Further Reading
only on St. Eustatius and at the factory site in the Neth-
erlands. There is no mention of these beads in historical Deagan, K. 2002. Artifacts of the Spanish Colonies of Florida and
documents related to Statia, and thus their true use and the Caribbean, 1500–1800. Vol. 2, Portable Personal Posses-
sions. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
value are unknown. However, tradition holds that these
Handler, J. S., F. W Lange, and C. Orser. 1979. "Carnelian Beads
beads were thrown off the cliffs by the formerly enslaved in Necklaces from a Slave Cemetery in Barbados, West In-
when they were emancipated in 1863. Today, they are dies." Ornament 4 (2): 15–18.
virtually a type of currency and command high prices Karklins, K., and N. F. Barka. 1989. "The Beads of St. Eustatius,
on the island, especially for gullible tourists. Netherlands Antilles." Beads: Journal of the Society of Bead
Because of a predominantly Catholic population, Researchers 1 (1): 55–88.
rosary beads are commonly found in the Spanish and Watters, D. R., and R. Scaglion. 1994. "Beads and Pendants from
French islands. Necklaces made from beads of precious Trants, Montserrat: Implications for the Prehistoric Lapidary
metals and precious and semi-precious stones have also Industry of the Caribbean." Annals of Carnegie Museum 63
(3): 215–37.
been found on wreck sites related to the Spanish colonial
period. See also Lapidary Trade; Strombus gigas (Queen Conch).
Betty's Hope Plantation (Antigua)
Betty's Hope, a former sugar plantation on Antigua, op- 1944. This makes Betty's Hope one of the longest-running
erated from the early 1650s until 1944. Betty's Hope is sugar estates in the Eastern Caribbean. Christopher Cod­
one of the oldest and best preserved plantation sites on rington I and Christopher Codrington II served as gover-
Antigua and is currently managed by the nonprofit orga- nors general of the Leeward Islands from 1689 to 1704.
nization, Betty's Hope Trust. The site is currently being The plantation, located in the fertile Central Plain re-
considered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site by Anti- gion of the island, served as home to a large number of
guan heritage societies. enslaved Africans. The estate continued to operate after
The plantation was founded by Col. Chris Keynell in 1834 (during the post-emancipation years in the Anglo-
the early 1650s and was inherited by his widow Joan Hall phone Caribbean), benefiting from the introduction of
in 1663. During the French occupation of 1666–1667, mechanization in 1853. Like many other sugar estates
Hall fled the island and was denied ownership when in the Caribbean, managers oversaw daily operations
she returned. The British Crown granted Betty's Hope at Betty's Hope in the absence of landlords. Careful re-
to Christopher Codrington I in 1674, and the planta- cording of the estate's operations has resulted in a sub-
tion remained in the Codrington family until its sale in stantial archive known as the Codrington Papers, which
Figure B.7. Students working at the Betty's Hope field project, summer 2008, directed by principal investigator Georgia Fox. Courtesy
of Georgia Fox.
Bonaire (Dutch Caribbean; Former Netherlands Antilles) 73
are housed in the National Archives of Antigua and Bar- sity, Chico, under the direction of Antigua's archaeolo-
buda. Recent investigations at Betty's Hope have focused gist, Dr. Reginald Murphy (see Figure B.7).
on restoration of one of the windmill towers (1990 to
1995 and 1993 to 1994). The University of Florida con- Further Reading
ducted an architectural study of the site's existing struc- Gonzalez de Scollard, Edith. 2008. "Raising Cane: Sugar, Peo-
tures. More recently, Edith Gonzalez de Scollard (2008) ple, and the Environment in Nineteenth Century Antigua,
from the City University of New York, Brooklyn, con- West Indies." PhD diss., City University of New York.
ducted an archaeological excavation of the nineteenth- Nicholson, D. 2005. Heritage Landmarks of Antigua and Bar-
century possible servants' area. Current investigations at buda. St. John's: Carib Press.
the site are being conducted by Dr. Georgia L. Fox of the
Department of Anthropology, California State Univer- See also Nicholson, D. V. (1925–2006).
Bonaire (Dutch Caribbean; Former Netherlands Antilles)
In 1836, G. Bosch was the first person to mention an Not until 1960, when the Dutch archaeologist H. R.
archaeological site on Bonaire; that year, he noted the van Heekeren visited for 12 days, was Bonaire subjected
rock paintings at the Onima site. Geologist K. Martin to its first systematic archaeological excavations. During
identified more rock paintings on Bonaire in 1888. In this brief visit to the island, van Heekeren conducted a
1879 and 1880, Father A. J. van Koolwijk made extensive field survey to locate some archaeological sites and at
artifact collections from sites and private collectors on least two test excavations, one at Wanapa and the other at
Bonaire. These artifacts were shipped back to the Mu- Esperanza (Amboina). He published some of his results
seum voor Volkenkunde in Leiden, Holland, and were in 1961, 1963, and, with the help of C. J. Dury, 1962. While
used to study Bonaire's archaeological research history. on Bonaire, van Heekeren encountered several persons
Although C. Leemans never actually visited the island, who had made extensive artifact collections from the is-
he wrote a summary of some of the van Koolwijk Bon- land, including Father R. Nooyen, Father P. Brenneker,
aire artifacts in 1904, J. P. B. de Josselin de Jong published and Father M. Arnoldo Broeders. Van Heekeren also
extensive descriptions of the van Koolwijk collection in noted that two other Dutch scientists, geologist P. de
1918, 1920, and 1923. Buisonjé, and malacologist H. Coomans, had artifact
During the 1930s and into the 1950s, Bonaire's rock collections from Bonaire. Coomans later conducted the
painting sites became a research focus for various au- shell species analysis for the excavated van Heekeren
thors, newspapers, and amateur enthusiasts. The earliest materials, which he reported in 1963.
well-organized work was done by Father P. Brenneker, In the 1960s and 1970s, little scientific archaeological
who published numerous articles throughout the 1940s. research was conducted on Bonaire, except for the rock
However, the most scientific and professional analysis of painting studies by Hummelinck and a cave investiga-
the rock drawings was a four-volume research series by tion, also by Hummelinck, that was published in 1979.
P. Wagenaar Hummelinck. His works, which were pub- However, various amateur archaeological collections
lished during the period 1953 to 1972, were the standard were made throughout this period, the most substantial
for rock painting research on the Dutch islands until by Father R. Nooyen, who eventually wrote about some
the late 1980s, when C. N. Dubelaar began reinvestigat- of his finds in 1979. The 1969 edition of the Encyclopedia
ing the Hummelinck finds. H. Feriz also mentioned the van de Nederlandse Antillen mentions archaeological re-
Bonaire rock paintings in his 1959 book about Mexico search on Bonaire, primarily by J. Cruxent and I. Rouse.
and Peru. In 1957, Hartog wrote a review of Amerindian The work of E. Ayubi, E. Boerstra, and A. Versteeg is
culture history, which included the listing of ten archae- mentioned in the encyclopedia's 1985 edition.
ological sites on Bonaire, all of which were rock painting In 1976, E. Ayubi, H. Kemperman, and J. Tacoma vis-
sites. ited the Amboina site and collected human remains found
there as well as some artifacts. No actual systematic exca- 2005, Haviser investigated Bonaire's prehistoric rock art
vations were conducted at this time, as the skeleton was as a follow-up to his 1991 book on Bonaire prehistory. This
taken to Holland by Tacoma, who published a report on research was presented at the IACA congress in Trini-
it in 1980. In 1981, a listing of archaeological sites for Bon­ dad in 2005 and at the Society of American Archaeolo-
aire was written by F. Booi for the Department of Culture, gists conference in Puerto Rico in 2006. The results were
Bonaire. In 1985, Father Nooyen wrote a book about the published in Rock Art of the Caribbean (Haviser 2009).
history of the people of Bonaire in which he made several In 2007, Haviser and the BONAI students conducted an
references to archaeological sites, although most of the archaeological survey and test excavations at the World
data were the same as those in his 1979 work. War II military camp called Tanki Maraka on Bonaire; the
Jay Haviser began work on Bonaire in 1987 with an report was published by the BONAI Foundation in 2008.
island-wide field survey for the Archaeological-Anthro- In 2010, individuals from BONAI, Leiden University, and
pological Institute of the Netherlands Antilles (AAINA) Stichting Nationale Parken Bonaire (STINAPA Bonaire)
and systematic excavations at the Wanapa, Amboina, La- collaborated on an extensive archaeological survey and
gun, Gotomeer, North Lac, Den Bon, and Sorobon sites. excavations at the Slagbaai and Gotomeer areas of the
In 1988, Haviser revisited the Sorobon site for more exten- Washington Slagbaai National Park (Haviser 2010).
sive excavations. The research resulted in the 1991 publi- In October 2010, the islands of Bonaire, Saba, and St.
cation of an AAINA book by Haviser entitled The First Eustatius became municipalities of the Kingdom of the
Bonaireans, which is still the most comprehensive inven- Netherlands, and the Netherlands Antilles ceased to ex-
tory of prehistoric research for the island. In 1990, Haviser ist as a country.
conducted an anthropological interview program at vari-
ous barrios on Bonaire. This study resulted in a paper Further Reading
presented at a seminar at Leiden University, Netherlands, Farnsworth, P., ed. 2001. Island Lives: Historical Archaeologies
and a subsequent publication in 1995 about the changing of the Caribbean. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
views of Amerindian heritage in the Caribbean. Haviser, J. 1991. The First Bonaireans. Curaçao: Archaeological-
Haviser conducted the first historical archaeology Anthropological Institute of the Netherlands Antilles.
———. 1995. "Towards Romanticized Amerindian Identities
excavations on Bonaire at Fort Oranje in 1997; results of
among Caribbean Peoples: A Case Study from Bonaire,
this research were published by Haviser and Arthur Sealy
Netherlands Antilles." In Wolves from the Sea, ed. Neil
in 1999. In 2001 and 2002, Wil Nagelkerken, Raymond Whitehead, 139–56. Leiden: KITLV Press.
Hayes, and the Foundation for Marine Archaeology of ———. 2008. Archaeological Research at the Tanki Maraka Site:
the Netherlands Antilles (STIMANA) conducted un- A World War II US Military Base on Bonaire. Willemstad:
derwater archaeological surveys in the Kralendijk, Bon- STIMANA.
aire, harbor anchorage and published the results via the ———. 2009. "Prehistoric Rock Paintings of Bonaire, Nether-
STIMANA Foundation in 2002. In 2003 and 2004, the lands Antilles." In Rock Art of the Caribbean, ed. M. Hay-
same team conducted more research in the Kralendijk ward, L. Atkinson, and M. Cinquino, 161–74. Tuscaloosa:
harbor and at the Witte Pan shipwreck site on Bonaire; University of Alabama Press.
———. 2010. DROB Archaeological Report on Slagbaai-Goto-
the results of both were again published via STIMANA
meer Bay. Willemstad: STIMANA.
(Nagelkerken and Hayes 2008). In 2002, Haviser helped
Haviser, J. B., and F. A. Antoin. 2003. "Observations of Vernacu-
the governments of Netherlands Antilles and Bonaire cre- lar Architectural Diversity between Curaçao and Bonaire."
ate the Bonaire Archaeological Institute (BONAI). One of In Proceedings of the Twentieth Congress of the International
the projects BONAI conducted was an investigation of the Congress for Caribbean Archaeology, ed. C. Tavarez Maria
early wattle-and-daub vernacular architecture on Bonaire, and M. Garcia Arevalo, 759–68. Santo Domingo: Museo del
called kunuku houses, which have African, European, and Hombre Dominicano.
Amerindian elements of construction. This report was Haviser, J. B., and A. Sealy. 1999. "Archaeological Testing at Fort
published by Haviser and F. Boi Antoin in 2003 and was Oranje, Bonaire." In Proceedings of the Seventeenth Congress
presented at the IACA Congress in Santo Domingo that of the International Congress for Caribbean Archaeology, ed.
John Winter, 340–57. New York: Molloy College Press.
same year.
Hayward, M., L. Atkinson, and M. Cinquino, eds. 2009. Rock Art
From 2003 to 2005, Haviser, with the help of BONAI
of the Caribbean. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
students, conducted various archaeological surveys and Heekeren, H. R. 1961. "A Survey of the Non-Ceramic Artifacts
excavations on Bonaire, from prehistoric sites at Lac of Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire." Nieuwe West-Indische Gids
Bay to historic city center sites in Kralendijk, the results 40: 103–120.
of which were published by the BONAI Foundation. In ———. 1963. "Prehistorical Research on the Islands of Curaçao,
Aruba and Bonaire in 1960." Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 43: ———. 1920. "The Precolumbian and Early Postcolumbian Ab-
1–25. original Population of Aruba, Curaçao, and Bonaire." Inter-
Heekeren, H. R., and C. J. DuRy. 1962. "Study of the Relics of In- nationales Archiv fur Ethnographie 25 (1): 1–26.
dian Culture Present in Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire." Stich- ———. 1923. "Verslag van de Deensch-Nederlandse Expeditie
ting Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek Suriname-Nederlandse An- naar de Antillen." Bulletin van het Rijksmuseum voor Volken-
tillen (WOSUNA): 31–33. kunde 79: 3–8.
Hummelinck, P. Wagenaar. 1953. "Rotstekeningen van Curaçao, Nagelkerken, W. and R. Hayes 2002. The Historical Anchorage
Aruba en Bonaire." -I, Uitgaven Natuurweteschappelijke of Kralendijk, Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles, including the
Werkgroep Nederlandse Antillen, Curaçao 2 (41); -II, 1957 Wreckage of the Dutch Brigantine Sirene (1831). Willemstad:
Uitg. 6 (33); -III, 1961 Uitg. 13 (43); -IV, 1972 Uitg. 21 (66). STIMANA.
———. 1979. Caves of the Netherlands Antilles. Utrecht: Foun-
dation for Scientific Research in Suriname and the Nether-
lands Antilles.
See also Bonaire Archaeological Institute (BONAI);
Josselin de Jong, J. P. B. de. 1918. "The Precolumbian and Early Cru­xent, José María (1911–2005); The Dutch Caribbean;
Postcolumbian Aboriginal Population of Aruba, Curaçao, Foundation for Marine Archaeology of the Netherlands
and Bonaire." Internationales Archiv fur Ethnographie 24 (3): Antilles (STIMANA); Rock Art; Rouse, Benjamin Irving
51–114. (1913–2006).
Bonaire Archaeological Institute (BONAI)
The Bonaire Archaeological Institute, called BONAI, is a aire, in conjunction with Bonaire's Dienst Ruimtelijke
nonprofit foundation assisted by the Bonaire Island Gov- Ontwikkeling en Beheer (Monuments Section). The BO-
ernment. Founded in January 2003, the goal of BONAI is NAI Foundation was also created to receive funds from
to work directly with the population of Bonaire, particu- organizations, such as the Stichting Antilliaanse Medefi-
larly teenage youth, to educate and train them in scientific nanciering Organisatie and the Prince Bernhard Culture
methods and to conduct professional scientific research Fund. The BONAI office-laboratory-lecture facility has
into the culture and history of Bonaire. The work of the been established with the Bonaire Museum.
institute is a response to a serious need for more Antillean Both theoretical and practical applications are used
youth to be inspired to pursue careers in the sciences so in the BONAI program. The theoretical aspects include
they can eventually become local leaders in eco-tourism classroom lectures, group discussions, and presenta-
and heritage/nature conservation on the islands. One of tions. There is also some practical work relating to ar-
the more important aspects of this project is that 18 to 20 chaeology, history, geography, anthropology, and other
students from the Bonaire high school have been contrib- fields of science during the regular school academic
uting to the planning, research, and archaeological work year at the BONAI facility. The program also offers field
of the institute, in collaboration with its founder and pres- projects in archaeology, history, geography, biology
ident, Dr. Jay Haviser, and its secretary, Jackie Bernabela. and anthropology for both students and community
The primary research focus of BONAI is the investigation members. BONAI projects are given generous media
of the science, history, and culture on Bonaire from the publicity to promote the work of the local research her-
perspective of Bonaireans. Since their involvement in the itage institute and develop more enthusiasm for history
23rd Congress of the International Congress of Caribbean and culture within the Bonaire community. Indeed, the
Archaeology in Trinidad and Tobago in 2005, BONAI BONAI center has become a focal point for the Bonaire
participants have become a model for the broader Carib- community in terms of heritage research and is a place
bean region, exemplifying the potential of individual is- where heritage artifacts from both public and private
lands to conduct their own cultural heritage research and collections can be examined, identified, and stored.
reduce intervention by foreign specialists.
The BONAI Foundation is an after-school program See also Bonaire (Dutch Caribbean; Former Netherlands
that provides study credits from the high school of Bon­ Antilles).
Bottles (Colonial)
Ceramic and glass bottles were used extensively in the is asymmetrical, or is not uniform, it dates before the
Caribbean during the colonial period. Stoneware and 1860s.
coarse earthenware were the primary ceramic types Since the mid-nineteenth century, the successful
used. The Westerwald region of what is now Germany combination of the basic materials mentioned above re-
produced a wide range of vessels for storing mineral wa- sulted in enough consistency for the mass production of
ter and alcohol in the period 1700 to 1775. Glass bottles glass bottles. Although most glass manufactured from
were used primarily for decanting wine and spirits in the eighteenth century on has been produced from a
taverns, homes, ships, and anywhere else alcohol might stable glass formulation, most glass can deteriorate in an
be served. On occasion, these bottles were also used for archaeological context, mostly affected by moisture in
storing water. Some skill was required in glass bottle pro- the burial environment. Under these conditions, water
duction and thus there is little evidence that production or surrounding moisture can leach alkali from the glass,
ever occurred in the Caribbean outside of early attempts leaving behind a distinct fragile, porous, and hydrated
that may have occurred at Spanish La Isabella on His- layer of silica. This causes the glass to craze, crack, flake,
paniola. Puebla (Mexico) was the primary production and pit and gives the surface of the glass a frosty appear-
site for Spanish glass products exported to the Carib- ance. In some cases, there is an actual separation of lay-
bean throughout the colonial period (Frothingham 1941, ers of glass from the body, resulting in iridescent and
121). Other European powers imported all of the bottles opalescent layers, an internal process known as devitri-
they used in the Caribbean. fication. Archaeological glass is also affected by a variety
The archaeological recovery of bottles in the Carib- of other factors such as pH, the chemical composition of
bean is largely limited to the contact/historic period, the glass, temperature, and the presence of salts. Glass
and most archaeological bottles are made of glass. Al- can also be recovered in a stable form, but it can dete-
though glass was produced in ancient times, the more riorate rapidly upon excavation. Glass recovered from
stable glass commonly encountered at historic sites is a seventeenth-century colonial sites is often unstable, par-
relatively recent development in the history of glass. Ar- ticularly the commonly encountered "onion" bottles that
cheologically recovered glass in the Caribbean includes were used for wine and spirits.
glass used for windows, drinking vessels, trade beads, It is not always possible to provenience bottles, but
containers for holding liquids, and decorative objects. an identifiable maker's mark stamped or labeled on the
Regardless of age, the main constituent of glass and glass body or bottom of the bottle can be helpful. Following
bottles is silica, to which is added an alkali or flux to Noel-Hume's scheme, glass bottles are categorized in
lower the temperature during manufacture, such as soda three types: glass liquor bottles, glass pharmaceutical
or potash, and a stabilizer such as lime. Glass is affected bottles, and ceramic bottles, such as the Rhenish glazed
by the various combinations and percentages of these stoneware Bartmann/Bellarmine bottles manufactured
raw materials and other internal constituents, such as in Frechen (Germany) and early ceramic beer bottles
the amount of impurities and colorants present in the from the nineteenth century. When examining bottles,
glass. Over the centuries, experimentation with glass has the researcher might investigate the technological pro-
resulted in various developments such as leaded glass, cesses and techniques of manufacture, the bottle's place
which was first developed in England in 1676 and be- of manufacture, and the bottle's overall function. For
came popular in the eighteenth century, particularly in example, glass bottles can be dated and grouped into
stemware and leaded crystal. typologies based on a variety of distinguishing features
Bottles recovered from Caribbean sites span several such as the shoulder of the bottle, the body, the base, the
centuries, but the most common form of bottle is the neck, and the lip and on the bottle's shape, color, and
liquor bottle, which was manufactured throughout Eu- size.
rope and America. Dating bottles is not a precise sci- Glass bottle technology ranges from mouth-blown
ence, but certain features can be used to help date glass glass with one-, two-, and multiple-piece molds to more
bottles such as mold seams, finish types, closures, and recent machine-made glass. Typically, with the exception
glass color. Generally, if a bottle lacks any mold seams, of soda bottles with rounded bottoms, most bottles have
Figure B.8. From left to right: 1750–60 English handblown; 1780 Dutch "onion" bottle often mistaken for a much
earlier (1720s) English bottle; a ca. 1810 mold-blown bottle; a 1780s French bottle; a Westerwald stoneware
bottle with a Selter maker's mark (all from St. Eustatius); a post-1872 Codd-neck bottle for mineral water from
St. Kitts; and a Dutch case bottle from the 1780s. Courtesy of R. Grant Gilmore III and SECAR.
flat bases, although most bottle bottoms are indented or fume bottles, are generally smaller than liquor bottles
domed to lend workability during manufacture and to and come in a variety of shapes and colors.
maintain stability during the life of the bottle. Until the All bottles may have an applied bottle seal that in-
1860s, glass blowers used a steel rod attached to the bot- dicates the bottle's owner. After the advent of mold-
tom of the bottle using a small amount of molten glass blown bottles in the later eighteenth century, bottles
to hold it in place while they applied the finish. Removal had raised lettering that provided information about
of the pontil often left a jagged piece of glass on the bot- the manufacturer, the bottle's contents, or the owner of
tom of the bottle known as a pontil mark. English co- the bottle. Medicine bottles are commonly excavated
lonial bottles are often finished with the removal of the on Caribbean sites and are generally identical in shape
pontil mark, whereas this jagged piece is often visible on to those manufactured since Roman times. Leaded
Dutch and French bottles. Pontil rods were not used in glass or cut crystal was primarily used to produce the
the manufacture of glass bottles after the 1860s. decanters that are found on some archaeological sites
In 1823, Henry Ricketts, a Bristol bottle manufac- in the Caribbean. Figure B.8 shows a sample of colonial
turer, invented a bottle-molding machine that produced bottles found at archaeological sites in the Caribbean.
uniformly manufactured bottles. The tops of the molds
were left open so that the glass blower could access it to Further Reading
blow the glass. The necks and tops of the bottles were Frothingham, A. 1941. Hispanic Glass. New York: Hispanic So-
then added. In 1903, the automatic bottle machine was ciety of America.
introduced, which produced a completely machine- Jones, O., and C. Sullivan. 1989. The Parks Canada Glass Glos-
made bottle. By the 1920s, bottles were being mass pro- sary. Ottawa: National Historic Parks and Sites, Canadian
duced by machine. Mold lines that run down the sides Parks Service Environment Canada.
of a bottle but stop short of the neck, therefore, indicate Noël Hume, I. 1991. A Guide to Artifacts of Colonial America.
that a bottle was made in the nineteenth or early twen- New York: Vintage Books.
———. 2008. "Historic Glass Bottle Identification and Informa-
tieth centuries. Bottles made before the introduction of
tion Website." Society for Historical Archaeology. http://
the automatic bottle machine are usually less uniform
www.sha.org/bottle/index.htm. Accessed January 8, 2013.
in thickness and often have air bubbles. Pharmaceutical
bottles, which include medicinal, apothecary, and per- See also Rum.
Brimstone Hill Fortress National Park (St. Kitts)
Introduction History of Brimstone Hill Fortress
Brimstone Hill Fortress is situated atop a 230-meter high The British first recognized the hill's strategic importance
volcanic extrusion on the northwest coast of St. Kitts, in 1690 during the War of the Grand Alliance, when they
near the town of Sandy Point (Figure B.9). The hill is attempted to direct cannon fire at the French, who had
named for the sulfurous gases (brimstone) that vent just captured Charles Fort situated on the shore below. The
off shore. Built on three levels, the fortress covers nearly fort's overall configuration was established in the 1720s,
20 hectares and includes over 50 structures, defensive when defensive walls on the northeast, northwest, and
walls, bastions, barracks, and other features relating to southeast sides of the hill and a citadel known as the
its occupation by the British military during the period Mince Pye were constructed. The intention was to make
1690 to 1853. the hill a place of refuge in time of foreign attack. Ad-
Figure B.9. Plan of Brimstone Hill Fortress in 1830 compiled from various sources. Reprinted with permission from Smith (1994).
ditional, but apparently only minor improvements were Hill Fortress National Park Society, which manages the
made to the fort through the 1770s. France declared war site today. The fort was listed as a United Nations World
on Britain in 1778 during the War of American Indepen- Heritage site in 2000.
dence and laid siege to Brimstone Hill in January 1782,
capturing it a month later. Following the treaty of Paris Archaeological Research
in 1783, the fort was returned to the British, after which
they embarked on a massive program of repairs, renova- The archaeological potential of Brimstone Hill was rec-
tion, and construction to increase the number, size, and ognized in the 1960s. From that time through the 1980s,
strength of the fort's defenses, support buildings, and as- rubble was cleared from buildings and occasional small
sociated facilities. This process continued into the early excavations were made. In 1996, specific archaeological
nineteenth century. The large and imposing Fort George research goals were identified, and the University of Ten-
replaced the Mince Pye citadel, and the Prince of Wales nessee initiated a long-term excavation program at the
Bastion was built. A second citadel as imposing as Fort site. The research design conceptualizes Brimstone Hill
George was planned but never built. Although these as a highly structured and frequently oppressive multi-
structures were designed by British Royal Engineers, ethnic community where the number, organization, and
over 200 enslaved Africans who were conscripted from relationships of people differed with changing social,
local plantations for a few weeks to several months did economic, and cultural circumstances. The Brimstone
virtually all the construction and maintenance work. The Hill community included colonial government officials;
British army also employed its own corps of enslaved plantation owners; white militia; British army officers
African laborers at the site, known as the Corps of Black and enlisted men; wives, mistresses, and children of
Military Artificers and Pioneers. After emancipation in British soldiers; enslaved African laborers; black militia;
1834, the British military hired free blacks and whites and members of the West India Regiments. The goals
for building and repair work. By the early nineteenth of the investigations are to document the roles enslaved
century, Brimstone Hill had largely achieved its mod- Africans played in the fort's construction and mainte-
ern appearance. The military maintained the fort until nance; to compare and contrast the archaeological re-
its abandonment in 1853, when most British troops were cords of enslaved Africans, British officers, and enlisted
withdrawn from the Caribbean to fight in the Crimea. men; to excavate specific structures used or occupied by
At the height of its occupation, Brimstone Hill could enslaved Africans, British officers and enlisted men; and
accommodate about 800 soldiers, but rarely were this to provide accurate information about architecture and
many ever posted at the fort, as troop levels fluctuated in associated archaeological assemblages at the site. These
response to the threat of invasion. Officers and enlisted studies are intended to demonstrate that the heritage of
men of twenty or more regiments were stationed at the Brimstone Hill is as much Afro-Caribbean as it is colo-
fort during its history. Wives and children accompanied nial British; generate information that the people of St.
some men. The St. Kitts militia and enslaved Africans of Kitts can use to better understand and appreciate their
the Corps of Embodied Slaves also served brief deploy- own cultural heritage; and place the study of enslaved
ments, and beginning in the 1790s, black troops com- Africans and British soldiers at Brimstone Hill in the
prising the First, Second, Third, and Fourth West India comparative context of colonial Caribbean culture.
Regiments were posted at the fort on separate occasions. A 1791 military engineer's map showing how most
In 1853, the fortress was transferred to the local colo- structures were used has guided the placement of exca-
nial government who sold whatever buildings and ma- vations in five areas. These are identified by BSH (for
terials it could, including all the fort's cannons. In the Brimstone Hill) followed by a site number. Contexts
early twentieth century, the government began to take relating to the manufacture and storage of lime were
a modest interest in the site and formed the Historic conducted at BSH 1. At BSH 2, a hospital and workshop
Sites and Records Committee, which was responsible building where enslaved Africans lived and worked were
for clearing brush and maintaining the buildings as time excavated and a large assemblage of artifacts relating to
and money permitted. Active restoration and devel- the use of these structures was recovered. The headquar-
opment of the site for tourism began in 1965 with the ters of the Royal Engineers was investigated at BSH 3.
creation of the Society for the Restoration of Brimstone Among the structures constituting this complex were
Hill. The site was designated a national park in 1983, and a residence, a kitchen, an office building, a bath, three
the Restoration Society was succeeded by the Brimstone storage structures, connecting walls and walkways, a
paved courtyard, and a quarter for enslaved laborers. Further Reading
Artifacts and faunal remains demonstrate that enslaved
Ahlman, T. M., G. F. Schroedl, and A. H. McKeown. 2009. "The
Africans and British army officers had different diets,
Afro-Caribbean Ware from the Brimstone Hill Fortress, St.
and they also indicate differences between enslaved Af- Kitts, West Indies: A Study in Ceramic Production." Histori-
ricans at BSH 2 and BSH 3. These data document the use cal Archaeology 43 (4): 22–41.
of imported beef and pork and the consumption of local Klippel, W. E. 2001. "Sugar Monoculture, Bovid Skeletal Part
goats and sheep. Imported fish such as cod and herring Frequencies, and Stable Carbon Isotopes: Interpreting En-
are present, as is a wide range of local fishes. Afro-Carib- slaved African Diet at Brimstone Hill, St. Kitts, West Indies."
bean wares reflect food preparation, storage, and serv- Journal of Archaeological Science 28: 1191–98.
ing, while British-manufactured items include a wide Klippel, W. E., and G. F. Schroedl. 1999. "African Slave Crafts-
range of food service and preparation vessels, personal men and Single Hole Bone Discs from Brimstone Hill, St.
Kitts, West Indies." Post-Medieval Archaeology 33: 222–32.
items, uniform buttons and badges, military hardware,
Schroedl, G. F., and T. M. Ahlman. 2002. "The Maintenance
and construction materials. Data were recovered at BSH
of Cultural and Personal Identities of Enslaved Africans
5 relating to two enlisted men's barracks, a washhouse, and British Soldiers at the Brimstone Hill Fortress, St. Kitts,
two kitchens, a portable hospital, two privies, and other West Indies." Historical Archaeology 36 (4): 38–52.
deposits. So far the investigations have recovered over Smith, V. T. C. 1994. "Brimstone Hill Fortress, St. Kitts, West
250,000 ceramic, glass, and metal artifacts; over 100,000 Indies. Part One: History." Post-Medieval Archaeology 28:
fish, bird and mammal bones; and human skeletal ele- 73–109.
ments representing twenty-eight British soldiers. Wilson, B. 2012. "Geology and the Preservation of Historic
Buildings: Cracking in the Walls of the Citadel, Brimstone
Hill Fortress, St. Kitts." In Caribbean Heritage, ed. B. A.
Conclusion Reid, 306–14. Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West
Indies Press.
In summary, the British occupied the Brimstone Hill
Fortress for nearly 150 years. There is abundant docu-
See also Afro-Caribbean Earthenwares; The Cabrits
mentary evidence attesting to the history of its con-
Garrison (Portsmouth, Dominica); Historical Archaeo-
struction, modification, renovation, and occupation by
logical Sites (Types); Historic Bridgetown and Its Gar-
British soldiers and enslaved Africans. Archaeological
rison (Barbados).
studies have enhanced interpretation of the fort's plan
and architecture and have produced significant knowl-
edge of the lives and relationships of enslaved Africans
and British soldiers.
Bullbrook, John A. (1881–1967)
John Bullbrook, a resident of Trinidad from 1913 until of a complete Saladoid ceremonial vessel encouraged re-
his death in 1967, was an English avocational archaeolo- newed investigations at Erin by the Archaeological Sec-
gist and oil geologist who played an important role in tion from February to July 1945.
Trinidad's archaeology for fifty years. He studied geology Bullbrook then coordinated a major excavation proj-
in his native Britain, where his interest in archaeology ect under the direction of Benjamin Irving Rouse. This
first developed. As a student, Bullbrook carried out ar- project, which was conducted under the joint auspices
chaeological fieldwork in both England and Sudan. of the Archaeological Section and Yale University, New
Bullbrook introduced modern stratigraphic excava- Haven, Connecticut in July–August 1946 and July–Au-
tion techniques to Trinidad when a government grant gust 1953, led to the first relative chronology and prehis-
allowed him to excavate the Palo Seco shell midden site toric cultural classification of Trinidad. Over the years,
in April–September 1919. This ceramic site was being until Bullbrook's death in 1967, there was considerable
threatened due to the quarrying of shells as material for correspondence between Bullbrook and Rouse. In 1953,
graveling roads. Following these excavations, Bullbrook Bullbrook was appointed Associate Curator at the Royal
successfully urged the colonial government to protect Victoria Institute Museum, to which he donated his en-
the site from further destruction by acquiring part of it tire collection. This museum became the focal point of
as Crown lands. His finds were donated to the British archaeological research in Trinidad. Bullbrook was also
Museum in London. Unfortunately, Bullbrook's pivotal actively involved in research in Tobago. Following a sur-
work remained unnoticed until the 1950s, when his de- vey of Tobago, which was carried out under the umbrella
tailed report on the Palo Seco excavations was published. of the Trinidad and Tobago Tourist Board in 1960, Bull-
The report is considered exceptional for its discussion of brook and his assistant, Gloria Gilchrist, compiled a list
the Palo Seco site's stratification and the reconstruction of all known archaeological sites on the island. In Octo-
of prehistoric subsistence patterns. ber 1961, March 1963, and July 1964, under Bullbrook's
In 1932, Bullbrook took up residence on Trinidad's guidance, Gilchrist carried out excavations at Tobago's
south coast, close to the Erin shell midden. Between Lovers' Retreat site.
April 1934 and July 1935, he intermittently dug at the ce-
ramic site nearby, donating his finds to the Royal Victoria
Institute Museum in Port-of-Spain. Bullbrook and other Further Reading
avocational archaeologists subsequently established Bullbrook, J. A. 1953. On the Excavation of a Shell Mound at Palo
the Archaeological Section of the Historical Society of Seco, Trinidad, B.W.I. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Trinidad and Tobago (hereafter called the Archaeologi- ———. 1960. The Aborigines of Trinidad. Occasional Papers,
cal Section), which coordinated all archaeological work Royal Victoria Institute Museum, no. 2. Port-of-Spain:
in the twin-island republic. The Archaeological Section Royal Victoria Institute Museum.
received a small grant from the colonial government,
which enabled Bullbrook to work intermittently at the See also Palo Seco (Trinidad); Rouse, Benjamin Irving
Erin site from April 1941 to October 1942. The recovery (1913–2006); Trinidad and Tobago.
Bullen, Ripley (1902–1976), and Adelaide Bullen (1908–1987)
North American archaeologist Ripley Bullen did pio- while, the Bullens maintained research in Florida and
neering work in Florida and the Lesser Antilles and helped create a museum at the Crystal River site.
