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An individual’s waking thoughts, feelings, and overall awareness of

['(A) alertness', '(B) consciousness', '(C) mindfulness', '(D) introspection', '(E) unconsciousness']

(B) Awareness of our experience, environment, thoughts, and feelings while awake is referred to as our consciousness. Alertness (A) is a part of consciousness but not the entire picture. Introspection (D) is a way individuals become aware of their own consciousness; sometimes people achieve this through a practice called mindfulness (C). Unconsciousness (E) is the opposite of the conscious awareness described in the question.

Which state helps us to organize and perceive both the world around

['(A) Introspection', '(B) Dreaming', '(C) Cognitive unconscious', '(D) Consciousness', '(E) Alternate states of consciousness']

(C) The cognitive unconscious is outside of our awareness but plays a large part in helping us to organize and perceive the world. We are unable to use introspection (A) to describe the cognitive unconscious, as introspection is a conscious process. Dreaming (B) is one of the alternative states of consciousness.

Which of the following is a known effect of hypnosis?

['(A) Pain relief', '(B) Decreased depression', '(C) Increased physical strength', '(D) Elimination of free will', '(E) Improved memory']

(A) Hypnosis is known to act as an analgesic, or pain reliever, for some medical conditions. Although individuals may be open to more suggestions under hypnosis, it does not eliminate free will (D). Hypnosis is not known to produce changes in depressed mood (B) or in memory (E). There are many myths about what happens to people under hypnosis, including the myth that people have increased physical strength under hypnosis (C).

Which theory states that the hypnotic state separates us from our

['(A) Suggestibility', '(B) Social influences', '(C) Dissociation', '(D) Chanting', '(E) Social cognitive']

(C) This is the dissociation theory of hypnosis and describes the altered state of consciousness that is produced during hypnosis. The social influence (B) and social cognitive (E) theories of hypnosis refer to the suggestibility (A) that can occur in a hypnotic state. Chanting (D) is associated with meditation.

Brain activity during meditation mirrors brain activity during what

['(A) REM sleep', '(B) Relaxed wakefulness', '(C) Hypnosis', '(D) Stage 2 sleep', '(E) Depressant altered consciousness']

(B) Meditation mirrors the state of relaxed wakefulness. Hypnosis (C) and meditation are similar states of consciousness, but meditation does not have the same suggestive qualities sometimes associated with hypnosis. Meditation does not mirror sleeping brain activity (A and D) or depressant altered consciousness (E), despite its impact on slowing heart and respiratory rates.

Each morning Larry spends 30 minutes sitting quietly on the floor

['(A) Decreased heart rate', '(B) Decreased respiratory rate', '(C) Decreased stress', '(D) Decreased need for sleep', '(E) Decreased susceptibility to illness']

(D) The question describes a meditation practice that Larry is engaged in. All of the other choices are known effects of meditation.

After drinking alcohol, one frequently experiences

['(A) decreased inhibition', '(B) increased social anxiety', '(C) decreased depressed mood', '(D) increased attention', '(E) decreased aggression']

(A) Alcohol consumption is associated with decreased inhibition overall. This causes people to make decisions they may not have made had they not been drinking. The other answer choices describe possible consequences of drinking but the descriptor (increased; decreased) is incorrect.

Which types of drugs are commonly used to treat

['(A) Depressants', '(B) Stimulants', '(C) Hallucinogens', '(D) Barbiturates', '(E) Sedatives']

(B) Methylphenidate (Ritalin), dextroamphetamine, and amphetamine (Adderall) are stimulants that are prescription drugs used to treat ADHD. In general, stimulants have both legitimate and illegitimate uses. Stimulants increase the level of arousal in the body.

Which of the following is NOT associated with alcohol use?

['(A) Legal age', '(B) Genetics', '(C) Family culture and norms', '(D) Food preferences', '(E) Decreased judgment']

(D) Although alcohol consumption sometimes occurs during mealtimes, food preferences and alcohol use are not related. The other answers are all factors associated with alcohol use.

Tanya describes her boyfriend as having a “pill problem” and says

['(A) Opiate use', '(B) Opiate abuse', '(C) Opiate intoxication', '(D) Opiate dependence', '(E) Opiate tolerance']

(D) Dependence is sometimes used as a synonym of addiction. Dependence is associated with physical addiction, including withdrawal symptoms. Opiate use (A), abuse (B), and intoxication (C) describe precursors to dependence. Opiate tolerance (E) occurs over periods of use and is a symptom of dependence.

The phenomenon of needing more of the same substance to produce the

['(A) drug intoxication', '(B) drug tolerance', '(C) drug intolerance', '(D) drug abuse', '(E) drug dependence']

(B) Drug tolerance refers to the need for increased amounts of a drug to produce the same effect. Therefore, the results of the same amount of the drug are reduced over time. Drug tolerance occurs with frequent use of a drug, and different individuals experience this phenomenon at different rates.

Which type of drug distorts visual and auditory perceptions and can

['(A) Stimulant', '(B) Depressant', '(C) Hallucinogen', '(D) Barbiturate', '(E) Opiate']

(C) Hallucinogens can cause users to hallucinate, thus producing perceptions that may not in fact be present. Users of hallucinogens describe seeing and hearing things that were not present. Hallucinations are also a symptom of some psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia. Ongoing psychosis is a dangerous side effect of hallucinogens.

All of the following are effects of cocaine use EXCEPT

['(A) blocking reabsorption of dopamine', '(B) high energy and alertness', '(C) intense cravings', '(D) crashes, which include depressed mood', '(E) calmness']

(E) Cocaine is a stimulant, and stimulants have an effect opposite of “calmness” on their users. The other choices describe effects of cocaine, as well as some other stimulants. Additional side effects include sleeplessness and irritability.