Greater Antilles. Adelaide Bullen was a physical and In 1967, the Bullens reorganized the International
cultural anthropologist who also worked in archaeology. Congress for the Study of Pre-Columbian Cultures of the
Each of them published independently, and they also co- Lesser Antilles (renamed the International Association
authored 31 scholarly works. Much of their research fo- for Caribbean Archaeology in 1983). They edited and
cused on analyzing ceramic classification and seriation, contributed to five of its Proceedings (1968, 1970, 1973,
analyzing lithic typologies, building culture histories, 1974, and 1976). In 1969, Ripley visited northern Colum-
and detecting connections among regions and cultures. bia for research on origins of early fiber-tempered pot-
Adelaide is perhaps best known for her early recognition tery in the southeastern United States. In the early 1970s,
of the effects of treponemal infection in pre-Columbian Ripley presented perspectives on a number of Antillean
Florida Indian skeletal remains. petroglyphs, and in 1974, he reviewed archaeological
The Bullens were married in 1929. Ripley was a me- evidence for pre-Columbian contact (or the absence
chanical engineer from 1925 to 1940. Changing careers, thereof) between Florida and the West Indies.
he joined Adelaide in graduate work at Harvard Uni- Throughout their careers, the Bullens published ex-
versity in the 1940s, doing fieldwork in Massachusetts tensively and presented results at many meetings. They
and New Mexico, at Chaco Canyon. In the 1940s, Ripley were well known for their accessibility to professional
worked for the Peabody Foundation for Archaeology at and avocational archaeologists. They shared information
Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts. He also and gave editorial assistance to anyone seriously inter-
published prolifically about archaeology in Massachu- ested in archaeology. Their work encouraged research
setts during this period. In this decade, Adelaide and and preservation in many locations. In March 1976, Ri-
Ripley coauthored a notable study in historical archae- pley was awarded an honorary Doctor of Science degree
ology, Black Lucy's Garden (1945). by the University of Florida. He died on Christmas Day,
In 1948, the Bullens moved to Florida, where Ripley 1976. Adelaide survived him by eleven years.
worked for the Florida Park Service. In 1952, they began
a long association with the Florida State Museum (now
the Florida Museum of Natural History), where Ripley Further Reading
became chair of the Department of Social Sciences. In Bullen, A. K. 1978. "Bibliography of Ripley P. Bullen." In Pro-
1954, Adelaide was appointed as a research associate at ceedings of the Seventh International Congress for the Study of
the museum; she later became adjunct curator of anthro- Pre-Columbian Cultures of the Lesser Antilles, Caracas, 1977,
pology there. During the 1950s, the Bullens' research fo- 11–25. Montreal: Centre de Recherches Caraibes.
cused on the central Florida Gulf coast and northeast Bullen, A., and R. Bullen. 1945. "Black Lucy's Garden." Bulletin
Florida. of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society 6 (2): 17–28.
Bullen, R. 1974. "Were There Pre-Columbian Cultural Contacts
As the museum's research area expanded, Ripley be-
between Florida and the West Indies? The Archaeological
gan fieldwork in the Virgin Islands in 1959. In 1963, he
Evidence." Florida Anthropologist 27 (4): 149–60.
examined pre-ceramic sites in Honduras and then did Bullen, R. P., and J. B. Stoltman, eds. 1972. Fiber-Tempered Pot-
research through the Lesser and Greater Antilles. Early tery in Southeastern United States and Northern Columbia:
work focused on the Virgin Islands (Krum Bay), Gre- Its Origins, Context, and Significance. Gainesville: Florida
nada, Barbados, St. Vincent, the Grenadines, and Saint Anthropological Society Publication 6.
Lucia. By 1967, he had worked on St. Croix, Martinique,
Marie Galante, Guadeloupe, St. Martin, Trinidad, To- See also The Florida Museum of Natural History; The
bago, Curaçao, Aruba, Guyana, Suriname, Puerto Rico, International Association for Caribbean Archaeology
Dominican Republic, Jamaica, and the Bahamas. Mean- (IACA).
The Cabrits Garrison (Portsmouth, Dominica)
Zachary J. Beier
The Cabrits Archaeological Research Project (CARP) is World. The 1763 treaty of Paris marked the end of the
a long-term investigation of eighteenth- and nineteenth- Seven Years War and transferred Dominica to Britain.
century residential quarters, including enslaved laborers Dominica remained under British control until 1978
and soldiers of African descent, at the Cabrits Garrison, when the island achieved its independence (with the ex-
Dominica. In cooperation with the Dominica Forestry ception of a brief French occupation from 1778 to 1782).
& Wildlife Division, this project is shedding light on the The first military post was established at the Cabrits in
diverse nature of military life in the British Caribbean the 1770s, beginning a long process of intermittent con-
(Beier 2009). The fort is spread out on a hilly peninsula struction until around 1813 (Honychurch 1983). Early
along the northwestern coast of the island, overlooking administrative accounts state that "pioneers," "fort ne-
Douglas Bay to the north and Prince Rupert's Bay and groes," and "negro artificers" usually performed the
the town of Portsmouth to the south. It encompasses an required work. It is clear that the Cabrits Garrison was
area of 200 acres that includes one fort, seven batteries, primarily built and maintained by enslaved laborers. In
six cisterns, powder magazines, ordnance storehouses, addition, in 1795, as a result of the high rates of mortal-
and barracks and officers' quarters for 500 men and a ity suffered by white soldiers, the British military began
company of artillery (Honychurch 1983). The first phase an active policy of raising black regiments from the lo-
of excavations examined the enslaved village located in cal enslaved population and from men recently arrived
the valley between the Outer and Inner Cabrits Gar- from the west coast of Africa. It became common prac-
risons (CG-1) and the soldiers' barracks located in the tice for black soldiers to replace white soldiers in garri-
northwest of the Outer Cabrits Garrison (CG-2). After sons around the Caribbean, including the Cabrits, until
its abandonment in the late nineteenth century, the site the British closed most of their colonial military instal-
was overgrown by a dense dry forest, a process that has lations in 1854 (Buckley 1998).
resulted in a lush wild landscape and historical struc- On April 9, 1802, enslaved African soldiers in the
tures in varying degrees of preservation. The area is the 8th West India Regiment mutinied. While the upris-
most recent addition to the Dominica National Parks ing was quelled by the British, this historic event, which
Service, which was created in 1975. Restoration of the was limited in duration but meaningful in scope, con-
Fort Shirley battery has been under way under the direc- tributed to the Mutiny Act of 1807. This law freed some
tion of Dr. Lennox Honychurch since the early 1980s. In 10,000 enslaved soldiers and was one of the first acts of
recent years, this portion of the fort has developed into a mass emancipation in the British Empire (Buckley 1998;
popular heritage destination with a number of modern Hony­church 1983).
facilities. Archaeological investigations offer aid to site Archaeological excavations have yielded detailed in-
interpretation and opportunities to engage the public formation relating to eighteenth- and nineteenth-cen-
through tours of excavations and hikes around the en- tury spatial and material practices in the enslaved village
tire complex. and a soldiers' barracks complex at the fort. Initial find-
The development of the Cabrits headlands corre- ings present the valley as encompassing numerous struc-
sponded with the birth of colonial Dominica and with tures of varying architectural styles amid what appears to
wider developments taking shape across the Atlantic be a terraced landscape. A large sample of coarse earth-
enware sherds (both French and locally made) have been International Congress of Caribbean Archaeology, Antigua
recovered, perhaps indicating a stronger connection be- and Barbuda.
tween this area and the informal market(s) controlled by Buckley, R. N. 1998. The British Army in the West Indies: Society
enslaved Africans (see Hauser 2011). Other findings in- and the Military in the Revolutionary Age. Gainesville: Uni-
versity Press of Florida.
clude numerous tools that suggest the types of work fort
Hauser, M. W. 2011. "Routes and Roots of Empire: Pots, Power,
laborers were engaged in and how they manipulated the and Slavery in the 18th-Century British Caribbean." Ameri-
volcanic bedrock to carve out their housing platforms. can Anthropologist 113 (3): 431–47.
A 6th West India Regiment buckle was also recovered, Honychurch, L. 1983. The Cabrits and Prince Rupert's Bay. Ro-
direct evidence of the occupation of enslaved soldiers. seau: Dominica Institute.
Further Reading See also Brimstone Hill Fortress National Park (St.
Beier, Z. J. 2009. "Initial Feasibility and Reconnaissance at the Kitts); Cannon; Historical Archaeological Sites (Types);
Cabrits Garrison, Dominica." Paper presented at the 2009 Historic Bridgetown and Its Garrison (Barbados).
Caguana/Capa Site (Puerto Rico)
Caguana, also known as Capa, is a Taíno site in central with stone slabs and are bordered by vertically placed
Puerto Rico that emerged between AD 1000 and AD granite boulders or limestone slabs, most of which are
1450, spanning both the Ostionan Ostionoid and Chican decorated with petroglyphs that portray anthropomor-
Ostionoid periods. Caguana appears to have been a cer- phic and zoomorphic gods. Next to the dance courts are
emonial center that developed an elaborate complex of the ball courts, which are enclosed by lined undecorated
decorated dance and ball courts, organized around the stones. Rectangular buildings surround these courts.
main central plaza where ceremonial activities took place The site also includes a series of closely spaced and par-
(Figure C.1). The site's dance courts are partially paved allel raised earthen embankments.
Figure C.1. Aerial view of the Caguana
dance and ball courts. Reprinted from
Rouse (1992, fig. 28) by permission of
Yale University Press.
Cannibalism (Anthropophagy) 85
The scarce evidence of residential structures at Ca- or its immediate surrounding areas. Also, no records of
guana suggests that buildings positioned around the European materials have been found commingled with
courts functioned as temples or as the chief 's residence. the Taíno artifacts recovered directly from the site. At
The presence of single farm-like structures, which are present, the site has been reconstructed and designated
dispersed in the countryside surrounding the site, sug- as the Caguana Indian Ceremonial Park.
gests that Caguana acted not only as a ceremonial center
but also as the political center for related chiefdoms. In
this regard, Caguana may have been used as a regional Further Reading
ceremonial and political center. Rouse, I. 1992. The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who
The circumstances that led the Taíno inhabitants Greeted Columbus. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
to desert the site around AD 1508 have not been thor- Wilson, S. M. 2007. The Archaeology of the Caribbean. Cam-
oughly established. It appears that the Spanish did not bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
know of Caguana's existence, since there are no histori-
cal or missionary documents that clearly refer to this site See also Plazas and Bateys.
Cannibalism (Anthropophagy)
For centuries, the Island-Carib have been unfairly de-
scribed as cannibals. Island-Carib are depicted in popu-
lar culture as fierce cannibals who fought unrelentingly
against the Taíno, not only to subdue them but also to
eat them (Figure C.2). Equally negative portrayals of
Island-Carib are evident in more scholarly writings.
Rouse (1992) contended that the Island-Carib men of
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries practiced ritu-
alistic cannibalism as they "ate bits of the flesh of op-
posing warriors in order to acquire the latters' prowess"
(1992, 22). Depictions of Island-Carib cannibalism in
the 2006 Disney sequel Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead
Man's Chest, which were vehemently denounced in 2005
by the chief of Dominica's Carib (Kalinago) Indians, un-
derscore the extent to which these ideas still permeate
popular culture. However, no evidence, whether archae-
ological or from first-hand observations by Europeans,
conclusively proves that Island-Carib ever consumed
human flesh (Reid 2009).
Cannibalism, or anthropophagy, can include drink-
ing water-diluted ashes of a cremated relative, licking
blood off a sword in warfare, masticating and subse-
quently vomiting a snippet of flesh, or celebrating
Christian communion. Three major classifications of
cannibalism have been cited. Endocannibalism refers Figure C.2. Illustration from Nova Typis/Transacta Navigatio, Plautius
(1621), a fanciful account of what Benedictine missionaries saw as they
to consumption of individuals within the group, exo-
arrived at the "Island of Cannibals" during Columbus's second voyage.
cannibalism indicates consumption of outsiders, and (Caspar Plautius, 1621. Nova Typis Transacta Navigatio: Novi Orbis Indiæ
autocannibalism covers everything from nail-biting Occidentalis, Etc., [Linz].) Reprinted from Reid (2009, fig. 7.1) by permis-
to torture-induced self-consumption (Arens 1979). Al- sion of the University of Alabama Press.
though there is no clear definition of cannibalism, a The Mancos case study in Colorado is perhaps the
practice that includes an extremely broad and some- most important research that conclusively points to
time ambiguous range of behaviors, most research- cannibalism in prehistoric America (Figure C.3) (White
ers define cannibalism as the human consumption of 1992). Based on a restudy of over 2,000 fragmented,
human tissue, whether this is done in the context of burned, cut, and completely disarticulated human bones
warfare, as part of a funeral rite, or for gastronomic or from an Anasazi pueblo, Tim D. White concluded that
survival purposes. The four lines of evidence important children, adolescents, and young adults of both sexes
in the verification of cannibalism in the archaeological had been consumed at Mancos Canyon. The Mancos
record are: example has been cited as an excellent case of survival
cannibalism. But even if we accept the survival canni-
1. Similar butchering techniques in human and
balism hypothesis for Mancos, it is simply not logical to
animal remains. The frequency, location, and type
apply this to the Island-Carib, given the latter's expertise
of verified cut marks and chop marks on human
as hunters and fishers in such a protein-rich environ-
and animal bones must be similar, but we should
ment as the Caribbean. Indeed, the Lesser Antilles pos-
allow for anatomical differences between humans
sessed productive resources in the form of rich offshore
habitats to which the Island-Carib had easy access. In
2. Similar patterns of long-bone breakage that
fact, some of the shallow shelves and banks surround-
might facilitate marrow extraction.
ing the islands that are populated by a diverse collection
3. Identical patterns of post-processing discard-
of aquatic foods are much larger than the islands them-
ing of human and animal remains.
selves (Wilson 2007). Moreover, human beings from
4. Evidence of cooking. If present, such evi-
time immemorial have generally been able to success-
dence should indicate comparable treatment of
fully colonize environmentally unfriendly areas without
human and animal remains.
necessarily resorting to cannibalism.
Figure C.3. Mancos Canyon in southwestern
Colorado. Reprinted from Reid (2009, fig. 7.2) by
permission of the University of Alabama Press.
To date, no hard archaeological evidence has been There was simply no merit to the allegations in item 1,
identified to suggest that the Island-Carib were can- as the so-called cannibals are essentially a legacy of the
nibals. The very fact that the Island-Carib have largely Spanish (Keegan 1992; Myers 1984). Since 1948, history
been archaeologically invisible has no doubt compli- writers have created a false dichotomy of the "peaceful
cated the issue (Keegan 1996). Proper site identification Taíno" and the "man-eating cannibals"; this dichotomy
is necessary before any useful physical anthropological first emerged in the Handbook of South American Indi-
research can be conducted in the field. To date, Argyle in ans series, where authors presented the Greater Antil-
St. Vincent is the only fully investigated settlement site in lean Taíno as noble, peaceful people and the Lesser An-
the southern Caribbean that has been conclusively iden- tillean Carib as savage or barbaric. In light of the regular
tified as Island-Carib. While the site has yielded a con- skirmishes between the Taíno and the Spanish (which
siderable number of Cayoid ceramic vessels, no evidence culminated with the battle of the Vega Real in 1495), it is
of human cannibalism has been forthcoming (Boomert clear that the notion of "peaceful Taíno" was consider-
2011; Corinne Hofman personal communication 2013). ably overplayed. Despite the experience of the Taíno with
Clearly, claims of Island-Carib cannibalism are based warfare, the Spanish were able to easily subjugate them
on ethnohistory—that is, European accounts of native in the northern Caribbean because they often attempted
populations in the Island-Caribbean. Ethnohistorical compromise and accommodation as an alternative to
sources cannot be entirely trusted as they are often laden warfare (Reid 2009; Keegan 1992). The more militant
with racial and cultural biases. A critical reading of Co- Island-Carib of the Lesser Antilles, who adopted more
lumbus's diario (most of which was actually written by aggressive postures toward the Spanish, French, English,
Bartolomé de las Casas based on third-hand transcrip- Dutch and anyone else who threatened their sovereignty,
tions) reveals a litany of half-truths, anecdotal descrip- were categorized as cannibals (Reid 2009; Keegan 1992).
tions, hearsay, and preconceived Eurocentric ideas about In fact, the word "Carib" soon became a general Spanish
the native peoples of the Island-Caribbean. The following term for hostile natives. For example, from 1815 to 1820,
entry in Columbus's diary, dated November 4, 1492 has an area on the coast of northeastern Luzon, Philippines,
been interpreted as proof of the admiral's knowledge of was labeled Negroes Caribes Bravos (González 1988).
cannibalistic practices among the Island-Carib: "He [Co- The Island-Caribs' aggressive responses to the European
lumbus] understood also that, far from there, there were proved to be successful since they survived unconquered
one-eyed men, and others, with snouts of dogs, which ate into the eighteenth century and beyond (Wilson 2007).
men, and that as soon as one was taken they cut his throat The Spanish distinctions between "peaceful" Taíno
and drank his blood" (quoted in Keegan 1996). and "warlike" Island-Carib were not without self-interest
Although Columbus's diario has influenced in some (Reid 2009). At the outset, Columbus seemed to have in
way all discussions of the peoples of the Lesser Antil- mind the development of a slave trade similar to the one
les, the admiral's first voyage never actually reached Portugal was operating in Africa. The people Columbus
the Lesser Antilles. A critical analysis of this document believed could be converted to Christianity came to be
reveals that both chroniclers and ethnohistorians have known as the "peaceful Taíno," while those who resisted
exhibited some confusion about the following mythical were pagans who deserved harsh treatment as enslaved
categories (Keegan 1996): people. In fact, agitation against slave-taking by priests
who managed Spain's missionary efforts in the Greater
1. Cannibals: Natives who refused to submit to
Antilles caused the Crown to forbid slave-taking among
the Spanish were called cannibals. They were char-
Indians who were friendly to the Spanish. But in 1503, in
acterized as idolaters and consumers of human
response to economic interests, Queen Isabel excluded
flesh who could not be converted into Christianity
"all cannibals" from this ban. The Crown legally defined
and were therefore suitable for enslaving.
cannibals as barbaric people, enemies of the Christian,
2. Caribes: The Spanish understood Caribes to
those who refuse conversion, and those who eat human
be real people when in fact they were creatures
flesh (Keegan 1992).
who existed only in Taíno mythology.
3. Caniba: Columbus's goals included having an
audience with the Grand Khan of Cathay (China). Further Reading
He used the term "Caniba" to refer to the people Arens, William. 1979. The Man-Eating Myth. New York: Oxford
he encountered because he mistakenly believed he University Press.
was meeting subjects of the Grand Khan. Boomert, A. 2011. "From Cayo to Kalinago: Aspects of Island
Carib Archaeology." In Communities in Contact: Essays in Reid, B. A. 2009. Myths and Realities of Caribbean History. Tus-
Archaeology, Ethnohistory and Ethnography of the Amer­ caloosa: University of Alabama Press.
indian Circum-Caribbean, ed. Corinne L. Hofman and Rouse, I. 1992. The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who
Anne van Duijvenbode, 295–310. Leiden: Sidestone Press. Greeted Columbus. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
González, N. 1988. Sojourners of the Caribbean: Ethnogenesis White, T. D. 1992. Prehistoric Cannibalism at Mancos 5Mt-
and the Ethnohistory of the Garifuna. Urbana-Champaign: umr-2346. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
University of Illinois Press. Wilson, S. M. 2007. The Archaeology of the Caribbean. New
Keegan, W. 1996. "Columbus Was a Cannibal: Myth and the York: Cambridge University Press.
First Encounters." In The Lesser Antilles in the Age of Eu-
ropean Expansion, ed. R. L. Paquette and S. L. Engerman,
17–32. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. See also The Cayoid Pottery Series; Island-Carib; Kali-
Myers, R. 1984. "Island-Carib Cannibalism." New West Indian nago Descendants of St. Vincent and the Grenadines;
Guide/Neue West-Indische Gids 58: 147–84. The Kalinago Territory (Dominica).
Ruud Stelten
Cannon, or guns, of all types were shipped to the Carib- seventeenth century, this cost became excessively high.
bean in large numbers during the colonial period be- However, a number of factors made bronze guns prefer-
cause of the frequent conflicts and battles being fought able. Firing an iron cannon was a lot riskier than firing
in this part of the world. They were used on nearly all a bronze one: although bronze guns could deform and
islands in the West Indies to repel attacks and to arm tear open, iron guns could burst without warning and fly
ships sailing through the region. Today, many cannon to pieces, injuring or killing nearby personnel. Further-
can still be found on countless military installations more, bronze is a stronger metal, and bronze guns were
and shipwreck sites throughout the Caribbean. They are thinner and lighter than their iron counterparts. Bronze
important artifacts because they can help date and/or was also easier to cast. Bronze guns were often heavily
identify particular sites (such as shipwrecks), shed light decorated and were considered true pieces of art.
on historic trade patterns, and contribute to the study of The vast majority of cannon used in the West Indies
military history of the Caribbean. were made of cast iron. The same guns that were used
Throughout the sixteenth century, most cannon were on ships were also used in fortifications in the colonies.
made of bronze and wrought iron. Bronze was long con- There were often not enough gunners available on the
sidered the superior metal for ordnance manufacture. garrisons in the West Indies to operate all the cannon
From the beginning of the seventeenth century onward, in the various batteries. Ordinary soldiers would some-
cast-iron guns were used extensively on merchant ves- times make up the shortfall. Aiming cannon at a mov-
sels and in the naval service in various countries. By the ing ship was both a difficult and strenuous task. The
end of the 1600s, cast-iron ordnance had achieved such gun crew had to maneuver the carriage by hand, and
a high quality that the production of bronze guns was frequently it cracked or collapsed under the stress. Fur-
reduced, and by the 1770s most navies had abandoned thermore, aiming through a high embrasure provided a
them almost completely. There were three main advan- limited field of fire. These factors ensured that cannon
tages of cast-iron guns. First, they heated up more slowly in the colonies were rarely effective. Guns on ships were
and maintained their structural strength when fired fre- mounted on wooden carriages with wooden wheels
quently during battle. Second, they had greater longevity. (trucks) that would not damage the deck when the gun
Third, they were six to ten times cheaper to manufacture. recoiled. Carriage hardware may be found on well-pre-
The bronze ordnance on a ship could be more expensive served wreck sites. Garrison guns could be mounted on
than the entire vessel. As the principal maritime pow- larger wooden or iron carriages that had iron or wooden
ers continued to increase the size of their navies in the wheels. The iron carriage, introduced in 1810, was prefer-
Cannon 89
able in warm climates, where a wooden carriage would those that supplied private organizations (e.g., merchant
be vulnerable to rot. These iron carriages may be found ships). Over time, armies and navies began standardiz-
at restored and abandoned fortifications throughout the ing the dimensions and calibers of their artillery. British
region. For example, dozens of iron carriages that sup- manufacturers were expected to produce their guns to
ported the guns at the Brimstone Hill Fortress on St. a government design, which resulted in a remarkable
Kitts have been found. Guns could be elevated to desired similarity of guns from different founders.
heights by an elevating screw, which could raise or lower Toward the mid-seventeenth century, England was
a wedge on which the end of the barrel rested. Carriages struck by an energy crisis that was the result of defor-
were stepped at the rear, so that a handspike could be in- estation for the charcoal that was used in the furnaces
serted to lever up the heavy breech end and more wedges that produced cast-iron goods. In addition, the English
could be inserted. feared that the Dutch maritime empire would become
The loading, firing, and cleaning of naval guns were too strong. After growing complaints, the House of
described in great detail in several works from the eigh- Commons prohibited the export of cannon from Eng-
teenth and nineteenth centuries. These were very struc- land. Thus, Sweden came to dominate the European
tured activities that involved crews of up to thirteen market for cast-iron guns from the middle of the seven-
people per cannon. Ordinary cannonballs were not the teenth until the end of the eighteenth centuries. (After
only type of projectile cannon would fire. A large variety that, England recovered its leading position as a major
of shot was available that was designed to serve specific exporter.) Swedish cannon were produced at a number
purposes. Examples are cannonballs that were attached of foundries, including those at Huseby, Stafsjö, Åker,
to each other by a chain (loose shot) or a bar (bar shot), and Ehrendal. The most important and famous Swed-
small bits of iron put into a cartridge (case shot), and ish foundry was located at Finspång. Swedish guns were
iron balls put into a thick canvas bag (grape shot). The exported through Amsterdam to Denmark, the Dutch
first two types were used against ships, especially to Republic, England, Spain, and France, and to anyone
damage rigging, masts, and spars, while the latter two else who would buy them.
were used specifically against people. All shot types are France and Denmark (who had a number of furnaces
regularly found on Caribbean historical archaeological in Norwegian lands), Norway, Spain, and some German
sites. states also had small cast-iron cannon industries, but
There were two main suppliers of cast-iron guns in the this was not sufficient for large-scale export. In the eigh-
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: Great Britain and teenth century, a number of local furnaces were set up in
Sweden. Apart from producing guns for its own navy, France; the main one was located at Indret near Nantes.
merchant ships, and trading companies, Great Britain The only cast-iron guns made by the Dutch were cast in
also produced guns for export: it supplied the Dutch Re- Liege from 1817 to 1831, when Belgium was part of the
public, Spain, Sicily, Russia, Turkey, and Morocco. There Netherlands.
were numerous gun foundries in England, the most Cast-iron guns can be identified by their markings
famous of which was located at Woolwich. In general, and shape. Most foundries and/or master gun found-
there were two classes of cannon manufacturers: found- ers put their maker's marks (such as an F for Finspång)
ries that cast cannon for government establishments and on one trunnion and the date of casting on the other.
Figure C.4. Two cast-iron cannon. The top one is an
English Borgard pattern gun, cast between 1716 and
1725. The bottom one is a so-called Finbanker, cast
at Finspång, Sweden. The English cannon has few
reinforce rings, while the Swedish type has many. Also
note the different placements of the reinforce rings,
the differences in the shape of the muzzle, the base
ring, the cascabel, and the button and the stepped
design of the English gun. Redrawn by Ruud Stelten
after Nico Brinck.
On the trunnions, the muzzle face, or the barrel, one have been recorded and island-wide surveys of artillery
frequently finds the weight of the piece and its casting have been carried out on St. Eustatius and Barbados, new
number along with other marks such as coats of arms cannon are being found regularly on both terrestrial and
of admiralties or a fleur-de-lis. Furthermore, many can- maritime archaeological sites. Large numbers of guns
non display royal ciphers from the ruling monarch at the still await discovery throughout the Caribbean region.
time of casting, such as GR2 for King George II of Great
Britain and Ireland. Further Reading
Guns are often classified by the weight of the can-
nonball they fired, for example "24 pounder." There are Caruana, A. B. 1994. The History of English Sea Ordnance. Vol.
1, The Age of Evolution (1523–1715). Rotherfield, UK: Jean
many differences in the shapes of guns cast in various
Boudriot Publications.
foundries, especially in the seventeenth century. Figure
———. 1997. The History of English Sea Ordnance. Vol. 2, The
C.4 highlights some differences between cannon cast in Age of System (1715–1815). Rotherfield, UK: Jean Boudriot
different countries. Publications.
When peace came to the Caribbean in the early nine- Hartland, Maj. M. 2010. The Great Guns of Barbados. St.
teenth century at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, there Thomas, Barbados, West Indies: Miller.
was no longer a need for defense. Large numbers of guns
were taken away from the area in this century to be put See also Brimstone Hill Fortress National Park (St.
on display in museums and forts in the United States or Kitts); Historical Archaeological Sites (Types); Historic
simply to be sold as scrap metal. Although many guns Bridgetown and Its Garrison (Barbados).
Scott M. Fitzpatrick
The island of Carriacou is located in the southernmost augmented the island's economy. The last lime factories
point of the Grenadines chain of the Lesser Antilles, ap- closed in the mid-1980s, and the crumbling remains
proximately 200 kilometers north of Venezuela and 30 of lime kilns can be found scattered around the island,
kilometers from Grenada, to which it belongs politically. including a particularly well-preserved one at Sparrow
The island is 32 square kilometers in area and is home Bay. On the northeastern side of Carriacou, people of
to around 6,000 people. Geologically, it is fairly moun- Scottish and Irish ancestry continue traditional boat-
tainous and is composed of a mixture of volcanic lava building.
and fossiliferous limestone that dates to the Miocene. Recent research has revealed that Carriacou is one of
The mountains reach heights of 290 meters in both the the archaeologically richest islands in the southern Ca-
northern and southern parts of the island, though the ribbean. In the early 1900s, Jesse Fewkes of the Smithso-
Grenadines in general are of low relief compared to nian Institution visited the island and remarked that the
other islands in the Antilles. pottery found here was some of the most beautiful he
One of the first references to Carriacou was made by had seen in the Caribbean. Subsequent research by Rip-
Jean-Baptiste du Tertre. When he described his 1656 visit ley and Adelaide Bullen in the 1970s identified a number
to "Kayryoüacou" (the land of many reefs), he declared of important sites along the coast, though no systematic
that the island was "the most beautiful of all the little is- survey was carried out before 2003, when the Carriacou
lands . . . where I stayed long enough to be able to notice Archaeological Project was established under the direc-
its special features" (Tertre 1667, 41). However, Du Tertre tion of Quetta Kaye (University College London), Scott
made no reference to any people inhabiting the island. M. Fitzpatrick (then at North Carolina State University),
Originally settled by the French, Carriacou was ceded and Michiel Kappers (QLC, BV, The Netherlands). This
in 1763 to the British when they captured neighboring survey of almost the entire coastline and accessible flat
Grenada. The federation gained independence in 1974. inland areas helped identify over a dozen prehistoric
Cotton was the leading export from the eighteenth to settlement areas.
the early twentieth centuries, when lime production Two of the most intensively occupied and archaeo-
Carriacou 91
logically important sites on Carriacou are Grand Bay Troumassoid and is characterized by a further simplifi-
(Figure C.5) and Sabazan, which are located on the cation in shapes and decoration. The domestic ware in-
windward (east) coast. Both sites display deep stratified cludes rather thin griddle sherds: some of these are finely
deposits that form multilayered middens that extend up slipped on the upper side, some present upturned round
to several meters high. Much of the profile is evident edges, and others have wide feet. The latter were appar-
through natural erosion that has been exacerbated by ently used contemporaneously with those that were flat.
decades of sand mining by locals, a problem that per- Ceremonial ceramic artifacts such as inhaling bowls or
sists in many parts of the Caribbean. The dense mid- spouts, incense burners, decorated body stamps, ce-
dens contain substantial cultural, botanical, and zoo- ramic spindle whorls, and several three-pointed zemíes
archaeological materials. These include human burials; attest to past ritual activities at the site. Different tool
posthole features/household structures; midden refuse; assemblages that have been recovered from the various
stone, shell, and bone tools; shell and exotic stone beads; midden layers suggest a wide trade span, including the
a wide array of pre-Columbian ceramics; and a variety of possible transport of heirlooms in the form of ceramic
food remains. Prehistoric settlement has been dated by inhaling bowls used to ingest cohoba, which is thought
an extensive suite of over thirty-five radiocarbon assays, to have been derived from the seeds of the yopo tree
indicating that peoples lived here for over a 1,000-year (Anadenanthera peregrina) (Fitzpatrick et al. 2008).
period, from the late Saladoid (ca. AD 380) almost up to Zooarchaeological analysis of faunal remains found
the time of European contact (AD 1400). in the different layers of the middens indicates the pres-
The ceramic material includes decorated and un- ence of food from both the land and sea but with an
decorated Saladoid-, Troumassan Troumassoid–, and emphasis on the exploitation of marine habitats that
Suazan Troumassoid–style pottery sherds. Troumas- include both inshore and offshore environments. This
san Troumassoid ceramics display a simplification of evidence clearly suggests that marine foods were an im-
the decoration of the Saladoid ceramics and Suazan portant part of the diet of the inhabitants throughout
Troumassoid ceramic ware developed from the earlier their occupation of the island and that they developed
Figure C.5. Excavation and sand mining at Grand Bay, Carriacou. Photo by Scott M. Fitzpatrick.
different procurement strategies such as nets, hooks, Fitzpatrick, S. M., M. Kappers, Q. Kaye, C. Giovas, M. LeFe-
lines, and wires to capture food. Faunal remains consist bvre, M. H. Harris, S. Burnett, J. A. Pavia, K. Marsaglia,
of numerous species of fish and shellfish remains, agouti, and J. Feathers. 2009. "Precolumbian Settlements on Car-
opossum, birds, iguana, land crab, sea urchin, and an riacou, West Indies." Journal of Field Archaeology 34, no.
3: 247–66.
abundant amount of turtles. Archaeological evidence
Fitzpatrick, S. M., Q. Kaye, J. Feathers, J. Pavia, and K. Mar-
further indicates that the island was a centerpiece for saglia. 2008. "Evidence for Inter-Island Transport of Heir-
many economic activities in the southern Antilles dur- looms: Luminescence Dating and Petrographic Analysis of
ing the Saladoid and post-Saladoid periods, reflected in Ceramic Inhaling Bowls from Carriacou, West Indies." Jour-
part by the large number of animals that translocated to nal of Archaeological Sciences 36, no. 3: 596–606.
the island prehistorically. Fitzpatrick, S. M., Q. Kaye, and M. Kappers. 2004. "A Radiocar-
bon Sequence for the Sabazan Site, Carriacou, West Indies."
Journal of Caribbean Archaeology 5: 1–11.
Further Reading Tertre, J. B. du 1667. Histoire Générale des Antilles. Vols. 1 and 2.
Bullen, R. P., and A. K. Bullen. 1972. Archaeological Investiga- Paris: Thomas Jolly.
tions on St Vincent and the Grenadines, West Indies. William
L. Bryant Foundation American Studies, Report 8. Orlando: See also The Suazan Troumassoid (Suazey); The Trou-
William Bryant Foundation. massan Troumassoid.
The Casimiroid
Casimiroid culture emerged in the Greater Antillean evidence strongly suggests a Central American origin
islands of Cuba and Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican for the population of these islands.
Republic) from around 4000 to 400 BC. The culture is Well-known Casimiran workshop sites are Rancho
named after the Casimira site in the Dominican Repub- Casimira, Berrera-Mordan in the Dominican Repub-
lic, where the earliest stone tools were first found. All lic (which has been dated to around 2610 BC and 2165
Casimiran period settlements are located inland and de- BC), and Seboruco and Levisa in Cuba (which has been
veloped a marine and hunting oriented economy. Their dated around 4190 BC). On the site of Levisa, archae-
tools were based on the flake-stone technique, which ologists have been able to reconstruct aspects of the diet
consisted of collecting flint or other fine-grained rocks of the first inhabitants from cultural, botanical, and
and using a hammerstone, producing a series of irregu- zoological deposits. The diet of these early groups of
larly shaped flakes used for different purposes such as hunters consisted of big marine game, such as seals,
knives and scrapers. It is generally accepted that the first manatees, and sea turtles, and land mammals, such as
inhabitants of these islands may have originally come hutia and large sloths, which were probably hunted to
from Belize in Central America, while evidence of a later extinction. There is no evidence indicating that these
occupation indicates a Venezuelan origin. hunters practiced fishing, and the collection of shells
Casimiran tools recovered from Cuba and Hispan- was not as abundant or as important to their diet as
iola share strong similarities with lithic tools manufac- it was during later periods (Keegan 1994; Rouse 1992;
tured in Belize during the Archaic Age from 7000 BC to Wilson 2007).
around 4000 BC, when the variations in the assemblages On Hispaniola, people of the Courian culture suc-
of flake-stone tools are due to the availability of raw ma- ceeded the Casimiran and can be further divided into
terial and the local style of working, while the later oc- two local cultures, the El Porvenir in the Dominican Re-
cupation of the islands by the Courian and Redondan public and the Couri in Haiti, which have been dated to
cultures developed a tool assemblage that shares strong between 2630 BC and AD 240. During this period, pot-
similarities with the Manicuaroid period of Venezuela, tery developed and early agricultural activities emerged,
further suggesting that the Casimiroid may also have together with fishing and shellfish collection, producing
come from South America. Nonetheless, archaeological a shift in diet from large sea and land animals to coastal
Cassava (Manioc) 93
fish and shellfish resources, supplemented with small Casimiroid settlements were located in both coastal
inland mammals and crops. The Courian people moved and inland areas, occupying open-air sites and rock shel-
seasonally, exploited inland and coastal resources, and ters, which they painted with geometric designs. Shell
manufactured stone tools such as spearheads, backed mounds left by Redondan culture are distributed along
knives, and end scrapers, which were used in hunting the coast and in marshes as well as on adjacent islets.
animals. During this period, single- and double-bitted Archaeological research indicates that the Casimiroid
axes, conical pestles, and mortars were used for food buried their dead in the caves they occupied and in the
processing, and a variety of stone and coral balls, disks, earth mounds they constructed. Occasionally, stone
and dagger-like objects were possibly used as ritual im- balls accompanied the dead.
plements. Elaborate stone and shell beads and pendants
have also been found at Courian period sites, and there Further Reading
is evidence for the use of red ochre both as body paint
and as treatment for the dead. Keegan, W. F. 1994. "West Indian Archaeology. 1. Overview and
The Redondan subseries succeeded the Casimiran on Foragers." Journal of Archaeological Research 2 (3): 255–84.
Cuba from 2050 BC to AD 1300. During this period, two Pantel, A. G. 2003. "The First Caribbean People, Part II: The
Archaics." In General History of the Caribbean. Vol. 1, Au-
local cultures emerged: Guayabo Blanco and Cayo Re-
tochthonous Societies, ed. Jalil Sued Badillo, 118–33. London:
dondo. Both cultures share the unique manufacture of
Macmillan and UNESCO Publishing.
triangular shell gauges, which have also exclusively been Rouse, I. 1992. The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who
found at the St. John's River site in Florida. During their Greeted Columbus. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
occupation of the island, the Archaic inhabitants con- Wilson, S. M. 2007. The Archaeology of the Caribbean. Cam-
tinued to make stone tools similar to those of the Cou- bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
rian period of Hispaniola, although they also developed
a wide range of shell tools that included gauges, plates, See also Antigua and Barbuda (Archaic Sites); The Ar-
cups, tips, and hammers. chaic Age; The Ostionoid.
Cassava (Manioc)
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is a poisonous neotropi- plant contain significant amounts of protein and vita-
cal root crop from the Euphorbiaceae family that has mins A and C, but they also contain high levels of cyano-
become the staple for hundreds of millions of people genic chemical compounds. Crop yields of up to 90 tons
worldwide. Cassava has been cultivated for thousands per hectare can be achieved even in harsh environments
of years as a rich source of carbohydrates despite the fact with acidic soils, depending upon the amount of effort
it also produces cyanide. The approximately 5,000 va- invested.
rieties of M. esculenta are most often referred to as cas- All of the plants in the Manihot genus are cyanogenic,
sava, yucca, or manioc; the first two words are derived and cassava contains dangerous cyanogenic glucosides
from the Amerindian Arawakan Taíno language of the (CG) in all parts of the plant except the seeds. Cyanide
Greater Antilles and the third from the Tupi-Guarani of is rapidly absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract
South America. and prevents cellular respiration in organic tissues,
Cassava is a drought-resistant, perennial shrub with particularly the heart and the central nervous system,
starchy roots that can be produced in large quantities causing paralysis and death in extreme cases. Hydrogen
in marginal conditions. The nonpropagative roots of the cyanide (HCN), or free cyanide, is released when tissue
cassava plant contain large amounts of carbohydrates disruption brings the CG linamarin in the cell vacuoles
because of a unique combination of C3 and C4 photosyn- in contact with the enzyme linamarase found in the cell
thetic pathways but lack a balanced profile of nutrients, walls. This toxicity is most likely a chemical defense
specifically protein. The leaves and peel of the cassava against predation in locations where herbivorous pres-
sure in resource-poor environments is significant. Cas- Manihot starch grains recovered thus far were collected
sava is loosely divided into "bitter" and "sweet" varieties from ground stone tools from Colombia and Panama
based on the amount of HCN they contain. Bitter cas- that date to between 7000 and 7500 BP.
sava requires more intensive processing, but it is prob- Caribbean peoples have used cassava for at least the
ably more pest resistant and starchy and is one of the last 3,000 years. The earliest evidence for cassava use
few crops in the world for which more toxic varieties are in the Caribbean comes from starch grains taken from
preferred. While proper processing and cooking elimi- Archaic edge-ground cobbles from Puerto Rico and Vi-
nates most of the toxicity, a small residue remains that eques that date to between 2400–3300 BP, refuting two
is released during digestion. An adequate daily intake long-held assumptions: that cassava first entered the
of protein that contains methionine is necessary to buf- Caribbean with Amazonian Saladoid pottery makers
fer the toxic residue to avoid permanent damage to the around 2500 BP, and that ceramic griddles were needed
nervous system. to process the plant. The oldest macrobotanical cassava
Cassava processing is dependent on the bitterness of remains in the Caribbean were recovered by Kathleen
the variety and the desired product. Cassava roots can be Deagan from the Taíno site of En Bas Saline in Haiti that
harvested within six to seven months, and its cylindri- date to the Chican Ostionoid period (AD 1200–1500).
cal stems, or "stakes," can be immediately replanted for The Taíno practiced a sophisticated form of conuco ag-
clonal propagation, although the plant can be left un- riculture in which they constructed mounds of soft al-
molested for up to two years before the roots become luvial soil for planting cassava and other crops. The im-
largely inedible from lignification and infestation. Har- portance of cassava among the Taíno was reflected in
vested cassava roots spoil within three days, although the fact that Yucahú, the lord of cassava and the sea, was
traditional methods can be used to store fresh cassava the highest-ranking masculine deity depicted on cemís.
roots for up to two years. Peeled sweet cassava can be Cassava continues to be an important staple for many
boiled and eaten, but bitter varieties must be processed people living in the Caribbean today.
more thoroughly to prevent cyanide poisoning. Grat-
ing the peeled bitter roots increases the surface area
of the product and promotes activation of the cyanide. Further Reading
The grated product is then pressed or strained through
Arroyo-Kalin, M. 2010. "The Amazonian Formative: Crop
woven bags or elastic basketry tubes called matapi. The Domestication and Anthropogenic Soils." Diversity 2 (4):
collected starchy juice can be processed into a variety 473–504.
of products such as tapioca and cassava beer, and the Olsen, K. M., and B. A. Schaal. 1999. "Evidence on the Origin of
solid flour can be dried and stored for long periods of Cassava: Phylogeography of Manihot esculenta." Proceedings
time and it is often roasted and made into bread on flat of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
ceramic or metal griddles. America 96 (10): 5586–91.
Cassava originated in the Amazonian lowlands and Pagán-Jiménez, J. R., and R. Rodríguez Ramos. 2007. "Sobre
spread into Central America and the Caribbean during el Origen de la Agricultura en las Antillas." In Proceedings
of the Twenty-First Congress of the International Association
prehistory. Antonio C. Allem identified Manihot escu-
for Caribbean Archaeology, vol. 1, ed. B. Reid, H. P. Roget,
lenta flabellifolia as the wild, living ancestor of cassava in
and A. Curet, 252–59. St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago:
1982, and subsequent genetic research has revealed that School of Continuing Studies, University of the West Indies.
it probably originated in Brazil along the edge of the Wilson, W. M., and D. L. Dufour. 2002. "Why 'Bitter' Cassava?
Amazon basin. The domestication of cassava may have Productivity of 'Bitter' and 'Sweet' Cassava on a Tukanoan
taken place at multiple locations perhaps 8000–10,000 Indian Settlement in the Northwest Amazon." Economic
BP, although direct evidence for cassava in the archaeo- Botany 56 (1): 49–57.
logical record is limited because tubers generally car-
bonize poorly, they produce few pollen grains, and their See also Agricultural Earthworks (The Guianas); Conucos;
phytoliths are few and largely unidentifiable. The oldest The First Caribbean Farmers; Griddles; Zemíes (Cemís)
The Cayman Islands and mammals account for the remaining taxa. Two pos-
sible genera of hutia, Capromys sp. and Geocapromys sp.,
Peter L. Drewett and the now-extinct insectivore Nesophontes sp. repre-
sent the prehistoric mammals in the assemblage. Bones
from cats, mice, and rats that were also found in the cave
represent introductions in the historic period, all ani-
There is currently no evidence for human occupation
mals that had a fatal impact on the indigenous fauna.
of the Cayman Islands prior to their accidental discov-
Although the Cayman Islands are on a hypothesized
ery by Christopher Columbus in 1503. Field surveys of
migration route from Mesoamerica to Cuba, there is no
Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac, and Little Cayman were
evidence that the islands were actually found by prehis-
undertaken in 1992 and 1995 (Drewett 2000), and a sec-
toric peoples. If, however, the islands were simply used
ond survey of Grand Cayman was undertaken in 1993
as a staging post, then the archaeological evidence may
(Stokes and Keegan 1996). These surveys, together with
have been so slight as to leave little or no trace. It is un-
the fact that no record of European contacts with Am-
likely that archaeological sites on the low-lying Cayman
erindians on the islands exists and no casual finds have
Islands were washed away during hurricanes, given the
been made over some five hundred years of European
survival of bone deposits recovered from Great Cave.
activity on the islands, suggest fairly conclusively that
the islands were never occupied in prehistory. The im-
portance of the Cayman Islands in our understanding of Further Reading
the human occupation of the Caribbean therefore lies in
the fact that humans did not modify the fauna until the Drewett, P. L. 2000. Prehistoric Settlements in the Caribbean:
historic period. Fieldwork in Barbados, Tortola, and the Cayman Islands.
The excavation of three 1 × 1 meter test units in the London: Archetype for the Barbados Museum and Histori-
Great Cave on Cayman Brac in 1995 (Drewett 2000) en- cal Society.
Scudder, S. J., and I. R. Quitmyer. 1998. "Evaluation of Evidence
abled the study of the natural fauna of one cave (Scud-
for Pre-Columbian Human Occupation at Great Cave, Cay-
der and Quitmyer 1998). The fauna consisted of 30
man Brac, Cayman Islands." Caribbean Journal of Science
taxa of vertebrates and invertebrates that represented a 34 (1–2): 41–49.
minimum number of 286 animals. Terrestrial snails ac- Stokes, A. V., and W. F. Keegan. 1996. "A Reconnaissance for
counted for 78.0 percent of the sample, and aquatic gas- Prehistoric Archaeological Sites on Grand Cayman." Carib-
tropods accounted for 10.5 percent. Crabs, lizards, birds, bean Journal of Science 32 (4): 425–30.
The Cayoid Pottery Series
The Cayoid series, named after the Cayo complex of St. ently took place somewhat earlier, in late prehistoric
Vincent, represents the ceramic tradition of the Island- times.
Carib (Kalinago). Settlement sites associated with this The identification of the Island-Carib ceramic as-
series have been found on Grenada, St. Vincent, Domi- semblage—once referred to as the "Island-Carib Prob-
nica, and Basse-Terre (Guadeloupe), while individual lem"—has been a major issue of debate throughout most
finds have been found in Trinidad, Île de Ronde (Grena- of the second half of the twentieth century. For years, the
dines), Saint Lucia, and Martinique. Thus far, Argyle, Island-Carib were considered to be the makers of the
St. Vincent, is the only fully investigated Cayoid settle- Suazan Troumassoid series, but documentary evidence
ment site. Excavations by Leiden University in 2009– regarding their pottery repertoire has discredited this
2010 yielded elaborate post-mold patterns that made view. Recent research indicates that most of the Island-
possible reconstruction of the entire village at this site, Carib vessel forms show a distinctive resemblance to
which has been dated to circa 1550–1650. The introduc- the antecedents of the ceramics presently made by the
tion of the Cayoid series into the Lesser Antilles appar- Carib (Kalina) Indians of the Guianas. This accords well
Figure C.6. Cayoid decorative techniques and motifs, St. Vincent. Courtesy of Arie Boomert.
with the Island-Carib origin myths, which suggest that fluenced the male-dominated Island-Carib society in the
the males in their society originally came from South domestic sphere.
America and were in regular contact with other natives A lively trade developed during the contact period
on the mainland (such as Carib, Arawak [Lokono], and between the Spanish and other European nations and
Nepoio) during the early colonial period. the Island-Carib of the Windward Islands. The Euro-
The syncretism of the Island-Carib culture is ac- pean sailors obtained foodstuffs and fresh water from
curately reflected in the Cayoid ceramics (Figure C.6). the Island-Carib, while the Island-Carib received iron
Several Cayoid vessel forms are clearly derived from the utensils, textiles, glass beads, and so forth from the Eu-
Koriabo complex, the late prehistoric pottery tradition ropeans. Cayo potsherds found at Argyle, St. Vincent,
of the Guianas that is closely related to the Polychrome with European seed beads embedded in the vessel rims
Tradition of Amazonia. This complex was the precursor illustrate these trade contacts.
to the ceramic assemblages of present Carib and Palikur
and possibly those of Arawak indigenes. Cayoid vessels Further Reading
include wide open bowls showing lobed rims, typically Boomert, A. 1986. "The Cayo Complex of St. Vincent: Ethno-
necked jars, and large containers or bowls with convex historical and Archaeological Aspects of the Island-Carib
upper parts. In addition, the Cayoid series is character- Problem." Antropológica 66: 3–68.
ized by bowls with decorative motifs that demonstrate a ———. 2011. "From Cayo to Kalínago: Aspects of Island-Carib
distinct relationship with the Chicoid Ostionoid/Taíno Archaeology." In Communities in Contact: Essays in Archae-
series of the Greater Antilles and Virgin Islands, sug- ology, Ethnohistory, and Ethnography of the Amerindian
Circum-Caribbean, ed. Corinne L. Hofman and Anne van
gesting that many Taíno relocated to the Lesser Antil-
Duijvenbode, 295–310. Leiden: Sidestone Press.
les or that the Island-Carib captured women from these
islands. The presence of Cayoid earthenwares with heavy See also The Chican Ostionoid Subseries; Island-Carib;
scratching on vessel surfaces—primarily on griddles— Kalinago Descendants of St. Vincent and the Grena-
suggests that Suazan Troumassoid women strongly in- dines; The Kalinago Territory (Dominica).
Cemeteries 97
Naseema Hosein-Hoey
Cemeteries are important data sources because they can though these graves were under threat, he was able to
provide fascinating insights into the social lives of those obtain important information on the health and social
who have been interred. The placement of grave goods conditions of those who had been buried.
and burial styles can provide information on religion, cus- Coffin types reflected the status of the enslaved as well
toms, and the social status of those who have been buried. as the preference for and accessibility of coffin burials.
Jerome Handler's and Frederick Lang's excavations on a Thirty-two percent of the burials in Mohammed Khu­
burial ground for the enslaved located in Newton Planta- dabux's sample were interred with their heads to the
tion in Barbados are a classic example of the integration west, while 68 percent were buried with their heads fac-
of traditional historical methods and archaeology in de- ing east. This change in burial practices may have been
veloping an understanding of Afro-Caribbean mortuary the result of the Christianization of enslaved individuals
systems. Their research was based on the interpretation on the plantation.
of material culture recovered from over 100 burials dat- Human skeletons can also give useful information
ing from the seventeenth to the early nineteenth centu- about pathological bone changes, fractures, osteoarthri-
ries. Through the examination of these artifacts, it was tis, rickets, anemia, tuberculosis, leprosy, dentition prob-
concluded that there was a continuance of West African lems, and other health anomalies. This kind of research
body ornamentation practices in the New World. is a subfield of osteoarchaeology known as paleopathol-
With the assistance of modern forensic anthropology, ogy. Joanna Gilmore identified victims of Hansen's dis-
age, sex, stature, and some aspects of ancestry can be ease (leprosy) because their remains exhibited signs of
obtained through the examination of human remains. secondary infections. Of note is the first paleopathologi-
The bones and teeth derived from graves can furnish cal record of the pitting on the hyoid bone from leprosy.
valuable information on injuries, degenerative diseases, This has provided additional diagnostic evidence for
disorders, physical stresses, infections, or the cause and both archaeologists and clinicians (Gilmore 2009).
manner of death of interred individuals; this research
comprises an archaeological subfield known as osteoar-
chaeology. Evidence of surgical procedures on wounds Further Reading
can provide vital information about the historical treat-
Farmer, K., F. H. Smith, and K. Watson. 2007. "The Urban Con-
ment of wounds. Modern scientific analyses can also as-
text of Slavery: An Archaeological Perspective from Two
sist in the determination of individual or group diets. For Afro-Barbadian Slave Cemeteries in Bridgetown, Barba-
example, Tamara Varney's stable isotope analysis of hu- dos." Proceedings of the International Association for Carib-
man remains from the Royal Naval Hospital in Antigua bean Archaeology 21 (2): 677–85.
provided data that helped determine group member- Gilmore, J. K. 2009. "Leprosy at the Lazaretto on St Eustatius,
ship. Varney excavated this site from 1998 to 2001 with Netherlands Antilles." International Journal of Osteoarchae-
the assistance of Reginald Murphy and the University of ology 18 (1): 72–84.
Calgary archaeological field school. Her research dem- Haviser, J. B. 1999. African Sites Archaeology in the Caribbean.
onstrated that isotopic ratios of bone collagen samples Jamaica: Ian Randle/Markus Wiener.
Varney, T. 2005. "Does Diet Reflect Group Membership? A Sta-
may provide insights into different human ancestries.
ble Isotope Analysis of Human Remains from the Royal Na-
With the goal of furnishing data on the life conditions val Hospital Cemetery at English Harbour, Antigua, W.I." In
and health issues relating to an enslaved community in Proceedings of the Twenty-First Congress of the International
Suriname, Mohammed Khudabux conducted fieldwork Association for Caribbean Archaeology, ed. Basil Reid, Henry
on graves that were uncovered due to coastal erosion. Petitjean Roget, and Antonio Curet, Volume 2, 667–76. St.
In 1984, a burial ground was found along the Atlantic Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago: School of Continuing
coast in Suriname. Historical research indicated that this Studies, University of the West Indies.
ground was once part of Plantation Waterloo, a thriv-
ing plantation during the nineteenth century. Khudabux See also Historical Archaeological Sites (Types); Hospi-
and his team found fifty-seven graves in two concentra- tals and Leprosaria in the Colonial Caribbean; Newton
tions located in the cotton beds near the coast. Even Burial Ground (Barbados).
The Chican Ostionoid Subseries
The Chican Ostionoid subseries (originally known as the and wooden objects, the most common of which are the
Chicoid series [Rouse 1964]), was first defined by Rouse famous three-pointer idols, stone collars, elbow stones,
(1992) in Hispaniola. The Chican subseries prevails in and dujos (ceremonial stools). Wooden cohoba idols,
the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, the southern and eastern three-pointers, Macorix heads made of stone, wooden
parts of Hispaniola, at least the eastern tip of Cuba, the dujos, and potizas (bottles) are more prevalent in His-
Bahamas, and in the northern Leeward Islands, where paniola. Other religious paraphernalia present in most
some deposits have been identified. However, because islands are objects related to the cohoba ritual (in which
of the highly elaborate and distinct styles of Chican pot- the hallucinogen cohoba is snuffed in order to contact the
tery, Puerto Rico and Hispaniola are considered as the supernatural world) such as inhalers and vomit spatulas
possible "center" or "core" of the Chican cultural devel- (most of them made of wood or manatee ribs). Another
opment, leading Rouse to call these groups the Classic artistic expression of the Chican Ostionoid subseries is
Taíno. The Chican from the rest of the islands are known the distinct rock art style. At the beginning of the Chi-
as Eastern or Western Taíno, depending on their geo- can, petroglyphs and pictographs in Puerto Rico and
graphical location in relation to the Classic Taíno. Dates Hispaniola became more elaborate and sophisticated
for the Chican subseries range from AD 800 to 1500,
depending on the region. The material culture of these
people is characterized by their ceramic styles and elabo-
rate stone, shell, wood, and bone (manatee ribs) ritual
paraphernalia.
According to Rouse, the Chican Ostionoid is repre-
sented by eight styles: the Magens Bay–Salt River II in
the Virgin Islands (AD 1200–1500); the Esperanza style
in the east and the Capá style in the west of Puerto
Rico (both AD 1200–1500); the Atajadizo in Hispaniola
(AD 800–1200), the Boca Chica (AD 1200–1500) and
Guayabal (AD 1200–1500) styles in the east (Domini-
can Republic); the Carrier (AD 1200–1500) in the west
(Dominican Republic); and the Pueblo Viejo style on
the eastern tip of Cuba. In general, Chican pottery is
characterized by the presence of incisions on the shoul-
ders of cazuelas (incurving bowls) (Figure C.7). Paint
is almost completely absent, although red- and white-
slipped vessels are still observable in some areas. Strap
handles are absent, but biomorphic, modeled-incised
head lugs, or adornos, were still common among the
decorated pottery. Prevailing ceramic forms include
cazuelas, or ollas (incurving bowls), plain and highly
decorated bottles (mostly in Hispaniola), plates, and
burenes (cassava griddles). The incised designs include
circles, triangles, parallel dashes, and lines ending in Figure C.7. Taíno (Chican Ostionoid) pottery and ceremonial ob-
jects. A and B, pottery from Hispaniola (postcards in possession
of the author); C, duho from Hispaniola (after Kerchache [1994]);
Other types of material culture include wood and D, zemí from Puerto Rico (postcard in possession of the author);
stone idols, ornaments, and other high-status objects. E, stone collar or belt from Puerto Rico (after Bercht et al. [1997]).
Religious representation in Puerto Rico includes stone All drawings by Jill Seagard. Courtesy of L. Antonio Curet.
The Chican Ostionoid Subseries 99
than in previous periods and, at least in the case of the iola with these larger polities, strongly suggesting the
former, they shared some stylistic features with Chican presence of a wide variety of political structures and
pottery, including the use of circles, parallel lines, and interactions. While no substantive data are available on
triangles. population, the archaeological record and the evidence
Chican Ostionoid funerary traditions seem to vary included in the ethnohistorical documents seem to in-
from island to island. In Puerto Rico, burials appear to dicate that Hispaniola was densely populated during
be dispersed throughout settlements, in many instances this time. It is also clear from the documents and from
in the context of the domestic unit. In contrast, on the is- the archaeological evidence that a number of "ethnic"
land of Hispaniola, clusters of burials or cemeteries have groups coexisted on this island until the time of contact.
been reported. Several researchers have argued that at this time Puerto
Chican settlement types included circular, nucleated Rico was divided among several paramount chiefdoms.
villages; lineal sites along the coast or rivers; dispersed However, considering that most of the chiefdoms men-
patterns of small sites, perhaps representing farmsteads tioned in the chronicles tended to be located in valleys
or single households; and centralized settlement patterns and that ball courts and plazas are widely distributed,
with a large site in the center and smaller ones surround- Puerto Rico seems to have been divided instead into
ing it. The few structures excavated in Puerto Rico and competing polities that were smaller than a paramount
the Virgin Islands indicate that the Chican Ostionoid chiefdom. Interestingly, this island seems to have suf-
lived in small, round, nuclear family houses of 8–10 me- fered a noticeable population decrease during this
ters in diameter. Sites are found in a variety of ecological time.
zones, including coasts, rivers, mangroves, foothills, and Archaeological and ethnohistorical evidence strongly
mountains. suggest that at this time in Cuba the Chican Ostionoid
The communal ritual tradition that began in the late shared the island with hunting-and-gathering groups
Elenan/Ostionian periods for Puerto Rico is also pres- and other agricultural groups. While no clear archaeo-
ent in the Chican Ostionoid, as indicated by the pres- logical boundaries are observable between the two types
ence of larger and more elaborate ball courts, plazas, of groups, settlements of the former appear to have been
and ceremonial centers (sites with multiple ceremonial concentrated in the eastern part of the island and settle-
structures) such as are found at the site of Caguana, ments of the latter on the western side.
Utuado. Rectangular ball courts and square and small
circular structures have been observed on Puerto Rico,
eastern Hispaniola, the Virgin Islands, and possibly east- Further Reading
ern Cuba. The highest number of structures has been
found on Puerto Rico. Large circular plazas of 300 me- Bercht, F., E. Brodsky, J. A. Farmer, and D. Taylor. 1997. Taíno:
ters or more in diameter have been reported for central Pre-Columbian Art and Culture from the Caribbean. New
Hispaniola. Most of the structures from Puerto Rico, York: El Museo del Barrio and Monacelli Press.
the Virgin Islands, and eastern Hispaniola are bounded Kerchache, J. 1994. L'Art Taïno. Paris: Musee du Petit Palais.
by stone rows, some of which have petroglyphs. The Oliver, J. R. 2009. Caciques and Cemí Idols: The Web Spun by
Taíno Rulers between Hispaniola and Puerto Rico. Tusca-
large circular structures from central Hispaniola and
the structures from eastern Cuba are delimited by
Rouse, I. 1964. "Prehistory of the West Indies." Science 144 (36):
earthen berms. 499–513.
In the Greater Antilles, the Chican Ostionoid sub- ———. 1992. The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who
series has been related to the groups that inhabited Greeted Columbus. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
these islands at the time of contact, particularly the Wilson, S. M. 1990. Hispaniola. Tuscaloosa: University of Ala-
group that has come to be known as the historic Taíno. bama Press.
At the time of contact, Hispaniola had several power-
ful paramount chiefdoms. According to early European See also Arawak versus Taíno; Caguana/Capa Site (Puerto
accounts, the island was divided into five provinces, Rico); Chiefdoms (Cacicazgos); Cohoba; The Elenan Os-
each of which covered over 1,000 square kilometers and tionoid Subseries; Jamaica (Prehistory of); The Ostionan
was ruled by a single paramount chief. However, there Ostionoid Subseries; Plazas and Bateys; Taíno Settlement
is evidence that smaller polities coexisted in Hispan- Ethnohistory; Zemíes (Cemís).
100 Encyclopedia of Caribbean Archaeology
Chiefdoms (Cacicazgos)
Definitions of Chiefdoms surplus production funds the institutions of chieftaincy.
In this political economy, local leaders attempt to expand
Chiefdoms are conventionally defined by the emergence
the institutions of leadership and power through access
of institutionalized social inequality and the formation
to agricultural surplus. This is traditionally viewed as
of multivillage political units (or polities) under a cen-
resulting from the intensification of agricultural tech-
tralized political authority. Because of this definition, the
nologies and/or attracting followers as a labor base for
concept has come to represent a fundamental difference
agricultural production. Both strategies inherently in-
in the arrangement of human societies and a precursor
volve conflict in which local leaders contest for power
to the state. According to Carneiro (1998, 19), the evo-
in an attempt to control resources and ultimately the
lutionary significance of chiefdoms lies in the fact that
regional political economy. In this situation, hierarchi-
it represented, for the first time in human history, the
cal relationships are thought to develop from temporary
transcending of village autonomy and the establishment
resolution of this conflict.
of a supravillage polity.
As centralized political institutions, chiefdoms are
The concept of the chiefdom was first formally ad-
founded on hereditary inequality and social stratifica-
vanced by Kalervo Oberg in 1955, and the core of it was
tion. Differences in prestige usually correlate with pref-
simply that a chiefdom is an aggregate of villages un-
erential access to wealth. For instance, chiefs and their
der a centralized rule of a paramount political leader.
families often have access to the best farmland or fishing
In other words, chiefdoms are regionally organized
places and to more food and more "exotic" items than
societies with a centralized decision-making hierarchy
the families of "commoners." In chiefdoms, control over
that coordinates activities among several village com-
production and exchange of subsistence and wealth
munities. Chiefdoms are considered intermediate-level
creates the basis for political power. Characteristically,
or midrange societies, providing an evolutionary bridge
the chief operates some kind of redistributive system
between autonomous societies and bureaucratic states.
wherein food and/or goods from separate sectors of the
For many researchers (Carniero 1998), "chiefdoms" are
chiefdom are brought together and then distributed ac-
different from bands and tribes in both degree and kind.
cording to fixed social rules. Although chiefdoms are
Guided by neoevolutionary perspectives during the
highly variable, organization at this scale requires a po-
middle of the twentieth century, archaeologists tradi-
litical hierarchy for coordination and decision-making.
tionally viewed societal development as a series of pro-
Archaeologists generally use the presence and distribu-
gressive stages that were popularized by Elman Service
tion of monumental constructions and prestige goods
in the 1960s and included bands, tribes, and chiefdoms.
to document the evolution of chiefly societies (Johnson
(The archaic state was added later.) These stages repre-
and Earle 2000). Chiefly positions of power are legiti-
sented societal organization as a series of types whose
mized and perpetuated through access to and control
inherent levels of complexity were tied to subsistence
over social history, ideology, and ritual knowledge.
production strategies, regional organization, and degree
(or scale) of social hierarchy. The process by which so-
cieties evolved, or became more "complex," was consid- Chiefdom Societies in the Caribbean
ered to be an "upward spiral of intensification primarily
contingent on the systemic relationships between popu- Many elements of Taíno societies in the Greater Antil-
lation and technology" (Johnson and Earle 2000, 29). les appear to be organized based on principles attributed
Several theories have been offered to explain the cen- to chiefdom-type societies, as previously defined. The
tralization of sociopolitical power and the emergence contact-era Taíno villages of Hispaniola appear to have
of institutionalized social inequality. Circumscription been loosely organized into district chiefdoms (cacica-
(involving imbalances in population resources) and/ zgos), each of which was ruled by one of the village chiefs
or warfare are among the popular explanations (e.g., (caciques) in the district, and the district chiefdoms were
Carneiro 1998). Another widely accepted perspective is in turn linked to broader social and political groupings.
based on political economies of staple finance in which Regional sociopolitical groups might have been de-
Chiefdoms (Cacicazgos) 101
limited by geographical boundaries. However, the politi- (supplemented by ethnohistorical data) has suggested
cal boundaries were likely more fluid than the Spanish that status was divided between the elite nitaínos and the
were able to discern and may have been based on dispa- naborias, or commoners.
rate factors such as trade networks, marriage alliances, Another sign of the Taíno hierarchical social orga-
military leadership, and linguistic and ethnic affiliations nization throughout much of the northern Caribbean
(Wilson 1990). Both men and women are documented is the presence of ball courts and stone-lined plazas.
ethnohistorically as serving in the role of cacique. Chiefs Many of these monuments could only have been con-
lived in specially built houses (bohios), sat on throne-like structed through the collective efforts of several work-
stools (duhos), were carried around by their servants in ers coordinated by a centralized authority. This level of
litters and had access to specialized items that personi- social organization can be compared cross-culturally to
fied their social and ritual power. Caciques were likely other ranked societies, such as the Mississippian mound
polygamous, and some wives were from other commu- builders in the American Bottom and the early Polyne-
nities. These arranged marriages were an important way sians in the Tahitian, Hawaiian, and Easter Islands.
for a cacique to acquire power and cement alliances with Research conducted by Rouse (1952, 468–70) sug-
neighboring chiefs. gests that there were at least nineteen caciques and yaca-
Each cacique presided over the village in which he or ciques (subchiefs) in Puerto Rico. Fewkes mentions six
she lived. They organized the daily activities and were chiefdoms as being paramount: Agueybana, Aymamon,
responsible for storing surplus commodities (which they Loiza, Urayoan, Guarionex, and Mabodamaca (Fewkes
kept in buildings constructed for this purpose) and re- 1907/2009). Although there is considerable debate about
distributing exchanged goods. The power of the cacique the boundaries of the chiefdoms on Hispaniola and the
extended to collective production. When Bartholomew identity of their principal caciques, six cacicazgos per-
Columbus demanded gold from the cacique Behecchío taining to the years before 1500 have been tentatively
of Xaraguá in Hispaniola, the latter replied that although identified: Beheccio, Caonabo, Higüayo, Guarionex,
he did not have gold in the region, he could fill several Mayobanex, Guacangarí (Wilson 1990, 14–15). In 1730,
Spanish caravels with cotton. based on the names of caciques, Pierre Charlevoix ten-
The chiefs acted as hosts when the villages received tatively identified five chiefdoms in Hispaniola: Goac-
visitors, and they were the primary organizers of cer- anagaric, Guacanagari, Behecchio, Caonabo, and Caya-
emonial feasting, ballgames, and trade relations with coa (Wilson 1990) (Figure C. 8). However, it should be
outside groups. There is strong evidence that the organi- borne in mind that on Hispaniola—as elsewhere in the
zation of Taíno society was ranked and that a small elitist northern Caribbean—boundaries may have shifted be-
group was in control of the society's social and ideologi- tween political communities and that the Spanish did
cal resources. In support of hierarchical social structures not recognize a great deal of the island as the province
at varying levels of Taíno society, archaeological research of any of the major caciques (Wilson 1990).
Figure C.8. Reconstructed chiefdoms in Hispaniola based on the names of caciques, as interpreted by Pierre Charlevoix (1730). Re-
printed from Wilson (1990, fig. 8) by permission of the University of Alabama Press.
Figure C.9. Location of ball court sites in Puerto Rico. Reprinted from Wilson
(1990, fig. 4) by permission of the University of Alabama Press.
Research suggests that ball courts in Puerto Rico were uses modern social theory that stresses the importance
clustered on political boundaries, where they served to of agency and history as central dimensions in the con-
manage sociopolitical relations between regional polities stitution and transformation of human societies and
(Figure C.9). It has been suggested that cacicazgo bound- their various political forms. Future research related
aries in Puerto Rico were likely flexible and permeable. to the emergence of the cacicazgo in the Caribbean re-
Boundaries may have been influenced and delimited in quires examination at multiple scales (e.g., from village
large degree by geographic landforms and the develop- to multivillage community to region) and dimensions
ment of multivillage communities. Several researchers (e.g., strategies of power and identity negotiation and
have suggested that the inception of chiefly polities on multiple paths to power) to facilitate our understanding
the island of Puerto Rico is a product of a corporate of incipient political institutions in the region.
mode of political economy that entailed a strategy of
consolidation through persuasion and control over re- Further Reading
ligious ideologies (Curet 1996).
Carneiro, R. 1998. "What Happened at the Flashpoint? Con-
While there is evidence for the presence of social in- jectures on Chiefdom Formation at the Very Moment of
equality and regional power structures in the Greater Conception." In Chiefdoms and Chieftaincy in the Americas,
Antilles at the time of European contact, evidence for ed. E. M. Redmond, 18–43. Gainesville: University Press of
centralized political formations is less apparent in the Florida.
Lesser Antilles. Researchers in the northern Lesser An- Curet, L. A. 1996. "Ideology, Chiefly Power, and Material Cul-
tilles have suggested that multi-island chiefdoms existed. ture: An Example from the Greater Antilles." Latin Ameri-
While there is little settlement pattern data to support can Antiquity 7 (2): 114–31.
this, evidence for interisland interaction based on trade Fewkes, Jesse. 1907/2009. The Aborigines of Puerto Rico and
Neighboring Islands. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama
of goods and exotic items is amply demonstrated. The
development and organization of chiefly societies in the
Johnson, A., and T. K. Earle. 2000. The Evolution of Human So-
Caribbean is a variable process that depended on his- cieties: From Foraging Group to Agrarian State. Stanford, CA:
toric contingencies related to a number of factors. Stanford University Press.