After experimenting with drugs and alcohol in high school, Mary

['(A) Genetic predisposition', '(B) Environmental factors', '(C) Recent traumas or difficult events', '(D) Her prescription for fluoxetine (an SSRI)', '(E) Peer network']

(D) An SSRI does not contribute to drug addiction. There are some prescription medications that are considered narcotics and do have addictive qualities, but SSRIs are not among these. The other choices are known to have an influence on drug dependence.

Which of these conditions is NOT a product of learning?

['(A) Conditioned stimulus', '(B) Conditioned response', '(C) Unconditioned response', '(D) Habituation', '(E) Learned helplessness']

(C) An unconditioned response is one that the organism brings into the situation. It is not learned in the learning process (classical conditioning). A conditioned stimulus (A) is a condition introduced in the process of learning. A conditioned response (B) is a response to learning. Habituation (D) is a decline in response to a situation once it becomes familiar; it is a product of learning. Learned helplessness (E) is also a product of learning and can result in continuing to access negative stimuli with the same negative results.

In Pavlov’s famous study on classical conditioning, which factor

['(A) Salivation', '(B) Bell', '(C) Meat powder', '(D) The dogs', '(E) Any food']

(B) The conditioned stimulus, the bell in Pavlov’s experiment, is a previously neutral stimulus that is conditioned to elicit a response that it did not previously elicit. The bell elicited no response when the dogs first heard it, but when paired with meat powder repeatedly, it began to elicit salivation.

Mr. Goodman attempts to keep squirrels away by placing chemicals on

['(A) The chemical; Mr. Goodman’s trees; squirrels avoiding the trees', '(B) Mr. Goodman’s trees; the chemical; squirrels avoiding the trees', '(C) Squirrels avoiding the trees; Mr. Goodman’s trees; the chemical', '(D) The chemical; squirrels avoiding the trees; Mr. Goodman’s trees', '(E) Mr. Goodman’s trees; squirrels avoiding the trees; the chemical']

(A) The chemical is the US (unconditioned stimulus) because it causes the squirrels to get sick. Mr. Goodman’s trees are originally neutral stimuli, but when paired with the chemical, they become the conditioned stimuli (CS). The conditioned response, which is frequently the desired response in classical conditioning, is the squirrels avoiding the trees.

Jason flies a great deal for work. Last year he had to fly while

['(A) Conditioned stimulus', '(B) Conditioned response', '(C) Unconditioned stimulus', '(D) Unconditioned response', '(E) Extinction']

(A) For Jason, the plane is a stimulus that was previously neutral and now elicits a conditioned response (B) of nausea.

In the case of Little Albert, an infant was presented with a rat.

['(A) The rat', '(B) The loud noise', '(C) Fear', '(D) Similar animals', '(E) The child']

(B) The unconditioned stimulus produces a response automatically and without prior exposure or training. The response is sometimes psychological and sometimes physical in nature. In the case of Little Albert, the unconditioned stimulus is the loud noise.

Margo spent her summers at the town pool, where a group of kids

['(A) Aversion', '(B) Phobia', '(C) Extinction', '(D) Personality disorder', '(E) Blocking effect']

(B) The description of Margo and her symptoms lead to the possibility that she has developed a phobia. Some of the characteristics of phobia are present in her symptoms. Additionally, the question describes a classical conditioning scenario where the unconditioned stimulus (bullying) causes the unconditioned response (crying, sadness). The conditioned stimulus (the pool) was paired with the unconditioned response; therefore, pools began to elicit conditioned responses for Margo.

Which of the following describes spontaneous recovery?

['(A) After extinction, the conditioned stimulus is presented with the', '(B) After extinction, the unconditioned stimulus continues to evoke the', '(C) After extinction, the conditioned stimulus is presented without the', '(D) During extinction, the conditioned stimulus is presented without the', '(E) During extinction, the unconditioned stimulus is presented without']

(C) This answer describes spontaneous recovery. In spontaneous recovery, the learned response can come back if the presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus is not repeatedly reinforced. Although spontaneous recovery can occur, the conditioned response is typically weaker than the response created before extinction.

A patient at a psychiatric clinic is being treated for his fear of

['(A) Psychopharmacology', '(B) Cognitive behavioral therapy', '(C) Systematic desensitization', '(D) Flooding', '(E) Meditation']

(C) Systematic desensitization is a treatment based on classical conditioning theory. It involves making a hierarchy of fears and moving up the hierarchy to eventually address the phobia and relieve the person experiencing it. Systematic desensitization involves relaxation techniques, some of which come out of meditation practices (E), but the answer does not describe meditation. Flooding (D) involves the opposite approach of exposing the individual to the fearful stimuli in a rapid way. Psychopharmacology (A) and cognitive behavioral therapy (B) are other interventions sometimes used for phobias but are not described in the question.

Kerri will no longer eat shrimp. Many years ago she became quite

['(A) Food aversion', '(B) Taste aversion', '(C) Habituation', '(D) Second-order conditioning', '(E) Spontaneous recovery']

(B) Because Kerri now avoids eating shrimp, she experiences what is called a taste aversion. In terms of classical conditioning, the previously neutral stimuli (CS), shrimp, is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US), queasiness. This now produces a conditioned response (CR), avoiding shrimp. It was the presence of the queasiness during that one incident that produced this response for Kerri.

Which of the following describes the conditions needed for

['(A) The conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the', '(B) The unconditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the', '(C) The conditioned stimulus produces a changed conditioned response.', '(D) The unconditioned stimulus is paired with a different conditioned', '(E) The conditioned stimulus produces the same conditioned response.']