While the concepts of chiefdom and other societal ty- Oberg, K. 1955. "Types of Social Structure among the Lowland
pologies serve as useful heuristics, they tell us little about Tribes of South and Central America." American Anthro-
the historical circumstances and sociocultural processes pologist 57 (3): 472–87.
that led to the emergence and organization of incipient Rouse, I. 1952. Scientific Survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Is-
political institutions. Simply put, while societal typolo- lands. New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
gies provide some utility in describing complex phenom- Wilson, S. M. 1990. Hispaniola: Caribbean Chiefdoms in the Age
of Columbus. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
ena and isolating some cross-cultural commonalities
among societies of similar organizational scales, they See also Caguana/Capa Site (Puerto Rico); Duhos (Du-
possess little explanatory power. jos); Elite Exchange in the Caribbean; Lapidary Trade;
Contemporary research on sociopolitical organiza- Plazas and Bateys; Taíno Settlement Ethnohistory; Zemíes
tion in the Caribbean (particularly the Greater Antilles) (Cemís).
Ciboney versus Guanahatabey 103
Ciboney versus Guanahatabey
Jamaica the Arawaks found an even more primitive tribe
A number of history and archaeology texts refer to the than themselves called Siboneys, or 'rock-dwellers.' These
Ciboney as a native group inhabiting western Cuba at people who had made their way down from Florida were
the time of Spanish contact. The term is also used to a simple fisher-folk. They lived mostly on the sea coast,
describe Archaic groups throughout the Caribbean. made crude shell implements and, it is said, were used
However, on both counts, the term Ciboney is misap- as servants by the Arawaks" (1983, 10). The Ciboney are
plied, as it actually refers to a local Taíno group in central also described as the original settlers of Cuba who had
Cuba (Reid 2009). Guanahatabey, not Ciboney, is now been largely replaced by the Taíno by the time of Colum-
the preferred term Caribbean archaeologists use for na- bus. Rouse (1992) argues the Ciboney had been pushed
tive inhabitants of westernmost Cuba at contact (Figure westward or absorbed by the encroaching Taíno and that
C.10). But even then, several questions remain about the they still lived on the southwestern Guacayarima pen-
actual existence of this group, and some argue that it was insula of Hispaniola and the western end of Cuba when
probably a figment of the Spanish or Taíno imagination. the Europeans arrived. Hung (2005) claimed that the
term was allegedly coined by early Spanish chronicles for
Ciboney hunter-and-gatherer groups and was later developed as
an archaeological cultural term by the North American
For decades, many Caribbean historians and archaeolo- investigator Mark H. Harrington. Caribbean archaeolo-
gists asserted that the Ciboney lived in western Cuba at gists have geographically placed the Ciboney in Florida,
the time of contact. A variety of descriptions relating to the Bahamas, southwestern Hispaniola, and the United
Ciboney cultural traditions have been advanced. For ex- States Virgin Islands (Reid 2009).
ample, according to Black, "In Haiti, Cuba and possibly However, the term Ciboney is a misnomer for the na-
Figure C.10. Guanahatabey in western Cuba. Reprinted from Rouse (1992, adapted from fig. 3) by permission of Yale University Press.
tives in western Cuba and elsewhere in the Caribbean, as formed a separate ethnic group (Rouse 1992). Archae-
the term actually applies to a local Taíno group in cen- ological research has not identified any Taíno sites in
tral Cuba (Reid 2009) and not to Archaic groups found western Cuba. What has been unearthed is the presence
throughout the Caribbean and circum-Caribbean, de- of a preexisting nonagricultural culture based on mostly
spite its continued use in this regard. uniformly small coastal sites. These sites contain a scat-
ter of debris from tools, shellfish, iguanas, land and sea
Guanahatabey crabs, larger sea animals such as manatee and turtles,
and rodents such as the hutia. In a nutshell, the evidence
The generally accepted name used by Caribbean archae- suggests the presence of people who lived in caves, rock
ologists for inhabitants of western Cuba at contact is shelters, and open-air sites; relied heavily on shellfish,
Guanahatabey (Keegan 1992). Taíno inhabitants of Cuba fish, and wild game; and were organized into small
who met the Spanish colonizers apparently mentioned bands rather than villages. However, it has been argued
some non-Taíno people called the Guanahatabey or the that these archaeological data may in fact relate to native
Guanahacabibes. The Guanahatabey were first described people who were ancestors of the Guanahatabey (Reid
by Diego Velázquez de Cuellar as follows: "The life of 2009). Interestingly, there may be no inherent contra-
these people is of the manner of savages, for they have diction between Pánfilo de Narváez's observations of a
neither houses or village quarters, nor field, nor do they socially complex society that included caciques (chiefs)
eat anything else but the flesh they take in the mountains in the western province of Habana and the archaeologi-
and turtles and fish" (quoted in Sauer 1966, 185). cal data found in western Cuba (Keegan 1992).
Las Casas also provided an account of the natives of The Calusa, also called "the shell people," lived in
Cuba. In his 1516 memorandum to Cardinal Francisco southwest Florida from 1500 to 1800, and despite their
Jiménez de Cisneros, he described four native groups nonagricultural lifeways, they had a socially complex
who needed to be rescued: the peoples of the Jardines society that was based on chiefdoms. It has been sug-
of both north and south Cuba; the Guanahacabibes of gested that the Guanahatabey may have been culturally
the Cape of Cuba; the Ciboney, who were the same as affiliated with natives of southern Florida because their
Jardines but were kept as servants by the other Cuban archaeological remains show some resemblances, espe-
Indians; and any peoples left on the Lucayan islands cially in shellwork and woodwork (Rouse 1992). To what
who are described as having the same nature and ways extent these resemblances are the result of interaction
as the Jardines (Keegan 1992). From this account, it is or parallel adaptation to similar ecological conditions
evident that Las Casas had two classificatory groups remains to be determined (Rouse 1992).
in mind: the Guanahatabey (i.e., the Guanahacabibes)
and the people who have come to be called the Taíno Conclusion
(i.e., the Ciboney, the Lucayans, and the people of the
Jardines) (Keegan 1992). Yet although both Las Casas Even if Guanahatabey is the accurate name for the in-
and Velázquez lived in Cuba for some time, they never habitants of western Cuba at contact, there are still many
visited western Cuba and thus lacked firsthand knowl- gray areas concerning this native group, assuming of
edge of the Guanahatabey (Lovén 1935). When Pánfilo course, that such a group actually existed. It is unclear
de Narváez entered the province of Habana he found whether the Guanahatabey were a figment of the Span-
caciques and conditions that were similar to those of ish or the Taíno imagination or whether the archaeo-
eastern Cuba. In addition, five provinces of "chieftain- logical materials found in western Cuba were generated
ships" have been identified in western Cuba from the by native forebears of the Guanahatabey who inhabited
reports of Diego Velázquez and Pánfilo de Narváez. western Cuba long before Spanish contact. It is also un-
These provinces bear the Taíno names (from west to clear whether the Guanahatabey were culturally affili-
east): Guanahacabibes, Guaniguanico, Marien, Habana, ated with the socially complex Calusa hunter-gatherers
and Hanabana (Reid 2009). In sum, Las Casas's and of southwestern Florida or to the pottery-making Ca-
Velázquez's reports of hunters and fishers who lacked simiroid in Cuba. More intensive archaeology research
houses and agricultural fields and lived in caves were should shed more light on issues of cultural affiliations
apparently unsupported by firsthand observations of and social complexity. What seems certain is that the
other Spanish officials (Keegan 1992). Taíno did not occupy western Cuba at the time of con-
The fact that the Guanahatabey allegedly spoke a dif- tact, despite the evidence that the rest of the northern
ferent language than the Taíno also indicates that they Caribbean was extensively inhabited by them (Reid
Clay Tobacco Pipes (Bowls and Stems) 105
2009). The debate about who exactly occupied western Dawdy, and Gabino La Rosa Corzo, 103–24. Tuscaloosa:
Cuba may not be resolved any time soon, given the con- University of Alabama Press.
troversial nature of Spanish ethnohistorical records on Keegan, W. F. 1992. The People Who Discovered Columbus.
the subject. However, while the presence of Guanaha- Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
Lovén, Sven. 1935. Origins of the Tainan Culture, West Indies.
tabey in western Cuba is still somewhat controversial,
Göteborg: Elanders Bokfryckeri Akfierbolog.
it would be inaccurate to refer to these early natives as Reid, B. A. 2009. Myths and Realities of Caribbean History. Tus-
Ciboney. In addition, the term Ciboney has been misap- caloosa: University of Alabama Press.
plied in the vast majority of history books. Rouse, I. 1992. The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who
Sauer, Carl O. 1966. The Early Spanish Main. Berkeley: Univer-
Further Reading sity of California Press.
Black, C. V. 1983. The History of Jamaica. New York: Longman.
Hung, U. 2005. "Early Ceramics in the Caribbean." In Dialogues See also Arawak versus Taíno; Origins of Indigenous
in Cuban Archaeology, ed. L. Antonio Curet, Shannon Lee Groups in the Northern Caribbean.
Clay Tobacco Pipes (Bowls and Stems)
European and African tobacco smoking was probably shapes that were determined not only by fashion but also
copied from the Native Americans starting in the mid- by the specializations of tobacco pipe and mold makers
sixteenth century. Tobacco was introduced in England in (Figure C.11). Tobacco pipe bowl size and capacity was
the late sixteenth century, and a domestic tobacco pipe influenced by tobacco availability and cost at that time.
industry was started by the early seventeenth century to During the sixteenth century, the bowl became an ef-
satisfy the increasing demand. The principal shape of the fective tobacco consumption vessel with a barrel shape
clay tobacco pipe is seen throughout many generations, and a forward incline. The bowl base was often flat, and
but there were many variations in pipe bowl and stem the stem ranged up to 100–150 millimeters long. The pipe
Figure C.11. Clay tobacco pipe bowls and
stem diameters varied over time. All the pipes
depicted here were excavated on St. Eustatius.
Dating is based on bowl morphology that
follows a known evolution over time. Top row,
left to right: 1630–1640, 1640–1650, 1650–1660;
middle row, left to right: 1750–1760, 1760–1770,
1770–1780, 1780–1790; bottom row, left to right:
all 1790–1810. Image by Ruud Stelten
and Alicia Caporaso at SECAR.
at that time was designed to rest on a table and to prevent during this period. Bowl shape also evolved during the
the heat of the bowl from burning the polished surfaces nineteenth century. Despite the popularity of designs on
of the table. These pipes were crudely made and small in these pipes, members of the working class preferred the
comparison to later period tobacco pipes. ordinary short clay pipe since this type was the least ex-
By the seventeenth century, the bowl diameter had pensive.
increased to 9 millimeters and there was no increase in Clay tobacco pipes also provide archaeological evi-
the length of the stem. A plain rim was common during dence for trade between Europe's colonial powers and
this period, and except for the traditional maker's mark, the Caribbean colonies. As indicated earlier, tobacco
these pipes were plain. During the eighteenth century, pipe morphology is a great indicator for otherwise un-
the pipes were made with more precise dimensions and datable contexts, while maker's marks may provide some
a smoother finish. The bowl wall became considerably additional dating information. Maker's marks must not
thinner and the stem was more slender. These improved be relied upon completely, as these marks could some-
clay pipe features illustrate the increasing specialization times be used for extended periods of time (i.e., more
of the pipe and mold makers as well as improvements in than a century). Scotland, England, France, and the
firing techniques. These pipes had a flat-bottomed spur Netherlands produced the vast majority of clay pipes
and some were even produced without a spur. that were exported to the Caribbean colonies.
During the eighteenth century, long pipes became
fashionable among the wealthy with stems as long as Further Reading
600 millimeters. Pipe decorations, such as emblems, Ayto, E. 2002. Clay Tobacco Pipes. Buckinghamshire, UK: Shire.
names, and motifs were more common. Decorative clay Coleman, H. 1999. The Art and Archaeology of Clay Tobacco
tobacco pipes continued to be produced throughout the Pipes. CD. Devon, UK: Dawnmist Studio.
nineteenth century. Pipes decorated with flowers, ani-
mals, fruit, fish, badges, and ships were most prevalent See also La Reconnaissance Site (Trinidad).
Cohoba
Cohoba (or cohóbana) refers to a psychotropic drug that Cohoba inhalation induces a hallucinogenic trance-
is snuffed or inhaled through the nostrils and is also the like state. Chagnon provides a detailed ethnographic ac-
vernacular name for the tree from which the seeds for count of the effects of the psychotropic ebene snuff used
the snuff are derived. Two species of the genus Anade- among the Yanomami of the central Orinoco Basin in
nanthera (A. peregrine and A. colubrina) have histori- northern Brazil that offers a potential point of compari-
cally been used by indigenous peoples of the Caribbean son for the effects of cohoba on the individual (Chagnon
and South America to create this powerful drug for 1968, 156–58). Ethnohistorical documents discuss the
ritual ceremonies. Archaeological evidence for the plant use of cohoba in ritual ceremonies, specifically in cases
has been recovered in the form of starch grains from a where the user communicated with spirits/gods also
coral milling base from the habitation site of CE-11 in known as cemís (Pané 1999). Cohoba is thought to have
eastern Puerto Rico (Pagán-Jiménez 2011) and charred been used primarily by shamans (behiques) and chiefs
wood from archaeological contexts at the ceremonial (caciques) in locales where communication with the
center of Tibes in the south-central part of the island spirit world was intimately linked to Taíno religion and
(Newsom 2010). politics (Oliver 2009).
Preparation of the drug entails drying the seeds over a Some of some of the earliest archaeological evidence
fire to remove the husks. The seeds are then ground and for the use of cohoba in the Caribbean comes from
mixed with water and lime or calcium oxide. The lime Saladoid era (ca. 400 BC–AD 600) archaeological de-
serves as a chemical agent to promote the absorption of posits on Puerto Rico in the form of specialized bowls
the drug in to the body. The resulting paste is dried and and snuff tubes. Archaeological evidence for the use of
made into a powder that is placed on a plate or shallow cohoba in the Caribbean during the post-Saladoid era,
bowl and inhaled through a hollow tube (Oliver 2009). especially the contact period Taíno era, is indicated by
Cohoba 107
Figure C.12. Left, reconstruction of Y-shaped cohoba snuff inhaler with bird bone tubes (with the corozo seeds at ends). Photograph
by J. R. Oliver; snuff holder specimen from the Museo de la Fundación García Arévalo, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. The tubes
are not original to the artifact, they were added by the photographer with Photoshop. Center, cohoba stand. The small platform at
the top of the stand likely held a bowl or tray for cohoba (width 26.5cm, 7 kg). Photograph © Trustees of the British Museum. Right,
vomiting spatula (b. Greater Antilles AD 1200–1500; 1.3 × 12.7 × 2.5 cm). Gift of Vincent and Margaret Fay, www.elmuseo.org.
several specialized items: cohoba trays, snuff tubes, and this process a cacique can become an unpolluted ves-
vomit spatulas. sel for the "divine excrement" of cohoba (Oliver 2009).
The snuff tubes are generally Y-shaped; the split ends Ritual paraphernalia used with cohoba have also been re-
are inserted into the nostrils and the single tube is used covered from Late Ceramic Age archaeological contexts
for inhalation. Snuff tubes are carved into various zoo- in both Hispaniola and Jamaica.
morphic and anthropomorphic shapes; the intake point
is sometimes represented as an anus and the nostril
tubes sometimes represent legs. Snuff trays are variable Further Reading
in form and composition, ranging from small elaborate
Arrom, José Juan. 1989. Mitología y artes prehispánicas de las
shallow ceramic bowls and plates to carved wooden zoo-
Antillas. México: Siglo XXI.
morphic stands (Figure C.12).
Chagnon, Napoleon. 1968. Yanomamo: The Fierce People. New
Vomiting spatulas are typically made from bone or York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
wood. These objects range in size and are characterized MacManus, Jesús E., Irvine Rafael, Iván F. Méndez Bonilla, Car-
by a handle end (which is often carved or decorated) and men Dolores Hernández, and Lehman College Art Gallery.
a long curved, narrow shoehorn-shaped end used to in- 2003. Taíno Treasures: The Legacy of Dr. Ricardo E. Alegría.
duce vomiting. The handle end of the spatula is often Bronx, NY: Lehman College Art Gallery.
carved with zoomorphic or anthropomorphic figures or Newsom, L. A. 2010. "Paleobotanical Research at Tibes." In
incised with geometric designs. Vomiting was consid- Tibes: People, Power, and Ritual at the Center of the Cosmos,
ered part of the cohoba ceremony and was conducted as ed. L. A. Curet and L. Stringer, 80–114. Tuscaloosa: Univer-
sity of Alabama Press.
part of purification prior to inhalation of the drug. Oli-
Oliver, J. R. 2008. "El universo material y espiritual de los Taí-
ver (2009) posits that the self-induced vomiting process
nos." In El Caribe Precolombino: Fray Ramón Pané y el uni-
was part of an important symbolic association between verso Taíno, edited by J. R. Oliver, C. McEwan and A. Casas
purification and excrement. In this context, vomiting Gilberga, 136–221. Barcelona: Adjuntament de Barcelona-
represents an inversion of the normal biological process Institut de Cultura / Museo Barbier-Mueller / Ministerio
of ingestion and excretion. Oliver suggests that through de Cultura de Madrid / Fundación Caixa Galicia.
———. 2009. Cacique Gods and Cemi Idols. Tuscaloosa: Univer- Rico, prepared by L. Carlson and J. Torres, 325–74. Avail-
sity of Alabama Press. able at the Naval Facilities Engineering Command South-
Pagán-Jiménez, J. 2011. "Assessing Ethnobotanical Dynamics at east, Jacksonville, Florida.
CE-11 and CE-33 through Analysis of Starch Grains, Plant Pané, F. R. 1999. An Account of the Antiquities of the Indians.
Processing, and Cooking Artifacts." In Phase III Data Re- Trans. S. C. Griswold. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
covery Investigations at Three Prehistoric Archaeological Sites
(CE-11, CE-32, and CE-33) Municipality of Ceiba, Puerto See also Chiefdoms (Cacicazgos); Zemíes (Cemís).
Columbus's Landfall
According to Columbus's diary, on the morning of Octo- ate the data, concluded that Columbus had landed first at
ber 12, 1492, Cristoforo Colón stepped ashore in the New Samana Cay (even though they found no artifacts to sup-
World. The Lucayans knew his landfall as Guanahani. As port the claim). A year later, however, an oceanographer
a sign of thanksgiving, Columbus christened the island and computer scientist at Woods Hole Oceanographic
San Salvador, or "Holy Savior." However, efforts to identify Institute challenged the scientists' estimates of wind and
Columbus's first landfall are difficult, because there are water currents and placed Columbus within sight of San
competing claims for the honor of the "island of discov- Salvador on the morning of October 12, 1492. Subsequent
ery." Ten of the islands in the Bahamas and on Turks and studies by Woods Hole scientists revised this earlier claim.
Caicos have been identified as the first landfall. Watling
Island (present-day San Salvador) and Samana Cay (Fig- Columbus's Diario
ure C.13) are the leading candidates, with Grand Turk
a distant third. In 1986, a team of National Geographic A major challenge over the years has been the inconsis-
Society scientists, using computer simulations to reevalu- tencies of Columbus's diary as a data source. Columbus
Figure C.13. Detail of Isole Antili, La Cuba, e La
Spagnuola, a 1690 map drawn by Vincenzo Maria
Coronelli that describes Guanahani as the island
"discovered by Columbus, which he named San
Salvador." Note that the toponym "Samana" is
used to identify an island other than San Salvador.
Reproduced by permission of Barry Lawrence
Ruderman Antique Maps, Inc., La Jolla, California.
Columbus's Landfall 109
wrote an original diary with details of his first voyage. Archaeological Excavations
There were several copies of the original manuscript, on San Salvador (Bahamas)
including one onboard copy Columbus made to show
his sailors that minimized the distance traveled and at Archaeological excavations conducted by Charles A.
least one copy of the original manuscript that was kept Hoffman Jr. at the Long Bay site on San Salvador, Ba-
by his son, Diego Colon (Reid 2009). However, most of hamas, recovered early European colonial artifacts that
what we refer to today as Columbus's diary, or diario de match the descriptions of items traded to the local Lucay-
a bordo, is a copy by Bartolomé de Las Casas. ans in Columbus's diario de a bordo. These items included
In October 1492, Christopher Columbus sat down small green and yellow glass beads, a Spanish Henry IV
to compose in writing his first impressions of his New blanca coin (Figure C.14), brass rings and buckles (Figure
World landfall site. Columbus presented the original C.15), broken sherds of Spanish glazed pottery, and bits
diario to Queen Isabel in 1493. She had a copy made for of metal recovered in the same strata with late Lucayan
Columbus, but the location of the original is unknown, pottery. The Henry IV coin was minted from 1471 to 1474
and all traces of the copy disappeared in 1545. A third- and the glass beads are similar to other Spanish trade
hand manuscript written sometime in the mid-sixteenth beads of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries.
century by Bartolomé de Las Casas survived, but it re- Lead isotope analyses by Brill et al. (1987) on several arti-
mained unpublished until the end of the eighteenth cen- facts identified elemental similarities with other artifacts
tury (Reid 2009). With the exception of one extensive and mineral ores from four separate areas in Spain, in-
first-person quotation of Columbus which covers the cluding the Río Tinto mining region located 70 kilome-
journey through the Bahamas (October 10–24, 1492), ters inland from Palos de la Frontera, Columbus's port
most of the diario consists of abstractions transcribed in of embarkation. The coin's terminus post quem is 1471;
the third person. It is unclear what Las Casas was copy- minting of the coin was halted with Henry IV's death
ing, except that it almost certainly was not the original in 1474. The terminus ante quem, provided by the end
text. It has been argued that Columbus's diario bears dates of production of the Spanish glass beads, the brass
comparatively little relationship to the text Columbus buckle and D-ring, and the glazed pottery, is circa AD
originally wrote, as this third-hand manuscript has nu- 1550, although one Spanish belt buckle may have been
merous erasures, unusual spellings, confusing distance manufactured until 1485 (Brill et al. 1987). Finally, Blick's
calculations (leagues vs. miles), brief passages that are (2011) calculation of a mean artifact date of 1497.78, based
questionable, and marginal notes. The ambiguities, er- on the published artifacts (Brill et al. 1987, Hoffman 1987,
rors, and omissions in this manuscript have been further 1988), provides strong evidence that the Long Bay arti-
compounded in modern-language translations (Dunn facts must have been deposited on San Salvador some-
and Kelley 1989). Another version of the ship's diary was time in the late fifteenth century.
thrown overboard in a cask during a major winter storm Columbus noted that the Lucayans traded cotton
on the return voyage in 1493 since Columbus believed thread in balls (skeins), baskets of cotton, things to eat,
his fleet would not survive the tempest. fresh water, parrots, javelins (spears), dry leaves (to-
Despite these shortcomings, Columbus's diario can bacco), and other little things or trifles to his crew (Dunn
be used in the search for Columbus's landfall in the and Kelley 1989, 65–93). His crew, in return, traded Eu-
New World because it provides the only historical ac- ropean goods to the Lucayans, including small green
counts of the Lucayan Taíno in the Bahamas (Dunn and yellow glass beads (on strings); small-denomination
and Kelley 1989). These accounts should enable (and coins such as Spanish blancas and Portuguese ceutis, like
have enabled) archaeologists to identify Columbus's those found at La Isabela by Deagan and Cruxent (2002);
route because the diary described the locations of seven brass rings; broken pottery or pieces of clay bowls; frag-
Lucayan settlements on four separate islands. Lucayan ments of glass (e.g., drinking cups); red cloth caps; hawk's
sites are irregularly distributed, and only one route will bells or brass jingles; metal lace tips or aglets, like those
have sites in the appropriate locations. The comparison found at La Isabela and Puerto Real; bread; honey; mo-
of prehistoric settlement data along the various routes lasses; something to drink (water); and "other little things
led William Keegan (1992) to conclude that the first too tiresome to write down." Among these "tiresome little
landfall must have been on present-day San Salvador things," later scholars have added "shoe latchets"; mirror
and that Columbus proceeded to Rum Cay, Long Is- fragments; needles and pins; wine; and clothing.
land, and Crooked Island before crossing to Cuba and The Spanish artifacts that have been found at Long Bay
then to Hispaniola. (SS-9) mirror the items Columbus mentioned as having
Figure C.14. Reverse and obverse of a Henry IV
blanca minted in Burgos, similar to the Henry
IV blanca found at the Long Bay site (SS-9),
San Salvador, Bahamas. Diameter is 2.0 cm.
Collection of Jeffrey P. Blick.
Figure C.15. Photographs of the bronze
D-ring and small bronze buckle excavated
from the Long Bay site (SS-9), San Salvador,
Bahamas. Shank lengths are 2.7 cm and 2.0 cm,
respectively. Images adapted from Brill et al.
traded to the Lucayans in his ship's log: seven green and glass (cups); and many "other little things too tiresome
yellow glass beads plus three glass bead fragments (10 to write down" such as four metal (knife blade?) frag-
glass beads in all, nine green and one amber or yellow), ments; 10 planking nails or spikes similar to those found
one copper Spanish blanca coin, one small bronze (shoe?) at 1493–1498 La Isabela and 1503 Puerto Real; one copper
buckle, one bronze D-ring, thirty-eight potsherds of me- grommet; two metal hooks; one plain metal button; and
lado ware (honey-glazed ware), two potsherds of white many fragments of flat metal. The only nonperishable
glazed ware (majolica), many fragments of green glass, items mentioned in Columbus's diario that were traded
four metal (knife blade?) fragments, ten planking nails or but not found include hawk's bells or brass jingles, metal
spikes, one copper grommet, two metal hooks, one plain lace ends or lace tips, and items mentioned by later his-
metal button, and many fragments of flat metal (Brill et torians (mirror fragments, needles, and pins). Brill and
al. 1987; Hoffman 1987). Although not necessarily traded, colleagues and Hoffman (Brill et al. 1987; Brill 1988,
a Spanish colonial lead arquebus, or pistol ball, has been 2005; Hoffman 1987) have been able to source several
found about 2.7 kilometers south of Long Bay along the of these trade items to Spain based on lead isotope and
route Columbus would have taken if he had approached stylistic analyses, including: two glass beads; one blanca
the west coast of San Salvador from the south after having coin; one bronze D-ring; one bronze buckle; one melado
rounded the southwestern corner of the island during the ware potsherd; two tin glazed earthenware (majolica)
early morning and dawn hours of October 12, 1492. potsherds; and one lead pistol ball.
Items in Columbus's diario that closely or exactly Lead in the San Salvador glass beads has been sourced
match the items recovered in archaeological contexts at to mines in the Sierra Morena region of south-central
the Long Bay site include small green and yellow glass Spain. The glass beads appear to be of a style similar to
beads; the Spanish blanca; brass rings (the bronze buckle beads produced in Puerto de Santa María near Cadiz
and D-ring); broken pottery or clay bowls; fragments of on the southwest coast and/or Puebla de Don Fadrique
north of Almería on the southeast coast of Spain (Brill blade fragments, ten planking nails or spikes, one cop-
et al. 1987). The history and chronology of glass-making per grommet, two metal hooks, one plain metal button,
in Spain are not well known, but cottage glass industries and many fragments of flat metal, have not yet been sub-
date back to the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. jected to lead isotope analysis and their sources have not
Glass beads like those found on San Salvador are gener- yet been determined, although their association with the
ally considered to date to circa 1490–1550. other Spanish colonial artifacts at Long Bay is clear (Brill
The blanca coin (see Figure C.14) has been identified et al. 1987). While there is need for ongoing research, the
by four numismatists as a Henry IV blanca with a Sego- weight of both ethnohistorical and archaeological evi-
via mint mark dating to the period 1471–1474, the last dence seems to point to San Salvador as the most likely
years of the reign of Henry IV of Spain (r. 1454–1474) location of Columbus's first landfall in the New World.
(Brill et al. 1987). The coats of arms depicted on the coin
provide a type of visual pun: on the obverse is a castle Further Reading
and on the reverse is a lion. The lead content of the coin Blick, J. P. 2011. "The Case for San Salvador as the Site of the
is similar to that of other coins from the Segovia/Burgos 1492 Columbus Landfall: Principles of Historical Archaeol-
area of north-central Spain (Brill et al. 1987). Henry IV ogy Applied to Current Evidence." Paper presented at the
blancas and Portuguese ceutis have also been found at Fourteenth Symposium on the Natural History of the Baha-
another early Columbus settlement, La Isabela, Domini- mas, Gerace Research Centre, San Salvador, Bahamas, June
can Republic (1493–1498) by Deagan and Cruxent (2002, 16–20.
195–96). The importance of this artifact is that the Span- Brill, Robert H. 1988. "Glass Finds on Bahamian Island Open
Up New World of Thought about Site of Columbus's Land-
ish blanca provides the earliest possible date of deposi-
fall." The Corning Museum of Glass Newsletter (Autumn):
tion, the terminus post quem, of 1471 for the Spanish 1–2.
artifact assemblage at Long Bay. ———. 2005. "Some Small Glass Beads from San Salvador Is-
The "brass" rings include a bronze buckle (similar land." In Glass Science in Art and Conservation: An Inter-
in size to a shoe buckle) and a bronze D-ring (Figure national Conference Devoted to the Applications of Science
C.15). These rings are similar to other bronze buckles to Glass Art and the Conservation of Glass Artifacts, 135–36.
and rings that date to circa 1401–1485 in Spain (Brill [Lisboa]: ITN and Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Faculdade
et al. 1987, 253). The lead from the bronze buckle has de Ciências e Tecnologia.
been sourced to a mine in the Sierra de Gador region Brill, Robert H., I. L. Barnes, S. S. C. Tong, E. C. Joel, and M. J.
Murtaugh. 1987. "Laboratory Studies of Some European Ar-
of southern Spain near Almería, and the bronze D-ring
tifacts Excavated on San Salvador Island." In Proceedings of
has lead similar to that from the Sierra Morena mining
the First San Salvador Conference: Columbus and His World,
region northeast of Seville (and similar to the lead from ed. D. T. Gerace, 247–92. San Salvador: CCFL Bahamian
the glass beads previously described) (Brill et al. 1987). Field Station.
The bronze buckle and D-ring have strong similarities to Deagan, Kathleen, and José María Cruxent. 2002. Columbus's
buckles found at La Isabela dating to 1493–1498 (Deagan Outpost among the Taínos. New Haven, CT: Yale University
and Cruxent 2002, 157, Fig. 7.14). Press.
The lead content of the melado (honey-glazed) ware Dunn, O., and J. E. Kelley Jr., eds. 1989. The Diario of Chris-
and the tin-glazed white ware (majolica) pottery is simi- topher Columbus's First Voyage to America, 1492–1493. Ab-
lar to lead from the Río Tinto mining region of south- stracted by Bartolomé de las Casas. Norman: University of
Oklahoma Press.
western Spain (Brill et al. 1987). The pottery is also similar
Hoffman, C. A., Jr. 1987. "Archaeological Investigations at the
to types of pottery made in Triana, a suburb of Seville in
Long Bay Site, San Salvador, Bahamas." In Proceedings of the
southwestern Spain (Brill et al. 1987). Historical archae- First San Salvador Conference: Columbus and His World, ed.
ologists have pointed out that one supplies a ship with D. T. Gerace, 97–102. San Salvador: CCFL Bahamian Field
goods from the nearest port, especially when it comes to Station.
fragile supplies such as ceramics and glass. The melado Keegan, William F. 1992. The People Who Discovered Colum-
and white wares both have manufacturing production bus: The Prehistory of the Bahamas. Gainesville: University
date ranges of circa 1401–1600; the plain white ware (Co- of Florida Press.
lumbia Plain majolica) was more common before 1550. ———. 1992. "West Indian Archaeology. Vol. 2, After Colum-
bus." Journal of Archaeological Research 4 (4): 265–94.
Reid, Basil A. 2009. Myths and Realities of Caribbean History.
Conclusion Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
The other artifacts found at the Long Bay site (SS-9),
including fragments of green glass, four metal knife See also The Palmettan Ostionoid Series.
Conucos
The mounded fields in which the Taíno people of the ing technology was relatively simple, largely limited to
northern Caribbean planted their root crops were called a digging stick—a fact leading some to regard Taíno
conucos. The intense cultivation of root crops and other farming as horticulture, or gardening, rather than as
starches and other crops suggests a certain level of sed- agriculture proper. However, evidence suggests that
entism by these contact-period natives. Taíno produc- sizeable earthen mounds, or conucos, were used for
tion and use of cassava were recorded by the Spanish planting over extended periods and irrigation was prac-
upon their arrival in the Caribbean. Petersen writes: ticed in arid areas such as southwestern Hispaniola"
"From the early accounts, it is obvious that the farm- (1997, 128).
Figure C.16. A woman harvesting
maishi chiki (the Papiamentu
name for Sorghum vulgare)
from a conuco in Curaçao, 1992.
Courtesy of I. Witteveen.
Conucos 113
The mounds, which were three feet high and some and insufficient rainfall that hindered a commercial
nine feet in circumference, were arranged in regular plantation economy. These factors made conuco agri-
rows. They retarded erosion, improved drainage, and culture an economic necessity. Cultural interactions
thus permitted more lengthy storage of the mature tu- between native peoples and Africans (through migra-
bers in the ground. They also made it easier to weed and tion and marronage) may also be partly responsible for
harvest the crops (Rouse 1992). its persistence. People from Africa brought their own
Agriculture is possibly one of the most influential fac- food crops with them, such as yams, that were planted
tors in bringing about many of the social changes that in conucos. In Curaçao, food crops such as maishi chiki
occurred during the Taíno period. Root crop production (Papiamentu for Sorghum vulgare) were also grown on
may have provided enough surpluses to sustain individ- conuco land. Some families in Curaçao, Aruba, and
uals on longer travels and/or for military campaigns and Bonaire still practice this traditional form of agricul-
may have allowed for public events, involving commu- ture to this day.
nal feasting and/or other large communal undertakings For elderly people in Curaçao, the term kunuku (co-
that required a specialized labor force. nuco) means life. Research in the rural western Cura-
Interestingly, the conuco is also a native cultural tra- çao by Weeber and Witteveen (2010) has shown that
dition on Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire and is currently the principles of the kunuku way of life included:
utilized by the African-descended population of these
Respect for nature and concern for the preserva-
islands (Figure C.16). Conuco (or kunuku in the Papia-
tion of land resources
mentu language of Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire) refers
Knowledge of how to combine different calorie-
to a plot for growing local food crops, or, as David Watts
rich crops
described it, "a system of shifting cultivation for the pro-
Reciprocal work involving family members and
duction of starch- and sugar-rich foods" (Watts 1987,
neighbors in tasks relating to the conuco,
53). About 0.2 to 0.5 hectares of conuco land is required
including sowing, planting, cleaning, and
to provide each individual with adequate subsistence.
harvesting of the maishi chiki
The main crops are calorie-rich yucca (cassava/manioc,
Spiritual belief in a supreme being that was ex-
Manihot esculenta) and sweet potatoes (Ipomoea bata-
pressed in work songs (kantika di trabou) and
tas) (Watts 1987, 55). Also planted in the conucos in these
the harvest celebration (seú)
southern Caribbean islands are calabash gourd (Crescen-
Communal sharing of the products harvested
tia cujete), pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata), maize (Zea
from the conuco
mays), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris and Paseolus lunatus),
cactus (Cactaceae) fruit, and cocuy (Agave sp.) leaves.