(A) This answer describes extinction. In the Pavlov’s dogs example, if the bell were repeatedly rung without the presentation of the meat powder, the dogs would eventually stop salivating from the bell being rung.

Which psychological disorder is thought to be associated with

['(A) Depression', '(B) Phobias', '(C) Substance abuse', '(D) Bipolar disorder', '(E) Schizophrenia']

(B) Phobias are associated with classical conditioning. The case of Little Albert showed a young infant developing a phobia-like reaction to a stimuli that he originally responded positively to. But when it was paired with a loud noise, he had a different reaction. Classical conditioning is one way phobias may develop. The other choices are other psychological conditions but are not thought to be associated with classical conditioning.

When designing an experiment on classical conditioning, the

['(A) CS; CR; CS', '(B) US; CR; CS', '(C) CR; CS; US', '(D) CS; US; CS', '(E) US; CS; US']

(D) The conditioned stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus, and these factors together produce the unconditioned response. Then, with the removal of the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus continues to produce the conditioned response. The other responses do not have the conditioned response, unconditioned stimulus, and conditioned stimulus in the proper order.

Which type of learning occurs when behavior is followed by a

['(A) Classical conditioning', '(B) Operant conditioning', '(C) Latent learning', '(D) Higher-order conditioning', '(E) Reinforcer']

(B) Operant conditioning is learning that occurs based on being paired with rewards or punishments. Classical conditioning (A) describes learning in which a naturally occurring response is elicited by a formerly neutral stimulus. Higher-order conditioning (D) is a concept within classical conditioning. A reinforcer (E) occurs after a behavior, and it increases the likelihood of the behavior occurring again. Learning that is outside the conscious awareness of the individual and does not result in an immediate behavioral response is called latent learning (C).

When training their dog, the White family gives the dog a treat

['(A) Negative reinforcer', '(B) Positive reinforcer', '(C) Partial reinforcer', '(D) Positive punishment', '(E) Negative punishment']

(B) Because the dog treat is added to the dog’s experience and it is intended to increase the likelihood of the behavior of sitting, the dog treat is a positive reinforcer. A negative reinforcer (A) is something that is removed to increase the likelihood of the behavior. A partial reinforcer (C) is intended to reinforce only some of the organism’s responses. Both negative and positive punishments (D and E) are intended to decrease the likelihood of the behavior.

Each time Thomas talks back to his mother, he loses one hour of

['(A) Negative reinforcer', '(B) Positive reinforcer', '(C) Partial reinforcer', '(D) Positive punishment', '(E) Negative punishment']

(E) The consequence is something that is taken away in order to influence the behavior to go away, making it a negative punishment. The word negative refers to the fact that something is taken away. Positive punishment (D) is something added. If Thomas were made to clean the bathrooms after talking back, that would represent a positive punishment. Reinforcers (A, B, and C) are used to increase, not eliminate, behaviors.

Which of the following is NOT a condition needed for punishment to

['(A) Occurring with consistency', '(B) Occurring with proper strength', '(C) Occurring shortly after behavior', '(D) Steadily increasing in frequency', '(E) Occurring each time the behavior occurs']

(D) Effective punishment does not include steadily increasing the punishment. In fact, consistency is very important in this type of learning. In addition, punishment needs to occur right after the behavior (C), so steadily increasing the punishment would not associate it as closely to the behavior. The other choices (A, B, and E) are conditions needed for punishment.

In order to potty-train her daughter, Sharon began with rewarding

['(A) Shaping', '(B) Fixed-ratio reinforcement', '(C) Interval reinforcement', '(D) Latent learning', '(E) Classical conditioning']

(A) Shaping involves rewarding behaviors that are similar to the ultimate desired response in order to eventually elicit the desired response. Fixed-ratio reinforcement (B) and interval reinforcement (C) are different types of patterned reinforcements. Latent learning (D) does not result in an immediate behavioral response. Rewards are not involved in classical conditioning (E).

Which concept of operant conditioning occurs when a behavior is

['(A) Negative reinforcement', '(B) Positive reinforcement', '(C) Negative punishment', '(D) Positive punishment', '(E) Variable-ratio reinforcement']

(A) The question describes negative reinforcement because a stimulus is taken away in the effort to increase a particular behavior. Positive reinforcement (B) involves adding a stimulus rather than taking one away. Variable-ratio reinforcement (E) involves scheduled reinforcement. Both negative and positive punishments (C and D) are used to decrease the frequencies of behaviors.

Danna struggles with math and consistently scores C’s and D’s on

['(A) Habituation', '(B) Learned helplessness', '(C) Vicarious conditioning', '(D) Classical conditioning', '(E) Operant conditioning']

(B) Danna’s decision to not study because she believes studying has no impact on her scores is learned helplessness. Learned helplessness involves an acquired sense of a lack of control or mastery over certain conditions, and it inhibits learning. The other choices describe other learning conditions, not conditions that inhibit learning.

Phillip is a car salesman, and he receives a bonus after every 10

['(A) Variable-ratio schedule', '(B) Fixed-ratio schedule', '(C) Partial reinforcement', '(D) Negative reinforcement', '(E) Interval schedule']

(B) Because there are a fixed number of responses that Phillip needs before his reward, this is considered a fixed-ratio schedule. In variable-ratio schedules (A), the number of responses needed for reward changes. In interval schedules (E), reward occurs after a certain interval of time. Partial and negative reinforcements (C and D) are types of reinforcement but not types of reinforcement schedules.