Conuco fields were prepared by heaping up mounds of Further Reading
soil (called montones, or monte). The custom of mound-
ing may not have been universal, and the practice was Petersen, J. B. 1997. "Taíno, Island-Carib, and Prehistoric Am-
usually avoided on well-drained sites. erindian Economies in the West Indies: Tropical Forest Ad-
aptations to Island Environments." In The Indigenous People
In Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire, the conuco has
of the Caribbean, ed. S. Wilson, 118–30. Gainesville: Univer-
survived both as a way of life and an important cul- sity Press of Florida.
tural identifier. This is the case despite slave-raiding Rouse, I. 1992. The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who
expeditions against the indigenous population and the Greeted Columbus. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
institution of African enslaved labor. Conuco agricul- Watts, D. 1987. The West Indies: Patterns of Development, Cul-
ture in the Caribbean provided an exceptionally well- ture, and Environmental Change since 1492. Cambridge, UK:
balanced form of land use, especially on the very dry Cambridge University Press.
islands of Curaçao, Bonaire, and Aruba, where a com- Weeber, L., and I. Witteveen. 2010. Banda Bou: Alma di Kòrsou:
bination of shell-eating and dew-drinking was neces- Kultura i Desaroyo den añanan 60 pa 90 di siglo binti. Cura-
çao: KULDESPRO.
sary to supplement the daily diet of Caquetío people
who inhabited these islands at the time of European
contact. The cultivation of conuco was encouraged by See also Arawak versus Taíno; Cassava (Manioc); Chief-
ecological factors such as unfavorable soil conditions doms (Cacicazgos); The First Caribbean Farmers.
Crab/Shell Dichotomy
The Crab Culture was first proposed by Froelich Rainey that produced drier conditions, which reduced the
in 1935 after conducting archaeological excavations habitat of land crabs, limiting their availability (noted
in Puerto Rico in the summer of 1934 (Rainey 1935). in Newsom and Wing 2004). Using optimal foraging
Rainey was the first to observe that early Saladoid de- theory, Keegan (1986) initially suggested that the di-
posits tended to consist mainly of land crabs and very etary changes reflected what he termed a "diet breadth
few mollusks, while Ostionoid deposits were predomi- expansion," in which the increasing scarcity of ter-
nately mollusks with very few land crabs. According restrial protein sources and an increasing demand for
to Rainey, "This substratum proved to contain types of high protein necessitated the exploitation of other bi-
cultural material markedly different from those which otic sources. Susan deFrance (1989) suggested that the
have been previously found in Puerto Rico. The con- gradual decimation of the crab communities on the is-
trast between cultural types of this substratum, and land led to the exploitation of other food sources such
those found in the superimposed shell level makes it as mollusks.
clear that a distinct culture is represented by these re- Despite the current controversies regarding the effi-
mains" (Rainey 1935, 12). cacy of Rainey's Crab/Shell dichotomy, two important
Rainey noted that the ceramics of the Crab Culture observations can be made. First, irrespective of the po-
deposits had fine grained paste with few aplastic inclu- tential correlation between faunal remains and material
sions, they were well fired, and they had painted sur- cultural, it does appear that dietary patterns changed
faces (Rainey 1935, 1940). In contrast, pottery from the over time. Second, although land crabs were available
Shell Culture was coarse tempered and unpainted. He during Archaic times, there is little evidence to indicate
ultimately concluded that the distinct assemblages cor- that they formed a substantive part of the Archaic peo-
responded to two different migrations into the West In- ple's diet. The greater frequency of mollusks in Ostionoid
dies: a Crab Culture (Saladoid) that was replaced by a deposits has, in turn, been viewed as a continuity of the
second group, the Shell Culture (Ostionoid). Archaic diet resulting from interaction between Puerto
After conducting his doctoral research in Haiti, Irving Rico's earlier Archaic inhabitants and subsequent Sala-
Rouse arrived in Puerto Rico to continue the work initi- doid groups (Keegan 2006).
ated by Rainey as part of the Scientific Survey of Puerto
Rico and the Virgin Islands. On the basis of his pottery
analyses, Rouse concluded that there was a continuum Further Reading
of ceramic modes between the Crab (i.e., Cedrosan Sala-
DeFrance, Susan D. 1989. "Saladoid and Ostionoid Subsis-
doid) and Shell (i.e., Ostionoid) cultures, suggesting that
tence Adaptations: Zooarchaeological Data from a Coastal
there was one migration of agro-potters to the Antilles Occupation on Puerto Rico." In Early Ceramic Population
and that the eventual development of this group resulted Lifeways and Adaptive Strategies in the Caribbean, ed. P. E.
in the rise of the Taíno (Rouse 1989, 391). Rouse (1992) Siegel, 57–77. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.
repeatedly argued that Rainey saw dramatic changes in Keegan, W. F. 1986. "The Ecology of Lucayan Arawak Fishing
the ceramic repertoire because he focused on decorated Practices." American Antiquity 51 (4): 816–25.
sherds and did not consider the gradual changes leading ———. 2006. "Archaic Influences in the Origins and Develop-
to the shift from fine Cedrosan Saladoid ceramics to the ment of Taíno Societies." Caribbean Journal of Science 42
coarsely made Ostionoid wares (as noted in Rodríguez (1): 1–10.
Newsom, Lee A., and Elizabeth S. Wing. 2004. On Land and
Ramos 2010).
Sea: Native American Uses of Biological Resources in the West
There has been a great deal of debate about what Indies. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
this "Crab/Shell dichotomy" means in terms of the Rainey, F. G. 1935. "A New Prehistoric Culture in Puerto Rico."
region's precontact social and cultural development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 21 (1): 12–16.
Traditional perspectives on the disparities between the ———. 1940. Porto Rican Archaeology. Scientific Survey of Porto
faunal assemblages of these two periods have attributed Rico and the Virgin Islands, vol. 18, pt. 1. New York: New
them to land crab overexploitation or to climate change York Academy of Sciences.
Cruxent, José María (1911–2005) 115
Rodríguez Ramos, R. 2010. Rethinking Puerto Rico Precolonial ———. 1992. The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who
History. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. Greeted Columbus. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Rouse, I. 1989. "Peoples and Cultures of the Saladoid Frontier in
the Greater Antilles." In Early Ceramic Population Lifeways See also The Archaic Age; Environmental Archaeology;
and Adaptive Strategies in the Caribbean, ed. Peter E. Siegel, The Ostionoid; Rainey, Froelich G. (1907–1992); The Sala-
383–403. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports. doid.
Cruxent, José María (1911–2005)
José María Cruxent is acknowledged as the father of One of his most fruitful collaborations was with Pro-
modern archaeology in Venezuela and as a pioneer in fessor Irving Rouse of Yale University, with whom he
the historical archaeology of Latin America and the collaborated on the pioneering monograph An Archae-
Caribbean. He is also recognized as an artist of interna- ological Chronology of Venezuela (1958, Pan American
tional standing. Born in Barcelona, he studied archae- Union Monograph No. 6), later published as Venezuelan
ology and history at the University of Barcelona under Archaeology (1963, Yale University Press). Another fruit-
Pere Bosch Gimpera. His studies were interrupted by the ful collaboration was with University of Florida archae-
Spanish Civil War (1936–38), in which Cruxent served as ologist John Goggin, with whom he worked at the site
a medic and cameraman with Republican forces fighting of Nueva Cadiz, Isla Cubagua, in 1954. That program,
Franco. In 1939, he fled Spain and arrived in Venezu- as well as Cruxent's work during the 1950s in the early
ela with only the clothes he was wearing and ten dol- colonial sites of Panamá, was critical to the development
lars in his pocket. He did various jobs, including movie of the classificatory system for Spanish colonial ceramics
projectionist and fruit vendor, and eventually became a that is still used today by archaeologists in the Caribbean
primary school art instructor. During his free time, he and beyond. Cruxent also engaged in collaborations
carried out archaeological surveys of the countryside with archaeological colleagues in Cuba, the Dominican
(going by bus) and brought the resulting collections to Republic, and Puerto Rico and served as the president of
the National Museum of Science in Caracas, where he the Roundtable Reunion of Caribbean Anthropologists
became friends with Walter Dupouy and Antonio Re- held in Havana in 1950. The group established the Ca-
quena. At that time, there were no formal academic or ribbean Anthropological Federation, a forerunner of the
governmental programs of archaeology in Venezuela. International Association for Caribbean Archaeology.
In 1944, Cruxent joined the staff of the museum, and As director of the Museum of Science, Cruxent orga-
by 1948, his passion for fieldwork and collections earned nized and participated in a number of exploratory ex-
him the position of director of the National Museum of peditions into the unknown parts of the Amazon and
Science, a post he held until 1960. During his time as Panamá, including the renowned Franco-Venezolano
director of the museum, he established the first Depart- expedition of 1951 to find the source of the Orinoco. The
ment of Archaeology and relentlessly continued his pro- successful seven-month expedition into the jungle fasci-
grams of fieldwork. His programs included Paleo-Indian nated and excited the press and the public, and Cruxent
studies, working at El Jobo and Taima-Taima (some of became a celebrity in Venezuela, where he offered fre-
the most influential sites for understanding the entry of quent public lectures and media interviews. His celebrity
people into the Americas) and at Nueva Cadiz on Cu- was undoubtedly enhanced by his originality, simplicity,
bagua, the first European settlement in South America and lifelong lack of pretension. He preferred to appear
and one of the first historical archaeology projects un- with his pipe and wearing sandals, and he appeared only
dertaken in the Caribbean. Cruxent also established rarely wearing a tie.
close professional connections worldwide, bringing the Cruxent was one of the founders of the School of So-
museum (and Venezuelan archaeology) into the global ciology and Anthropology of the Universidad Central
arena. de Venezuela, created in 1952 through a formal agree-
ment and professional exchange with the University of project developed into an international collaboration
Wisconsin. His role as a teacher influenced archaeol- among the Dominican Republic, Venezuela, the United
ogy in the circum-Caribbean region; he trained such States, Spain, and Italy, which Cruxent coordinated until
archaeologists as Erika Wagner, Alberta Zucchi, Emiro 1996.
Durán, and Eddie Romero. He further enhanced the Throughout his archaeological career, Cruxent re-
professional standing of and training opportunities for mained committed to his art. His mixed-media, textural
archaeology in Venezuela in 1960 as the founder of the works are featured not only in Venezuela but also in gal-
Department of Anthropology at the prestigious Insti- leries and museums throughout Europe. His art, like his
tuto Venezolano de Investigaciones Ceintificas (IVIC; archaeology, is forward-looking, provocative, iconoclas-
The Venezuelan Institute for Scientific Investigation), tic, and always impassioned. José Maria Cruxent died at
which had been founded the previous year by Marcel the age of 94 in Coro, Venezuela.
Roche. In 1963, Cruxent established the first radiocar-
bon dating laboratory in Latin America (supervised by
Murray Tamers) at the IVIC. Cruxent remained at the
IVIC, where he carried out his programs of teaching, Cabrero, F. 2009. José María Cruxent: El espíritu de la materia.
fieldwork, and laboratory research, until 1976. Caracas: Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientí-
At the age of 65, Cruxent shifted his focus to Coro, in ficas.
Falcón State in Venezuela, where he continued to pursue Cárdenas, M. L., and A. de Azcárate Wilson. 1992. Homenaje
his two principal archaeological interests: the entry of a Cruxent: Siglo XXI: El hombre, cultura y desafíos. Coro,
Venezuela: Museo de Arte de Coro.
humans into the Americas and the period of Spanish-
Wagner, E. 2006. "José María Cruxent: Padre de la arque-
American encounter. One of the earliest American pro-
ología moderna de Venezuela (1911–2005)." Antropologica
ponents of the theory that people arrived in the Ameri- 101 (2004): 9–12.
cas more than 10,000 years ago, Cruxent established the Wagner, E., and A. Zucchi, eds. 1978. Undidad y variedad: En-
presence of lithic complexes dating to circa 14,000 BP at sayos en homenaje a José M. Cruxent. Caracas: Instituto
the site of Taima-Taima near Coro well before the con- Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas.
temporary research that corroborated his work. In 1987,
he undertook the excavation of La Isabela in the Domin- See also The International Association for Caribbean Ar-
ican Republic, the first European town in America. That chaeology (IACA); Rouse, Benjamin Irving (1913–2006).
Cuba (Historical Archaeology of)
Theresa Singleton
Historical archaeology (a term used only recently in it had become an integral part of Cuban archaeological
Cuba) designates the archaeological study of the period research and practice.
beginning with Spanish settlement of the island. It was Christopher Columbus landed on Cuba on Oc-
initially referred to as colonial archaeology, and this tober 28, 1492, and reputedly described the pristine
term is still preferred by some practitioners today. The landscape where he landed as "the most beautiful land
colonial period (1511–1898) continues to be the primary the human eye has beheld." The colonization of Cuba
emphasis of this research, but Cuban historical archaeol- began in 1511 under the command of Diego Velázquez
ogy has become more than the study of a time period; it y Cuellar, who wasted no time in subjugating the ab-
is the study of the social processes involved in the mak- original population through violence and brute force.
ing of Cuban society. Historical archaeology began tak- By 1515, the Spanish had founded seven settlements on
ing shape in Cuba in the 1930s, and by the late 1960s the island, all of which are major cities today: Baracoa
Cuba (Historical Archaeology of ) 117
(1511), Bayamo (1513), Sancti Spíritus (1514), Trinidad growing desire for independence from Spain as Cuban
(1514), Havana (1515), Puerto Principe (1515; known as taxpayers found themselves increasingly contributing
Camagüey today), and Santiago de Cuba (1515). The to an empire that Spain was having difficulty financing.
Spanish most likely established towns in these loca- The Cuban struggle for independence lasted for thirty
tions because of their close proximity to communi- years (1868–1898), during which two wars took place.
ties of aboriginals, who initially provided labor for the Finally, in 1898, after the United States intervened, Spain
colonists. In each town, the central plaza, which fea- was forced to withdraw from Cuba.
tured a church, a town hall, and a garrison, was built
first. Town dwellers received plots on which to build Archaeological Research
their houses and shared other plots used in common as
forests, pastures, and watering places. Local represen- Archaeologists have investigated diverse aspects of the
tatives of the Spanish Crown, vecinos, distributed the 400-year Spanish colonial period in Cuba. Early stud-
remaining lands in the colony into smaller land por- ies of contact period sites, plantations, and significant
tions known as encomiendas, based on the beneficiary's historical buildings appeared in the journal Revista de la
influence and position in the social hierarchy. Settlers Junta Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in the 1940s
were granted land in usufruct—they could profit from and 1950s. El Yayal in Hoguín province is an example
using the property, but the Spanish Crown retained all of a contact period site that was originally thought to
land ownership. Enslaved Amerindians, both native to be near the location where Columbus first landed in
Cuba and from nearby islands, supplied the work force Cuba. This area of interest was initially investigated in
for the encomiendas. Brutal treatment of Indian labor- the 1930s and was restudied by Lourdes Domínguez in
ers drastically reduced their numbers, and in 1542, the 1970 and 1981. She posited that the site was an aborigi-
encomienda system was abolished. By that time, many nal settlement with a large quantity of Spanish trade
of the first Spanish immigrants to Cuba had left in goods that was occupied during the first half of the
search of gold in Mexico and Peru. For the next 200 sixteenth century. Whether or not Yayal was part of an
years, Cuba developed into a sparsely populated colony encomienda is unclear, but it provides a glimpse of Cu-
of cattle and pig ranches and small-scale farms, some of ban aboriginal life during the earliest period of Spanish
which produced sugar and tobacco—staple crops that colonization.
would later bring prosperity to the island. Enslaved Af- Plantation studies also contributed to the forma-
ricans replaced enslaved Amerindians as the primary tion and development of Cuban historical archaeology.
work force for many of these enterprises. Havana and In 1930, Fernando Boytel Jambú began his study of La
Santiago flourished as port cities, servicing ships pass- Isabelica, a French-owned coffee plantation outside
ing to and from mainland Spanish America. Santiago, and in the early days of revolutionary Cuba
During the second half of the eighteenth century, (post-1959), archaeology was used to restore the site and
the Spanish Crown set in motion a series of reforms develop it into a plantation museum that is still in op-
directed toward making Cuba a wealthy colony. Con- eration today. Since that time, several plantations have
sequently, Cuba underwent major economic and so- been investigated on Cuba, including San Isidro de los
cial transformations that resulted in its emergence as Destiladeros (Figure C.17) and other sugar plantations
the foremost nineteenth-century Caribbean plantation in the UNESCO World Heritage Site of the Valley of
economy. These reforms permitted the breaking up of Sugar Plantations near Trinidad in central Cuba on the
royal land grants into parcels for private land owner- south coast; coffee plantations in Sierra del Rosario in
ship, opened Cuba to free trade, and accelerated the the Piñar del Rio; and coffee and sugar plantations in
importation of enslaved Africans. Immigrants, partic- Havana and Matanzas provinces, including Taoro, La
ularly French planters fleeing the Haitian Revolution, Manuela, Santa Ana de Biajacas, and La Dionesia. Plan-
joined Cuban planters in the expansion of coffee and tation studies have primarily addressed questions about
sugar production. By the 1830s, Cuba had become the the spatial layout and built environment of slavery and
world's leading producer of sugar; coffee and tobacco (only recently) living conditions of the enslaved and the
were important secondary crops. The explosion of relationships between masters and enslaved peoples.
Cuba's plantation economy boosted trade at port cities, Complementing the study of plantations, investiga-
and by 1850, Havana was among the ten busiest ports tions of sites where enslaved runaways settled have been
in the world. However, increased prosperity nurtured a undertaken in both eastern and western Cuba. These
city walls measuring 1.4 meters (5 feet) thick, 10 me-
ters (33 feet) high, and almost 5 kilometers long (3.1
miles) with nine gates. Building the walls took close
to 100 years to complete, and in the nineteenth cen-
tury the walls were almost completely demolished, ex-
cept for a few remnants that are still standing today
(Figure C.18). Systematic study of archaeological sites
in Old Havana began in 1968, and in that same year
historical archaeology became an established special-
ization throughout the country. Initial projects were
baseline studies undertaken to salvage archaeological
data from sites undergoing architectural restoration.
These studies provided valuable information on the
nature and stratigraphy of archaeological deposits in
Old Havana and information that was used to identify
and date artifacts. Since 1987, the Gabinete de Arque-
ología—a unit of the Office of the Historian for the City
of Havana—has continued salvage archaeology within a
research program designed to examine changing pat-
terns of urban settlement, consumption, lifeways, and
cultural interaction from the sixteenth to the twenti-
eth centuries, among other topics. The work is done by
multidisciplinary teams of archaeologists, historians,
art historians, and architectural historians. Beginning
Figure C.17. Bell Tower at San Isidro de los Destiladeros, a for-
mer sugar plantation near Trinidad, Cuba. Photo by Theresa
in 2001, article-length studies from this research have
Singleton. been published in an annual journal, Gabinete de Ar-
queología. The journal quickly became the major pub-
lication of Cuban historical archaeology. The program
sites are of two types: 1) palenques—substantial long- in urban archaeology in Old Havana is unique and is
term settlements with evidence of horticulture; and 2) the most comprehensive of its kind in the Caribbean
sites of cimarrones, small groups of runaways who were and perhaps in all of Latin America. All historical ar-
frequently on the move and lived in caves and overhangs, chaeologists can learn from this extraordinary research
foraged for wild food, and raided nearby plantations for program.
food and supplies. Gabino La Rosa has investigated both
types of sites for over twenty-five years: palenques in the Conclusion
Sierra Maestra in eastern Cuba and cimarrones in the Si-
erra del Grillo in Havana province. At the palenque sites, Cuban historical archaeology is a scholarly tradition of
La Rosa observed clusters of dwellings laid out to form at least seventy to eighty years that continues to expand,
inner squares and inner paths leading from one cluster despite the significant economic setbacks the country
of dwellings to another. These inner pathways may have has endured over the past two decades. Most investi-
facilitated communication and movement throughout gations are concentrated around Havana and Trini-
the settlement without the knowledge of outsiders such dad, two UNESCO World Heritage sites with strong
as the slave hunters who were in constant pursuit of run- heritage preservation programs, but other regions and
aways. provinces are also beginning more projects in historical
The most ambitious project in historical archae- archaeology. Publication based on this research is in-
ology has been the long-term study of Habana Vieja creasing, and the Web site www.cubaarqueologica.org
(old Havana), which has been continuously occupied provides up-to-date reports of ongoing projects. Col-
since the relocation of the first site of Havana from the laborations between Cuban and expatriate archaeolo-
south coast to its present location on the north coast gists in long-term projects has further enhanced Cu-
in 1519. Most of Old Havana was once enclosed within ban historical archaeology through cross-fertilization
Figure C.18. Portion of the wall that once enclosed Old Havana. Photo by Theresa Singleton.
of research ideas, approaches, and interpretations. This Buenos Aires: Centro de Investigaciones Pre-Columbinas,
has resulted in greater visibility of Cuban research in Instituto Superior del Profesorado Dr. Joaquín V. González.
archaeological venues outside Cuba. Once considered La Rosa Corzo, G. 2003. Runaway Slave Settlements in Cuba:
the pearl of the Spanish empire, Cuba is well on its way Resistance and Repression. Trans. Mary Todd. Chapel Hill:
University of North Carolina Press.
to becoming the jewel of the Caribbean in the area of
Singleton, T. A., and Marcos André de Souza Torres. 2009. "Ar-
historical archaeology. chaeologies of the African Diaspora: Brazil, Cuba, United
States." In International Handbook for Historical Archaeol-
Further Reading ogy, ed. T. Majewski and D. Gaimster, 449–69. New York:
Springer.
Curet, L. A., L. D. Shannon, and G. La Rosa Corzo, eds. 2005.
Dialogues in Cuban Archaeology. Tuscaloosa: University of
Alabama Press.
See also Betty's Hope Plantation (Antigua); Historical Ar-
Domínguez, L. 1995. Arqueología colonial cubana: Dos estudios. chaeological Sites (Types); La Reconnaissance Site (Trini-
Havana: Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. dad); Magens House Compound, Kongens Quarters
Hernández de Lara, Odlanyer. 2010. De Esclavos y Inmigrantes: (Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas); The Seville Sugar Planta-
Arqueología Histórica en una Plantación Cafetalera Cubana. tion (British Colonial Jamaica); Spanish Town (Jamaica).
Cundall, Frank (1858–1937)
When Frank Cundall died in November 1937, a cable to sources for West Indian history and prehistory are held
the New York Times described him as "librarian at the at the Institute of Jamaica and the National Library of
Jamaica Institute and the leading historian of the British Jamaica rather than in metropolitan or North American
West Indies." He had served as secretary and librarian collections.
of the Institute of Jamaica for forty-six years. As secre- Archaeologists will find Cundall's scholarly legacy
tary, Cundall led a cultural institution in a colony where not only in the survival of the Institute of Jamaica and
such institutions were vulnerable during budget crises. its collections but also in studies prompted by his work
He weathered cutbacks in the late 1890s; a legislators' as secretary of a committee to identify the island's his-
proposal that the institute should be "shut down for torical monuments. He helped compile a provisional list
the year" in 1904, and the challenges of rebuilding after of historic and archaeological sites meriting protection
the 1907 Kingston earthquake. He left an institutional that was first published in a gazette in 1909. He wrote
legacy: in 1938 the colony's Legislative Council voted to up many of them in articles that were later collected as
fund the extension of the institute's buildings. While he Historic Jamaica (1915).
was keeping the institute afloat, he developed an inter-
national reputation as an expert in Jamaican and West
Indian history.
Cundall was a Londoner who came to Jamaica in 1891
at age 33 after a decade at the South Kensington Museum
(today's Victoria and Albert Museum). The institute he
joined had been established in 1879 and already had a
library and museum. During his tenure, he built up both
as major research centers. The West India Reference Li-
brary accumulated almost 11,000 books, maps, and doc-
uments covering not only Jamaica and the West Indies
but also Central America and West Africa. During his
tenure, the museum also accumulated substantial hold-
ings, including prehistoric and geological collections.
Cundall also established a Gallery of Historical Jamai-
can Portraits within the institute that acquired close to
900 portraits and views, with some originals and many
During the early 1890s, when the curator of the in-
stitute was J. E. Duerden, significant work was done to
locate and excavate Taíno sites in Jamaica and publish
on Jamaican prehistory. This period of vitality did not
prevent the post from being frozen at the end of the de-
cade. Cundall's achievements were secured on a shoe-
string budget with a negligible annual purchasing grant
(though as a government department he did have free
postage). Some acquisitions involved tracking down the
officials who could let him examine such hoards as the
manuscript records of eighteenth-century Kingston,
which were stored in the back of an old fire station, and
transferring them to the Institute. Today, the most im- Figure C.19. A memorial plaque to Frank Cundall at the National
mediate imprint of Cundall's work is that many original Library of Jamaica. Photo by James Robertson.
Curaçao (Former Netherlands Antilles) 121
Further Reading Robertson, J. C. 2005. "Frank Cundall's Robert Sedgwick: The
Wartime Origins of a Colonial Research Project." Jamaican
Cundall, F. 1909. "Historic Sites, Ancient Buildings and Monu-
Historical Society Bulletin 11 (16): 436–48.
ments in Jamaica" Supplement to the Jamaica Gazette 32
(December 23): 629–40.
———. 1915. Historic Jamaica, London: West India Committee See also Duerden, J. E. (1869–1937); The Institute of Ja-
for Institute of Jamaica. maica.
Jacobs, H. P. 1968. "The Achievement of Frank Cundall." Jamaica
Journal 1 (1): 24–28.
Curaçao (Former Netherlands Antilles)
Antonius J. van Koolwijk, a Catholic priest on Cura- populations on Curaçao (and other Dutch islands) was
çao in the late nineteenth century, conducted the first published by the Dutch anthropologist Jouke Tacoma,
archaeological investigations on the island as an ama- whose 1985 publication on Curaçao skeletal remains is
teur hobby. Van Koolwijk created his artifact collection still the most extensive review of prehistoric human skel-
on Curaçao during the period 1878–1880, after which etal remains to date. One of the primary results of this
he moved to Aruba. On Curaçao, van Koolwijk located research on Curaçao was the creation of the Archaeolog-
numerous prehistoric sites at Knip Bay, Ascension, San ical-Anthropological Institute of the Netherlands Antil-
Juan, and so on. He also conducted limited excavations les (AAINA), which was founded and directed by Edwin
at several sites, but his records were vague. He did send N. Ayubi.
the artifacts to Holland, where they were analyzed and In the 1960s, a Dutch archaeological team led by H. R.
published by Conrad Leemans of the State University van Heekeren and C. J. Dury produced three archaeolog-
of Leiden from 1880 to 1904. Leemans and Johannes ical reports about Curaçao's prehistoric materials. Dutch
Schmeltz published these results in 1904, along with a shell specialist H. E. Coomans, who published his reports
thesis of Caribbean origins for the Amerindian popula- separately, augmented these investigations. One of the
tions. However, in 1914 Ten Kate reviewed the material sites investigated was Rooi Rincon on Curaçao, which
in Holland and questioned the Caribbean origins theory yielded the oldest known archaeological remains for the
and suggested a South American origin. J. P. B. de Jos- Netherlands Antilles; they have been dated to circa 4500
selin de Jong also reviewed the van Koolwijk collections BC. Various other amateur archaeologists were making
in the Netherlands and published his comments in 1918, artifact collections on the island in the 1960s. The most
with an update in 1920. The van Koolwijk finds helped prominent of these were Paul Brenneker and Elis Juli-
stimulate a 1923 expedition to the Caribbean by de Jos- ana, whose extensive collections are now at the National
selin de Jong, who excavated the San Juan site in Cura- Archaeological Anthropological Museum (NAAM) on
çao. In 1963, D. Hooijer published an article about the Curaçao (formerly AAINA). In 1964, a short visit by
mammalian remains in the collection from de Josselin Dutch archaeologist P. Glazema provided oversight for
de Jong's research at the San Juan site in 1923. rescue excavations at the Kintjan site. Glazema's report
In 1949, another amateur archaeologist, Aad Ringma, was published in 1964. In 1965, Venezuelan archaeologist
conducted extensive field surveys on the island to lo- José M. Cruxent conducted various test excavations on
cate prehistoric rock art sites. It is to his credit that most Curaçao to collect radiocarbon samples. These provided
of the rock art sites for the island have been identified. the first radiocarbon dating evidence for the island.
However, it was P. Wagenaar Hummelinck who, from Cruxent's results were published in 1965 through the In-
1953 to 1959, published the more extensive and precise stituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Ceintificas (IVIC)
descriptions of prehistoric rock art for Curaçao, based at Caracas. In 1969, Cruxent and Irving Rouse used the
on formal excavations. In 1959, the first of a series of research on Curaçao in their contribution to the Ency-
physical anthropology publications about prehistoric clopedia of the Netherlands Antilles. In 1971, E. Boerstra
and E. Juliana conducted an archaeological excavation group were Francois van der Hoeven, Eddy Batens, An-
at the Late Ceramic Age Santa Barbara site on Curaçao; dre Rancuret, and Jose DaCamara. The current director
their collections were deposited at AAINA. In 1980, a of the NAAM, Richenel Ansano, has followed up on this
salvage archaeological excavation was carried out by E. project. In 2005, Haviser conducted rescue excavations
Ayubi, J. Kemperman, and J. Tacoma at the Ceramic Age and collected material in Punda city center. University of
De Savaan site. The 1985 version of the Encyclopedia of Amsterdam professor J. H. G. Gawronski made a techni-
the Netherlands Antilles includes a review compiled by cal report of the results of this work for the NAAM. In
E. Ayubi and A. Versteeg of all archaeological work done 2007, Haviser conducted a short archaeological survey at
until 1983. the Rif Sint Marie plantation area. He and Miriam Sluis
Beginning in 1982, Jay Haviser began work as the made minor artifact collections and submitted them to
Netherlands Antilles archaeologist for AAINA. For the NAAM. In 2008, Claudia Craan and Amy Victorina
much of the 1980s, he focused his research on excava- conducted rescue excavations for the NAAM that re-
tions and inventories of archaeological sites on Curaçao. quired the removal of historical period human skeletal
He submitted the first site inventory for the island to remains from the Flor-de-Marie urban district of Cu-
AAINA in 1983, which he subsequently published as part raçao. In 2008, a significant excavations campaign of a
of an extensive inventory in his doctoral dissertation for Leiden University team of archaeologists led by Corinne
Leiden University (the Netherlands) in 1987. Through- Hofman and Menno Hoogland conducted excavations
out the 1980s and 1990s, Haviser conducted archaeologi- at the Santa Barbara and Spaanse Water prehistoric sites.
cal surveys and excavations at the prehistoric sites of Sint In October 2010, Curaçao became an autonomous
Michielsberg (Archaic Age) and the Ceramic Age sites entity within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, as the
of De Savaan, San Hironimo, Kenepa, Santa Cruz, Santa Netherlands Antilles ceased to exist.
Barbara, and Spaanse Water. He also carried out field
activity at the historical sites of the Zuurzak slave camp, Further Reading
the Oost Seinpost site, the Midden Seinpost site, the
Historic Punda city center, the Kenepa Plantation and Farnsworth, P., ed. 2001. Island Lives: Historical Archaeologies
kunuku-houses, the San Hironimo contact period site,
Haviser, J. 1987. Amerindian Cultural Geography on Curaçao.
the Daai Booi Bay site, and the De Tempel Dutch burial
Utrecht: Natuurweteschappelijke Studiekring voor Suri-
ground. In 1999, Haviser edited African Sites: Archaeol- name en de Nederlandse Antillen.
ogy of the Caribbean, in which he defined a post-eman- ———. 1999. African Sites Archaeology in the Caribbean. Prince­
cipation material culture assemblage for Curaçao from ton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers.
his research on the island. In 1995, Haviser published a Nagelkerken, W. 1994. "The 1993 Archaeological Research:
textbook about prehistoric Curaçao for public schools. Summary of the Report 'Underwater Archaeological Re-
During the 1980s and 1990s, underwater archaeologi- search of the Historical Refuse Dumpsite along the Handel-
cal surveys and excavations were conducted around Cu- skade in the Sta. Ana Bay, Curaçao.'" Lanternu 14 (March):
raçao by Wil Nagelkerken, and in the 1990s, he conducted 23–36.
———. 2003. Rapport over de opgraving van het Engelse stoom-
research with the help of the Foundation for Marine
schip Mediator gezonken in 1884 in de Haven van Curaçao.
Archaeology of the Netherlands Antilles (STIMANA). Curaçao: Stichting Marien Archeologisch Onderzoek Ned-
Some of the more important research Nagelkerken did erlandse Antillen.
included the Santa Ana Harbor survey and collections ———. 2009. De Noodlottige Geschiedenis van het Hollandse fre-
(1994), excavations at the eighteenth-century shipwreck gat Alphen; Geexplodeerd en gezonken in 1778 in de Haven
Alphen (2009), and research on the nineteenth-century van Curaçao. Curaçao: STIMANA.
shipwreck Mediator (2003).
Since the 1990s and into the early twenty-first cen- See also Cruxent, José María (1911–2005); The Dutch
tury, a team organized by the NAAM's former director, Caribbean; Foundation for Marine Archaeology of the
Ieteke Witteveen, called the Curaçao Archaeological Netherlands Antilles (STIMANA); The National Ar-
Workgroup, has been documenting archaeological sites chaeological Anthropological Memory Management
on Curaçao, with particular emphasis on the prehistoric Foundation (NAAM); Rouse, Benjamin Irving (1913–
rock art sites. The key figures involved in this early work- 2006).
De Boyrie Moya, Emil (1903–1967)
Emil de Boyrie Moya was a civil engineer who also con- Maguana. He also published work on Punta Torrecilla
ducted studies in archaeology. He traveled throughout (Santo Domingo), Fortaleza de Jánico (Santiago), the
the Dominican Republic for his work as an engineer, Casa de Juan Ponce de León, and the Anamuya site
and this provided him with the opportunity to find a (La Altagracia Province). Furthermore, he worked at
large number of pre-Hispanic and colonial sites. He La Isabela de Puerto Plata, the first settlement in the
wrote the first law that banned the transportation of New World, the old city of La Vega, the ruins of Jaca-
cultural heritage outside the Dominican Republic. He gua (Santiago), and the sugar mills of Engombe (Santo
was also interested in the field of biology, and he re- Domingo) and Cepi Cepi (Azua).
ported 52 new species of flora and 34 new species of He published a large number of articles in Domini-
fauna. can newspapers and in journals. But probably the most
On April 19, 1947, De Boyrie Moya founded the Insti- important of his publications is Monumento megalítico
tuto de Investigaciones Antropológicas (which today is y petroglifos de Chacuey, República Dominicana (1955).
known as the Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológi- This work is a detailed archaeological study of this pre-
cas Emile De Boyrie Moya), which is attached to the Hispanic ceremonial site that describes the complex,
College of Philosophy of the Universidad Autónoma including the plaza, two causeways, and petroglyphs
de Santo Domingo. This institute conducted many re- found in the nearby Chacuey River and in two stones
gional studies and other archaeological research, work from the plaza. Many scholars consider this book to be
that stimulated interest in archaeology among De Boy- a classic of Caribbean archaeology.
rie Moya's colleagues and family members, including De Boyrie Moya worked on expeditions with René
engineer Elpidio J. Ortega Alvarez; Dr. Manuel Mañón Herrera Fritot and José María Cruxent and was a mem-
Arredondo; Dr. Luis Chanlatte Baik; De Boyrie Moya's ber of the Dominican Academy of History. He is seen
son, Andrés Emile; and De Boyrie Moya's nephews Ber- today as the first Dominican archaeologist. Today, his
nardo and Wenceslao Vega de Boyrie, among others. archaeological collection forms part of the collections of
E. Ortega and B. Vega became general directors of the the Museo del Hombre Dominicano and the Instituto de
Museo del Hombre Dominicano years later. Investigaciones Antropológicas. Both institutions have
De Boyrie Moya participated in many national and exhibit halls named after De Boyrie Moya.
international academic conferences. Among his most
important works are studies conducted in the ceremo- See also La Isabela (Dominican Republic); Museo del
nial plazas of Chacuey (Dajabón) and San Juan de la Hombre Dominicano.