Ryan has an older brother Ben. Each time Ben gets in trouble at

['(A) Vicarious learning', '(B) Shaping', '(C) Latent learning', '(D) Cognitive learning', '(E) Prepared learning']

(A) Ryan has had the benefit of vicarious learning because he has witnessed his brother’s behavior and learned from this example about how not to behave. Shaping (B) is a staged approach to learning, and this question does not describe different stages. Latent learning (C), cognitive learning (D), and prepared learning (E) do not occur on a conscious level.

Jamal moved to a new city for a summer internship. After living

['(A) Mirror neurons', '(B) Vicarious learning', '(C) Cognitive map', '(D) Insight', '(E) Social learning']

(C) Jamal has created a cognitive map that is stored as a mental image. Mirror neurons (A) aid in learning but are not described in the question. Vicarious learning (B) occurs by witnessing others and is a type of social learning (E). Insight (D) describes a learning moment whereby an individual gains a clear understanding of something, sometimes by making an association.

Which statement is true about learning in organisms?

['(A) Nonhuman organisms are not capable of operant conditioning.', '(B) Nonhuman organisms are not capable of classical conditioning.', '(C) Humans are the only organisms capable of latent learning.', '(D) Humans and nonhumans are capable of operant conditioning, classical', '(E) Humans and nonhumans are not capable of operant conditioning,']

(D) Despite the vast differences in biological makeup and communication, humans and nonhumans learn in many of the same ways, including operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and latent learning. Many learning experiments have been done on human and nonhuman subjects that have indicated the many learning similarities. The other choices do not accurately describe human and nonhuman learning.

After being bitten by a dog, Sabrina developed an intense fear of

['(A) Spontaneous recovery', '(B) Extinction', '(C) Aversion', '(D) Blocking effect', '(E) Systematic desensitization']

(B) Over time the fear experienced extinction. Extinction occurs when the condition is presented repeatedly over time without the unconditioned stimulus. In this case, we can assume that Sabrina saw and experienced dogs over the past few years without being bitten. These are the conditions needed for extinction. Spontaneous recovery (A) occurs after extinction.

If Sarah wants to teach her dog to fetch a ball, which form of

['(A) Classical conditioning', '(B) Operant conditioning', '(C) Latent learning', '(D) Vicarious learning', '(E) Cognitive learning']

(B) Operant conditioning is associated with learning a new behavior through rewards and punishments. Classical conditioning (A) is associated with responses that occur naturally but are paired with other stimulus to create the conditioned response. Latent learning (C), vicarious learning (D), and cognitive learning (E) are other types of learning but would not be used to train a dog to fetch a ball.

Which type of learning occurs without reinforcement?

['(A) Operant conditioning', '(B) Latent learning', '(C) Negative reinforcer', '(D) Shaping', '(E) Extinction']

(B) Latent learning is learning that occurs naturally without reinforcement. Operant conditioning (A) can include both positive and negative reinforcers (C). Shaping (D) is associated with staged reinforcement toward a goal. Extinction (E) is the process of changing a learned response.

Carrie returned from vacation and told her family a detailed

['(A) Recall', '(B) Acquisition', '(C) Intentional learning', '(D) Incidental learning', '(E) Short-term memory']

(D) Carrie has experienced incidental learning. Incidental learning is not purposeful and often occurs without awareness that learning is occurring. Carrie remembers the highlights that she learned about the country and what she did there because of her experiences while on vacation.

The three steps of the memory process are

['(A) recall, encoding, retrieval', '(B) encoding, acquisition, storage', '(C) encoding, storage, retrieval', '(D) acquisition, storage, recall', '(E) encoding, storage, acquisition']

(C) The three steps of the memory process are encoding, storage, and retrieval. Acquisition (B) is another word for encoding. Recall (A) is a type of retrieval and occurs when using memory to answer a question.

Troy is faced with memorizing a list of words that are in

['(A) Words that begin with letters at the beginning and end of the', '(B) Words that begin with letters at the beginning of the alphabet', '(C) Words that begin with letters at the end of the alphabet', '(D) Words that begin with letters in the middle of the alphabet', '(E) 10 words from the list with no pattern']

(A) Primacy and recency effect describe the phenomenon of memory that allows humans to remember the beginning and end of the list more easily than remembering the middle of a list. The other answers are not accurate.

Primacy effect is to _________________ as recency effect is to

['(A) short-term memory; long-term memory', '(B) long-term memory; short-term memory', '(C) short-term memory; short-term memory', '(D) long-term memory; long-term memory', '(E) short-term memory; free recall']

(B) The primacy and recency effects show the interplay between long-term memory and short-term memory. Because of the time and ability to rehearse the beginning parts of a list, chances are increased that these words will be transferred to long-term memory, thus the primacy effect. The end parts of a list are likely still stored in short-term memory when they are recalled.

Brittney needs to memorize the following code to access a secure

['(A) Recall', '(B) Maintenance rehearsal', '(C) Chunking', '(D) Deep processing', '(E) Mnemonics']

(C) Chunking is the process of combining a list of numbers into larger item chunks during working memory; therefore, the individual remembers numbers as chunks instead of individual numbers. This allows for more memory. Maintenance rehearsal (B) and mnemonics (E) are other tactics used for memory but are not the best tactics to memorize a large list. Deep processing (D) describes a memory strategy that involves making meaning of what is being memorized. Recall (A) is a part of the overall memory processes. The other choices are strategies to increase recall ability.

Students in piano class are taught to remember the following

['(A) Chunking', '(B) Maintenance rehearsal', '(C) Shallow processing', '(D) Mnemonics', '(E) Deep processing']

(D) Mnemonics are purposeful strategies for memorization and often involve making connections to other things or other linguistic strategies to aid in memory. The other choices are memory strategies but are not described in the question.