De Hostos, Adolfo (1887–1982)
While Adolfo de Hostos began his archaeological ca- with archaeologists from both the United States and
reer as a simple collector and never received any formal Europe. His work was published in internationally re-
training in this discipline, he became an internationally nowned publications such as American Anthropologist,
recognized scholar who maintained strong relationships The Journal of the Royal Anthropological of Great Britain,
and Proceedings of the Americanist Congress as well as in emphasizing cultural differentiation and particularism.
local media. He conducted his work as a scientist with To understand the value of his contribution, it is impor-
a theoretical framework that sought to understand the tant to understand that these ideas were published in
past and its people. It is for all these reasons that Adolfo the 1920s through the 1940s, when American scholars
de Hostos can be considered the first modern/scientific focused on collecting data and subscribed to what we
archaeologist from Puerto Rico, if not the entire Carib- now refer to as historical particularism and diffusion-
bean. ism. Both of these theoretical positions negated the need
De Hostos was born in Santo Domingo, Dominican for general high-level theory and worked from an em-
Republic, on January 8, 1887. He was the son of Eugenio piricist epistemology in which data informed theories
María de Hostos, a renowned Puerto Rican educator and and not the other way around.
social philosopher, and Belinda de Ayala, a Cuban na- De Hostos's contribution to Caribbean archaeology
tional. After a short stay in Chile and Puerto Rico during was also methodological. For example, he sought to un-
his early childhood, de Hostos returned to Dominican derstand the relationship between people and their envi-
Republic in 1900, when the government of that country ronment. During his residence at his family farm in Boca
asked his father to reorganize their educational system. Chica (1907–1909) he began to consider environmental
In the Dominican Republic Adolfo de Hostos came into variables such as slope, distance to the ocean, fresh wa-
contact with indigenous archaeological objects for the ter, access to firewood and other resources, natural plant
first time when a friend gave him a potsherd. In 1903, resources, available marine and terrestrial fauna, and
his family returned to Puerto Rico after the death of his wind direction. He also noticed that the southern coasts
father. He returned to Dominican Republic again in 1907 of Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica have both larger
when his brother began a family farming business. They densities of sites and some of the largest sites in those
bought a farm in Boca Chica, close to the famous ar- islands. He was also one of the first Caribbean archae-
chaeological site of the same name, and it was here that ologists to use stratigraphic contexts to define archaeo-
de Hostos's interest in archaeology flourished. In 1909, logical cultures and organize them in chronological or-
he enlisted in the United States Army, and he was sent to der, even before Rainey began his work in Puerto Rico.
Panama during World War I to guard the canal. There, Another example of his contribution to the field is his
he continued to cultivate his interest in archaeology by use of functional criteria to classify his collections.
conducting research on the prehistory of the region and But perhaps the best example of de Hostos's contri-
adding Central American artifacts to his collection. He bution was the way he approached research problems,
returned to Puerto Rico in 1919 with a collection of an- including his multidisciplinary approach and his final
cient artifacts from Central America. In 1936, he was interpretations. It can be said with certainty that he was
named the official historian of Puerto Rico. In 1938, de ahead of his time. In the foreword to his book Anthro-
Hostos conducted his well-known excavations at the ru- pological Papers (de Hostos 1941), where he republished
ins of Caparra, the first European settlement in Puerto many of his earlier articles, he emphasized the great need
Rico. He retired in 1950, and for economic reasons he for archaeologists to work with zoologists, botanists,
sold his collection in 1954, which was eventually donated physiologists, geologists, psychologists, and even aes-
to the Museo de Antropología e Historia of the Univer- theticians and philosophers. This approach did not be-
sity of Puerto Rico. He died in 1982. come common in archaeological research until after the
De Hostos's contribution to Caribbean archaeology 1960s. De Hostos's work included a long list of research
included works on theory, methodology, and interpreta- projects and publications on West Indian hydrography,
tion. All of his work reflected an interest in understand- ceramic analysis, and interpretations of the meaning of
ing, explaining, and finding the reasons for the behaviors native iconography in ceramics, zemíes, dujos, stone col-
of ancient people. Although his ideas changed over time, lars, elbow stones, prehistoric art, and ethnography.
from early on, he had a tendency to emphasize environ- In conclusion, it is clear that Adolfo de Hostos was
mental factors, anticipating ideas developed decades a scholar in every sense of the word, and he was argu-
later by cultural ecologists. Eventually, he combined ably the first modern archaeologist of the Caribbean.
these ideas with cultural evolutionism, although he did Because of its strong emphasis on theory and explana-
not follow the generic, universal stages European evolu- tion, de Hostos's work can aptly be described as modern
tionists had proposed in the nineteenth century. Instead, scientific archaeology. It is unfortunate that his contri-
de Hostos proposed that cultural evolution is the prod- butions are so little known by many modern Caribbean
uct of environmental variables and cultural inventions, archaeologists, and that many of his interpretations that
DNA and Caribbean Archaeology 125
are as valid today as when they were published are gen- ———. 1926. "Antillean Stone Collars: Some Suggestions of
erally ignored. Interpretative Value." Journal of the Royal Anthropological
Institute of Great Britain 56: 135–42.
———. 1938. Investigaciones Históricas. San Juan, Puerto Rico:
Further Reading Oficina del Historiador, Gobierno de Puerto Rico.
———. 1941. Anthropological Papers: Based Principally on Studies
de Hostos, A. 1919. "Prehistoric Puerto Rican Ceramics." Ameri- of the Prehistoric Archaeology and Ethnology of the Greater
can Anthropologist 21 (4): 376–99. Antilles. San Juan, Puerto Rico: Oficina del Historiador, Go-
———. 1924. "Notes on West Indian Hydrography in Its Rela- bierno de Puerto Rico.
tion to Prehistoric Migrations." In Annaes do XX Congreso ———. 1967. "Plant Fertilization by Magic in the Taíno Area
Internacional de Americanistas, vol. 1. Rio de Janeiro: Im- of the Greater Antilles." Boletín de la Academia de Artes y
prenta Nacional. Ciencias de Puerto Rico 3 (14): 841–44.
DNA and Caribbean Archaeology
Maria A. Nieves-Colón
Archaeological research has benefited from the addi- fecal remains, or coprolites. In contexts that are ideal for
tion of genetic data, a valuable line of evidence in recon- DNA preservation (e.g., those with stable, dry, and cool
structing ancient human societies. The relevant genetic temperatures such as the Arctic permafrost), aDNA can
markers for archeological inquiry are those that inform be preserved for more than 100,000 years. Thus, when
researchers about past evolutionary events. Mitochon- aDNA is retrieved from archaeological contexts, it can
drial DNA (mtDNA) and non-recombining Y (NRY) provide researchers with the opportunity to reconstruct
chromosome loci, for example, are inherited in a direct ancient biological relationships and yield valuable data
line from mother to daughter and father to son, respec- for answering a variety of questions regarding ancient
tively. This inheritance pattern allows these loci to accu- population movement, population structure and diver-
mulate high amounts of genetic diversity that can then be sity, disease, diet, ecology, and the evolutionary relation-
used to characterize population-specific mtDNA or NRY ships between ancient and living populations.
lineages. Thus, mtDNA and NRY markers can be instru- In the Caribbean, DNA research is used in archaeo-
mental in tracing and dating ancient population move- logical inquiry to answer questions about the individual,
ment and in examining relationships between ancestral community, and population history of Caribbean societ-
and descendant populations. Other frequently used loci ies. For example, research using both ancient and mod-
are biparentally inherited autosomal DNA markers, such ern DNA has contributed new knowledge to the debate
as short tandem repeats (STRs), which make individual about the initial peopling of the Antilles. Analysis of
and paternity identification possible. Additionally, small mtDNA data recovered from ancient skeletal remains
point mutations known as single nucleotide polymor- found in Taíno sites in the Dominican Republic (n = 24)
phisms (SNPs) are useful for identifying ancestry and the and Ciboney/Guanahatabey sites in Cuba (n = 15) has
presence of disease-associated mutations. The examina- revealed mtDNA lineages among the skeletal samples
tion of any of these loci across living human groups al- that share strong affinity with modern South American
lows the characterization of inter- and intrapopulation Yanomami populations from the Amazonian region. This
variation and diversity, thus providing important insights discovery supports the hypothesis of a South American
into population history and allowing archaeologists to origin for Arawak-speaking Caribbean Ceramic era
infer ancient genetic patterns and relationships. groups (Lalueza-Fox et al. 2001, 2003). Genetic data
Archaeological research has also benefited from the from Puerto Rico have also been used to trace ancient
analysis of ancient DNA (aDNA), the genetic material migrations into the region. This is due to the discovery of
recovered from ancient biological remains. Ancient mtDNA lineages among the modern Puerto Rican popu-
DNA can be extracted from a variety of sources, includ- lation that share strong affinity with modern South and
ing bone, teeth, hair, tissue, plant material, and preserved Central American Amerindian groups. These lineages
are estimated to have arrived on the island during the
Archaic and Saladoid periods respectively, thus lending
support to the hypothesis that successive waves of migra-
tion peopled the Caribbean (Martinez-Cruzado 2010).
The applications of ancient DNA in Caribbean archae-
ology can also be extended to the reconstruction of kin
relations. Patterns of kinship and relatedness among in-
dividuals found in associated burials can be determined
through the use of STRs to identify paternity and for
genetic fingerprinting. Thus, genetic analysis of kinship
can be used to test hypotheses bioarchaeologists have
proposed about the presence of ancestor worship prac-
tices among early Caribbean natives. The hypotheses stem
from multiple findings of individuals from Saladoid and
post-Saladoid burial sites who were tightly holding skulls
and other skeletal remains (Crespo-Torres 2011). Kinship
analysis would allow an evaluation of the degrees of relat- Figure D.1. Extensive personal protective equipment is needed
edness of the associated individuals and refute or support to avoid introducing contamination when working with an-
the hypothesis that these were close or distant relatives. cient DNA from archaeological samples. This researcher wears
Other potential applications of aDNA analyses in a full body suit, face shield, double gloves and face mask while
working in a dedicated ancient DNA laboratory. Courtesy of
Caribbean archaeology include the reconstruction of
Maria A. Nieves-Colón.
ancient diet through the examination of genetic signa-
tures found in food remains. For example, genetic analy-
ses can identify plant or animal taxa found in midden minimize the risk of false positives. This includes con-
deposits or identify food residue on artifacts used for ducting all DNA extraction procedures in a clean-room
food preparation. Genetic traces of dietary remains can environment; extensive personal protective equipment
also be extracted from coprolites or preserved stomach such as bodysuits, double gloves, and face shields; and
contents. aDNA techniques can also be used to extract independent replication of results (Figure D.1).
DNA from pathogens or parasites that may survive in
small concentrations in skeletal remains or coprolites of Further Reading
humans and animals. Thus, genetic data can help iden- Crespo-Torres, E. 2011. "Bioarchaeological Evidence of Ances-
tify skeletal pathology and provide information about tor Worship from Paso del Indio: An Archaeological Site
ancient health patterns. in the Island of Puerto Rico." In Aportes universitarios: An-
It is important to note that significant caveats accom- tología de ensayos interdisciplinarios de las ciencias sociales,
pany aDNA research in the Caribbean. Because of the ed. José R. Rodríguez-Gómez, 194–217. San Juan, Puerto
effects of taphonomic damage and natural postmortem Rico: Universidad de Puerto Rico.
degradation, aDNA is extremely low in quantity and Lalueza-Fox, C., M. Gilbert, A. Martínez-Fuentes, F. Calafell,
and J. Bertranpetit. 2003. "Mitochondrial DNA from Pre-
quality and tends to be very fragmented. Because of
Columbian Ciboneys from Cuba and the Prehistoric Colo-
these problems, successful extraction, amplification, and
nization of the Caribbean." American Journal of Physical
analysis of aDNA becomes a difficult process, especially Anthropology 121 (2): 97–108.
when samples have been subjected to the warm, humid Lalueza-Fox, C., F. Luna Calderon, F. Calafell, and J. Bertran-
climate of the Caribbean for hundreds or even thou- petit. 2001. "MtDNA from Extinct Taínos and the Peopling
sands of years. The great potential for contamination of of the Caribbean." Annals of Human Genetics 65: 137–51.
degraded samples by modern sources during handling Martínez-Cruzado, J. C. 2010. "The History of Amerindian Mi-
and downstream analysis by archaeologists and DNA tochondrial DNA Lineages in Puerto Rico." In Island Shores,
researchers is also a major problem. The limited quan- Distant Pasts: Archaeological and Biological Approaches to
tity of skeletal remains recovered from archaeological the Pre-Columbian Settlement of the Caribbean, ed. S. M.
Fitzpatrick and A. H. Ross, 54–80. Gainesville: University
contexts that are available for methods of analysis that
Press of Florida.
would destroy samples can further restrict our ability
to arrive at insights about ancient populations derived See also Environmental Archaeology; Luna Calderón,
from aDNA. For these reasons, ancient DNA samples Fernando (1945–2005); Origins of Indigenous Groups
must be authenticated in order to validate results and in the Northern Caribbean.
Drax Hall Estate (Jamaica) 127
Drax Hall Estate (Jamaica)
The Drax Hall study examines the life of enslaved labor- 1991a). The houses were at a distance but close enough
ers at a plantation that was established circa 1690 on Ja- for surveillance by the planter. Even from the earliest
maica's north coast, just east of St. Ann's Bay. The study period of occupation, houses were arranged in a cluster
is significant in that it represents the first comprehensive pattern that appears to have been organized as to maxi-
study of plantation slavery in the Caribbean based on evi- mize airflow into and around the houses. For example,
dence from an African Jamaican laborer settlement. The doorways face into the prevailing winds.
study began a survey and excavation of house sites asso- Houses were nearly all built onto the slope of the hill
ciated with the settlement of enslaved African Jamaican and were relatively easily identified as platforms. The
laborers at Drax Hall in 1980 through 1982. It was then down-slope walls were built up with limestone cobbles,
expanded to include excavation of the planter's residence, and in places where this angle faced the wind we were
or "great house." The initial study of the households of able to identify steps leading into each house (Arm-
enslaved laborers was the basis for Douglas Armstrong's strong 1990, 1991a). Houses varied in structure from one
dissertation at UCLA (1983b). That study was followed to three rooms and ranged in size from 3 × 4 meters to
up with additional excavations within the enslaved settle- 3 × 8 meters. Several of the houses had flooring made
ment and excavations aimed at gaining a contrasting data of small cobbles of limestone and/or crushed limestone
set represented by the planter's residence and the cook (marl). The foundations yielded indications of the pres-
house. The book The Old Village and the Great House: ence of posts spaced out at even intervals with larger
An Archaeological Examination of Drax Hall Plantation holes, suggesting larger posts in the corners and around
St. Ann's Bay, Jamaica (Armstrong 1990) was the major the doorways. Internal partitions for room divisions
published result of these combined projects. were observable as smaller round postholes. We could
The Drax Hall Plantation study involved the com- also differentiate between the types of flooring used in
bined use of historical documentary data to reconstruct each room.
a social history focusing on the lives of the enslaved at While the house structures were where we began
Drax Hall Plantation (Armstrong 1983a, 1990). The site our investigations, excavation took place both inside
was selected after an extensive archival and field sur- and outside the houses. The result was the definition of
vey that sought to locate a setting in which there was a definitive patterns in the use of houses and yard space.
high probability for the collection of a definitive body of Much of the activities of each household took place in
data from discrete house sites. Data were initially com- the yard behind the houses. Each yard had at least one
piled for hundreds of estates, and the list was initially hearth, marked by burned areas and sets of three or
narrowed down on the basis of the quality of histori- more stones grouped together to facilitate cooking us-
cal documentation. Drax Hall and the Seville Plantation ing round-bottomed earthenware and (later) iron pots.
were initially selected from among twenty-one estates The material record from Drax Hall provided a pat-
based on the combined quality of archival data (such as tern that reflected both continuity and change (Arm-
inventories, maps, and accounting records) and the in- strong 1990). Elements of African-based knowledge
tegrity of the archaeological site (based on walking sur- were embedded in the use of locally produced earthen-
veys and the identification of discrete ruins of houses on ware cooking pots (Figure D.3) and in communal eat-
the landscape). Drax Hall was studied first, and several ing practices involving soups and stews. Personal items
years later an investigation was carried out at the Seville included cowry shells and beads, and the configuration
Plantation. and use of external space in the house-yard compounds
The findings of the Drax Hall study included a wealth is loosely associated with West African living practices,
of information related to life in the village of enslaved in sharp contrast to European practices at that time both
laborers (Armstrong 1991a, 1991b). Nearly 50 house sites in Europe and the Caribbean. Even though the majority
were identified (Figure D.2), and 1 × 1 meter testing at of manufactured artifacts found at the site were imports
each of these sites made it possible to date each house from Europe, what they used and how they used them
and project temporal trends in the landscape. In the ear- were quite distinct. They bear evidence of reworking
liest years of Drax Hall, plantation houses were clustered (for example, gun flints retouched into flints for strike-
up the hill behind the planter's residence (Armstrong a-lights) and use based on local needs (Armstrong 1990).
Figure D.2. House Area 1 of the African Jamaican village at Drax Hall, Jamaica. Photo by Douglas V. Armstrong.
There was a preference for bowls over plates throughout tion's stock (evidence found in the archaeological record
the history of the site (again a reflection of the consump- that was confirmed by account books that showed both
tion of stews, or "pepper pot" dietary practices). Local the purchase of cattle and the practice of culling cattle
reuse of goods included reworked European and local for food). After emancipation, those who remained on
pottery to create pieces used in games of chance. The the estate felt the loss of estate provisions (cod and cat-
Drax Hall study clearly demonstrated an array of local tle). Their diet shows evidence of a diverse starvation-
practices and lifeways that reflected the emergence of a style use of all available local marine shellfish (includ-
locally based and internally defined African Jamaican ing a wide range of small mollusks that included many
community. species of nerites). These dietary data indicate not only
One of the initial problems of the study was the ab- the range of diet, the cuts of meat that were consumed,
sence of data sets from the Caribbean that we could use and food preparation practices but also the fact that after
for comparison. Thus, our interpretation of the signifi- emancipation the laborers had a difficult time finding
cance of what we found was phrased as a "probability of enough food to eat.
specific practices." Now that a wide body of compara- While there are many other key findings, I will con-
tive data exists, nearly all of these initial observations clude with an observation made on changes in the cul-
have been confirmed as definitive expressions of life tural landscape that appear over time in the archaeologi-
and internal social dynamics in African Jamaican and cal record. By the mid-eighteenth century, ownership of
Caribbean enslaved communities. Perhaps the most sig- the plantation had changed hands and William Beckford
nificant element of the study (yet one that is often over- had become the absentee owner. Soon thereafter, there
looked) is the detailed dietary analysis that combines was a major change in the organization of space on the
historical records and archaeological findings to report estate. The works, along with the manager's house, were
on unusual aspects of the slave diet. (Elizabeth Reitz as- moved to the center of the cane fields and an aqueduct
sisted with this study.) We identified a diet that included was built to carry water to this central industrial loca-
imported cod fish (evidence found only in the account tion. With this shift, the workers were less directly su-
books for the estate) and cattle culled from the planta- pervised, and over time many moved their houses down
Figure D.3. Afro-Jamaican earthen-
ware from Drax Hall, Jamaica. Photo
by Douglas V. Armstrong.
the hill and adjacent to the aqueduct and its supply of gone on to have distinguished careers in Caribbean ar-
fresh water. As a result, we find that this later period is chaeological and historical studies.
marked by larger yard areas and greater distances be-
tween houses. After emancipation, the village was grad- Further Reading
ually abandoned, but the relatively newer houses adja-
cent to the aqueduct were the last to be abandoned. Armstrong, D. V. 1983a. "The Drax Hall Slave Settlement: Site
When the initial study of the enslaved laborer settle- Selection Procedures." In Proceedings of the 9th Interna-
ment was completed, Armstrong returned to Jamaica tional Congress for the Study of Pre-Columbian Cultures of
the Lesser Antilles, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic,
to direct a combined project that included participants
431–42. Montreal: Centre de Recherches Caraibes, Univer-
from The University of the West Indies, the Jamaica Na-
sity de Montreal.
tional Heritage Trust field school, and the University of ———. 1983b. "The 'Old Village' at Drax Hall Plantation: An Ar-
California, Los Angeles (UCLA). This project, which was chaeological Examination of an Afro-Jamaican Settlement."
known as the First African Jamaican Archaeological Field PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles.
School, took place in January and March of 1983. Of note ———. 1985. "An Afro-Jamaican Slave Settlement: Archaeologi-
was the composition of this field program. Armstrong cal Investigations at Drax Hall." In The Archaeology of Slav-
brought fellow UCLA doctoral student Kofi Agorsah to ery and Plantation Life, ed. Theresa Singleton, 261–87. New
co-direct the program. E. Kofi Agorsah returned to Ja- York: Academic Press.
maica after the project to join the Department of History ———. 1990. The Old Village and the Great House: An Archaeo-
logical and Historical Examination of Drax Hall Plantation,
and Archaeology at The University of the West Indies,
St. Ann's Bay, Jamaica. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Mona (Jamaica) as its first archaeologist. Project staff in-
———. 1991a. "The Afro-Jamaican House-Yard: An Archaeo-
cluded Paul Farnsworth and Christopher DeCorse (both logical and Ethnohistorical Perspective." Florida Journal of
then doctoral students at UCLA) and George A. Aarons Anthropology Special Publication 7: 51–63
and Roderick Ebanks (both of the Jamaica National Heri- ———. 1991b. "An Archaeological Study of the Afro-Jamaican
tage Trust). The University of the West Indies faculty who Community at Drax Hall." Jamaica Journal 24 (1): 3–8.
participated on the project included Barry Higman, Pat-
rick Bryan, and Neville Hall from the Department of His- See also Afro-Caribbean Earthenwares; La Reconnais-
tory. Among the students who participated were Verene sance Site (Trinidad); The Seville Sugar Plantation (Brit-
Shepherd, Dorrick Gray, and Basil Reid, all of whom have ish Colonial Jamaica).
Duerden, J. E. (1869–1937)
Ivor Conolley
James Edwin Duerden, usually referred to in texts as
J. E. Duerden, was born in Yorkshire, England, in 1869.
He received his academic qualifications in zoology from
the Royal College of Science, London, in 1889 and was
appointed a Bruce Fellow at John Hopkins University,
Baltimore, Maryland, in 1901. Duerden took positions
in Ireland, the United States, Jamaica, South Africa, and
England. He developed an interest in marine biology re-
search from his first appointment, at the Royal College
of Science in Dublin, where he served as a demonstra-
tor in biology and paleontology. This interest continued
in Jamaica, where he held the position of curator of the
Institute of Jamaica Museum from 1895 to 1901, where
he made benchmark contributions to Jamaican archae-
ology (Figure D.4).
During his tenure as curator of the Museum of the
Institute of Jamaica, Duerden conducted research and
published journal articles on actinians, hydroids, poly-
zoa, and corals. His outstanding work in marine biology
in Ireland and Jamaica earned him recognition as an au-
thority on the subject. His work in archaeology at the In-
stitute of Jamaica became a valuable legacy to Jamaican
archaeology, as he was engaged in island-wide surveys
and studies of the native Jamaicans, the Taíno. Following
this research, Duerden mounted the first known exhibit
of precolonial "aboriginal Indian" artifacts in Jamaica. Figure D.4. James Edwin Duerden (1869–1937). Courtesy of Pro-
The publication associated with this exhibition, "Ab- fessor J. Peires.
original Indian Remains in Jamaica" (Duerden 1897),
was not just a report of the exhibit but was also the cul-
mination of this island-wide research, which Duerden fleece of South African Merino sheep, which he contin-
had been given a year to conduct. In 1900, the colonial ued on his retirement in Leeds, England. He was active
government in Jamaica reviewed the operations and ex- up to his death in 1937.
penditures of the Institute of Jamaica and eliminated the
full-time post of curator. This resulted in Duerden's re-
lease when his contract expired the following year. Daily Gleaner. 1896. "Institute of Jamaica." November 18. Insti-
Subsequently, the Carnegie Institute of Washington tute of Jamaica Letter Boxes and Press Clippings, National
granted him facilities for research in recognition of the Library of Jamaica.
Duerden, J. E. 1897. "Aboriginal Indian Remains in Jamaica."
value of his marine expertise. His next position was that
Journal of the Institute of Jamaica 2 (4): 1–52.
of associate professor at the University of Michigan, but
Jamaica Post. 1896. "The Missing Brochure." November 16. In-
soon after, in 1905, he took up a professorial appoint- stitute of Jamaica Letter Boxes and Press Clippings, National
ment at Rhodes University, South Africa, where he re- Library of Jamaica.
mained for twenty-seven years, until his retirement in Nature. 1937. "Prof. J. E. Duerden." Nature 140 (October 2): 576.
1932. In South Africa, Duerden focused his research on http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v140/n3544/abs/
ostriches and sheep, once again becoming recognized as 140576a0.html. Accessed November 14, 2012.
an authority for his contributions to the field. During
this time, he commenced pioneer work on the skin and See also The Institute of Jamaica; Jamaica (Prehistory of).
Duhos (Dujos) 131
Duhos (Dujos)
Duhos are ceremonial or ritual seats (Ostapkowicz 1997) platters. Geographically, the highest frequency of docu-
that are primarily constructed of wood or stone. Duhos mented duhos comes from Puerto Rico and Hispaniola,
are represented as anthropomorphic and zoomorphic although several examples have been recovered from the
figures in which the leg appendages serve as the legs of Turks and Caicos and the Bahamas and a few rare speci-
the stool and the heads often protrude from the center mens have been recovered from Cuba and Jamaica. The
of the front of the stool and the genitalia are on the largest number of duhos was recovered from Cartwright
underside of the back of the stool. Duhos were status Cave on Long Island in the Bahamas.
items imbued with powerful symbology, personalities, Most duhos are carved from wood, although some are
and histories that set their owners apart from the rest made from coral or stone. In the Dominican Republic,
of the community and were a central part of the co- wooden examples are prevalent. Wooden duhos are of-
hoba ritual repertoire (Oliver 2009) As such, these items ten made of dense wood known as Guayacan (Lignum
were generally attributable to the elite and represent the vitae). In Puerto Rico, stone duhos dominate the archae-
materialization of social practices associated with the ological record, although many wooden examples have
veneration of those of status and rank. Duhos are pri- also been recovered from the island. The facial features
marily associated with Taíno groups in the northern and shoulders of duhos are often deeply carved to allow
Caribbean. for inlays of gold or bone.
Two major types of duhos have been identified: those
with backs and those without backs (Figure D.5). The Further Reading
use of duhos (without backs) as seats is questionable, as Oliver, J. R. 2008. "El universo material y espiritual de los taí-
they may have actually functioned as elaborate serving nos." In El Caribe precolombino Fray Ramón Pané y el Uni-
Figure D.5. Left, classic wooden duho with inlays of gold. Height: 22 cm; width: 43.8 cm; Dominican Republic. Photo © Trustees of
the British Museum. Top right, profile of stone duho recovered from Puerto Rico. Photo: cat. A17076, Department of Anthropology,
Smithsonian Institution. Bottom right, profile of a small stone backless duho, also from Puerto Rico. Photo: cat. A17077, Department
of Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution.
verso Taíno, ed. J. R. Oliver, C. McEwan, and A. Casas Gil- and Veneration': Contextual Aspects of the Taíno Duho." In
berga, 136–201. Barcelona: Ministerio de Cultura. Taíno: Pre-Columbian Art and Culture from the Caribbean,
———. 2009. Caciques and Cemí Idols: The Web Spun by Taíno ed. F. Bercht, 56–67. New York: Monacelli Press.
Rulers between Hispanola and Puerto Rico. Tuscaloosa: Uni-
versity of Alabama Press. See also Chiefdoms (Cacicazgos); Cohoba; Zemíes (Cemís).
Ostapkowicz, J. M. 1997. "To Be Seated with 'Great Courtesy
The Dutch Caribbean
L. E. Bosch's 1836 descriptions of rock art at Fontein, were the primary archaeologists working in the Dutch
Aruba, constitute the oldest records of prehistoric re- Antilles at this time. Toward the end of the 1960s, José
mains in the Dutch Caribbean. The most important Cruxent and Irving Rouse published an overview of the
research in the nineteenth century was completed by status of archaeological research in the Netherland An-
Father A. J. van Koolwijk, who assembled a rich collec- tilles. Cruxent visited Curaçao and Aruba in 1965 and
tion of artifacts in the period 1870–1886 in the Leeward identified some historical archaeological sites. In 1965,
Islands of Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire. During that he processed the first radiocarbon dates for historical
period, he found Amerindian shells, earthenware frag- archaeology sites on Curaçao, providing a date of 1610
ments, and stone artifacts. He also examined native rock for the Spanish-period Gaito site.
art. His collection was sent to Leiden University in the During the 1950s and 1960s, P. Brenneker, E. Juliana,
Netherlands. Van Koolwijk's collection drew the atten- and C. Engels made extensive amateur collections of
tion of Prof. J. P. B. de Josselin de Jong, the curator of the ethnographic materials relating to Curaçao. The Engels
National Museum for Ethnology at Leiden. In 1923, De collection forms the basis for the Curaçao Museum ex-
Josselin de Jong was the first to identify prehistoric loca- hibits, while the majority of the Brenneker and Juliana
tions in St. Maarten, St. Eustatius, and Saba. During his collections are currently in the possession of the Na-
time, his work was the best example of applied archaeo- tional Archaeological Anthropological Memory Man-
logical research in the Dutch Caribbean. In the 1920s, agement Foundation (NAAM). To date, the Brenneker
De Josselin de Jong conducted surveys on all six Dutch and Juliana collections are the largest ethnographic arti-
Caribbean islands; some of this work involved excava- fact collections for the island. These collections remain
tions. His published works provided well-documented an important reference for material culture research in
descriptions of all of the sites and artifacts he encoun- Curaçao.
tered. However, he avoided making any interpretations Beginning in the 1960s, archaeology in the Dutch
of the lifeways of the prehistoric peoples whose remains Caribbean changed from a descriptive to a more ana-
he described. The majority of the artifacts De Josselin lytical science. During the 1960s and 1970s, P. Glazema,
de Jong recovered were shipped to Leiden University in P. Wagenaar-Hummelinck, J. Cruxent, and E. Boerstra
the Netherlands, while a few returned to the Antilles in were engaged in scientific archaeology in the Dutch
the 1980s. Caribbean. In 1967, the Archaeological-Anthropolog-
The early 1940s to about 1960 marked a transitional ical Institute of the Netherlands Antilles (AAINA) was
period for the field of archaeology in the Americas, founded, with Edwin N. Ayubi as director. In 1976, E.
which was becoming more anthropological in nature, Boerstra was hired, and W. Nagelkerken and J. Haviser
and was placing greater emphasis on new contextual- were both hired in 1981. This led to an expansion of
functional approaches. In the Dutch Caribbean, this the archaeological institute, and the department for
period was ushered in by a Dutch archaeological team cultural anthropology was placed under the leadership
led by H. R. van Heekeren and C. J. Du Ry in 1960. Wa- of Rosemary Allen. The institute made major contribu-
genaar Hummelinck (a rock art expert), J. Tacoma (a tions to scientific research and increased public aware-
physical anthropologist), and Du Ry and Van Heekeren ness of archaeology in the Dutch Caribbean. During
The Dutch Caribbean 133
these decades, AAINA began to implement a more from a road cut at the Bishop Hill cemetery site. In 1996,
multidisciplinary approach involving the integration Jay Haviser of AAINA conducted an archaeological sur-
of geology, biology, and physical anthropology into ar- vey and excavations at the Belvedere Plantation for the
chaeological research. Major scholars involved in this government of St. Maarten. In 2006, Menno Hoogland,
methodology included P. de Buisonje, H. Coomans, S. Corinne Hofman, and Grant Gilmore conducted sur-
Gould, D. Hooijer, J. Tacoma, and E. Wing. During the veys and excavations at the Bethlehem Plantation site
1980s, AAINA assisted with the founding of the Curaçao for the property owners. From 1996 to 2010, Jay Haviser
Rock Drawings Working Group, a group of amateur ar- conducted numerous historical archaeology investiga-
cheologists. tions on St. Maarten. Since 2007, he has conducted field
On St. Eustatius, a College of William and Mary ar- activity in his capacity as the government archaeologist
chaeological research program under the direction of for St. Maarten.
Norman Barka continued both general historical ar- In 1983, Haviser conducted an island-wide archaeo-
chaeology field schools and specific historical archaeol- logical survey of Saba for AAINA that identified both
ogy excavation programs from 1981 to 1998. Archaeo- prehistoric and historic sites (outside the developed
logical researchers from the University of South Florida residential areas). This survey of Saba included the lo-
had initiated investigations in 1981 but discontinued cation and mapping of numerous historical sites and
participation after the 1982 field season. AAINA collabo- abandoned historic village complexes of the eighteenth
rated with Jay Haviser from 1982 to 1985 in land surveys through the twentieth centuries. Most had never been
and mapping. W. Nagelkerken conducted underwater mapped before, for example, Mary's Point. Into the late
surveys and artifact recovery in Orange Bay. In 1984, 1980s and 1990s, Corinne Hofman and Menno Hoogland
AAINA also began research on the prehistory of St. Eu- of Leiden University conducted significant prehistoric
statius. This was jointly undertaken by Aad Versteeg of archaeological investigations at numerous sites on Saba,
the Instituut voor Prehistorie of Leiden University, the for which they acquired radiocarbon dates and new site
St. Eustatius Historical Foundation (SEHF), and Jay pattern data for the island's prehistory. Both Hofman
Haviser of AAINA. and Hoogland eventually published their doctoral dis-
Given that the focus on historical archaeology began sertations at Leiden University based on their Saba re-
on St. Eustatius in 1981, it is ironic that Sint Maarten was search. In 2009, Ryan Espersen conducted archaeologi-
given such little attention, considering that one must cal research at the Mary's Point settlement on Saba.
travel through Sint Maarten to reach St. Eustatius. Even- The types of sites investigated on Curaçao using his-
tually, various historical archaeology sites were recorded torical archaeology in the 1980s and 1990s were quite
on Sint Maarten: M. Sypkens-Smit worked there in 1981 variable. Professional archaeological research on Cu-
and Haviser worked there in 1987. Both of these site list- raçao was primarily conducted by AAINA, beginning
ings were part of an overall prehistoric site survey. In in 1982 with an island-wide land survey of prehistoric
1987, the first extensive historical archaeology excava- and historic sites. One result of this investigation was
tions were conducted at the Fort Amsterdam site by J. the eventual publication in 1987 of a doctoral disserta-
Baart (the city archaeologist for Amsterdam) in collabo- tion by Jay Haviser at Leiden University on prehistoric
ration with AAINA. In 1989, Baart conducted further ex- sites of Curaçao. The historic sites Haviser first reported
cavations at the Fort Amsterdam site again and did addi- in this survey were mostly of the protohistoric period.
tional surface collections at the Bishop Hill site. In 1989, AAINA conducted excavations at the San Hironimo site
researchers from the College of William and Mary un- on Curaçao. In 1990, Haviser and N. Brito conducted ar-
der the direction of Norman Barka conducted a survey chaeological tests over much of the urban Punda district
and mapping of the Welgelegen Estate on Sint Maarten. on Curaçao. This was followed in 1991 by excavations at
This was followed by surveys and mapping of various the Zuurzak site by Haviser. Zuurzak is believed to be
historical sites on the Dutch side of the island from 1990 a Dutch slave camp from the late seventeenth century.
to 1992. Most of these sites were plantation estates of the In 1995, Haviser conducted a historical archaeology
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Underwater survey field survey and excavations at a slave period and post-
and mapping directed by K. Bequette was conducted at emancipation African settlement in the Kenepa area of
the Proselyte shipwreck site off the coast of Sint Maarten Curaçao for AAINA. Beginning in 1988, W. Nagelkerken
in 1994 and 1995. During the 1994 field season, Bequette conducted various underwater historical archaeology
and S. Sanders were called upon to make an emergency investigations on Curaçao for AAINA. These studies in-
soil profile drawing of historic burials that were eroding cluded general underwater surveys of the bays on the
south coast, underwater mapping and excavations of 2005, Haviser founded the Sint Maarten Archaeologi-
the 1778 shipwreck Alphen in Santa Anna Bay, and un- cal Center (SIMARC) on St. Maarten, and in 2012 he
derwater surveys and excavations along the wharf area founded the Saba Archaeological Center (SABARC) on
of Handelskade in the commercial Punda district. Since Saba.
the creation of the NAAM in 1999, various archaeologi- In October 2010, the Netherlands Antilles were dis-
cal investigations have taken place on Curaçao. Since mantled and reformulated into four autonomous enti-
2003, under the direction of Ieteke Witteveen of the ties within the Kingdom of the Netherlands: The Neth-
NAAM, an amateur Archaeology Work Group, led by erlands, Aruba, Curaçao, and St. Maarten. The smaller
Andre Rancuret, Jose DaCamara, and Francois van der islands of Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba were ab-
Hoeven, has recorded archaeological site locations on sorbed into the Netherlands and given the status of mu-
the island. In 2010, researchers from Leiden University nicipalities.
conducted surveys and excavations of prehistoric sites at
Spaanse Water, under the direction of Corinne Hofman
and Menno Hoogland. Further Reading
On Bonaire, archaeology was initially conducted by
Ayubi, E., E. Boerstra, and A. Versteeg. 1985. "Archeologie." In
Haviser for AAINA in 1988 as part of a larger study of
Encyclopedie van de Nederlandse Antillen II, ed. J. de Palm.
the cultural history of Amerindians. AAINA conducted Zutphen: Walburg Pers.
an extensive historical archaeology investigation at Fort Haviser, J. 1987. Amerindian Cultural Geography on Curaçao.
Oranje, Bonaire, in 1997, and Haviser and A. Sealy pub- Amsterdam: Natuurweteschappelijke Studiekring voor Su-
lished the results of this research. In 2007, archaeologi- riname en de Nederlandse Antillen.
cal excavations were conducted by the Bonaire Archae- ———. 1991. The First Bonaireans. Curaçao: Archaeological-
ological Institute (BONAI) at a World War II military Anthropological Institute of the Netherlands Antilles.
camp on Bonaire under Haviser's supervision. The most Hofman, C. 1993. "In Search of the Native Population of Pre-
recent archaeological work on Bonaire, which was done Columbian Saba (400–1450 AD)." PhD diss., Leiden Uni-
versity, the Netherlands.
in 2010, is the result of collaboration between BONAI
Hofman, C., and M. Hoogland, eds. 1999. Archaeological Inves-
and Leiden University.
tigations of St. Martin (Lesser Antilles). Leiden: Faculty of
In 1998, AAINA was shifted from full government Archaeology, Leiden University.
service to become a government-sponsored founda- Versteeg, A. H., and S. Rostain, eds. 1997. The Archaeology of
tion called the National Archaeological Anthropologi- Aruba: The Tanki Flip Site. Oranjestad, Aruba: Archaeologi-
cal Museum. The artifacts, which had hitherto been in cal Museum Aruba.
AAINA's custody, were transferred to the museum. The Versteeg, A. H., and K. Schinkel, eds. 1992. The Archaeology of
decentralization of archaeological research in the Dutch St. Eustatius: The Golden Rock Site. St. Eustatius: St. Eusta-
Caribbean started with the creation of the Archaeologi- tius Historical Foundation.
cal Museum of Aruba in 1981.
Beginning in 2000, archaeological research on St. See also Bonaire Archaeological Institute (BONAI); Cu-
Eustatius was done by the St. Eustatius Center for Ar- raçao (Former Netherlands Antilles); Foundation for
chaeological Research (SECAR). In 2004, R. Grant Marine Archaeology of the Netherlands Antilles (STI-
Gilmore published his doctoral dissertation on the MANA); The National Archaeological Anthropological
historical archaeology of St. Eustatius, and since 2004, Memory Management Foundation (NAAM); Saba; Sint
Gilmore has led the SECAR project. In order to stimu- Maarten (Former Netherlands Antilles); St. Eustatius; St.
late local involvement in archaeology, especially that of Eustatius Center for Archaeological Research (SECAR);
young people, Jay Haviser founded BONAI in 2003. In St. Eustatius Historical Foundation.
Dutch Colonial Ceramic Types 135
Dutch Colonial Ceramic Types
Dutch ceramics are dominated throughout the colonial Roman types. Cooking pots, storage vessels, kookpotten
Caribbean by two types—tin-glazed earthenwares and (pipkins), and bowls are common in the Dutch Carib-
lead-glazed coarse earthenwares. Dutch tin-glazed earth- bean and are found occasionally on other islands. Ab-
enwares suffer the same nomenclature identity crises as sent from Caribbean collections are dairy wares that are
those produced elsewhere in Europe and thus have been quite commonly found in the Netherlands. This follows
mislabeled "Delftware" by many practitioners. In reality, the patterns for both New Amsterdam and Cape Colony
these tin-lead oxide-glazed, soft-bodied, refined earthen- sites. As with other European coarse earthenwares, sur-
wares were produced in many areas in the Netherlands face treatments include slip decoration, lead glazes, and
other than Delft, including Amsterdam, Den Haag, and englobe. The Dutch kookpot, a type of saucepan, is per-
Haarlem. The rarest but most widely known Dutch tin- haps the most distinctive form found on Caribbean sites.
enamel ceramic types on Caribbean archaeological sites The low cylindrical kookpot is larger in diameter than
are tiles that were produced starting in the sixteenth cen- the bulbous seventeenth-century English pipkin and has
tury. They continue to be produced today. These tiles var- a pronounced lip that permits a lid to be fitted tightly.
ied in size and were most often square in shape. Decora- Both vessels have three small legs on the bottom surface
tions were hand painted using cobalt blue but could also for keeping the pot above the coals.
be polychrome. The decorative motifs varied but included
nautical themes, hunting scenes, children at play, reli- Further Reading
gious themes, and floral patterns. Similar tiles were also Bartels, M. 1999. Cities in Sherds: Finds from Cesspits in De-
produced in England and are generally discernible from venter, Dordrecht, Nijmegen, and Tiel (1250–1900). Amers-
those made in the Netherlands. Dutch tin-enamelware foort/Zwolle: ROB/SPA.
plates, tea cups, and bowls are also commonly found on Gaimster, D., ed. 1999. Maiolica in the North: The Archeology
Caribbean archaeological sites. Another common Dutch of Tin-Glazed Earthenware in North-West Europe, c. 1500–
tin-enamel vessel type is the chamber pot. These were 1600. London: British Museum Press.
Schaefer, R. G. 1994. "A Typology of Seventeenth-Century
generally left undecorated and have been found in sizes
Dutch Ceramics and Its Implications for American Histori-
ranging from those for children to those for adults.
cal Archaeology." PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania.
Dutch coarse earthenwares (Figure D.6) have not Wilcoxen, C. 1987. Dutch Trade and Ceramics in America in the
been studied extensively in the Netherlands or in the Seventeenth Century. Albany, NY: Albany Institute of His-
Caribbean. In both New York/New Amsterdam and in tory and Art.
Cape Colony/South Africa, archaeologists have com-
pleted detailed analyses of vessel forms and functions. See also Afro-Caribbean Earthenwares; English Colo-
Coarse earthenwares produced in the Netherlands were nial Ceramic Types; French Colonial Ceramic Types;
primarily utilitarian and are directly descended from Spanish Colonial Ceramic Types.
Figure D.6. Dutch earthen-
wares. Courtesy of R. Grant
Gilmore III and SECAR.
East End Free Black Community (St. John)
The archaeological study of the East End Community ployment. Children of community members were allot-
on St. John, Danish West Indies, provides a detailed ted small parcels on the community-owned lands to es-
examination of the emergence of a Caribbean free tablish their own households. Archaeological evidence
black community. Freedom, land ownership, and self- indicates the presence of fifty such house sites on the
employment (in the maritime trades and in cottage hills above Hansen Bay and Newfound Bay. East Enders
industries) are the dominant life themes the East End had a close affiliation with the Moravian Church, and
Community archaeological studies project (Armstrong they placed so high a value on education that they gave
2003a, 2003b). The free black community took advan- land for the construction of a school that became a fo-
tage of ambiguities in the organization of the Danish cal point in their community. Following the transfer of
colonial structure to gain land ownership in St. John's the Danish West Indies to the United States, the new
arid east end. This rural setting contrasts sharply with administrators of the islands removed the school, and
the conditions of slavery associated with the dominant gradually the small "Tortola sloop"–type sailboats that
economic and social structures of the Caribbean during East End carpenters built and East End mariners used
the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The were replaced by motor craft. The fine needlepoint of
community developed when a group of five extended East End seamstresses was replaced by mass-produced
families of blacks and whites were forced off Virgin wares and the fast stitchery of the mechanical sewing
Gorda, British Virgin Islands, in 1754 because they machine. New industries emerged, including basket
lacked formal title to lands that others wished to de- production; but the distance that had once insulated
velop into sugar estates. They were able to secure com- this free black community at the far east end of St. John
munal land ownership on the nearby island of St. John, ultimately led to its demise, as its population used their
at Hansen Bay and at Newfound Bay Estates. Perhaps skills in industry and education to take up new lands
the most significant finding pertains to the multifocal and trades. By the second decade of the twentieth cen-
kinship and residential networks of this community tury, this community was all but abandoned, and the
(rather than the matrilineal relationships that are often significance of the ruins of small house sites (Figure E.1)
described for the region). The East End community's that dot the hills of St. John's East End was lost from
multifocal social organization was identified through a common memory (Armstrong et al. 2007; Armstrong
combination of archaeological and historical analysis et al. 2008.
(Armstrong 2001, 2003a, 2003b). When the island was surveyed for potentially sig-
By the 1790s, the East End community had emerged nificant historic sites in the 1970s and 1980s, the sig-
as a phenotypic black free settlement that was surviv- nificance of the East End Community was completely
ing through a combination of subsistence farming and missed. The archaeologists who conducted the surveys
fishing. They also sold provisions and construction ma- were looking for the more substantial ruins of large-
terials to neighboring estates and to the growing port scale plantations that related to the dominant form
town of Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas. This community of sugar and the slavery-based economy for the island
thrived on the margins of plantation society through and region. When archaeologists encountered East End
participation in the maritime trades, boat building, house sites, they misinterpreted what they saw as in-
transporting interisland cargoes, and producing fine consequential estates. In fact, what they saw was only a
embroidery work. The fact that they owned the lands on small part of the landscape. What they did not consider
which they lived provided them a safe base for self-em- was the fact that something other than a sugar estate
East End Free Black Community (St. John) 137
Figure E.1. East End
Windy Hill ruins, St.
John. Courtesy of
Douglas V. Armstrong.
could have or would have been in operation on the is- 1850s. When travel was restricted because of the epi-
land, and certainly they did not consider the possibility demic, the community built a school on their own lands.
of a free black community. The school, along with the maritime activities in Hanson
In 1995, in response to an invitation from Mr. Guy Bay, became the center of activities in the community.
Benjamin, who was born in the East End and who was The settlement was gradually abandoned after the Dan-
later a teacher and superintendent of Virgin Islands ish Islands were transferred to the United States, and the
schools, researchers from Syracuse University initiated local school was closed. Many St. Johnians today trace
a new survey of the area. The initial walk through the their ancestry and their history of freedom to this com-
area identified at least fifteen distinct house platforms munity.
and living areas that included sites that had been old cot-
ton estates from the early 1700s and a large number of Further Reading
small house sites spread out across the hillsides. Formal
Armstrong, D. V. 2001. "A Venue for Autonomy: Archaeology of
detailed walking surveys of the hillsides identified fifty
a Changing Cultural Landscape, the East End Community,
of these house sites dating from the mid-eighteenth to St. John, Virgin Islands." In Island Lives: Plantation Archae-
the mid-twentieth centuries. The basic core of the com- ology in the Caribbean, ed. P. Farnsworth, 142–64. Tusca-
munity remained in place and thrived through the last loosa: University of Alabama Press.
years of slavery and into the period of freedom. The ———. 2003a. Creole Transformation from Slavery to Freedom:
community withstood the trauma of a cholera outbreak Historical Archaeology of the East End Community, St. John,
that affected it and the rest of St. John in the 1750s and Virgin Islands. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
1760s and was able to draw upon the strength of its base ———. 2003b. "Social Relations in a Maritime Creole Commu-
nity: Networked Multifocality in the East End Community
and maritime skills to maintain and even expand the
of St. John, Danish West Indies." In Proceedings of the XIX
community after the epidemic. A key factor in the com-
International Congress for Caribbean Archaeology, ed. Luc
munity's survival in the late nineteenth century was the Alofs and Raymundo A. C. F. Dijkhoff, 194–210. Aruba: Ar-
construction of the East End School. Education was a chaeological Museum Aruba.
priority within the community, and all community chil- ———. 2006. "East End Maritime Traders: The Emergence of a
dren were enrolled and in attendance at the school at Creole Community on St. John, Danish West Indies." In Af-
Emmaus Estate prior to the cholera outbreak of the mid- rican Re-Genesis: Confronting Social Issues in the Diaspora,
ed. Jay Haviser and Kevin MacDonald, 146–59. London: Danish West Indies." In Archaeology and Geoinformatics:
University College. Case Studies from the Caribbean, ed. Basil A Reid, 99–126.
Armstrong, D. V., and M. Hauser. 2005. "Reassessing the Cul- Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
tural Landscape of St. John, USVI, Using GIS." In Actas del Armstrong, D. V., M. W. Hauser, S. Lenik, and K. Wild. 2007.
XX Congreso International de Arqueologia del Caribe, ed. "Estate Consolidation, Land Use, and Ownership: A GIS
Manuel García Arévalo and Clenis Tavárez María, 515–20. Archaeological Landscape Survey of St. John." In Proceed-
Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: [Museo del Hom- ings of the Twenty-Fourth Congress of the International As-
bre]. sociation of Caribbean Archaeology, ed. Basil Reid, Henry
Armstrong, D. V., M. W. Hauser, D. W. Knight, and S. Lenik. Petitjean Roget, and Antonio Curet, 1:69–80. St. Augustine,
2008. "Maps, Matricals, and Material Remains: Archaeol- Trinidad and Tobago: School of Continuing Studies, Uni-
ogy of Late Eighteenth-Century Historic Sites on St. John, versity of the West Indies.
The Elenan Ostionoid Subseries
The Elenan Ostionoid subseries, originally known as Ele- Bay-Salt River I, in Puerto Rico it is traditionally divided
noid series (Rouse 1964), was defined by Rouse (1992) as into the Monserrate (AD 600–900) and Santa Elena (AD
the first post-Saladoid subseries for eastern Puerto Rico 900–1200) styles. However, the ceramic trends of the
and the Virgin Islands. Rouse also includes the Leeward Magens Bay-Salt River I mimic the trends observed in
Islands as far south as Antigua in this subseries, but not Puerto Rico (Lundberg 2007). During the early style of
everyone agrees with this categorization. A general trend this subseries (that is, the Monserrate style) some of the
in simplification of the pottery assemblage began toward technology and vessel forms of the final Saladoid pottery
the end of the Saladoid series, eventually leading to the were retained, including the tabular lugs, strap handles,
Elenan Ostionoid subseries. The most observable change and red-painted and slipped ceramics, while a limited
in Elenan ceramics is a marked decrease in aesthetics number of other kinds of decoration were added. The
(both in stylistic complexity and aesthetic priority) and persistence of a few Saladoid traits into the early part of
in craftsmanship (Figure E.2). Saladoid ceramics tend the Elenan Ostionoid subseries makes the assignment
to have finer paste, thinner walls, and a more refined
appearance than Elenan Ostionoid ceramics. Another
change was the gradual loss of paint and slip from the
Saladoid to the Elenan Ostionoid, to the point that by
the end of the latter period, the main forms of decoration
were plastic in nature, including vertical incisions per-
pendicular to the rim of the vessels, biomorphic adornos
or handles, and appliqués. Thus, the tendency in ceram-
ics is of workmanship degradation and a reduction in
the use of symbolic decoration in pottery designs. These
gradual but significant changes have been described as
a "de-evolution" by Roe, and the later ceramic styles as
the "Dark Ages" of the Greater Antilles by Rouse (Roe
1989; Rouse 1982). Although post-Saladoid pottery is less
appealing to the eye, physical analysis suggests that its
manufacture is better suited for utilitarian uses. The tra-
ditional dates for this subseries as defined by Rouse are
AD 600 to 1200, but recent evidence suggests that it may
have lasted longer than that.
In Puerto Rico, while the Elenan subseries of the Os- Figure E.2. Example of Elenan Ostionoid pottery. Drawings by
tionoid is composed of only one style named Magens Jill Seagard. Courtesy of L. Antonio Curet.
The Elenan Ostionoid Subseries 139
of this pottery to one or the other series very difficult, matter of fact, the Elenan subseries seems to have had the
since there is no clear break in the ceramic trend. The largest population in pre-Hispanic times in Puerto Rico.
distinction between the series becomes clearer at a later Moreover, while some Elenan sites are circular, nucleated
date, when the Monserrate style is characterized by large villages (similar to Saladoid settlements); other types of
amounts of plain and red-slipped pottery, in contrast to settlements were also present, such as medium and small
the more varied and prevalent decoration of the previ- sites (e.g., farmsteads and homesteads) and ceremonial
ous Saladoid series. In general, the Monserrate ceramics centers. This period also shows a more diverse distribu-
are thicker, coarser, and rougher and the shapes are sim- tion of sites, including lineal sites along the coasts or riv-
ple. Vessels tend to have outcurving sides, although in- ers; dispersed settlement patterns of small sites, perhaps
curving shapes start to increase in number. In addition, representing farmsteads or single households; and cen-
incised designs become less common and red-painted tralized settlement patterns that featured a large site in
designs are still present. Black, negative, and smudging the center and smaller ones surrounding it. Interestingly,
designs can also be found. Biomorphic modeled handles while most Saladoid sites were located close to the coasts
are common, especially the "monkey" heads that actu- and water streams, Elenan people seem to have diversified
ally represent bat heads. their exploitation of resources to other habitats, including
During the second half of this series (i.e., the Santa mangroves, savannahs, foothills, and mountain forests.
Elena style), more drastic changes in ceramic decoration Although few houses belonging to this subseries have
and technological attributes occurred. Perhaps the most been unearthed, there are indications that house size de-
significant change is that the Santa Elena style shows a creased through time, suggesting a shift from the mul-
return to the practices of modeling and incision, includ- tifamily structures reported for the Saladoid to single or
ing zoomorphic (especially bat heads) and anthropo-
morphic handles. The style also shows a gradual increase
in the number of thicker, coarser, and rougher ceramics;
the almost complete absence of red paint and slip; and
simpler shapes (incurving bowls). Most of the decora-
tion is restricted to crude, vertical, rectilinear incisions
close to the rims of bowls, frequently accompanied by
appliqué strips.
Other than ceramics, the material culture of the Ele-
nan Ostionoid subseries includes the presence of reli-
gious and high-status objects made of stone and shell.
The three-pointed zemíes found first in the Saladoid se-
ries are still present at this time, but many of them are
larger. This has been interpreted as an indication that
this type of idol was being used not only at the individ-
ual or household level but also in larger communal cer-
emonies. Other shell and stone objects include personal
ornaments/idols and (according to some scholars) pos-
sible stone collars. Moreover, inhalers and vomit spatulas
made of bone have been found in Elenan deposits. These,
combined with the discovery of wood of the cohoba at the
Elenan ceremonial center of Tibes, strongly suggest that
the cohoba ceremony for contacting the supernatural, as
described in early European documents, was also an im-
portant component of religious rituals during this time.
Other dramatic changes are observed in the archaeo-
logical record of the Elenan Ostionoid subseries of east-
ern Puerto Rico. During this time there were obvious
changes in settlement patterns and a sharp increase in the Figure E.3. Aerial view of the Tibes Indigenous Ceremonial Cen-
number of sites and in population size, mostly during the ter, Ponce, Puerto Rico. Reproduced by permission of the Cen-
second half of the period, or the Santa Elena style. As a tro Indígena de Tibes, Ponce, Puerto Rico.
nuclear family houses. Furthermore, changes in mortu- Curet, L. A., and L. M. Stringer, eds. 2010. Tibes: People, Power,
ary practices have been reported, at least for Puerto Rico. and Ritual at the Center of the Cosmos. Tuscaloosa: Univer-
Whereas clustered Saladoid burials have been found, sity of Alabama Press.
especially around the central clearing of the settlement, Curet, L. A., J. M. Torres, and M. Rodríguez. 2004. "Political
and Social History of Eastern Puerto Rico: The Ceramic
Elenan Ostionoid burials seem to have been distributed
Age." In The Late Ceramic Age in the Eastern Caribbean, ed.
throughout the site, in many instances within the con- A. Delpuech and C. Hofman, 59–85. Oxford: British Ar-
text of the domestic unit. An increase in communal ritu- chaeological Reports.
alism is also indicated by the development of ball courts Lundberg, E. 2007. "A Monserrate Component in the Virgin Is-
and plazas. These are circular, rectangular, or square lands in the Context of Inquiry into the Saladoid-Ostionoid
leveled areas that are bounded by stone rows or "cause- Transition." In The Proceedings of the Twenty-First Congress
ways." Although single examples of these structures are of the International Association for Caribbean Archaeology,
found in many sites in southern Puerto Rico, some loca- ed. B. Reid, H. Petitjean Roget, and L. A. Curet, 1:338–46.
tions known as ceremonial centers show a multiplicity of St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago: School of Continuing
Studies, University of the West Indies.
them, as at the site of Tibes, Ponce (Figure E.3). In few
Roe, Peter G. 1989. "A Grammatical Analysis of Cedrosan Sala-
cases, petroglyphs can be found in some of the stones in
doid Vessel Form Categories and Surface Decoration: Aes-
the structures, but these tend to be simpler and smaller thetic and Technical Styles in Early Antillean Ceramics." In
than the ones of the next period (i.e., the Chican Os- Early Ceramic Population Lifeways and Adaptive Strategies
tionoid subseries). in the Caribbean, ed. P. E. Siegel, 267–382. Oxford: British
The intensity and nature of all the changes observed Archaeological Reports.
in the archaeological record have led many archaeologists Rouse, Irving. 1964. "Prehistory of the West Indies." Science 144
to argue that they are strongly related to sociopolitical (3618): 499–513.
changes from which institutionalized social stratification ———. 1982. "Ceramic and Religious Development in the
emerged. This may have set the foundations for the caci- Greater Antilles." Journal of New World Archaeology 5:
cazgo political system of the later Chican Ostionoid sub-
———. 1992. The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who
series (AD 1200–1500) that was reported by Europeans.
Further Reading See also The Chican Ostionoid Subseries; Chiefdoms
Curet, L. A. 1996. "Ideology, Chiefly Power, and Material Cul- (Cacicazgos); Cohoba; Duhos (Dujos); Origins of Indig-
ture: An Example from the Greater Antilles." Latin Ameri- enous Groups in the Northern Caribbean; Plazas and
can Antiquity 7 (2): 114–31. Bateys; The Saladoid.
Elite Exchange in the Caribbean
Basil A. Reid and L. Antonio Curet
Elite exchange can be defined as gift-giving among ment of prestige and exotic goods, esoteric knowledge,
elite groups with the purpose of building alliances lo- and spouses from polity to polity and island to island.
cally and regionally. This is an important strategy that Trading of exotic items, for example, was part of the
many forms of leadership, including chiefdoms, use to chief 's elite exchange network, which helped to build
acquire, solidify, and maintain power. In the Caribbean, regional alliances among trading partners. Only a few
elite exchange was part of an extensive and compli- of the many trade goods that ethnohistorical accounts
cated network of interaction that included the move- report as being traded in the Caribbean are preserved
Elite Exchange in the Caribbean 141
in archaeological contexts. Ethnohistorical accounts circum-Caribbean and possibly the Americas during the
mention such items as parrots, feathers, raw and woven Saladoid (Murphy et al. 2000). In fact, there is increas-
cotton, carved wood, shell "ornaments," stone carvings, ing evidence for the movement of precolonial peoples,
gold, and guanín (a gold-copper alloy). Many of these goods, and ideas between the insular Caribbean and the
objects were valued not only for the material they were Isthmo-Colombian area (Colombia, Panama, and Costa
made of or their craftsmanship but also because they Rica). Jadeite axes from Antigua recently were sourced to
were considered to be imbued with supernatural power. the Motagua Valley in Nicaragua, gold objects have been
Objects of this kind were known as zemíes, and the gen- traced to Colombia, and many of the personal adorn-
eral cult associated with them is known as zemíeism. ments made from shell, stone, and bone have shapes and
Oliver (2009) argues that chiefs from the Greater Antil- decorations that are identical to those found at the same
les gave portable zemíes to leaders from other polities time in this region.
as far south as the Lesser Antilles. The trade objects that The major native valuables exchanged in the south-
are most evident archaeologically are the elaborate ce- ern Caribbean and beyond during European contact in-
ramics, such as anthropomorphic (or human-like) and cluded guanín ornaments for the ear, nose, and breast;
zoomorphic (or animal-like) effigy bottles and carved Amazon stones (i.e., animal-shaped, predominantly
stone objects (Wilson 1990). Elaborate ceramics, prob- frog-like pendants and beads made of green-colored
ably from Hispaniola, appear as trade items in Cuba, rock); and large strings of flat shell beads, known as
Jamaica, Puerto Rico and the Bahamas. They are often uruebe, or quiripá. Pearls were collected at Cubagua and
marked with repetitive and highly stylized artistic mo- Margarita (Venezuela) and were traded in the interior
tifs, suggesting that the goods possessed a greater and and along the coast as far as Trinidad and the lower west
more specific symbolic content than that of goods that coast of the Gulf of Paria.
simply marked social status (Wilson 1990). Trading over such long distances was quite possible,
In recent times, evidence from the Greater Antilles given the seaworthiness of native canoes in the Baha-
(Rodríguez Ramos 2011) suggests that elite exchange mas and Cuba, which Columbus described as being
went well beyond the islands and points to the Isthmus- able to comfortably hold 50 to 150 men. Although trade
Colombian region as a place of regular contact. For ex- networks seem to have been present since Archaic
ample, objects made of gold and semi-precious stone times, elite exchange seem to have been more exten-
found in the Caribbean seem to have been produced sive during the Ostionoid period in all of the Greater
using the technology and styles found in regions such Antilles, the Lesser Antilles, and mainland South and
as Colombia and Costa Rica. Also, although the eth- Central America.
nohistorical evidence for contact with Mesoamerica is
scant, there is some indication of contact between the
Greater Antilles and its neighbors in Central America. Further Reading
For example, a version of Popul Vuh (the Mayan cre- Murphy, A. R., D. J. Hozjan, C. N. de Mille, and A. A. Levin-
ation myth) mentions a possible attack by Caribbean son. 2000. "Pre-Columbian Gems and Ornamental Materi-
Indians, and in Bernal Diaz's history of the conquest of als from Antigua, West Indies." Gems and Gemology 36 (3):
Mexico there is mention of a Jamaican woman on Cozu- 234–45.
mel (Wilson 1990). Oliver, J. R. 2009. Caciques and Cemi Idols: The Web Spun by
Contact with Mesoamerica is further suggested by Taíno Rulers between Hispaniola and Puerto Rico. Tusca-
the similarities in the ballgames played both in Meso-
Rodríguez Ramos, R. 2011. "Close Encounters of the Caribbean
america and the Greater Antilles, although such games
Kind." In Islands at the Crossroad: Migration, Seafaring,
may have spread via South America. While the abun- and Interaction in the Caribbean, ed. L. A. Curet and M. W.
dance of beads, pendants, and zemíes made from shells, Hauser, 164–92. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
carnelian, and diorite (all of local origin) clearly suggests Wilson, S. M. 1990. Hispaniola: Caribbean Chiefdoms in the Age
that there was intra-island lapidary trade on the island of of Columbus. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Antigua, the presence of amethyst, nephrite, serpentine,
and turquoise (which are not local) imply that trade or See also Chiefdoms (Cacicazgos); Guanín; Lapidary Trade;
exchange existed between Antigua and other parts of the Zemíes (Cemís).
English Colonial Ceramic Types
Virtually all ceramic types produced in England during fee mugs and plates are the most common vessel forms
the colonial period can be recovered from Caribbean recovered from sites. Other stonewares found on Carib-
historical sites because of the consistent pan-Atlantic bean sites include the dry-bodied red Rosso Antico and
trade England encouraged. Utilitarian wares, primar- black basalts, which were primarily used as teapots.
ily built from coarse earthenware clays, are commonly Stoneware tablewares were eventually replaced by
found. Forms include pipkins (saucepans with three feet refined earthenwares, which include tin-enamel ware,
and a handle), storage jars, and sugar processing ves- Whieldon ware, creamware, and pearlware. Vessel forms
sels, including drip jars and sugar molds. It is not always included teawares, plates, bowls, coffee mugs, candy
common to find English coarse earthenwares at non- bowls, serving platters, chamber pots, and pharmaceuti-
English sites because trade restrictions inhibited and cal types. The tin-enamel wares (Figure E.4) were pro-
sometimes prohibited the importation of these wares duced in many areas of England but especially around
into other colonies. In addition, the low profit margins London. Decorations sometimes echoed Dutch, French,
of utilitarian wares would have inhibited indirect trade and Mediterranean motifs, making specific origin at-
to non-English colonies. tributions difficult without detailed clay body analyses.
English stoneware vessel forms included jugs, plates, Whieldonware, creamware, and pearlware dominated
mugs, chamber pots, and bowls. So-called Fulham stone- refined earthenware production and importation to the
ware was imported throughout the colonial Caribbean Caribbean, beginning in the 1750s, surpassing any com-
colonies, starting in the 1670s. White salt-glazed stone- petition from other centers of production of European
ware is perhaps the most important English stoneware refined earthenware. Pearlware was especially popu-
for dating archaeological sites. It is a very good marker lar during the period 1790–1810. After the 1820s, both
ceramic because it was patented in the 1730s. During the whiteware and ironstone dominated the English refined
1750s, white salt-glazed vessels with incised decorations earthenware types found on colonial Caribbean sites;
filled with cobalt begin to show up in Caribbean contexts, this remained the case through World War II and the
a form that has come to be known as scratch blue. Cof- postwar independence period.
Figure E.4. Tin-enamel wares. Courtesy of R. Grant Gilmore III and SECAR.
Environmental Archaeology 143
Finally, although the vast majority of porcelains Eustatius, French and Dutch influences are evidenced
were imported from China (and, rarely, from Japan), both in kitchen architecture and the continued use of
English bone china shows up on Caribbean archaeol- koekpotten/pipkin variants for meals that relied heavily
ogy sites on a regular basis. Archaeologists should be on sauces and soups.
aware of the differences between this china and that
produced in France toward the end of the eighteenth
century. English imports dominate most excavated Ca-
ribbean sites outside of the Spanish colonies. There are Barka, N. F. 1986. Archaeology of the Government Guest House,
exceptions, such as on St. Eustatius, where a vast range St. Eustatius, Netherlands Antilles: An Interim Report. Wil-
of vessel forms and ceramic types reflect the flags of liamsburg, VA: Department of Anthropology, College of
the thousands of trading ships that landed there dur- William and Mary.
ing the eighteenth century. It is interesting to note that Erickson, M., and R. Hunter. 2001. "Dots, Dashes, and Squig-
gles: Early English Slipware Technology." In Ceramics in
the cuisine on St. Eustatius was influenced by the cos-
America 2001, ed. Robert Hunter, 94–114. Milwaukee: Chip-
mopolitan nature of their inhabitants and is reflected
stone Foundation.
in the vessels recovered from many sites. Pipkins fell Hume, I. N. 1969. A Guide to Artifacts of Colonial America. New
out of use on English sites during the early eighteenth York: Alfred A. Knopf.
century, evidence of both changing consumption pat- ———. 2001. If These Pots Could Talk: 2,000 Years of British
terns and the availability of iron cooking vessels. On St. Household Pottery. Milwaukee: Chipstone Foundation.
Lee A. Newsom
Environmental archaeology (EA) is a subfield of mod- faunal assemblages were eventually more fully explained
ern anthropological archaeology that emphasizes natu- by other scholars, particularly William Keegan (1985),
ral resources, ecology, environment, and related issues using optimal foraging theory (diet breadth models),
from a humanistic perspective. Four primary areas of which better accounted for the complexity of human-
specialization exist: zooarchaeology, archaeobotany, resource interactions and decision making. The vari-
bioarchaeology, and geo- or pedoarchaeology. Carib- ous efforts to clarify this issue during the 1960s through
bean EA has underpinnings in the research of individu- 1980s proved especially beneficial to the development
als such as Jesse Fewkes, who wrote as early as 1914 about of EA research in the region by stimulating some of the
the potential significance of natural resources and island first detailed and ecologically informed considerations
habitats for aboriginal peoples in the Lesser Antilles. By of foodways and the environmental circumstances of
the 1930s, pathbreaking excavations and research in the human economic patterns and settlement. This included
Greater Antilles (Haiti, Puerto Rico, and Cuba) by Froe­ the first systematic studies of plant and animal remains
lich Rainey (1940) and Irving Rouse (1941, 1986, 1992) from Caribbean sites as various specialists became in-
included explicit observations about indigenous sub- volved in projects to undertake identifications and anal-
sistence practices, based on recovered faunal remains. yses of the collections. Through this research, Elizabeth
These scholars focused attention, in particular, on time- S. Wing (1969, 1989, 2008), who was originally trained as
transgressive changes in the relative abundances of land a zoologist, initiated scientifically oriented zooarchaeol-
crab and shellfish remains, which Rainey and Rouse in- ogy, ultimately establishing a fully comprehensive pro-
terpreted as evidence of an apparent dietary shift. This gram in Caribbean EA at the Florida Museum of Natural
"crab/shell dichotomy" was originally hypothesized to History that also incorporated archaeobotany and geo-
have been the result of food preferences or the cumu- archaeology. The museum remains an important center
lative effects of human overexploitation over time. The for EA research for the Caribbean region.