Which of the following memory strategies is NOT effective for

['(A) Mnemonics', '(B) Deep processing', '(C) Maintenance rehearsal without learning', '(D) Chunking', '(E) Recall']

(C) Maintenance rehearsal, also called rote rehearsal, refers to repeating information over and over again. Because it does not involve associating the information with previously stored information, or a greater understanding of the information, it is less successful with getting information into long-term memory. Choices (A), (B), and (D) do involve strategies that can assist in information being transferred to long-term memory. Recall (E) describes the retrieval of information.

Which two factors are critical in the process of storing

['(A) Recall and understanding', '(B) Learning and understanding', '(C) Attention and learning', '(D) Attention and processing', '(E) Learning and retrieval']

(B) Learning and understanding have repeatedly been shown as primary factors of getting information into long-term memory. Rote memorization without attention to meaning or understanding does not transfer to long-term memory.

Because it refers to memories or thoughts that are currently

['(A) present memory', '(B) working memory', '(C) attention', '(D) schemata', '(E) procedural memory']

(B) Working memory is another way to refer to short-term memory. The term indicates ideas and thoughts an individual is currently working on. Attention (C) and schemata (D) are other concepts of memory, but they are not synonyms for short-term memory. Present memory (A) is not a term in the memory literature although short-term memory is present based. Procedural memory (E) is a type of long-term memory.

When Laurie returned to her college campus 10 years after

['(A) Implicit memories', '(B) Retrieval cues', '(C) Memory traces', '(D) Schema', '(E) Semantic memories']

(B) Laurie’s visit provided her with retrieval cues that then activated her memory. She had not forgotten these experiences but had no access to them until returning to the place where the memories occurred. Implicit memories (A) cannot be expressed and the experience is outside of consciousness. The other choices are concepts in memory but are not described in the question.

Adrian was given a list of groceries to buy, but when he got to the

['(A) Primacy effect', '(B) Recency effect', '(C) Free recall', '(D) Working memory', '(E) Primacy effect and recency effect']

(E) Primacy effect refers to the tendency to remember the beginning parts of a list, and recency effect refers to the tendency to remember the end parts of a list. Choices (A) and (B) only describe a part of Adrian’s experience. Free recall (C) is the process of recalling items in any sort of sequence. Working memory (D) describes thoughts that are in one’s current experience or that are being thought about in the moment.

Which part of the brain is responsible for storing emotional

['(A) Frontal lobe', '(B) Prefrontal cortex', '(C) Amygdala', '(D) Hippocampus', '(E) Motor cortex']

(C) The amygdala is responsible for storing emotional memories. The frontal lobe (A) and hippocampus (D) are involved in storing semantic and episodic memories. The motor cortex (E) stores procedural memories. The prefrontal cortex (B) stores short-term memories.

After his bike accident, Sean was diagnosed with retrograde

['(A) He has no ability to create new memories.', '(B) He has no ability to remember the three years of his life leading up', '(C) He has no ability to remember anything about his life.', '(D) He has short-term memory but no long-term memory.', '(E) He has long-term memory but no short-term memory.']

(B) Retrograde amnesia indicates a loss of memories leading up to the incident. Memories that are closer to the incident are more likely to be lost than those that had been stored long before the incident. Choice (A) describes anterograde amnesia. The other choices do not describe a specific type of amnesia.

The addition of new information can interfere with already stored

['(A) Decay theory', '(B) Retroactive interference', '(C) Proactive interference', '(D) Amnesia', '(E) Forgetting curve']

(B) Retroactive interference is one way of losing memories and involves the introduction of new memories that interfere with the stored memories. Proactive interference (C) occurs when the memories already stored interfere with the newly presented information. Decay theory (A) and forgetting curve (E) involve the passage of time leading to forgetting. Amnesia (D) refers to memory loss and is typically caused by accidents or diseases.

Tyler memorized a monologue to present during a high school

['(A) Decay theory', '(B) A very small retention interval', '(C) Intrusion errors', '(D) Amnesia', '(E) Proactive interference']

(A) Decay theory states that merely the passage of time leads to the loss of memories. A small retention interval (B) would indicate that Tyler attempted to recall the memory shortly after storing it. In this case he memorized it in high school but was recalling it during law school, indicating a long passage of time. The other answers are factors leading to memory difficulties but are not described in the question.

Short-term memory is to _______________ as long-term memory is to

['(A) attention; understanding', '(B) understanding; attention', '(C) meaning; understanding', '(D) attention; rehearsal', '(E) learning; understanding']

(A) Attention to what is happening in the moment is required for storing items in short-term memory, while the process of storing items in long-term memory requires a greater understanding of the concept to be memorized. Students who study for a test by only memorizing terms are more likely to forget the terms after the test than students who learn and understand the material.

The ability to ride a bike after being taught is an example of a(n)

['(A) emotional memory', '(B) episodic memory', '(C) semantic memory', '(D) procedural memory', '(E) working memory']

(D) A procedural memory is one that involves motor skills and habits; riding a bike is a memorized motor skill. Working memory (E) is another term for short-term memory. Episodic memories (B) involve memories of specific times and places, and emotional memories (A) involve emotional responses to stimuli. Memories of facts and concepts are called semantic memories (C).

Valari listened to Mozart while studying for the test. Which is the

['(A) Take the test in complete silence', '(B) Take the test in the library', '(C) Take the test while listening to Mozart', '(D) Take the test while listening to any classical music', '(E) Take the test while watching television']

(C) Because recall is improved when it is done in the environment where the material was learned, listening to Mozart is an attempt at re-creating the study environment. The other choices do not describe the environment Valari created to study for the exam, so it is unlikely they would be helpful in recalling the information.