Zooarchaeology clarify details by initiating archaeobotanical research in
the region. Although the first report and potential evi-
Wing and others (e.g., Lisabeth Carlson, Susan deFrance, dence of conuco crops—purported maize kernels (Zea
Sandrine Grouard, Yvonne Narganes Storde, Lourdes mays) from the Sugar Factory site on St. Kitts—turned
Pérez Iglesias, and Nathalie Serrand) have since clari- out to be incorrect, kernels and cob fragments have since
fied the essential relationship of marine faunal resources been recovered from two late Ceramic (Ostionoid) sites:
to Caribbean human existence throughout all periods En Bas Saline, Haiti, and Tutu, St. Thomas, United States
of human occupation. They have identified the key foci Virgin Islands. Intriguing suggestions that maize was
of indigenous fishing—taxa such as groupers (Serrani- multi-cropped exist in the presence of two distinct races
dae), snappers (Lutjanidae), parrotfish (Scaridae), and at the former site, but there is no indication that maize
particular shellfish—and illuminated the variety and na- ever attained the status of a staple food in the region.
ture of fishing techniques and practices. Harking back to Root crops appear to have been the focus of food pro-
the former idea of a crab/shell dichotomy, this research duction; at least seven types of root crops are thought
has indeed revealed evidence of unsustainable practices, to have been grown in the Caribbean just prior to the
such as overfishing that led to adverse effects on land arrival of Europeans. En Bas Saline is one of few sites to
crab populations and predictable shifts in exploitation of produce macro remains of these crops, including manioc
fish taxa across trophic levels. However, Caribbean zoo- (Manihot esculenta) and possibly also sweet potato (Ipo-
archaeologists have also demonstrated that the fishing moea batatas). Seeds of chili pepper (Capsicum sp.), an-
enterprise was only part of a much more complex and other of the ethnohistorically mentioned crops, were also
involved interaction with fauna. For example, muscovy recovered from En Bas Saline. Maize and the other crops
ducks and turtles may have been managed, and capro- previously mentioned plus a series of important arboreal
mid rodents (Capromyidae; also known as hutias) were taxa that have also been identified from Ceramic Age as-
apparently intentionally moved to islands where they semblages, including papaya (Carica papaya), guanábana
were not originally found. Other small animals were (Annona sp.), achiote (Bixa orellana), and cojóbilla
evidently intentionally introduced from South America (Anadenanthera sp.), were introduced from outside the
(e.g., agouti, Dasyprocta leporine; guinea pig, Cavia por- region. Undoubtedly in the Caribbean, as elsewhere, the
cellus; opossum, Didelphis marsupialis; and armadillo, significance and use of these botanical resources evolved
Dasypus novemcinctus) for reasons that are still debated. over time. Nevertheless, their continued use in the Ca-
The potential significance and roles of these captive fauna ribbean islands over the centuries demonstrates conti-
in Caribbean indigenous social and economic systems, nuity with mainly South American traditions involving
while still unknown, could certainly have served at least agricultural investments, home gardening, and a variety
to enhance protein sources in this region, where terres- of ethnobotanical practices and ritual and belief systems.
trial vertebrate fauna were impoverished. There is some In the 1970s, several Caribbeanists began to specu-
suggestion that at least guinea pig presence involved ex- late in writing about whether plant cultivation and some
clusive use by elites, perhaps with ritual connotations, degree of reliance on domesticated plants could possi-
while the other animals may have been allowed to run bly have occurred earlier than the Ceramic Age in the
wild in the islands, enhancing the availability of wild islands. Potential evidence from collections predating
protein sources. Human interaction with domesticated about 500 BC was known from the María de la Cruz
animals besides guinea pig is clear from the presence of rock shelter in Puerto Rico, which was excavated in the
dogs; evidence includes dog burials and tooth modifica- 1940s by Rouse and Ricardo Alegría, and from Krum
tion (perhaps for a muzzle or other restraining device). Bay, St. Thomas. The rock shelter reportedly yielded
Several additional types of animals, e.g. capuchin mon- wild avocado (Persea americana) and yellow sapote
key (Cebus sp.) and macaw (Ara autochthones), may also (Pouteria campechiana), both of which are native to
have been kept as companions or pets. Central America and have had long associations with
indigenous home garden production there. Níspero, or
Archaeobotany sapote (Manilkara sp.), seeds from Krum Bay are mor-
phologically consistent with M. zapota, a species from
Taíno staple crops and some aspects of indigenous co- Central America that is cultivated for its edible fruit and
nuco gardening practices have long been known from "chicle" gum. Recently, Jaime Pagán-Jiménez (2009) has
ethnohistoric documents. However, in the 1980s, Lee provided intriguing support for this hypothesis based
Newsom (1993) and Deborah Pearsall (1989) began to on starch grain evidence from sites such as Maruca on
Puerto Rico. These data suggest history of maize and porated increasingly sophisticated means of analyses.
manioc that predates the Ceramic Age in the region and Research conducted on human remains from formal
an early presence of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), cemeteries (e.g., El Chorro de Maíta, Cuba; Maisabel,
sweet potato, and several other potential root crops from Puerto Rico; Anse à la Gourde, Guadeloupe; Malmok,
South America. The present consensus is that Caribbean Aruba; St. Michielsberg, Curaçao) and analyses of vari-
subsistence economies before the middle of the first mil- ous isolated burials (e.g., Golden Rock, St. Eustatius)
lennium BC extended beyond fishing and foraging to have provided details illuminating human health and
include plant management. Moreover, the relevant ar- nutrition and demographic and other issues, which are
chaeobotanical assemblages imply two separate sources further contextualized with evidence for symbolic and
of original germplasm: Central America and South ritual behavior, social inequality, and more. William
America. Pagán-Jiménez's analyses have also revealed Keegan originated osteochemical research in the region,
the presence of the cycad Zamia (marunguey), another using stable isotopes analyses of Lucayan Taíno remains
edible starch source and one that may represent in situ from the Bahamas. Biogeochemical analyses have since
domestication of a native plant. been increasingly used to clarify information about diet
Zooarchaeologists and archaeobotanists have also for separate subregions, time periods, and cultures of
been active with historic period contexts, revealing de- the region. Most recently, work by Menno Hoogland
tails of colonial or mestizo maize production, the fusion (Hoogland, Hofman, and Panhuysen, 2010), Ann Ross
cuisine and foodways of enslaved peoples on Bahamian and Douglas Ubelaker (Ross and Ubelaker 2010), and
plantations, and the introduction of additional crops others involving analysis of skeletal morphometric traits
and domesticated animals from outside the region, for and tooth wear patterns in combination with strontium
example, tomatoes (Lycopersicon sp.) from Mexico and isotope analysis has provided significant insights into
pigs (Sus scrofa) from Iberia. Caribbean EA thus has also human mobility and migration patterns. Genetic analy-
emerged as a way to elucidate the third major intercon- ses have also been undertaken. Martínez-Cruzado (2010)
tinental transfer of biodiversity affecting the region, the has worked extensively on human mtDNA lineages in
so-called Columbian Exchange. Puerto Rico. That and other research involving aDNA
Recent technological refinements have made pos- recovered from skeletal material from Hispañiola and
sible another relevant development: absorbed organic Cuba was recently summarized by Schurr (2010). Along
residues analysis to detect the presence of lipids and with the archaeobotany and zooarchaeology, this kind
water-soluble compounds retained on or within items of research is providing a clearer picture of the shifting
such as pottery, pipes, inhalers, and other bone or ce- balance and baselines for human population in the re-
ramic implements. This avenue of research is providing gion, including health and disease transmission, creat-
new insights into prehistoric food production and con- ing a better overall sense of the historical demographics
sumption practices, including feasting behavior, espe- of the region.
cially when combined with studies of vessel form and
function. It is also a way to further elucidate ritual be- Geoarchaeology
haviors and practices, revealing both the history and va-
riety of narcotic plants used by Caribbean Amerindians Like the other pursuits, geoarchaeology, or pedoar-
as smoking materials. These include tobacco (Nicotiana) chaeology, includes a range of techniques and scales
and cojóbilla (Anadenanthera) snuff. Joanna Ostapko­ of analyses. These may include basic soil and sediment
wicz (1997, 1998) and Elenora Reber (2012) have been research on a single site (e.g., Scudder's [2001] recent
at the forefront of this research. Genetic analysis is the work at Tibes, Puerto Rico, which distinguished natu-
latest addition to the analytical tool kit. One study pres- ral from culturally influenced deposits). On a larger
ently under way involves ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis scale, geoarchaeology may involve broader study of
of bottle gourd (Lagenaria) remains. the surrounding landscape and regional environment
(e.g., Waters and colleagues [1993] on Jamaica). Core
Bioarchaeology sampling focused on discerning both paleoecological
trends is increasingly being used in the region, as are
Bioarchaeology in the Caribbean has clear roots in the Geographic Information Systems methods and technol-
work of Adelaide Bullen, for example, her 1970 study of ogy. These have provided insights into drought history
a burial on Saint Lucia. By the 1980s and 1990s, consid- and freshwater availability, vegetation patterns, and
erably more work was under way by others that incor- various other concerns relevant to human occupation,
such as the abandonment of particular islands or por- pansion in the Prehistoric Bahamas. PhD diss., University of
tions of islands at particular points in time. The multi- California, Los Angeles.
proxy paleoecological record generated by Peros and Martínez-Cruzado, J. C. 2010. "The History of Amerindian Mi-
colleagues (2007) from Laguna de la Leche, Cuba, is an tochondrial DNA Lineages in Puerto Rico." In Island Shores,
Distant Pasts: Archaeological and Biological Approaches to
outstanding example of modern practice. In this case,
the Pre-Columbian Settlement of the Caribbean, ed. S. M.
a team of EA specialists clarified the effects of relative Fitzpatrick and A. H. Ross, 54–80. Gainesville: University
sea level change and climate change in the context of Press of Florida.
human settlement dynamics. Newsom, L. A. 1993. "Native West Indian Plant Use." PhD diss.
Certainly Caribbean EA research has advanced con- University of Florida, Gainesville.
siderably from the time when a crab/shell dichotomy Newsom, L. A., and D. A. Trieu. 2011. "Fusion Gardens: Native
was first discussed. A much-improved understanding North America and the Columbian Exchange." In Subsis-
of human behavioral ecology and a fairly expansive tence Economies of Indigenous North American Societies: A
data base has done much to better contextualize the re- Handbook, ed. B. D. Smith, 557–76. Lanham, MD: Rowman
and Littlefield.
gion's human cultures in terms of their environmental
Newsom, L. A., and E. S. Wing. 2004. On Land and Sea: Na-
circumstances. Research examining the development
tive American Uses of Biological Resources in the West Indies.
of anthropogenic landscapes, including the role of past Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Caribbean peoples in trophic cascades, is especially Ostapkowicz, J. 1997. "To Be Seated 'with Great Courtesy and
relevant today because of the obvious implications for Veneration': Contextual Aspects of the Taíno Duho." In
present conditions. We continue to seek a better under- Taíno: Pre-Columbian Art and Culture from the Caribbean,
standing of the human decision-making process with ed. F. Brecht, E. Brodsky, J. A. Farmer, and D. Taylor, 55–67.
respect to natural resources and the varied influences New York: Monacelli Press and Museo del Barrio.
of human culture on the region's natural and agricul- ———. 1998. "Taíno Wooden Sculpture: Duhos, Rulership and
tural biodiversity. EA is a vibrant and active area of re- the Visual Arts in the 12th–16th Century Caribbean." PhD
thesis, Sainsbury Research Unit, University of East Anglia,
search in the Caribbean and will continue to be so for
years to come.
Pagán-Jiménez, J. R. 2009. "Recientes avances de los estudios
paleoetnobotánicos en Puerto Rico: Nueva información
Further Reading obtenida desde la perspectiva del estudio de almidones
antiguos." In Encuentro de Investigadores de Arqueología y
Bullen, A. K. 1970. "Case Study of an Amerindian Burial with Etnohistoria, no. 7, ed. Carlos A. Pérez Merced, 78–94. San
Grave Goods from Grande Anse, Saint Lucia." In Proceed- Juan, Puerto Rico: Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña.
ings of the Third International Congress for the Study of Pre- Pearsall, D. M. 1989. "Plant Utilization at the Krum Bay Site,
Columbian Cultures of the Lesser Antilles, 1969, 45–60. St. St. Thomas U.S.V.I." In Preceramic Procurement Patterns at
George: Grenada National Museum with the International Krum Bay, Virgin Islands by E. R. Lundberg (Appendix C),
Association of Caribbean Archaeology. PhD dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana. University
Fewkes, J. W. 1914. "Relations of Aboriginal Culture and En- Microfilms, Ann Arbor.
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Distant Pasts: Archaeological and Biological Approaches to search 67 (1): 69–82.
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University Press of Florida. York Academy of Sciences.
Hofman, C. L., M. L. P. Hoogland, and A. L. van Gijn, eds. 2008. Reber, Eleanora A. 2012. "Absorbed Residue Analysis of 21
Crossing the Borders: New Methods and Techniques in the Sherds from the El Chorro de Maita Site, Holguin, Cuba."
Study of Archaeological Materials from the Caribbean. Tus- Papers of the UNCW Residue Lab 16, UNCW Anthropo-
caloosa: University of Alabama Press. logical Papers 21. Wilmington, NC.
Hoogland, M. L. P., C. L. Hofman, and R. G. A. M. Panhuysen. Reitz, E. J., C. M. Scarry, and S. J. Scudder, eds. 2008. Case
2010. "Interisland Dynamics: Evidence for Human Mobil- Studies in Environmental Archaeology. 2nd ed. New York:
ity at the Site of Anse à la Gourde, Guadeloupe." In Island Springer.
Shores, Distant Pasts: Archaeological and Biological Ap- Rouse, I. 1941. Culture of the Ft. Liberté Region, Haiti. New Ha-
proaches to the Pre-Columbian Settlement of the Caribbean, ven, CT: Yale University Press.
ed. S. M. Fitzpatrick and A. H. Ross, 148–62. Gainesville: ———. 1986. Migrations in Prehistory: Inferring Population
University Press of Florida. Movement from Cultural Remains. New Haven, CT: Yale
Keegan, W. F. 1985. Dynamic Horticulturalists: Population Ex- University Press.
———. 1992. The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who sessment of 1000 Years of Human Land Use." Geoarchaeol-
Greeted Columbus. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ogy 8 (4): 259–79.
Ross, A. H., and D. H. Ubelaker. 2010. "A Morphometric Ap- Wilkie, L. A., and P. Farnsworth. 2005. Sampling Many Pots: An
proach to Taíno Biological Distance in the Caribbean." In Archaeology of Memory and Tradition at a Bahamian Plan-
Island Shores, Distant Pasts: Archaeological and Biological tation. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
Approaches to the Pre-Columbian Settlement of the Carib- Wing, E. S. 1969. "Vertebrate Remains Excavated from San
bean, ed. S. M. Fitzpatrick and A. H. Ross, 108–26. Gaines- Salvador Island, Bahamas." Caribbean Journal of Science 9
ville: University Press of Florida. (1–2): 25–29.
Schurr, T. G. 2010. "Coastal Waves and Island Hopping: A Ge- ———. 1989. "Human Exploitation of Animal Resources in the
netic View of Caribbean Prehistory and New World Colo- Caribbean." In Biogeography of the West Indies, ed. C. A.
nization." In Island Shores, Distant Pasts: Archaeological and Woods, 137–52. Gainesville, FL: Sandhill Crane Press.
Biological Approaches to the Pre-Columbian Settlement of ———. 2008. "Pets and Camp Followers in the West Indies." In
the Caribbean, ed. S. M. Fitzpatrick and A. H. Ross, 177–97. Case Studies in Environmental Archaeology, 2nd ed., ed. E.
Gainesville: University Press of Florida. J. Reitz, C. M. Scarry, and S. J. Scudder, 405–25. New York:
Scudder, S. J. 2001. "Soil Resources and Anthropogenic Changes Springer.
at the Tibes Site, Ponce, Puerto Rico." Caribbean Journal of
Science 37 (1–2): 30–40.
Waters, M., J. R. Giardino, D. W. Ryter, and J. M. Parrent. See also Crab/Shell Dichotomy; DNA and Caribbean
1993. "Geoarchaeological Investigations of St. Ann's Bay, Archaeology; The Florida Museum of Natural History;
Jamaica: The Search for the Columbus Caravels and an As- Loyola (French Guiana).
Falmouth (Jamaica)
Patricia E. Green
historic illustrations of the town, atlases, and maps, the
Historical archaeology draws upon research from many FFIP delineated the boundaries of Falmouth's historic
disciplines, including anthropology, history, geography, district and established the district as a priority area for
and folklore, to understand and interpret physical re- the purposes of grants and awards.
mains. Historical archaeologists consult both the his- In 1795, the port of Falmouth was declared the capital
torical record and the physical record in their efforts to town of the parish of Trelawny, replacing the inland capi-
discover the fabric of common everyday life in the past tal of Martha Brae. The parish vestry minutes state that it
and seek to understand the broader historical develop- was the best-laid-out town on the island (Falmouth Res-
ment of their own and other societies. This approach has toration Company n.d.). The town was comprised of ar-
made possible fresh interpretations of the history and tisans and seafarers, freed people of color, freed Africans,
architecture of Falmouth, most notably through the Fal- and members of the plantocracy. By the early nineteenth
mouth Façade Improvement Programme (FFIP) of the century, it was a bourgeoning cosmopolitan port town
1990s. This initiative helped define Falmouth as a Cre- and commercial center. Its harbor teemed with slaving
ole town, particularly because of the development of a vessels. From 1792 to 1808, Falmouth was the principal
residential architectural type there termed the Falmouth port of disembarkation in the Americas (Beeson 2002,
house, which evolved in the late eighteenth century and 74), and in 1817, it was described as the second largest
continues to be a part of Falmouth's townscape. Using town in Jamaica (Lewis 1834, 170) (Figure F.1).
Figure F.1. Street in Falmouth, Jamaica, drawn by artist Henry Bleby (1809–1882). Originally published in
Henry Bleby, 1868, Death Struggles of Slavery: Being a Narrative of Facts and Incidents, Which Occurred in a British
Colony, During the Two Years Immediately Preceding Negro Emancipation, 3rd edition, W. Nichols, London.
Falmouth Houses and Falmouth's Townscape A unique feature of the Jamaica Georgian style is the
integration of the piazza area of the dwelling under the
By the end of the eighteenth century, the population of roof covering. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centu-
freed mulattoes and blacks on Jamaica had increased ries, piazzas were covered indoor-outdoor spaces be-
significantly, especially in the towns (Long 1774, 2:337). tween the principal rooms in the interior of the house
Many buildings in Falmouth were erected by Jamaican and the street; they were in essence enclosed verandas.
creoles (a group that included both ethnic whites and In the early eighteenth century, piazzas were tacked on
Africans [Braithwaite 1971]); freed mulattoes and Afri- like sheds to the core structure of buildings as part of
cans also owned buildings in the town. the process of the creolization of Georgian architecture
A survey of the historic buildings in the Falmouth in the hot, humid climate of Jamaica. In the Transitional
townscape revealed seven basic types: 1) civic build- Georgian style, these attached piazzas have a separate
ings; 2) dwelling houses; 3) commercial buildings for roof, usually a shed roof. They appear on both the single-
manufacturing and warehousing goods; 4) military/na- and double-story structures. On two-story Falmouth
val structures (fortifications and barracks); 5) churches houses, the lower piazza is located directly on the street
and temples; 6) shops (usually one story); 7) buildings edge and is an extension of the public thoroughfare, pro-
that combined a shop and a dwelling (generally the shop viding continuous covered access between one building
below and the residence above in two-story structures). and the other.
Although the Falmouth house falls within the residential One interesting observation is the intimacy of the
category, some shop-dwellings are built in this style. town, which was laid out with discernible cardinal en-
In the British Caribbean, the Falmouth style of hous- trance features that the FFIP tied to the historic archi-
ing developed alongside the Jamaica Georgian style of tecture; we called them "gateways." They acted as visual
architecture, which is derived from the European Geor-
gian tradition (Green 1997). Early buildings that were
constructed in Falmouth followed this emerging creole
trend. Falmouth houses are one- or two-story build-
ings (Figure F.2). They were built on a square plan and a
three-bay street elevation, terminating with a very steep-
pitched hip roof. Slate or wood shingles cover the entire
structure. Today, roofs are covered with metal sheeting.
Window types vary, combining glazed sash windows,
wooden casement shutters, and/or movable jalousies
in situ or as casements. Evidently, the windows of the
wealthier residents were glazed and had triple-hung
sashes.
Falmouth houses are decorated with wood shingle
siding, and the foundation or lower floor is constructed
of finished brick or limestone. Some houses have stucco
on the exterior, which is sometimes scored to resemble a
stone wall. The structural frame is made of stone, brick,
or wood nogs or a combination of all three. The upper
part is usually framed in timber. Sometimes the entire
structure is framed in timber.
The entrances to Falmouth houses are generally lo-
cated in three places: directly off a garden, off a narrow
pathway between structures, and directly on the road-
way (buildings with these entries are known as street-
front buildings). Buildings in Falmouth are structured in
three ways: detached buildings, row buildings (attached
to each other and sharing walls on both sides), and
semi-detached houses (sharing one wall). The Falmouth
house is generally a street-front building in a row setting. Figure F.2. Restoration of Falmouth House. Courtesy of Patricia E. Green.
signposts and as end-stops for the small area defined as houses were converted into opened verandas with slen-
the historic core, which was planned on a grid. The FFIP der chamfered posts, replacing the Doric pilasters of the
identified four: people coming from Montego Bay en- Jamaica-Georgian style.
tered the town through the western gateway, which we
anchored at the St. Peters Parish Church on Duke Street
between Victoria and Pitts Streets; those coming from
the town of Martha Brae entered through the southern Brathwaite, E. 1971. The Development of Creole Society in Ja-
gateway at No. 25 Market Street; those who came from maica, 1770–1820. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Kingston entered through the eastern gateway, located at Besson, Jean. 2002. Martha Brae's Two Histories: European Ex-
the Falmouth Dome at the corner of Tharpe and Upper pansion and Caribbean Culture-Building in Jamaica. Chapel
Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Harbour Streets; and those coming from the harbor and
Cotter, J. L. 1974. "Above Ground Archaeology." American
Fort Balcarrres came through the northern gateway, at
Quarterly 26 (3): 266–80.
No. 1 Market Street. Cundall, Frank. 1907. Lady Nugent's Journal: Jamaica One Hun-
The core of the historic town plan is a six-by-eight- dred Years Ago, Reprinted from a Journal Kept by Maria,
street grid west of a central square that is connected Lady Nugent, from 1801 to 1815. London: A. & C. Black for
with a six-by-five-street grid located at a diagonal to the Institute of Jamaica.
the northeast of the first grid. The central square, called Dunkley, Daive A. 2011. "Falmouth." Jamaica National Heritage
Market Square, was used historically for the sale of Trust Web site. http://www.jnht.com/site_falmouth.php.
goods and persons. When Lady Nugent, the American Edwards, B. 1793. The History, Civil and Commercial, of the Brit-
wife of the governor of Jamaica, visited Falmouth in ish Colonies in the West Indies. 2 vols. Dublin: Luke White.
Green, P. E. 1997. "Jamaica-Georgian." In Encyclopaedia of Ver-
April 1802, she observed that the streets were crowded
nacular Architecture of the World, ed. Paul Oliver, 1716–17.
with people and that a Negro market where the Af-
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
ricans sold their food produce and wares was held in ———. 2000. "Architecture of the Caribbean: Colonial, Ca-
front of General Bell's house (Cundall 1907, 115). Fal- ribbean, and the Small-Scale Architectural Pieces." In The
mouth boasts that it had piped water before New York Cultural Heritage of the Caribbean and the World Heritage
City, the result of a petition that began in 1799 to erect Convention, ed. Herman van Hooff, 285–304. Paris: Editions
a proper water system for the town. There was a circu- du CTHS, UNESCO.
lar water tank in the square, which became known as Falmouth Restoration Company. N.d. "Falmouth, The 18th
Water Square. By 1814, Falmouth held the distinction Century Commercial Capital of Western Jamaica." Fal-
of having the first domestic water supply in the Ameri- mouth: Falmouth Restoration Company.
Lewis, Matthew G. 1834. Journal of a West India Proprietor: Kept
cas. Water was pumped from the square until the 1950s
during a Residence in the Island of Jamaica. London: John
(Dunkley 2011).
Murray.
In the post-emancipation period (after 1834), a more Long, E. 1774. History of Jamaica, or a General Survey of the An-
decorative architectural style called Jamaica Vernacular tient and Modern State of That Island: With Reflections on Its
developed on the Falmouth townscape. Its main feature Situation, Settlements, Inhabitants, Climate, Products, Com-
is intricate fretwork with an interlaced pattern. Many of merce, Laws, and Government. 3 vols. London: T. Lowndes.
these buildings have a gable roof and are constructed of
timber framing. An open veranda fronts these build- See also The Magnificent Seven Mansions (Port of Spain,
ings instead of the closed piazza of the Jamaica Geor- Trinidad); Port Antonio (Jamaica); Spanish Town (Ja-
gian style. Interestingly, some piazzas on the Falmouth maica).
Historic-period archaeological sites in the Caribbean, marine and freshwater sites, which expose metal objects
both terrestrial and underwater, often contain metal to aqueous corrosion. On many archaeological sites,
objects. The majority of metal artifacts recovered from iron objects recovered with a substantial metal core will
Caribbean sites are those that were manufactured with survive, but more commonly, iron artifacts are found in
consistent regularity. These include ferrous or iron metal varying stages of deterioration, and iron artifacts recov-
objects and items made from nonferrous metals such as ered from the sea are often found in the form of a con-
copper, lead, tin, silver, and gold and their alloys, such cretion or encrustation (in which outer layers of calcium
as weapons, tools, ornaments, hardware, and utilitarian carbonate and other materials encase the iron object). In
objects. The physical properties of a metal artifact are many cases, the iron has migrated into the surrounding
determined by the internal structure of the metal, which environment, leaving little or no remaining metal in the
is formed by a series of crystals known as grains, which, core. In cases where the metal has completely corroded,
in turn, create internal lattice structures that meet at ar- the object's original shape can be preserved in the en-
eas known as grain boundaries. Under the microscope, crustation through the creation of a mold.
the internal structure of a metal artifact can also be seen Nonferrous metals such as tin and lead and their
in the form of phases that indicate the various stages of alloys recovered from Caribbean historic sites include
heating, cooling, and working of the metal at the various pewter tableware, tin cans, lead window frames, weights,
grain boundaries. and lead objects from shipwrecks such as fishing weights
Ferrous (iron) artifacts can be distinguished by their and sounding leads. As a rule, lead usually survives the
carbon content. For example, wrought iron, which has a archaeological record. Copper and its alloys, such as
low carbon content, is formed and shaped by forging and bronze and brass, can be found in the form of nails and
welding. Wrought iron artifacts recovered from Carib- fasteners, tools, fixtures, and decorative objects. Silver,
bean archaeological sites include Iberian-manufactured which is a fairly noble metal, can corrode. Silver arti-
cannons and anchors and European and American facts include jewelry, tableware, candlestick holders,
hand-forged nails. Another form of iron, cast iron, also buttons, threads, religious paraphernalia, and other
known as pig iron, covers a large group of iron artifacts objects. Only experienced and well-trained conserva-
that have a carbon content of 2 percent or greater. The tors should attempt to conserve ferrous and nonferrous
high quantity of carbon makes cast iron brittle, and the metal artifacts. Caution should be exercised when re-
iron is workable only through casting or machining the moving metal artifacts from their archaeological con-
metal. At Caribbean colonial sites, cast iron objects in- texts, as exposure to atmospheric moisture and oxygen
clude cannon and other weapons, nails, tools, agricul- can reactivate the corrosion process, setting in motion
tural implements, cooking pots, building fixtures and further deterioration.
hardware, and many other items. Steel, an alloy of iron
that has carbon content of between 0.2 and 1.7 percent,
is found on some archaeological sites that date from the Further Reading
mid-nineteenth century and later. Cronyn, J. M. 1990. Elements of Archaeological Conservation.
Metal artifacts recovered from Caribbean sites in- London: Routledge.
clude objects that have metal parts, metal plating, or Hamilton, D. 2000. Methods of Conserving Archaeological Ma-
metal decorative elements and objects that are wholly terial from Underwater Sites. College Station: Conservation
metal. From the moment they are manufactured, with Research Laboratory, Texas A&M University.
Pearson, C. 1987. Conservation of Marine Archaeological Ob-
the exception of items made of gold, most metal artifacts
jects. London: Butterworths.
react with their environment and begin a corrosion pro- Selwyn, L. 2004. Metals and Corrosion: A Handbook for the
cess that converts them to more stable compounds. In Conservation Professional. Ottawa: Canadian Conservation
the Caribbean, a variety of archaeological environments Institute.
can affect the stability of metal artifacts, which includes
temperate, tropical, and arid environments, as well as See also Archaeological Conservation; Cannon.
The First Caribbean Farmers
Definitions of Farming collecting, fishing, and hunting. This period is gener-
Farming, or agriculture, has been defined in a variety of ally categorized as incipient agriculture, a process that
ways: the practice of cultivating the land or raising stock; is characterized by a gradual movement from food col-
production that relies essentially on the growth and nur- lecting to food producing. Incipient agriculture is one
turing of plants and animals, especially for food, usually of the defining characteristics of the Archaic Age in the
with land as an important input; and the science or pro- New World.
cess of cultivating the soil to produce plants and animals
that will be useful to humans in some way. Horticulture, Archaic Farmers
which derives from the Latin hortus, meaning a garden
space, in contrast to an agricultural space, is usually Until recently, there was general agreement among Ca-
defined as the science and art of growing fruit, flowers, ribbean archaeologists that the Saladoid were the first
ornamental plants, and vegetables in small gardens. In- horticultural Ceramic Age group. Saladoid sites are
gold (1984, 5) has noted that anthropologists have the found in abundance from Trinidad and Tobago to Puerto
tendency to remove people from the category of foragers Rico. The Saladoid, who arrived in the Caribbean in 500
if they have any attributes of agriculture or pastoralism. BC, brought visible signs of their South American farm-
There are really, however, three basic categories of hu- ing background, such as ceramic pots and cassava-like
man groups in terms of subsistence systems: griddles as well as physical evidence of a settled village
life, such as large middens and plazas. However, the idea
1) Those who subsist on uncultivated plants and
that the Saladoid introduced pottery and agriculture to
wild fauna—foragers
the islands is based on outdated models of cultural de-
2) Those who have a mixed subsistence econ-
velopment and migration.
omy, based partly on domestic and partly on wild
New evidence indicates that pottery-making and ag-
resources: these can be subdivided further into
riculture were already practiced in the islands by both the
two subcategories:
Archaic Casimiroid and Ortoiroid peoples at least 2,000
2a) foragers who farm; and (2b) farmers who
years before the Saladoid arrived. The discovery of crude
pottery known as El Caimito at the La Caleta site in the
3) Those who gain no significant subsistence
eastern Dominican Republic was initially interpreted as
from uncultivated plants and wild fauna—agri-
evidence for transculturation between the Casimiroid of
culturalists and pastoralists
eastern Hispaniola and the Saladoid of western Puerto
In general, anthropologists have tended to view the uni- Rico (Keegan 1994). However, the ongoing discovery of a
verse of human subsistence economies as a binary set: significant number of Casimiroid and Ortoiroid pottery-
those in category 1 and those in category 3 (Bogucki bearing sites points to the Archaic inhabitants, not the
and Baker 1999). The root of the problem may be that Saladoid, as the first potters and farmers in the region
the colonization of Africa, the Americas, Australia, and (Hung 2005). Abra del Cacoyoguin I, Santa Rosalia I,
the Pacific in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries Vuelta Larga I, Corinthia III, La Herradura, La Linea,
essentially "froze" many societies as either foragers or Mejias, Arroyo del Palo, Bitirí I, Solapa I, Catunda, La
food producers, depending on their circumstances at Escondida de Bucuey, Los Chivos, La Guira, Juan Barón,
the time of European contact. The point of this frozen Punta de Peque, Benito, Belleza, La Luz, and Caimanes
moment was then assumed to be fixed on the unilinear III are examples of Early Ceramic sites in eastern Cuba
scale of progress from hunting and gathering to farming (Reid 2009).
and stock-herding (Reid 2009). However, the evidence Hunter-gatherers in the eastern woodlands of the
suggests that communities can be properly be described United States cultivated a number of local plants that
as farmers, even though agriculture was in fact part of a constitute the Eastern Agricultural Complex, and a simi-
larger network of other food-getting strategies such as lar "Caribbean agricultural complex" may have charac-
terized the Archaic peoples of the region (Keegan 1994; foraging based on the exploitation of Zamia sp., palm
Reid 2009). The presence of certain plant remains on seeds (Roystonea sp.), and corozo (Acrocomia sp.) Fruit
Archaic sites suggests that many of the foods that were trees in the sapodilla family (Sapotaceae) (Figure F.3) are
allegedly introduced by the Saladoid were already an es- represented by seeds and wood fragments from Twenty
tablished part of Archaic horticulture (Newsom 1993). Hill on Antigua and by seed remains from Hichmans'
Plants identified in Archaic deposits include zamia, Shell Heap on Nevis. Other seeds from Archaic age sites
or coontie (Zamia pumila), cupey (Clusea rosea), wild derive from herbaceous or slightly woody plants. Seeds
avocado (Persea americana), yellow sapote (Pouteria that are provisionally assigned to the genus Siphono-
campechiana), primrose (Oenothera sp.), mastic bully glossa sp. (Acanthaceae), cossie balsam, were recovered
(Mastichodendron foetidissimum), trianthema (Trian- from Hichmans' Shell Heap (Newsom and Wing 2004;
thema portulacastrum), and palms (Palmae) (Newsom Reid 2009). This plant is documented among the flora of
1993). Evidence for the use of palms such as corozo has the northern Lesser Antilles, though it does not seem to
been found in the macrobotanical and microbotanical have been recorded as part of the modern vegetation of
record of Puerto Rico (Pagán-Jiménez et al. 2005). Re- Nevis (Newsom and Wing 2004). Its archaeological pres-
cent analysis of starch grains in Archaic edge-ground ence suggests that this plant was used by the Ortoiroid
cobbles from Puerto Ferro and Maruco in Puerto Rico of Nevis, resulting in its occurrence on the island. Cossie
showed many similarities with cobbles from early sites balsam is potentially another species that had medicinal
in the Isthmo-Colombian area that had been used for value (Acevedo-Rodríguez et al. 1996; Reid 2009). Be-
processing tubers such as manioc (Manihot esculenta), cause some of these seeds were introduced from outside
sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas), and cocoyam (Xan- the Caribbean and others present extensions beyond
thosoma sp.). This suggests that the Archaic peoples in their present ranges, it is likely that at least some of these
Puerto Rico may have used their ground stone tools in plants were managed if not cultivated outright (Newsom
a similar manner and that these plants were part of Ar- and Wing 2004; Keegan 1994; Reid 2009).
chaic horticulture on the island.
In the Dominican Republic, the site of El Caimito, Emerging Trends in the Circum-Caribbean
which has been interpreted as a food preparation area, is and New World Tropics
located on the roof of a rock shelter and is characterized
by the presence of highly fragmented ceramics in small Rather than interpreting Archaic pottery-making and
quantities. Pollen analyses conducted on samples from horticulture in the Caribbean region as an isolated
the El Caimito midden produced no evidence of cultiva- phenomenon, it should be viewed as part of a much
tion of plants such as manioc and corn, which are known larger emerging trend in the circum-Caribbean and
to have been used by the Saladoid, the Ostionoid, and New World tropics (Reid 2009). The Caribbean coast
the Taíno. Instead, pollen evidence points to intensive of Colombia is one those areas where expressions of
Figure F.3. Sapodilla (Sapotaceae). Reprinted from Reid (2009, fig. 5.3) by permission of the University of Alabama Press.
early pottery have been reported. Shell middens such as continental or riverine Caribbean that was character-
Puerto Hormiga (Colombia) (5100–4500 BP or 3150– ized by experimentation with some horticultural prac-
2550 BC), San Jacinto (Colombia) (5900–5200 BP or tices and the manufacturing of wood-working instru-
4000 BC), and the contemporaneous Monsú (Colom- ments and tools.
bia) seem to demonstrate the first attempts at village life
in the region (Hung 2005). Their general characteristics
suggest a transition from incipient agricultural practices Further Reading
and intensive gathering to a reliance on cultivated