Which of the following describes the concept of context

['(A) Increasing memory retrieval by re-creating the environment where the', '(B) Increasing memory retrieval by re-creating the state of mind present', '(C) Increasing memory retrieval by decreasing retroactive interference', '(D) Increasing memory retrieval by increasing amount of rote rehearsal', '(E) Increasing memory retrieval by decreasing proactive interference']

(B) Context reinstatement refers to the phenomenon that increases memory retrieval when the state of mind where the learning occurred is re-created. State of mind can be physiological, mood based, or other “state-related” contexts. Re-creating the environment where the memory occurred (A) is another way to increase memory, but it is not described in the question. The other choices do not describe ways to increase memory retrieval.

Which of the following is NOT a strategy to reduce forgetting?

['(A) Using retrieval cues', '(B) Making connections between information and other things you know', '(C) Remaining focused', '(D) Using imagery', '(E) Using hypnosis']

(E) Hypnosis is not a way to improve memory. The other choices do describe known ways to encourage the passage of information from short-term to long-term memory and the recall of information later.

Which memories are hidden from consciousness and may sometimes be

['(A) Flashbulb memories', '(B) Episodic memories', '(C) Semantic memories', '(D) Procedural memories', '(E) Repressed memories']

(E) Repressed memories are believed to be created as a defense mechanism to protect people from the difficult memory of the trauma. There have been controversial cases related to the recovery of repressed memories. Regardless, this type of memory is important in the study of memory. The other choices are explicit memories and, therefore, are not outside of consciousness.

When Emma recalls the hurricane she experienced as a child, she has

['(A) Procedural memory', '(B) Episodic memory', '(C) Flashbulb memory', '(D) Semantic memory', '(E) Repressed memory']

(C) A flashbulb memory is typically associated with a large dramatic event and can cause an emotional response. In this case, Emma’s memory of the hurricane is a flashbulb memory. The other memories are not described in the question.

Which type of memory is NOT consciously recalled but is revealed

['(A) Semantic memory', '(B) Flashbulb memory', '(C) Episodic memory', '(D) Explicit memory', '(E) Implicit memory']

(E) An implicit memory is not consciously recalled but is revealed in an individual’s behaviors and responses. The other responses are all types of explicit memories (D). Explicit memories are in the conscious awareness of an individual and are consciously activated.

Which memory strategy includes linking new memories to old memories

['(A) Rote rehearsal', '(B) Maintenance rehearsal', '(C) Elaborate rehearsal', '(D) Mnemonics', '(E) None of the above']

(C) Elaborate rehearsal is associated with linking new memories to stored memories to increase the time the new memory is stored in short-term memory.

Long-term memory includes all of these types of memories EXCEPT

['(A) semantic memory', '(B) implicit memory', '(C) autobiographical memory', '(D) explicit memory', '(E) working memory']

(E) Working memory is another name for short-term memory. Experiences that are in the working memory have not yet been transferred to long-term memory. Some experiences will never be transferred to long-term memory while others will be.

Which strategy is Keisha using when she repeats a phone number

['(A) Elaborate rehearsal', '(B) Chunking', '(C) Mnemonics', '(D) Maintenance rehearsal', '(E) Explicit memory']

(D) Maintenance rehearsal, also called rote rehearsal, allows a brief memory of the information. Maintenance rehearsal that does not involve an intent to store the information or associate it with something else will not result in long-term memory.

A combination of all types of long-term memories contributes to

['(A) interactions', '(B) schema', '(C) relationships', '(D) short-term memories', '(E) none of the above']

(B) Schema about the world includes beliefs based on past experience. This schema influences thoughts and feelings and also the attention that individuals may pay to situations and the creation of new memories. At times schema can distort memories.

Barry witnessed a robbery and participated in a police interview to

['(A) Amnesia', '(B) Retrograde amnesia', '(C) Proactive interference', '(D) Retroactive interference', '(E) Decay']

(D) The question describes retroactive interference. In retroactive interference, the new information interferes with previously stored information. The information from the news report interfered with Barry’s original memory of the incident.

During long, drawn-out court cases, witnesses’ stories sometimes

['(A) Amnesia', '(B) Retrograde amnesia', '(C) Decay', '(D) Proactive interference', '(E) Reconstruction']

(E) Reconstruction is the phenomenon of memories being altered each time they are retrieved. In a long court case, a witness may be expected to retrieve the memories repeatedly over long periods of time, leading to the possibility of reconstruction errors.

A male college student studies theories of the philosophy of the

['(A) Decay', '(B) Interference', '(C) Encoding', '(D) Retrieval', '(E) Brain injury']

(C) Encoding involves the way in which individuals store the information. Storage in long-term memory is more likely if there is a deep understanding of the material. Although this student studied and read, the lack of understanding may have caused an encoding error.

Phillip has very vivid memories, some of which are sensory, of the

['(A) Flashbulb memory', '(B) Working memory', '(C) Semantic memory', '(D) Autobiographical memory', '(E) Episodic memory']

(A) A flashbulb memory is one that is very vivid, often around emotionally charged incidents. Flashbulb memories are known to “flash” in people’s minds when they are recalled. Autobiographical memories (D) include people’s personal histories but do not involve vivid flashing.

Language, concepts, and images are all foundations of

['(A) thought', '(B) memory', '(C) speech', '(D) perception', '(E) communication']

(A) Language, concepts, and images are the foundations of thought. Thought allows for both problem solving and decision making.

When asked to picture her childhood home, Nita conjures up a

['(A) Symbolic representation', '(B) Analogical representation', '(C) Schema', '(D) Prototype', '(E) Concept']

(B) An analogical representation is one that resembles the image someone is trying to represent. Therefore, when picturing her childhood home, the image of what it looks like comes to mind. A symbolic representation (A) does not resemble or share qualities of the image. The other choices are concepts in cognition but are not described in the question.

What is a mental representation that is based on association or

['(A) Cognitive schema', '(B) Prototype', '(C) Mental image', '(D) Analogical representation', '(E) Symbolic representation']

(E) The question describes symbolic representation. Sometimes when recalling a specific concept, the concept doesn’t conjure a mental image that is tangible and represents the concept. It conjures up things that are similar or related to the concept. An analogical representation (D) does share similar qualities to the item it represents and is a mental image (C). Cognitive schemas (A) and prototypes (B) are different concepts in cognition.

When Ryan asked his 20 classmates the first thing that came to mind

['(A) An image', '(B) A prototype', '(C) A concept', '(D) A mental representation', '(E) An experience']

(B) A prototype is a mental model that contains the most characteristic qualities of a concept. In this case, “dog” is a very common characteristic of the concept of house pets. An image (A) and a mental representation (D) refer to what is conjured up in one’s head when thinking about the concept.

In the process of cognition, humans mentally categorize objects,

['(A) Mental representations', '(B) Mental images', '(C) Concepts', '(D) Prototypes', '(E) Sensory clues']

(C) This categorization is referred to as concepts, and concepts are one of the components of thought. Prototypes (D) are a type of concept. Mental representations (A) are parts of the mind, and mental images (B) are a type of mental representation. Sensory clues (E) do exist for individuals but are not described in this process of cognition.

Julian’s physician gave him the treatment outcome data of two

['(A) Mental images', '(B) Mental representations', '(C) Framing', '(D) Prototypes', '(E) Compensatory model']

(C) Framing describes the phenomenon that the way in which a problem or information is presented has an effect on decision making. This phenomenon is supported in the research. Mental images (A), mental representations (B), and prototypes (D) are cognitive concepts but not directly related to decision making. The compensatory model (E) of decision making is a rational model in which all of the factors are presented.

What is the disadvantage to using heuristics when problem solving?

['(A) Mistakes may be made due to the simplification of the problem.', '(B) Making the decision may be a long, drawn-out problem.', '(C) Mistakes may be made due to the overanalysis of the problem.', '(D) Using heuristics may be influenced by personal background.', '(E) Mistakes may be made by building subgoals.']

(A) Heuristics are a frequently used problem-solving method, but their limitations must be kept in mind. The generalizations made may be just that, generalizations, and may not apply to this particular problem. Choice (B) is incorrect, as heuristics are an expedient way of solving problems rather than a drawn-out method. Choice (C) indicates a long analysis process, which is not the case when using heuristics. Subgoals (E) are a part of heuristics but do not describe a disadvantage. The personal background of individuals (D) is always a factor in someone’s problem-solving methods.

Which of the following is NOT a problem-solving strategy?

['(A) Trial and error', '(B) Information retrieval', '(C) Algorithms', '(D) Fixedness', '(E) Working backward']

(D) Fixedness is actually a barrier to problem solving. The other choices describe problem-solving methods. Working backward (E) is an example of a heuristic method.

Which of the following is NOT a barrier to problem solving?

['(A) Mental sets', '(B) Functional fixedness', '(C) Assumptions', '(D) Expertise', '(E) Motivation']

(D) Expertise is something that can help an individual become more adept at problem solving, particularly when one develops expertise in a certain area. The other choices are barriers to problem solving.

To determine if she should increase her exercise to increase her

['(A) Representative heuristics', '(B) Availability heuristics', '(C) Confirmation bias', '(D) Framing', '(E) Frequency']

(B) Availability heuristics involves using examples that come up from memory to make generalizations to inform decisions. Frequency (E) (and counting) is involved in availability heuristics but is not a decision-making strategy on its own. Representative heuristics (A) and confirmation bias (C) are other heuristic decision-making strategies. Framing (D) is the influence the way a concept is presented has on decision making.

Which problem-solving strategy could someone use to calculate the

['(A) Trial and error', '(B) Working backward', '(C) Subgoal', '(D) Algorithm', '(E) Information retrieval']

(D) Algorithms are most commonly used with math problems or to solve other number-related problems. Trial and error (A) and working backward (B) are not effective problem-solving strategies for calculating possible die roll outcomes. Additionally, subgoals (C) and information retrieval (E) would not help solve this type of problem.

After having a snow-related car accident, Carlos decided the

['(A) Confirmation bias', '(B) Overconfidence effect', '(C) Minimizing risk', '(D) Risky thinking', '(E) Hindsight bias']

(E) Hindsight bias is the tendency to see certain events as predictable. In this question we can see the connection that Carlos made to his decision to drive in the snow, but there are other circumstances where the connection can be more far-fetched. For example, a news commentator may do a story on a negative event in the region, with bias toward the fact that we should have known this event was to occur.

In cognition a(n) _________________ is an example of a concept.

['(A) idea', '(B) schema', '(C) mental representation', '(D) prototype', '(E) none of the above']

(D) A prototype is an example of a concept. For example, Florida may be considered a prototype for images of sunny places in the United States. It is likely that most people would agree that Florida is a sunny place in the United States.

Charles is traveling to Los Angeles. Although he’s never been

['(A) Prototypes', '(B) Mental representations', '(C) Cognitive schemas', '(D) Mental images', '(E) Analogical representations']

(C) Cognitive schemas are made up of beliefs, assumptions, expectations, and other representations of concepts, places, or things. A cognitive schema is a mental model that we develop based on these factors.

Which error in reasoning is a result of attaching more weight to

['(A) Hindsight bias', '(B) Confirmation bias', '(C) Judgment bias', '(D) Deduction bias', '(E) None of the above']

(B) Confirmation bias results from assigning more weight to evidence that is in line with one’s belief system and minimizing evidence that is less in line with one’s belief system. Confirmation bias can cause people to make decisions based more on belief systems than on reasoning.

When Sharon makes a decision based on what’s most easily accessible

['(A) Confirmation bias', '(B) The availability heuristic', '(C) Compensatory model', '(D) Working backward', '(E) None of the above']

(B) The availability heuristic is a decision-making process that uses the most easily accessible information in one’s memory to make decisions, despite the possibility that this information may not be accurate or correct.

Which structure of language is on top of the language hierarchy?

['(A) Phoneme', '(B) Morpheme', '(C) Word', '(D) Phrase', '(E) Sentence']

(E) Sentences are on top of the language hierarchy. They are made up of the phrases (D), which are made up of words (C). Phonemes (A) and morphemes (B) are parts of words.

What are the basic sounds that make up language?

['(A) Phonemes', '(B) Morphemes', '(C) Words', '(D) Phrases', '(E) Sentences']

(A) Phonemes are the basic sounds that make up language. Morphemes (B) are not full words but parts of words that contain meanings. Words (C), phrases (D), and sentences (E) use phonemes in order to speak language but do not describe the basic sounds of language.

What is the set of principles of grouping words into phrases and

['(A) Noun phrase', '(B) Verb phrase', '(C) Syntax', '(D) Linguistic determinism', '(E) Semantics']

(C) Syntax, sometimes called grammar, is the set of principles of grouping words into phrases and sentences. Syntax is the concept that allows for greater meaning in human language. Noun phrases (A) and verb phrases (B) are formed by syntax guidelines. Linguistic determinism (D) and semantics (E) are not described in the question.

At what age does a human being develop openness to hearing and

['(A) 2 years', '(B) 18 months', '(C) 1 year', '(D) 6 months', '(E) Birth']

(E) At birth human infants are exposed to language and begin to take in sounds, cues, and other ways language is organized. The ability to differentiate sounds and recognize one’s language versus other languages occurs at approximately one year of age. Language development continues during the early years.

When a verb describes the action in a sentence, this is the verb’s

['(A) determinism', '(B) meaning', '(C) semantic role', '(D) syntax', '(E) grammar']

(C) The semantic role of a word is the role it takes in a sentence, impacting the meaning of the sentence. When the same word is in a different role in a sentence, the meaning of the sentence can be quite different.

When Thomas says the accident scene is “burned into his memory,” it

['(A) The interplay between thought and language', '(B) The influence of culture on language', '(C) The influence of metaphor on feelings', '(D) The interplay between feelings and thoughts', '(E) The influence of language on the use of metaphors']

(A) In this case, the use of figurative language (metaphor) evokes a certain thought, thus demonstrating one-way thoughts and language interplay between each other. Although culture has an impact on language (B), this is not specifically demonstrated in the question. The relationships among metaphors, feelings, thoughts, and language, as indicated in the other choices, do exist at times but are not described in the question.

The rare cases where a child is not exposed to language early in

['(A) intelligence', '(B) biology', '(C) cognition', '(D) environment', '(E) learning']

(D) Environment has a strong influence on language development. Therefore, children who are not spoken to in their early years have difficulty developing the complex language structures that are second nature to most humans. Although the other choices do influence language and language development, they are not demonstrated when a child lacks early exposure to language.

The underlying meaning of a sentence is considered its

['(A) surface structure', '(B) deep structure', '(C) phrase structure', '(D) grammatical structure', '(E) sentence structure']

(B) The deep structure of a sentence refers to its underlying meaning. The actual words and phrases in a sentence are its surface structure.

The fact that the human language has meaning indicates that it is

['(A) heuristic', '(B) semantic', '(C) cognitive', '(D) variable', '(E) communicative']

(B) The human language is by nature semantic. Semantics is the meaning of words and what is said. Heuristic (A) refers to problem-solving methods, many of which use language but are also cognitive (C).

Kendra is studying Spanish and has trouble rolling her r because it

['(A) Sentence', '(B) Phrase', '(C) Word', '(D) Morpheme', '(E) Phoneme']

(E) Phonemes are units of sound, and sounds vary across languages. The sound of the rolling r is frequently unfamiliar to English speakers. Since sounds of letters make up words, some words are difficult to pronounce when speaking new languages. Phonemes are building blocks for the other units of language that are choices, but these units do not describe sound.

In the structure of language, the prefix un- is called a

['(A) sentence', '(B) phrase', '(C) word', '(D) morpheme', '(E) phoneme']

(D) The prefix un- is a morpheme, as it is the smallest unit of language and it contains meaning. Since un- does not stand on its own as a word, it is not a word (C). Phonemes (E) are units of sound. Sentences (A) and phrases (B) contain morphemes.

One hypothesis around language states that the language that one

['(A) feeling states', '(B) cognitive functioning', '(C) the ability to learn another language', '(D) patterns of thinking', '(E) problem-solving skills']

(D) The theory posited by Benjamin Whorf is called the linguistic relativity hypothesis. This theory indicates that language is much more than stringing sounds and words together. Rather, the meaning and the thinking activities are greatly influenced by one’s language.

Across cultures, children tend to acquire complex language skills

['(A) One year old', '(B) Two years old', '(C) Three years old', '(D) Four years old', '(E) Five years old']

(E) Generally, complex language in children develops before age five. Children begin speaking and using some structures of language earlier than age five, but the complex elements do seem to be in place by age five.